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Samuel Clemens and His Cigars Samuel Clemens, AKA Mark Twain, found his muse in great plumes of cigar smoke. From the Print Edition: Tom Selleck, Winter 95/96 (continued from page 3) Image courtesy of The Mark Twain House & Museum. The Clemens Family on their Hartford home's porch (or "umbra") with cigar. Clemens invested in the machine because he had firsthand experience with the difficulty of having to set type manually. When he was 12 he had learned the craft as an apprentice at the Missouri Courier. Clemens thought James W. Paige's machine would revolutionize printing and make millions. "Very much the best investment I have ever made," Clemens once said, but at that time he had put up only $5,000. Among other minor investors Clemens attracted was Bram Stoker, the author of Dracula. In 1881, Clemens had also set up the Charles L. Webster Publishing Co. to publish his own works, as well as the books of other writers. By 1891, Clemens had invested so much of his money that the family could no longer afford to keep its house in Hartford, with its 19 rooms and many servants, operating. The Clemenses decided to move to Europe where they could live more frugally. After the Panic of 1893 in the United States and the national depression that followed, the publishing venture failed in April 1894, $200,000 in the red. The typesetting venture crashed in October of the same year. The economic calamity led Clemens, in 1895, to set off on a worldwide lecture tour. He regained financial stability, and later acquired considerable wealth from his writings. He even registered the name Mark Twain as a trademark and endorsed numerous products, including cigars. (He also lent the Mark Twain name to flour, a typewriter, a fountain pen, bourbon and beer. Biographer Kaplan says this might have been done more for exposure than for money.) In 1896, while Clemens was still on tour, his 24-year-old daughter Susy died of spinal meningitis during a visit to the family home in Hartford. Clemens showed his pain in a letter to his good friend and minister in Hartford, the Rev. Joseph Twichell, referring to the house in the past tense. "Ah, well, Susy died at home. She had that privilege. Her dying eyes rested upon no thing that was strange to them, but only upon things which they had known and loved always and which had made her young years glad....If she had died in another house—well, I think I could not have borne that. To us our house was not unsentient matter—it was heart and soul and eyes to see us...and approvals and solicitudes and deep sympathies; it was of us, and we were in its confidence." * * * Upon returning to the United States at the turn of the century, Mark Twain had certainly become more worldly, more famous and more cynical. The difference between the private Clemens and the public Twain became less clear. Boyer calls Twain the first "true celebrity in the modern sense. He was a person whose opinion was sought every day on every subject. He was now recognized across America as a legitimately powerful public citizen." Because of his fame, he no longer needed to hide, nor could he hide, behind a pseudonym. He no longer felt required to cloak his essays in humor. "His social criticism went largely unnoticed beforehand, but now he felt much more free to write pieces that were direct social criticism," Boyer says. Perhaps the most critical issue to Clemens was race. In his 1876 classic, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Clemens deals with racial issues through a veneer of humor and satire. The book is still in the news today because it contains the word "nigger." Some argue that the book should not be taught in public schools because of that word, but Boyer, whose group held a forum for educators on how to teach Huckleberry Finn, believes it is relevant and valuable, especially to young people, if it is taught the right way. "The teacher must provide the historical context of what was going on in the 1870s and 1880s, and make sure to be attuned to the realities of the 1990s," Boyer says. "The book provides very clearly a series of moral decisions made by a young boy who discovers that it's more important to learn from his own experience than from what people tell him. You make your own decision in the end." The point is that Huck learns on his own that Jim is an individual and not a stereotype. You must be logged in to post a comment.

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Entry Level Server Computers Server Computers Overview Servers are computers that are generally single purpose machines built to work independently of the users. They are built out by system administrators to run websites, stream video or provide support to businesses. The servers are advanced versions of workstation computers in that any workstation can run the programs that servers are meant to run. The biggest difference is that servers are optimized to run their programs without interrupting, slowing down or stopping. Many times multiple servers are used in conjunction to balance the load between them.

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This copy is for your personal, non-commercial use only. There are extremely important differences between this decade and the period after the First World War and through the early 1930s. The most crucial is that no fascist or Communist or revolutionary threats exist now if the great economic powers do not meet the economic challenges before them. Today the political and economic contexts are fundamentally different in crucial regards but still inordinately complex and dangerous. Now, nations will only face the unpredictable political consequences that always arise when economies break down. But fascism and bolshevism were a catastrophe for the status quo and led to World War Two. For a time the Nazis aborted the threat of the left in Germany and this won them a great deal of business support. Although there are many right-wing nativist movements today that may very well benefit from economic turmoil, there are important differences between contemporary yahoos in the U.S. and Europe and the fascists. But today the world economies are in a crisis, nominally involving the “euro” nations but even more the nature and future of world economic power. This crisis involves the United States—which was crucial in the interwar period—but also China, India, Brazil, and other nations which had no economic clout whatsoever in the world economy between the two wars. The 1920s were complex in unique ways, which the draconian Versailles Peace Treaty of June 1919 guaranteed it would be both politically and economically, especially for Germany, which ultimately went Nazi, which in turn led to the Second World War. But today’s Middle East owes a great many of its problems to the settlements reached at Versailles—which broke up the Ottoman Empire and drew the borders of the new states capriciously and with almost no regard for the region’s ethnic and religious character. Stephen V. O. Clarke was a research officer at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York—which has a uniquely important responsibility for many official U. S. foreign economic transactions—and then became a quite conventional professor of economics at Princeton. His most notable work was a 1967 monograph on the New York Fed, “Central Bank Cooperation, 1924-1931.” Its circulation must have been very small; its prose and charts do not lend themselves to easy reading. It caused few waves in the world–whether academic or larger—when printed, and Clarke never became known as a great economist, as did John Kenneth Galbraith (Galbraith’s thesis dealt with the bee industry in California). Clarke was not, by Ivy League standards, productive or a “star” academic. His esoteric monograph is now very relevant and timely because the powerful nations of the world are today being called upon to cooperate to save the euro currency; they share a common need to solve a critical economic problem. They were also asked to resolve many similar issues in the 1920s, but each has distinctive differences, the most important being that Germany was very weak and in a defensive position by virtue of having lost the First World War; today it is economically the strongest nation in Europe. In both periods the stakes were very high. Clarke’s work is based on the papers, phone conversations, and records of the principals involved; in this regard alone it is unique because he had access to these sources, which makes him especially insightful and authoritative. The New York Fed did not publish it thinking they had a potential best-seller in this extremely technical monograph but because it believed it would learn something about the genesis of one of the world’s great economic–and political—failures, and therefore how to avoid another like it. It makes its intent very clear in the bank president’s foreword to the work. While conceding that the differences between the 1920s and the present were great, he still believed Clarke’s study contained much that was of contemporary relevance, especially how each of the men involved in the 1920s negotiations had to balance his nation’s objectives and interests with the needs of an international system. In my opinion, this conflict of national and internationalist goals is also the way to understand today’s crisis in the euro bloc. If the euro collapses the results will be far-reaching in terms of its failure leading to more dire economic consequences, and this may in turn make European domestic politics nastier as well. Right-wing parties are very likely to grow stronger. Clarke discusses, in great detail, how the major economic powers negotiated during the 1920s–and how and why they ultimately failed by 1931, when exchange controls were imposed on the franc, pound, mark—and the world economy broke up and stayed that way until the U. S. defined the postwar rules. America too was mired in the Great Depression. Clarke states, correctly, that domestic politics played a crucial role in the United Kingdom as well as Germany, in making cooperation even more difficult after 1929. He also concedes that New York wanted to replace London as the financial capital of the world. Even taking into account the crucial differences between the period he covers and our own—above all the political context–it is extremely interesting to see how and why nations relate to each other when they have shared problems. They did so very badly during the interwar period and they are very likely to do so now—and for many of the identical reasons. Domestic politics are very likely to play a crucial role in the current crisis in the nations that have the biggest deficits, and Europe’s political leaders, whether from poorer or wealthier nations, are not likely to commit political suicide if they can avoid doing so –which the German plans for reform are effectively asking the leaders of Greece, Portugal, and other nations to do. So far, the euro’s fate remains unclear until some indefinite time in the future, even though I believe that the present role it plays is highly unlikely to continue, but the European Union may fail. The euro crisis is complex in unique ways, and the Germans are playing a very convoluted nationalist game, but it requires nations to lose an important measure of their economic sovereignty, and the evidence from the interwar years—indeed, from much of recent history for that matter–suggests they are very unlikely do so. Since Clarke’s monograph is the only account of this crucial period we have that is based on the private papers or records of many of the principals, we are compelled to consult this obscure record if we want some inkling how, and why, the men and women negotiating the fate of the euro bloc are likely to behave. If precedent gives any insights then they are likely to fail; the rulers of the world’s leading economies simply did not realize the horrors that would ensue because no one could predict them; nationalism and the notion of national interests blinded them in the inter-war period; and it blinds them today in much the same manner. The major difference is that Germany, unlike after the First World War, is now the most powerful country in Europe and we must consider the extent to which Germany is using the euro crisis to advance its own power by hiding it behind a pan-European façade that mobilizes and disciplines Europe’s nations on behalf of its interests and gives it leverage in dealing with the rest of the world. The New York Fed was optimistic, hoping that knowledge would lead to an avoidance of the same errors occurring again. The United States never learned, politically, militarily, or economically, at least to the extent that it affected actual action, the lessons of past errors. After the Korean war, many American leaders resolved never again to fight a land war in Asia, but they did exactly that in Vietnam and Afghanistan, where they lost outright or failed to win a decisive victory. In Iraq, at best, they have stalemated, perhaps even lost a decade-old war. We shall see. The process whereby the men who rule the United States, Great Britain, and other powerful nations make the same mistakes over again can be gleaned, to some great extent, from Clarke’s now-ignored work. Forgetfulness, misjudging the risks in action or inaction, peer pressures, national hubris and interests above all…. all, to varying degrees play some role. The important point is that states have sought to cooperate on crucially important economic matters in the past and they have failed to do so, and often “succeeded,” as in the cases of the United States and NATO and the now defunct SEATO and CENTO alliances, only to eventually find that its organizational schemes can also be encumbrances as well as tying up nations that might wander from U. S. control. For Germany the euro crisis is an opportunity to undo the economic results of defeat in two World Wars and use a pan-European ideology to create a Europe that is susceptible to German domination. But most nations in Europe will likely eventually resist this effort to be led, and the European Union is likely to disappear; what will follow after is anyone’s guess. In the process of going for broke, the Germans are using their formidable ability to raise demands on the various nations in the European Union, and they are also likely to see the euro disappear. A period of uncertainty, if not chaos, will then follow. Germany goes for broke. Germany lost two world wars and it now has the most powerful economy in Europe, and Angela Merkel wants it, de facto and probably intentionally, to undo the onus of losing two world wars, thereby establishing Germany in a position of economic supremacy capable of dictating to the rest of Europe how to manage its internal economic affairs. The legacies and fears of the past will have to be overcome, and the nation-state and nationalism are not likely to disappear, the events that traumatized europe over the past decades are not forgotten by some countries—no matter how weak and small they are. It is true that most nations’ leaders, nominally at least, say they want to go along with the German project, although France is also likely to see a good part of its electorate refuse to implement what the Germans demand as desirable economic policy. Indeed, even Sarkozy may not be able to follow the strict, conservative economic conditions the present german government is now demanding. Merkel says “if the euro fails, europe fails.” but she assumes that the Germans will define success or failure. This is a form of blackmail because the failure of the euro, which is highly likely to have negative consequences, is not necessarily going to be the catastrophe Merkel implies. Many nations suffered economically with the euro, which is not a magic economic wand or sacrosanct. Pan-european ideologies as a façade for Germany asserting national power, in the long run, is the greatest danger now confronting Europe. Merkel is using Germany’s economic clout, and if Europe adopts the measures to implement her program–they have already accepted them in principle—Germany will be able to deal with other powerful nations much more as an equal by citing its ability to define for most other European states the course they should take. So far, Merkel has gotten nominal agreement for her plans from all the 27 nations that are members of the European Union who are members save Great Britain, but too many crucial specifics remains unresolved for me to say she has attained victory. The British, anxious to preserve the key role of the “City” in world finance, stayed out of the new agreement even though it nominally is in the European Union but does not use the euro as a currency. The British government also dislikes foreigners dictating their economic objectives and the means to attain them, as the Germans are doing. Prime Minister David Cameron has slight control over his Conservative Party, and the same will be true of other political leaders in democratic countries—ranging from France to Greece and Italy or Sweden–who cannot simply dictate rules to their parties or people. The problem is that there is too much democracy within Europe for technocratically-minded schemes. If a national law violates the new fiscal discipline, the Germans want the European Court of Justice, which sits in Luxembourg, to declare it illegal. Abstractly, this means that national parliaments and key legislative bodies can no longer make economic policy. Unfortunately for the Germans, wherever a nation requires they somehow ratify something as far-reaching as this transfer of the right to define legitimacy, time will be lost and the public of that nation may not approve the new rules. Besides, there are so many existing debts in Europe to refinance—1.1 trillion euros in 2012 alone—and no one is sure where the money will come from or who has the authority to loan it, that Merkel won time—perhaps a year—for the continuation of the euro. (Even Germany and France are in debt; Moody’s just downgraded its ratings of the three largest French banks because they own too many Italian and Greek government bonds). The agreement reached the weekend of this past December 9th is essentially to return to the fiscal rules agreed upon at Maastricht in 1991 and which were never enforced in the first place–and are unlikely to be applied now. For political reasons—too much democracy—they are likely to fail again. The euro crisis is scarcely over and Ms. Merkel has won a pyrrhic victory. That her real objective is to rebuild Germany’s power through, and via Europe, will become more evident as time goes on and the members of the coalition of nations that now support her, France especially, will fall apart. There are many sources of opposition to the new European Union treaty, ranging from most of the Conservative Party in Britain to Leftists in Greece, Italy, Spain, and elsewhere, who will oppose the austerity measures the new European accord now calls for. Cameron is concerned about the City of London maintaining its dominance over finance, and anti-foreign sentiment also motivates many Conservatives; Leftists see no reason why social welfare benefits, from hospitals to education, should be slashed just to meet Merkel’s demands. And of the 17 nations that ratified measures conforming to Merkel’s criteria, nine insist on their national parliaments or legislative bodies being consulted before they give the final approval to her proposals. Italy or Greece are not among these nine and large demonstrations against the new agreement have already occurred in both places. Merkel is unlikely to succeed, and here Clarke’s discussion is instructive. There were essentially four major players in the 1920s, but the European economic union is far larger and more complex. Nominally, it has 28 members. Nation-states may not be the ideal form to organize the world but they are a fact we probably can do nothing about now. Attempts to impose supranational authority–ranging from central bank cooperation in the 1920s to the United Nations–have generally failed or have been used by nations, such as the U. S. and NATO, to impose their hegemony on others. NATO was also established to allow West Germany to rearm, creating a framework that looked able to control the rebuilding of Germany in the immediate post-war era, when in the name of fighting Communism the U. S. shipped Hitler’s rocket scientists and torture experts to the U. S. and had the intelligence network under General Reinhard Gehlen, who had worked for the Nazis as chief of intelligence on the Eastern Front, go to work for it. Allegedly, he received a pension from the CIA when he retired. Reconstructing Germany’s dominant role in Europe is very much an integral part of the debate on the euro. Many nations, Great Britain excepted (and Switzerland, of course), nominally go along with Merkel’s threats and visions for the moment, and many non-German businessmen find having a common currency good for their exports. What she advocates is an established aspect of all conservative economics: balance the budget. Hungary and Sweden, which do not use the euro, are lukewarm at best. Poland, as well, is skeptical of the German approach, which is very conservative. The U.S. government immediately declared that the German-inspired principles were good but the problems that the euro faced had to be confronted in the next days, which was certainly not the case. President Obama himself, and the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said the problems the euro faced had to be dealt with immediately, not next year, and there was, as the chairman of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, put it, a risk of “civil unrest and the breakup of the union” in the abstract approach it was now taking. Merkel is not going to attain her objectives if the U S opposes her, but even if it is neutral her plans simply will not overcome the obstacles in her path. No sooner than the European Union members met in Brussels on December 8, declaring an agreement, crucial people—like MarioDraghi, the new head of the European Central Bank, began disputing what the bank will and can do, clarifying his earlier statements in ways that looked like a reversal. Whether existing European Union institutions are sufficient to deal with a much broader spectrum of financial needs and issues must now resolved., Else the EU must also create new ones,. Germany and France say the existing institutions will suffice, but whether or not other nations in the EU agree is not clear. The British, led by a Conservative government, in any event, refuses to go along with the new deal and it remains to be seen how many existing European political leaders are ready to lose elections just to implement the draconian economic rules the Germans and French want to impose. Britain will have no voice in drafting a new agreement among EU members and, indeed, may get out of the EU entirely. Like most accords dealing with such complex matters, the details are crucial. Those agreed upon in Brussels the weekend of December 9 simply leave too many questions of implementing an agreement hanging. In nine of the 17 national parliaments of the governments involved, parliamentary votes are required (Ireland. for example), a time-consuming process likely to be very contentious—basic economic questions and the welfare of nations will be involved. As even Nicholas Sarkozy admits, “Time is working against us,” but states ratifying the new agreements will take time doing so. There is still democracy to thwart the dreams of technocrats in Brussels. France and Italy, from the Left as well as the Right, have been places where strikes and protests abound when the European Union imposes its diktats.. The British, in any case, will not go along with the new European accord—they never entered the euro bloc anyway—and the I M F has raised the question whether it, despite its experience telling poorer countries how to run their economies if they want I M F loans, has the power or the resources to help save the euro bloc. Britain may no longer have a veto power over E U decisions–it may not be a member of the Union at all. Cameron has to work this out with his divided government bloc, and it may fall too on this question. Politics can decide matters in the U K as well. Nations talked to each other throughout this past century but in the final analysis, as the Clarke monograph shows, they acted with the national interest foremost in their calculations and motives. They did so in the 1920s and the Germans are doing so now. Some things never change, especially in world affairs European Union members have often reached agreements but these accords have generally not been honored—in a word, they come apart and do so fairly quickly. Germany now has the leverage to get most of them to go along with a formula–which is mainly old-fashioned economics—that defines it. It assumes wealth is a sign of virtuous behavior, if not, in its Calvinist version, God’s grace, and which many Europe’s leaders are for, in theory if not practice. But will Europe’s political rulers honor this agreement any more than they have honored past ones? The U. S. government, for reasons that are dubious, also thinks the German approach is too shortsighted, but Ms Merkel had her way in Brussels and asserted German power. What is more than likely is that the euro crisis will continue for a very long time and the accord reached at Brussels will soon come apart because fear of Germany is still strong in many countries of Europe. National policies and the legitimate desire of nations to define their economic needs based on their own priorities and the institutions of democracy—which Ms. Merkel’s solution flouts as if they are no longer relevant compared to the fiscal conservatism that underlies the German approach. Moreover, the German formulae for ending the crisis by balancing budgets and the like may not work on its own terms and the framework for it succeeding may not exist, as Draghi and others have warned. Creating a new one will take a great deal of time.. Europe’s nations have agreed on an ostensibly new framework of principles–one that in fact is very much like the one agreed upon 20 years ago—and which also did not agree on concrete methods to implement it or a time frame. Even Merkel admits that formulating tangible measures to put her proposed solutions in force may take years. There is the rub. In any case. the new agreement has so far failed to assure the financial markets on which Merkel is relying. After the new agreement, stocks fell, the value of the euro fell, and borrowing costs to Spain and Italy continued to rise. The rating services–such as Standard & Poors, Moody’s, and the like—were not impressed by the Brussels agreement and plan to re-examine their ratings of the 27 members of the European Union. France is likely to lose its AAA rating and Sarkozy’s reelection chances have been hurt, probably badly, by supporting the German view on the future of the euro. Sarkozy expects all the European Union members, save Britain, to ratify the new accords by next June. That is consummate optimism. A great deal can and will happen before then. Ms. Merkel is playing a very high stake game—and nominally won this round—but the British and American governments disagree with both the means and ends of her effort, and the people of much of Europe have yet to be heard from. History is still very important. Ms. Merkel is more than likely to fail in her ambitious plans. GABRIEL KOLKO is the leading historian of modern warfare. He is the author of the classic Century of War: Politics, Conflicts and Society Since 1914, Another Century of War? and The Age of War: the US Confronts the World and After Socialism. He has also written the best history of the Vietnam War, Anatomy of a War: Vietnam, the US and the Modern Historical Experience. His latest book is World in Crisis

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Frankly speaking, you cannot create a Linux partition larger than 2 TB using the fdisk command. The fdisk won't create partitions larger than 2 TB. This is fine for desktop and laptop users, but on server you need a large partition. For example, you cannot create 3TB or 4TB partition size (RAID based) using the fdisk command. It will not allow you to create a partition that is greater than 2TB. In this tutorial, you will learn more about creating Linux filesystems greater than 2 Terabytes to support enterprise grade operation under any Linux distribution. To solve this problem use GNU parted command with GPT. It supports Intel EFI/GPT partition tables. Partition Table (GPT) is a standard for the layout of the partition table on a physical hard disk. It is a part of the Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) standard proposed by Intel as a replacement for the outdated PC BIOS, one of the few remaining relics of the original IBM PC. EFI uses GPT where BIOS uses a Master Boot Record (MBR). (Fig.01: Diagram illustrating the layout of the GUID Partition Table scheme. Each logical block (LBA) is 512 bytes in size. LBA addresses that are negative indicate position from the end of the volume, with −1 being the last addressable block. Imaged Credit Wikipedia) Linux GPT Kernel Support EFI GUID Partition support works on both 32bit and 64bit platforms. You must include GPT support in kernel in order to use GPT. If you don't include GPT support in Linux kernelt, after rebooting the server, the file system will no longer be mountable or the GPT table will get corrupted. By default Redhat Enterprise Linux / CentOS comes with GPT kernel support. However, if you are using Debian or Ubuntu Linux, you need to recompile the kernel. Set CONFIG_EFI_PARTITION to y to compile this feature. File Systems Partition Types [*] Advanced partition selection [*] EFI GUID Partition support (NEW) .... Find Out Current Disk Size Type the following command: # fdisk -l /dev/sdb Disk /dev/sdb: 3000.6 GB, 3000592982016 bytes 255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 364801 cylinders Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes Sector size (logical/physical): 512 bytes / 512 bytes I/O size (minimum/optimal): 512 bytes / 512 bytes Disk identifier: 0x00000000 Disk /dev/sdb doesn't contain a valid partition table Linux Create 3TB partition size To create a partition start GNU parted as follows: # parted /dev/sdb GNU Parted 2.3 Using /dev/sdb Welcome to GNU Parted! Type 'help' to view a list of commands. (parted) Creates a new GPT disklabel i.e. partition table: (parted) mklabel gpt Warning: The existing disk label on /dev/sdb will be destroyed and all data on this disk will be lost. Do you want to continue? Yes/No? yes (parted) Next, set the default unit to TB, enter: (parted) unit TB To create a 3TB partition size, enter: (parted) mkpart primary 0 0 (parted) mkpart primary 0.00TB 3.00TB To print the current partitions, enter: Model: ATA ST33000651AS (scsi) Disk /dev/sdb: 3.00TB Sector size (logical/physical): 512B/512B Partition Table: gpt Number Start End Size File system Name Flags 1 0.00TB 3.00TB 3.00TB ext4 primary Quit and save the changes, enter: Information: You may need to update /etc/fstab. Use the mkfs.ext3 or mkfs.ext4 command to format the file system, enter: # mkfs.ext3 /dev/sdb1 # mkfs.ext4 /dev/sdb1 mkfs.ext4 /dev/sdb1 mke2fs 1.41.12 (17-May-2010) Filesystem label= OS type: Linux Block size=4096 (log=2) Fragment size=4096 (log=2) Stride=0 blocks, Stripe width=0 blocks 183148544 inodes, 732566272 blocks 36628313 blocks (5.00%) reserved for the super user First data block=0 Maximum filesystem blocks=4294967296 22357 block groups 32768 blocks per group, 32768 fragments per group 8192 inodes per group Superblock backups stored on blocks: 32768, 98304, 163840, 229376, 294912, 819200, 884736, 1605632, 2654208, 4096000, 7962624, 11239424, 20480000, 23887872, 71663616, 78675968, 102400000, 214990848, 512000000, 550731776, 644972544 Writing inode tables: done Creating journal (32768 blocks): done Writing superblocks and filesystem accounting information: done This filesystem will be automatically checked every 31 mounts or 180 days, whichever comes first. Use tune2fs -c or -i to override. Type the following commands to mount /dev/sdb1, enter: # mkdir /data # mount /dev/sdb1 /data # df -H Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on /dev/sdc1 16G 819M 14G 6% / tmpfs 1.6G 0 1.6G 0% /lib/init/rw udev 1.6G 123k 1.6G 1% /dev tmpfs 1.6G 0 1.6G 0% /dev/shm /dev/sdb1 3.0T 211M 2.9T 1% /data Make sure you replace /dev/sdb1 with actual RAID or Disk name or Block Ethernet device such as /dev/etherd/e0.0. Do not forget to update /etc/fstab, if necessary. Also note that booting from a GPT volume requires support in your BIOS / firmware. This is not supported on non-EFI platforms. I suggest you boot server from another disk such as IDE / SATA / SSD disk and store data on /data. - How Basic Disks and Volumes Work (little outdated but good to understand basic concept) - GUID Partition Table from the Wikipedia - man pages parted Updated for accuracy! - 30 Handy Bash Shell Aliases For Linux / Unix / Mac OS X - Top 30 Nmap Command Examples For Sys/Network Admins - 25 PHP Security Best Practices For Sys Admins - 20 Linux System Monitoring Tools Every SysAdmin Should Know - 20 Linux Server Hardening Security Tips - Linux: 20 Iptables Examples For New SysAdmins - Top 20 OpenSSH Server Best Security Practices - Top 20 Nginx WebServer Best Security Practices - 20 Examples: Make Sure Unix / Linux Configuration Files Are Free From Syntax Errors - 15 Greatest Open Source Terminal Applications Of 2012 - My 10 UNIX Command Line Mistakes - Top 10 Open Source Web-Based Project Management Software - Top 5 Email Client For Linux, Mac OS X, and Windows Users - The Novice Guide To Buying A Linux Laptop

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Powering up for Wildlife “Smart-from-the-start” solar-energy plan ensures fewer risks to wildlife Building solar-energy fields on already developed land can help protect desert tortoise habitat. (Photo: © Mark A Wilson) The desert landscape is looking even brighter now that the Interior Department has released its first roadmap for environmentally responsible solar-energy development on public lands in the West. According to the map, unfurled this fall, this means the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) will direct solar-energy projects to areas that avoid or have reduced impacts to wildlife and wild lands in Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico and Utah. “The decision to direct solar projects to low-conflict areas is a much more rational approach to renewable energy development on public lands,” says Jamie Rappaport Clark, Defenders’ president. “This is better for wildlife, energy developers, utilities and investors alike because it offers a more efficient way to get environmentally friendly renewable energy on line and greater certainty for all involved.” But she adds that the impact of the plan on the federally threatened desert tortoise is still a concern because the plan allows for some vital tortoise habitat to remain open to potential development. “The BLM and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service should have taken a more cautious approach to exclude these areas or delay solar development until more scientific information becomes available on the impact of these projects on the species,” says Clark. “Instead, they chose to merely ‘discourage’ development in these areas. This creates greater uncertainty for developers and could undermine the survival and long-term sustainability of a unique and iconic desert species.” GET UP STAND UP You can help wildlife by adding solar panels to your rooftop. Defenders is partnering with SolarCity to encourage the switch to solar energy and will receive a $400 donation for every Defenders member that installs a home solar system. SolarCity will install your system for free—you pay for electricity by the month, just like your utility bill but lower. Learn more and sign up for a free consultation at www.defenders.org/solarcity. In total, 17 solar-energy zones were finalized over approximately 280,000 acres, which represents a significant reduction from earlier proposals. Development can also occur on a case-by-case basis on an additional 19 million acres of BLM lands outside the solar development zones—although the plan technically discourages it. Over the past two years, Defenders urged the Obama administration to adopt upfront, “smart-from-the-start” principles for planning, designing and managing renewable energy projects that avoid or minimize the impact to sensitive desert land and wildlife—like the desert tortoise, bighorn sheep, golden eagle and Mojave ground squirrel. Since some solar projects can sprawl over 8,000 acres or more, if located in sensitive habitats their sheer size can result in significant habitat loss and fragmentation. This can make it difficult for wildlife to find food, water, shelter, mates and protection from predators. Fragmented habitat can also lead to smaller, isolated populations of wildlife, making long-term survival more difficult. “In our efforts to switch to clean energy and reduce greenhouse gas pollution, we must ensure that development of utility-scale solar power does not preclude wildlife from migrating to lands essential for climate change adaptation,” says Erin Lieberman, Defenders’ western policy advisor for renewable energy and wildlife. “We need to encourage the development of solar, wind and geothermal energy for all the benefits they provide. But we must not do it at the expense of our nation’s rich wildlife legacy.” Defenders will continue working with stakeholders and the Department of the Interior to ensure that large-scale solar development occurs in places of least conflict so that wildlife and natural resources, like the desert tortoise, are protected.

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[An updated version of this article can be found at Free-Market Environmentalism in the 2nd edition.] Free-market environmentalism emphasizes markets as a solution to environmental problems. Proponents argue that free markets can be more successful than government—and have been more successful historically—in solving many environmental problems. This new interest in free-market environmentalism is somewhat ironic because environmental problems have often been seen as a form of market failure (see Public Goods and Externalities). In the traditional view many environmental problems are caused by decision makers who reduce their costs by polluting those who are downwind or downstream; other environmental problems are caused by private decision makers' inability to produce "public goods" (such as preservation of wild species) since no one has to pay to get the benefits of this preservation. While these problems can be quite real, growing evidence indicates that governments often fail to control pollution or to provide public goods at reasonable cost. Furthermore, the private sector is often more responsive than government to environmental needs. This evidence, which is supported by much economic theory, has led to a reconsideration of the traditional view. Further interest in free-market environmentalism has been awakened, in part, by the failures of centralized government control in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. As glasnost lifted the veil of secrecy, press reports identified large areas where brown haze hung in the air, where people's eyes routinely burned from chemical fumes and where drivers had to use headlights in the middle of the day. In 1990 The Wall Street Journal quoted a claim by Hungarian doctors that 10 percent of the deaths in Hungary may be directly related to pollution. The New York Times reported that parts of the town of Merseburg, East Germany, were "permanently covered by a white chemical dust, and a sour smell fills people's nostrils." For markets to work in the environmental field, as in any other, rights to each important resource must be clearly defined, easily defended against invasion, and divestible (transferable) by owners on terms agreeable to buyer and seller. Well-functioning markets, in short, require "3-D" property rights. When the first two are present—clear definition and easy defense of one's rights—no one is forced to accept pollution beyond the standard acceptable to the community. Each individual has a right against invasion of himself and his property, and the courts will defend that right. And when the third characteristic—divestibility—is present, each owner has an incentive to be a good steward: preservation of the owner's wealth (the value of his or her property) depends on good stewardship. Environmental problems stem from the absence or incompleteness of these characteristics of property rights. When rights to resources are defined and easily defended against invasion, all individuals or corporations, whether potential polluters or potential victims, have an incentive to avoid pollution problems. When air or water pollution damages a privately owned asset, the owner whose wealth is threatened will gain by seeing that the threat is abated, in court if necessary. In England and Scotland, for example, unlike in the United States, the right to fish for sport and commerce is a privately owned, transferable right. This means that owners of fishing rights can obtain damages and injunctions against polluters of streams. Owners of these rights vigorously defend them, even though the owners are often small anglers' clubs whose members have modest means. They have formed an association that is ready to go to court when their fishing rights are violated by polluters. Such suits were successful well before Earth Day and before pollution control became part of public policy. Once rights against pollution are established by precedent, as these were many years ago, going to court is seldom necessary. Thus, liability for pollution is a powerful motivator when a factory or other potentially polluting asset is privately owned. The case of the notorious waste dump, Love Canal, illustrates this point. As long as Hooker Chemical Company owned the Love Canal waste site, it was designed, maintained, and operated (in the late forties and fifties) in a way that met even the Environmental Protection Agency standards of 1980. The corporation wanted to avoid any damaging leaks, for which it would have to pay. Only when the waste site was taken over by local government—under threat of eminent domain, for the cost of one dollar, and in spite of warnings by Hooker about the chemicals—was the site mistreated in ways that led to chemical leakage. The government decision makers lacked personal or corporate liability for their decisions. They built a school on part of the site, removed part of the protective clay cap to use as fill dirt for another school site, and sold off the remaining part of the Love Canal site to a developer, without warning him of the dangers as Hooker had warned them. The local government also punched holes in the impermeable clay walls to build water lines and a highway. This allowed the toxic wastes to escape when rainwater, no longer kept out by the partially removed clay cap, washed them through the gaps created in the walls. The school district owning the land had a laudable but narrow goal: it wanted to provide education cheaply for district children. Government decision makers are seldom held accountable for broader social goals in the way that private owners are by liability rules and potential profits. Of course, mistakes can be made by anyone, including private parties, but the decision maker whose private wealth is on the line tends to be more circumspect. The liability that holds private decision makers accountable is largely missing in the public sector. Nor does the government sector have the long-range view that property rights provide, which leads to protection of resources for the future. As long as the third D, divestibility, is present, property rights provide long-term incentives for maximizing the value of property. If I mine my land and impair its future productivity or its groundwater, the reduction in the land's value reduces my current wealth. That is because land's current worth equals the present value of all future services (see Present Value). Fewer services or greater costs in the future mean lower value now. In fact, on the day an appraiser or potential buyer first can see that there will be problems in the future, my wealth declines. The reverse also is true: any new way to produce more value—preserving scenic value as I log my land, for example, to attract paying recreationists—is capitalized into the asset's present value. Because the owner's wealth depends on good stewardship, even a shortsighted owner has the incentive to act as if he or she cares about the future usefulness of the resource. This is true even if an asset is owned by a corporation. Corporate officers may be concerned mainly about the short term, but as financial economists such as Harvard's Michael Jensen have noted, even they have to care about the future. If current actions are known to cause future problems, or if a current investment promises future benefits, the stock price rises or falls to reflect the change. Corporate officers are informed by (and are judged by) these stock price changes. This ability and incentive to engage in farsighted behavior is lacking in the political sector. Consider the example of Seattle's Ravenna Park. At the turn of the century, it was a privately owned park that contained magnificent Douglas firs. A husband and wife, Mr. and Mrs. W. W. Beck, had developed it into a family recreation area that brought in thousands of people a day. Concern that a future owner might not take proper care of it, however, caused the local government to "preserve" this beautiful place. The owners did not want to part with it, but following condemnation proceedings the city bought the park. But since they had no personal property or income at stake, local officials allowed the park to deteriorate. In fact, the tall trees began to disappear soon after the city bought it in 1911. The theft of the trees was brought to official attention by a group of concerned citizens, but they continued to be cut. Gradually, the park became unattractive. By 1972 it was an ugly, dangerous hangout for drug users. In contrast, private individuals and groups have preserved wildlife habitats and scenic lands in thousands of places in the United States. The sidebar lists more than fifty such state and local land trusts in Oregon and California alone. The 1980 National Directory of Conservation Land Trusts lists 748 local, state, and regional land trusts serving this purpose. Many other state and local groups have similar projects as a sideline, and national groups such as the Nature Conservancy and the Audubon Society have hundreds more. None of these is owned by the government. Using the market, such groups do not have to convince the majority that their project is desirable, nor do they have to fight the majority in choosing how to manage the site. The result, as the federal government's Council on Environmental Quality has reported, is an enormous and healthy diversity of approaches. Even the lack of property rights today does not mean that a useful property rights solution is forever impossible. Property rights tend to evolve as technology, preferences, and prices provide added incentives and new technical options. Early in American history, property rights in cattle seemed impossible to establish and enforce on the Great Plains. But the growing value of such rights led to the use of mounted cowboys to protect herds and, eventually, barbed wire to fence the range. As economists Terry Anderson and Peter J. Hill have shown, the plains lost their status as commons and were privatized. Advances in technology may yet allow the establishment of enforceable rights to schools of whales in the oceans, migratory birds in the air, and—who knows?—even the ozone layer. Such is the hope of free-market environmentalism. Richard Stroup is an economics professor at Montana State University and senior associate at the Political Economy Research Center, both in Bozeman, Montana. From 1982 to 1984, he was director of the Office of Policy Analysis, U.S. Department of the Interior. Anderson, Terry, and Donald Leal. Free Market Environmentalism. 1991. Anderson, Terry, and Peter J. Hill. "The Race for Property Rights." Journal of Law and Economics 33, no. 1 (April 1990): 177-98. Council on Environmental Quality. The Fifteenth Annual Report of the Council on Environmental Quality, chap. 9. 1984. Jensen, Michael C. "Agency Costs of Free Cash Flow, Corporate Finance, and Takeovers." American Economic Review 76, no. 2 (May 1986): 324-29. Kensinger, John W., and John D. Martin. "The Quiet Restructuring." Journal of Applied Corporate Finance 1, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 16-25. Shaw, Jane S., and Richard L. Stroup. "Gone Fishin'." Reason 20, no. 4 (August/September 1988): 34-37. Shaw, Jane S., and Richard L. Stroup. "Pollution in Eastern Europe: What Can Be Done About It?" Journal of Economic Growth 4, no. 2 (Summer 1990): 17-21. Zuesse, Eric. "The Truth Seeps Out" (story about Love Canal). Reason 12, no. 10 (February 1981): 16-33.

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Shingles (Herpes Zoster) Shingles (herpes zoster) is a viral infection that may cause pain, burning, or a tingling sensation on either the left or right side of the body. Several days or weeks later, a band, strip, or small area of rash usually appears in the same area and progresses into blisters, which scab over before clearing up over the next few weeks. Shingles develops from the virus that causes chickenpox (varicella-zoster virus). The virus remains in the nerve tissue and can become active again in anyone who has had chickenpox. Shingles is most common in older adults and people who have weakened immune systems because of stress, injury, or other factors. No one knows what makes the virus active again. A person with shingles can spread the virus until the blisters have scabs. The spread of the shingles virus can cause chickenpox in those who have not had it before and have not been vaccinated. Medicines may relieve discomfort from the rash and pain. Some people have pain that lasts after the rash is gone (postherpetic neuralgia). The shingles vaccine can help prevent shingles or make shingles less painful. eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise To learn more visit Healthwise.org Find out what women really need. Pill Identifier on RxList - quick, easy, Find a Local Pharmacy - including 24 hour, pharmacies

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Whooping cough is on the rise. There were 665 reported cases from January to March, compared with 1,040 for the whole of 2011. It is a nasty disease, caused by a bacterium called Bordetella pertussis, that starts with an irritating cough and becomes prolonged, uncontrollable and makes you choke or vomit. The whoop on breathing in, once heard, is unlikely to be forgotten. It is spread by airborne droplets and takes six to 20 days to take hold, but can last up to three months. The recent increase seems to be mainly in young adults, who are unlikely to get seriously ill. However babies are now being affected too: so far, three babies have died from the disease this year. The highest rates of the disease occur in babies under three months who have not yet been fully immunised. They are most at risk of complications such as pneumonia (their tiny airways get blocked by mucus) and brain damage, from not being able to breathe due to coughing. Causes for the rise could be due to people not finishing their vaccination regime (whooping cough is given combined with other vaccinations at two, three and four months, followed by a pre-school booster between three and five). But it could also be because immunity from the vaccine wears off more quickly than doctors thought. A study from California of 15,000 children found that it seemed to wane after as little as three years. However, previous studies suggest immunity varies between people and could last between five and 10 years after whooping cough vaccines. Testing for the disease has also got better and some of the increase may be due to better diagnosis. So if you're worried that you might contract whooping cough and infect any babies you know, what should you do? Vaccination programmes are to protect the young and those with compromised immunity. The whooping cough vaccine is safer than catching the disease, especially in its acellular form, which contains inactivated pertussis toxin. Three per million people will have a life-threatening allergic reaction. Other side-effects include pain and swelling at the injection site, and fever; seizures can happen, but are rare. Make sure your children are up to date with their vaccinations. The Department of Health is considering introducing another booster at age 11, but right now this isn't routine. If you think you have been in contact with someone with the illness, or start to show symptoms, see your GP, who may suggest you have a top-up immunisation. There is not much evidence that the antibiotics usually given have much impact on the disease, but they will stop you being infectious faster. Studies show most babies are infected by family members, so stay away from others where possible until no longer infectious – three weeks after the start of symptoms.

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The European debt crisis is a sign of a much bigger conflict within the European Union. It is a battle for what Europe is and what it should do. And, more importantly, where the power truly rests; Brussels or national governments. For four long, tedious, blood soaked years in the 1860s, the United States engaged in a brutal internal conflict over slavery and the role of the Federal Government. The years 1861 - 65 unleashed a barbaric tempest of war and destruction; the premise of the conflict asked an innocent question over State sovereignty and rights. The Confederacy declared it was their unalienable right to maintain the institutionalisation of slavery, as a means to provide labour to their cotton industry. Northerners, however, saw slavery as abhorrent, grotesque and against the true spirit of America. The Federal government had the political power to overrule the States. In April 8, 1864 the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibited slavery and involuntary servitude. A year later, in 1865, 600,000 people were dead and the American Civil War was over. But what does a conflict, nearly 150 years ago, have to do with the modern European Union? Surprisingly, there is a correlation. The European debt crisis is the first major internal dilemma for the European Union. It is a test, which will determine whether or not the Union will survive; a similar fate Abraham Lincoln warned about at Gettysburg. There is great uncertainty about the Euro as a currency and the European project as a whole because a default, by either Greece, Ireland, Portugal or Spain, has the potential to destroy the entire European banking system. Decades of stability, prosperity and wealth could vanish if this financial crisis fractured the foundations upon which the new Europe was built on. As Margaret Thatcher once said to the United States Congress, Europe experienced the 'greatest transformation since the fall of Rome.' And this new Rome is currently burning. A solution has been constructed by the European Central Bank; a single economic policy with a Finance Ministry of Europe. To achieve a successful implementation of the ECB plan, Eurozone countries would have to concede economic sovereignty to the European Union. Potentially, this would be the beginning of a United States of Europe. But there is one problem: European citizens hold national pride so dear. I cannot envision the populis of Ireland, Greece or Portugal conceding their national sovereignty to Europe, especially after toxic and political damaging IMF-ECB bailout packages. Ireland was once among the great pro-European citizenry in Europe and now it is the most hostile. There are persistent rumours of Greece leaving the Euro and, potentially, the European Union too. The Treaty of Lisbon concludes any departure from the Eurozone requires succeeding from the Union itself. Commentators play down any significance of a possible member leaving; in 1860, South Carolina left the United States of America. Less than a year later, another ten States followed. Greece could provide the means for others, such as Ireland, to leave as well. Granted, this is a difficult analogy to make. After all, I'm comparing a military conflict to an economic crisis, but it originates to a central and similar argument. What is the role, or duty, of a continental government? If it is to exist, then it is to exert some authority. When the smoke settled, guns were silenced and the soldiers went home from war, the American people granted their Federal Government the power to administrate the reconstruction of the South. The North not only won the military campaign, but also successful articulated the argument that the final arbiter was, indeed, the Federal Government. However, its actions were required to be benevolent, not oppressive. In the 21st Century, Europe must answer the similar question, when dealing with the sovereignty debt crisis; who truly has the authority to solve the problems? The European narrative has many chapters in its rich history and many more to come. An American friend of mine once described contemporary Europe as similar to the United States, before the end of the civil war: a continent sure of its destiny, but not on the path of projection. Both Europe and America are experiments; experiments that are routinely tested. The United States could've easily ended the civil war within months and recognised the Confederate States, thus sparing hundreds and thousands of lives, but it chose not to. Europe could spare uncertainty in the financial markets by aligning economies and banking systems under a single European umbrella. But is there an European Abraham Lincoln, with the stomach to exert such fortitude and save the European Union? That is the question, which Europe must answer. Follow Daniel Furr on Twitter: www.twitter.com/danielfurruk

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Stress Management: "The Turn of the Tide" Worry arises when we start to let doubts creep in about what could happen to us if things should go wrong in trying to reach our goals. Some people use a simple technique at the first sign of worry by switching on an imaginary "Cancel" button in their heads. Others with big worries may need a more structured approach such as the following one told by Stephen Covey in "The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People". It is based on a story written by Arthur Gordon called "The Turn of the Tide". Washing Away Your Worries: "The Turn of the Tide" In "The Turn of the Tide", Arthur Gordon recalls a time when he was overcome by negativism and worry. In the end, he went to see a physician who told him to spend the following day in the place where he had been happiest as a child. Then he gave him four prescriptions in sealed envelopes, to be opened at 9, 12, 3 and 6 o'clock the next day. Gordon duly went back to his favourite retreat beside the sea. At 9 o'clock, he opened the first prescription. It read: "Listen carefully." Gordon sat back and did as instructed. For the rest of the morning he tuned in to the sounds of the birds and the sea and felt a growing peace. At noon he opened the second prescription. It read: "Try Reaching Back." Gordon thought about the meaning of this phrase and allowed the many memories of his past to come flooding back to him. Reaching back, he recalled times of happiness, achievement and fulfilment. When 3 o'clock came, he opened prescription number three and read: "Examine Your Motives". Gordon thought of the work he was engaged on at present. Slowly it dawned on him that all his present endeavours were aimed at satisfying his own needs. He changed his thoughts and motives so that they were aimed at satisfying the needs of others. Finally, at 6 o'clock, Gordon opened the last prescription and read: "Write your worries in the sand." He did as instructed, writing the few remaining worries he had and turned homeward, knowing that the lapping waves would soon wash all his worries away. (Re-printed with permission) Lessons for Stress Management from "The Turn of the Tide" Here are 6 lessons from the story of Arthur Gordon and "The Turn of the Tide" that can help you in your own stress management: • turn worrying thoughts inside out. Instead of thinking about the worst that could happen, think about the best that could happen. Worry in positives. • keep so busy that you have no time for worrying • live in daytight compartments where you can take one step at a time • don't let a small niggle or failure cloud the rest of what you've achieved. • don't over-react to worries. The chances are that what you fear won't happen anyway. • write your worries in the sand and let the tide carry them away. Then forget them.

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GC Splitless Injection Animation This site is one in a series of sites with very good animations related to separations. This animation deals specifically with splitless injection in GC. The animations are short (one to two minutes) and can easily be shown in class as part of a lecture. They are extremely helpful in illustrating key components and concepts of chromatographic systems. Users are encouraged to explore the site and the other brief animations as well. Separate links to other simulations by the same company (TRSL) ar This site simply offers books covering a wide range of both general and specific topics related to gas chromatography and its applications. While not of immediate pedagogical value, it may be useful to those looking for good texts about gas chromatography either for their own research needs or to provide as resources to their students. Using exposition, graphics, and commercial videos, this module teaches the theory and application of affinity chromatography in the characterization of proteins, nucleic acids, and other biochemical/biomedical systems. Problems and application examples support the tutorial material. Analytical Electrochemistry: Basic concepts This module focuses on the basic concepts involved in dynamic electrochemistry when the net current is not zero - the combination of mass transfer and electrochemical reactions at the interface between solids and fluids. It is at an introductory level appropriate for undergraduates in their sophomore or junior years. Adopting POGIL Methodology for Analytical Chemistry POGIL (Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning) is a NSF sponsored project designed to actively engage students in the learning process in the classroom. Ana-POGIL activities cover topics ranging from statistics to equilibria and to instrumentation. Materials are intended to have students work in groups on activities; each activity is structured in such a way that each concept is divided into a series of leading questions that allow the team to work through the concept. Answer keys can be re RSC.org: UV/Vis Spectroscopy This video distributed on YouTube is on the basic principles of UV/Vis. Provides a good primer (~5 min), and the top-off look of the instrument is useful in explaining components. A double beam instrument is described. RSC.org: IR Spectroscopy This video on YouTube covers the basic principles of infrared spectroscopy. Very useful for a newcomer to IR. This video of 6.5 minute would be useful in a classroom setting or students interested in the technique. RSC.org: Proton NMR This video, distributed on YouTube by the Royal Society of Chemistry is on the basic principles of NMR. This video is a good primer and would be very useful to supplement introductory lectures on NMR. The video covers the basic theory behind a 1H spectrum and goes through actually acquiring a spectrum. The top-off look of the instrument is useful and how the superconducting magnet is mounted. Good for a basic introduction. RSC.org: Mass Spectrometry This video, distributed on YouTube by the Royal Society of Chemistry is on the basic principles of mass spectrometry, using a magnetic sector instrument to demonstrate how specific m/z ratios can be selected. The theory and operation of MS, including the chemistry of ionization and fragmentation is described at an introductory level. There\'s also an excellent example of the use of high resolution MS to differentiate between nominal mass and actual mass. The video does a very good job of explain Veeco's Nanotheater provides over 350 images of surfaces acquired using atomic force microscopy and scanning probe microscopy. Images come from a wide variety of samples, including polymers, biologicals such as bacteria, and inorganic crystals. Many of the images contains brief descriptions of what is being shown, although the information is not particularly in-depth. Additional information on atomic force microscopy and scanning probe microcopy, including useful guides and animations, is availa This pair of pH calculation programs serves as an excellent tool for anyone wishing to calculate the pH of a solution containing multiple acids and bases. These programs allow practitioners to predict the pH of simple and complex acid/base solutions and buffers. Users are encouraged to carefully read the guides provided by the author. Animations and Simulations in the Teaching of Analytical Sciences This article by Cynthia Larive, published in the \"ABCs of Teaching Analytical Science\" series of the journal Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, will be of interest to faculty members teaching courses in the analytical sciences. The article provides a good introduction to the animations, simulations, and other on-line resources available on the internet. More important, it encourages instructors to develop a teaching philosophy that emphasizes the use of these materials. A Primer on Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) A video primer on STM by Prof. R. Reifenberger, Purdue University Nanotech Center. A thorough discussion of fundamentals followed by the technical barriers and implementations - excellent graphics illustrating principles and experimental results. Historical context is provided making presentation interesting. Should be viewed by anyone interested in surface analysis at atomic dimensions. Population Genetics and Statistics This website is part of the President\'s DNA Initiative and is devoted to past and current methods of macromolecules such as DNA. This website introduces the student to the subject of population genetics and stresses factors that can alter allele frequencies in a population and calculations associated with the Hardy-Weinberg principle. The student will learn to use acceptable statistical approaches to evaluating DNA data and how DNA databases are constructed and applied. This site is designed as Gas Chromatography Video This is a high quality video module demonstrating the basics of gas chromatography. Highlights include different GC instruments, detectors etc., as well as unique topics such as trouble shooting and interfacing the column that are not addressed in standard texts. This resource can be run (Shockwave Flash) from the home server or downloaded to your computer. NMR of Paramagnetic Proteins This site presents an overview of techniques used for structural elucidation of paramagnetic metalloproteins. The content is directed to the more advanced NMR user and would be suitable for an upper division or graduate level NMR class. This website provides resources that can aid in the interpretation of NMR proton shifts, identification of IR features and mass loss identification in mass spectrometry. The original site is in German, but most (but not all) the content is translated on the English version of the site. From the left hand menu under Spektroskopei-Tools choose Wizards. From here you can enter a chemical shift in ppm and the NMR tool will identify likely protons and environments that could cause the shift. Enter a Laboratory Orientation and Testing of Body Fluids and Tissues for Forensic Analysts This web site is part of the President\'s DNA Initiative and is devoted to an overview of historical and contemporary techniques to characterize body tissues. The first part of the course covers basic laboratory procedures, safety requirements for laboratory personnel and emphasizes quality control and quality assurance in the laboratory. The second section deals with serological techniques for characterizing specimens such as saliva, semen, blood and urine Identification and individual utilizin Handbook of Basic Atomic Spectroscopic Data This National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)) site containing atomic spectroscopic reference data. Information can be accessed through a variety of means, such as an interactive periodic table and dropdown lists of elements organized by name or atomic number. Data available include isotope abundance, electron configuration, nuclear spin, magnetic moment, ionization energies, spectral line wavelengths and intensities, and energy level information. References are also given. Cooperative Learning Structures This website is an invaluable resource on cooperative learning. The site provides information on a number of cooperative learning techniques such as jigsaw, think-pair-share, etc. that faculty who are interested in active learning will find invaluable.

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Environmental News: Media Center WASHINGTON (July 17, 2012) -- The Food and Drug Administration’s announcement today banning the use of bisphenol A (BPA) in baby bottles and children’s cups still leaves the public exposed to the hormone-disrupting chemical in food packaging, according to the Natural Resources Defense Council. BPA, a chemical used to make plastics and resins, is linked to an array of adverse health effects, including cancer, obesity, abnormal brain development and reproductive problems. The following is a statement from Dr. Sarah Janssen, senior scientist in the public health program at NRDC: “This is only a baby step in the fight to eradicate BPA. To truly protect the public, FDA needs to ban BPA from all food packaging. This half-hearted action—taken only after consumers shifted away from BPA in children’s products — is inadequate. FDA continues to dodge the bigger questions of BPA’s safety.” Canada, the European Union, China, and at least five other countries as well as 11 U.S. states have prohibited the use of BPA in children’s products. Some U.S. canned food manufacturers have voluntarily removed BPA from can linings, but its use remains legal in all canned food and beverage packaging. In March, FDA rejected NRDC’s petition to ban BPA in all food packaging, but the agency emphasized it was not making a final determination of BPA’s safety. Instead it would continue to examine the ongoing research of BPA’s effects on health. The FDA opened a separate public comment period today on a petition to ban BPA in infant formula containers, but just like baby bottles and children’s cups, manufacturers have largely abandoned using the chemical in formula containers. To read more about the FDA and BPA, see Dr. Janssen’s blog post here:http://switchboard.nrdc.org/blogs/sjanssen/fda_responds_to_bpa_industry_w.html

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There is nothing more likely to turn off scientists from reading an article than if the words “Loch Ness Monster” appear in the title. However, confronting bad science is an important task and science’s inability (and strength) to prove the non-existence of something – exemplified by the eponymous monster from Loch Ness – is often used as a stick with which to beat science. In Martin Pitt’s article the issues are laid out with clarity and reason. Communication between scientists and those of other disciplines is more than sitting on promotion, review or resource allocation committees in universities. Information seeking and the growth of the web encourage the understanding of those in science and the liberal arts of each other’s culture. In “Communicating Information across cultures”, Deborah Andersen draws a comparison between the work patterns of those in science and the humanities. The idea being that the growth of electronic knowledge resources will help to bridge the cultural gap and promote interdisciplinary understanding. Rhetoric has certain negative connotations in science – even to the point of some scientists denying that “genuine science” employs such devices. The balance between promoting good communication on the one hand and distorting science on the other is sometimes a fine one. In “Science and Rhetoric”, Neil Ryder underlies the importance of metaphor as a basis for scientific imagination as well as an aid to communication. We present an interview with Nick Bostrom, a philosopher of science based at Yale. His background is in Physics, Neuroscience, Logic and Philosophy. He co-founded (with David Pearce) the World Transhumanist Association, which is an organisation that promotes the use of technology to overcome human biological limitations. The interview covers the interplay between science and philosophy in relation to the human condition.

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1940's Los Angeles In the summer of 1943, Los Angeles erupted in violence. The city, a major training and transit point for military personnel, saw itself on the front lines of the war in the Pacific. Sailors, soldiers, and marines in the area read in the L.A. press about the war overseas, and the war against Mexican "pachuco" gangs at home. More and more, people believed Mexican American youths were predisposed to criminality. These notions were encouraged by sensationalistic news reports and an overaggressive police department. At the time, many Mexican American teens were challenging the unwritten codes of prejudice. Those who wore the zoot suit-- an outrageous, attention-grabbing fashion -- knew they were placing themselves in the public eye. What they learned from the Zoot Suit Riots, however, was that self-expression can come with a heavy price. A group of "zoot-suiters" fight 11 sailors who walk through the Alpine barrio; according to witness Henry Marin, the sailors were attacked for dating two of the Mexican American young men's girlfriends. Sailors in taxicabs begin to survey Mexican American neighborhoods to find the zoot-suited young men. Several dozen sailors from the Naval Reserve Armory in Chavez Ravine rampage through the Alpine district, assaulting "zoot-suiters." Entering a theater, they pull Mexican Americans from their seats and beat them. Sailors roam side streets, entering restaurants and bars to seek victims. The shore patrol issues a riot call, but neither they nor the police arrive in time to make arrests. Shore patrol officers arrest several sailors downtown and send the rest back to base. Later, authorities release all prisoners without filing charges. The Los Angeles Daily News calls the street fights "open warfare." Two hundred sailors hire a "fleet" of taxicabs and drive to East Los Angeles, beating zoot-suiters and sending five victims to the hospital. Shore patrol and the L.A.P.D. do not catch up with the sailors until they return to their bases. Only several are arrested -- and no charges are filed. The Los Angeles Times runs the headline, "Zoot Suiters Learn Lesson in Fight with Servicemen." On leave for the weekend, army personnel and marines join the rioting sailors in L.A. Servicemen teem through downtown, allegedly giving Mexican American youths 24 hours to shed their suits. They venture into East L.A., where they attack individuals wearing "drapes." The Los Angeles Times takes notice of the riots. Despite the presence of an additional 300 law enforcement officers, called to quell the disturbances, servicemen invade East L.A. on the hunt for zoot-suiters. One group chases Mexican American boys into a dance hall on First and State Streets. The Los Angeles Daily News reports that the sailors left the boys "crawling about with battered heads and smashed noses." The riots reach a climax. The evening press runs special editions announcing that the zoot-suiters plan "to kill every cop" they see. The papers give details of when and where the attacks are to occur. Subsequently, five thousand servicemen and civilians converge on downtown L.A. and beat and strip every Mexican American boy they find. At the Orpheum Theater, servicemen pull Mexican American boys to the stage and strip them. At least half of the victims are not wearing zoot suits. The Herald and Express reports a police estimate that on this night more than 700 "grotesquely-clad hoodlums roam L.A. bent on the common purpose of engaging in battle with servicemen." Rudy Leyvas describes how Mexican American boys fought back in a battle on the corner of Central Avenue and 12th Street: "Toward evening, we started hiding in alleys. ...Then we sent about 20 guys right out into the middle of the street as decoys. Then they came up in U.S. Navy trucks. There were many civilians, too. There were at least as many of them as us. They started coming after the decoys, then we came out. They were surprised. It was the first time anybody was organized to fight back. Lots of people were hurt on both sides. I was about 15 then, and I had a baseball bat. I came out okay, but I know I hurt a lot of people." The fighting grows worse as the mob crosses the bridges over the Los Angeles River and invades East L.A. barrios. Commander Clarence Fogg, a senior patrol officer, reports, "hundreds of servicemen prowling downtown Los Angeles mostly on foot -- disorderly -- apparently on prowl for Mexicans... Groups vary in size from 10 to 150 men and scatter immediately when shore patrol approaches. Men found carrying hammock clues, belts, knives, and tire irons." Shortly after midnight, military officials, deeming the L.A.P.D. incapable of controlling the violence, declare downtown out of bounds for all military personnel. The Los Angeles City Council passes a resolution banning zoot suits: "NOW, THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED, that the City Council by Resolution find that the wearing of Zoot Suits constitutes a public nuisance and does hereby instruct the City Attorney to prepare an ordinance declaring same a nuisance and prohibit the wearing of Zoot Suits with reet pleats within the city limits of Los Angeles." Sporadic disturbances continue. In Watts, servicemen take Pacific Electric railway cars to 103rd Street, barge into stores and theaters, and lop off the cuffs of Mexican American boys wearing pegged pants. The police arrive only to take the victims into custody, and allow the servicemen to leave. To retaliate, zoot-suiters stone the trains as they pass through Watts for the next several days. The Los Angeles Daily News, "Nearly every window of an outbound Long Beach tow-car train was smashed when it was caught in the crossfire of a pachuco stoning."

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(Electronic-BOOK) The electronic counterpart of a printed book, which can be viewed on a desktop computer, laptop, smartphone or e-book reader. When traveling, a large number of e-books can be stored in portable units, dramatically eliminating weight and volume compared to paper. Electronic bookmarks make referencing easier, and e-book readers may allow the user to annotate pages. Although fiction and non-fiction books come in e-book formats, technical material is especially suited for e-book delivery because it can be searched. In addition, programming code examples can be quickly copied, which is why CD-ROMs that contain the entire text of the work are often packaged inside technical paper books. The major problem with e-books is the many formats competing for prime time, including Adobe PDF, Microsoft Reader, eReader, Mobipocket Reader, EPUB, Kindle and iPad. All e-book formats have a search capability, but most do not support a direct dictionary lookup, which means if a person looks up the term "network," all the definitions that contain the word "network" are retrieved rather than the single definition of that term. The results are akin to the mountain of results retrieved by a search engine. Amazon's Kindle and Apple's iPad In late 2007, Amazon.com revolutionized the e-book market with the introduction of its Kindle e-book reader and e-book inventory. The Kindle was the first e-book to offer free, wireless access to download e-books and search the Web (see Kindle). In early 2010, Apple introduced the iPad tablet, featuring "iBooks" downloadable over a Wi-Fi or 3G connection (see iPad). See PDF, iPad, EPUB, Open eBook and Mobipocket.

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It might be a completely new species--a very tricky new species. Learning skills that will be invaluable in later foxhood In the future, the great Pixel Wolves Of The Sky will look down below on the mutated fish. The wolves will be hungry but also weirded out. Cliff the beagle can sniff out a dangerous bacterium just by smelling patients--no stool sample or long lab analysis necessary. Researchers discover an adorable (yet scary!) species of slow loris. Find out how these arachnids avoid getting trapped in their goo. Research on how the deadly fungus affects immune systems may help HIV research. Following the shooting of a tagged Yellowstone grey wolf just outside the park's borders in Wyoming--the eighth such wolf shot this season--the state of Montana has banned wolf hunting in areas adjacent to the park. The NYTimes quotes a Montana Fish, Wildlife, and Park commissioner who cites the "time and money and effort" that goes into the tagging and research of these wolves, as well as a Yellowstone biologist who still seems to be smarting from the loss, saying this is a "moderate" decision that addresses "some of the issues as far as the science." [NYTimes] Wyoming's anti-scientific laws have allowed the most famous wolf in Yellowstone to be shot. Shooting wolves isn't only senseless--it actively harms the environment. The benefits of living with an engineer Aerial surveillance, radio tagging and ranger patrols aim to fight poaching in Asia and Africa. The "spidernaut" Nefertiti has died. It was 10 months old. A "Johnson Jumper" spider, it was sent on board the International Space Station in July as part of an experiment; researchers watched to see if the spider would adapt its feeding behavior to weightlessness (it did). Nefertiti was returned to Earth after a 100-day stay, and the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History then placed the spider in its insect zoo. The display opened to the public on November 29, but the spider died of natural causes yesterday morning. Rest in peace, spidernaut. [SPACE.com] The elephant, Duchess, goes under the knife, with doctors using custom tools for the rare surgery. By tracking the cows' diets, and thus their methane production, researchers can help slow global warming. Scientists in the UK injected dogs with cells grown from the lining of their noses, which continually regenerates.

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The U.S. had the world's top two costliest natural disasters in 2012, according to a report released Thursday by global reinsurance firm Aon Benfield, based in London. The largest global disasters of 2012 were Hurricane Sandy (with a cost of $65 billion) and the year-long Midwest/Plains drought ($35 billion), according to the company's Annual Global Climate and Catastrophe Report, which was prepared by Aon Benfield's Impact Forecasting division. The $35 billion figure is one of the first estimates of the U.S. drought cost, which "comes from a combination of anticipated losses sustained by the agricultural sector and other factors such as business interruption," says Aon Benfield meteorologist and senior scientist Steve Bowen. Sandy and the drought accounted for nearly half of the world's economic losses but, owing to higher levels of insurance coverage in the U.S., 67% of insured losses globally, the report states. Total economic losses include the entire cost of an event, while insured losses are the amount of economic losses that are covered by insurance, says Bowen. The U.S. alone accounted for nearly 90% of all the world's insured losses in 2012. In addition to the drought and Sandy, several severe weather events and Hurricane Isaac contributed to this total. The U.S. typically represents 64% of the insured losses. Why does the U.S. percentage tend to be so high each year? "From an insurance perspective, the United States has generally been the dominant region of the world for costliest natural disaster events," Bowen says. "The U.S. has a higher level of insurance penetration than most countries, which in turn leads to more of the economic losses being covered." Global natural disasters in 2012 combined to cause economic losses of $200 billion, which is just above the 10- year average of $187 billion. There were 295 separate events, compared to an average of 257. A report in October 2012 from Munich Re, the world's largest reinsurance firm, said that climate change was driving the increase in natural disasters since 1980, and predicted that those influences will continue in years ahead. However, the Aon Benfield report states: "Despite growing support for 'the new normal' theory of a world dominated by rapidly escalating global catastrophe losses, our study highlights that 2012 returned to a more normal level of losses after the extreme economic and insured losses of 2011." That was the year of the terrible earthquake and tsunami in Japan, an earthquake in New Zealand, and floods and landslides in Thailand. The report goes on to say that while nominal catastrophe losses are increasing at an alarming rate, economic losses as a percent of global GDP â?? a measure normalized for inflation and economic development â?? has remained relatively stable over the past 30 years. The deadliest event of 2012 was Super Typhoon Bopha, which left more than 1,900 people dead after making landfall in the Philippines in December. The number of human fatalities caused by natural disasters in 2012 was approximately 8,800, with nine of the top 10 events occurring outside of the U.S. Copyright 2013 USATODAY.com Read the original story: Hurricane Sandy, drought cost U.S. $100 billion

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Baby epiderma Inclusion cysts Milia ( sing. milium, from the Latin millet seed) are small epidermal inclusion cysts ( sometimes erroneously called sebaceous cysts). Milia are totally, benign, tiny keratin-filled cysts. They form when the follicular orifice ( pore) is clogged. For physicians who might chance on this answer, especially those preparing for the boards, milia in the oral cavity in infants are named Epstein pearls. Unlike blackheads ( open comedones) and whiteheads ( closed comedones), milia do not...

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Three easy activities build writing skills now and prepare your child for school this fall. Hover over each Learning Benefit below for a detailed explanation. What you need: - pad of paper - paintbrush or craft sticks - water or ice cubes What to do: - Travel Reporter. Whether you're heading to the beach or the backyard, bring along a pad and markers for your child to record the experience. Remember, her first step in writing is drawing what she sees! - Water Writing. A refreshing way to write is with a paintbrush and water or an ice cube with a craft stick handle. Your child can make letters, words, and pictures by moving the ice cube along a paved surface. Then, she can watch as her writing dries and disappears. - Sticks and Stones. Give your child a stick, and the beach or sandbox suddenly becomes a huge writing pad! She'll enjoy drawing and writing in the sand or earth with sticks or stones — and erasing her work before starting all over again. Recommended Products for Your Child Ages 3-5

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Aug. 13, 2011 For proof that rejection, exclusion, and acceptance are central to our lives, look no farther than the living room, says Nathan Dewall, a psychologist at the University of Kentucky. "If you turn on the television set, and watch any reality TV program, most of them are about rejection and acceptance," he says. The reason, DeWall says, is that acceptance -- in romantic relationships, from friends, even from strangers -- is absolutely fundamental to humans. In a new paper published in Current Directions in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science, DeWall and coauthor Brad J. Bushman of Ohio State University review recent psychological research on social acceptance and rejection. "Although psychologists have been interested in close relationships and what happens when those relationships go awry for a very long time, it's only been about 15 yrs that psychologists have been doing this work on exclusion and rejection," DeWall says. The results have highlighted how central acceptance is to our lives. DeWall thinks belonging to a group was probably helpful to our ancestors. We have weak claws, little fur, and long childhoods; living in a group helped early humans survive harsh environments. Because of that, being part of a group still helps people feel safe and protected, even when walls and clothing have made it easier for one man to be an island entire of himself. But acceptance has an evil twin: rejection. Being rejected is bad for your health. "People who feel isolated and lonely and excluded tend to have poor physical health," DeWall says. They don't sleep well, their immune systems sputter, and they even tend to die sooner than people who are surrounded by others who care about them. Being excluded is also associated with poor mental health, and exclusion and mental health problems can join together in a destructive loop. People with depression may face exclusion more often because of the symptoms of their disorder -- and being rejected makes them more depressed, DeWall says. People with social anxiety navigate their world constantly worried about being socially rejected. A feeling of exclusion can also contribute to suicide. Exclusion isn't just a problem for the person who suffers it, either; it can disrupt society at large, DeWall says. People who have been excluded often lash out against others. In experiments, they give people much more hot sauce than they can stand, blast strangers with intense noise, and give destructive evaluations of prospective job candidates. Rejection can even contribute to violence. An analysis of 15 school shooters found that all but two had been socially rejected. It's important to know how to cope with rejection. First of all, "We should assume that everyone is going to experience rejection on a semi-regular basis throughout their life," DeWall says. It's impossible to go through your entire life with everyone being nice to you all the time. When you are rejected or excluded, he says, the best way to deal with it is to seek out other sources of friendship or acceptance. "A lot of times, people keep these things to themselves because they're embarrassed or they don't think it's that big of a deal," he says. But our bodies respond to rejection like they do to physical pain; the pain should be taken seriously, and it's fine to seek out support. "When people feel lonely, or when people feel excluded or rejected, these are things they can talk about," he says. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. - C. N. DeWall, B. J. Bushman. Social Acceptance and Rejection: The Sweet and the Bitter. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2011; 20 (4): 256 DOI: 10.1177/0963721411417545 Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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Workbook for BaBar Offline Users - Writing Code Using an Object Oriented design approach to make proper use of C++. Object Oriented programming offers a powerful model for writing computer software. Objects are "black boxes" which send and receive messages. This approach speeds the development of new programs, and, if properly used, improves the maintenance, reusability, and modifiability of software by limiting the dependences among the various objects which are coded. OO Analysis and Design brings in a new approach to modelization with respect to traditional (procedural) methods, understanding the OO vs SA/SD analysis & design characteristics is important. The C++ language offers an easier transition via C, but it still requires an OO design approach in order to make proper use of this technology. This can often be a major problem for experienced C programmers. Object Orientation relies heavily upon concepts and terminology that make up the boundaries of the paradigm. Principles and definitions cannot be ignored in order to program within the OO paradigm boundaries. A rudimentary discussion of Object Orientation may be found in the Object Orientation section of this You may want to look at the FAQ to get quick answers to the basic ideas behind OO. As an introduction to Object Oriented Programming, Bob Jacobsen and Dave Quarrie presented a series of lectures at SLAC in 1995. Like the C++ course, these lectures were recorded and the videos are available or loan and for copy from SLAC and in Europe. The transparencies from the talks are available on the web. Some useful books on OO design are: - Robert C. Martin, "Designing Object-Oriented C++ Application Using the Booch Method", Prentice-Hall Inc, 1995, ISBN 0-13-203837-4. - E.Gamma, R.Helm, R.Johnson and J.Vlissides, ``Design Patterns'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-63361-2. - I.White, ``Using the Booch Method: a Rational Approach'', Benjamin Cummins, ISBN 0-8053-0614-5. - G.Booch, ``Object Oriented Analysis and Design with Applications (2nd ed)'', Benjamin Cummins, ISBN 0-8053-5340-2. Methods (functions) in OO are the way to develop software following a controlled and repeatable process. Methods rely on the parallel production of documentation (mostly OO diagrams) and code). Examples are: The C++ Language You may or may not do OO programming with C++ (not even so-called pure-OO languages force you to go OO). If ever, these books are gold-plated: if you don't have them, buy them (and read them). They cover what you should and should not do with OO/C++. C++, Second Edition, 224 pgs, Addison-Wesley, 1998, ISBN 0-201-92488-9. Covers 50 topics in a short essay format. Effective C++, 336 pgs, Addison-Wesley, 1996, ISBN 0-201-63371-X. Covers 35 topics in a short essay format. Gamma et al., Design Patterns, Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-63361-2. Patterns and what OO is all about: The introduction should be carved into each developer's brain. While Meyers works constitute the do's and dont's, the following two works cover most if not all aspect of legal C++. A series of 8 lectures introducing users to C++ programming were given by Paul Kunz during 1995. These lectures were all video'd and the videos are available for loan and copy from SLAC and in Europe. The full transparencies for the course are available on the WWW (copies of these will be essential when viewing the videos !) at /BFROOT/www/Computing/Programming/ProgC++class.html. The Paul Kunz course closely follows the following text: Lippman and Lajoie, C++ Primer, Third Edition, 1237 pgs, Addison-Wesley, 1998, ISBN 0-201-82470-1. Very readable/approachable. Stroustrup, The C++ Programming Language, Third Edition, 646 pgs, Addison-Wesley, 1998, ISBN 0-201-53992-6. Covers a lot of groun This books contains many code examples, all of which are available from the Web, via links on the above pages. The book is really aimed at teaching the basics of C++ to Scientists and Engineers (i.e. FORTRAN programmers). J. Barton and Lee R. Nackman, ``Scientific and Engineering C++: An Introduction with Advanced Techniques and Examples'',published by Addison-Wesley (ISBN 0-201-53393) Other useful texts for learning C++ are: - Stanley B. Lippman,``C++ Primer'', published by Addison Wesley. ( ISBN 0-201-54848-8 ) - Ira Pohl, ``Object Oriented Programming Using C++ - 2nd Edition'', published by Addison Wesley ( ISBN 0-201-89550-1 ) - Scott Meyers,``Effective C++'', published by Addison Wesley. ( ISBN 0-201-56364-X ) - Scott Meyers,``More Effective C++'', published by Addison Wesley. ( ISBN 0-201-63371-X ) In general, each file in a package should represent a class, and each class should contain methods (functions) to do just one task. The classes are defined in the header files (*.hh) which represent the class interface. In it you state what the class is called and declare the variables and functions within that class. The .cc file is just the implementation of the functions. The convention: <class declaration info> should be adhered to for header files to avaoid the header file being "#include"'d more than once at compilation stage. Classes involving the Objectivity database are different - they contain a .cc file and a .ddl file (from which the compiler automatically creates a *_ddl.hh in a tmp directory when it's processing). These files are beyond the scope of this workbook chapter, and will be dealt with in the WorkBook chapter Writing Persistent Classes Writing messages in a way that allows program recover, allows logging and allows the user to control verbosity General Related Documents: Last modification: 5 August 2004 Last significant update: 9 October 2002

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In the Americas, the Solidarity Center works with trade union partners throughout the region to build strong unions that can help workers fight corruption, promote the rule of law, and create democratic and just governance, ensuring that economic opportunity extends to all members of society. |A woman weeps over the coffin of a slain labor leader. Photo by Marcelo Salinas A legacy of political instability, armed conflicts, and flagrant human rights violations has impoverished workers in many Latin American and Caribbean countries. While the rich get richer, the poor fall deeper and deeper into debt. Large segments of the population lack the jobs, healthcare, education, and safety needed to improve their lives. A series of natural disasters, coupled with the global economic downturn, has exacerbated the crisis. In some countries, large portions of the population have begun to question their governments’ ability to deliver essential services and respond to basic human needs. Meanwhile, the murders of hundreds of union leaders remain unsolved as companies all over the region continue their illegal union-busting activities. Mexican Mine Workers Mark Anniversary of Two Killed in Strike. April 24, 2013—Thousands of workers, their families and supporters gathered in Lázaro Cárdenas, Mexico, in recent days to commemorate the seventh anniversary of the deaths of two steelworkers killed during a strike for union recognition and an ensuing confrontation with security forces. Mario Alberto Castillo and Hector Alvarez G?mez were among 500 members of the National Union of Mine and Metal Workers, known as Los Mineros, who had been on strike for 18 days when 800 police moved in to forcibly remove the strikers. Two men were shot dead and 41 injured, two of them seriously, during the break-up of the strike. No arrests were ever made for the murders. Mexico: Auto Workers End Strike with Pay Victory. April 19, 2013—More than 2,000 auto workers ended a three-day strike at a major plant in Mexico April 19 after management agreed to increase the amount of employee profit-sharing payments, as required by law. The company also said it would not to retaliate against any worker who went on strike. Los Mineros Leader Details Mine Tragedy, Exile in New Book. April 19, 2013—Napoleón Gómez Urrutia, general secretary of Mexico's National Union of Mine and Metal Workers, known as Los Mineros, spoke at a press conference April 17 to discuss his new book, Collapse of Dignity: The Story of A Mining Tragedy and the Fight Against Greed and Corruption in Mexico. The book describes the February 2006 Pasta de Conchos mine disaster that killed 65 miners and the subsequent attacks on him and Los Mineros. Colombia: Afro-Descendant Domestic Workers Form Union. April 8, 2013—Afro-Colombian women recently launched the Union of Domestic Service Workers (Unión de Trabajadoras del Servicio Domestíco, UTRASD), the first-ever union in Colombia created entirely by Afro-descendent women. Colombia: Sugar Cane Workers Fired After Forming Union. April 1, 2013—Sugarcane workers at the La Cabaña plantation in Valle De Cauca, Colombia, are taking part in a peaceful protest to seek recognition of their rights as workers. More than 100 workers at the La Cabaña plantation have been fired since forming a union in November, and another 500 have been forced to disaffiliate to retain their jobs, according to the union. Peru: Six Global Apparel Brands Reject Short-term Work Contracts. March 18, 2013—Short-term work contracts are one way employers around the world deny workers job security, seniority rights and health benefits, often while paying them low wages. So it’s noteworthy that six international apparel companies now support repeal of a law in Peru that allows employers in the garment and textile export industries to hire workers on consecutive short-term employment contracts. Peru: Judge Orders Fired Union Leader Reinstated to His Job. March 13, 2013—Fidel Polo Sanchez, a union leader fired for speaking publicly about the egregious conditions of farm workers in Peru, should be reinstated to his job, a judge ruled this week. Sociedad Agrícola Viru, one of Peru’s largest agricultural export plantations, fired Polo July 12, 2012, for “defamation.” Afro-Colombians Fighting against Discrimination at Work. March 12, 2013—Afro-Colombians are far likelier than other Colombian workers to earn less than the minimum wage and to be employed in jobs where they cannot form unions to improve their working conditions. And all of this exclusion “has a strong current of racial discrimination under it,” said Agripina Hurtado, the newly elected president of the Afro- Colombian Labor Council (Consejo Labor Afrocolombiano). A quarter of Colombia’s population is Afro-descendant, yet Afro-Colombians comprise more than three-quarters of the country’s poor. Working Women Empowered: Honduran Women Build Leadership. March 6, 2013—In Honduras, a country where women laboring in fruit packing plants and textile factories endure especially difficult conditions, two union leaders are empowering women to take on important roles in their unions and their communities. Haitian Workers Speak out for Good Jobs. February 26, 2013—Three years after the devastating 2010 earthquake, Haitian workers are organizing to ensure that foreign investment and infrastructure-targeted aid provide not just subsistence-level jobs, but decent work and a living wage for Haitians. Dominican Unions Say Government Fails to Support Migrant Rights. February 15, 2013—The National Confederation of Labor Unity (CNUS) and its member unions and federations called on the Dominican Republic government to respect the human and labor rights of Haitian migrant workers in the country and to put an end to human trafficking. Colombian Sugarcane Worker, Trade Unionist, Murdered. February 5, 2013—Juan Carlos Pérez Muñoz, a trade union member in Colombia, was gunned down last week on his way to board a bus to the Cauca River Valley where he worked in the sugarcane fields. Guatemala: Global Action Needed to End Murders of Union Members. February 1, 2013—Since 2007, 64 trade unionists have been murdered in Guatemala, and hundreds more union leaders and members have been kidnapped, tortured and threatened with death—all part of an ongoing pattern of violations against worker rights, according to Britain’s Trade Union Congress (TUC). Only a small fraction of these incidents have been investigated, and 98 percent of these crimes have not been punished. REPORT, January 16: Solidarity Center Haiti Earthquake Relief Fund. Following the January 12, 2010, earthquake in Haiti, the Solidarity Center established a relief fund to route donations from U.S. unions and workers to Haitian workers and their families in need. The final report on these efforts, released on the third anniversary of the earthquake, describes how the Solidarity Center and its partners have made a significant impact in the lives of Haitian workers and their families. Three Years After Haiti Earthquake, Workers Still Need Decent Jobs. January 11, 2012—Three years after the disastrous earthquake struck Haiti, workers and their families continue to struggle as the cost-of-living keeps rising while wages—for those who have jobs—remain the same. Informal discussions by Solidarity Center staff with Haitian export-processing workers this month indicate that in the past year, the cost of food and education has increased between 20 percent and 25 percent, while rent and transportation have risen between 15 percent and 20 percent. El Salvador Airline Servicer Fires 96 Workers for Forming a Union. January 10, 2013—The promotional website for AERODESPACHOS in El Salvador features workers loading airplanes, transporting baggage and servicing engines. Yet while the airline ground services company wants to showcase its workforce, it is unwilling to provide safe working conditions and decent wages, its employees say. And when the ground servicing crew sought to address safety and health issues by forming a union, AERODESPACHOS fired 96 employees—nearly its entire staff—to reduce the number of workers seeking to join a union and so legally disqualify their efforts. Mass Firing of Mexican Union Leaders Leads to Hunger Strike. January 9, 2013—Eleven workers from PKC wire harness plants in Mexico launched a hunger strike yesterday. They were among 122 workers fired by the Finnish autoparts company in mid-December for what they say is retaliation for seeking to form a union. They plan to continue the hunger strike until they are reinstated and their right to trade union freedom is recognized. ILO Report: 52 Million Domestic Workers Worldwide. January 9, 2013—Some 52 million people over age 15—primarily women—labor as domestic workers around the world, according to a report released today by the International Labor Organization (ILO). Of those, 83 percent are women. The vast number of domestic workers, 21.4 million, are in Asia and the Pacific region, with 19.6 million in Latin America, 5.2 million in Africa and 2.1 million in the Middle East. Human Rights Day 2012: Marking Worker Rights Worldwide. December 10, 2012—Nearly 3,000 trade union leaders have been murdered in Colombia over the past 20 years and the killing continues, with at least 15 unionists murdered so far this year. Yet behind each statistic is an individual, says Colombian lawyer and human rights activist, Yessica Hoyos Morales. Someone much like her father, Jorge Darío Hoyos Franco, a Colombian labor leader, who was assassinated in 2001 by two hired hitmen. Unions Worldwide Condemn Ouster of Mexican Mineworkers Leader. November 9, 2012--This is a crosspost from the global union, IndustriAll, which represents 50 million workers in 140 countries in mining, energy and manufacturing. Under a joint banner of IndustriALL, LabourStart, Amnesty International, and Mexican NGO PRODESC, an online petition was launched decrying the forceful demolition of a workers’ protest camp at Excellon’s La Platosa mine, Mexico. Nicaragua the Third Nation to Adopt Domestic Work Standard. October 18, 2012—Nicaragua this week became the third country to ratify the International Labor Organization (ILO) convention on domestic workers. An ILO “convention” sets international labor standards, and the “Decent Work for Domestic Workers” convention addresses issues such as working conditions, wages, benefits and child labor while requiring nations to take measures to making decent work a reality for domestic workers. Peruvian Union Leader Fired after Speaking out against Poor Working Conditions. July 20, 2012—An agro-industrial company in Peru has fired a union leader in an attempt to silence one of the strongest voices against unfair and precarious working conditions, says the Peruvian labor federation CGTP. Join the LabourStart campaign for his reinstatement. Peru: Support Women Workers, Grow Economy. October 16, 2012--Women--and the work they do—are central to productivity and economic growth, to breaking the cycle of poverty and to ensuing more inclusive and just societies. Yet too often they face unnecessary barriers and terrible choices when it comes to work. Far from being economically empowered, millions of women around the world, including here Peru, find themselves vulnerable to abuse, exploitation, below-poverty wages and unsafe working conditions. The legal environment either enables their condition or fails to protect them. Huge Win for Fired Mexican Electricity Workers. October 16, 2012—Electricity workers in Mexico won a big victory when a court last week upheld an earlier ruling finding the termination of their collective bargaining contract was invalid. In October 2009, the Mexican government liquidated the state-owned electricity supply company, Luz y Fuerza del Centro, and transferred its functions to the Mexican Federal Electricity Commission (CFE). The action left 44,000 workers, members of the Mexican Union of Electricity Workers (Sindicato de Electricistas de México, SME), without jobs. INTERVIEW: Guatemalan Aluminum Workers Describe Abuse. October 11, 2012—When Emeterio Nach suffered a shoulder injury at his job, he asked his supervisor at the Ternium aluminum processing plant in Villa Nueva, Guatemala, for time off to see his doctor. After the supervisor denied his request, Nach asked again. The supervisor continued to refuse, finally telling Nach he would be fired if he kept asking—and would be fired if he were sick because the factory needed healthy workers. New Afro-Colombian Labor Council Advances Struggle for Racial Equality. July 16, 2012—The first national organization dedicated to the working conditions of Afro-descendants in Colombia was formed on July 14 in Cali. The new Afro-Colombian Labor Council will advance racial inclusion in the labor movement and in Colombian society. Solidarity Center Expands Fight for Worker Justice in Colombia. July 12, 2012—The Solidarity Center has expanded its program work in Colombia, with the goal of consolidating and implementing labor reforms and formalizing labor relations for hundreds of thousands of precarious, subcontracted workers who currently toil without many of the protections of the labor law or the right to join a union. New Laws Would Grant Social Protections to 300,000 Dominican Domestic Workers. July 9, 2012—Two groundbreaking pieces of legislation are poised to bring 300,000 domestic workers in the Dominican Republic into the national social security system, providing them for the first time with a minimum wage, health care, pension, and other social protections to which formally employed Dominican workers are entitled. Mexico: Union Election Results Marred by Irregularities. July 9, 2012—Attorneys are challenging the results of a July 5 union election at a Canadian-owned silver mine in Durango, Mexico, that a team of international observers says was marred by “serious irregularities.” The Sindicato Nacional de Trabajadores Mineros, Metalúrgicos, Siderúrgicos y Similares de la República Mexicana (SNTMMSSRM, known as Los Mineros) lost by a single vote amid a climate of intimidation and ballot discrepancies. Workers from around the World File Complaint with the ILO Urging Guatemala to Respect the Right of Freedom of Association. June 18, 2012—Guatemala is among the worst violators of worker rights in the world today, according to the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC). Workers are routinely fired for asserting their rights at work, and increasingly, they are threatened, tortured, or murdered. Unions Debate Way Forward on Rights in Mexico. June 15, 2012—A panel discussion on protection contracts and freedom of association in Mexico packed a full house two days ago at the International Labor Organization in Geneva, Switzerland. Union representatives called for union building, solidarity, and direct action against the government and employers. An estimated 90 percent of collective bargaining agreements in Mexico are protection contracts signed without the workers' consent or knowledge. "12 by 12" Campaign: Uruguay First Country to Ratify C189. April 26, 2012—Trade union activists, as well as domestic workers, are thrilled to see a breakthrough in the "12 by 12" campaign: Uruguay made history by being the first country to ratify International Labor Organization (ILO) Convention No. 189 (C189), Decent Work for Domestic Workers. Unions Call on Honduran Government to Uphold Its Labor Laws, Support Human Rights. April 10, 2012—As ongoing violations of international labor standards and human rights become further entrenched in Honduras, unions representing increasingly vulnerable workers in three export-related sectors—manufacturing, agriculture, and port operations—are fighting for their rights and livelihoods. Journalists under Constant Threat in Honduras. January 27, 2012—Gilda Silvestrucci, a member of the Journalists for Life and Freedom of Expression group, received death threats by telephone on January 24. The International Trade Union Confederation firmly condemns the constant threats against journalists who dare to exercise their profession. El Salvador: Union Members on Strike in Solidarity with Fired Airport Workers. November 28, 2011—Union workers at El Salvador International Airport have been on strike since November 4 in solidarity with 17 fired ramp and baggage handlers who work for private airport contractor AERODESPACHOS. Union Rights under Attack in El Salvador. Working people, trade unionists, and pro-democracy activists are under attack around the world. In El Salvador, workers at the AVX electronics manufacturing plant and at CTE-América Móvil, owned by Mexican billionaire Carlos Slim, are facing harassment and illegal firings for the simple act of having dared to join a union. Paraguayan Industrial Refrigeration Firm IPFSA Seriously Violates ILO Core Conventions. September 26, 2011—The International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) has joined with its affiliated organizations in Paraguay, the CNT and CUT-A, in strongly condemning Industria Paraguaya Frigorífica S.A (IPFSA) and the industrial refrigeration firm’s president, Alba Pettengil Vacca, for violating the national constitution, the core conventions of the International Labor Organization (ILO), the national labor law, and its accompanying legislation. Civil Construction Workers Mobilize Across Peru in Defense of Their Right to Collective Bargaining. April 14, 2011—Tens of thousands of members of Peru’s Civil Construction Workers Union—la Federación de Trabajadores en Construcción Civil del Perú—rallied across the country on April 6 in defense of their right to sector-wide bargaining and to formally present their initial list of bargaining demands for 2011–2012. Letters of Solidarity from Peruvian unions to U.S. Public Workers. See what workers around the world are doing to support their union brothers and sisters in Wisconsin. Letter from National Confederation of State Employees of Peru (CTE) to AFL-CIO President Richard Trumka, March 16, 2011 Statement of support from Sindicato Nacional de Unidad de Trabajadores de SUNAT (Peruvian Public Employees Union/Tax Sector) to Wisconsin state public employees, March 15, 2011. International Solidarity Key to Russell Athletic Victory. The New York Times called it the “biggest victory by far” for United Students Against Sweatshops (USAS) and its collegiate anti-sweatshop campaign. In November 2009, Russell Athletic agreed to rehire 1,200 workers in Honduras who lost their jobs when the company closed their factory in an attempt to bust the union. Read a report by the Solidarity Center's Gladys Cisneros in Stepping Up, Stepping Back: Women Activists "Talk Union" Across Generations. Solidarity Center Opens Office in Peru. On May 12, 2010, the Solidarity Center and the U.S. Agency for International Development mission in Peru signed an agreement on a three-year program for enhancing enforcement and understanding of labor rights in Peru, strengthening unions, and enabling the Peruvian labor movement to build strong democratic institutions. Learn more about worker rights and labor law in Peru in the Solidarity Center’s 2009 Global Policy Brief, Peruvian Society, Workers, and Labor Law "We Have to Work Together If We Want to Protect Our Rights." Seventy percent of the 60,000 workers in Peru's $300 million per year asparagus export industry are women. Santos Cruz, who works for the Talsa company in Trujillo, La Libertad, is the only female general secretary of an asparagus workers union. At a recent Solidarity Center sponsored training program for union activists in Trujillo, Cruz talked about their struggle. Support Striking Mineworkers and Their Families in Cananea, Mexico. More than 1,000 members of Mexico´s National Union of Mine, Metal and Steelworkers have been on strike at the Cananea copper mine in Northern Mexico since July 30, 2007, protesting health and safety and other contract violations. Executive Council Supports Aid to Chile, Haiti and Backs Mexican Workers. The AFL-CIO Executive Council called on the world community to provide quick, no strings attached aid to Chile after the massive earthquake February 27. The union leaders also reaffirmed strong support for the relief efforts in Haiti and condemned the Mexican government’s attempts to break the union at Grupo Mexico mines. Honduran Garment Workers Sign Landmark Agreement. Solidarity Center partners SITRAJERZEESH and the Honduran General Confederation of Workers signed a landmark agreement with Russell Athletic/Fruit of the Loom, Inc., the largest private employer in Honduras. The signing ended a year-long campaign protesting the controversial closure of the company’s Jerzees de Honduras apparel factory. In Honduras, a Cry for Democracy. The Solidarity Center’s Gladys Cisneros and Stephen Wishart were caught in Honduras when ousted President Manuel Zelaya returned, raising and dashing the hopes of the Honduran people for a restoration to democracy and constitutional order. From Earthquake Rubble Rise Strong Peruvian Unions. While reconstruction in quake-devastated Pisco lags nearly two years later, local unions are building a movement. AFL-CIO, in Solidarity with Honduran Unions, Condemns Military Coup. "The AFL-CIO denounces this unconscionable attack on the fundamental rights and liberties of the Honduran people," says AFL-CIO President John Sweeney in a June 30, 2009, press statement. Lack of Respect for Worker Safety Cost Colombian Miner His Life. In a unified response to safety shortfalls that killed an inexperienced and untrained contract worker at Colombia’s second largest coal mine, 9,000 union miners and contract workers staged a four-day strike late in March that shut down production. Brazil’s Unions Reach out to Young Workers. On April 15, 2009, Martinho da Conceição, national coordinator of the Trade Union Training Secretariat of the Central Única dos Trabalhadores (CUT), spoke at the Solidarity Center about the CUT’s efforts to reach out to young workers and the formation of a new Youth Secretariat. U.S. Union Leaders Meet Champions of the Colombian Labor Movement. On a Solidarity Center sponsored exchange visit, Florida State AFL-CIO Vice President Mike Williams learned about Colombian workers’ constant struggle for social and economic justice—and why U.S workers need to hear their story. Survey Finds Human Trafficking, Debt Bondage Common in Dominican Republic. Haitian migrants who cross the border into the Dominican Republic for jobs in the construction industry are among the country’s most exploited workers, and many feel that union membership is the key path to decent work, according to a new survey developed by workers for workers with Solidarity Center support. Working with GUFs and IFIs in Latin America. In Latin America, the Solidarity Center is working with Global Union Federations and international financial institutions to make sure workers have a voice in their own economic future. Solidarity Center Publications - ITUC 2011 Annual Survey of Violations of Trade Union Rights in the Americas (English / Spanish). - The Center for Economic and Policy Research finds that union membership improves pay and benefits for Latino workers in the United States (English / Spanish).

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Chemical Biologists Discover New Characteristic of Progeria Protein Linked to Premature Aging Disease Dr. Joseph Glavy at Stevens Institute of Technology studies the smallest and most basic elements of life. The Assistant Professor of Chemical Biology runs the Glavy Lab, where advanced student scientists study the nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) in cells, observing the minutest mechanisms of life as they unfold during mitosis. The Glavy Lab's formal purpose is to study the NPC at the molecular level in the pursuit of the unknown or unexpected in the well-studied but not always well-understood nuclei of living cells. His team has uncovered a disease-related protein outside of its known range and published the results in the August 2010 issue of Cell Cycle. The article's co-authors, Dr. Simarna Kaur, Tommy White, and Amanda DiGuilio are current or recent students of Stevens Institute of Technology. For these scientists, being a student was no barrier to impacting ground-breaking medical science research. The NPC is a supramolecular assembly that provides gateways for molecular trafficking between DNA with a cell's nucleus and the cytoplasm within the cell membrane walls in eukaryotic cells. Protein, RNA, ions, and other small molecules are transported through the NPC on their way into the nucleus. The composition of the NPC is about thirty proteins, called nucleoporins (Nups), which are arranged quasi-symmetrically and in subcomplexes that break apart during mitosis in some cells. Dr. Glavy investigated interactions within the NPC of mammalian cells while a post-doctoral researcher at Rockefeller University in New York City. Unlike other living cells, the mammalian cell NPC breaks down around DNA during mitosis, allowing specific Nup subcomplexes to be isolated and studied in the lab, but also leaving room for something to go wrong in the reorganization of the nucleus . Focused on the very specific Nup 107-160 subcomplex, the Glavy Lab had been looking for what might go wrong during mitosis. But rather than genetic mutations, the lab discovered something far more important within Nup 107-160: the Werner Helicase Interacting Protein 1 (WHIP). WHIP's moniker derives from its interaction with Werner protein, which maintains genome stability and conversely is responsible for the progeria disease Werner's Syndrome. This adult-onset disease causes premature aging and increased susceptibility to other old-age diseases such as cancer, heart disease, and diabetes. The initial discovery of WHIP within the NPC, when it had been associated with the Werner protein, prompted further exploration to deduce the role of WHIP during mitosis. The scientists isolated the NPC subcomplex and used immunofluorescence and immunoblotting to detect the presence and movement of WHIP during mitosis. They discovered WHIP interacting within the NPC autonomous of Werner protein, demonstrating a novel relation. In addition to its connection with gene-stabilizing Werner protein, WHIP may play an independent, unique role in the cell cycle. Beyond supporting DNA replication, WHIP may also function to detect genetic damage. The authors look forward to future work that will further understanding of this protein's role in maintaining genome stability, and in completing some of that important work themselves. Life in the Glavy Lab The Glavy Lab hosts undergraduate, graduate, and post-doctoral research at Stevens in the field of biochemistry and chemical biology. Dr. Kaur, now a research scientist with Johnson & Johnson, was conducting post-doc work at her alma mater and managing students in the Glavy Lab during the period of discovery. Tommy White is a Ph.D. candidate in Chemical Biology and Amanda DiGuilio is an undergraduate Chemistry major at Stevens. Dr. Kaur earned her B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. at Stevens, at every step taking advantage of the amalgamation of chemistry and biology that the school offers. She points to this unique approach as fuel for her lasting interest in science and a platform for opportunities as a professional in multiple industries. Dr. Kaur also brought junior scientists up-to-speed on processes in the Glavy Lab, enabling them to perform high-level research. "The experience of training new students has come in handy for my professional life," reports Dr. Kaur. "At Johnson & Johnson, I'm supervising the work of another researcher in addition to managing multiple projects of my own. My experiences in graduate school and especially in the lab have prepared me for the demands of an industrial career." Tommy and Amanda, the tireless student research scientists, share crowded desk space in the lab with petri dishes, beakers, perpetually-nodding sample rockers, and sheets of western blot membranes. Formerly a laboratory diagnostic technician for Siemens, Tommy started his Ph.D. program at Stevens as a part-time student. The flexible yet challenging program allowed Tommy to transition from industry professional to professor-in-training with the full support of both his Siemens VP and the faculty at Stevens. Rather than run patient tests for doctors and hospitals, Tommy now studies the most basic components and cause of disease as a full-time Ph.D. candidate with dreams of becoming an academic. As an undergrad, Amanda has already had a productive research career. She has participated twice in the Stevens Technogenesis summer program and traveled on scholarship to the European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Heidelberg, Germany, where she worked in the lab of Dr. Martin Beck, a leading expert in cryo-electron tomography. This process allowed the researchers to analyze samples without destroying their structure. Amanda continues to work in the Glavy Lab and has been invited for future training with Dr. Beck. "Everyone has good ideas, but nothing works the first time at the bench," Tommy says. "Ninety percent of the hard science is problem solving—doing everything required to go from idea to experiment to article about the results." "Even though our discovery is new, the process is not a novelty," adds Dr. Glavy. "Original exploration is the result of good biochemists looking at specific interactions." Dr. Glavy reiterates his simple but powerful message. "If you do the basics well, then you'll have opportunities like this emerge." The dedication to science has paid off for everyone involved. Tommy and Amanda will be published scientists before receiving their intended degrees; Amanda as an undergrad. Dr. Kaur's post-doc was a mere six months long, yet also earned her an author credit; this is in addition to her other peer-reviewed papers and book, Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator: Regulation by Rab GTPases, published by Lambert. "I learned how to transition from a graduate student to an independent researcher by working with Dr. Glavy," reports Dr. Kaur. "He strongly encourages his students and post-docs to think independently and develop their own ideas. This transitional experience of doing independent research has helped me in my industrial career." The Next Steps for the Glavy Lab It may be years before the Glavy Lab's insights into WHIP can be turned into therapies for sufferers of Werner Syndrome and other progeria diseases, but this new look into the workings of the body creates hope for future treatments and other advances in biology and medicine. "Cell biology is a growing, multi-disciplinary field that is establishing a foundation of knowledge for the future," says Dr. Glavy. "We are beginning to establish tangible relations between biology and disease and advancing towards an understanding of gene repair and expression that might help with drug development in the future."

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SULUJAM INDIANS. Although they were apparently native to the area lying between the San Antonio and Frio rivers south and southeast of San Antonio, the Sulujams were not encountered by the earliest Spanish travelers who traversed parts of southern Texas. They were first seen in 1709 at the site of present-day San Antonio. There is no indication that they had been displaced from some other area and had migrated into southern Texas. Sulujams are said to have entered Mission San José y San Miguel de Aguayo of San Antonio in considerable numbers when it was founded in 1720. As the registers of San José have not been found, no figure can be given for the total number of Sulujams in residence at the mission. A few entered nearby San Antonio de Valero Mission, whose surviving registers identify twelve Sulujam individuals for the period 1719–56. No Sulujams seem to have entered the remaining three missions of San Antonio or any missions elsewhere. It is generally thought that the Sulujams spoke a dialect of the Coahuilteco language, but this is not based on conclusive evidence. Nothing is known of the Sulujams' culture other than that they lived by hunting and gathering. Thomas N. Campbell and T. J. Campbell, Historic Indian Groups of the Choke Canyon Reservoir and Surrounding Area, Southern Texas (San Antonio: Center for Archaeological Research, University of Texas at San Antonio, 1981). J. Jesús Figueroa Torres, Fr. Juan Larios, defensor de los Indios y fundador de Coahuila (Mexico City: Editorial Jus, 1963). Frederick Webb Hodge, ed., Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico (2 vols., Washington: GPO, 1907, 1910; rpt., New York: Pageant, 1959). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Thomas N. Campbell, "SULUJAM INDIANS," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/bms44), accessed May 21, 2013. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.

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Get answers to your female Fertility and Infertility questions. Male sterilization; Vasovasostomy; Vasoepididymostomy In the United States, vasectomy emerged as a popular method of permanent contraception during the 1960s. Within a decade, 750,000 men were undergoing vasectomies each year. Vasectomy rates markedly declined in the 1990s and have now leveled off at about 500,000 a year. Worldwide, millions of couples use vasectomy as a method of permanent birth control. [For non-permanent methods of birth control, including condoms, see In-Depth Report #91: Birth control options for women. ] The procedure works by surgically interrupting the route that the sperm take from the testicles (where they are produced) to the penis. After vasectomy, the testicles still continue to generate sperm, but their movement is blocked at the site of the vasectomy. Eventually the sperm die, and the patient's body absorbs them. During sex, semen is produced in the same amount as before vasectomy, but this fluid does not contain sperm. The testes are where sperm are manufactured in the scrotum. The epididymis is a tortuously coiled structure topping the testis, and it receives immature sperm from the testis and stores it several days. When ejaculation occurs, sperm is forcefully expelled from the tail of the epididymis into the deferent duct. Sperm then travels through the deferent duct through up the spermatic cord into the pelvic cavity, over the ureter to the prostate behind the bladder. Here, the vas deferens joins with the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct, which passes through the prostate and empties into the urethra. When ejaculation occurs, rhythmic muscle movements propel the sperm forward. Vasectomy should not be confused with castration. It has no noticeable impact on a man's ability to perform sexually, or on his sensation of orgasm and pleasure. It does not affect the balance of male hormones, male sex characteristics, or sex drive. Testosterone continues to be produced in the testes and delivered into the bloodstream. Sperm form a very small portion of semen, so patients notice no difference in the amount of semen produced during orgasm. The male reproductive tract performs three functions: The Traveling Sperm. The sperm's journey through the male body -- from the testes (the testicles) to the final stage (the orgasm) -- is long and complex: Having a vasectomy is a serious decision. The surgery is intended to be permanent. The great majority of men who seek a vasectomy have been married for 10 years or more. Not all are good candidates, however. It is important that both the woman and the man completely agree that they no longer want to have children. They should also agree that permanent birth control is the right decision for them. Ideally, the couple should view the operation as a mutual commitment to an already successful marriage or relationship. Vasectomy generally is not a good idea if the couple's relationship is under great stress. It is not a cure for emotional or sexual problems between a man and woman. Cook LA, Pun A, van Vliet H, Gallo MF, Lopez LM. Scalpel versus no-scalpel incision for vasectomy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007 Apr 18;(2):CD004112. Cook LA, Van Vliet H, Lopez LM, Pun A, Gallo MF. Vasectomy occlusion techniques for male sterilization. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007 Apr 18;(2):CD003991. Dassow P, Bennett JM. Vasectomy: an update. Am Fam Physician. 2006 Dec 15;74(12):2069-74. Peterson HB. Sterilization. Obstet Gynecol. 2008 Jan;111(1):189-203. Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Vasectomy reversal. Fertil Steril. 2006 Nov;86(5 Suppl):S268-71. Tandon S, Sabanegh E Jr. Chronic pain after vasectomy: a diagnostic and treatment dilemma. BJU Int. 2008 Jul;102(2):166-9. Epub 2008 Jul 1. © 2011 University of Maryland Medical Center (UMMC). All rights reserved. UMMC is a member of the University of Maryland Medical System, 22 S. Greene Street, Baltimore, MD 21201. TDD: 1-800-735-2258 or 1.866.408.6885

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|© UNICEF Nepal/Shrestha| |Children crossing the road near Garbari tole in the flood-affected town of Nepalgunj, Banke District, Nepal.| KATHMANDU, Nepal, 29 August 2006 – UNICEF has started distributing supplies to families affected by devastating floods in the Mid-Western and Far-Western Regions of Nepal. The Nepal Red Cross Society, UNICEF’s partner in the aid distribution, estimates that some 5,800 households have been affected by flooding in the district of Banke, with a further 5,000 households affected in neighouring Bardiya. Some 30 per cent of the houses in Banke and 1,030 homes in Bardiya reportedly have been destroyed. Families have been taking shelter on the high ground next to main roads, and six local schools are being used as shelters. “Our immediate concern for the families is that they have shelter and warmth, and to ensure they can purify their drinking water,” UNICEF’s Representative in Nepal, Dr. Suomi Sakai, said today. “The districts most affected by the flooding are some of the poorest districts in the country. The families living there have been heavily hit both by the internal conflict of the last 10 years and by a recent drought. “Diarrhoea is a major worry,” Dr. Sakai added. “Some 45 children die each day [from diarrhoea] in Nepal as it is, even without a natural disaster. It is vital that the families can purify water easily.” |© UNICEF Nepal/Shrestha| |Flooding in Nepalgunj, Banke District, Nepal.| Joint mission to Bardiya Along with the World Food Programme (WFP), the Red Cross and other organizations, UNICEF is working closely with the Government of Nepal to assess the situation and coordinate relief efforts. The organization is sending technical experts in hygiene and water supply to help with the assessment in flood-affected areas, and its field staff on the ground is already assisting with preliminary surveys. UNICEF staff also joined a joint mission to Bardiya today with the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, WFP and the United Nations Development Programme. “If the rains start to ease up soon, there is the possibility that the flood waters will start to recede within a week,” noted Dr. Sakai. “But if the rains continue, the plight of these families may become much worse.” More supplies en route Prior to the flooding, UNICEF had emergency supplies pre-positioned at its field office in Nepalgunj, one of the affected districts. These supplies, now being distributed, include 60 tarpaulins for shelter, 375 blankets, 25 boxes of water-purification tablets and 4,000 sachets of oral rehydration salts for treating diarrhoea. Two further truckloads of supplies are due to arrive in Nepalgunj on Wednesday morning. They will bring a further 1,300 tarpaulins, 1,000 blankets, 159 plastic sheets, 200,000 sachets of water-purification powder, 2 boxes of water-treatment tablets, 1,500 buckets, 1,000 plastic mugs and 540 sets of kitchen utensils. A final truckload containing 1,000 hygiene kits should be dispatched by the weekend. These kits include soap, towels and clothes, toothbrushes and toothpaste, sanitary napkins, combs, nail cutters and other items. “We are standing ready to provide further help, should it be needed,” said Dr. Sakai.

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Finding in tomatoes supports generally indications; Organics’ nutrition advantages appear minor and should not be consumers’ main motivation by Craig Weatherby Affirming prior reports, a study published in the respected Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry shows that organically grown tomatoes contain higher levels of beneficial flavonoids. Flavonoids are polyphenol-type antioxidants. They occur in virtually all plant foods and are associated with a range of preventive health benefits. A team of researchers from the University of California-Davis and the University of Minnesota analyzed the levels of two beneficial flavonoid-type antioxidants—quercetin and kaempferol—in dried tomatoes (Mitchell AE et al 2007). They found that tomatoes grown by certified-organic methods contained 79 and 97 percent more quercetin and kaempferol respectively, compared with tomatoes grown by conventional methods. What does this say about the nutritional advantage of organic foods? To find out, let’s take a closer look at the new study, and the evidentiary context in which it appears. What is biodynamic farming? Biodynamic farming is a kind of organic farming that began in Switzerland in the mid-1920’s with a series of lectures by spiritual philosopher Rudolf Steiner. Biodynamic farming employs symbolic and homeopathic field and compost preparations and the use of an astrological calendar to determine times of planting and harvesting. The biodynamic farming took root in the US in the 1930’s and inspired the Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) movement. Research published in the journal Science in 1993 compared soil quality and financial performance of biodynamic and conventional farms in New Zealand: “The Biodynamic farms proved in most enterprises to have soils of higher biological and physical quality: significantly greater in organic matter, content and microbial activity, more earthworms, better soil structure, lower bulk density, easier penetrability, and thicker topsoil.” And the biodynamic farms were just as financially viable on a per hectare basis. Studies comparing standard organic farms with biodynamic farms have not found significant differences in soil conditions or success. Plants produce antioxidant compounds in response to stress The authors hypothesized that “over-fertilization” of the conventionally grown plants resulted in lower levels of flavonoids, which are produced in response to stresses, including nutrient deficiencies that can make plants more vulnerable to infections and pests. Levels of the flavonoids in the organically grown plants increased over time as soil levels of nitrogen compounds decreased. As the researchers put it, “This increase [in flavonoid content] corresponds... with reduced manure application rates once soils in the organic systems had reached equilibrium levels of organic matter” (Mitchell AE et al 2007). Similarly, researchers at Kansas State University reported in 2005 that organic farming produced higher levels of flavonoid antioxidants as a result of the crops’ increased vulnerability to insect attack. As the Kansas team wrote, “…although organic production method alone did not enhance biosynthesis of phytochemicals [flavonoids] in lettuce and collards, the organic system provided an increased opportunity for insect attack, resulting in a higher level of total phenolic agents [flavonoids]...” (Young JE et al; 2005). Small nutrition advantage not the primary reason for organics Prior studies comparing the levels of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidant flavonoids in organic and conventional produce have produced mixed results, although they’ve generally found higher levels of all three in organic produce. As the authors of recent literature review reported last year, “Organic crops contain a significantly higher amount of certain antioxidants (vitamin C, polyphenols and flavonoids) and minerals… Moreover, there is a lower level of pesticide residues, nitrate and some heavy metal contaminations in organic crops compared to conventional ones” (Gyorene KG et al 2006). Studies have also found that organic produce contains higher-quality protein compared with conventional crops, albeit in slightly smaller amounts (Magkos F et al 2003; Worthington V 2001). To be fair, some of the nutrient-density advantage possessed by organic produce stems from the fact that it typically contains less water per ounce, hence higher levels of dry matter, including nutrients, per ounce (Worthington V 1998; Gyorene KG et al 2006). (The new study compared nutrient levels in dried tomatoes. so that was not the case in this instance.) The nutritional advantages of meats and dairy products from grass-fed (not grain-fed) animals over their conventional, grain-fed counterparts are actually clearer than the advantages of products from animals fed organic grains. Meats and dairy products from grass-fed animals—whether organic or conventionally raised—typically offer a better balance of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids, and somewhat less saturated fat. Organic motivations: purity and eco-protection predominate When demand for organic foods began to rise dramatically in the late 1980’s, their alleged nutritional advantages were not among the main reasons why consumers wanted them… nor was enhanced nutrition a main motivation for farmers who adopted organic methods. Instead, demand for organic agriculture grew fast for four key reasons: - Cut use of synthetic pesticides - Protect groundwater and wildlife - Raise soil fertility and reduce erosion - Reduce fossil fuel inputs (petroleum-based fertilizers and pesticides) Even though crop yields tend to be lower on organic farms, they tend to be as or more financially successful as conventional farms because their overhead, in the form of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, is far lower. For example, Swiss researchers compared the effects, over 21 years, of three different agricultural techniques—organic, bio-dynamic, and conventional—on the soils and crops from three fields with similar soil compositions, subjected to identical crop rotation schedules (Mader P et al 2002). And this is what they found in the organic and bio-dynamic systems, compared with the conventional plots: - Crop yields were 20% lower - Pesticide use was reduced by 97% - Input of fertilizer and energy was reduced by 34 to 53% As the Swiss authors wrote, “Enhanced soil fertility and higher biodiversity found in organic plots may render these systems less dependent on external inputs” (Mader P et al 2002). - Caris-Veyrat C, Amiot MJ, Tyssandier V, Grasselly D, Buret M, Mikolajczak M, Guilland JC, Bouteloup-Demange C, Borel P. Influence of organic versus conventional agricultural practice on the antioxidant microconstituent content of tomatoes and derived purees; consequences on antioxidant plasma status in humans. J Agric Food Chem. 2004 Oct 20;52(21):6503-9. - Chassy AW, Bui L, Renaud EN, Van Horn M, Mitchell AE. Three-year comparison of the content of antioxidant microconstituents and several quality characteristics in organic and conventionally managed tomatoes and bell peppers. J Agric Food Chem. 2006 Oct 18;54(21):8244-52. - Gyorene KG, Varga A, Lugasi A. [A comparison of chemical composition and nutritional value of organically and conventionally grown plant derived foods] Orv Hetil. 2006 Oct 29;147(43):2081-90. Review. Hungarian. - Mader P, Fliessbach A, Dubois D, Gunst L, Fried P, Niggli U. Soil fertility and biodiversity in organic farming. Science. 2002 May 31;296(5573):1694-7. - Magkos F, Arvaniti F, Zampelas A. Organic food: nutritious food or food for thought? A review of the evidence. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2003 Sep;54(5):357-71. Review. - Mitchell AE, Hong YJ, Koh E, Barrett DM, Bryant DE, Denison RF, Kaffka S. Ten-year comparison of the influence of organic and conventional crop management practices on the content of flavonoids in tomatoes. J Agric Food Chem. 2007 Jul 25;55(15):6154-9. Epub 2007 Jun 23. - Worthington V. Effect of agricultural methods on nutritional quality: a comparison of organic with conventional crops. Altern Ther Health Med. 1998 Jan;4(1):58-69. Review. - Worthington V. Nutritional quality of organic versus conventional fruits, vegetables, and grains. J Altern Complement Med. 2001 Apr;7(2):161-73. - Young JE, Zhao X, Carey EE, Welti R, Yang SS, Wang W. Phytochemical phenolics in organically grown vegetables. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2005 Dec;49(12):1136-42.

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RIO CLARO, BRAZIL (AP) - The cash cows on Carlos Marques' farm used to be nothing but that: herds of dairy cattle that grazed the grassy, rolling hills of his property, where most of the dense tropical forest was long ago cut down for pastures and cropland. But now the trees are starting to put money in his pocket as well. The 68-year-old farmer is part of a pilot project that aims to reverse the economics of environmental destruction by paying farmers to preserve the forests that protect a crucial watershed, using money from some of the millions of people who use that water. It's the sort of initiative that is at the heart of the United Nations' Rio+20 earth summit, the three-day mega-conference that ends Friday and is aimed at pushing sustainable development to the top of the world's agenda. "It used to be that the forest was worth nothing," said Fernando Veiga, water funds manager at The Nature Conservancy, the environmental organization that helped spearhead the Rio Claro-area project along with a Brazilian NGO and the state and municipal governments. "But we know how crucial living trees are to the planet, and now they have a monetary value." Proponents insist that sustainable development _ which allows economic growth to meet people's current needs while preserving natural resources for the future _ is the only way to prevent an environmental meltdown that could prove catastrophic for the planet and humanity. But critics contend that the idea often serves as a front that permits governments and companies to make noise about protecting the environment while permitting business to continue as usual. Looking out onto rounded hills that surround Marques' farm near the tiny town of Rio Claro, 130 kilometers (80 miles) south of Rio de Janeiro, it's hard to believe this entire region was once swathed in dense vegetation. Devastated by centuries of deforestation _ first for coffee plantations, then for charcoal and now for cattle raising and urban sprawl _ Brazil's Atlantic Forest has been whittled down to just 12 percent of its original size, and scientists say it ranks among the world's most threatened ecosystems. The hills around Rio Claro are now almost bald, with just a sparse covering of grass that's often chewed down to the root by the rangy cattle that graze here. With little to anchor the earth into place, erosion has cut vivid gashes of rusty red soil. This desolate landscape is the source for the Guandu River, which provides 80 percent of Rio's water. Because of deforestation and erosion, water is less abundant than locals say it once was, and silt from the erosion and other pollutants seep into the tributaries of the Guandu, as well as the river itself. That forces water officials to heavily treat the water to make it usable, costing the city $500 million per year, according to environmentalists. And still, most Rio residents who can afford it drink bottled water. On Marques' property, for example, the brook that once babbled its way across his land had dried up, as have many other other streams in the area, the farmer said. The Nature Conservancy and partner organization Instituto Terra developed the Guandu Water Fund to protect Rio's water supply by investing in the forests that help generate the water itself. Under the pilot project, inaugurated in 2009, $500,000 in fees paid by big water consumers are being doled out to small farmers around Rio Claro who pledge to conserve their forests or allow swaths of their land to be reforested. Farmers sign a contract promising to keep their animals out of protected plots, and organizers send out teams of locally hired employees to fence in the areas and plant thousands of saplings from a potpourri of some 80 native plant species. The payouts are mostly small _ Marques receives just $640 a year for his 62 protected acres _ but advocates say even symbolic amounts help change people's attitudes toward conservation. "I used to think of the trees as mine, to use as I saw fit, but now I see things differently," said Marques, a father of five and grandfather of five. "The trees that grow here are mine, but lots of other people depend on them, too, so by saving even just one single tree, I'm performing a service for all of humanity." Since he joined the project three years ago, the dried-up stream has been resuscitated. At first it was a mere trickle, he said, but now it's grown into a thick rope of water. With real, measurable gains for 9 million consumers in Rio de Janeiro, for the forest and for the locals who call it their home, the Guandu Water Fund embodies the win-win situation for people and the environment that sustainable development aspires to be. Such initiatives are gaining traction among policymakers as a way to slow the kind of wholesale environmental destruction that has been blamed for recent years' rise in devastating droughts, floods and other natural disasters. The notion of sustainable development was born well ahead of the current conference's precursor, the U.N.'s 1992 Earth Summit, which helped put climate change on the world agenda. Still, it remains an amorphous, and divisive, concept. "Definitions of just what is sustainable development vary, society by society," said Jeffrey Sachs, the economist and who heads Columbia University's Earth Institute. "But while there are big debates about the specifics and how to balance ... the economy, the environmental and the social concern, I think that the basic idea that we have three bottom lines, not one, is the most important idea." Still, it has been hard to agree on how to implement it. Weeks of bickering between rich and poor countries delayed agreement on the final summit conclusions and the result has disappointed environmental groups, who have lambasted it as toothless and inadequate. "What most people at the summit are talking about when they talk about sustainable development is nothing but business as usual under a different name, something that will deliver misery to many and profit to a few," said Daniel Mittler, a political director at Greenpeace who is heading the environmental group's delegation at Rio+20. "But it doesn't have to be: Sustainability is an agenda that can deliver for people and the planet at the same time," Mittler said, adding that political will and direction are needed to make it work on a global scale. "The tragedy of Rio+20 is that governments are failing to grasp that opportunity." While decision makers squabble over language, farmer Marques in Rio Claro says he's sold on sustainable development. "I need money to live, but I also need clean air and clean water," he said. "This project gives me all three at the same time." By John Solomon How the government's punishing of the exposure of official wrongdoing can linger for years Independent voices from the TWT Communities A collection of reader guest articles, thoughts and opinions by Communities writers and breaking news and information. A mother of three and a passionate conservative, Shirley Husar changes the game. This column will cover anything that has anything remotely to do with the game of baseball, from the game itself to mid-summer trades to offseason moves. Eye on Europe, the Middle East and Africa Benghazi: The anatomy of a scandal Vietnam Memorial adds four names Cinco de Mayo on the Mall NRA kicks off annual convention

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I'm Dave Thurlow for the Mount Washington Observatory and this is The Weather Notebook. Around the beginning of this century, there were few scientists who had much of an idea about how rain, hail, sleet, and snow form. It was, and still is, easy to get the general process of water vapor turning to liquid water or ice, but what happens at the instant when cloud droplets floating in the air, become a raindrop or a snowflake. In 1885, a farmer from Jericho, Vermont asked the same question. Forty years later, this man with no high school education, received the first cash research prize ever awarded by the American Meteorological Society and was known around the world as Wilson Bentley, the Snowflake Man. Bentley spent his life taking thousands of detailed and beautiful photographs of snowflakes, recording in detail the nature of the storm that produced them. By 1905, he had theories about the role of ice crystals in the formation of snow and rain, and established basic temperature profiles of the sky above by simply examining what falls from it. To this day, after years of high tech study, his findings have proven largely to be true. But in the early 1900's nobody in the scientific community paid Mr. Bentley any attention at all. Because he wrote about his work eloquently and emotionally, scientists thought he was a nut. But while many of his critic's names are buried away in the footnotes of weather research history, Snowflake Bentley's name lives on. The Weather Notebook is produced by the Mount Washington Observatory...funded by The National Science Foundation and underwritten by Subaru, maker of the all Weather Legacy. Subaru -- the beauty of All-Wheel Drive.

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Buy this flag, or any country flag here The Japan flag was officially adopted on January 26, 1870. The centered sun symbol (called Hinomaru) has been an important part of Japan's flag for thousands of years. The white field is symbolic of honesty and purity. all Country Flags here! Map of Japan here!

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||Web pages are predominately marked up in HTML, these are then displayed through browsers such as Safari, Internet Explorer or Mozilla Firefox. It provides a means to describe the structure of text-based information in a document by denoting certain text as headings, paragraphs, links etc and to supplement that text with interactive forms, embedded images, and other objects. HTML source code is used by the Web browser and typically not seen by the user. The raw HTML can be viewed by choosing View Source from the Web browsers view menu or by opening the HTML file in a text editor. ||View other document file formats ||Any Web Browser (e.g. Internet Explorer, Safari, Firefox, Google Chrome)|| ||World Wide Web Consortium & WHATWG ||More detailed information on HTML files How can I edit a HTML file ?

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Canadian Victory at Courcelette 3 10 min 36 s Topical Film Company Walking wounded, stretcher cases and prisoners filter back to the front line dressing stations and are evacuated by ambulance or on foot. Canadian soldiers watch from a safe distance as the Germans counter-attack at the sugar factory. As they are led back the German prisoners are allowed to wash, Fritz indulges in an unfamiliar exercise, in a nearby pond. Other Germans are shown dead, some of the Huns who did not get out of their trench in time. The captured trenches at Courcelette are a shapeless mass. Inside a field hospital surgery is performed on serious cases. Canadian dead are buried in shrouds in a permanent military cemetery after the battle. Graves and a memorial to the dead of the Canadian forces in the Baffle of Vimy Ridge, Western Front, summer 1917. The memorial reads “To the Memory of the Officers, NCOs and Men of the 2nd Canadian Division and the l3th Infantry Brigade who Fell in the Capture of Vimy Ridge on April 9th 1917, and is followed by a scene of graves being tended in a military cemetery. Pieces of History The Horror of the Trenches Historian and Author Fraser found the front line trenches squalid. The dugouts, cut into the trench walls, “were small, damp and cold and overrun with rats.” Men slept in their clothes for the entire tour in the trenches, and sentries changed every two hours “so the chances are you get wakened up between the shifts….” Then there was a “stand-to…which means you have to hold yourself in readiness for eventualities, in other words you have to be wide awake with equipment on….” Add to this the cold and wet, the dirt and vermin, the constant enemy rifle and artillery fire, the patrols, and the possibility of major fighting, and the soldier’s life in the trenches was misery compounded by fear. For almost four years, trench life was the Canadian infantrymen’s lot. Units took their turn in the line and fended off attacks or launched their own, almost always very costly. It was an unwavering routine of horror and filth, compounded by the ever-present fear of death or, perhaps even more terrible, of being trapped, unready, in a gas attack or of grievous, disfiguring wounds. No one could get accustomed to the trenches but, short of desertion or a “blighty”— an uncomplicated wound that led to some easy recovery time in a British military hospital—there was no escape. The Allies lived in perpetual mud, presumably because some generals believed that if the soldiers were too comfortable, they would not want to fight. Most Canadian commanders, however, wanted to fight. If a sector was quiet, they tried to stir it up. The favoured tactic was the trench raid, a technique developed by the Princess Patricia’s Canadian Light Infantry, a battalion initially attached to a British division. The PPCLI had invented trench raiding in February 1915, and their fellow Canadians soon raised it to an art form. Raids sought to establish dominance over no man’s land, keep enemy soldiers on edge, take prisoners, secure intelligence and do damage. Above all, raiding aimed to oblige the enemy to move more men to the front so a carefully planned artillery bombardment could inflict heavy casualties. Usually, a platoon or a company might be involved in a raid, though some could use a complete battalion. Raiders rehearsed their roles, carried wire-cutters, bombs and rifles and all worked together in a carefully orchestrated manner. Such raids could be useful. But there was a price to pay for raids. The attackers usually suffered casualties, and by poking a stick into what had hitherto been a quiet sector, the Canadians stirred up the enemy, guaranteeing that heavy shelling would fall on their lines, as well as increasing sniper activity and more casualties. Those soldiers who preferred a “live and let live” policy at the front were not amused. Still, raids seemed better than utter boredom. Life at the front featured brief stretches of intense activity followed by endless waiting or make-work projects devised by officers and sergeants. When troops went out of the line, it was to training courses, parades and “chickenshit”—polishing brass and painting rocks. When they were in the trenches, even in quiet sectors, there was a steady drain of casualties from enemy artillery and sniper fire. Between January and April 1916, a time in which the Canadian Corps was not engaged in any major actions, its divisions suffered more than 2700 casualties from all causes, including self-inflicted wounds. Still, most casualties occurred in attacks—10,000 at Vimy Ridge, almost 16,000 at Passchendaele, and, horrifyingly, when the troops finally left their trenches to engage the enemy in open warfare, 46,000 in the last hundred days of the war. The battles from August 8 to November 11, 1918 cost Canada’s army twenty percent of its casualties in the Great War. Just surviving in the trenches was difficult enough, even without the presence of the enemy. Standing in mud and sleeping on a groundsheet or on the dirt were not good for one’s health. The cold and wet permeated boots and socks, causing trench foot. This disease was not fatal, but it incapacitated a soldier as much as a battle wound, and officers conducted daily foot inspections, whenever conditions permitted, to ensure their soldiers kept their feet in good condition. Other diseases, usually lumped together as trench fever, sprang from poor drainage, human waste and the ever-present lice. Soldiers were prone to rheumatism from wearing wet clothes for long periods; others contracted tuberculosis, meningitis, influenza or a host of other ailments. The real terror for front-line troops, nonetheless, was of their trench being hit by artillery fire. Then, the trenches could be smashed and men buried under the mud of collapsed dugouts. They knew their comrades would dig them out—if they could. The wounded, as these film clips amply demonstrate, received prompt, effective treatment. First aid came at the Regimental Aid Post set up in the support trenches. Stretcher bearers brought in those who could not walk, and a system of triage let the medical officer treat first those who might live. Then casualties began a rearward journey to an Advanced Dressing Station where morphine might be administered and then by train or ambulance to a Casualty Clearing Station where surgeons operated. The final stage came when the wounded went to general hospitals in France or England, where further surgery might take place. There were specialized convalescent hospitals in England and, for those with terrible wounds, in Canada. The standard of care was impressive, and nine of ten wounded survived, a high figure considering the mud and septic filth in which soldiers lived and fought. But always for the survivors and the new men, there were the trenches. A trench ideally was wide enough to allow two or three men to pass by and deep enough so that none need stoop to avoid falling prey to enemy snipers. Sometimes corrugated iron provided overhead shelter in dugouts or for revetments on the trench sides, essential to stop the walls from collapsing in the wet of Flanders. Firing steps, carved into the front of the trench, let men shoot at the enemy. Officers’ dugouts were frequently furnished with beds and desks and sometimes verged on the comfortable; unless they were lucky enough to take over a captured and well-built enemy position, the men’s dugouts were always crude and foul-smelling with the combination of body odour, tobacco, cooking smells, damp, and excrement creating a memorable reek. To the front of the trench line were belts of barbed wire. Concertina wire, curling in rolls, was favoured, and every unit kept its protective wire in good shape, sending work parties out each night to ensure that the enemy had not cut paths through it. The day was full for the Canadian soldier, first because there was always work to be done, but primarily because the army instinctively believed that idleness was bad. Soldiers wanted to live, but many lost their fear of death as they saw it all around them. One officer wrote his father to say that death “has no horrors for anyone here, at least for those who have been here a few weeks or more.” In the horror of the Great War, this was a widespread view. Men had no choice but to carry on. Granatstein, J.L. Hell’s Corner: An Illustrated History of Canada’s Great War, 1914-1918. Toronto: Douglas and McIntyre, 2004. Morton, Desmond and J.L. Granatstein. Marching to Armageddon: Canadians and the Great War, 1914- 1919. Toronto: Lester & Orpen, Dennys, 1989. German Prisoners of War Jonathan F. Vance Professor and Canada Research Chair in Conflict and Culture, Department of History, University of Western Ontario The emotion of fear probably came first since the moment of capture was the most dangerous time for a prisoner. It was a reality of the First World War that the protection given to prisoners under the 1907 Hague Convention was not always observed in the front lines. Throwing aside one’s rifle and yelling “Kamarad” was no guarantee that the plea for mercy would be heeded, particularly if the approaching soldier had seen his unit decimated by enemy fire. By the same token, a platoon that was weakened by casualties and struggling to hold a hard-won position sometimes could not spare a couple of infantrymen to escort prisoners to the rear areas. In such cases, soldiers implicitly understood that the safest option for their unit was to shoot the prisoners and keep it to themselves. And then there were the rumours that circulated through both sides of no man’s land about a particular battalion that never took prisoners, or about captives who were killed rather than being sent to the safety of a prison camp. A soldier who had been fired up by such stories might well wave aside his enemy’s pleas and pull the trigger instead. The faces you see in these films, then, represent the lucky ones, the soldiers who actually survived to become prisoners. We should also be aware that there did exist a degree of sympathy between soldiers. Atrocities were committed on both sides, but often the sight of a cowering enemy soldier elicited a feeling of pity in the attacking soldier. This is not the demonic Hun depicted by the propagandists, he might think; this is a man like me, with a family, perhaps a wife and children. We are both caught in a war that is not our doing; I will treat him as I hope he would treat me, with kindness and consideration. The exhausted Canadian sharing coffee and hardtack with a captured German became a stock propaganda image, as a way to demonstrate the kindness of our Canadian boys overseas. But just because they were propagandized does not mean such situations did not take place. On the contrary, many a soldier would share with his prisoner a water bottle, a packet of rations or a cigarette, because the fact that he was a fellow soldier was now more important than the fact that he was an enemy. There is genuine good humour in the image of the captor clowning with the captive by putting on his cap and pulling a face. Once the new prisoner made it through the moment of capture and reached relative safety, his experiences in captivity became more typical. The First World War was a very labour-intensive conflict. It was the first truly mechanized war, but much of the heavy work was still done the old-fashioned way – by tens of thousands of men digging, carrying, lifting and moving. Neither side had any scruples about using prisoners as forced labour in or directly behind the front lines. We know that German units used their POWs to dig trenches, move ammunition and carry supplies – all tasks forbidden under international law – and Canadians may well have done the same. But such scenes would never have made it onto film. Instead, a much more common image is of German soldiers acting as stretcher bearers, bringing the wounded, Canadian and German alike, to safety. For the captors, this had the advantage of freeing up infantrymen who had been temporarily co-opted as stretcher bearers – every German prisoner who could carry a stretcher meant that one Canadian could go back to the firing line. But it also had value for the prisoners themselves. Many contemporary accounts tell of new prisoners who were almost pathetically keen to prove themselves useful by helping with the wounded. Carrying a stretcher, after all, was much better than being shot. Prisoners were also a valuable source of information. They were searched for maps, papers or anything else that could have intelligence value (or even monetary value – Canadian soldiers were known as tireless souvenir hunters, and quickly stripped any item that could be sold to non-combatant troops in the rear areas. Rifles, canteens and other military equipment were confiscated and sent to salvage dumps. Then, German-speaking officers questioned the men about their unit and the defences on their side of the line. Probably, few POWs were as helpful as some of those who were filmed (including the one who is evidently hard of hearing, likely from artillery bombardment), but the evidence suggests that prisoners were actually forthcoming with information about what was going on in their own trenches. Finally, the symbolic significance of prisoners should not be underestimated. It was important to depict German prisoners on film because they were very visible signs of success on the battlefield. In the bloodbaths of 1916 and 1917, when success was measured in yards of pulverized earth, scenes of a few bedraggled German soldiers proved that something concrete had been achieved. The Battle of the Somme, for example, was a notorious example of horrific casualties sustained for very little territorial gain, but footage of prisoners being marched away from the battlefield in this clip at least proved that there were a few enemy infantrymen who would never again fire on Canadian soldiers. In the open campaigns that began in the summer of 1918, prisoners became even more dramatic evidence of success. Now, it was possible to show to Canadians images of long lines of Germans soldiers captured in battle as the Canadian Expeditionary Force swept across northern France. Scenes of POWs being marched away from the battle for Bourlon Wood in 1918, often combined with pictures of rows of captured artillery pieces, confirmed to people at home that the tide had finally turned. The Allies had the Germans on the run, and such images seemed to prove that they were just as happy to surrender as fight. Statistics on German POWs captured by Canadian troops are far from complete. We know that over 4000 were captured at Vimy Ridge in April 1917; over 5000 on August 8, 1918, the first day of the Battle of Amiens; and roughly 6000 in the three-day battle for the Drocourt-Quéant line in September 1918. But these are only three of dozens of engagements fought by the Canadian divisions, and the total number of prisoners taken may never be known. In any case, the cold statistics tell us less about the experience of captivity than these moving images. The men we see remain nameless, but their faces speak volumes about the impact of war on the individual. Selective bibliography : Cochet, François. "Le traitement des prisonniers de guerre en 1914-1918 : le règne de la réciprocité ?", in 14-18, le Magazine de la Grande Guerre, n° 23, Décembre 2003 - Janvier 2004. Jackson, Robert. The Prisoners, 1914-18. New York: Routledge, 1989. Morton, Desmond. Silent battle : Canadian prisoners of war in Germany, 1914-1919. Toronto : Lester Pub., 1992. Moynihan, Michael, ed. Black Bread and Barbed Wire: Prisoners in the First World War. London: Leo Cooper, 1978. Speed, Richard. Prisoners, Diplomats and the Great War: A Study in the Diplomacy of Captivity. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990. Vance, Jonathan F., ed. Encyclopedia of Prisoners of War and Internment. Denver, CO: ABC-Clio, 2000. Vance, Jonathan F. Objects of Concern: Canadian Prisoners of War Through the Twentieth Century. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1994. Williamson, Samuel R. and Peter Pastor, eds. Essays on World War I: Origins and Prisoners of War. NY: Brooklyn Coll, 1983. Life in the Trenches Historian, Canadian War Museum From Switzerland to the North Sea, some 500 kilometres long, soldiers on both sides carved out ditches in the ground that, over time, were expanded in complexity and depth. By 1915, vast underground cities housed the soldiers, as the opposing armies faced off against each other across no man’s land. Along this continuous line of trenches, offensive operations degenerated into frontal assaults, which were usually stopped dead by concentrated fire. The Western Front, as it was called, consisted of a series of trench systems in depth. The front lines were held in strength, but behind them, joined by a series of communication trenches that ran perpendicular to the front, were support and rear trenches. Deep protective dugouts were situated along the front and rear trenches to provide some degree of safety against all but direct hits from artillery fire. Saps and listening posts were pushed into no man’s land, where soldiers were positioned to provide advance warnings of enemy attacks. Despite the unsanitary nature of front line trenches, they were areas of safety. The trenches protected against small arms fire, shrapnel bursts and high explosive bombardments. Every day and night soldiers shored up the crumbling walls, filled sandbags, and rebuilt sections that had been damaged by artillery fire. It was not only a war of the machine gun and rifle, but also of the shovel. Life in the trenches was filled with long periods of boredom interspersed with terror. Much of the time was spent in routine duty. At half an hour before dawn, the infantry was roused from their dugouts or funk holes (small spaces carved into the trench walls) and ordered to ‘Stand-To.’ At the alert, they waited for a possible attack with bayonet fixed. If nothing occurred, and it rarely did, since the infantry of both sides were always at their most prepared at this time, officers inspected the men. Rifles were examined for rust; feet were prodded to ensure that dry socks had been worn to protect against trench foot. The latter being a type of frostbite that occurred from prolonged standing in cold, slushy water, and could, in severe cases, require the amputation of toes or feet. After inspection, soldiers were often rewarded with a small dose of rum, which was much appreciated by the men, who saw it as a form of medicine to help withstand the daily deprivations. Breakfast, like most meals, usually consisted of canned beef, jam and biscuits. It was a monotonous diet, but soldiers rarely went hungry. For lunch or dinner, soup or stew was brought up from rear areas to offer some variety and warmth. Care packages from home, filled with cheese, bread and sweets, augmented the bland food. During the day, though, the goal of most privates was to avoid the sergeant who assigned trench chores. Most were unsuccessful, with soldiers spending much of their time rebuilding the trenches or standing sentry. Despite these duties, soldiers had much free time, during which they dreamed of home and of loved ones left behind; worried about children who were growing up without a father; of ailing parents with no caregivers; or of a wife who was trying to feed a family with insufficient funds. Literate soldiers might spend a few hours scribbling letters. Return mail from home was a welcomed treat, with letters read and reread. These exchanges back and forth remained an important life-line to Canada from the trenches. And while they were usually subject to two levels of censorship, by officers at the front and officials in England, soldiers nonetheless tried to share their thoughts with those at home. Civilians could not understand everything, nor could soldiers often capture the full range of their strange experiences in words, but letters remained an important avenue of expression. Boredom could be kept at bay through gambling, and there was always some rake with dice or cards to fleece his mates. If a soldier had no money, he at least had cigarettes. Soldiers smoked all day long, and cigarettes, which were issued by the army, bought in rear areas, and begged from those at home, were a useful distraction. They helped to calm the nerves, or so soldiers said, and they certainly helped to mask the stench of unwashed bodies. There were no baths in the front lines and, most soldiers went at least a week, usually longer, without changing their clothes. Dirt and mud were a part of life and, during the winter, helped to insulate soldiers. Far more trying was the infestation of parasitic body lice. The lice lived in the seams of clothing where they feasted on human blood. Soldiers scratched themselves raw to get at their infernal enemies. They learned to defeat their insect adversaries, at least for a time, by taking off their shirts and running a candle over the seams. This drew out the lice that were then squashed satisfactorily between finger and thumb. While soldiers did this, they would sit around, talk, complain and gossip. It was known as ‘chatting,’ and it is just one of many wartime phrases that would enter the English lexicon. But the lice always came back, tormenting the soldiers day and night. Rats, too, were a constant plague, and because they lived off corpses, they could grow as big as cats. They bit soldiers and scurried over their faces while they slept. The rats were hunted by soldiers and their trench pets, usually fierce terrier dogs, but the rodents lived in and outside of the trenches and were always multiplying. Their squealing movement could be heard throughout the battlefield. Amidst the mud and slush in the winter, or heat and flies in the summer, soldiers developed their own trench culture. New words sprang up, slang like ‘napoo’ for being killed, or ‘blighty’ that referred to England or home. Artistic soldiers could take spent ammunition and shape it into art. Some soldiers tried their hand at poetry. While most were not as skilled as John McCrae, Wilfrid Owen or Siegfried Sassoon, to name the best-known war poets, the trench poetry or doggerel provided much insight into the soldiers’ front-line experiences. At the group level, some battalions printed trench newspapers. Drawing from their own soldiers in the ranks—men who in civilian life had been editors, journalists and cartoonists—these crude newspapers contained rough humour and wry commentary on the strange, subterranean world of the trenches. But just as a soldier might be penning a letter or staring at the blue sky above, the crash of an artillery shell could bring sudden death. The enemy was always there to kill or maim. Snipers skulked into no man’s land, camouflaged and ready to put a bullet through a man’s head should it rise, even for a second, above the safety of the trench parapet. Poison gas was released in the form of gas clouds and artillery shells, and soldiers who could not put on their respirator quickly faced a lingering death as chemicals corrupted and ravaged lungs. Machine-gun bullets raked the front lines day and night. Yet artillery shells were the greatest killer in the war, accounting for more than half of all deaths. High explosive shells blew deep holes in the ground or wrecked trenches; soldiers were atomized by direct hits. Equally deadly, shrapnel artillery shells rained hundreds of metal balls and jagged steel down on soldiers, shredding through flesh and bone. Steel helmets, introduced in early 1916, helped to reduce casualties, but a unit’s tour in the front lines almost always resulted in a steady hemorrhage of casualties. It was clinically called wastage, and impersonal charts showed that each month the infantry would lose approximately 10% of its strength, even in quiet areas where no operations were carried out. While the snipers and artillerymen did their dirty work, the soldiers could look around and see their best friends killed and maimed. Yet the soldiers struck back in the form of nighttime raids. Changing into dark clothes, equipping themselves with revolvers, grenades, daggers and clubs, small groups of men snuck past their wire and into no man’s land. Raids were a form of organized mugging, and the goal was to gather intelligence, kill the enemy and grab a prisoner. Enemy sentries were usually the target, but sometimes large groups of raiders slipped into the opposite trenches to wreck mayhem. While Canadian troops acquired a reputation as fierce raiders, these operations were dangerous affairs, and in the confusion of night fighting, casualties were often heavy. To help relieve the unending pressure on soldiers, they were rotated in and out of the front line. On roughly four- to six-day tours, filthy, verminous, exhausted soldiers passed from front to secondary lines and finally to the reserves. This rotation helped to relieve the strain, but soldiers always knew they would return to the trenches in this maddening cycle. Endurance was the key to survival and soldiers learned to cope with the inhuman conditions. Some developed fatalistic attitudes, believing they would be killed ‘when their number was up’; others lived in terror all the time; a few hoped for a blighty wound, a bullet through the hand or leg that would take them away from the horror and back to a clean hospital in England. Thousands suffered mental breakdowns, known as shell shock, but hundreds of thousands more of the ‘poor bloody infantry,’ as the soldiers liked to call themselves, learned to withstand the strain of the trenches. And it was these survivors who, after four years of bitter fighting, would finally break the static warfare on the Western Front and defeat the German forces. Bird, Will R. Ghosts Have Warm Hands: A Memoir of the Great War, 1916-1919. Ottawa: CEF Books, 1997 (1968). Black, Ernest Garson. I Want One Volunteer. Toronto: Ryerson, 1965. Canadian Bank of Commerce. Letters from the Front : Being a Partial Record of the Part Played by Officers of the Bank in the Great European War. 11 v. Toronto: Canadian Bank of Commerce, 1915-1919. Cook, Tim. "`More a Medicine than a Beverage': 'Demon Rum' and the Canadian Trench Soldier of the First World War." Canadian Military History 9, 1 (Winter 2000) : 6-22. Fraser, Donald. The Journal of Private Fraser, 1914-1918, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Reginald H. Roy, ed. Nepean, ON: CEF Books, 1998 (1985). Granatstein, J.L. Hell’s Corner: An Illustrated History of Canada’s Great War, 1914-1918. Toronto: Douglas and McIntyre, 2004. Litalien, Michel et Stéphane Thibault, Tranchées : le quotidien de la guerre 1914-1918, Outremont, Québec, Athena éditions, 2004. Morrison, J. Clinton. Hell upon Earth: A Personal Account of Prince Edward Island Soldiers in the Great War, 1914-1918. Summerside, PEI.: J.C. Morrison, 1995. Morton, Desmond. "A Canadian Soldier in the Great War: The Experience of Frank Maheux." Canadian Military History 1, nos 1 & 2 (1992) : 79-89. ---. When Your Number's Up: The Canadian Soldier in the First World War. Toronto: Random House, 1993. Morton, Desmond and J.L. Granatstein. Marching to Armageddon: Canadians and the Great War, 1914- 1919. Toronto: Lester & Orpen, Dennys, 1989. Winter, Denis. Death’s Men: Soldiers of the Great War. Markam, ON: Penguin Books, 1985. Historian, Department of National Defence On the battlefield, stretcher bearers, who were selected from the infantry or detached from a Field Ambulance unit, determined if the soldier needed to be treated, required immediate evacuation, or a combination of the two. The same process was repeated at the Regimental Aid Post (which was part of an infantry battalion at the front), at the Advanced Dressing Station (a section of a Field Ambulance), the Main Dressing Station (another section of the Field Ambulance), the Casualty Clearing Station, and the various forms of hospital near the front or well behind it, in England or even Canada. The need for triage was not limited to times when the Canadian Corps was fighting battles—far from it—for disease had caused more casualties than combat since time immemorial. Even after such developments as vaccination in the 18th century and the studies of germs in the 19th, the sick were still plentiful among Canadian soldiers. Many conditions still forced tens of thousands to seek treatment. Among them were influenza, with some 65,000 ill in 1918-19; gonorrhea with over 45,000 ill in the course of the war; tonsillitis and sore throat with about 20,000 ill; syphilis with approximately 18,000; trench fever (caused by a bacterium transmitted by fleas), though non fatal, struck 18,000; myalgia (muscle pain) made some 15,000 sick, as did intestinal disease. The Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), however, was free of the kinds of epidemic diseases that had caused such ravages in the Crimea, the Spanish-American War and South Africa. Near the end of the conflict the medical corps did find itself in the midst of one of the great pandemics of human history, the influenza scourge of 1918–19. Killing millions, it can be compared to the plague of Justinian in the 6th century or the Black Death in the 14th. Though 30–50,000 Canadians would succumb to the disease, the great majority were on the home front and not members of the expeditionary force. According to official history, 3825 of those who went overseas died of disease, 776 of influenza. The CEF still had a problem on its hands, as the illness “flooded the rest station and camps with sick” in the summer of 1918, and “The ailment was peculiar in that, while exhibiting the symptoms of influenza, it ran its course in a week or eight days. It spread rapidly and necessitated the promulgation of extensive and stringent precautionary orders to prevent its spread. All public places such as Unit Entertainments, YMCA Cinema Shows, Estaminets [small French cafés serving alcohol] &c were closed for a time. In the latter places it was permitted to serve drinks at tables outside the buildings.”1 Such illness was in addition to the medical challenges posed by the weapons of war and by the very ground being fought over. The conflict on the Western Front took place mainly on farmland that had been well-fertilized with manure, and its accompanying bacteria, for decades or centuries. The result, according to Canada's official medical historian of the conflict, was that nearly all wounds were infected. Sulpha drugs would not become available until the 1930s, and antibiotics would have to await another world war before coming into use, so infection was a serious challenge that could only be met by irrigating wounds with available chemicals and convalescence that could last months. Another danger of wounds on the battlefield was shock due to blood loss, which could be fatal. The simple solution, first attempted in 1916, was to replace the patient’s blood with blood drawn from a donor; chemical preservatives and refrigeration allowed for the life-giving fluid to be stored for a period of time, and such blood was being transfused by the end of 1917. One practitioner was Norman Guiou, who recalled in April 1918: We had our first opportunity to do several transfusions. The dressing station was set up in a Nissen hut, the stretchers were supported on trestles. There were a number of seriously wounded... One lad was brought in on a blood-soaked stretcher, with a shattered humerus - his upper arm swathed in copious blood-soaked dressings. A flicker of pulse was present. He was pale, "starey-eyed", and tossed about and pulled his wound tag off... We bled a donor about 750cc while the chaplain talked to him. If there is a dramatic procedure in medicine it is the blood transfusion. Color came into that lad's cheeks. He raised himself on his good elbow, drank tea, and ate some YMCA fancy biscuits, then was on to the casualty clearing station.2 One final challenge is worthy of mention here, that of psychological injury. According to medical historian Tom Brown, the condition was “the storm centre of military medicine” at that time. Symptoms could include uncontrollable weeping, trembling, paralysis, deafness and other manifestations without known physical causes. At first it was called shell shock, as it was thought that it resulted from the shock wave of an exploding shell damaging the brain, but by the middle part of the war the condition was thought to be purely psychological in nature. The patient could be diagnosed as suffering from hysteria or neurasthenia and could receive shock treatment, talk therapy or simple rest in a hospital out of earshot of artillery. Most of the Canadian soldiers who suffered from such injuries were sent to No 3 Canadian Stationary Hospital in France, which specialized in such care. Hospitals serve as examples of just how complex the treatment of sick and wounded soldiers had become by the First World War. Institutions specialized in ear and eye conditions, rheumatism, psychological injury, tuberculosis, orthopaedics, and venereal disease, in addition to general, stationary and convalescent hospitals. In an industrialized war, hospitals could become battlefield targets. Many nursing sisters and patients were killed when a hospital was bombed in 1918. They were among the 504 medical practitioners killed on the battlefield serving with Canadian units; another 127 succumbed to disease. 1Library and Archives Canada, RG 9, III, v.4715, 107-20, Passchendaele to Gouy-en-Artois, June 1918 2Norman Guiou, Transfusion: A Canadian Surgeon's Story in War and Peace (Yarmouth, 1985), 34-35. McPhail, Andrew. Official History of the Canadian Forces in the Great War 1914-19: The Medical Services. Ottawa: Department of National Defense, 1925. Nicholson, G.W.L. Canada's Nursing Sisters. Toronto: S. Stevens, 1975. ---. Seventy Years of Service: A History of the Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps. Ottawa: Borealis Press, 1977. Rawling, Bill. Death their Enemy : Canadian Medical Practitioners and War. Ottawa: B. Rawling, 2001. Engineers on the Western Front Historian, Department of National Defence The Western Front made huge demands in matériel, lumber being an excellent example. Wood was needed to revet trenches, support the roofs of dugouts, for plank or corduroy roads, and as sleepers for tramways and railways. These tasks became the responsibility of the military engineers, specialized forestry units being formed for the purpose. Lumberjacks, graders and other skilled men from within the lumber industry were recruited. They cut timber and ran their own sawmills to provide a finished product. The first forestry companies in the war were formed in 1915, in France. More units were created in England to harvest the island’s local resources. All of these were gathered into a corps in 1916 that eventually comprised 43 companies, and was of such a scale as to require its own hospital system. The men received more than the normal food rations, considering the fact that they were engaged in continuous hard labour. Their work, in Britain and France, saved huge amounts in shipping costs, not to mention freeing up lumber supplies for such industrial endeavours as shoring up mines and building trawlers and other vessels. Nor did the forestry corps limit its work to cutting and preparing wood. Many of its units supported the Royal Air Force by clearing, draining, levelling and grading sites for aerodromes. By the time of the Armistice 11,750 men worked within its ranks, with another 6000 attached in various capacities. Closer to the fighting there was a need for heavy-capacity means of transport to get the prodigious amounts of ammunition, food, water and other necessary matériel to the front line. One solution to such an intimidating logistical problem was the construction of tramways with specialized labour, with other specialists maintaining and operating the tractors and rolling stock. The result was a system of transport similar to that of a large North American city run by the Canadian Railway Troops. The troops worked on the Western Front and also in Palestine, the 1st Bridging Company serving there in the last part of the war. The system was, in fact, a merging of two networks, tramways closer to the front operating with gasoline-powered tractors while light railways a little farther behind used steam power, the whole being linked to France’s broad gauge system, which had been built in the decades before the conflict. In the end, the war became too mobile for railway troops to keep up, and when an Armistice was declared on November 11, 1918, the railways were some 30 kilometres behind the forward troops, in spite of the work of 25,000 railway construction engineers, two-thirds of them Canadian. Still, they had served their purpose in the almost four years of near-static warfare that characterized the Western Front from late 1914 to the summer of 1918. It became clear in the early months of the First World War that operations above ground were distinctly hazardous, even suicidal, hence the trenches and dugouts in which soldiers took shelter. An obvious course was to begin operating underground, and within the Canadian Corps three specialized tunnelling companies were formed. Recruited in the main among miners and clay-kickers (the latter dug smaller tunnels to run gas and water mains under city streets), they began their work in 1915, and their role was multi-faceted. First, they used the galleries they excavated under enemy lines to listen in on his own work, the aim being to give fair warning if he began to threaten Canadian lines underground. Second, they might pack the galleries with explosives to destroy enemy defences; generally, however, such operations proved disappointing as German forces usually occupied the crater thus created before Canadian or British troops could reach it. Tunnelling was particularly hazardous. Working underground can release toxic gas capable of disabling or killing, or one could find oneself tunnelling into an enemy gallery, leading to vicious little skirmishes fought with knives and digging tools. When fighting shifted from a mutual siege to more open warfare in 1918, tunnellers applied their skills to other work, disarming booby traps in dugouts and other underground facilities as the Allies advanced towards the German border. In fact, the only Canadian military engineer ever to be awarded the Victoria Cross was Captain C.N. Mitchell, a tunneller who in 1918 removed explosives from a bridge while under attack. The most versatile of the engineers operated on the front line. Originally organized in field companies of a hundred men or so, in 1918 they were reorganized into larger battalions and even brigades. Regardless of how they were administered, their tasks were widely varied. Just behind the front line they were responsible for building and maintaining roads, as well as providing water for humans and animals, the latter task requiring some of them at least to possess knowledge of how to locate and test the precious liquid. To give just two examples, part of the preparations for the assault on Vimy Ridge included laying over 40 miles (65 km) of four-inch (10 cm) pipe, with five pumping stations and a total storage capacity of 560,000 gallons. Following the successful advance at Amiens in August 1918, one of the deepest penetrations achieved on the Western Front, the Canadian Corps and its allies found itself in the midst of a plain scorched dry by the summer sun, but engineers needed only two days to locate sufficient water to keep forward troops satiated. In the front lines proper, sappers, as they were called, dug trenches, or oversaw this work done by the infantry work parties, and prepared defensive positions with the copious use of barbed wire. On occasion, as for a trench raid, for example, they were called upon to destroy such wire, using long cylinders filled with explosive called ammonal tubes or bangalore torpedoes. When that front line advanced, as in 1918, bridging became a most crucial sapper task, as forward movement could not be maintained without ammunition, water, food, and the other necessities of making war, all of which needed to be transported forward on roads or railways, both of which needed bridges to get across rivers and other, similar obstacles. Small structures made of cork sufficed to get the infantry across, while prefabricated materials called Inglis bridges carried heavier loads. At the time of the Armistice what could be called field engineers (as opposed to railway and forestry troops) could count 14,285 men within their ranks, with responsibilities only somewhat less diverse than their numbers. Kerry, A.J. and W.A. McDill. The History of the Corps of Royal Canadian Engineers, Volume I (1749-1939). Ottawa : Military Engineers Association of Canada, 1962. Chaplin-Thomas, Charmion, Vic Johnson and Bill Rawling. Ubique! : Canadian Military Engineers : A Century of Service. Burnstown, ON: General Store Publishing House, 2003. The 13th (Royal Highlanders of Canada) Battalion In April 1915, the battalion was used to reinforce British and Canadian lines in Ypres sector, the site of the first use of poison gas during the war. For the remainder of 1915 and 1916, the battalion fought in many locations, including Festubert, Messines, Bailleul, Givenchy, Flanders and the Somme. On April 9, the battalion went over the top in the Battle of Vimy Ridge. In 1918, the 13th participated in battles around Amiens, Chaulnes, and Roye. In August 1918, they attacked the German forces outside Hangar Wood and two soldiers won Victoria Crosses for their courageous actions, Private J. B. Croak and Corporal H. J. Good. Croak attacked and captured a machine-gun nest single-handedly and despite being badly wounded, proceeded with the aid of other members of his unit, to attack another German strongpoint, silence three machine guns, bayoneting or capturing their crews. Croak was wounded again and died just after the last resistance was overcome. Good’s act of courage involved the destruction of three machine guns and their crews, and with the aid of three soldiers, successfully assaulted and captured a German battery of 5.9 inch guns and their entire crews. During the course of the war, the 13th suffered 5,881 casualties, of which 1,105 were fatalities. Canadians at the Somme It was General Sir Douglas Haig's wish that the Canadians should have a chance to settle in before taking part in an offensive. A G.H.Q. directive on August 19 had announced the Commander-in-Chief's intention to deliver a strong attack about the middle of September using "fresh forces and all available resources". This was the role to which the Canadian Corps had been summoned. While the 2nd and 3rd Canadian Divisions prepared for the battle, the 1st Division held the whole of the Corps front - three thousand yards of battered trenches running westward along the Pozières ridge from the boundary with the Fourth Army (just east of Pozières) to a point 700 yards west of Mouquet Farm, a stronghold in the German Second Position based on a nest of deep dug-outs which six bitter Australian assaults had failed to capture. As we shall see, the Division's tour of duty was not as uneventful as Sir Douglas Haig had intended it should be. The Australians' final attempt to capture Mouquet Farm was made on September 3 by their 13th Brigade, which had the 13th Battalion, of the relieving 3rd Canadian Brigade, temporarily under command. The attack, while failing to secure the farm, gained 300 yards of Fabeck Graben, a German trench running north-eastward towards Courcelette. In attempting to extend this holding two companies of the Canadian battalion suffered 322 casualties. The relief of the Australians was completed on the morning of the 5th, and for three more days the 3rd Canadian Brigade continued to hold under heavy fire and frequent counter- attack more than two thousand yards of line, including the captured portion of Fabeck Graben. The brigade's 970 casualties in this period gave it good reason to remember its first tour of duty at the Somme. Early on September 8, during a relief by the 2nd Brigade, the Germans regained the now almost obliterated section of Fabeck Graben. Next day the Canadians slightly improved their positions, when the 2nd Canadian Battalion captured a portion of a German trench about 500 yards long south of the Cambrai road. In gaining and retaining its objective (and thereby earning the congratulations of the Commander-in-Chief) the battalion owed much to the valour of one of its junior N.C.Os.-Corporal Leo Clarke. While clearing a continuation of the newly-captured trench during the construction of a permanent block on the battalion flank, most of the members of his small bombing party were killed or wounded and their supply of grenades was exhausted. Clarke was building a temporary barricade when an enemy party of twenty, led by two officers, counter-attacked down the trench. Coolly the corporal fought them off. Twice he emptied into the Germans his own revolver, and then two abandoned enemy rifles. He shot and killed an officer who had bayoneted him in the legs and he is credited with having killed or wounded at least sixteen enemy before the rest turned in flight. Then he shot down four more of the fleeing Germans, and captured a fifth - the sole enemy survivor. His courageous action brought Corporal Clarke the first of two Victoria Crosses to be won by his battalion. He was killed five weeks later, before the award was announced. Adapted and used with permission from Nicholson, G. W. L., Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914-1919. Ottawa: Queen’s Printer, 1964, p.148-149. Wartime Letter from Captain Bellenden S. Hutcheson This letter is transcribed from a rough draft found in an old trunk in 1989. Probable restorations of illegible characters are enclosed in brackets. Dear Captain Gwynn; Replying to your first series of questions, concerning the 76th Brigade of Royal Field Artillery: The 76th Brigade was supporting the Canadian Infantry which was holding the line in front of Vimy. The brigade consisted of four batteries of 18 pounders (field guns) and one battery of 4.5 inch Howitzers. The cover of the guns, while poor was, I suppose, as good as that usually occupied by field guns in position only a few days, and the quarters of the gun that crews were in cellars near the guns, but the shells thrown at us were eight inch, and armour piercing. At least the artillerymen said that they were armour piercing, and after viewing the effects of their explosions I was in no position to argue with them. After several dugouts had been blown in, some of the uninjured personnel set to work digging out the injured while the bombardment was in progress and it was this rescue work which was carried out under scanty or no cover. The bombardment lasted from 1 p.m. until 10 p.m., with a few periods of lull, and was apparently counter battery work on the part of the enemy. Our guns were not in action. As you surmise, the gun crews had taken refuge in cellars, not anticipating a bombardment of such intensity with heavy stuff. Gas shells and high explosions were intermingled. My work consisted in dressing the wounded, checking hemorrhage, giving a hypo of morphine when necessary and seeing that the injured were evacuated to the rear. The gas used that day was the deadly sweetish smelling phosgene. It was my first experience with gas in warfare and I wore a mask part of the time and instructed the men to do so whenever there was a dangerous concentration. You ask about my own reaction. It was of course very disconcerting to endeavor to dress wounded while shells were showering debris about, and the possibility of being in the next few seconds in the same plight as the terribly wounded men I was dressing, occurred to me every now and then. The whole thing seemed rather unreal, particularly when it occurred to me, busy as I was, that the killing was being done deliberately and systematically. I felt particularly sorry for the young artillery men, (and many of them were about 19) who were being subjected to the ordeal. I remember one man who had a ghastly wound which would obviously prove fatal in a short time, pleading with me, amidst the turmoil of explosions, to shoot him. Every soldier who has seen action since knows that it requires the highest type of stamina and bravery for troops to lie in a trench and take a heavy shelling without being demoralized and panic stricken, therefore I shall always remember the orderly rescue work carried on by the officers and men of the artillery in the face of the concentrated shelling that occurred that afternoon. You ask about the work of the artillery officers. They very bravely and ably directed the men in the work of rescue and tried to keep gun crews intact as nearly as possible, in order to fire at any time, should orders to do so, be received. During the trench tours in front of Lens, I usually had a deserted gun pit or cellar communicating with the support trench as a dressing station. The actions about the G[um] Crossin and La Coulotte, though attended by heavy casualties, were more in the nature of raids or diverting attacks, than holding attacks, therefore, I did not accompany the attacking parties. During a trench tour I stuck close to the dressing station if the enemy was active, in order to look after the injured, if things were quiet I visited the different headquarters of the platoons and companies holding the line. Going into the line was sometimes the most disagreeable part of the tour, because of the darkness, danger of getting lost, the mud, and the shelling of the roads just behind the line. The Passchendaele Campaign was carried on in a sea of mud. I have never seen a drearier sight than the salient in front of Ypres -- churned up mud with mucky shell holes and never a tree as far as the eye could reach. It was necessary to march single file on duck walk because of the mud for a distance of five or six miles when going in for a tour. We were machine-gunned and bombed from the air and subjected to a terrific shelling on the way in and nothing like a real trench system was possible, the line being held by a series of posts in shell holes. My dressing station was located beside a concrete "pill box", an old German strong point. Captain Dunlap, medical officer of the 102nd Battalion, who was later killed, shared the dressing station with me. I had never met Dunlap before and when he appeared at our rendezvous, with four days growth of black beard on his face, a torn tunic and string like remnants of puttees, he looked so much like a stage hobo that I burst out laughing in his face. He was a fine chap and we became good friends. The stretcher bearers had a very difficult time. The whole area was subjected to continuous shelling by the enemy. The pill box afforded shelter on one side for the dressing station and sheets of camouflage and canvas formed the roof. When no wounded were coming in Dunlap and I would crawl into the pill box for greater security. We kept no enlisted personnel with us as there was literally no place where they could stand without sinking to their knees in mud and the number of wounded men was not so great but that the two medical officers could do all that could be done. When we were relieved by the medical officer of the English unit that took over; Dunlap and I, with Captain A.A. Gray, adjutant of the 75th, started back towards Ypres, over the duckwalk. The different platoons of our battalion had trickled back as they were relieved. The two way duckwalk was, as usual, shelled heavily. We were passing the Argyle and Sutherland Highlanders coming when a shell got a direct hit among them about 200 feet ahead of us. Their dead and wounded, lying in grotesque attitudes, were being cleared away by their comrades with feverish haste as we dog trotted past the smoking shell hole. We did not stop because their own medical unit was on the job, they had plenty of help and each unit was supposed to take care of its own casualties. Regarding the citation for the Military Cross: "The open ground" mentioned consisted of the wheat fields and other flat unwooded ground through which we passed between Beaucourt and Le Quesnel on the immediate left of the Amiens-Roye road. As we advanced we were frequently under direct observation by enemy balloons directing artillery fire. When one shell landed half a dozen others were pretty sure to land in a very short time within a radius of 50 yards or so of where the first one did, consequently when the first few caused casualties they had to be attended in a shower of debris caused by the explosion of succeeding shells. It was necessary to pass through the streets of Le Quesnel several times during the barrage in order to find the wounded who were scattered throughout the town. I supervised their collection, during lulls in the shelling in a cellar I used as a dressing station. The platoons furnished stretcher bearers. My medical section, consisting of a sergeant, corporal and two privates were with me part of the time, or were in the dressing station when I was out, or they themselves were engaged in looking for wounded. Excerpted and reproduced with permission from Veterans Affairs Canada website http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/general/

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Delaware is the first state to have its own yeast. Gov. Jack Markell signed a proclamation giving a yeast named Kloeckera (apiculata) (strain KA 1) this designation, which is an honorary title because the state legislature is not currently in session to vote on the matter. The yeast is the key ingredient in Delaware Native Ale, or DNA, a new, limited-time ale created by Dogfish Head Brewery that features grown-in-Delaware hops, peach and pear juices and other native ingredients. The light ale was introduced recently at a mid-day gathering at the brewery’s pub in Rehoboth Beach. Tom Evans and Nancy Gregory had every right to feel like proud parents at the event – after all, they isolated the yeast, identified it, and gave it its first home, in laboratories in the University of Delaware’s College of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Evans is a professor of plant pathology in the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences. Gregory is a Cooperative Extension associate in that department who works closely with Evans on other research projects. She spends most of her days in UD’s Plant Diagnostic Clinic, looking for bad guys — fungal, bacterial and viral diseases that have shown up on a farmer’s crops or a homeowner’s prized garden plant. After she has identified the pathogen, she and other Extension colleagues usually are able to present solutions for controlling the problem. But for the Dogfish Head project, Gregory was looking for good guys – yeasts that would make the perfect base for a native Delaware brew. Yeast is the single most important ingredient in beer brewing. As a fungus, it’s a living organism that metabolizes, reproduces and lives off ingredients in beer. During the beer’s fermentation stage, yeast is responsible for converting sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide. It also plays a large part in what the beer will ultimately taste like. There are literally thousands of varieties of yeast in the world, notes Gregory, including wild yeasts. Dogfish already possesses a proprietary, cultivated yeast that it uses for the majority of its beverages, according to Katrinka Housley, a lab technician with Dogfish. But the brewery wanted a wild yeast, native to Delaware, for the new ale. State Secretary of Agriculture Ed Kee steered Dogfish’s brew team to Evans and Gregory for guidance in finding just-the-right yeast. One day in early August, a team from Dogfish that included Housley, her supervisor, Steven Thompson, and brewery president Sam Calagione, met up with Gregory and Evans at Fifer Orchards, which offered to be the yeast source. Bobby Fifer, a co-owner of the orchards, showed the group around, scoping out good sites. They eventually settled on a few locations to trap yeast, including the packing house, underneath peach trees in the orchard, and near a bunch of hovering fruit flies. (No worries, Dogfish fans. Fruit fly yeast did not end up in the new ale.) The group set out about 100 agar plates — petri dishes containing a growth medium to culture microorganisms. They snacked on Fifer doughnuts for about a half hour while the plates trapped yeasts. Gregory and Evans then grew and isolated numerous wild yeasts over a period of several weeks in “dirty” and “clean” labs at UD. (As the name implies, the clean lab is kept free of contaminants, while things like a leaf with bacteria or a pumpkin with fungi are allowed inside the dirty lab.) “At that point in the development of a yeast isolate, you’re weeding through all the chaff to get to the wheat,” notes Evans. “You’re looking at microscopic budding cells under a microscope, separating yeasts from other fungi and bacteria, or other material.” The UD scientists incorporated their noses into the culling process, too. “Some yeasts smell like bread, some a little fruity and some just plain foul,” says Evans. The stinkers were immediately taken out of the running. A dozen or so promising candidates for the ale were sent to Dogfish in mid-August. Before they were shipped, Gregory identified each isolated, pure yeast strain through several tests, collaborating with colleagues in CANR and at Delaware Biotechnology Institute. Once Housley and Thompson had the strains of yeasts on hand they had just a few weeks to see which ones performed best in sample brews that were then tasted by Dogfish’s 37 trained tasters. “It was challenging working with wild yeast strains,” says Housley. “They are a little more unpredictable than cultivated strains.” The winning yeast, Kloeckera (apiculata) (strain KA 1) originated in a box of peaches that were “seconds” — not quite picture perfect and up to Fifer standards. “As a land-grant institution, UD is committed to working with Delaware’s agricultural producers to improve their profitability,” says Evans. “We’re involved in education, applied research, and outreach to agricultural operations throughout the state. This project was a new one for us, but it certainly fits with our mission.” And Dogfish was very happy to get the help. “Tom and Nancy’s brain power and wealth of knowledge were invaluable,” says Thompson. Evans plans to incorporate information about finding Kloeckera (apiculata) (strain KA 1) into a class he teaches each fall. The students will even get to see a sample of Delaware’s new state yeast, which Gregory has safely stored away in a liquid nitrogen cabinet in the clean lab. Article by Margo McDonough Photos by Danielle Quigley and Nancy Gregory

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E. Cobham Brewer 18101897. Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. 1898. in Switzerland. The similarity of the word with the name of Pontius Pilate has given rise to the tradition that the Roman Governor, being banished to Gaul by Tiberius, wandered to this mount and threw himself into a black lake on its summit. But Mont Pileatus means the hatted mountain, because it is frequently capped with clouds. The story goes, that once a year Pilate appears in his robes of office, and whoever sees the ghost will die before the year is out. In the sixteenth century a law was passed forbidding anyone to throw stones in the lake, for fear of bringing a tempest on the country. There is a town called Pilate in the island of Hispaniola, and a Mont Pilate in France.

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In childhood, pulling baby teeth is a rite of passage. At first it can be a little scary, but most kids get used to it, and many look forward to their next empty socket – and visit from the tooth fairy. Of course, some tykes need help with their first loose tooth, and that means being prepared as a parent to deal with blood, germs, dry mouth and bad breath. According to a recent post at Nanny.Net, it’s not too tough to help your child pull his or her first tooth. To start, you’ll need to wash your hands, get some gauze ready and keep your little one relaxed… Then comes the actual pulling This can require some wiggling or apple-eating. (Ditch the string. It’s no better than using your hands.) Finally, the source recommends putting pressure on the empty socket after the tooth comes out to stanch the blood flow, then applying ice in order to numb any little aches your child may feel. However, things don’t end there. What many parents don’t realize is that a newly pulled tooth presents a unique opening for infections, dry mouth and bad breath. In large part, this is due to a side effect familiar to nearly anyone who’s had their wisdom teeth pulled: a dry socket. A clot, lost Dry sockets occur when a blood clot, the one that fills the hole in lieu of a tooth, accidentally falls out. This is most common among teens and young adults, whose wisdom teeth removals often leave large, tenuous scabs at the back of the jaws. A little too much negative pressure – say, from sucking on a straw – can pop one of these clots out. What results is a dry socket, in which the nerves and sometimes even the bone is exposed, with no healing tissue to cover them. Large dry sockets can take months to close and usually require irrigation after every meal to prevent food particles from lodging in them and festering. That said, dry sockets also may occur in kids who have lost a baby tooth, especially one that has an unusually long root or that has been pulled prematurely. This oral health problem is related to dry mouth, in that both can cause irritation, halitosis and gum infections. Bad breath is a typical symptom One of the most common signs of a dry socket, other than gum pain, is bad breath. This comes from bacterial invasion of the socket, which leads to inflammation and odor production. However, treating a dry socket isn’t as simple as gargling with an alcohol-based mouthwash. In fact, that’s exactly what you want to avoid. Rinsing with alcohol is guaranteed to cause excruciating pain. Rather than leaving your child in tears, consider giving them an alcohol-free specialty breath freshening mouthwash, one that oxygenates the gums. This will eliminate microbes and soothe delicate tissues in the socket. Another solid treatment is prevention. The Mayo Clinic notes that preexisting oral infections, like gingivitis or canker sores, increase the risk of a dry socket, as does poor dental health. The organization recommends using a specialty antibacterial mouthwash before any tooth extraction to reduce the likelihood of this painful problem. So, for best results, try adding the following steps to your child’s tooth pulling routine: - Have them gargle with an alcohol-free mouthwash twice a day for a least a week before pulling a tooth. - After the tooth is out, gently rinse the mouth again with such a product. - Have them eat soft foods. - Most importantly, play the waiting game. If a tooth is a little wiggly but refuses to pop out, give it time. It will gradually loosen on its own.

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In this section we are going to take you through a short guided tour of Scribus. In seven steps you learn how to create a tri-fold brochure. The first step takes place away from your computer – in a sense, since we are going to end up most often with a result on paper, we will begin by working with paper. To sketch your brochure, begin with a sheet of white office paper (A4 or US Letter), and fold it in thirds, so that it folds together as shown. Although in your actual brochure you might wish the inside flap to be slightly more narrow than the left front flap, so that it completely covers the inside flap when folded together, for this demonstration we are not going to bother with this precise detail. Sketch some picture on the front flap, then check the result. Once you are satisfied with how the brochure works as a physical, folding object, you can begin to consider how you want to distribute the content on the various spaces on the flaps, front and back. In general, you will probably want to use the three internal spaces for your primary content, so that the layout of these will be a sequential succession, left to right. For the three other pages/flaps (those on the outside of the folded brochure), each has its own considerations regarding its content: In the images here below you can see how we have demarcated boxes or frames with some indication of how text and images are arranged in the brochure panels: For this guided tour of Scribus we are proposing to create a brochure about Johannes Gutenberg, in relationship to his inventions regarding the printing press. We will be using images and text from the Wikipedia webpage on Gutenberg, which may be used under the Creative Commons licensing of their site. When you start up Scribus, it presents you with a dialog for creating a new document. In case you may have closed this dialog, you can bring it up again with the menu File > New. The document you are going to create will have the following characteristics: Other parameters should remain at default settings. Click on OK to finally create this document. Here you see, in a scaled down view, how your document appears in the main window: You will be using guides to assist with the alignment of the content according to the folds of your brochure. Using the middle tab (Column/Row) you can create two vertical guides, with a space between them (Gap) of 2 cm. This value is double that of the margins, so that the content will be balanced in the various flaps. Further, you want to define these guides with respect to the margins, not the page. Finally, click Apply to All Pages and close the Guide Manager. If you do not see the guides, go to the menu and select View > Show Guides. In Scribus, you don't write directly on the page – first you create frames which will then contain the text. In general, most graphical elements are contained in frames. With these we can freely move all of our various elements around the pages. Go to the first page of your document. If necessary, use the slider at the bottom to position the cover flap in your workspace. You can also zoom your view by holding down Ctrl and running the mousewheel up and down while the mouse arrow is over the zoom indicator – quite easily done with this tool! You can also move your page up and down, left and right, by holding down the middle button (or wheel), then dragging the mouse in the appropriate direction. Activate the text frame tool by clicking Insert > Insert Text Frame from the menu, or from the icon (which is the one just to the right of the white arrow icon on the toolbar, then make your text frame on the page with a click-drag-release action. You can resize your frame by click-dragging the small red square at the lower right corner – resize it so that it can contain two lines of text: Johannes Gutenberg. Notice that after you have created your frame, Scribus automatically switches to Item Selection mode – the icon with the white arrow is selected in the toolbar – which allows you to select and move objects. If you wish to switch from some other tool in the toolbar, either click the Item Selection icon or press Esc. Double-click inside the frame, and the various adjustment squares disappear, so that now you can type in Gutenberg's name (you are now in Edit Contents mode). But your text is quite small isn't it? To change the size select all the text (if you are still in Edit Contents mode, from the menu select Edit > Select All), open the Properties palette (Window > Properties), select the Text tab, so that you can try various fonts and font characteristics, including the size of the characters (glyphs). If the lines are too close together, adjust the linespacing. In general, a minimum spacing of 20% greater than font size is advisable. You can exit Edit Contents mode by clicking on the canvas outside the frame or by pressing Esc, and of course you can go back to Edit Contents by double-clicking inside the frame. The next step will be to place an image of Gutenberg's statue on the cover. Download this image from Wikimedia commons: Make a directory images inside your directory Scribus_Gutenberg and download the largest image (full resolution) into the images directory. Activate the image frame tool from the menu (Insert > Insert Image Frame) or click the Insert Image Frame icon from the toolbar, and then with a click-drag motion create an image frame on the cover of our brochure. Make sure you have selected the image frame, then load the photo of the statue (which you should find in your directory Images inside your working directory for this project) by using File > Import > Get Image. Most likely, your image appears all white – don't panic, this is the background of this image, and you're only seeing a small part of it! Bring up the Properties palette (Windows > Properties), select the Image tab, and select the options Scale To Frame Size and Proportional. By default, Scribus will import images according to their resolution as noted in the file. Since there isn't yet any information about the resolution you would like to use, Scribus simply loads the image at its maximum size. A quicker way to carry out this operation is to right-click on the image frame and select Adjust Image to Frame from the context menu. Next, adjust the image frame by right-clicking, then choosing Adjust Frame to Image, then move the frame so that it lines up with the left edge of the leaf: With a click-drag operation on the small red square in the right lower corner of the frame, you can now resize the frame so that it fills the column created by the guide to the left and margin to the right. As you will learn in this manual, Scribus is often not the best tool for composing text. In addition, much if not most of the time, you may be importing text written by others, or reusing text you have written for some other context. To simulate this situation, we will use a browser to go to the Wikipedia page about Gutenberg – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg – and copy the section Early Years, then open a text editor, create a new file, and paste the text from Wikipedia. Save the file in a new directory Text inside your working directory. Create a text frame in the Inside flap, being sure the fill the space to the margins and to the guide. Select the frame, then from the menu, File > Import > Get Text to import the text you just saved in your file. Use the instructions in the above section Write some text to adjust the size of the title in this text frame. On the second page of your document, you are going to add some text which links across the three panels. Now let's apply a little trick – after you activate the text frame tool (Insert > Insert Text Frame), hold down Shift while you click inside the space for Content 1 – what you have done is to create a text frame which fills the space delimited by the margins and the guide. Repeat this for the other two panels on the second page. If you have trouble with this, you can simply create a text frame and enlarge to the desired space – in this case, setting Page > Snap to Guides can assist you in filling the space to its margins. Now you have set up the layout, but you have no text. For our example we will use Sample Text – select the frame in the first panel, then Insert > Sample Text, and choose Standard Lorem Ispum. If you look in the lower right hand corner of the text frame you see a small red box with a cross, which indicates that the actual text is overflowing the frame. Make sure the first frame is selected, then click Item > Link Text Frames, then click the second frame. Now select the second frame, click Item > Link Text Frames, then click the third frame. Don't forget to save your work! Now that you've finished this little project, let's go over the main toolbar icons which you are likely to use in the composition of your documents. You have created your first layout. Certainly not perfect, but a good start! When you have actually finished a layout, you would be exporting to PDF for printing or distribution, but at this stage this is a bit complex. As you continue through the manual, you will learn this and other various tasks to use Scribus to its full capabilities.

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Click the Study Aids tab at the bottom of the book to access your Study Aids (usually practice quizzes and flash cards). Study Pass is our latest digital product that lets you take notes, highlight important sections of the text using different colors, create "tags" or labels to filter your notes and highlights, and print so you can study offline. Study Pass also includes interactive study aids, such as flash cards and quizzes. Highlighting and Taking Notes: If you've purchased the All Access Pass or Study Pass, in the online reader, click and drag your mouse to highlight text. When you do a small button appears – simply click on it! From there, you can select a highlight color, add notes, add tags, or any combination. If you've purchased the All Access Pass, you can print each chapter by clicking on the Downloads tab. If you have Study Pass, click on the print icon within Study View to print out your notes and highlighted sections. To search, use the text box at the bottom of the book. Click a search result to be taken to that chapter or section of the book (note you may need to scroll down to get to the result). View Full Student FAQs 8.2 How We Remember: Cues to Improving Memory - Label and review the principles of encoding, storage, and retrieval. - Summarize the types of amnesia and their effects on memory. - Describe how the context in which we learn information can influence our memory of that information. Although it is useful to hold information in sensory and short-term memory, we also rely on our long-term memory (LTM). We want to remember the name of the new boy in the class, the name of the movie we saw last week, and the material for our upcoming psychology test. Psychological research has produced a great deal of knowledge about long-term memory, and this research can be useful as you try to learn and remember new material (see Table 8.2 "Helpful Memory Techniques Based on Psychological Research"). In this section we will consider this question in terms of the types of processing that we do on the information we want to remember. To be successful, the information that we want to remember must be encoded and stored, and then retrieved. Table 8.2 Helpful Memory Techniques Based on Psychological Research |Use elaborative encoding.||Material is better remembered if it is processed more fully.||Think, for instance, “Proactive interference is like retroactive interference but it occurs in a forward manner.”| |Make use of the self-reference effect.||Material is better remembered if it is linked to thoughts about the self.||Think, for instance, “I remember a time when I knew the answer to an exam question but couldn’t quite get it to come to mind. This was an example of the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.”| |Be aware of the forgetting curve.||Information that we have learned drops off rapidly with time.||Review the material that you have already studied right before the exam to increase the likelihood it will remain in memory.| |Make use of the spacing effect.||Information is learned better when it is studied in shorter periods spaced over time.||Study a little bit every day; do not cram at the last minute.| |Rely on overlearning.||We can continue to learn even after we think we know the information perfectly.||Keep studying, even if you think you already have it down.| |Use context-dependent retrieval.||We have better retrieval when it occurs in the same situation in which we learned the material.||If possible, study under conditions similar to the conditions in which you will take the exam.| |Use state-dependent retrieval.||We have better retrieval when we are in the same psychological state as we were when we learned the material.||Many possibilities, but don’t study under the influence of drugs or alcohol, unless you plan to use them on the day of the exam (which is not recommended).| Encoding and Storage: How Our Perceptions Become Memories EncodingThe process by which we place the things that we experience into memory. is the process by which we place the things that we experience into memory. Unless information is encoded, it cannot be remembered. I’m sure you’ve been to a party where you’ve been introduced to someone and then—maybe only seconds later—you realize that you do not remember the person’s name. Of course it’s not really surprising that you can’t remember the name, because you probably were distracted and you never encoded the name to begin with. Not everything we experience can or should be encoded. We tend to encode things that we need to remember and not bother to encode things that are irrelevant. Look at Figure 8.8 "Pennies in Different Styles", which shows different images of U.S. pennies. Can you tell which one is the real one? Nickerson and Adams (1979)Nickerson, R. S., & Adams, M. J. (1979). Long-term memory for a common object. Cognitive Psychology, 11(3), 287–307. found that very few of the U.S. participants they tested could identify the right one. We see pennies a lot, but we don’t bother to encode their features. Figure 8.8 Pennies in Different Styles Can you identify the “real” penny? We tend to have poor memory for things that don’t matter, even if we see them frequently. One way to improve our memory is to use better encoding strategies. Some ways of studying are more effective than others. Research has found that we are better able to remember information if we encode it in a meaningful way. When we engage in elaborative encodingLearning by processing new information in ways that make it more relevant. we process new information in ways that make it more relevant or meaningful (Craik & Lockhart, 1972; Harris & Qualls, 2000).Craik, F. I., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671–684; Harris, J. L., & Qualls, C. D. (2000). The association of elaborative or maintenance rehearsal with age, reading comprehension and verbal working memory performance. Aphasiology, 14(5–6), 515–526. Imagine that you are trying to remember the characteristics of the different schools of psychology we discussed in Chapter 1 "Introducing Psychology". Rather than simply trying to remember the schools and their characteristics, you might try to relate the information to things you already know. For instance, you might try to remember the fundamentals of the cognitive school of psychology by linking the characteristics to the computer model. The cognitive school focuses on how information is input, processed, and retrieved, and you might think about how computers do pretty much the same thing. You might also try to organize the information into meaningful units. For instance, you might link the cognitive school to structuralism because both were concerned with mental processes. You also might try to use visual cues to help you remember the information. You might look at the image of Freud and imagine what he looked like as a child. That image might help you remember that childhood experiences were an important part of Freudian theory. Each person has his or her unique way of elaborating on information; the important thing is to try to develop unique and meaningful associations among the materials. Research Focus: Elaboration and Memory In an important study showing the effectiveness of elaborative encoding, Rogers, Kuiper, and Kirker (1977)Rogers, T. B., Kuiper, N. A., & Kirker, W. S. (1977). Self-reference and the encoding of personal information. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 35(9), 677–688. studied how people recalled information that they had learned under different processing conditions. All the participants were presented with the same list of 40 adjectives to learn, but through the use of random assignment, the participants were given one of four different sets of instructions about how to process the adjectives. Participants assigned to the structural task condition were asked to judge whether the word was printed in uppercase or lowercase letters. Participants in the phonemic task condition were asked whether or not the word rhymed with another given word. In the semantic task condition, the participants were asked if the word was a synonym of another word. And in the self-reference task condition, participants were asked to indicate whether or not the given adjective was or was not true of themselves. After completing the specified task, each participant was asked to recall as many adjectives as he or she could remember. Rogers and his colleagues hypothesized that different types of processing would have different effects on memory. As you can see in Figure 8.9 "Self-Reference Effect Results", the students in the self-reference task condition recalled significantly more adjectives than did students in any other condition. This finding, known as the self-reference effect, is powerful evidence that the self-concept helps us organize and remember information. The next time you are studying for an exam, you might try relating the material to your own experiences. The self-reference effect suggests that doing so will help you better remember the information (Symons & Johnson, 1997).Symons, C. S., & Johnson, B. T. (1997). The self-reference effect in memory: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 121(3), 371–394. Figure 8.9 Self-Reference Effect Results Participants recalled the same words significantly better when they were processed in relation to the self than when they were processed in other ways. Source: Adapted from Rogers, T. B., Kuiper, N. A., & Kirker, W. S. (1977). Self-reference and the encoding of personal information. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 35(9), 677–688. Using the Contributions of Hermann Ebbinghaus to Improve Your Memory Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) was a pioneer of the study of memory. In this section we consider three of his most important findings, each of which can help you improve your memory. In his research, in which he was the only research participant, Ebbinghaus practiced memorizing lists of nonsense syllables, such as the following: DIF, LAJ, LEQ, MUV, WYC, DAL, SEN, KEP, NUD You can imagine that because the material that he was trying to learn was not at all meaningful, it was not easy to do. Ebbinghaus plotted how many of the syllables he could remember against the time that had elapsed since he had studied them. He discovered an important principle of memory: Memory decays rapidly at first, but the amount of decay levels off with time (Figure 8.10 "Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve"). Although Ebbinghaus looked at forgetting after days had elapsed, the same effect occurs on longer and shorter time scales. Bahrick (1984)Bahrick, H. P. (1984). Semantic memory content in permastore: Fifty years of memory for Spanish learned in school. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113(1), 1–29. found that students who took a Spanish language course forgot about one half of the vocabulary that they had learned within three years, but that after that time their memory remained pretty much constant. Forgetting also drops off quickly on a shorter time frame. This suggests that you should try to review the material that you have already studied right before you take an exam; that way, you will be more likely to remember the material during the exam. Figure 8.10 Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve Hermann Ebbinghaus found that memory for information drops off rapidly at first but then levels off after time. Ebbinghaus also discovered another important principle of learning, known as the spacing effect. The spacing effectThe fact that learning is better when the same amount of study is spread out over periods of time than it is when it occurs closer together or at the same time. refers to the fact that learning is better when the same amount of study is spread out over periods of time than it is when it occurs closer together or at the same time. This means that even if you have only a limited amount of time to study, you’ll learn more if you study continually throughout the semester (a little bit every day is best) than if you wait to cram at the last minute before your exam (Figure 8.11 "Effects of Massed Versus Distributed Practice on Learning"). Another good strategy is to study and then wait as long as you can before you forget the material. Then review the information and again wait as long as you can before you forget it. (This probably will be a longer period of time than the first time.) Repeat and repeat again. The spacing effect is usually considered in terms of the difference between distributed practice (practice that is spread out over time) and massed practice (practice that comes in one block), with the former approach producing better memory. Figure 8.11 Effects of Massed Versus Distributed Practice on Learning The spacing effect refers to the fact that memory is better when it is distributed rather than massed. Leslie, Lee Ann, and Nora all studied for four hours total, but the students who spread out their learning into smaller study sessions did better on the exam. Ebbinghaus also considered the role of overlearning—that is, continuing to practice and study even when we think that we have mastered the material. Ebbinghaus and other researchers have found that overlearning helps encoding (Driskell, Willis, & Copper, 1992).Driskell, J. E., Willis, R. P., & Copper, C. (1992). Effect of overlearning on retention. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(5), 615–622. Students frequently think that they have already mastered the material but then discover when they get to the exam that they have not. The point is clear: Try to keep studying and reviewing, even if you think you already know all the material. Even when information has been adequately encoded and stored, it does not do us any good if we cannot retrieve it. RetrievalThe process of reactivating information that has been stored in memory. refers to the process of reactivating information that has been stored in memory. You can get an idea of the difficulty posed by retrieval by simply reading each of the words (but not the categories) in the sidebar below to someone. Tell the person that after you have read all the words, you will ask her to recall the words. After you read the list to your friend, give her enough time to write down all the words that she can recall. Make sure that she cannot recall any more and then, for the words that were not listed, prompt your friend with some of the category names: “Do you remember any words that were furniture? Do you remember any words that were tools?” I think you will find that the category names, which serve as retrieval cues, will help your friend remember information that she could not retrieve otherwise. Try this test of the ability to retrieve information with a classmate. The instructions are in the text. We’ve all experienced retrieval failure in the form of the frustrating tip-of-the-tongue phenomenonThe experience of being certain that we know something that we are trying to recall, but yet we cannot quite come up with it., in which we are certain that we know something that we are trying to recall but cannot quite come up with it. You can try this one on your friends as well. Read your friend the names of the 10 states listed in the sidebar below, and ask him to name the capital city of each state. Now, for the capital cities that your friend can’t name, give him just the first letter of the capital city. You’ll probably find that having the first letters of the cities helps with retrieval. The tip-of-the-tongue experience is a very good example of the inability to retrieve information that is actually stored in memory. States and Capital Cities Try this demonstration of the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon with a classmate. Instructions are in the text. We are more likely to be able to retrieve items from memory when conditions at retrieval are similar to the conditions under which we encoded them. Context-dependent learningAn increase in retrieval when the external situation in which information is learned matches the situation in which it is remembered. refers to an increase in retrieval when the external situation in which information is learned matches the situation in which it is remembered. Godden and Baddeley (1975)Godden, D. R., & Baddeley, A. D. (1975). Context-dependent memory in two natural environments: On land and underwater. British Journal of Psychology, 66(3), 325–331. conducted a study to test this idea using scuba divers. They asked the divers to learn a list of words either when they were on land or when they were underwater. Then they tested the divers on their memory, either in the same or the opposite situation. As you can see in Figure 8.12 "Results From Godden and Baddeley, 1975", the divers’ memory was better when they were tested in the same context in which they had learned the words than when they were tested in the other context. Figure 8.12 Results From Godden and Baddeley, 1975 Godden and Baddeley (1975) tested the memory of scuba divers to learn and retrieve information in different contexts and found strong evidence for context-dependent learning. Source: Adapted from Godden, D. R., & Baddeley, A. D. (1975). Context-dependent memory in two natural environments: On land and underwater. British Journal of Psychology, 66(3), 325–331. You can see that context-dependent learning might also be important in improving your memory. For instance, you might want to try to study for an exam in a situation that is similar to the one in which you are going to take the exam. Whereas context-dependent learning refers to a match in the external situation between learning and remembering, state-dependent learningAn increase in retrieval that occurs when the individual is tested in the same physiological or psychological state as during encoding. refers to superior retrieval of memories when the individual is in the same physiological or psychological state as during encoding. Research has found, for instance, that animals that learn a maze while under the influence of one drug tend to remember their learning better when they are tested under the influence of the same drug than when they are tested without the drug (Jackson, Koek, & Colpaert, 1992).Jackson, A., Koek, W., & Colpaert, F. (1992). NMDA antagonists make learning and recall state-dependent. Behavioural Pharmacology, 3(4), 415. And research with humans finds that bilinguals remember better when tested in the same language in which they learned the material (Marian & Kaushanskaya, 2007).Marian, V. & Kaushanskaya, M. (2007). Language context guides memory content. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 14(5), 925–933. Mood states may also produce state-dependent learning. People who learn information when they are in a bad (rather than a good) mood find it easier to recall these memories when they are tested while they are in a bad mood, and vice versa. It is easier to recall unpleasant memories than pleasant ones when we’re sad, and easier to recall pleasant memories than unpleasant ones when we’re happy (Bower, 1981; Eich, 2008).Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129–148; Eich, E. (2008). Mood and memory at 26: Revisiting the idea of mood mediation in drug-dependent and place-dependent memory. In M. A. Gluck, J. R. Anderson, & S. M. Kosslyn (Eds.), Memory and mind: A festschrift for Gordon H. Bower (pp. 247–260). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Variations in the ability to retrieve information are also seen in the serial position curve. When we give people a list of words one at a time (e.g., on flashcards) and then ask them to recall them, the results look something like those in Figure 8.13 "The Serial Position Curve". People are able to retrieve more words that were presented to them at the beginning and the end of the list than they are words that were presented in the middle of the list. This pattern, known as the serial position curve, is caused by two retrieval phenomenon: The primacy effectThe tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented early in a list. refers to a tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented early in a list. The recency effectThe tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented later in a list. refers to the tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented later in a list. Figure 8.13 The Serial Position Curve The serial position curve is the result of both primacy effects and recency effects. There are a number of explanations for primacy and recency effects, but one of them is in terms of the effects of rehearsal on short-term and long-term memory (Baddeley, Eysenck, & Anderson, 2009).Baddeley, A., Eysenck, M. W., & Anderson, M. C. (2009). Memory. New York, NY: Psychology Press. Because we can keep the last words that we learned in the presented list in short-term memory by rehearsing them before the memory test begins, they are relatively easily remembered. So the recency effect can be explained in terms of maintenance rehearsal in short-term memory. And the primacy effect may also be due to rehearsal—when we hear the first word in the list we start to rehearse it, making it more likely that it will be moved from short-term to long-term memory. And the same is true for the other words that come early in the list. But for the words in the middle of the list, this rehearsal becomes much harder, making them less likely to be moved to LTM. In some cases our existing memories influence our new learning. This may occur either in a backward way or a forward way. Retroactive interferenceMemory impairment that occurs when learning something new impairs memory for information that was learned earlier. occurs when learning something new impairs our ability to retrieve information that was learned earlier. For example, if you have learned to program in one computer language, and then you learn to program in another similar one, you may start to make mistakes programming the first language that you never would have made before you learned the new one. In this case the new memories work backward (retroactively) to influence retrieval from memory that is already in place. In contrast to retroactive interference, proactive interference works in a forward direction. Proactive interferenceMemory impairment that occurs when earlier learning impairs our ability to encode information that we try to learn later. occurs when earlier learning impairs our ability to encode information that we try to learn later. For example, if we have learned French as a second language, this knowledge may make it more difficult, at least in some respects, to learn a third language (say Spanish), which involves similar but not identical vocabulary. Figure 8.14 Proactive and Retroactive Interference Retroactive and proactive interference can both influence memory. The Structure of LTM: Categories, Prototypes, and Schemas Memories that are stored in LTM are not isolated but rather are linked together into categoriesA network of associated memories that have features in common with each other.—networks of associated memories that have features in common with each other. Forming categories, and using categories to guide behavior, is a fundamental part of human nature. Associated concepts within a category are connected through spreading activation, which occurs when activating one element of a category activates other associated elements. For instance, because tools are associated in a category, reminding people of the word “screwdriver” will help them remember the word “wrench.” And, when people have learned lists of words that come from different categories (e.g., as in Note 8.33 "Retrieval Demonstration"), they do not recall the information haphazardly. If they have just remembered the word “wrench,” they are more likely to remember the word “screwdriver” next than they are to remember the word “dahlia,” because the words are organized in memory by category and because “dahlia” is activated by spreading activation from “wrench” (Srull & Wyer, 1989).Srull, T., & Wyer, R. (1989). Person memory and judgment. Psychological Review, 96(1), 58–83. Some categories have defining features that must be true of all members of the category. For instance, all members of the category “triangles” have three sides, and all members of the category “birds” lay eggs. But most categories are not so well-defined; the members of the category share some common features, but it is impossible to define which are or are not members of the category. For instance, there is no clear definition of the category “tool.” Some examples of the category, such as a hammer and a wrench, are clearly and easily identified as category members, whereas other members are not so obvious. Is an ironing board a tool? What about a car? Members of categories (even those with defining features) can be compared to the category prototypeThe member of the category that is most average or typical of the category., which is the member of the category that is most average or typical of the category. Some category members are more prototypical of, or similar to, the category than others. For instance, some category members (robins and sparrows) are highly prototypical of the category “birds,” whereas other category members (penguins and ostriches) are less prototypical. We retrieve information that is prototypical of a category faster than we retrieve information that is less prototypical (Rosch, 1975).Rosch, E. (1975). Cognitive representations of semantic categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104(3), 192–233. Figure 8.15 Prototypicality Category members vary in terms of their prototypicality. Some cats are “better” members of the category than are others. Mental categories are sometimes referred to as schemasA pattern of knowledge in long-term memory that helps us organize information.—patterns of knowledge in long-term memory that help us organize information. We have schemas about objects (that a triangle has three sides and may take on different angles), about people (that Sam is friendly, likes to golf, and always wears sandals), about events (the particular steps involved in ordering a meal at a restaurant), and about social groups (we call these group schemas stereotypes). Figure 8.16 Different Schemas Our schemas about people, couples, and events help us organize and remember information. Schemas are important in part because they help us remember new information by providing an organizational structure for it. Read the following paragraph (Bransford & Johnson, 1972)Bransford, J. D., & Johnson, M. K. (1972). Contextual prerequisites for understanding: Some investigations of comprehension and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 717–726. and then try to write down everything you can remember. The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities, that is the next step; otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important, but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell. After the procedure is completed, one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life. It turns out that people’s memory for this information is quite poor, unless they have been told ahead of time that the information describes “doing the laundry,” in which case their memory for the material is much better. This demonstration of the role of schemas in memory shows how our existing knowledge can help us organize new information, and how this organization can improve encoding, storage, and retrieval. The Biology of Memory Just as information is stored on digital media such as DVDs and flash drives, the information in LTM must be stored in the brain. The ability to maintain information in LTM involves a gradual strengthening of the connections among the neurons in the brain. When pathways in these neural networks are frequently and repeatedly fired, the synapses become more efficient in communicating with each other, and these changes create memory. This process, known as long-term potentiation (LTP)The development of memory that occurs through strengthening of the synaptic connections between neurons., refers to the strengthening of the synaptic connections between neurons as result of frequent stimulation (Lynch, 2002).Lynch, G. (2002). Memory enhancement: The search for mechanism-based drugs. Nature Neuroscience, 5(Suppl.), 1035–1038. Drugs that block LTP reduce learning, whereas drugs that enhance LTP increase learning (Lynch et al., 1991).Lynch, G., Larson, J., Staubli, U., Ambros-Ingerson, J., Granger, R., Lister, R. G.,…Weingartner, H. J. (1991). Long-term potentiation and memory operations in cortical networks. In C. A. Wickliffe, M. Corballis, & G. White (Eds.), Perspectives on cognitive neuroscience (pp. 110–131). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Because the new patterns of activation in the synapses take time to develop, LTP happens gradually. The period of time in which LTP occurs and in which memories are stored is known as the period of consolidation. Memory is not confined to the cortex; it occurs through sophisticated interactions between new and old brain structures (Figure 8.17 "Schematic Image of Brain With Hippocampus, Amygdala, and Cerebellum Highlighted"). One of the most important brain regions in explicit memory is the hippocampus, which serves as a preprocessor and elaborator of information (Squire, 1992).Squire, L. R. (1992). Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans. Psychological Review, 99(2), 195–231. The hippocampus helps us encode information about spatial relationships, the context in which events were experienced, and the associations among memories (Eichenbaum, 1999).Eichenbaum, H. (1999). Conscious awareness, memory, and the hippocampus. Nature Neuroscience, 2(9), 775–776. The hippocampus also serves in part as a switching point that holds the memory for a short time and then directs the information to other parts of the brain, such as the cortex, to actually do the rehearsing, elaboration, and long-term storage (Jonides, Lacey, & Nee, 2005).Jonides, J., Lacey, S. C., & Nee, D. E. (2005). Processes of working memory in mind and brain. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(1), 2–5. Without the hippocampus, which might be described as the brain’s “librarian,” our explicit memories would be inefficient and disorganized. Figure 8.17 Schematic Image of Brain With Hippocampus, Amygdala, and Cerebellum Highlighted Different brain structures help us remember different types of information. The hippocampus is particularly important in explicit memories, the cerebellum is particularly important in implicit memories, and the amygdala is particularly important in emotional memories. While the hippocampus is handling explicit memory, the cerebellum and the amygdala are concentrating on implicit and emotional memories, respectively. Research shows that the cerebellum is more active when we are learning associations and in priming tasks, and animals and humans with damage to the cerebellum have more difficulty in classical conditioning studies (Krupa, Thompson, & Thompson, 1993; Woodruff-Pak, Goldenberg, Downey-Lamb, Boyko, & Lemieux, 2000).Krupa, D. J., Thompson, J. K., & Thompson, R. F. (1993). Localization of a memory trace in the mammalian brain. Science, 260(5110), 989–991; Woodruff-Pak, D. S., Goldenberg, G., Downey-Lamb, M. M., Boyko, O. B., & Lemieux, S. K. (2000). Cerebellar volume in humans related to magnitude of classical conditioning. Neuroreport: For Rapid Communication of Neuroscience Research, 11(3), 609–615. The storage of many of our most important emotional memories, and particularly those related to fear, is initiated and controlled by the amygdala (Sigurdsson, Doyère, Cain, & LeDoux, 2007).Sigurdsson, T., Doyère, V., Cain, C. K., & LeDoux, J. E. (2007). Long-term potentiation in the amygdala: A cellular mechanism of fear learning and memory. Neuropharmacology, 52(1), 215–227. Evidence for the role of different brain structures in different types of memories comes in part from case studies of patients who suffer from amnesiaA memory disorder that involves the inability to remember information., a memory disorder that involves the inability to remember information. As with memory interference effects, amnesia can work in either a forward or a backward direction, affecting retrieval or encoding. For people who suffer damage to the brain, for instance, as a result of a stroke or other trauma, the amnesia may work backward. The outcome is retrograde amnesiaA memory disorder that involves the inability to retrieve events that occurred before a given time., a memory disorder that produces an inability to retrieve events that occurred before a given time. Demonstrating the fact that LTP takes time (the process of consolidation), retrograde amnesia is usually more severe for memories that occurred just prior to the trauma than it is for older memories, and events that occurred just before the event that caused memory loss may never be recovered because they were never completely encoded. Figure 8.18 Scott Bolzan Scott Bolzan is a motivational speaker, an entrepreneur, and a former NFL football player. In December 2008, he suffered a brain injury that has left him with profound retrograde amnesia. You can read more about him here: http://abcnews.go.com/Nightline/amnesia-man-hits-head-loses-memories/story?id=10396719. Source: Photo courtesy of Scott Bolzan, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Scott_Bolzan.jpeg. Organisms with damage to the hippocampus develop a type of amnesia that works in a forward direction to affect encoding, known as anterograde amnesia. Anterograde amnesiaA memory disorder that involves the inability to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory. is the inability to transfer information from short-term into long-term memory, making it impossible to form new memories. One well-known case study was a man named Henry Gustav Molaison (before he died in 2008, he was referred to only as H. M.) who had parts of his hippocampus removed to reduce severe seizures (Corkin, Amaral, González, Johnson, & Hyman, 1997).Corkin, S., Amaral, D. G., González, R. G., Johnson, K. A., & Hyman, B. T. (1997). H. M.’s medial temporal lobe lesion: Findings from magnetic resonance imaging. The Journal of Neuroscience, 17(10), 3964–3979. Following the operation, Molaison developed virtually complete anterograde amnesia. Although he could remember most of what had happened before the operation, and particularly what had occurred early in his life, he could no longer create new memories. Molaison was said to have read the same magazines over and over again without any awareness of having seen them before. Cases of anterograde amnesia also provide information about the brain structures involved in different types of memory (Bayley & Squire, 2005; Helmuth, 1999; Paller, 2004).Bayley, P. J., & Squire, L. R. (2005). Failure to acquire new semantic knowledge in patients with large medial temporal lobe lesions. Hippocampus, 15(2), 273–280; Helmuth, Laura. (1999). New role found for the hippocampus. Science, 285, 1339–1341; Paller, K. A. (2004). Electrical signals of memory and of the awareness of remembering. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(2), 49–55. Although Molaison’s explicit memory was compromised because his hippocampus was damaged, his implicit memory was not (because his cerebellum was intact). He could learn to trace shapes in a mirror, a task that requires procedural memory, but he never had any explicit recollection of having performed this task or of the people who administered the test to him. Although some brain structures are particularly important in memory, this does not mean that all memories are stored in one place. The American psychologist Karl Lashley (1929)Lashley, K. S. (1929). The effects of cerebral lesions subsequent to the formation of the maze habit: Localization of the habit. In Brain mechanisms and intelligence: A quantitative study of injuries to the brain (pp. 86–108). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. attempted to determine where memories were stored in the brain by teaching rats how to run mazes, and then lesioning different brain structures to see if they were still able to complete the maze. This idea seemed straightforward, and Lashley expected to find that memory was stored in certain parts of the brain. But he discovered that no matter where he removed brain tissue, the rats retained at least some memory of the maze, leading him to conclude that memory isn’t located in a single place in the brain, but rather is distributed around it. Long-term potentiation occurs as a result of changes in the synapses, which suggests that chemicals, particularly neurotransmitters and hormones, must be involved in memory. There is quite a bit of evidence that this is true. Glutamate, a neurotransmitter and a form of the amino acid glutamic acid, is perhaps the most important neurotransmitter in memory (McEntee & Crook, 1993).McEntee, W., & Crook, T. (1993). Glutamate: Its role in learning, memory, and the aging brain. Psychopharmacology, 111(4), 391–401. When animals, including people, are under stress, more glutamate is secreted, and this glutamate can help them remember (McGaugh, 2003).McGaugh, J. L. (2003). Memory and emotion: The making of lasting memories. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. The neurotransmitter serotonin is also secreted when animals learn, and epinephrine may also increase memory, particularly for stressful events (Maki & Resnick, 2000; Sherwin, 1998).Maki, P. M., & Resnick, S. M. (2000). Longitudinal effects of estrogen replacement therapy on PET cerebral blood flow and cognition. Neurobiology of Aging, 21, 373–383; Sherwin, B. B. (1998). Estrogen and cognitive functioning in women. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biological Medicine, 217, 17–22. Estrogen, a female sex hormone, also seems critical, because women who are experiencing menopause, along with a reduction in estrogen, frequently report memory difficulties (Chester, 2001).Chester, B. (2001). Restoring remembering: Hormones and memory. McGill Reporter, 33(10). Retrieved from http://www.mcgill.ca/reporter/33/10/sherwin Our knowledge of the role of biology in memory suggests that it might be possible to use drugs to improve our memories, and Americans spend several hundred million dollars per year on memory supplements with the hope of doing just that. Yet controlled studies comparing memory enhancers, including Ritalin, methylphenidate, ginkgo biloba, and amphetamines, with placebo drugs find very little evidence for their effectiveness (Gold, Cahill, & Wenk, 2002; McDaniel, Maier, & Einstein, 2002).Gold, P. E., Cahill, L., & Wenk, G. L. (2002). Ginkgo biloba: A cognitive enhancer? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 3(1), 2–11; McDaniel, M. A., Maier, S. F., & Einstein, G. O. (2002). “Brain-specific” nutrients: A memory cure? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 3(1), 12–38. Memory supplements are usually no more effective than drinking a sugared soft drink, which also releases glucose and thus improves memory slightly. This is not to say that we cannot someday create drugs that will significantly improve our memory. It is likely that this will occur in the future, but the implications of these advances are as yet unknown (Farah et al., 2004; Turner & Sahakian, 2006).Farah, M. J., Illes, J., Cook-Deegan, R., Gardner, H., Kandel, E., King, P.,…Wolpe, P. R. (2004). Neurocognitive enhancement: What can we do and what should we do? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(5), 421–425; Turner, D. C., & Sahakian, B. J. (2006). Analysis of the cognitive enhancing effects of modafinil in schizophrenia. In J. L. Cummings (Ed.), Progress in neurotherapeutics and neuropsychopharmacology (pp. 133–147). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Although the most obvious potential use of drugs is to attempt to improve memory, drugs might also be used to help us forget. This might be desirable in some cases, such as for those suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) who are unable to forget disturbing memories. Although there are no existing therapies that involve using drugs to help people forget, it is possible that they will be available in the future. These possibilities will raise some important ethical issues: Is it ethical to erase memories, and if it is, is it desirable to do so? Perhaps the experience of emotional pain is a part of being a human being. And perhaps the experience of emotional pain may help us cope with the trauma. - Information is better remembered when it is meaningfully elaborated. - Hermann Ebbinghaus made important contributions to the study of learning, including modeling the forgetting curve, and studying the spacing effect and the benefits of overlearning. - Context- and state-dependent learning, as well as primacy and recency effects, influence long-term memory. - Memories are stored in connected synapses through the process of long-term potentiation (LTP). In addition to the cortex, other parts of the brain, including the hippocampus, cerebellum, and the amygdala, are also important in memory. - Damage to the brain may result in retrograde amnesia or anterograde amnesia. Case studies of patients with amnesia can provide information about the brain structures involved in different types of memory. - Memory is influenced by chemicals including glutamate, serotonin, epinephrine, and estrogen. - Studies comparing memory enhancers with placebo drugs find very little evidence for their effectiveness. Exercises and Critical Thinking - Plan a course of action to help you study for your next exam, incorporating as many of the techniques mentioned in this section as possible. Try to implement the plan. - Make a list of some the schemas that you have stored in your memory. What are the contents of each schema, and how might you use the schema to help you remember new information? - In the film “Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind,” the characters undergo a medical procedure designed to erase their memories of a painful romantic relationship. Would you engage in such a procedure if it was safely offered to you?

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In traditional Western music, the key is the tonal center of a composition. The choice of key determines which of the other notes in the scale will be considered "natural". The Western scale divides the octave into twelve notes (plus the octave, at double the frequency of the lowest note). Any given key uses eight of these, or seven plus the octave, from which the composer can construct melodies and harmonies. Since many times the judicious use of the other five notes, also known as chromaticism, will make the music more compelling, we have notation devices to indicate when they are used instead of their natural counterparts. A piece of music will also often change keys at various times, known as modulation. This is usually done by moving to a closely related key, that is, one whose key signature only differs by one sharp or flat in either direction. An easy way to find which keys are related in this way is to follow the circle of fifths. The notes used in the key of C major (corresponding to the white notes on the piano) are C, D, E, F, G, A, B and C. When sung or played, these are often referred to by their respective names do, re, mi, fa, so, la ti, and do. In the late nineteenth century, composers such as Richard Wagner, Hugo Wolf, and Richard Strauss began to use extreme chromaticism and modulations to distantly related keys for a heightened expressive affect. In the twentieth century, this trend developed to the point where the listener's impression of a tonal center became weak or even irrelevant, leading to atonal music. Arnold Schönberg eventually attempted to create a new set of rules to replace tonality, resulting in twelve tone music. Many styles, or genres, of music are quite recognizable by the type of key structure they employ. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, composers and contemporary writers on music believed that each major or minor key posessed a special character, or "affect," which influenced the content of the work being composed. For example, according to eighteenth-century author Johannes Mattheson, the key of D Major was associated with merriment and warlike music, while F Minor was the key of "deep despair and the heart's fear of death." - ↑ Rita Steblin, A History of Key Characteristics in the 18th and Early 19th Centuries, 1983

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There is both matter and energy in the universe and we work them into useful objects, i.e. art and technology. In everything there is both a material and informational component. The material aspect of objects that we produce we call material works, and the informational aspect we call intellectual works. We apprehend matter with our bodies and information with our senses. We also control the movement of, and access to, material and intellectual works through physical means (as opposed to supernatural means such as ’spooky action at a distance’). It is from the individual’s natural ability to physically possess themselves and other objects that we derive the right to privacy and consequently the notion of property (objects possessed within our private domain). In the 18th century the privileges of copyright and patent were granted to authors and inventors (registrants of novel designs). These are monopolies applying to intellectual works and augment people’s natural intellectual property rights with unnatural ones – also known as ‘legally granted rights’ or ‘legal rights’ or these days, simply ‘rights’. Thus those who would retain their 18th century monopolies like to call them ‘rights’ rather than privileges, precisely to conflate them with natural rights. You have a natural right to prevent a burglar stealing your bread as much as your diary or a copy of it, but only a privilege to prevent people printing copies of the carol you wrote for them that they sung at xmas. Thus, the monopolists prefer ‘intellectual property right’ to ‘intellectual work privilege’, and simply contract the former to ‘intellectual property’ – so you don’t question whether the missing ‘right’ is a natural right or an unnatural, legally granted right (estd. by Queen Anne in 1710). Unfortunately, instead of simply being against state granted monopolies, some people also use the corrupt term ‘intellectual property’ in place of ’state granted monopolies’ and so declare themselves to be against ‘intellectual property’. This then means they are also against the natural right people have to their intellectual property, i.e. against its removal or copying by burglars. Jim Killock of the ‘Open’ ‘Rights’ Group (ORG) falls into the trap set by publishers in terming their 18th century privilege of a reproduction monopoly as a ‘right’ (omitting ‘legally granted’ to insinuate ‘natural’). In his comment of March 10, 2010, 11:57:57, Jim Killock appears to believe copyright is a creator’s right and should revert to that individual artist rather than the record company that they signed with. On the other hand, I can think of several instances where we’ve backed creator’s rights. In the term extension debate, we strongly argued that rights should revert to artists, not record companies, even within the existing term of sound copyright. We also argue very strongly for a parody exception in copyright, which to our mind is a ‘creator’s right’, and much of the highly valuable comedy sector would benefit from legal certainty. In our response to the P2P consultation, we argued that license deals were being blocked by the major rights holders (not the artists themselves), and this is depriving artists of the income they deserve. I suppose Jim therefore believes that a ‘creator’ could sell their right to make a parody? It is the right to make a parody that in some jurisdictions is suspended by the privilege of copyright. However, you can’t have it both ways. If you’re going to call copyright a creator’s right then obviously it already includes the ‘right’ to make a parody. So, why make an exception in copyright if copyright is already a creator’s right? If copyright is a creator’s right then making an exception for parody because that really is a creator’s right seems to be redundant. Jim is going to be very confused (as is ORG and its members) if it keeps on using the term ‘rights’ for both privileges and rights. Here are a couple of clues to tell the difference between a ‘right’ and a right. If it can be sold, transferred and/or held then it is a privilege or ‘right’ as some confusingly prefer to term it (qvRightsholder). If it is something that the individual is born with, that all individuals have equally, that like a shadow no individual can sell or otherwise be alienated from, then it is a (natural) right, e.g. the right to life. Unscrupulous legislatures can of course still make laws to suspend an individual’s rights (derogation) in order to grant privileges, such as the granting of copyright and patent in the 18th century, and as ACTA requires to be granted in the 21st. Incrimination upon accusation? I posted an explanatory follow up comment to Jim’s, but at the time of writing it has not yet passed moderation: Jim, copyright is not a creator’s ‘right’ in the same sense as ‘right’ in ‘human right’. If it was a natural right instead of a legally granted right it would be inalienable and the individual wouldn’t be able to sell it to a record company. There wouldn’t therefore be any conception of it reverting. Legally granted rights, or privileges, necessarily involve the state’s suspension of the individual’s respective natural right. So copyright (granted for the exploitation of the press) involves the state’s suspension of all individuals’ natural right to copy (even the musician has lost their right to copy their own music – they may choose to retain the privilege to do so of course, instead of selling it). This is why ORG cannot claim to be about protecting the individual’s rights if it also attempts to protect privileges granted for the purposes of exploitation by manufacturers of copies such as record labels and other publishing corporations. The right to make copies does not belong to the creator, but to the people – they are the one’s who’ve had their right suspended, and it is to them the right should revert, to be restored. That’s why a lot of people have the idea that copyright should only last a couple of decades – a commercially lucrative monopoly, at the end of which the public’s suspended liberty to make copies would be restored. You’ve got to recognise the difference between protecting and restoring the individual’s rights, and protecting and reverting privileges attaching to original intellectual works. Are you the Open Rights & Privileges Group, or the Open Rights Group? And as Rob suggests, the ‘Open’ bit may need some attention too. I’ve now added: We’ve had copyright for such a long time that its proponents’ use of ‘right’ as a contraction of ‘legally granted right’ has conflated and corrupted the original 18th century meaning of right as a natural right. The following excerpt from Wikipedia’s page on Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man seems to put the difference between ‘right’ and right most succinctly: Human rights originate in Nature, thus, rights cannot be granted via political charter, because that implies that rights are legally revocable, hence, would be privileges: It is a perversion of terms to say that a charter gives rights. It operates by a contrary effect — that of taking rights away. Rights are inherently in all the inhabitants; but charters, by annulling those rights, in the majority, leave the right, by exclusion, in the hands of a few . . . They . . . consequently are instruments of injustice. The fact, therefore, must be that the individuals, themselves, each, in his own personal and sovereign right, entered into a compact with each other to produce a government: and this is the only mode in which governments have a right to arise, and the only principle on which they have a right to exist. Thus: The Statute of Anne, by annulling the (natural) right to copy (that is inherently in all the inhabitants), in the majority, leaves that right, by exclusion, in the hands of a few (copyright holders). The privilege of copyright is consequently an instrument of injustice – held in the hands of a few. You cannot understand copyright in the 21st century in terms of ‘right’ because the term ‘right’ has itself become corrupted by the privilege it is now used to describe. You are an extremely lucid thinker and writer, and this is one of a few really worthwhile blogs I’ve come across on this subject. I’d also include openrights.org in that list. Speaking of which I replied to your comment @ www.openrightsgroup…. I look forward to reading your next entry, particularly if it is going to contain more of the meat on your proposed open business model(s). It is sad that so many persist in thinking that copyright is a right created for the author, and a right that belongs to the author. It should be strange that it must be created for them, and very strange that they can sign it away. As everyone should know, rights are not created – we are born with them. Privileges are created – through the derogation of the rights we already have. These privileges are like rights, but they are created through legislation, hence lawyers prefer to term them ‘legally granted rights’, ‘legal rights’, or simply ‘rights’. Because (thanks largely to copyright lawyers) the latter usage has now almost superseded the original, natural meaning of right (much to copyright holders’ pleasure), too many people use the word ‘right’ interchangeably without realising that right qua privilege is completely antagonistic to right qua right. Now that people are twigging that something is going fundamentally awry with respect to children being sued millions for file-sharing and copyright considered a fundamental right of the artist (that prevents them starving), it’s more important than ever to resurrect the distinction between a (natural) right and a ‘right’ (crown privilege). We cannot continue to use a homophone for both. Copyright is called ‘copyright’ because it is the suspension of the people’s right to copy, in order to reserve it into the hands of those privileged with it, who hold that privilege, hence ‘copyright holders’. We have Queen Anne to thank for granting the privilege. For a little history concerning who copyright was created for (neither the author, nor the encouragement of learning) I’ll hand you over to Karl Fogel. Copyright actually discourages learning by impeding the free flow of ideas and communication of knowledge, because I would normally be committing copyright infringement in order to present an extract from his Question Copyrightwebsite: Around 1700, political changes caused the government to loosen its control over the press. No longer desiring strong censorship, the government decided to allow the Stationers' monopoly to expire. This was a direct economic threat to the Stationers' monopoly-based livelihood, and they responded by proposing a compromise: they argued that authors have a "natural right" of ownership in their works, and that furthermore this right could be transferred to others by contract. The placement of original ownership with the author was a smart political ploy, by which the Stationers avoided charges that they were attempting to resurrect the old (and unpopular) monopoly mechanisms. But the stipulation that these new copyrights were a form of property, and therefore transferrable, showed the real motive behind their proposal. The Stationers correctly foresaw that authors would need to transfer copyright to a publisher as an inducement to print, and that therefore the publishers' position would about the same as it had been before. Indeed, their hand would be strengthened, because now the exclusive "ownership" of a work would now be based on well-established property law, instead of the temporary whim of the The Stationers managed to persuade Parliament, and the result was the Statute of Anne: a copyright law created by the publishing industry, for the benefit of the publishing industry, and modeled on a defunct censorship system. The closest the Stationers ever came to talking about copyright's benefit to society was in arguing that they could not afford to print books (and thus encourage authors to write books) without protection against competition. Why books were to be considered different from other kinds of goods was never satisfactorily explained — one is left with the distinct impression of a monopoly-softened trade group in a panic at suddenly being asked to survive without special protections. All this is a far cry from what the copyright lobby wants you to believe. There was no uprising of writers, clamoring counterintuitively for the right to prevent people from copying their works. The writers themselves never really participated in the debate around the creation of copyright. The argument was crafted and presented by publishers. Copyright is not about subsidizing creators, it is about I post this here, because ORG’s Jim Killock finds my comment below too offensive to permit to appear beneath his recent blog item entitled When Copyright Goes Bad Copyright isn’t going bad – it’s always been bad, ever since the privilege was granted to the Stationers’ Guild by Queen Anne in 1710. What’s going on is that more and more people are discovering that their natural liberty to share and build upon their own culture has been suspended by an iniquitous 18th century anachronism. It seems ORG doesn’t mind comment as long as it’s ‘on message’, i.e. remains in accord with ORG’s support for copyright. A rather peculiar policy… Update 22 Apr 2010 · 1:53pm As Ibutton77 kindly brings to my attention, ORG has now relented and permitted my comment to appear. Whether their embargo of my comment would ever have been lifted had I not blogged my comment here is open to conjecture, but a discriminatory embargo isn’t much better than discriminatory ‘moderation’. It’s unfortunate that organizations like this are so enamored by the institution that perpetrates the very grievances they fight against. The idea that “IP” is inherently a good thing is never questioned, despite the horrendous mess it has become. Rather than fixing the real problem, they want to minimize the symptoms through reform or limitation. I think such a strategy has even less of a chance of working in the long run than outright elimination. The Pirate Party suffers from it too. It’s a sacrifice of principle in pursuit of membership. If such organisations perceive popular support for copyright simultaneously with popular outcry against its enforcement, then they believe they too must engage in such doublethink. They must shun the ‘extremists’ in order to focus discussion on reaching a prophesized balance between the interests of publishing corporations in enforcement and the interests of individual copyright aspirants in one day enjoying their privilege (as all hope for stardom). The Pirate Party UK has now excluded me from access to my discussions critical of copyright on their forums (unless I pay to become a member of a party whose support for copyright I object to). ORG has ejected me from their discussion list, censured me on their web based forums, and informs me my comments are not welcome on their blog articles. It’s not very inspiring is it? Even Nina Paley notices the stigma against copyright abolitionism: “I’m now artist-in-residence at QuestionCopyright.org, and do what I can to promote alternatives to copyright. (Actually I’m a copyright abolitionist, but many find that identification unpalatable.)” AgainstMonopoly.org If the likes of PPUK and ORG try to play down or suppress the existence of abolitionists and the natural rights argument against copyright, are they really demonstrating they will act in the best interests of the public they court? Bwaha, you’re comment is showing at their article presently. It claims circa 10:36am. Now how do we get your blog to display time in addition to date, demonstrating you posted this before they let your posting through on that end? ;3 I would very much like to know what prompts Lawrence Lessig to cling to his middle-ground stance. I have heard him say on many occasions that reform is good and abolition is bad. He seems eager to present a strong foundation for his case against (strong) copyright, just as we do, however I want to know what his specific argument is against abolition. Do you guys happen to know if he’s gone about clarifying that anywhere yet? @SteelWolf: The reason why the validity of “IP” is never questioned is because in the US you are “born” with it. Not “born” in the literal sense, but burned into your mind as part of one’s education. The concept behind “IP” is really quite simple and carries significant moral/ethical weight. Don’t artists deserve some sort of limited “protection” for creativity? Even I wouldn’t argue against that. However, over the years, “IP” has morphed into a demon that now threatens our liberties. As you begin to observe and be affected by this increasingly onerous demon; the light bulb in your head finally goes off and you get around to asking the question concerning the validity of “IP”. Since the video clip was made by experts in the field, this issue should have been further explored. In fact, I would say that this is a major shortcoming in the fight against oppressive “IP”. It leaves those favoring so-called “IP” with popular support that “IP” is a real property right that must be protected. The reality is that the thieves are the those asserting “IP” ownership since they are depriving the public of their rights. The public must be made aware of this. Ibutton77, as for Lawrence Lessig, given the extent of his career in law I wouldn’t be surprised if he sees law as an unimpeachably virtuous institution, and any social problems it causes as perfectly amenable to legal solution, i.e. in copyright’s case, Creative Commons licenses. I suggest that he is therefore a wholly committed advocate of copyright and supports the notion that an author should have the privilege of determining how their work may be communicated or exploited by society (despite the fact the privilege was created for the press). So to copyright advocates, copyright abolition is pretty much heresy, and to support the proposition that copyright is an unconstitutional instrument of injustice would be akin to the apostasy of confessing to the pope’s fallibility and conceding that the Earth orbits the Sun. As I said on his blog“If there’s any man who will have done more than any other to prolong the lifespan of copyright legislation more than a century beyond its 200 year use by date (1910) by popularising its use by impotent self-publishers, it’s Lawrence Lessig.” Without Creative Commons, there’d be far less respect for copyright (see Creative Commons consolidates old-school copyright?). So it’s really just postponed the build up of social pressure for ‘something to be done’ about copyright. Perversely, the publishing corporations are doing an excellent job at stoking the furnace with ACTA, and the draconian copyright enforcement legislation it is intended to spawn, such as the UK’s Digital Economy Act. So, it is ACTA we can look to as a spur to copyright’s inexorable abolition. Steve R, I’d readily agree that a great proportion of popular support for copyright and patent derives almost entirely from indoctrination. That’s why we get such unfounded justifications for it, e.g. “Creators deserve the reward of a monopoly: for their gift to mankind, and as an incentive to others’ creativity” and “To sell a copy is to sell another’s work, to steal the fruits of another’s labour”. Considering how pervasive the pro copyright arguments are, even to the point where some claim it needs to be extended longer than it already is, I don’t understand why argument in favor of abolishing it is so frowned apon as to be banished from the debate by some copyright reform advocates. If nothing else, taking that off the table in the copyright debate is a terrible tactic. Look at the opposition – ACTA, DMCA, U.K. Digital Economy Bill, the pro copyright “as is” crowed has shown no lack of aggression. Even if an organization such as PPUK favours reform rather than abolition it should not stifle argument from people favouring abolition, if anything it should telling the whole pro ACTA Digital Economy Bill, three strikes side that if that is where they insist on going(which they are) then they (PPUK) will cease trying to compromise on copyright and push for an all out ban. The pro copyright people bring all their weapons to the table, the reform crowed should do likewise. Comment #000411 at Monkey D. Luffy Monkey, I see maximalism as aggression, reform as appeasement, and abolition as principled, but then perhaps I would… I think reform organisations have given up hope (if they ever had it) of persuading the populace that copyright isn’t actually an individual’s right, but a privilege intended for the press. They focus on making enforcement a little more humane, if not more rigorously applied (instead of infringement being assumed, and innocence a matter for the infringer to prove). See Can Copyright Be Saved? for another example of people with the strange notion that the way to preserve a privilege is to prevent its detractors having the opportunity to raise arguments against it. I’m referring in particular to Rick’s comment in which he requests: “Hey moderator! Can we please NOT have any more posts from C. Fitch?” Hi, I’ve been reading this blog for a while and started questioning copyright myself as a result. “What’s going on is that more and more people are discovering that their natural liberty to share and build upon their own culture has been suspended by an iniquitous 18th century anachronism.” I have two objections, first, who’s to say that what’s natural is what is good? Or that when something is natural, it is the right thing to do? The second one is that you claim copying a right we are born with. I think that we are not really born with any rights, just as we are not born with any language, but that we agree that we are born with them. Jassmonsteret, I suggest you search the web to consider and compare diverse explanations of natural law and natural rights (and criticisms thereof). Primarily focussed in the digital realm, I exhort the restoration of the individual’s natural rights concerning the possession, creation, communication and exchange of intellectual work, through the abolition of the privileges that derogate from them (copyright and patent). I enumerate natural rights as: Life, Privacy, Truth, and Liberty. They are the innate needs, powers and imperatives of human beings if considered as equals in a harmonious community. Inegalitarian states can grant greater powers and privileges, but then these are not natural, and are, as Paine says, instruments of injustice. I read on The 1709 Blog that even though Professor Lionel Bently concedes the legitimacy of copyright is a fit and proper subject for academic study, he cannot bring himself to pose any vision for the future in which it does not remain legitimate. Lionel posed three visions to consider: (i) judicial deepening of harmonisation in the ECJ; (ii) further piecemeal legislation from the EU; and (iii) a European copyright code and unitary European copyright. (iv) Abolition, of course, being unthinkable. The black swan of cultural liberation may be a nightmare for crown privileged publishing corporations and their lawyer footmen, but for the downtrodden mortals it cannot return from its migration too soon. Naturally, you are free to take any liberties you wish with these published works. However, should a privilege ever be granted to constrain your liberty then its holders constrain you thus: the liberties you take may not be withheld from those to whom you give these works (or your combined/derivative works), who you must similarly constrain.

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Improved water source, urban (% of urban population with access) Access to an improved water source refers to the percentage of the population with reasonable access to an adequate amount of water from an improved source, such as a household connection, public standpipe, borehole, protected well or spring, and rainwater collection. Unimproved sources include vendors, tanker trucks, and unprotected wells and springs. Reasonable access is defined as the availability of at least 20 liters a person a day from a source within one kilometer of the dwelling. World Health Organization and United Nations Children's Fund, Joint Measurement Programme (JMP) (http://www.wssinfo.org/).

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Internships Help Students Prepare for Workplace Job shadowing also a tactic schools use for career readiness Internships and job shadowing offer a close-up look at life in the workplace, yet some high school students are so focused on academics that they pass up the opportunity, or they are uncertain about their interests and don't know where to start. But the push to improve college and career readiness and produce a better-prepared workforce is increasing the pressure on schools to build partnerships with businesses. What's more, educators realize that students are motivated when they see the relevance of what they are learning. "The central goal is to get students out of the classroom and into the real world so they can feel and see the entire work process," said Randy McPherson, the director of counseling services and college preparation for the Memphis, Tenn., schools and the American School Counselor Association's counselor of the year in 2011. "Otherwise, they don't really grasp what a day looks like or what a job entails." While there is no agency tracking trends with internships, interesting models are being used across the country, and students often find the work exposure enlightening—even life-changing. Internships can be set up in various ways. Some are offered in the summer, some on evenings or weekends or during part of the school day. They can last a few weeks or more than a year. Many are unpaid, but some offer a paycheck or grant school credit for the work. With job shadowing, students typically spend a few hours or a full day on a job site to learn about a profession. Whatever the structure, a work experience can confirm, or rule out, a career choice. It can also help students cope with mistakes when the stakes aren't so high, as later in life. Learning on the Job Alex Carroll worked last fall as an unpaid intern at a golf course near his home in Searsport, Maine. The high school senior has a passion for the sport and was considering it as a career, along with mechanical engineering. The golf pro showed him the business side and how to maintain the course. "I knew a lot of money went into it, but I didn't realize how much. And I didn't realize how much was needed to care for the fairways," said Mr. Carroll, who had to write a weekly blog about his experience for school. After the internship, he decided a two-year golf college wasn't for him. Instead, he's applying to colleges, including the University of Maine, and may try to play golf there. Recognizing the value of workplace exposure, Mr. Carroll's teacher, Kathleen Jenkins of Searsport District High School, has expanded internships and job-shadowing programs with local businesses, including a solar-energy company, jewelry store, newspaper, and plumbing firm. Internships at Searsport, like at many high schools, are unpaid. And that can be a barrier for the teenagers who need to earn money to make ends meet or save for college. But Garrett Miller, a New Jersey-based workforce-productivity coach and the author of 2012's Hired 'Right' Out of College, encourages students not to rule something out because it doesn't pay. "You are being paid in experience," he said. "A recruiter looking at a résumé never asks how much were you getting paid. ... If it looks interesting, he just says, 'Tell me about that.' " With all the emphasis on grades and college, schools have fostered an "elite" attitude that doesn't always embrace workplace experience, according to Bill Coplin, a professor of public affairs at Syracuse University, in New York, and the author of 10 Things Employers Want You to Learn in College, published in 2012. In addition to academics, students need to develop a work ethic, communication skills, and the ability to work on a team. The high school curriculum is "traditional and very narrow," said Mr. Coplin, which particularly hurts low-achieving students who may not be pursuing a four-year degree but need to develop career skills. It can be difficult to persuade students to take the time for an internship or job-shadowing day, especially those in Advanced Placement classes, and increasingly, many don't want to work for free, said Cara Kirby, the senior career-experience specialist for the Fairfax County district in Virginia. "They are scared to miss one day of school, even though the opportunity could change their lives. It's a challenge," she said. Polishing Up Students The more successful internship programs make workplace expectations clear to students. "You have to work with students to [help them] understand there is an appropriate dress, way to act, and address people," said Mr. McPherson of the Trezevant center. In Fairfax County's hospitality program, Pat Edwards teaches juniors and seniors the basics of the industry in the classroom before they spend two days a week in an internship at local businesses. She explains the etiquette of the workplace, but students don't always catch on right away. One of her seniors, Jermane Whyte, was in an all-day orientation at the Ritz Carlton, Tysons Corner this past fall when he pulled out his cellphone during some down time to text his father. He also missed about a quarter of his internship days the first semester because of conflicts with college interviews and other activities. The hotel supervisor called Ms. Edwards, who then talked with her student to reinforce the rules. Looking back, Mr. Whyte, 17, said he recognizes his mistakes and is more aware now of his conduct. He continues to intern at the Ritz and has enjoyed rotating among various positions, from the front desk to security. "I had no prior work experience," he said. "This has opened my eyes to work life and team building." Talking It Over What's missing from many work experiences in high school is time to reflect, said Mr. Miller. To get the most out of an internship, students should talk about what they enjoyed, what they didn't, and how that translates into their next move, he said. At Children's Hospital of Colorado, Stacey Whiteside holds weekly group debriefing sessions for interns. "They may see something hard emotionally or physically, and this is where they need to be talking about it. And they are assigned a mentor on the unit," said Ms. Whiteside, who coordinates the hospital's high school internship program aimed at underrepresented minority students. More than 200 students in Denver apply for the 25 positions in the hospital's two-year, paid Medical Career Collaborative, which includes training, monthly field trips, and internships. At the end of the program, students give a formal presentation to a group of about 70 hospital staff and family members about their experience. "Many families are blown away by seeing their student in a professional role," said Ms. Whiteside. "They have not seen that side of them, and it helps the families buy into college." Former hospital intern Chisom Agbim is a second-year medical student at the University of Colorado. In 2006, she worked alongside a nurse in the emergency room at Children's Hospital and says it solidified her career choice. "It was exciting to be able to see what was going on … to see how the whole team works," said Ms. Agbim, who noted that the experience gave her a different impression than what she had imagined from watching episodes of the drama "ER" on television. "I had a more realistic sense of what patients are like and what physicians can do." Now 23, Ms. Agbim says she understands it was rare to get a hands-on opportunity in medicine as a high school student, while she knew of others who just volunteered and got stuck shelving books. To help students, mentors, and employers understand their responsibility in an internship, Ms. Jenkins of Maine has all parties sign a contract. "It makes it clear who is accountable for what," she said. Once, Ms. Kirby of Fairfax sent three students to a job site and the chief executive officer asked them to sweep. "They were furious," she recounts. After later talking with the CEO, she learned he had started at the company by sweeping and was trying to convey that to the students. "Even if it is not ideal, you still have to be respectful," said Ms. Kirby. In Lincoln, Neb., all students at Northeast High School take a career course that includes job-shadowing, and next fall, it will be expanded from one quarter to a semester of instruction. "Every student is required to do job-shadowing. It's the only way for students to make a good decision and be confident in their career decision," said Ruth Lohmeyer, a counselor and the counseling team leader, recently named 2013 School Counselor of the Year by the ASCA. The district has increased its emphasis on working with the business community, and Ms. Lohmeyer has found employers receptive. "People like to talk about their occupations," she said. The push to make business connections is also fueled by efforts to stem the brain drain from Nebraska and keep graduates working in the area. As a teenager in Pennsylvania, Meagan Phelan toured a manufacturing plant, bank, and hospital as part of her mother's goal to introduce her to a variety of careers. "It created in me this curiosity," said Ms. Phelan. Learning how various professionals arrived at their jobs was liberating for her because she realized there were many paths to take with a degree. After studying biology and Spanish in college, she went on to get a master's in science writing and now works as a writer for a firm in Boston, as well as a columnist for the website Prepped & Polished. "Everyone is working hard to get good grades in high school and studying for the SAT," she said. "But not everyone is interning, and so many get to college undecided." Vol. 32, Issue 19, Page 8 Access selected articles, e-newsletters and more! - The Berkeley Institute, HAMILTON, Bermuda - Amargosa Valley Elementary School, Amargosa Valley, NV - Christ the King Preparatory School, NJ - Assistant Superintendent for Teaching and Learning - Roanoke City Public Schools, Roanoke, VA - Seminole County Public Schools, Sanford, FL

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Vector Linux 5.8 Accessing disks and partitions 1. Mounting devices 2. Mounting devices with VASM 3. The fstab file 4. mount and umount commands 5. The vl-hot automount system 5. Credits all of the drives, partitions and devices in your computer are treated as "files". Various hard drive partitions, CD-ROMs, and floppies are all placed in the same filesystem tree. In order to be able to access the contents of those devices you need to "mount" them, and for that you have to use the The easiest way to mount a device such as a second hard disk or partition is by adding a permanent entry in the /etc/fstab file, along with the mounting options and permissions. Since VectorLinux 5, VASM provides an easy method to administer such entries for your mount points. Note: Some devices can be automatically mounted when you boot up your computer. These need to be listed in the /etc/fstab file. Anything that you want to be mounted automatically should have an entry in that file. For other devices, you'll have to issue a command every time you want to use the device. VASM provides an easy method to configure additional local disks or partitions to be mounted in your system. Just launch it, select "FILESYSTEM", then "MOUNT", and there you can ADD or REMOVE mount points. - Adding mount points - Deleting mount points Since VL5, using VASM is all you need to know to mount your partitions or hardisks. However, for those wanting to know more about mounting devices, here is some additional information. Let's look at an example of the /etc/fstab file: The first column is the device name. In this case, the devices are four partitions in an IDE hard drive, two special filesystems that don't need a device, a floppy, and a CD-ROM drive. The second column is where in the directory tree the device will be mounted. This needs to be a directory name, except in the case of a swap partition. The third column is the filesystem type of the device. For Windows 9x filesystems, this will be vfat, for normal Linux filesystems, this will be ext2 (second extended filesystem). CD-ROM drives are iso9660, and other Windows-based devices will either be msdos or vfat. NTFS filesystems read support is available but write support is not fully reliable yet. The umask section deals with access permissions to FAT devices. This is a very complex topic that goes beyond the scope of this guide, but keep in mind that the 000 option poses almost no restrictions about how regular users can access the device. The last column is a listing of options that apply to the mounted filesystem. “defaults” is fine for just about everything. However, read-only devices should be given the ro flag. There are a lot of options that can be used. Check the fstab(5) man page for more information. The last two columns are used by fsck and other commands that need to manipulate the devices. Check the man page for that information, as well. When you install VectorLinux, the setup program will build much of the fstab file. The only time you will need to edit it is if you add disks or want devices to be automatically mounted at boot time. Attaching another device to your filesystem is easy. All you have to do is use the mount command, along with a few options. Using mount can also be made much more simple if the device has an entry in the /etc/fstab file. For example, let's say that I wanted to mount my CD-ROM drive and that my fstab file looked like the example from the previous section. I would call mount like so: Since there is an entry in fstab for that mount point, mount knows what options to use. If there wasn't an entry for that device, I would have to use several options for mount: That command line includes the same information as the example fstab did, but we'll go over all the parts anyways. The -t iso9660 is the filesystem type of the device to mount. In this case, it would be the iso9660 filesystem which is what CD-ROM drives most commonly use. The -o ro tells mount to mount the device read-only. The /dev/cdrom is the name of the device to mount, and /mnt/cdrom is the location on the filesystem to mount the drive. Before you can remove a floppy, CD-ROM, or other removable device that is currently mounted, you'll have to unmount it. That is done using the In the default configuration of VectorLinux, only the root user is able to mount and umount devices. You can allow regular users the ability to mount devices by adding "users" (without quotes) in your fstab file: As of SOHO version 5.1.1 VectorLinux has provided the "vl-hot" automounting system, based on udev in the 2.6 linux kernel. The system is designed to auto-mount for the user such removeable devices as pen drives, memory card readers, digital cameras, etc. Theoretically, all you need do is plug the device into your USB port on the computer and in KDE a device icon will appear on your desktop which allows you file manager access to that device. Similarly in VL Standard v5.8, which uses the xfce desktop environment, the same situation will occur.

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Alan Turing, the Second World War codebreaker widely regarded as the father of modern computing, may not have committed suicide but died as a result of an accident, an academic has claimed. Evidence gathered after the death of the scientist from cyanide poisoning at the age of 41 in 1954 was "overlooked" and he could have died as a result of inhaling the poison he used in amateur experiments rather than deliberately ingesting it, according to Professor Jack Copeland. Prof Copeland, director of the The Turing Archive for the History of Computing and author of a new biography of the academic to be published shortly, spoke as events took place around the country to celebrate the centenary of the under-appreciated scientific genius's birth. "From the records I have been able to obtain, it seems to me very obvious that the inquest was conducted in a very superficial way," he said. "The coroner didn't really investigate the evidence at all, he just jumped to the conclusion that he committed suicide. He seems to have been very biased from the statements in newspapers at the time." The coroner in Turing's death case ruled he committed suicide "while the balance of his mind was disturbed", adding: "In a man of his type, one never knows what his mental processes are going to do next." Turing, who was gay, was found guilty of gross indecency with another man in 1952. To avoid prison, he agreed to receive injections of oestrogen for a year, which were intended to reduce his libido in a process known as "chemical castration". Copeland, a Professor at the University of Canterbury Christchurch in New Zealand, will talk about Turing's death at an event in Oxford. He said medical evidence suggested Turing died from inhaling cyanide rather than drinking or ingesting it. He said police reported a strong smell of cyanide coming from Turing's lab, where he used it in amateur experiments. The inquest should be reopened "if possible", he said. "It would be a terrific thing to do. I think the nation owes it to Turing, in the Second World War he saved the nation." Perhaps best known for his part in breaking the German Enigma code at Bletchley Park, Turing was by that time already established as a mathematician of extraordinary capability. During his time at King's College, Cambridge, he devised the "Turing Machine", a mathematical model that went on to become one of the cornerstones of computer science, when aged just 22.

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Seow Poh Leng Comments on article: InfopediaTalk Seow Poh Leng (b. 1883, Singapore - d. 1942, Singapore) was a prominent banker. He was one of the three pioneers of the Ho Hong Bank, which later merged with two other banks to form the Overseas-Chinese Banking Corporation. He was also instrumental in promoting international banking to the Chinese in Southeast Asia. Seow Poh Leng was born in 1883. He was the second son of Seow Chye Watt. His family came to Singapore from Malacca. Seow was first enrolled in a Chinese school and spent two years there. Thereafter, he was transferred to a school called the Eastern School. He completed his education at the Anglo-Chinese School (ACS). After he passed the Senior Cambridge examinations at the ACS, he decided to teach. He first taught at the Eastern School from 1900 to 1901. Between 1902 and 1904, he taught at the ACS and Raffles Institution. In 1902, he applied for the Queen's Scholarship but was unsuccessful. Seow's interesting career path included various different jobs such as a chemist's assistant, a law clerk, a stockbroker and an insurance agent. He was also, at one time, a clerk at John Little & Company. In addition, he was once briefly involved in the rice trading business. Seow entered the banking world when he joined the Chinese Commercial Bank (CCB). The Ho Hong Bank Seow subsequently left CCB to work at the Ho Hong Bank, which he co-founded with Lim Peng Siang and Dr. Lim Boon Keng in 1917. Lim was a rich Hokkien merchant and Dr. Lim was a well-known public figure. Seow was made the General Manager of the bank, and held this position until his retirement in 1932. The bank started with an issued capital of $3.5 million Straits Dollars, of which half was paid-up. By 1940, it had a fully paid-up capital of $4 million. The bank's main focus was to expand into Southeast Asia and China, particularly in foreign exchange transactions. As a banker, Seow introduced the foreign exchange business to the Chinese banks in Southeast Asia. He also advocated the benefits of a limited liability company to many Chinese businessmen. He relied mainly on his own study and observations to educate himself on the various banking mechanisms. The Ho Hong Bank soon became an important exchange bank in Shanghai, Hong Kong and Malaya. From 1925 to 1929, the bank had profits between $572,000 and $1,003,000. However, it suffered huge trading and foreign exchange losses during the 1930s economic depression. Its capital and reserves were valued at only $2.6 million in June 1932. On 31 October 1932, the Ho Hong Bank merged with the Overseas-Chinese Bank and the Chinese Commercial Bank to form the Overseas-Chinese Banking Corporation. A theatre-lover, Seow took part in amateur theatricals in the 1930s. He adored Shakespeare. He named his seaside bungalow in Siglap "Titania'' and his house on Emerald Hill, "Oberon". He was an early resident of Emerald Hill, having purchased and lived in unit 117 shortly after it was built in 1902. After his death in 1942, his family continued to live there until 1957 when the house was demolished to make way for the present block of flats. Seow often invited friends to Oberon for evening soirees. He enjoyed acting and singing. He once acted in a farce, In A Race For A Dinner. The aim of the performance was to raise funds to repair the roof of the Straits Chinese Recreation Club on Hong Lim. He also acted in another dramatic piece, Cherry Bounce, at Hong Lim Green on 18 February, 1902. Seow was active in clubs and sports. He held several positions- Concerned with public welfare, Seow organised many charity and social concerts to raise funds for various causes. He also contributed articles to the Straits Chinese Magazine on issues regarding education and social reform. Seow Poh Leng Medal The Seow Poh Leng medal was instituted in 1936 for the students of the ACS. It is awarded to the top student at the Senior Cambridge/GCE 'O' Level Examinations. Marriage into the 'Tan' Family Seow's family lived in a shophouse along Emerald Hill Road opposite the house of Dr. Lim Boon Keng. When Dr. Lim heard that Lilian Tan's family was looking for a prospective groom for her, he recommended Seow. Tan was the great-grand daughter of Tan Tock Seng (an early pioneer of Singapore). Despite its wealth and status, the Tan family accepted the recommendation. They only wanted a kind and good man for Tan. It did not matter that Seow was from a humble background. Like Seow, Tan was very involved in charity work. She was a member of the Chinese Women's Association. During the First World War, she helped to raise funds for the war efforts. When the first influenza epidemic hit Singapore, Tan succumbed to the virus and died at a young age of 32 years. To comply with her wish for a Christian burial, Seow asked a pastor to baptise her. She was then buried at Bidadari, the Christian cemetery. Seow remarried a few years later. His second wife was Tan Boo Liat's daughter, Polly Tan. Son: Duke Seow Siew Jin (alias Seow Sieu Jin) and Seow Eu Jin. Daughters: Amy Seow Guat Cheng and Betty Seow Guat Beng. Lee Hwee Hoon Brown, R. A. (1994). Capital and Entrepreneurship in South-East Asia (p.161). New York: St. Martin's Press. (Call No.: RSING 338.040959 BRO) Brown, R. A. (Ed.) (1996). Chinese Business Enterprise (p.137-138). London: Routledge. (Call No.: RBUS 338.50951 CHI) Jones, G. (1990). Banks as Multinationals (p.178). New York: Routledge. (Call No.: RBUS 332.15 BAN) (Call No.: RSING 959.57 LEE -[HIS]) Loh, G., Goh, C. B. and Tan, T. L. (2000). Building Bridges, Carving Niches: An Enduring Legacy. Singapore: Oxford University Press. (Call No.: SING 332.1095957 LOH) Singapore Tatler (1992). Singapore days of old: a special commemorative history of Singapore (p.101). Hong Kong: Illustrated Magazine Publishing Company Limited. (Call No.: RSING 959.57 SIN -[HIS]) Silcock, T. H. (1961). Readings in Malayan Economics (p.460-465). Singapore: D. Moore for Eastern Universities Press. (Call No.: RCLOS 330.9595 SIL) Song, O. S. (1985). One Hundred Years' History of the Chinese in Singapore (p.474), Singapore: Oxford University Press. (Call No.: RSING 959.57 SON) The information in this article is valid as at 2009 and correct as far as we are able to ascertain from our sources. It is not intended to be an exhaustive or complete history of the subject. Please contact the Library for further reading materials on the topic.

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Gets or sets the source for the image. Assembly: System.Windows (in System.Windows.dll) Dependency property identifier field: SourceProperty You can set the by specifying an absolute URL (e.g. http://contoso.com/myPicture.jpg) or specify a URL relative to the XAP file of your application. You can set this property in XAML, but in this case you are setting the property as a URI. The XAML behavior relies on underlying type conversion that processes the string as a URI, and calls the BitmapImage(Uri) constructor. This in turn potentially requests a stream from that URI and returns the image source object. The ImageFailed event can occur if the initial attribute value in XAML does not specify a valid source. The following example shows how to create an image. Image myImage = new Image(); myImage.Source = new BitmapImage(new Uri("myPicture.jpg", UriKind.RelativeOrAbsolute)); LayoutRoot.Children.Add(myImage); In this example, the property is used to specify the location of the image you want to display. You can set the by specifying an absolute URL (e.g. http://contoso.com/myPicture.jpg) or specify a URL relative to the XAP file of your application. So for the previous example, you would need to have the XAP file in the same folder as myPicture.png. For a list of the operating systems and browsers that are supported by Silverlight, see Supported Operating Systems and Browsers.

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Below you will find a wealth of information regarding common dental questions. If you should have any additional questions regarding these topics, please contact our office. to Oral Health Related to Oral Health Do You See Children at Your Office? What is Nitrous For further information on dental topics, you may visit the website of the American Dental Association: http://www.ada.org/ disease is characterized by bone loss around your teeth. Bone loss and gum irritation is caused by bacteria that collect within the sulcus of teeth (v-shaped space between the gum tissue and tooth). Once bone loss occurs, it does not grow back; therefore it is of great importance to stop bone loss before it starts. Regular cleanings at our dental office as well as flossing and brushing daily help prevent gum disease and bone loss around teeth. See below website for more information. affects millions of people every year. Whether you have Type I or Type II diabetes, it is important to realize your oral health affects your diabetes. Uncontrolled diabetes or inattention to oral care can have severe consequences. It is of great importance to realize oral care and diabetes must stay under control. See the below website for more information. http://www.perio.org/consumer/mbc.diabetes.htm disease affects millions of people nation wide. New studies have shown possible links between gum disease and heart disease. Bacteria in your mouth can travel through your blood stream and affect not only your heart, but body and overall health. This is why it is of extreme importance to keep your mouth healthy and infection free. See below website for more information. office utilizes up-to-date techniques to ensure your protection. A rigorous process is employed for cleaning and sterilizing that observes the highest quality standards. constitutes a Dental Emergency? - Tooth Avulsion - (tooth knocked out, but still in one piece) - Place your tooth in a glass of milk or keep tooth under your - Call or have someone call our office for emergency contact - Extreme pain and/or swelling. - Either from a broken tooth, cracked tooth or infected area. - It is important to keep swelling to a minimum so if swelling is present, call our office immediately. - Jaw Popping/Clicking upon opening and closing your mouth may be a predecessor to TMD (temporomandibular joint disorder). This should be evaluated by your dentist. In some cases a TMD specialist may be recommended. - Grinding (bruxism) - a frequent cause of headaches and tooth pain, grinding your teeth may lead to TMD and excessive tooth wear. Many patients grind their teeth at night and are not aware they do so. Patterns of grinding and wear on teeth can be identified by your dentist. To treat this, a night guard may be recommended and an evaluation from your dentist is needed. - Dental cavities (decay) are caused by acid-producing bacteria that collect on teeth. If acid producing bacteria is not removed from the teeth (by brushing properly and flossing regularly), the bacteria sticks and multiplies, causing a cavity. Regular cleanings and good oral care at home can help prevent cavities from developing. For many patients, from children to young adults, sealants and fluoride treatments are important to prevent decay. - Depending on the extent of decay, teeth may be restored (filled) with a white (composite), silver (amalgam) filling, or a crown. If the cavity is too large, in some cases the tooth may need to be extracted. - It is important to remove the cavity and restore the tooth to proper function as soon as possible so as not to allow the cavity to continue to grow. - Each of your teeth have root canals within them that house the tooth's nerve. When a tooth nerve becomes diseased, it is necessary to remove the nerve from the canal and meticulously clean, shape and fill the canal so that bacteria and infection may - When nerves of teeth are diseased, constant pain and swelling may be present. Extreme or lingering sensitivity to hot, cold, or biting may also occur. At times a "pimple" may form on the gum or the patient may get a bad taste in their mouth. It is important if you are experiencing any of these symptoms to call our office for an appointment to evaluate the area. - During root canal treatment a rubber dam is used to isolate the tooth during the procedure and keep the area sterile. - After a root canal treatment, a crown (cap) may be needed to protect the tooth. The nerve of the tooth is about 90% water. When the nerve is removed, most water within the tooth is removed making the tooth very brittle and more subject to fracture. A crown will surround the brittle tooth and protect it from fracture. This is especially important on back teeth as they are essential to chewing. may be sensitive for a number of reasons. Many patients complain of sensitivity when brushing and/or may have some brief sensitivity to cold. Reasons for this may be: - Gum recession - gum tissue may recede over time due to brushing too hard, tooth reaction to orthodontic movement, or, for many adults, simply a result of the normal aging process. When gums recede they expose part of the tooth that is actually the root of the tooth. The root of the tooth is much more sensitive in the mouth and may react to cold with a quick sensation. Sensitivity due to root exposure tends to come and go in phases. To reduce sensitivity, patients may want to try SensodyneTM toothpaste for a short period of time (2-3 weeks) to see if this helps. If sensitivity continues or the tooth begins to ache, it is advised that the patient make an appointment to evaluate the affected area. In some cases a fluoride treatment or a filling may be appropriate to treat the sensitivity, but proper evaluation is necessary. - Bleaching - Sensitivity is the most common side effect of bleaching. This sensitivity is temporary and will subside after bleaching is stopped. If needed, adjust the frequency of bleaching to help decrease sensitivity. For example - for NiteWhiteTM - bleach every other night or every 3rd night to help decrease sensitivity, For Day WhiteTM - bleach once a day or once every other day to help decrease - Cracked tooth or filling - Many times cracks cannot be seen visibly in affected teeth. If a tooth is cracked, the first symptom noticed by the patient may be sensitivity to cold and/or chewing. It is important for our office evaluate the sensitive area with an exam to ensure proper treatment. It is recommended an appointment be made to do so. - Tooth sensitivity that does not subside over time or "lingers" long after cold is removed may be indicative of pulpal (nerve of the tooth) involvement. An appointment is recommended to evaluate the area for a possible root canal - It is important to distinguish between slight cold sensitivity that does not linger and extreme cold sensitivity that causes a lingering throbbing sensation after the cold is removed. If you are experiencing a lingering throbbing sensation to cold, hot or chewing, it is advised to schedule an evaluation of the affected area. Please call our office to do so. an unpleasant topic that no one likes to talk about, but it happens to many people. Bad breath can be caused by: - What you eat - certain foods like garlic and onions may contribute to bad breath. - If you don't brush/floss regularly - Small particles of food will remain in and between your teeth and on your tongue that will cause bad breath. This is a good reason to brush and floss regularly - Dry mouth - Lack of saliva to help clean food off teeth can lead to xerostomia (dry mouth) and contribute to bad breath. Some medications may cause dry mouth. Over the counter options are available. Ask our office about it. - Tobacco products - Lets face it, tobacco products are not good for your health, your mouth, or your breath. If you are thinking of quitting, now is a great time! Oral cancer information related to tobacco use is available on the American Dental Association website: http://www.ada.org/3016.aspx?currentTab=1 |Do You See Children at your see many children at our office! It is our goal to provide excellent dental care for the entire family. We love seeing children, however there are some cases when it is best to involve a pediatric dentist. Should this be the case, we can recommend specialists and help arrange for your child to see one of them. sealants (or pit and fissure sealants) are professionally applied by the dentist or hygienist and form a protective coating on the biting surface of back teeth to help prevent cavities. Sealants provide a physical barrier so that cavity-causing bacteria cannot invade the pits and fissures (grooves) on the chewing surfaces of teeth. is an important factor in dental health. Fluoride is found in most of our tap water, however, with the increasing trend of drinking bottled water, many of us are not getting enough fluoride to help keep our teeth strong. Fluoride is particularly important to the oral health of growing children as it has cavity fighting ability. Usually we recommend fluoride treatments for children, and sometimes for adults, to prevent cavities. |What is Nitrous Oxide? - Nitrous Oxide ("laughing gas") is available at our office and can be used to help decrease patient anxiety. It is administered while the patient is in the chair and is cleared from the patient's system prior to leaving the office. - Nitrous Oxide is a safe method for helping to decrease patient anxiety. All members of our clinical team are trained in the use of Nitrous Oxide and are certified by the State of Texas. Ask us

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The Legacy of the Nuremberg Military Tribunals in International Humantarian Law In a brief chapter titled “Legacy” Kevin Jon Heller opens up the issue of the influence of the Nuremberg Military tribunals (NMTs) on the later development of the international law of war. This contribution will expand on that chapter. First, it discusses the effect of the trials on the later behavior of nations and individuals. Did it deter potential criminal activities? A second section looks at the influence of the NMTs on the subsequent codification of international humanitarian laws. The third section explores their impact on the work of later tribunals, both national and international. Criminal law enforcement is supposed, aside from imposing retribution and disabling the convicted, to deter others from committing crimes. Did Nuremberg deter? The answer to this question is blurred by the fact that one can have no idea as to who might have instigated some horrendous mass killing but refrained from doing so out of fear. We do know that there have been episodes of gruesome massacres in recent history. One cannot overlook events in the former Yugoslavia, in Rwanda and other African countries, in Cambodia and Chechnya. Only Yugoslavia is so closely connected with Europe for there to have been any carry forward in individuals’ consciousness of World War II and Nuremberg. Deterrence evidently did not happen.Of course to have been deterred one would have had to believe that an international coalition could be put together. Just possibly the creation of the International Criminal Court will cause somebody to refrain from bloodshed.The Sudan may afford the first test of this. One asks the same question about the crime of waging an aggressive war. A conspicuous, clear cut aggression was Saddam Hussein’s invasion of Kuwait twenty years ago. It was quite universally condemned and there was widespread approval of the U.S.-led coalition’s ouster of his forces. The U.S. incursion into Iraq in 2003 did not garner the same approval. Re-codification of the law of war began in Geneva just as the NMTs were winding down. The conference here produced four conventions replacing the prisoner of war Convention of 1929 and the 1899 and 1907 regulations. Heller’s “Legacy” stresses two changes in the law: the prohibition on taking civilian hostages and reprisals against civilians. Reluctantly, the NMTs had found that the then customary international law did not ban those practices.Another important response to Nazi practices was the ban on individual or mass transfers or deportations of nationals of the occupied state out of their territory and of transfers into the occupied zone. This is controversies in respect of Israel and the West Bank. Nearly all international lawyers outside of Israel are of the opinion that its settlements in the West Bank are illegal. This has an influence on current endeavors to create a resolution of the Palestine conflict. The same provision created difficulties for a CIA program in 2003 designed to take detainees out of Iraq and bring them to other countries where they could be interrogated more conveniently. The Office of Legal Counsel rendered an opinion that the term “deportation” did not cover persons who were not nationals of Iraq. Outside observers tend to disagree. There came to be another attempt at codification—the Additional Geneva Protocols of 1977. The focus of this effort was on the protection of civilians from the devastation of war. In World War II both sides resorted to the blanket bombing of cities—often at night—that killed hundreds of thousands of noncombatants. Nobody was tried for these killings; If the Axis had won the war they would surely have tried “Bomber Harris” for the RAF’s actions.Laser guided missiles and unmanned drones have made more accurate targeting feasible. Although the United States has never become a party to the Protocols, its armed forces have tried hard to minimize civilian casualties in Serbia, Iraq and Afghanistan. Finally, we come to the latest codification enterprise, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court that restates much substantive international criminal law. Third, we come to the case law and the claim that the NMT laid the basis for a customary law of war crimes. Here the book is a trifle sketchy.For one thing, it does not mention the national court trials for Nazi war criminals started by Germany in the 1960s, particularly the concentration camp cases, nor the Israeli prosecution of Eichmann and Demjanjuk. It does, however, study the work of the ICTY and the ICTR. One of the contributions of the NMTs to the activity of the Yugoslavian and Rwandan courts is that it protects them from the charge of violating the rule against retroactivity in criminal charges. The ICTY has in its now rather extensive case law often referred to NMT precedent ((Heller cites more than 30 cases).They involve such issues as the conditions for imposing command responsibility, and liability for aiding and abetting. These decisions also rely on the NMTs for learning on such defenses as coercion and ‘tu quoque” (you also did it). The book also cites a handful of U.S. Court opinions tied to the work of the NMTs. These involve the Alien Tort Claims Act that gives U.S. district courts jurisdiction over torts in violation of the “law of nations.” The particular thrust of these cases lies in the question whether corporations can be held liable for violations of the law of nations. It is generally assumed that this is the same question as whether they can under international law be found guilty of crimes. Several cases involve the charge that a multinational corporation aided and abetted the governments of Myanmar and South Africa in violating human rights. Several courts have upheld the idea that they could be but the Court of Appeals opinion in Kiobel has gone against the stream.The NMT cases do not clarify this; corporate managers but not their employers were found guilty then. Thus Nuremberg lives, making its presence felt right down to today.The NMTs also live in another sense: the Harvard Law School library is digitizing the NMT records. This is a necessary task because so many researchers have handled the paper documents that they are deteriorating rapidly.

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European Decorative Arts and Sculpture Arched Entrance from the Chapter House of the Carmelite Convent in Limoges (Les Grands Carmes des Arènes)Made in Limoges, western France, France, Europe Second half of 13th century Artist/maker unknown, French 1928-76-1Purchased with funds contributed by Mr. and Mrs. Isaac Tatnall Starr, 1928 LabelThis arched entrance served as one of two passages connecting the contemplative space of the convent's cloister to the communal area of the chapter house (a meeting room for the governing body of the monastery). During the French Revolution (1789–99), the convent—continuously occupied and much expanded since its foundation in the thirteenth century—was closed and the nuns expelled. The convent was then sold and many of the buildings demolished. The chapter house escaped destruction, and in the early twentieth century this arch was rediscovered in its original location and eventually came to the Museum. Social Tags [?]european art 1100-1500 [x] european decorative arts and sculpture [x] fransiscan monestary too [x] of the child of jesus (carmelite) [x] st. terasea of the little flower [x] the st. francis [x] [Add Your Own Tags] * Works in the collection are moved off view for many different reasons. Although gallery locations on the website are updated regularly, there is no guarantee that this object will be on display on the day of your visit.

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The completion of the Human Genome Project triggered a whole new field of genomic research which is likely to lead to new opportunities for the promotion of population health. As a result, the distinction between genetic and environmental diseases has faded. Presently, genomics and knowledge deriving from systems biology, epigenomics, integrative genomics or genome-environmental interactions give a better insight on the pathophysiology of common diseases. However, it is barely used in the prevention and management of diseases. Together with the boost in the amount of genetic association studies, this demands for appropriate public health actions. The field of Public Health Genomics analyses how genome-based knowledge and technologies can responsibly and effectively be integrated into health services and public policy for the benefit of population health. Environmental exposures interact with the genome to produce health information which may help explain inter-individual differences in health, or disease risk. However today, prospects for concrete applications remain distant. In addition, this information has not been translated into health practice yet. Therefore, evidence-based recommendations are few. The lack of population-based research hampers the evaluation of the impact of genomic applications. Public Health Genomics also evaluates the benefits and risks on a larger scale, including normative, legal, economic and social issues. These new developments are likely to affect all domains of public health and require rethinking the role of genomics in every condition of public health interest. This article aims at providing an introduction to the field of and the ideas behind Public Health Genomics. Epidemiology; Genomics; Epigenomics; Prevention; Public Health; Public Health Genomics; Translational Research; Policymaking; Personalised Healthcare Microbiology reference laboratories are critical in the development of high-quality clinical and public health services. In Belgium, the reference laboratories performed their activities on a voluntary basis and lacked a legal status. Pathogens or groups of pathogens necessitating a national reference center (NRC) were prioritized based on diagnostic and epidemiologic relevance. Terms of reference for each of these pathogens were developed. Recently, 40 NRCs for different pathogens or groups of pathogens have been installed in Belgium to fulfill the following core functions: offering reference diagnostics, collecting reference materials, sharing information and scientific advice, participating in national and international networks, collaborating with research workgroups, and contributing to surveillance activities. These NRCs are important focal points of the national and international network in public health microbiology. National reference centers; Public health microbiology Cancer is a major European public health issue and represents the second most important cause of death and morbidity in Europe. Moreover, as a result of constant advances in medicine, medical technology and other sciences, and due to improvements in economic circumstances, cancer survival rates are increasing in Europe and prevalent cases (i.e. number of subjects who have experienced cancer) represent a growing proportion of the population. In order to tackle cancer efficiently throughout the European Member states, the European Commission launched the Joint Action (JA) ‘European Partnership for Action Against Cancer’ (EPAAC) facilitated by the Community Health Programme, in September 2009. EPAAC is designed to fill a gap in cooperation, collaboration and shared experiences for countries with similar needs and diverse experience in the area of their national cancer control policies. Activities and studies are tackling the main challenges of cancer control in Europe as a whole and in the Member states, including the provision of services and health system responses, human resources and research. In contrast with previous European actions in the field of cancer, EPAAC joins different partners and stakeholders at various levels ranging from Member states (including Iceland and Norway) and Regions to patient representatives. EPAAC; Cancer; Health policy; Public health; Joint Action Alzheimer’s disease and other related dementias are public health priorities in the European Union due to their prevalence, cost and profound impact on society. Because of these pressing implications, the European Union decided to create a Joint Action to share knowledge about dementia and health policy in order to preserve the health, quality of life, autonomy and dignity of people living with dementia and their carers in Europe. ALCOVE is a European Community-funded Joint Action coordinated by the HAS (French National Authority for Health) with a 24-month duration. The project’s life cycle has been divided into the following four steps: (1) collection of existing information, (2) analysis of existing information and making comparisons across Member States, (3) identifying Evidence, Needs, and Priorities, (4) drafting recommendations and disseminating them. 19 countries are participating in the ALCOVE initiative. The project will publish its final findings in 2013. The project’s objectives, participants, method, on-going procedures and work plans are already available on the ALCOVE website: http://www.alcove-project.eu/. Preliminary results show that recommendations will need to focus on clinical and epidemiological data collection, diagnostic system assessment, outstanding approaches for treating behavioural disorders, limiting antipsychotic use, and competence assessment in this vulnerable population. The European Member States involved are mobilized to share best health policy practices in order to tackle the challenge of dementia’s threat on European health and social systems and to improve the quality of life and care for individuals and their family carers. Alzheimer’s disease and related dementia; Dementia; Public health; BPSD; Antipsychotics; Risk reduction; Prevalence; Diagnosis; Advanced declaration of will; Health care system Life expectancy has been increasing during the last century within the European Union (EU). To measure progress in population health it is no longer sufficient to focus on the duration of life but quality of life should be considered. Healthy Life Years (HLY) allow estimating the quality of the remaining years that a person is expected to live, in terms of being free of long-standing activity limitation. The Joint Action on Healthy Life Years (JA: EHLEIS) is a joint action of European Member States (MS) and the European Union aiming at analysing trends, patterns and differences in HLY, as well as in other Summary Measures of Population Health (SMPH) indicators, across the European member states. The JA: EHLEIS consolidates existing information on life and health expectancy by maximising the European comparability; by analysing trends in HLY within the EU; by analysing the evolution of the differences in HLY between Member States; and by identifying both macro-level as micro-level determinants of the inequalities in HLY. The JA: EHLEIS works in collaboration with the USA, Japan and OECD on the development of new SMPHs to be used globally. To strengthen the utility of the HLY for policy-making, annual meetings with policy-makers are planned. The information system allows the estimation of a set of health indicators (morbidity and disability prevalence, life and health expectancies) for Europe, Member States and shortly their regional levels. An annual country report on HLY in the national languages is available. The JA: EHLEIS is developing statistical attribution and decomposition tools which will be helpful to determine the impact of specific diseases, life styles or other determinants on differences in HLY. Through a set of international workshops the JA: EHLEIS aims to develop a blueprint for an international harmonized Summary Measure of Population Health. The JA: EHLEIS objectives are to monitor progress towards the headline target of the Europe 2020 strategy of increasing HLY by 2 years by 2020 and to support policy development by identifying the main determinants of active and healthy ageing in Europe. Health status indicators; Gender; Socioeconomic status; Public health; Health expectancy; Healthy life years; EU Aims of the study This study wants to examine the availability of Belgian healthcare data in the three main international health databases: the World Health Organization European Health for All Database (WHO-HFA), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Health Data 2009 and EUROSTAT. For the indicators present in the three databases, the availability of Belgian data and the source of these data were checked. The most important problem concerning the availability of Belgian health-related data in the three major international databases is the lack of recent data. Recent data are available for 27% of the indicators of the WHO-HFA database, 73% of the OECD Health Data, and for half of the Eurostat indicators. Especially recent data about health status (including mortality-based indicators) are lacking. Only the availability of the health-related data is studied in this article. The quality of the Belgian data is however also important to examine. The main problem concerning the availability of health data is the timeliness. One of the causes of this lack of (especially mortality) data is the reform of the Belgian State. Nowadays mortality data are provided by the communities. This results in a delay in the delivery of national mortality data. However several efforts are made to catch up. Belgium; databases; health status indicators; public health The small but growing literature on socio-economic inequality in morbidity among older persons suggests that social inequalities in health persist into old age. A largely separate body of literature looks at the predictors of long-term care use, in particular of institutional care. Various measures of socio-economic status are often included as control variables in these studies. Review articles generally conclude that the evidence for such variables being a predictor for institutionalization is “inconclusive”. In this paper we look at the association among older persons in Belgium between one particular measure of socio-economic status – preferential status in public health care insurance – and first use of home long-term care and residential care. Preferential status entitles persons to higher reimbursement rates for health care from the public health care insurance system and is conditional on low income. We also study whether preferential status is related to the onset of five important chronic conditions and the time of death. We use survival analysis; the source of the data is a large administrative panel of a sample representative for all older persons in Belgium (1,268,740 quarterly observations for 69,562 individuals). We find a strong association between preferential status and the likelihood of home care use, but for residential care it is small for men and non-existent for women. We also find that preferential status is significantly related to the chance of getting two out five chronic conditions – COPD and diabetes, but not dementia, hip fracture and Parkinson’s disease – and to the probability of dying (not for women). For home care use and death, the association with preferential status declines with increasing age from age 65 onwards, such that it is near zero for those aged around 90 and older. We find clear associations between an indicator of low income and home care use, some chronic conditions and death. The associations are stronger among men than among women. We also find that the association declines with age for home care use and death, which might be explained by selective survival. Long-term care; Socio-economic status; Morbidity; Mortality; Preferential status Three decades since the first HIV-1 infected patients in Rwanda were identified in 1983; the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome epidemic has had a devastating history and is still a major public health challenge in the country. This study was aimed at assessing socioeconomic, clinical and biological risk factors for mother – to – child transmission of HIV- in Muhima health centre (Kigali/Rwanda). The prospective cohort study was conducted at Muhima Health centre (Kigali/Rwanda). During the study period (May 2007 – April 2010), of 8,669 pregnant women who attended antenatal visits and screened for HIV-1, 736 tested HIV-1 positive and among them 700 were eligible study participants. Hemoglobin, CD4 count and viral load tests were performed for participant mothers and HIV-1 testing using DNA PCR technique for infants. Follow up data for eligible mother-infant pairs were obtained from women themselves and log books in Muhima health centre and maternity, using a structured questionnaire. Predictors of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 were assessed by multivariable logistic regression analysis. Among the 679 exposed and followed-up infants, HIV-1 status was significantly associated with disclosure of HIV status to partner both at 6 weeks of age (non-disclosure of HIV status, adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 4.68, CI 1.39 to 15.77, p < 0.05; compared to disclosure) and at 6 months of age (non-disclosure of HIV status, AOR, 3.41, CI 1.09 to 10.65, p < 0.05, compared to disclosure). A significant association between mother’s viral load (HIV-1 RNA) and infant HIV-1 status was found both at 6 weeks of age (> = 1000 copies/ml, AOR 7.30, CI 2.65 to 20.08, p < 0.01, compared to <1000 copies/ml) and at 6 months of age (> = 1000 copies/ml, AOR 4.60, CI 1.84 to 11.49, p < 0.01, compared to <1000 copies/ml). In this study, the most relevant factors independently associated with increased risk of mother – to – child transmission of HIV-1 included non-disclosure of HIV status to partner and high HIV-1 RNA. Members of this cohort also showed socioeconomic inequalities, with unmarried status carrying higher risk of undisclosed HIV status. The monitoring of maternal HIV-1 RNA level might be considered as a routinely used test to assess the risk of transmission with the goal of achieving viral suppression as critical for elimination of pediatric HIV, particularly in breastfeeding populations. Socioeconomic, Clinical and biological risk factors; HIV-1; Mother - to – child transmission; Cohort; Muhima/Rwanda Many studies suggest that high salt intakes are related to high blood pressure and consequently cardiovascular diseases. In addition salt intake was found to be related with obesity, renal stones, osteoporosis and stomach cancer. Belgium, such as other European countries, is suffering from both salt intakes that are twice as high as the recommended intakes and mild iodine deficiency. No comprehensive strategy encompassing both public health problems has been developed. While specific salt reduction targets for processed foods are still under discussion using a consensus approach with industry, an agreement was signed between the bakery sector and the Ministry of Health in April 2009, to encourage and increase the use of iodised salt in the production of bread. Based on results of recent surveys on population iodine status it is advised not to currently revise iodine concentrations in salt in bread but to advocate for a higher percentage of bakers using iodised salt and to install a good monitoring system to control the percentage of bakers effectively using adequately iodised salt. With regard to salt reduction, it is of utmost importance that all companies contribute and harmonise the salt content of their products according to the lowest possible thresholds in a first step. In order to achieve this goal, it will be necessary, in addition to the consensus approach, to come up with at least some legislative tools such as a salt tax or mandatory labelling of foods exceeding a specific sodium concentration. Once salt reduction targets have been clearly defined in Belgium over the longer term, a legal framework should be set in place where iodine concentration in salt for the production of bread and household salt is strictly regulated by law, to avoid a large variability in the iodine content of salt brands consumed. In conclusion, it is possible to tackle salt reduction and iodine deficiency at the same time on the condition that the approach is coordinated and well monitored. All the interventions and measures taken should clearly include education and communication directed towards consumers, food producers, public health professionals, pharmacists, healthcare workers, and media representatives. Sodium; Iodine; Belgium Low back pain (LBP) is a major public health problem and the identification of individuals at risk of persistent LBP poses substantial challenges to clinical management. The STarT Back questionnaire is a validated nine-item patient self-report questionnaire that classifies patients with LBP at low, medium or high-risk of poor prognosis for persistent non-specific LBP. The objective of this study was to translate and cross-culturally adapt the English version of the STarT Back questionnaire into French. The translation was performed using best practice translation guidelines. The following phases were performed: contact with the STarT Back questionnaire developers, initial translations (English into French), synthesis, back translations, expert committee review, test of the pre-final version on 44 individuals with LBP, final version. The linguistic translation required minor semantic alterations. The participants interviewed indicated that all items of the questionnaire were globally clear and comprehensible. However, 6 subjects (14%) wondered if two questions were related to back pain or general health. After discussion within the expert committee and with the developer of the STarT Back tool, it was decided to modify the questionnaire and to add a reference to back pain in these two questions. The French version of the STarT Back questionnaire has been shown to be comprehensible and adapted to the French speaking general population. Investigations are now required to test the psychometric properties (reliability, internal and external validity, responsiveness) of this translated version of the questionnaire. Low back pain; Questionnaire; Translation The main objective of the joint action MODE is the transfer of best-practices in the field of organ donation and transplantation and the creation of positive synergies among participating European (EU) Member States (MS) apt to support authorities in possible decision-making and policy contexts. The consortium has chosen to foster the exchange of best-practice through a series of exchange visits followed by the provision of a set of specialized trainings. Each participating MS has presented its strengths and weaknesses through a questionnaire based on the Organ Action Plan. Once the situation was clearer, countries with the strongest program organized and hosted the on-site visits and each country had the opportunity to perform five exchange visits on five selected topics. Specific courses for healthcare staff of organ coordinating and transplantation centres were organized. Based on evaluation of the results of the on-site visits and training needs indicated by the partners, the chosen topics were: • reporting on adverse events and reactions • quality assurance programme of the donation process in Spain • quality assurance of the transplantation process Results and conclusions The outcome is that within the EU, even among MS with well-developed services, the organ donation and transplantation activity has substantial differences so that all participating countries would benefit from investigating foreign donation and transplant systems. Collaboration at EU level can be beneficial for all systems and the joint action MODE indicated that in some countries the sharing of expertise across the EU Member States has already proved to be useful in starting a virtuous circle in organization and training that would allow to increase organ donor rates and improve overall performance. Children are not always recognized as being susceptible to stress, although childhood stressors may originate from multiple events in their everyday surroundings with negative effects on children’s health. As there is a lack of large-scale, European prevalence data on childhood adversities, this study presents the prevalence of (1) negative life events and (2) familial and social adversities in 4637 European pre- and primary-school children (4–11 years old), using a parentally-reported questionnaire embedded in the IDEFICS project (‘Identification and prevention of Dietary- and lifestyle-induced health EFfects In Children and infantS’). The following findings were observed: (1) Certain adversities occur only rarely, while others are very regular (i.e. parental divorce); (2) A large percentage of children is shielded from stressors, while a small group of children is exposed to multiple, accumulating adversities; (3) The prevalence of childhood adversity is influenced by geographical location (e.g. north versus south), age group and sex; (4) Childhood adversities are associated and co-occur, resulting in potential cumulative childhood stress. This study demonstrated the importance of not only studying traumatic events but also of focusing on the early familial and social environment in childhood stress research and indicated the importance of recording or monitoring childhood adversities. Child; Life events; Adversity; Prevalence; Stress; Epidemiology A problem repeatedly reported in birth certificate data is the presence of missing data. In 2008, a Centre for Perinatal Epidemiology was created inter alia to assist the Health Departments of Brussels-Capital City Region to check birth certificates. The purpose of this study is to assess the changes brought by the Centre in terms of completeness of data registration for the entire population and according to immigration status. Birth certificates from the birth registry of 2008 and 2009 of Brussels were considered. We evaluated the initial missing information in January 2008 (baseline situation) and the corresponding rate at the end of 2008 after oral and written information had been given to the city civil servants and health providers. The data were evaluated again at the end of 2009 where no reinforcement rules were adopted. We also measured residual missing data after correction in socio-economic and medical data, for the entire population and according to maternal nationality of origin. Changes in registration of stillbirths were estimated by comparison to 2007 baseline data, and all multiple births were checked for complete identification of pairs. Missing information initially accounted for 64.0%, 20.8% and 19.5% of certificates in January 2008, December 2008, and 2009 respectively. After correction with lists sent back to the hospitals or city offices, the mean residual missing data rate was 2.1% in 2008 and 0.8% in 2009. Education level and employment status were missing more often in immigrant mothers compared to Belgian natives both in 2008 and 2009. Mothers from Sub-Saharan Africa had the highest missing rate of socio-economic data. The stillbirth rate increased from 4.6 ‰ in 2007 to 8.2 ‰ in 2009. All twin pairs were identified, but early loss of a co-twin before 22 weeks was rarely reported. Reinforcement of data collection was associated with a decrease of missing information. The residual missing data rate was very low. The stillbirth rate was also improved but the early loss of a co-twin before 22 weeks seems to remain underreported. Birth certificates; Validation studies; Bias; Epidemiologic The objective of this paper is to provide analytical research that supported the European Commission in setting the global target of additional two healthy life years (HLY) at birth by 2020 in the EU on average, within the European Innovation Partnership on Active and Healthy Ageing (the EIP on AHA). It produces a straightforward analysis of HLY projections that helped the European Commission set a firm, politically sound, target. In order to reach that goal, policy makers need to commit to redefining health priorities and goals and developing and implementing relevant strategies and programmes. The study computes a simple simulation of the HLY at birth based on three demographic scenarios: compression of morbidity, expansion of morbidity and an intermediary scenario, the dynamic equilibrium, given the expected 2.1 year gain in male and 1.6 in female life expectancy (LE) by 2020. Data on HLY and projections of life expectancy were obtained from Eurostat and 2008 was taken as a baseline. For consistency and given data gaps, EU27 average values of HLY were calculated. In the EU27 as a whole, the difference between LE and HLY in 2008 was nearly 15 years for men and 20 years for women. The developments of healthy life expectancies across the EU Member States (MSs) are even more diverse that makes it difficult to model any robust EU level trends. Under compression of morbidity, life expectancy and HLY would increase by 2020 on average by 2.1 and 2.0 years for men and by 1.6 and 1.4 years for women respectively. The expected years with disability would remain unchanged while the HLY/LE ratio would improve leading to a 0.5% gain for both genders. Under expansion of morbidity, life expectancy would increase by 2.1 years for men and 1.4 years for women by 2020, while HLY would remain unchanged and the expected years with disability would increase by 2.1 years and 1.6 years in women. This would imply the deterioration of the HLY/LE ratio for both men and women generating a 2.2% and 1.4% loss of health for men and women accordingly. Under dynamic equilibrium, the HLY would increase but to a lesser extent as the rise in life expectancy. The HLY would increase by 1.6 and 1.2 years for men and women respectively. HLY/LE ratio would remain unchanged for both men (+0.1%) and women. The study shows that the first scenario would reduce the HLY gap between the EU MSs by 1.4 years in men and 1.2 years in women, the second would generate no change, while the third one would reduce the gap by 0.9 years in men and increase it by 0.7 years in women. The results of the study triggered the political decision of setting the global target of 2 additional HLY for the European Innovation Partnership on Active and Healthy Ageing to be achieved by 2020. It is a ‘grand’ goal but can be achieved. Statistics clearly show that EU countries characterise very different levels of health progress, with a gap of 2 decades and diverging trends. With this in mind, the EU HLY target should be complemented by national HLY targets for men and women, set by MSs. Healthy life years; Life expectancy; EU target; Compression; Expansion; Equilibrium; Disability; Morbidity; Mortality; Healthy ageing The story of the implementation of the joint EU health indicators (ECHI indicators) began in the 1990s after the Amsterdam Treaty. The first concrete step in establishing a health monitoring capacity for EU was the Commission working group set up in 1997. Several consecutive and parallel projects, notably the health indicator projects ECHI-1 and ECHI-2 between the years 2000 and 2005 led to a preparedness to implement the jointly agreed health indicators (ECHI shortlist) in all European countries. ECHIM (2005 – 2008) and the Joint Action for ECHIM (2009 - ) laid the foundation for the implementation of health indicators, and initiated Europe wide implementation proper. After the European recession of 2008 the circumstances in different countries were not optimal. Also the collaboration with the Commission could have been better. Nevertheless, the implementation process of the ECHI indicators is now well underway in most countries. By June 2012 half of the Member States had incorporated the ECHI indicators into their national health information system, and, if work can continue, by 2014 most countries are likely to have done so. Unfortunately, a gap may occur between the current programme and the next public health programme. The current momentum must not be lost. Therefore, all those responsible need to urge that the Commission (DG SANCO) together with the Member States helps to bridge the gap from June 2012 to January 2014. The new Public Health Programme provides the necessary financial instruments for setting up a permanent EU health information and reporting system. Health indicators; Health information; European Community Health Indicators (ECHI); EU Joint Action Little work has been done to assess the quality of health care and the use of evidence-based methods by occupational physicians in Belgium. Therefore, the main objective is to describe one aspect of occupational health assessments, namely the common use of dipstick urinalysis, and to compare the current practice with international guidelines. A self-administered questionnaire was mailed to 211 members of the Scientific Association of Occupational Medicine in the Dutch speaking part of Belgium. A total of 120 occupational physicians responded, giving a response rate of 57%. Dipstick urinalysis was a routine investigation for the vast majority of physicians (69%). All test strips screened for protein and in 90% also for blood. Occupational health services offered clinical tests to satisfy customer wants as international guidelines do not recommend screening for haematuria and proteinuria in asymptomatic adults. A lack of knowledge concerning positive testing and referral criteria was demonstrated in almost half of the study participants. Belgian occupational physicians still routinely perform dipstick testing although there is no evidence to support this screening in healthy workers. To practice evidence-based medicine, occupational physicians need more instruction and training. Development and implementation of more guidelines is not only of use for the individual practitioner, it may also enhance professionalization and efficiency of occupational health care. Evidence-based practice; Occupational health; Guidelines; Health surveillance Health Examination Surveys (HESs) can provide essential information on the health and health determinants of a population, which is not available from other data sources. Nevertheless, only some European countries have systems of national HESs. A study conducted in 2006–2008 concluded that it is feasible to organize national HESs using standardized measurement procedures in nearly all EU countries. The feasibility study also outlined a structure for a European Health Examination Survey (EHES), which is a collaboration to organize standardized HESs in countries across Europe. To facilitate setting up national surveys and to gain experience in applying the EHES methods in different cultures, EHES Joint Action (2010–2011) planned and piloted standardized HESs in the working age population in 12 countries. This included countries with earlier national HESs and countries which were planning their first national HES. The core measurements included in all surveys were weight, height, waist circumference and blood pressure, and blood samples were taken to measure lipid profiles and glucose or glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c). These are modifiable determinants of major chronic diseases not identified in health interview surveys. There was a questionnaire to complement the data on the examination measurements. Evaluation of the pilot surveys was based on review of national manuals and evaluation reports of survey organizers; observations and discussions of survey procedures during site visits and training seminars; and other communication with the survey organizers. Despite unavoidable differences in the ways HESs are organized in the various countries, high quality and comparability of the data seems achievable. The biggest challenge in each country was obtaining high participation rate. Most of the pilot countries are now ready to start their full-size national HES, and six of them have already started. The EHES Pilot Project has set up the structure for obtaining comparable high quality health indicators on health and important modifiable risk factors of major non-communicable diseases from the European countries. The European Union is now in a key position to make this structure sustainable. The EHES core survey can be expanded to cover other measurements. Health surveys; Population health monitoring; Risk factors; Chronic diseases; EHES; Survey methods In 1978, the Alma-Ata declaration on primary health care (PHC) recognized that the world’s health issues required more than just hospital-based and physician-centered policies. The declaration called for a paradigm change that would allow governments to provide essential care to their population in a universally acceptable manner. The figure of the community health worker (CHW) remains a central feature of participation within the PHC approach, and being a CHW is still considered to be an important way of participation within the health system. This study explores how the values and personal motivation of community health workers influences their experience with this primary health care strategy in in the municipality of Palencia, Guatemala. To do this, we used an ethnographic approach and collected data in January-March of 2009 and 2010 by using participant observation and in-depth interviews. We found that the CHWs in the municipality had a close working relationship with the mobile health team and with the community, and that their positions allowed them to develop leadership and teamwork skills that may prove useful in other community participation processes. The CHWs are motivated in their work and volunteerism is a key value in Palencia, but there is a lack of infrastructure and growth opportunities. Attention should be paid to keeping the high levels of commitment and integration within the health team as well as keeping up supervision and economic funds for the program. Community health workers; Community participation; Guatemala; Primary Health Care; Alma-Ata declaration The last decades, the prevalence of childhood obesity has increased. Apart from other lifestyle factors, the effect of chronic psychosocial stress on the development of obesity has been recognized. However, more research is needed into the influence of chronic stress on appetite regulation, energy balance and body composition, as well as on the interaction with physical activity/sedentary behavior, diet and sleep in children. In this regard, the ChiBS study (Children’s Body composition and Stress) was designed at the Ghent University. Within this paper, we describe the aims, design, methods, participation and population characteristics of the ChiBS study. The influence of chronic stress on changes in body composition is investigated over a two-year follow-up period (February-June 2010, 2011 and 2012) in primary-school children between 6 and 12 years old in the city Aalter (Flanders, Belgium). Stress is measured by child- and parent-reported stress-questionnaires, as well as by objective stress biomarkers (serum, salivary and hair cortisol) and heart rate variability. Body composition is evaluated using basic anthropometric measurements and air displacement plethysmography. Additional information on socio-economic status, medical history, physical activity, dietary intake and sleep are obtained by questionnaires, and physical activity by accelerometers. The participation percentage was 68.7% (N = 523/761), with 71.3% of the children willing to participate in the first follow-up survey. Drop-out proportions were highest for serum sampling (12.1%), salivary sampling (8.3%) and heart rate variability measurements (7.4%). The ChiBS project is unique in its setting: its standardized and longitudinal approach provides valuable data and new insights into the relationship between stress and changes in body composition in a large cohort of young children. In addition, this study allows an in-depth investigation of the validity of the different methods that were used to assess stress levels in children. Stress; Child; Body composition; Obesity; Cortisol; Heart rate variability; Questionnaire; Food habits; Physical activity; Sleep Participation rate and response rate are key issues in a cross sectional large-scale epidemiological study. The objective of this paper is to describe the study population and to evaluate participation and response rate as well as the key nutritional status variables in male and female adolescents involved in the HELENA study. A multi-stage random cluster sampling with a target sample of 3000 adolescents aged [12.5 to 17.5] years, stratified for geographical location and age, was carried out. Information for participants and non-participants (NP) was compared, and participation and response rates to specific questionnaires were discussed. 3,865 adolescents aged [12.5 to 17.5] years (1,845 females) participated in the HELENA study, of whom 1,076 (568 females) participated in the blood sampling. 3,528 (1,845 females) adolescents were finally kept for statistical analysis. Participation rates for the schools and classes differed importantly between countries. The participation rate of pupils within the participating classes also differed importantly between countries. Sex ratio, mean age and BMI were similar between NP and participating adolescents within each centre, and in the overall sample. For all the questionnaires included in the database, the response rate of questionnaires was high (more than 80% of questions were completed). From this study it could be concluded that participation rate differed importantly between countries, though no bias could be identified when comparing the key study variables between participants and non-participants. Response rate for questionnaires was very high. Future studies investigating lifestyle and health in adolescents can optimize their methods when considering the opportunities and barriers observed in the HELENA study. Industrial composting is a relatively new and expanding activity. Several studies indicate that compost workers are at risk to develop health symptoms. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of work-related health symptoms among compost workers compared with control subjects. A questionnaire was distributed among 62 workers (31 exposed and 31 non-exposed workers). Data were analyzed using simple and multiple logistic regression analyses. Workers exposed to organic dust reported significantly more often respiratory, irritation (e.g., eyes, nose and throat), gastrointestinal, and skin symptoms than the non-exposed group. Moreover, all work-related symptoms were significantly more often reported by exposed than non-exposed workers. After adjustment for smoking status and age, the associations between exposure and respiratory, gastrointestinal, and skin symptoms remained statistically significant, in particular if these symptoms were work-related. This study confirms that workers at compost facilities are at risk to develop occupational health problems, most likely related to organic dust exposure. Belgium; Compost; Industry; Occupational health; Organic dust; Workers

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Using Clickers to Introduce Concepts to Economics Students In class, economists often introduce concepts by stating a definition and then providing an example. In this teaching method, the order is reversed: after an example or examples, students are asked to inductively construct the general principle with carefully designed clicker questions. Monitoring their responses allows the instructor to guide student learning. Context for Use Description and Teaching Materials For example, to help students understand the concept of Law of Supply, the instructor shows the following to their students (either in PowerPoint or dedicated clicker software): When the price of a good rises, how does that affect the willingness to sell a product, all else equal? - People are willing to sell more. - People are willing to sell less. - People are willing to sell the same amount. - Cannot be determined. Teaching Notes and Tips Going back to the Law of Supply example, suppose that most students answered correctly. Regardless of what is revealed to students, the instructor might wish to ask a student who missed it why they answered as they did; then the instructor could craft an answer that takes their thinking into account and to help lead them to the correct answer. Clearly, if many students answered correctly (and the instructor is sure that they did so for the correct reason), class time is poorly used if considerable attention is given to a well-understood concept. If most answered incorrectly and the answer is shown to the students, the followup is constrained. At best, the instructor can talk about possible errors. Thus, most experienced clicker instructors recommend setting clicker software so that correct answers are not displayed to students. If the histogram of student responses is shown, student thinking on the followup may well be biased. Still, students can learn from engaging with the material. This might be done by using peer instruction: the instructor ask students to try to convince the nearest person who voted differently from them to their view. After this peer discussion, the class re-votes. Often they converge to the correct answer. If they don't, it is possible that the question was poorly worded or the question was too much of a leap from previous student understanding. In this case, the instructor might have auxiliary questions ready that illustrate a sub-concept or do not take as much of a leap from existing material. With experience, instructors will likely become more comfortable with this technique as they are better able to better predict typical student responses -- they will have a much better insight into student understanding. Finally, key to this technique is carefully addressing incorrect student answers. If questions are posed and incorrect answers are barely addressed, then this method is likely little better than simply presenting the concept to students. References and Resources Clickers / Conceptests / Interactive lectures / Peer instruction

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Submitted by Lynn Saunders, Government Documents The Vermont State Data Center sponsored a workshop to discuss and review some websites and the upcoming 2010 Census. The State Data Center (SDC) Program is a cooperative program between the state and the Census Bureau to make data available locally to the public through a network of state agencies, universities, libraries, and regional and local governments. In early December the State Data gathered together a group of statistical users to talk about the upcoming 2010 Census. At the present time the Census Bureau is gearing up by hiring individuals to check addresses and to work in the Vermont office which is located in the Burlington area. They are also looking for community volunteers and groups to help with making sure that the count is complete. I have posted some literature in the staff room about Census 2010. One significant difference in the 2010 Census will be that there will be no long forms handed out. The information that was gathered in the long form then is now being gathered by the American Community Survey (ACS) (http://www.census.gov/acs/www/). The ACS is a department of the Census Bureau that surveys the population on an ongoing basis to provide more recent information than is available from our Decennial Census. This method of gathering information is going to be problematic for small states like Vermont. The surveys used to get the sample information are sent out to certain parts of each state each month in a rotation. In small states the sampling area is so small that the information has to be gathered for a longer period of time in order to get enough samples so that the people answering the questions can’t be identified. The effect for small states is that the statistics that they use will only be available every 5 years, while larger states will have new statistics every year. When applying for grants, larger states will have an edge because their statistics will be more up to date than the smaller states. Our State Data Center has been in contact with the Census Bureau to try and work out this problem. The director of the Vermont State Data Center, Will Sawyer, had a personal meeting with the head of the Census Bureau. Although nothing is scheduled to change immediately the Census Bureau is considering the problem and potential fixes. We also reviewed how to use American Fact Finder and the State Data Center’s website, Vermont Indicators. Vermont Indicators is very useful for finding compiled statistics for the state. They also have historic data which can be easily accessed by the click of button. Vermont Indicators can be found at http://maps.vcgi.org/indicators/.

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AccessMyLibrary provides FREE access to millions of articles from top publications available through your library. Pathological gambling (PG) is commonly referred to as a "hidden" addiction. While in recent years, PG in adults has been recognized as an addiction that can be diagnosed and treated, PG among youth remains relatively unrecognized. Yet, a national survey indicates that the rate of pathological gambling in youth is higher than that in adults (Welte, 2002), possibly as distinct as 5% versus 1%, respectively (NCPG). And as in adults, gambling in children and adolescents has been linked to higher rates of problem behaviors, including substance abuse, violence, stealing and risky sexual behaviors (NCPG). "Gambling in kids could very well be the gateway behavior that we used to believe marijuana was," Keith Whyte recently told CABL. "Scattered studies and emerging evidence suggest that early onset of gambling should be a big indicator for people to look for additional problems." Keith Whyte is the executive director of the National Council on Problem Gambling (NCPG), the national advocate for programs and services to assist problem gamblers and their families. He emphasized that NCPG is not against gambling. Rather, they are concerned about gambling as a disease. Regarding gambling problems in youth, he said, "Nobody is paying attention, really looking at some of the societal indications. It hasn't received the attention it deserves." "It's always been easy to gamble," Whyte admitted, "just find a deck of cards." So, what's changed? Is gambling on the rise among youth? And if so, why? Surveys show that an increasing majority of youth gamble; while in the year 2000 roughly 80% of kids between the ages of 12 and 17 reported gambling in the past year, an …

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Wassily Kandinsky (1886 – 1944), the father of abstract art, also a skilled musician, strongly associated music with art. Kandinsky, who named works after musical terms, saw color when he listened to music, and believed color could visually express music’s timber, pitch and volume. At age 30, Kandinsky’s artistic career began when he left a legal career to pursue artistic studies after seeing Monet’s “Haystacks.” Passionately compelled to create, Kandinsky believed that the purity of this desire would communicate itself to viewers of his work. This art print displays sharp, vivid images with a high degree of color accuracy. A member of the versatile family of art prints, this high-quality reproduction represents the best of both worlds: quality and affordability. Art prints are created on paper similar to that of a postcard or greeting card using a digital or offset lithography press.

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Jon Atwood, PhD Department of Environmental Studies Observers at the Kekoldi watchsite, in the Caribbean lowlands of Costa Rica, monitor the highest concentration of autumn, southbound migrant Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) in the world. Currently little data exist on the migratory behavior of this species in the tropics. During daily observations from 15 August-30 Nov 2005, I counted 2,344 peregrines as they passed within sight of the Kekoldi Reserve. The majority of observations (91%) occurred from 1-21 Oct. Most aged birds were adults. Of the juveniles counted, the most were seen later in the season. Peregrines relied primarily on circle soaring and passed predominantly during midday hours, coinciding with the peak of thermal activity. Flapping occurred most frequently early in the day, decreased through midday, and then increased slightly in the afternoon. The general daily flight path shifted from the coast to inland as wind direction shifted from south to northeast. Flight altitude was greatest during midday. Overall, peregrine movements reflected local weather patterns, and appeared to emphasize flight behavior that maximized efficiency. This preliminary study shows Kekoldi to be a valuable site for long-term monitoring of Peregrine Falcons, and provides a better understanding of how the species behaves as it migrates through the tropics.

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In their quest for quality, the personnel at Ford’s Dunton Technical Centre in Brentwood, Essex, England, use a scanning electron microscope. In their quest for quality, the personnel at Ford’s Dunton Technical Centre in Brentwood, Essex, England, use a scanning electron microscope. Explained Roger Davis, who performs materials engineering and testing at the site, “We need to investigate possible reasons why a development part may not meet our stringent requirements. In some cases that reason can be the smallest anomalies, something that can be found by using the scanning electron microscope. The machine can magnify a part by up to 200,000 times and make it look quite surreal, but to the trained eye any defects become quickly apparent at these levels of magnification.” The SEM works by using electrons rather than light waves, as is the case with conventional microscopes. Parts are placed in a vacuum chamber, and then an electron beam is scanned across the part surface through the use of a series of electromagnetic coils. The beam of electronics knocks secondary electrons off the surface of the part, which are amplified, then displayed on a cathode-ray tube. When you look at the accompanying images, realize that 100 µm equals 0.1 mm. The diameter of a human hair is approximately 80 µm.

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LETHAL INJECTION: Missouri Intends to Use Propofol in One-Drug Lethal Injection The Missouri Department of Corrections has announced that it is switching from a three-drug lethal injection protocol to a single-drug method, using Propofol. Missouri would be the first state to use Propofol (Diprivan) as an execution drug.The drug is manufactured by AstraZeneca. At least one medical expert has questioned whether the new execution drug is appropriate. Missouri’s written protocol does not require a physician to be a part of the execution team. Dr. Jonathan Groner, an Ohio State University surgeon who has studied lethal injection extensively, said that improper administration of the drug could cause pain at the injection site. Dr. Groner said high doses of Propofol will cause respiratory arrest, but the dosage must be accurate and the process must move swiftly because the drug wears off in just a few minutes. According to Dr. Groner, "If they start breathing before the heart stops, they might not die.” It is not clear when Propofol would first be used in an execution. Missouri has scheduled an execution for August 3, but some appeals remain. The state has carried out only two executions in the last seven years. ("Missouri to use same drug involved in Michael Jackson's death for executions," Associated Press, May 24, 2012). See Lethal Injection. Listen to DPIC's podcast on Lethal Injection.

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Learn how to successfully plant and grow bush cucumbers, then discover the best ways to protect your cucumber plants from potential predators. More in Outdoors Bush cucumbers grow very differently than vining type cucumbers. Even though they technically still have vines, they're short and stay with a few feet of the plant. Bush varieties take up about a third the amount of space as a vining cucumber. Because of this, they grow well in pots. You can grow one or two plants in a 5-gallon bucket. Bush cucumbers can be grown in groups on what's known as hills. The mounds support the plants and because of their shape, they help the plants get plenty of sun. To make a hill, mound the dirt so the hill stands 6-8 inches higher than the surrounding dirt. Then smooth out the sides so the hill gently slopes back into the beds. This way all of the roots will be in the hill where they have lots of loose fertile soil and the branches can move out around the space. Plant four plants per hill. Mulch is Critical It's critical to give cucumber plants plenty of mulch. They need lots of water and if the soil gets too hot or it dries out, the plants will stop producing fruit. When mulching around any vegetable be sure to add at least 4 inches of mulch. Keep the mulch away from the stem of the plants so they don't get too wet. Stems rot if they get water logged so give then 2-3 inches of clearance. The mulch not only keeps valuable moisture from evaporating out of the soil, it keeps weeds from popping up and competing with the plants for nutrients. Water the new cucumber plants with liquid fertilizer. Fertilizer pellets take time to start breaking down, but liquid fertilizer is absorbed immediately, getting the new plants off to a quick start. Cucumbers, like tomatoes and summer squash, need lots of nutrients all the time. By giving them liquid fertilizer every two weeks they have a constant supply of food entering their leaves and coming through the ground into their roots. Bugs and Beetles Love Young Plants Young cucumber plants are a favorite target for bugs and beetles. They attack the young plants before the stems can harden, sucking the moisture out of the leaves and vines. Bug netting or row covers keep out bugs until the plants are starting to bloom. To install a row cover first measure the area that needs protection. The cover needs to be larger than the space so that it can drape loosely and it won't press down on the plants while they're growing. Netting can be used to cover both types of cucumbers. To hold it down, use bricks, blocks or timbers around the edges. Beetles and flies love to attack cucumber plants. Use sticky bug paper to catch some of the flies before they can do too much damage to the plants. Nail pieces of bug paper along the sides of the trellis to catch white flies and cucumber beetles. They're attracted to the scent and yellow color. The bugs get stuck on the paper when they land on it. Also hammer in a couple of stakes with bug paper around the cucumber mounds. Homemade Soapy Bug Spray Bugs don't like soap and one way to get small bugs like aphids and thrips off of your plants is to use a homemade bug spray. To make this use 1 tablespoon of liquid soap mixed with 1 gallon of water. Peppermint scented soap is best but any type will do. Carefully mix the 2 ingredients but don't shake it up or you'll have bubbles. You can now put this in a garden sprayer or a hand-pump sprayer and mist your plants. When you apply the soap to the plants be sure you only cover each plant with a fine mist. If you soak the plant the soap will clog the tiny pores on the leaves, making it difficult for the plant to breathe. You can reapply the spray if needed. One coat will keep bugs off until the soap is washed or rained off.

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Diagnosing Colorectal Cancer Learn about the tests performed to diagnose colon or rectal cancer. Most people with early colon cancer don't have symptoms. Symptoms usually are seen with more advanced disease. If something of concern turns up as a result of screening or if you have symptoms, you will need more tests. Signs and Symptoms of Colorectal Cancer If you have any of the following you should see your doctor: - A change in bowel habits such as diarrhea, constipation, or narrowing of the stool that lasts for more than a few days - A feeling that you need to have a bowel movement that doesn't go away after doing so - Rectal bleeding, dark stools, or blood in the stool (often, though, the stool will look normal) - Cramping or stomach pain - Weakness and tiredness. Most of these symptoms are more likely to be caused by something other than colorectal cancer. Still, if you have any of these problems, it's important to see your doctor right away so the cause can be found and treated, if needed. If there is any reason to suspect colon or rectal cancer, you will need to have more tests to find out if the disease is really present and, if so, to see how far it has spread. Some of these tests are the same ones that are used for screening people who do not have symptoms. Medical History and Physical Exam Your doctor will ask you questions about your health, your family history, and do a complete physical exam. Your doctor may order certain blood tests to help find out if you have colorectal cancer. People with colorectal cancer often have low red blood cell counts (become anemic) because of bleeding from the tumor. You might also have blood tests to check your liver function, because colorectal cancer can spread to the liver. There are other substances (tumor markers) in the blood that can help tell how well treatment is working. But these tumor markers are not used to find cancer in people who have not had cancer and who seem to be healthy. They are most often used for follow-up of people who have already been treated for colorectal cancer. Tests to Look for Colorectal Polyps or Cancer If symptoms or the results of the physical exam or blood tests suggest that you might have colorectal cancer, your doctor may want to do some more tests. A biopsy will be done on any part of the colon or rectum that does not look normal. For a biopsy, the doctor removes a small piece of the tissue from the area of concern. This is done during a colonoscopy. The tissue is sent to the lab where it is looked at under a microscope to see if cancer is present. While other tests may suggest colorectal cancer, a biopsy is the only way to know this for sure. Imaging tests make pictures of the inside of your body. Imaging tests may be done for many reasons, such as to help find out whether a changed area might be cancer, to learn how far cancer may have spread, and to help learn whether treatment is working. Computed tomography (CT or CAT) scan A CT scan uses x-rays to take many pictures of the body that are then combined by a computer to give a detailed picture. A CT scan can often show whether the cancer has spread to the liver, lungs, or other organs. CT scans take longer than regular x-rays. The patient has to lie still on a table while the CT scan is being done. A contrast "dye" may be put into a vein or a special drink used to help outline the area being looked at. The dye can cause some flushing (redness and warm feeling). Some people are allergic and get hives or, rarely, more serious reactions like trouble breathing and low blood pressure. Be sure to tell the doctor if you have ever had a reaction to any contrast dye used for x-rays. CT scans can also be used to guide a biopsy needle into a tumor. For this to be done, the patient remains on the CT table, while a radiologist moves a biopsy needle through the skin and toward the mass. A tiny piece of tissue or a thin cylinder of tissue about one-half inch long and less than one-eighth inch wide is then removed and looked at under a microscope. A new way to use a CT scan is to do a "virtual colonoscopy." After stool is cleaned from the colon and the colon is filled with air, a computer can put together a picture of the inside of the colon. This method requires the same preparation as for a colonoscopy and there is some discomfort from the bowel being filled with air. If anything looks like it is not normal, a follow-up colonoscopy will be needed. Ultrasound uses sound waves to make a picture of the inside of the body. Most people know about ultrasound because it is often used to look at a baby during pregnancy. This is an easy test to have. The patient simply lies on a table while a wand is moved over the skin of the belly. Two special types of ultrasound might be used for people with colon or rectal cancer. In one, the wand that gives off sound waves is placed into the rectum to look for cancer there and see if it has spread to nearby organs or tissues. In the other test, used during surgery, the wand is placed against the surface of the liver to see if the cancer has spread there. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans Like CT scans, MRIs show a cross-section of the body. But MRI uses radio waves and strong magnets instead of radiation to take pictures. As with CT scans, a contrast dye may be used, but this is not common. MRI scans are sometimes useful in looking at places in the liver that might have cancer spread. They can also help the doctor learn the extent of rectal cancers. MRIs take longer than CT scans and the patient may have to be placed inside a narrow tube for the test. This can feel confining and upset people with a fear of closed spaces. The machine also makes a thumping noise, but some places will provide headphones with music to block this out. This test may be done to see whether colorectal cancer has spread to the lungs. Positron emission tomography (PET) scan In this test, a type of radioactive sugar is put into a vein. Over a certain amount of time the sugar moves through the body and is taken in by the cancer cells. Then the patient is put into the PET machine where a special camera can detect the radioactivity. Because the cancer cells absorb large amounts of the sugar they show up on the pictures as dark "hot spots." PET is useful when the doctor thinks the cancer has spread, but doesn't know where. PET scans are now more accurate because they can be done along with a CT scan. Angiography is an x-ray done to look at blood vessels. For this test, a thin tube (called a catheter) is put into a blood vessel and moved until it reaches the area to be studied. (The skin is numbed before the tube is put in.) Then a dye is pushed through the catheter and x-ray pictures are taken. When the pictures are done, the catheter is taken out. Surgeons sometimes use this test to show blood vessels next to cancer that has spread to the liver. The cancer can then be removed without causing a lot of bleeding. © 2013 American Cancer Society, Inc. All rights reserved. The American Cancer Society does not endorse any product or service listed in the sponsored areas on this or other pages of this site.

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(BPT) - Cold and flu season is on its way, often marking its arrival with that first throat tickle, before exploding into a hacking cough. Coughing is a natural reaction to an airway irritant, the body's attempt to expel foreign substances, or a symptom indicating an underlying medical condition. A cough is a familiar symptom of a wide range of conditions - from the common cold to bronchitis. Identifying the type and cause of your cough will help you determine treatment and get you on the fast track to kicking your cough. Types of coughs Coughs fall under two categories: productive and nonproductive. Productive (also known as wet) coughs produce phlegm or mucus that comes up from the lungs or drains down the back of the throat. A wet cough can be a symptom of the common cold, influenza, bronchitis and even pneumonia. 'For symptoms associated with illnesses such as the common cold or flu, coughing helps remove mucus and irritants from your lungs and airways,' says Dr. Brian M. Levine, general practitioner and cough specialist from Southern California. 'So it's best not to suppress these coughs.' Nonproductive (also known as dry) coughs do not produce phlegm or mucus, and can make your airways, throat or chest sore, causing discomfort and disrupting sleep. This type of cough can be a cold and flu symptom but is also often a result of asthma or allergies. 'A person suffering from asthma generally experiences a dry, non-productive cough,' says Levine. 'Allergy coughs, due to the constriction of airways by pollutants such as pollen, cigarette smoke or animal dander, are very similar to asthma.' Chronic cough is a cough that lasts longer than six to eight weeks, which can cause physical problems such as damage to the vocal cords, rupture of small blood vessels in the airway, fainting spells, hernias or even broken ribs. 'A long-lasting cough may be the sign of an underlying condition, such as asthma, postnasal drip or gastroesophageal reflux disease,' says Levine. 'Depending on the cause of the chronic cough, treatment may include antihistamine allergy medications, inhaled asthma medicine, antacids or antibiotics. A cough lasting for several weeks can also be an indicator of whooping cough, which is a highly contagious condition characterized by intense coughing that can lead to breathing restrictions, dry heaving, and vomiting. If a cough lasts for more than a few weeks, a physician should be consulted.' 'There's a wide selection of over-the-counter treatments available to help ease coughing symptoms,' says Levine. 'Expectorants, such as guaifenesin, thin the mucus blocking the airways making it easier to cough up, relieving chest congestion. Dry coughs can be treated with a cough suppressant, such as dextromethorphan, which simply lessens the urge to cough promoting comfort and better sleeping. I recommend many of the 'store-brand' cough medications at leading retailers and pharmacies, such as Tussin cough syrups and guaifenesin. These products are regulated by the FDA and use comparable active ingredients, but cost significantly less than the brand names.' Perrigo is a Michigan-based pharmaceutical company that manufactures and distributes most of the over-the-counter medications sold under store-brand labels at leading national retailers, club stores, grocers and pharmacies. According to Perrigo, these products are the primary treatments available over-the-counter for cough: * Wet cough relief: Guaifenesin (compare to: Mucinex), Tussin cough syrups that are labeled as containing an expectorant such as guaifenesin (compare to: Robitussin) * Dry cough relief: Dextromethorphan (compare to: Delsym), Nite Time and Day Time products that are labeled as containing a cough suppressant such as dextromethorphan (compare to: NyQuil and DayQuil) 'If you continue to cough for a prolonged period of time, your respiratory symptoms have worsened, or you have difficulty breathing, I suggest scheduling an appointment with your doctor immediately, so he or she may evaluate you and suggest the best course of treatment for your situation,' Levine says.

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Kids are used to using their brains, but it’s rare that they hold one. It’s so rare, that’s one of the favorite activities at an open house for middle-school students at the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Silver Spring during Brain Awareness Week, which was celebrated nationwide March 11 to 17. Outfitted with purple nitrile gloves, students could hold a real brain, look at its parts and feel the weight of a lifetime’s learning under the watchful eye of the museum’s brain collection manager, Archie Fobbs. “It was cool — different than I expected,” Molly Quinn, a seventh-grader at Our Lady of Lourdes School in Bethesda, said. “I thought the color would not be as tan. I thought it would be more pink,” Joanne Odenkirchin, from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke at the National Institutes of Health, helped students take off the protective gloves and soothed those who were leery about touching the specimen. “It’s not brain juice,” she told the students of the liquid dripping from the brain. “It’s alcohol.” She said the activity had a serious purpose. “It’s great to get more kids interested in the brain,” she said. There were several other activities going on as seventh-grade students from Our Lady of Lourdes and their teacher Pat Stallsmith spent the morning of March 13 at the museum. Stallsmith said the program fit into her students’ life sciences curriculum, in which they learned about the skeleton, muscles and bones but had yet to study the brain. There was a slide show called “Mysteries of the Brain” and visuals demonstrating the connection between the eyes and the brain, called “More Than Meets the Eye.” “Alcohol and the Developing Brain” used a chicken-wire brain with flashing lights to illustrate neuron connections in a normal brain and different flashes to show the effects of alcohol on the brain. Scientists and staff members from local science institutes, most connected with the National Institutes of Health, conducted the activities, teaching and answering questions as student groups came through the sessions. “The event, which takes place during Traumatic Brain Injury Awareness Month, seeks to educate middle school students about traumatic brain injury, brain anatomy, etc., through fun hands-on activities,” Melissa Brachfeld, public affairs specialist at the museum, wrote in an email. Brachfeld said the museum holds the world’s largest collection of brains, which makes it a natural for holding special events during Brain Awareness Week. Middle school students from throughout the Washington, D.C., area were invited to take part. Close to 550 students from 17 different school groups took advantage of the opportunity, Andrea Schierkolk, public programs manager at the museum, said. “Middle-school students get to meet actual neuroscientists and we hope this will inspire them to pursue the sciences, perhaps even to inspire a whole new generation of neuroscientists,” Schierkolk said. In another activity, two brain-shaped game markers — one red, one blue — moved along a felt race track as student teams shouted out answers to brain-themed questions. They hoped their marker would reach the finish line first in the Brain Derby, a loud competition coordinated by scientists from the National Institute on Drug Abuse and focused on the effects of abused drugs on the brain and body. Students answered multiple-choice questions with scientists offering information to steer them to the right choices. “I really liked the Brain Derby because it taught me things I did not know,” Helena Orrego, a seventh-grader at Our Lady of Lourdes School, said. National Brain Awareness Week was started in 1996 by the Dana Alliance for Brain Initiatives, a nonprofit organization committed to advancing brain awareness. Traumatic Brain Injury Awareness Month was started in the late 1980s by the Brain Injury Association of America. “Brain injury is a silent epidemic,” said Greg Auotte, director of consumer services for the Brain Injury Association. “The Center for Disease Control just come out with new statistics: 3.5 million people sustain brain injuries each year.” Andi Sachs of Rockville has worked as a docent at the library for more years than she can remember and especially enjoys Brain Awareness Week. “It really is fun,” she said. “They get that this is cool. That’s really what you want them to leave with.”

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The "Black Dutch" have long been an enigma in American genealogy. Their descendants are widely reported, yet no authoritative definition exists for this intriguing term. Many claims are made about the Black Dutch, but are any valid? Clues to this genealogical mystery were sought by contacting their descendants. Who were the Black Dutch? Where did they live? The first in-depth survey of the mysterious "Black Dutch" appears as a special feature in American Genealogy Magazine,Vol. 12, No. 1. This 20-page, illustrated report discusses the physiognomy, ethnology, and geography of over 100 American families of Black Dutch descent. This issue of American Genealogy Magazine has 88 pages. Other features of this issue include: "Cherokee-White Intermarriages, Part VIII" and "Index to Estate Papers, Sumter County, South Carolina (1800-1906), Part V (Surnames R - S)." Price includes first class postage. TX residents add 8.25% sales tax. Order from Google Checkout (above) or from our secure website (below) GenealogyMagazine.com - Copyright © 2000-2013 Datatrace Systems

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What is Yom Kippur? Jewish Day of Atonement considers spiritual well-being by David Johnson Yom Kippur, which in 2013 begins at sundown September 13, and lasts until sundown September 14, is one of the most serious Jewish holidays. Jews who do not regularly observe other holidays often make an exception for Yom Kippur, which occurs on the tenth day of the Hebrew month of Tishri. Yom Kippur observances can vary. Some non-Orthodox Jews might not follow the following outline exactly. This is judgment day. Many Jews practice repentance, say prayers, and give charity to obtain God's forgiveness for any sins made in the past year. Yom Kippur is the culmination of a process that began a month earlier, during the Hebrew month of Elal. It follows Rosh Hashanah and the New Year's activities. Days of Awe After Rosh Hashanah and before Yom Kippur are ten days known as the Days of Awe, or Ten Days of Repentance. They offer a chance for spiritual renewal and repentance before Yom Kippur, which is to atone for sins between man and God. Some Orthodox Jews hold a live fowl over their heads as atonement for sin. The fowl is killed and given to the poor. Instead of an actual bird, some Jews use a bag of money symbolizing the price of the bird. This is the ancient custom of kapparot, or atonements, and is practiced during the afternoon before Yom Kippur begins. A confession, a special meal During the afternoon prayers on the day before Yom Kippur, a viddui, or confessional, is said. It is repeated during Yom Kippur. Yom Kippur requires a fast of about 25 hours. The final meal before is a somewhat festive occasion, including soup, chicken, and challah, traditional Jewish bread. Salty foods, which may make fasting more difficult, are generally avoided. Participants are advised to drink plenty of water and to brush their teeth before the fast begins. Those who usually drink a lot of caffeine are advised to start cutting down days before to avoid the headache associated with caffeine withdrawal. Candles and a blessing Two holiday candles are blessed and then lit. This signals the beginning of Yom Kippur. There is no more eating or drinking. Other prohibitions are: no bathing, no using creams and oils, no wearing of leather shoes, and no sexual relations. There are exceptions. Children who have not yet had their bar or bat-mitzvah, pregnant women, and people who are sick or infirm may eat or drink as needed. Some Reform Jews might not follow these prohibitions precisely. A series of prayers is said during Yom Kippur. The Kol Nidrei is the first prayer, and should be recited before sunset. It is written in Aramaic, an ancient language. The Maariv is an evening service and includes the viddui. Prayers for those who have died In the morning, the Shaharit begins the day. It is similar to other morning services but includes additional poems, known as piyutim. Next is the Yizkor, a memorial prayer for those whose parents have died. Those with parents still living leave the main sanctuary while it is being said. The Musaf is the longest service of the year. It contains two parts: one which recounts the temple service, and the second describes the ten Jewish wise men tortured to death by the Romans. Locking of the gates of heaven Most synagogues take a break following the Musaf to allow worshippers to take a rest. In the afternoon, the Minhah, which includes the reading of the Book of Jonah, takes place. It is the briefest Yom Kippur service. It is followed by the Neilah, meaning "locked." It refers to the locking of the gates of heaven. The congregation stands during the Neilah. At the end of the afternoon service, the shofar, a ram's horn, is blown. Today various types of horns are used. Families "break the fast," when they return home and eat a light meal often prepared in advance. This usually includes dairy products. Bagels and lox, noodle kugel, juice, and coffee are apt to be included. Information Please® Database, © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Cold Regions Science and Technology Cold Regions Science and Technology is an international journal dealing with the scientific and technical problems of cold environments in both the Arctic and more temperate locations. The primary focus is with problems related to the freezing of water, and especially with the many forms of floating ice, snow, and frozen ground. The journal serves a wide range of specialists, providing a medium for interdisciplinary communication and a convenient source of reference. Emphasis is given to applied science with broad coverage of the physics, chemistry, mechanics, and biological aspects of ice, snow, ice-water systems, and ice-bonded soils. Relevant aspects of earth science, materials science, offshore and river ice engineering are also of primary interest. Technological advances for cold regions areas in research, development, and engineering practice are relevant to the journal. This includes traditional major specializations of engineering (civil, mechanical, electrical), together with other engineering subdivisions (e.g. hydraulics, biotechnology, agricultural, mining, highway, sanitary, petroleum, ocean, rivers). Coverage may also include engineering geology, architecture, meteorology, hydrology, forestry, exploration geophysics, naval architecture, and so forth. Theoretical papers must include a detailed discussion of the potential application of the theory to address cold regions problems. Benefits to authors We also provide many author benefits, such as free PDFs, a liberal copyright policy, special discounts on Elsevier publications and much more. Please click here for more information on our author services.

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This is Part 1 of a multi-part entry into the process and pains of the creation of JPL’s map of Isla Sorna. Eventually these entries will be merged into one article and made part of the Encyclopedia. Jurassic Park Legacy’s map of Isla Sorna (aka Site B) has been a many-years long endeavor. Numerous maps of Isla Sorna exist, both in-film props and real world publicity items. One would therefore think that it would be a simple thing to create a map corresponding to the films’ events. However, none of the maps work together, and topography varies from one map to another. It seems the production team for the films did not have any sort of concrete map or topography from which they were working from. This leaves JPL’s Map Team with a dilemma. Which of these many maps should be used as the de facto topography for our map? Should we rule out every other map or attempt to merge all the maps together? Should one map be considered more likely to be “accurate” than all the others? After a lot of deliberation it was agreed that the map seen in The Lost World: Jurassic Park during Kelly’s wandering of the trailers (below) was the most accurate for our purposes. The topography is clear, the map is given a central focus in the film (even if only for a few seconds), and within the film universe itself it appears to be a detailed map of the variety you would find pinned in a government building. So our topography was established; now we had to determine the size of the island. This was done fairly easily. Costa Rica appears on this map as well, and sizing it appropriately allowed us to determine the size of Sorna. The result; approximately 21 x 20 miles. The island was now complete. We created a large topographical map of the entire Las Cinco Muertes island chain and created a map scale from there (at our scale; 116 pixels per mile). Work on actual locations could now finally begin. Continued in Part 2…

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Study Questions for the "Someone is Coming to Take Your Lap" - After moving to Santurce, the Santiago family experienced a significant improvement in living conditions. List the improvements, compared with the primitive conditions in Macun. on the photo to see a larger version of the image.) - Esmeralda experienced discrimination when she started attending school in Santurce, after moving from the rural area of Macun. Describe what happened to her. - Out of childish curiosity (p. 43 - 44), Esmeralda quizzed her father on the topic of sin. Papi's answers were an ironic contrast of what he practiced. Discuss the irony in his answer. - Esmeralda heard about "Jurutungo." Explain what kind of place it was, in the context of the memoir. (p. 49) - Don Berto, a well respected elderly man, passed away. In what ways did his death have an important impact on Esmeralda? - Esmeralda and Papi had a very philosophical dialog about body and soul. Summarize the most important points of their conversation. (p. 53 - 54) - The paragraphs between p. 55 to 57 served as a prelude to the next chapter, "The American Invasion of Macun." In what ways had this discussion provided Esmeralda with notions of a better life? - Why had Esmeralda devoted three pages (p. 58 - 60) to tell the readers about rain in a certain afternoon in May? Also, describe the way in which Mami and the children played in the rain. Return to Table of Contents

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Cataracts are the leading cause of blindness in the world. Cataracts affect 20.5 million Americans age 40 and older. Fortunately, in the U.S., cataract surgery is safer and simpler than ever with results that cannot only improve your vision but can potentially do so and eliminate your need or dependency on glasses. Usually, cataracts develop slowly with little effect on vision. But as the cataract grows, vision becomes blurred, like looking through a cloudy lens or an impressionist painting.

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Is 3 to the power of P > 2 to the power of q ? (1) q = 2p (2) q > 0 Can anyone explain this. From my understanding the answer to this question is E. But the explainantion says the correct ans is C. from now on, you should actually say what "your understanding of the problem" is ; it's hard to respond to your post if we have to mind-read. kyle's approach (testing cases) works. if you have statement 2, you can also substitute q = 2p into the question: Is 3^p > 2^q ? Is 3^p > 2^(2p) ? which is the same as... Is 3^p > (2^2)^p ? Is 3^p > 4^p ? The answer to this question is No if p is non-negative and Yes if p is negative. therefore, if you have the two statements together, it's a definite No.

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Mathematician shares her skills at Nelson schools Susan Milner can't stand the way many people say they can't do math. "If they were telling you they couldn't read, you'd expect they'd be trying to do something to improve their skills," she said. "But with math, it's almost fashionable to be bad at it." Milner, a mathematics instructor at University of the Fraser Valley who was raised in Nelson, was in town earlier this month visiting her parents and while here she volunteered to go around to schools to talk to students about where their math skills could take them. "Our world runs on math," she said. "We don't have computers without it, we don't have business without it." Also on the list of occupations that require a math skills: science, medicine, engineering, finance, and many more. Milner said she's noticed that students tend to be most enthusiastic about math in the younger grades, but by middle school only about a third of students will admit to liking the subject. In high school, when math becomes optional for Grade 12 students, many will choose to drop it completely. "Students think they just won't study math because it's not cool, and they're really closing doors on themselves and the type of jobs they could do in the future." During her visits to schools, Milner showed students that math is more than just crunching numbers. She had them complete puzzles and games that require the same logic as solving equations. "They're building their math skills without even realizing, because they're also have fun," Milner said. From November 19 to 23, Milner visited Trafalgar middle school, South Nelson elementary and Hume elementary, and she plans to return in April to speak at to the schools she'll miss on this trip. Her visits are organized by Science World BC through its Scientists and Innovators in the Schools program, white invites scientists, engineers, technologists and technicians to share their expertise with science classes around the province through hands-on activities.

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NOAA: November Warmer than Average in U.S., January-November Temperature Near Average for U.S. December 11, 2008 The November 2008 temperature for the contiguous United States was warmer than the long-term average, according to NOAA’s National Climatic Data Center in Asheville, N.C. The January-November 2008 temperature was near average. The average November temperature of 44.5 degrees F was 2.0 degrees F above the 20th Century average. Precipitation across the contiguous United States in November averaged 1.93 inches, which is 0.20 inch below the 1901-2000 average. For the January-November period, the average temperature of 54.9 degrees F was 0.3 degree above the 20th Century average. The nation’s January-November temperature has increased at a rate of 0.12 degrees per decade since 1895, and at a faster rate of 0.41 degrees each decade during the last 50 years. All findings are based on a preliminary analysis of data based on records dating back to 1895. U.S. Temperature Highlights - November temperatures were cooler than average across the Southeast and Central regions, and much warmer than average in the Southwest, Northwest and West regions. - The West region had its fourth warmest November on record. This contrasted with the Southeast, which was much below normal. - Persistent above-average temperatures for the last six months have resulted in a record warm June-November period for the West region. California set a record for its warmest June-November, while both Nevada and Utah had their fifth warmest June-November period. - Based on NOAA's Residential Energy Demand Temperature Index, the contiguous U.S. temperature-related energy demand was 0.6 percent below average in November. U.S. Precipitation Highlights - The United States measured above-normal precipitation across the northern Great Plains from eastern Montana to western Minnesota. However, November was drier than normal across much of the South and Central regions. - Precipitation across most of the Midwest was only 50-75 percent of normal and some areas from southern Missouri through central Illinois received less than 50 percent of normal precipitation. - The January-November period has been persistently wet across much of the country from the central Plains to the Northeast. The 11-month period was the wettest on record for New Hampshire and Massachusetts, second wettest for Missouri, third wettest for Vermont and Illinois, and fifth wettest for Maine and Iowa. - At the end of November, 22 percent of the contiguous United States was in moderate-to-exceptional drought, about the same as October. Meanwhile, extreme-to-exceptional drought conditions continued in the western Carolinas, northeast Georgia, eastern Tennessee, southern Texas, and Hawai’i. - About 26 percent of the contiguous United States was in moderately-to-extremely wet conditions at the end of November, according to the Palmer Index. This was a decrease of about three percent compared to October. - It was the wettest November on record in Yuma, Ariz., with 2.2 inches (5.6 cm) of precipitation – all of it falling on November 26. This was more than five times the November average. - An early November blizzard forced more than 100 businesses and schools, and Interstate 90, to close in western South Dakota on Nov. 5 and 6. The blizzard brought total snow accumulations of 3 to 4 feet and drifts up to 20 feet in places. - Several periods of strong northwesterly winds during the month resulted in mountain-enhanced snowfalls across the mountains of western Virginia, North Carolina, and extreme northern Georgia. Banner Elk, N.C. recorded 6.2 inches (15.7 cm) of snow during the month making it the snowiest November since 1983. - Three separate wildfires, which scorched 41,000 acres in Southern California, destroyed 1,000 homes and prompted 15,000 people to evacuate from November 13-17. NCDC’s preliminary reports, which assess the current state of the climate, are released soon after the end of each month. These analyses are based on preliminary data, which are subject to revision. Additional quality control is applied to the data when late reports are received several weeks after the end of the month and as increased scientific methods improve NCDC’s processing algorithms. NOAA understands and predicts changes in the Earth's environment, from the depths of the ocean to the surface of the sun, and conserves and manages our coastal and marine resources.

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Dollars and census The problem with ‘fair share’ rhetoric - Wednesday, May 12, 2010 "Don't ask unless you are willing to hear [can deal with] the answer." That advice comes to mind after considering the government's advertising for Census 2010. That advertising makes one wonder whether Americans now comprise a nation of takers and no longer are creators, innovators or rugged individualists. "Without a complete, accurate census, your community may not receive its fair share," reads the letter the government sent to my house. Americans should fill in the form and thereby "help each community get its fair share." No mention about duty or responsibility or even the idea that being a good American requires one to fill out the census. This is not to argue for any of the aforementioned justifications or even the constitutionality of the modern-day census. The point is this: The Census Bureau, in encouraging people to fill out the forms, is using language that ostensibly resonates with the public. Continually, it chooses to use, in print and on the radio and television, the phrase, "fair share." But "fair share" is bothersome. For starters, who defines the amorphous "fair share?" How much is it, anyway? Is it an amount or a percentage? When money is funneled into a process in which politicians owe others favors and in which senior members have more influence than junior members, any genuine, equitable and evenly distributed "fair share" for all is impossible. The census was not intended to help hand out a "fair share." It was designed to ensure that each state had the appropriate number of congressional representatives. And that is important for the nation and for Nevada, a state in which the population has varied greatly throughout history. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, mining strikes attracted many from the East to the Silver State, and when the excitement waned, some stayed and more than a few traveled elsewhere. In short, the census ensures that each state (and areas within a state) has proper representation. But much has changed over the last two centuries: Population has increased, and the nature of the census itself is different. According to the Census 2010 website, the entire population of the United States in 1790 was less than the current population of Los Angeles. Then, 220 years ago, the U.S. had 105 representatives for fewer than 4 million people. That was one representative for approximately 40,000 people. Today, the U.S. population (approximately 300 million) has 435 congressional members, a number that has been the same since 1911, when the population was approximately 90 million. In 2010, there is one representative for every 690,000 Americans. Perhaps our representatives today frequently fail to represent our interests because representation, as originally intended in 1789, is itself no longer workable. If we attempted to keep the ratio of legislators to constituents the same today as it was in 1790, about 5,000 representatives would be on Capitol Hill. But back to the primary point: The main purpose of the 2010 census seems to be ensuring that each community receives its "fair share" of government tax loot. Proper representation appears an entirely secondary concern. Admittedly, if the national government is going to allocate money, bureaucrats should know how many people live in various states and cities. According to the Census 2010 website, over $400 billion will be spent on such things as "better infrastructure. More services." This will ensure that there is a "brighter tomorrow for everyone." That's right. More government funding ensures your "fair share," and that makes certain "a brighter tomorrow." Ralph Waldo Emerson, a 19th Century Transcendentalist philosopher, was right, however, when he wrote: "The true test of civilization is, not the census, nor the size of cities, nor the crops, but the kind of man that the country turns out." The census has moved beyond being a tool to implement proper representation. It is now a ticket to largesse. Maybe that's what the government is in the business of doing now: taking money from creators and everyday Americans and simply distributing the spoils. We may receive what some define as a "fair share," but that kind of "fair share" thinking is turning a once muscular America into ... flab.

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Investigators determined that injections of the natural hormone oxyntomodulin resulted in significant weight loss in a 4-week study. The body releases this hormone after meals to make people feel less hungry. Researchers randomly injected oxyntomodulin or placebo before meals to 26 obese and overweight patients 3 times a day, 30 minutes prior to mealtime for 4 weeks. Participants maintained their normal diet and physical activity during that time. In the oxyntomodulin group, body weight decreased by 5 lb versus 1 lb in the placebo group. The group receiving the hormone injections showed changes in the levels of fat-related hormones leptin and adiponectin, which indicated a decrease in fat. The oxyntomodulin group ate less, but their perception of their meals did not change. Researchers concluded that this natural hormone "may provide a more specific treatment for obesity" than other treatments. Ms. Farley is a freelance medical writer based in Wakefield, RI.

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HONOLULU — Seventy-five years after Amelia Earhart disappeared over the Pacific, a research team plans to leave Tuesday on an expedition to solve the mystery over the pioneering aviatrix’s fate. The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR) is heading to Nikumaroro island in Kiribati to try to establish whether Earhart survived the apparent crash of her aircraft three quarters of a century ago. “She did not go down at sea. She was on land, and we think we know what land she was on, and where to search in the water for what’s left of the plane,” the group’s head Richard Gillespie told CNN Monday. The expedition will use state-of-the-art technology, including a multi-beam sonar to map the ocean floor and a remote-controlled device similar to one that found the black boxes from the Rio-to-Paris Air France flight that crashed into the South Atlantic in 2009. A cargo ship carrying the equipment and a crew of about 20 scientists will depart Hawaii to explore over 10 days both the island and an underwater reef slope at its west end. “This is the hi-tech deep water search we’ve long wanted to do but could never afford,” the search team said on its website. The expedition team originally planned to set sail on July 2, the exact day when Earhart vanished in 1937 aboard her twin-engine Lockheed Electra. But the launch had to be postponed by one day to allow time for a Kiribati customs official to reach Hawaii and accompany the voyage. Earhart, 39, was flying with navigator Fred Noonan during the final stage of an ambitious round-the-world flight along the equator at the time that her plane disappeared. The holder of several aeronautical records — including the first woman to cross the Atlantic by air — Earhart had set off from New Guinea to refuel at Howland Island for a final long-distance hop to California. In what turned out to be her final radio message, she declared she was unable to find Howland and that fuel was running low. Several search-and-rescue missions ordered by then-president Franklin Roosevelt turned up no trace of Earhart or Noonan, who were eventually presumed dead at sea. Conspiracy theories flourished, including one contending that Earhart was held by Japanese imperial forces as a spy. Another claimed she completed her flight, but changed her identity and settled in New Jersey. Aircraft debris reportedly was found by island residents in subsequent years, but the TIGHAR research team is operating on the hypothesis that the aircraft landed safely on the reef and remained there for several days before being washed over the edge by rising tides and surf. TIGHAR suspects that Earhart and Noonan reached Gardner Island — at the time a British possession and now known as Nikumaroro — and managed to survive for an unknown period of time. Nikumaroro is the staging ground for the effort to locate and photograph any wreckage from Earhart’s plane that might still exist. The uninhabited coral atoll is a mere 3.7 miles (six kilometers) long by 1.2 miles (two kilometers) wide, and is about 300 miles (480 kilometers) southeast of Howland Island. Gillespie, TIGHAR’s executive director, told AFP that if debris is found, it will not be gathered, but will be photographed and its location carefully documented for a future expedition. The search team is being accompanied by a three-person camera crew who will film the expedition for a planned television special later this year.

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Opportunities and Challenges in High Pressure Processing of Foods By Rastogi, N K; Raghavarao, K S M S; Balasubramaniam, V M; Niranjan, K; Knorr, D Consumers increasingly demand convenience foods of the highest quality in terms of natural flavor and taste, and which are free from additives and preservatives. This demand has triggered the need for the development of a number of nonthermal approaches to food processing, of which high-pressure technology has proven to be very valuable. A number of recent publications have demonstrated novel and diverse uses of this technology. Its novel features, which include destruction of microorganisms at room temperature or lower, have made the technology commercially attractive. Enzymes and even spore forming bacteria can be inactivated by the application of pressure-thermal combinations, This review aims to identify the opportunities and challenges associated with this technology. In addition to discussing the effects of high pressure on food components, this review covers the combined effects of high pressure processing with: gamma irradiation, alternating current, ultrasound, and carbon dioxide or anti-microbial treatment. Further, the applications of this technology in various sectors-fruits and vegetables, dairy, and meat processing-have been dealt with extensively. The integration of high-pressure with other matured processing operations such as blanching, dehydration, osmotic dehydration, rehydration, frying, freezing / thawing and solid- liquid extraction has been shown to open up new processing options. The key challenges identified include: heat transfer problems and resulting non-uniformity in processing, obtaining reliable and reproducible data for process validation, lack of detailed knowledge about the interaction between high pressure, and a number of food constituents, packaging and statutory issues. Keywords high pressure, food processing, non-thermal processing Consumers demand high quality and convenient products with natural flavor and taste, and greatly appreciate the fresh appearance of minimally processed food. Besides, they look for safe and natural products without additives such as preservatives and humectants. In order to harmonize or blend all these demands without compromising the safety of the products, it is necessary to implement newer preservation technologies in the food industry. Although the fact that “high pressure kills microorganisms and preserves food” was discovered way back in 1899 and has been used with success in chemical, ceramic, carbon allotropy, steel/alloy, composite materials and plastic industries for decades, it was only in late 1980′s that its commercial benefits became available to the food processing industries. High pressure processing (HPP) is similar in concept to cold isostatic pressing of metals and ceramics, except that it demands much higher pressures, faster cycling, high capacity, and sanitation (Zimmerman and Bergman, 1993; Mertens and Deplace, 1993). Hite (1899) investigated the application of high pressure as a means of preserving milk, and later extended the study to preserve fruits and vegetables (Hite, Giddings, and Weakly, 1914). It then took almost eighty years for Japan to re- discover the application of high-pressure in food processing. The use of this technology has come about so quickly that it took only three years for two Japanese companies to launch products, which were processed using this technology. The ability of high pressure to inactivate microorganisms and spoilage catalyzing enzymes, whilst retaining other quality attributes, has encouraged Japanese and American food companies to introduce high pressure processed foods in the market (Mermelstein, 1997; Hendrickx, Ludikhuyze, Broeck, and Weemaes, 1998). The first high pressure processed foods were introduced to the Japanese market in 1990 by Meidi-ya, who have been marketing a line of jams, jellies, and sauces packaged and processed without application of heat (Thakur and Nelson, 1998). Other products include fruit preparations, fruit juices, rice cakes, and raw squid in Japan; fruit juices, especially apple and orange juice, in France and Portugal; and guacamole and oysters in the USA (Hugas, Garcia, and Monfort, 2002). In addition to food preservation, high- pressure treatment can result in food products acquiring novel structure and texture, and hence can be used to develop new products (Hayashi, 1990) or increase the functionality of certain ingredients. Depending on the operating parameters and the scale of operation, the cost of highpressure treatment is typically around US$ 0.05-0.5 per liter or kilogram, the lower value being comparable to the cost of thermal processing (Thakur and Nelson, 1998; Balasubramaniam, 2003). The non-availability of suitable equipment encumbered early applications of high pressure. However, recent progress in equipment design has ensured worldwide recognition of the potential for such a technology in food processing (Could, 1995; Galazka and Ledward, 1995; Balci and Wilbey, 1999). Today, high-pressure technology is acknowledged to have the promise of producing a very wide range of products, whilst simultaneously showing potential for creating a new generation of value added foods. In general, high-pressure technology can supplement conventional thermal processing for reducing microbial load, or substitute the use of chemical preservatives (Rastogi, Subramanian, and Raghavarao, 1994). Over the past two decades, this technology has attracted considerable research attention, mainly relating to: i) the extension of keeping quality (Cheftel, 1995; Farkas and Hoover, 2001), ii) changing the physical and functional properties of food systems (Cheftel, 1992), and iii) exploiting the anomalous phase transitions of water under extreme pressures, e.g. lowering of freezing point with increasing pressures (Kalichevsky, Knorr, and Lillford, 1995; Knorr, Schlueter, and Heinz, 1998). The key advantages of this technology can be summarized as follows: 1. it enables food processing at ambient temperature or even lower temperatures; 2. it enables instant transmittance of pressure throughout the system, irrespective of size and geometry, thereby making size reduction optional, which can be a great advantage; 3. it causes microbial death whilst virtually eliminating heat damage and the use of chemical preservatives/additives, thereby leading to improvements in the overall quality of foods; and 4. it can be used to create ingredients with novel functional properties. The effect of high pressure on microorganisms and proteins/ enzymes was observed to be similar to that of high temperature. As mentioned above, high pressure processing enables transmittance of pressure rapidly and uniformly throughout the food. Consequently, the problems of spatial variations in preservation treatments associated with heat, microwave, or radiation penetration are not evident in pressure-processed products. The application of high pressure increases the temperature of the liquid component of the food by approximately 3C per 100 MPa. If the food contains a significant amount of fat, such as butter or cream, the temperature rise is greater (8-9C/100 MPa) (Rasanayagam, Balasubramaniam, Ting, Sizer, Bush, and Anderson, 2003). Foods cool down to their original temperature on decompression if no heat is lost to (or gained from) the walls of the pressure vessel during the holding stage. The temperature distribution during the pressure-holding period can change depending on heat transfer across the walls of the pressure vessel, which must be held at the desired temperature for achieving truly isothermal conditions. In the case of some proteins, a gel is formed when the rate of compression is slow, whereas a precipitate is formed when the rate is fast. High pressure can cause structural changes in structurally fragile foods containing entrapped air such as strawberries or lettuce. Cell deformation and cell damage can result in softening and cell serum loss. Compression may also shift the pH depending on the imposed pressure. Heremans (1995) indicated a lowering of pH in apple juice by 0.2 units per 100 MPa increase in pressure. In combined thermal and pressure treatment processes, Meyer (2000) proposed that the heat of compression could be used effectively, since the temperature of the product can be raised from 70-90C to 105-120C by a compression to 700 MPa, and brought back to the initial temperature by decompression. As a thermodynamic parameter, pressure has far-reaching effects on the conformation of macromolecules, the transition temperature of lipids and water, and a number of chemical reactions (Cheftel, 1992; Tauscher, 1995). Phenomena that are accompanied by a decrease in volume are enhanced by pressure, and vice-versa (principle of Le Chatelier). Thus, under pressure, reaction equilibriums are shifted towards the most compact state, and the reaction rate constant is increased or decreased, depending on whether the “activation volume” of the reaction (i.e. volume of the activation complex less volume of reactants) is negative or positive. It is likely that pressure a\lso inhibits the availability of the activation energy required for some reactions, by affecting some other energy releasing enzymatic reactions (Farr, 1990). The compression energy of 1 litre of water at 400 MPa is 19.2 kJ, as compared to 20.9 kJ for heating 1 litre of water from 20 to 25C. The low energy levels involved in pressure processing may explain why covalent bonds of food constituents are usually less affected than weak interactions. Pressure can influence most biochemical reactions, since they often involve change in volume. High pressure controls certain enzymatic reactions. The effect of high pressure on protein/enzyme is reversible unlike temperature, in the range 100-400 MPa and is probably due to conformational changes and sub-unit dissociation and association process (Morild, 1981). For both the pasteurization and sterilization processes, a combined treatment of high pressure and temperature are frequently considered to be most appropriate (Farr, 1990; Patterson, Quinn, Simpson, and Gilmour, 1995). Vegetative cells, including yeast and moulds, are pressure sensitive, i.e. they can be inactivated by pressures of ~300-600 MPa (Knorr, 1995; Patterson, Quinn, Simpson, and Gilmour, 1995). At high pressures, microbial death is considered to be due to permeabilization of cell membrane. For instance, it was observed that in the case of Saccharomyces cerevasia, at pressures of about 400 MPa, the structure and cytoplasmic organelles were grossly deformed and large quantities of intracellular material leaked out, while at 500 MPa, the nucleus could no longer be recognized, and a loss of intracellular material was almost complete (Farr, 1990). Changes that are induced in the cell morphology of the microorganisms are reversible at low pressures, but irreversible at higher pressures where microbial death occurs due to permeabilization of the cell membrane. An increase in process temperature above ambient temperature, and to a lesser extent, a decrease below ambient temperature, increases the inactivation rates of microorganisms during high pressure processing. Temperatures in the range 45 to 50C appear to increase the rate of inactivation of pathogens and spoilage microorganisms. Preservation of acid foods (pH ≤ 4.6) is, therefore, the most obvious application of HPP as such. Moreover, pasteurization can be performed even under chilled conditions for heat sensitive products. Low temperature processing can help to retain nutritional quality and functionality of raw materials treated and could allow maintenance of low temperature during post harvest treatment, processing, storage, transportation, and distribution periods of the life cycle of the food system (Knorr, 1995). Bacterial spores are highly pressure resistant, since pressures exceeding 1200 MPa may be needed for their inactivation (Knorr, 1995). The initiation of germination or inhibition of germinated bacterial spores and inactivation of piezo-resistive microorganisms can be achieved in combination with moderate heating or other pretreatments such as ultrasound. Process temperature in the range 90-121C in conjunction with pressures of 500-800 MPa have been used to inactivate spores forming bacteria such as Clostridium botulinum. Thus, sterilization of low-acid foods (pH > 4.6), will most probably rely on a combination of high pressure and other forms of relatively mild treatments. High-pressure application leads to the effective reduction of the activity of food quality related enzymes (oxidases), which ensures high quality and shelf stable products. Sometimes, food constituents offer piezo-resistance to enzymes. Further, high pressure affects only non-covalent bonds (hydrogen, ionic, and hydrophobic bonds), causes unfolding of protein chains, and has little effect on chemical constituents associated with desirable food qualities such as flavor, color, or nutritional content. Thus, in contrast to thermal processing, the application of high-pressure causes negligible impairment of nutritional values, taste, color flavor, or vitamin content (Hayashi, 1990). Small molecules such as amino acids, vitamins, and flavor compounds remain unaffected by high pressure, while the structure of the large molecules such as proteins, enzymes, polysaccharides, and nucleic acid may be altered (Balci and Wilbey, 1999). High pressure reduces the rate of browning reaction (Maillard reaction). It consists of two reactions, condensation reaction of amino compounds with carbonyl compounds, and successive browning reactions including metanoidin formation and polymerization processes. The condensation reaction shows no acceleration by high pressure (5-50 MPa at 50C), because it suppresses the generation of stable free radicals derived from melanoidin, which are responsible for the browning reaction (Tamaoka, Itoh, and Hayashi, 1991). Gels induced by high pressure are found to be more glossy and transparent because of rearrangement of water molecules surrounding amino acid residues in a denatured state (Okamoto, Kawamura, and Hayashi, 1990). The capability and limitations of HPP have been extensively reviewed (Thakur and Nelson, 1998; Smelt, 1998;Cheftal, 1995; Knorr, 1995; Fair, 1990; Tiwari, Jayas, and Holley, 1999; Cheftel, Levy, and Dumay, 2000; Messens, Van Camp, and Huyghebaert, 1997; Ontero and Sanz, 2000; Hugas, Garriga, and Monfort, 2002; Lakshmanan, Piggott,and Paterson, 2003; Balasubramaniam, 2003; Matser, Krebbers, Berg, and Bartels, 2004; Hogan, Kelly, and Sun, 2005; Mor-Mur and Yuste, 2005). Many of the early reviews primarily focused on the microbial efficacy of high-pressure processing. This review comprehensively covers the different types of products processed by highpressure technology alone or in combination with the other processes. It also discusses the effect of high pressure on food constituents such as enzymes and proteins. The applications of this technology in fruits and vegetable, dairy and animal product processing industries are covered. The effects of combining high- pressure treatment with other processing methods such as gamma- irradiation, alternating current, ultrasound, carbon dioxide, and anti microbial peptides have also been described. Special emphasis has been given to opportunities and challenges in high pressure processing of foods, which can potentially be explored and exploited. EFFECT OF HIGH PRESSURE ON ENZYMES AND PROTEINS Enzymes are a special class of proteins in which biological activity arises from active sites, brought together by a three- dimensional configuration of molecule. The changes in active site or protein denaturation can lead to loss of activity, or changes the functionality of the enzymes (Tsou, 1986). In addition to conformational changes, enzyme activity can be influenced by pressure-induced decompartmentalization (Butz, Koller, Tauscher, and Wolf, 1994; Gomes and Ledward, 1996). Pressure induced damage of membranes facilitates enzymesubstrate contact. The resulting reaction can either be accelerated or retarded by pressure (Butz, Koller, Tauscher, and Wolf, 1994; Gomes and Ledward, 1996; Morild, 1981). Hendrickx, Ludikhuy ze, Broeck, and Weemaes ( 1998) and Ludikhuyze, Van Loey, and Indrawati et al. (2003) reviewed the combined effect of pressure and temperature on enzymes related to the ity of fruits and vegetables, which comprises of kinetic information as well as process engineering aspects. Pectin methylesterase (PME) is an enzyme, which normally tends to lower the viscosity of fruits products and adversely affect their texture. Hence, its inactivation is a prerequisite for the preservation of such products. Commercially, fruit products containing PME (e.g. orange juice and tomato products) are heat pasteurized to inactivate PME and prolong shelf life. However, heating can deteriorate the sensory and nutritional quality of the products. Basak and Ramaswamy (1996) showed that the inactivation of PME in orange juice was dependent on pressure level, pressure-hold time, pH, and total soluble solids. An instantaneous pressure kill was dependent only on pressure level and a secondary inactivation effect dependent on holding time at each pressure level. Nienaber and Shellhammer (2001) studied the kinetics of PME inactivation in orange juice over a range of pressures (400-600 MPa) and temperatures (25-5O0C) for various process holding times. PME inactivation followed a firstorder kinetic model, with a residual activity of pressure-resistant enzyme. Calculated D-values ranged from 4.6 to 117.5 min at 600 MPa/50C and 400 MPa/25C, respectively. Pressures in excess of 500 MPa resulted in sufficiently faster inactivation rates for economic viability of the process. Binh, Van Loey, Fachin, Verlent, Indrawati, and Hendrickx (2002a, 2002b) studied the kinetics of inactivation of strawberry PME. The combined effect of pressure and temperature on inactivation kinetics followed a fractional-conversion model. Purified strawberry PME was more stable toward high-pressure treatments than PME from oranges and bananas. Ly-Nguyen, Van Loey, Fachin, Verlent, Hendrickx (2002) showed that the inactivation of the banana PME enzyme during heating at temperature between 65 and 72.5C followed first order kinetics and the effect of pressure treatment of 600-700 MPa at 10C could be described using a fractionalconversion model. Stoforos, Crelier, Robert, and Taoukis (2002) demonstrated that under ambient pressure, tomato PME inactivation rates increased with temperature, and the highest rate was obtained at 75C. The inactivation rates were dramatically reduced as soon as the essing pressure was raised beyond 75C. High inactivation rates were obtained at a pressure higher than 700 MPa. Riahi and Ramaswamy (2003) studied high- pressure inactivation kinetics of PME isolated from a variety of sources and showed that PME from a microbial source was more resistant \to pressure inactivation than from orange peel. Almost a full decimal reduction in activity of commercial PME was achieved at 400 MPa within 20 min. Verlent, Van Loey, Smout, Duvetter, Nguyen, and Hendrickx (2004) indicated that the optimal temperature for tomato pectinmethylesterase was shifted to higher values at elevated pressure compared to atmospheric pressure, creating the possibilities for rheology improvements by the application of high pressure. Castro, Van Loey, Saraiva, Smout, and Hendrickx (2006) accurately described the inactivation of the labile fraction under mild-heat and high-pressure conditions by a fractional conversion model, while a biphasic model was used to estimate the inactivation rate constant of both the fractions at more drastic conditions of temperature/ pressure (10-64C, 0.1-800 MPa). At pressures lower than 300 MPa and temperatures higher than 54C, an antagonistic effect of pressure and temperature was observed. Balogh, Smout, Binh, Van Loey, and Hendrickx (2004) observed the inactivation kinetics of carrot PME to follow first order kinetics over a range of pressure and temperature (650800 MPa, 10-40C). Enzyme stability under heat and pressure was reported to be lower in carrot juice and purified PME preparations than in carrots. The presence of pectinesterase (PE) reduces the quality of citrus juices by destabilization of clouds. Generally, the inactivation of the enzyme is accomplished by heat, resulting in a loss of fresh fruit flavor in the juice. High pressure processing can be used to bypass the use of extreme heat for the processing of fruit juices. Goodner, Braddock, and Parish (1998) showed that the higher pressures (>600 MPa) caused instantaneous inactivation of the heat labile form of the enzyme but did not inactivate the heat stable form of PE in case of orange and grapefruit juices. PE activity was totally lost in orange juice, whereas complete inactivation was not possible in case of grapefruit juices. Orange juice pressurized at 700 MPa for l min had no cloud loss for more than 50 days. Broeck, Ludikhuyze, Van Loey, and Hendrickx (2000) studied the combined pressure-temperature inactivation of the labile fraction of orange PE over a range of pressure (0.1 to 900 MPa) and temperature (15 to 65C). Pressure and temperature dependence of the inactivation rate constants of the labile fraction was quantified using the well- known Eyring and Arrhenius relations. The stable fraction was inactivated at a temperature higher than 75C. Acidification (pH 3.7) enhanced the thermal inactivation of the stable fraction, whereas the addition of Ca^sup ++^ ions (IM) suppressed inactivation. At elevated pressure (up to 900 MPa), an antagonistic effect of pressure and temperature on inactivation of the stable fraction was observed. Ly-Nguyen, Van Loey, Smout, Ozean, Fachin, Verlent, Vu- Truong, Duvetter, and Hendrickx (2003) investigated the combined heat and pressure treatments on the inactivation of purified carrot PE, which followed a fractional-conversion model. The thermally stable fraction of the enzyme could not be inactivated. At a lower pressure (<300 MPa) and higher temperature (>50C), an antagonistic effect of pressure and heat was observed. High pressures induced conformational changes in polygalacturonase (PG) causing reduced substrate binding affinity and enzyme inactivation. Eun, Seok, and Wan ( 1999) studied the effect of high-pressure treatment on PG from Chinese cabbage to prevent the softening and spoilage of plant-based foods such as kimchies without compromising quality. PG was inactivated by the application of pressure higher than 200 MPa for l min. Fachin, Van Loey, Indrawati, Ludikhuyze, and Hendrickx (2002) investigated the stability of tomato PG at different temperatures and pressures. The combined pressure temperature inactivation (300-600 MPa/50 -50C) of tomato PG was described by a fractional conversion model, which points to Ist-order inactivation kinetics of a pressure-sensitive enzyme fraction and to the occurrence of a pressure-stable PG fraction. Fachin, Smout, Verlent, Binh, Van Loey, and Hendrickx (2004) indicated that in the combination of pressure-temperature (5- 55C/100-600 MPa), the inactivation of the heat labile portion of purified tomato PG followed first order kinetics. The heat stable fraction of the enzyme showed pressure stability very similar to that of heat labile portion. Peelers, Fachin, Smout, Van Loey, and Hendrickx (2004) demonstrated that effect of high-pressure was identical on heat stable and heat labile fractions of tomato PG. The isoenzyme of PG was detected in thermally treated (140C for 5 min) tomato pieces and tomato juice, whereas, no PG was found in pressure treated tomato juice or pieces. Verlent, Van Loey, Smout, Duvetter, and Hendrickx (2004) investigated the effect of nigh pressure (0.1 and 500 MPa) and temperature (25-80C) on purified tomato PG. At atmospheric pressure, the optimum temperature for enzyme was found to be 55-60C and it decreased with an increase in pressure. The enzyme activity was reported to decrease with an increase in pressure at a constant temperature. Shook, Shellhammer, and Schwartz (2001) studied the ability of high pressure to inactivate lipoxygenase, PE and PG in diced tomatoes. Processing conditions used were 400,600, and 800 MPa for 1, 3, and 5 min at 25 and 45C. The magnitude of the applied pressure had a significant effect in inactivating lipoxygenase and PG, with complete loss of activity occurring at 800 MPa. PE was very resistant to the pressure treatment. Polyphenoloxidase and Pemxidase Polyphenoloxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (POD), the enzymes responsible for color and flavor loss, can be selectively inactivated by a combined treatment of pressure and temperature. Gomes and Ledward (1996) studied the effects of pressure treatment (100-800 MPa for 1-20 min) on commercial PPO enzyme available from mushrooms, potatoes, and apples. Castellari, Matricardi, Arfelli, Rovere, and Amati ( 1997) demonstrated that there was a limited inactivation of grape PPO using pressures between 300 and 600 MPa. At 900 MPa, a low level of PPO activity was apparent. In order to reach complete inactivation, it may be necessary to use high- pressure processing treatments in conjunction with a mild thermal treatment (40-50C). Weemaes, Ludikhuyze, Broeck, and Hendrickx (1998) studied the pressure stabilities of PPO from apple, avocados, grapes, pears, and plums at pH 6-7. These PPO differed in pressure stability. Inactivation of PPO from apple, grape, avocado, and pear at room temperature (25C) became noticeable at approximately 600, 700, 800 and 900 MPa, respectively, and followed first-order kinetics. Plum PPO was not inactivated at room temperature by pressures up to 900 MPa. Rastogi, Eshtiaghi, and Knorr (1999) studied the inactivation effects of high hydrostatic pressure treatment (100-600 MPa) combined with heat treatment (0-60C) on POD and PPO enzyme, in order to develop high pressure-processed red grape juice having stable shelf-life. The studies showed that the lowest POD (55.75%) and PPO (41.86%) activities were found at 60C, with pressure at 600 and 100 MPa, respectively. MacDonald and Schaschke (2000) showed that for PPO, both temperature and pressure individually appeared to have similar effects, whereas the holding time was not significant. On the other hand, in case of POD, temperature as well as interaction between temperature and holding time had the greatest effect on activity. Namkyu, Seunghwan, and Kyung (2002) showed that mushroom PPO was highly pressure stable. Exposure to 600 MPa for 10 min reduced PPO activity by 7%; further exposure had no denaturing effect. Compression for 10 and 20 min up to 800 MPa, reduced activity by 28 and 43%, respectively. Rapeanu, Van Loey, Smout, and Hendrickx (2005) indicated that the thermal and/or high-pressure inactivation of grape PPO followed first order kinetics. A third degree polynomial described the temperature/pressure dependence of the inactivation rate constants. Pressure and temperature were reported to act synergistically, except in the high temperature (≥45C)-low pressure (≥300 MPa) region where an antagonistic effect was observed. Gomes, Sumner, and Ledward (1997) showed that the application of increasing pressures led to a gradual reduction in papain enzyme activity. A decrease in activity of 39% was observed when the enzyme solution was initially activated with phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) and subjected to 800 MPa at ambient temperature for 10 min, while 13% of the original activity remained when the enzyme solution was treated at 800 MPa at 60C for 10 min. In Tris buffer at pH 6.8 after treatment at 800 MPa and 20C, papain activity loss was approximately 24%. The inactivation of the enzyme is because of induced change at the active site causing loss of activity without major conformational changes. This loss of activity was due to oxidation of the thiolate ion present at the active site. Weemaes, Cordt, Goossens, Ludikhuyze, Hendrickx, Heremans, and Tobback (1996) studied the effects of pressure and temperature on activity of 3 different alpha-amylases from Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, and Bacillus licheniformis. The changes in conformation of Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus subtilis, and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens amylases occurred at pressures of 110, 75, and 65 MPa, respectively. Bacillus licheniformis amylase was more stable than amylases from Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens to the combined heat/pressure treatment. Riahi and Ramaswamy (2004) demonstrated that pressure inactivation of amylase in apple juice was significantly (P < 0.01 ) influenced by pH, pressure, holding time, and temperature. The inactivation was described using a bi-phasic model. The application of high pressure was sh\own to completely inactivate amylase. The importance of the pressure pulse and pressure hold approach for inactivation of amylase was also demonstrated. High pressure denatures protein depending on the protein type, processing conditions, and the applied pressure. During the process of denaturation, the proteins may dissolve or precipitate on the application of high pressure. These changes are generally reversible in the pressure range 100-300 MPa and irreversible for the pressures higher than 300 MPa. Denaturation may be due to the destruction of hydrophobic and ion pair bonds, and unfolding of molecules. At higher pressure, oligomeric proteins tend to dissociate into subunits becoming vulnerable to proteolysis. Monomeric proteins do not show any changes in proteolysis with increase in pressure (Thakur and Nelson, 1998). High-pressure effects on proteins are related to the rupture on non-covalent interactions within protein molecules, and to the subsequent reformation of intra and inter molecular bonds within or between the molecules. Different types of interactions contribute to the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure of proteins. The quaternary structure is mainly held by hydrophobic interactions that are very sensitive to pressure. Significant changes in the tertiary structure are observed beyond 200 MPa. However, a reversible unfolding of small proteins such as ribonuclease A occurs at higher pressures (400 to 800 MPa), showing that the volume and compressibility changes during denaturation are not completely dominated by the hydrophobic effect. Denaturation is a complex process involving intermediate forms leading to multiple denatured products. secondary structure changes take place at a very high pressure above 700 MPa, leading to irreversible denaturation (Balny and Masson, 1993). Figure 1 General scheme for pressure-temperature phase diagram of proteins, (from Messens, Van Camp, and Huyghebaert, 1997). When the pressure increases to about 100 MPa, the denaturation temperature of the protein increases, whereas at higher pressures, the temperature of denaturation usually decreases. This results in the elliptical phase diagram of native denatured protein shown in Fig. 1. A practical consequence is that under elevated pressures, proteins denature usually at room temperature than at higher temperatures. The phase diagram also specifies the pressure- temperature range in which the protein maintains its native structure. Zone III specifies that at high temperatures, a rise in denaturation temperature is found with increasing pressure. Zone II indicates that below the maximum transition temperature, protein denaturation occurs at the lower temperatures under higher pressures. Zone III shows that below the temperature corresponding to the maximum transition pressure, protein denaturation occurs at lower pressures using lower temperatures (Messens, Van Camp, and Huyghebaert, 1997). The application of high pressure has been shown to destabilize casein micelles in reconstituted skim milk and the size distribution of spherical casein micelles decrease from 200 to 120 nm; maximum changes have been reported to occur between 150-400 MPa at 20C. The pressure treatment results in reduced turbidity and increased lightness, which leads to the formation of a virtually transparent skim milk (Shibauchi, Yamamoto, and Sagara, 1992; Derobry, Richard, and Hardy, 1994). The gels produced from high-pressure treated skim milk showed improved rigidity and gel breaking strength (Johnston, Austin, and Murphy, 1992). Garcia, Olano, Ramos, and Lopez (2000) showed that the pressure treatment at 25C considerably reduced the micelle size, while pressurization at higher temperature progressively increased the micelle dimensions. Anema, Lowe, and Stockmann (2005) indicated that a small decrease in the size of casein micelles was observed at 100 MPa, with slightly greater effects at higher temperatures or longer pressure treatments. At pressure >400 MPa, the casein micelles disintegrated. The effect was more rapid at higher temperatures although the final size was similar in all samples regardless of the pressure or temperature. At 200 MPa and 1O0C, the casein micelle size decreased slightly on heating, whereas, at higher temperatures, the size increased as a result of aggregation. Huppertz, Fox, and Kelly (2004a) showed that the size of casein micelles increased by 30% upon high-pressure treatment of milk at 250 MPa and micelle size dropped by 50% at 400 or 600 MPa. Huppertz, Fox, and Kelly (2004b) demonstrated that the high- pressure treatment of milk at 100-600 MPa resulted in considerable solubilization of alphas 1- and beta-casein, which may be due to the solubilization of colloidal calcium phosphate and disruption of hydrophobic interactions. On storage of pressure, treated milk at 5C dissociation of casein was largely irreversible, but at 20C, considerable re-association of casein was observed. The hydration of the casein micelles increased on pressure treatment (100-600 MPa) due to induced interactions between caseins and whey proteins. Pressure treatment increased levels of alphas 1- and beta-casein in the soluble phase of milk and produced casein micelles with properties different to those in untreated milk. Huppertz, Fox, and Kelly (2004c) demonstrated that the casein micelle size was not influenced by pressures less than 200 MPa, but a pressure of 250 MPa increased the micelle size by 25%, while pressures of 300 MPa or greater, irreversibly reduced the size to 50% ofthat in untreated milk. Denaturation of alpha-lactalbumin did not occur at pressures less than or equal to 400 MPa, whereas beta-lactoglobulin was denatured at pressures greater than 100 MPa. Galazka, Ledward, Sumner, and Dickinson (1997) reported loss of surface hydrophobicity due to application of 300 MPa in dilute solution. Pressurizing beta-lactoglobulin at 450 MPa for 15 minutes resulted in reduced solubility in water. High-pressure treatment induced extensive protein unfolding and aggregation when BSA was pressurized at 400 MPa. Beta-lactoglobulin appears to be more sensitive to pressure than alpha-lactalbumin. Olsen, Ipsen, Otte, and Skibsted (1999) monitored the state of aggregation and thermal gelation properties of pressure-treated beta-lactoglobulin immediately after depressurization and after storage for 24 h at 50C. A pressure of 150 MPa applied for 30 min, or pressures higher than 300 MPa applied for 0 or 30 min, led to formation of soluble aggregates. When continued for 30 min, a pressure of 450 MPa caused gelation of the 5% beta-lactoglobulin solution. Iametti, Tansidico, Bonomi, Vecchio, Pittia, Rovere, and DaIl’Aglio (1997) studied irreversible modifications in the tertiary structure, surface hydrophobicity, and association state of beta-lactoglobulin, when solutions of the protein at neutral pH and at different concentrations, were exposed to pressure. Only minor irreversible structural modifications were evident even for treatments as intense as 15 min at 900 MPa. The occurrence of irreversible modifications was time-dependent at 600 MPa but was complete within 2 min at 900 MPa. The irreversibly modified protein was soluble, but some covalent aggregates were formed. Subirade, Loupil, Allain, and Paquin (1998) showed the effect of dynamic high pressure on the secondary structure of betalactoglobulin. Thermal and pH sensitivity of pressure treated beta-lactoglobulin was different, suggesting that the two forms were stabilized by different electrostatic interactions. Walker, Farkas, Anderson, and Goddik (2004) used high- pressure processing (510 MPa for 10 min at 8 or 24C) to induce unfolding of beta-lactoglobulin and characterized the protein structure and surface-active properties. The secondary structure of the protein processed at 8C appeared to be unchanged, whereas at 24C alpha-helix structure was lost. Tertiary structures changed due to processing at either temperature. Model solutions containing the pressure-treated beta-lactoglobulin showed a significant decrease in surface tension. Izquierdo, Alli, Gmez, Ramaswamy, and Yaylayan (2005) demonstrated that under high-pressure treatments (100-300 MPa), the β-lactoglobulin AB was completely hydrolyzed by pronase and α-chymotrypsin. Hinrichs and Rademacher (2005) showed that the denaturation kinetics of beta-lactoglobulin followed second order kinetics while for alpha-lactalbumin it was 2.5. Alpha- lactalbumin was more resistant to denaturation than beta- lactoglobulin. The activation volume for denaturation of beta- lactoglobulin was reported to decrease with increasing temperature, and the activation energy increased with pressure up to 200 MPa, beyond which it decreased. This demonstrated the unfolding of the protein molecules. Drake, Harison, Apslund, Barbosa-Canovas, and Swanson (1997) demonstrated that the percentage moisture and wet weight yield of cheese from pressure treated milk were higher than pasteurized or raw milk cheese. The microbial quality was comparable and some textural defects were reported due to the excess moisture content. Arias, Lopez, and Olano (2000) showed that high-pressure treatment at 200 MPa significantly reduced rennet coagulation times over control samples. Pressurization at 400 MPa led to coagulation times similar to those of control, except for milk treated at pH 7.0, with or without readjustment of pH to 6.7, which presented significantly longer coagulation times than their non-pressure treated counterparts. Hinrichs and Rademacher (2004) demonstrated that the isobaric (200-800 MPa) and isothermal (-2 to 70C) denaturation of beta- lactoglobulin and alpha-lactalbumin of whey protein followed 3rd and 2nd order kinetics, respectively. Isothermal pressure denaturation of both beta-lactoglobulin A and B did not differ significantly and an increase in temperature resulted in an increase in thedenaturation rate. At pressures higher than 200 MPa, the denaturation rate was limited by the aggregation rate, while the pressure resulted in the unfolding of molecules. The kinetic parameters of denaturation were estimated using a single step non- linear regression method, which allowed a global fit of the entire data set. Huppertz, Fox, and Kelly (2004d) examined the high- pressure induced denaturation of alpha-lactalbumin and beta- lactoglobulin in dairy systems. The higher level of pressure- induced denaturation of both proteins in milk as compared to whey was due to the absence of casein micelles and colloidal calcium phosphate in the whey. The conformation of BSA was reported to remain fairly stable at 400 MPa due to a high number of disulfide bonds which are known to stabilize its three dimensional structure (Hayakawa, Kajihara, Morikawa, Oda, and Fujio, 1992). Kieffer and Wieser (2004) indicated that the extension resistance and extensibility of wet gluten were markedly influenced by high pressure (up to 800 MPa), while the temperature and the duration of pressure treatment (30-80C for 2-20 min) had a relatively lesser effect. The application of high pressure resulted in a marked decrease in protein extractability due to the restructuring of disulfide bonds under high pressure leading to the incorporation of alpha- and gamma-gliadins in the glutenin aggregate. The change in secondary structure following high- pressure treatment was also reported. The pressure treatment of myosin led to head-to-head interaction to form oligomers (clumps), which became more compact and larger in size during storage at constant pressure. Even after pressure treatment at 210 MPa for 5 minutes, monomieric myosin molecules increased and no gelation was observed for pressure treatment up to 210 MPa for 30 minutes. Pressure treatment did not also affect the original helical structure of the tail in the myosin monomers. Angsupanich, Edde, and Ledward (1999) showed that high pressure- induced denaturation of myosin led to formation of structures that contained hydrogen bonds and were additionally stabilized by disulphide bonds. Application of 750 MPa for 20 minutes resulted in dimerization of metmyoglobin in the pH range of 6-10, whereas maximum pH was not at isoelectric pH (6.9). Under acidic pH conditions, no dimers were formed (Defaye and Ledward, 1995). Zipp and Kouzmann ( 1973) showed the formation of precipitate when pressurized (750 MPa for 20 minutes) near the isoelectric point, the precipitate redissolved slowly during storage. Pressure treatment had no effect on lipid oxidation in the case of minced meat packed in air at pressure less than 300 MPa, while the oxidation increased proportionally at higher pressures. However, on exposure to higher pressure, minced meat in contact with air oxidized rapidly. Pressures > 300-400 MPa caused marked denaturation of both myofibriller and sarcoplasmic proteins in washed pork muscle and pork mince (Ananth, Murano and Dickson, 1995). Chapleau and Lamballerie (2003) showed that high-pressure treatment induced a threefold increase in the surface hydrophobicity of myofibrillar proteins between O and 450 MPa. Chapleau, Mangavel, Compoint, and Lamballerie (2004) reported that high pressure modified the secondary structure of myofibrillar proteins extracted from cattle carcasses. Irreversible changes and aggregation were reported at a pressure higher than 300 MPa, which can potentially affect the functional properties of meat products. Lamballerie, Perron, Jung, and Cheret (2003) indicated that high pressure treatment increases cathepsin D activity, and that pressurized myofibrils are more susceptible to cathepsin D action than non- pressurized myofibrils. The highest cathepsin D activity was observed at 300 MPa. Cariez, Veciana, and Cheftel ( 1995) demonstrated that L color values increased significantly in meat treated at 200-350 MPa, the meat becoming pink, and a-value decreased in meat treated at 400-500 MPa to give a grey-brown color. The total extractable myoglobin decreased in meat treated at 200- 500 MPa, while the metmyoglobin content of meat increased and the oxymyoglobin decreased at 400500 MPa. Meat discoloration from pressure processing resulted in a whitening effect at 200-300 MPa due to globin denaturation, and/or haem displacement/release, or oxidation of ferrous myoglobin to ferric myoglobin at pressure higher than 400 MPa. The conformation of the main protein component of egg white, ovalbumin, remains fairly stable when pressurized at 400 MPa, may be due to the four disulfide bonds and non-covalent interactions stabilizing the three dimensional structure of ovalbumin (Hayakawa, Kajihara, Morikawa, Oda, and Fujio, 1992). Hayashi, Kawamura, Nakasa and Okinada (1989) reported irreversible denaturation of egg albumin at 500-900 MPa with concomitant increase in susceptibility to subtilisin. Zhang, Li, and Tatsumi (2005) demonstrated that the pressure treatment (200-500 MPa) resulted in denaturation of ovalbumin. The surface hydrophobicity of ovalbumin was found to increase with increase in pressure treatment and the presence of polysaccharide protected the protein against denaturation. Iametti, Donnizzelli, Pittia, Rovere, Squarcina, and Bonomi (1999) showed that the addition of NaCl or sucrose to egg albumin prior to high- pressure treatment (up to 10 min at 800 MPa) prevented insolubulization or gel formation after pressure treatment. As a consequence of protein unfolding, the treated albumin had increased viscosity but retained its foaming and heat-gelling properties. Farr (1990) reported the modification of functionality of egg proteins. Egg yolk formed a gel when subjected to a pressure of 400 MPa for 30 minutes at 25C, kept its original color, and was soft and adhesive. The hardness of the pressure treated gel increased and adhesiveness decreased with an increase in pressure. Plancken, Van Loey, and Hendrickx (2005) showed that the application of high pressure (400- 700 MPa) to egg white solution resulted in an increase in turbidity, surface hydrophobicity, exposed sulfhydryl content, and susceptibility to enzymatic hydrolysis, while it resulted in a decrease in protein solubility, total sulfhydryl content, denaturation enthalpy, and trypsin inhibitory activity. The pressure- induced changes in these properties were shown to be dependent on the pressuretemperature and the pH of the solution. Speroni, Puppo, Chapleau, Lamballerie, Castellani, Aon, and Anton (2005) indicated that the application of high pressure (200-600 MPa) at 2OC to low- density lipoproteins did not change the solubility even if the pH is changed, whereas aggregation and protein denaturation were drastically enhanced at pH 8. Further, the application of high- pressure under alkaline pH conditions resulted in decreased droplet flocculation of low-density lipoproteins dispersions. The minimum pressure required for the inducing gelation of soya proteins was reported to be 300 MPa for 10-30 minutes and the gels formed were softer with lower elastic modulus in comparison with heat-treated gels (Okamoto, Kawamura, and Hayashi, 1990). The treatment of soya milk at 500 MPa for 30 min changed it from a liquid state to a solid state, whereas at lower pressures and at 500 MPa for 10 minutes, the milk remained in a liquid state, but indicated improved emulsifying activity and stability (Kajiyama, Isobe, Uemura, and Noguchi, 1995). The hardness of tofu gels produced by high-pressure treatment at 300 MPa for 10 minutes was comparable to heat induced gels. Puppo, Chapleau, Speroni, Lamballerie, Michel, Anon, and Anton (2004) demonstrated that the application of high pressure (200-600 MPa) on soya protein isolate at pH 8.0 resulted in an increase in a protein hydorphobicity and aggregation, a reduction of free sulfhydryl content and a partial unfolding of the 7S and 11S fractions at pH 8. The change in the secondary structure leading to a more disordered structure was also reported. Whereas at pH 3.0, the protein was partially denatured and insoluble aggregates were formed, the major molecular unfolding resulted in decreased thermal stability, increased protein solubility, and hydorphobicity. Puppo, Speroni, Chapleau, Lamballerie, An, and Anton (2005) studied the effect of high- pressure (200, 400, and 600 MPa for 10 min at 10C) on the emulsifying properties of soybean protein isolates at pH 3 and 8 (e.g. oil droplet size, flocculation, interfacial protein concentration, and composition). The application of pressure higher than 200 MPa at pH 8 resulted in a smaller droplet size and an increase in the levels of depletion flocculation. However, a similar effect was not observed at pH 3. Due to the application of high pressure, bridging flocculation decreased and the percentage of adsorbed proteins increased irrespective of the pH conditions. Moreover, the ability of the protein to be adsorbed at the oil- water interface increased. Zhang, Li, Tatsumi, and Isobe (2005) showed that the application of high pressure treatment resulted in the formation of more hydrophobic regions in soy protein, which dissociated into subunits, which in some cases formed insoluble aggregates. High-pressure denaturation of beta-conglycinin (7S) and glycinin (11S) occurred at 300 and 400 MPa, respectively. The gels formed had the desirable strength and a cross-linked network microstructure. Soybean whey is a by-product of tofu manufacture. It is a good source of peptides, proteins, oligosaccharides, and isoflavones, and can be used in special foods for the elderly persons, athletes, etc. Prestamo and Penas (2004) studied the antioxidative activity of soybean whey proteins and their pepsin and chymotrypsin hydrolysates. The chymotrypsin hydrolysate showed a higher antioxidative activity than the non-hydrolyzed protein, but the pepsin hydrolysate showed an opposite trend. High pressure processing at 100 MPa inc\reased the antioxidative activity of soy whey protein, but decreased the antioxidative activity of the hydrolysates. High pressure processing increased the pH of the protein hydrolysates. Penas, Prestamo, and Gomez (2004) demonstrated that the application of high pressure (100 and 200 MPa, 15 min, 37C) facilitated the hydrolysis of soya whey protein by pepsin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin. It was shown that the highest level of hydrolysis occurred at a treatment pressure of 100 MPa. After the hydrolysis, 5 peptides under 14 kDa with trypsin and chymotrypsin, and 11 peptides with pepsin were reported. COMBINATION OF HIGHPRESSURE TREATMENT WITH OTHER NON-THERMAL PROCESSING METHODS Many researchers have combined the use of high pressure with other non-thermal operations in order to explore the possibility of synergy between processes. Such attempts are reviewed in this section. Crawford, Murano, Olson, and Shenoy (1996) studied the combined effect of high pressure and gamma-irradiation for inactivating Clostridium spmgenes spores in chicken breast. Application of high pressure reduced the radiation dose required to produce chicken meat with extended shelf life. The application of high pressure (600 MPa for 20 min at 8O0C) reduced the irradiation doses required for one log reduction of Clostridium spmgenes from 4.2 kGy to 2.0 kGy. Mainville, Montpetit, Durand, and Farnworth (2001) studied the combined effect of irradiation and high pressure on microflora and microorganisms of kefir. The irradiation treatment of kefir at 5 kGy and high-pressure treatment (400 MPa for 5 or 30 min) deactivated the bacteria and yeast in kefir, while leaving the proteins and lipids unchanged. The exposure of microbial cells and spores to an alternating current (50 Hz) resulted in the release of intracellular materials causing loss or denaturation of cellular components responsible for the normal functioning of the cell. The lethal damage to the microorganisms enhanced when the organisms are exposed to an alternating current before and after the pressure treatment. High- pressure treatment at 300 MPa for 10 min for Escherichia coli cells and 400 MPa for 30 min for Bacillus subtalis spores, after the alternating current treatment, resulted in reduced surviving fractions of both the organisms. The combined effect was also shown to reduce the tolerant level of microorganisms to other challenges (Shimada and Shimahara, 1985, 1987; Shimada, 1992). The pretreatment with ultrasonic waves (100 W/cm^sup 2^ for 25 min at 25C) followed by high pressure (400 MPa for 25 min at 15C) was shown to result in complete inactivation of Rhodoturola rubra. Neither ultrasonic nor high-pressure treatment alone was found to be effective (Knorr, 1995). Carbon Dioxide and Argon Heinz and Knorr (1995) reported a 3 log reduction of supercritical CO2 pretreated cultures. The effect of the pretreatment on germination of Bacillus subtilis endospores was monitored. The combination of high pressure and mild heat treatment was the most effective in reducing germination (95% reduction), but no spore inactivation was observed. Park, Lee, and Park (2002) studied the combination of high- pressure carbon dioxide and high pressure as a nonthermal processing technique to enhance the safety and shelf life of carrot juice. The combined treatment of carbon dioxide (4.90 MPa) and high-pressure treatment (300 MPa) resulted in complete destruction of aerobes. The increase in high pressure to 600 MPa in the presence of carbon dioxide resulted in reduced activities of polyphenoloxidase (11.3%), lipoxygenase (8.8%), and pectin methylesterase (35.1%). Corwin and Shellhammer (2002) studied the combined effect of high-pressure treatment and CO2 on the inactivation of pectinmethylesterase, polyphenoloxidase, Lactobacillus plantarum, and Escherichia coli. An interaction was found between CO2 and pressure at 25 and 50C for pectinmethylesterase and polyphenoloxidase, respectively. The activity of polyphenoloxidase was decreased by CO2 at all pressure treatments. The interaction between CO2 and pressure was significant for Lactobacillus plantarum, with a significant decrease in survivors due to the addition of CO2 at all pressures studied. No significant effect on E. coli survivors was seen with CO2 addition. Truong, Boff, Min, and Shellhammer (2002) demonstrated that the addition of CO2 (0.18 MPa) during high pressure processing (600 MPa, 25C) of fresh orange juice increases the rate of PME inactivation in Valencia orange juice. The treatment time due to CO2 for achieving the equivalent reduction in PME activity was from 346 s to 111 s, but the overall degree of PME inactivation remained unaltered. Fujii, Ohtani, Watanabe, Ohgoshi, Fujii, and Honma (2002) studied the high-pressure inactivation of Bacillus cereus spores in water containing argon. At the pressure of 600 MPa, the addition of argon reportedly accelerated the inactivation of spores at 20C, but had no effect on the inactivation at 40C. The complex physicochemical environment of milk exerted a strong protective effect on Escherichia coli against high hydrostatic pressure inactivation, reducing inactivation from 7 logs at 400 MPa to only 3 logs at 700 MPa in 15 min at 20C. A substantial improvement in inactivation efficiency at ambient temperature was achieved by the application of consecutive, short pressure treatments interrupted by brief decompressions. The combined effect of high pressure (500 MPa) and natural antimicrobial peptides (lysozyme, 400 g/ml and nisin, 400 g/ml) resulted in increased lethality for Escherichia coli in milk (Garcia, Masschalck, and Michiels, 1999). OPPORTUNITIES FOR HIGH PRESSURE ASSISTED PROCESSING The inclusion of high-pressure treatment as a processing step within certain manufacturing flow sheets can lead to novel products as well as new process development opportunities. For instance, high pressure can precede a number of process operations such as blanching, dehydration, rehydration, frying, and solid-liquid extraction. Alternatively, processes such as gelation, freezing, and thawing, can be carried out under high pressure. This section reports on the use of high pressures in the context of selected processing operations. Eshtiaghi and Knorr (1993) employed high pressure around ambient temperatures to develop a blanching process similar to hot water or steam blanching, but without thermal degradation; this also minimized problems associated with water disposal. The application of pressure (400 MPa, 15 min, 20C) to the potato sample not only caused blanching but also resulted in a four-log cycle reduction in microbial count whilst retaining 85% of ascorbic acid. Complete inactivation of polyphenoloxidase was achieved under the above conditions when 0.5% citric acid solution was used as the blanching medium. The addition of 1 % CaCl^sub 2^ solution to the medium also improved the texture and the density. The leaching of potassium from the high-pressure treated sample was comparable with a 3 min hot water blanching treatment (Eshtiaghi and Knorr, 1993). Thus, high- pressures can be used as a non-thermal blanching method. Dehydration and Osmotic Dehydration The application of high hydrostatic pressure affects cell wall structure, leaving the cell more permeable, which leads to significant changes in the tissue architecture (Fair, 1990; Dornenburg and Knorr, 1994, Rastogi, Subramanian, and Raghavarao, 1994; Rastogi and Niranjan, 1998; Rastogi, Raghavarao, and Niranjan, 2005). Eshtiaghi, Stute, and Knorr (1994) reported that the application of pressure (600 MPa, 15 min at 70C) resulted in no significant increase in the drying rate during fluidized bed drying of green beans and carrot. However, the drying rate significantly increased in the case of potato. This may be due to relatively limited permeabilization of carrot and beans cells as compared to potato. The effects of chemical pre-treatment (NaOH and HCl treatment) on the rates of dehydration of paprika were compared with products pre-treated by applying high pressure or high intensity electric field pulses (Fig. 2). High-pressure (400 MPa for 10 min at 25C) and high intensity electric field pulses (2.4 kV/cm, pulse width 300 s, 10 pulses, pulse frequency 1 Hz) were found to result in drying rates comparable with chemical pre-treatments. The latter pre-treatments, however, eliminated the use of chemicals (Ade- Omowaye, Rastogi, Angersbach, and Knorr, 2001). Figure 2 (a) Effects of various pre-treatments such as hot water blanching, high pressure and high intensity electric field pulse treatment on dehydration characteristics of red paprika (b) comparison of drying time (from Ade-Omowaye, Rastogi, Angersbach, and Knorr, 2001). Figure 3 (a) Variation of moisture and (b) solid content (based on initial dry matter content) with time during osmotic dehydration (from Rastogi and Niranjan, 1998). Generally, osmotic dehydration is a slow process. Application of high pressures causes permeabilization of the cell structure (Dornenburg and Knorr, 1993; Eshtiaghi, Stute, and Knorr, 1994; Fair, 1990; Rastogi, Subramanian, and Raghavarao, 1994). This phenomenon has been exploited by Rastogi and Niranjan (1998) to enhance mass transfer rates during the osmotic dehydration of pineapple (Ananas comsus). High-pressure pre-treatments (100-800 MPa) were found to enhance both water removal as well as solid gain (Fig. 3). Measured diffusivity values for water were found to be four-fold greater, whilst solute (sugar) diffusivity values were found to be two-fold greater. Compression and decompression occurring during high pressure pre-treatment itself caused the removal of a significant amount of water, which was attributed to the cell wall rupture (Rastogi and Niranjan, 1998). Differential interference contrast microscopic examination showed the ext\ent of cell wall break-up with applied pressure (Fig. 4). Sopanangkul, Ledward, and Niranjan (2002) demonstrated that the application of high pressure (100 to 400 MPa) could be used to accelerate mass transfer during ingredient infusion into foods. Application of pressure opened up the tissue structure and facilitated diffusion. However, higher pressures above 400 MPa induced starch gelatinization also and hindered diffusion. The values of the diffusion coefficient were dependent on cell permeabilization and starch gelatinization. The maximum value of diffusion coefficient observed represented an eight-fold increase over the values at ambient pressure. The synergistic effect of cell permeabilization due to high pressure and osmotic stress as the dehydration proceeds was demonstrated more clearly in the case of potato (Rastogi, Angersbach, and Knorr, 2000a, 2000b, 2003). The moisture content was reduced and the solid content increased in the case of samples treated at 400 MPa. The distribution of relative moisture (M/M^sub o^) and solid (S/S^sub o^) content as well as the cell permeabilization index (Zp) (shown in Fig. 5) indicate that the rate of change of moisture and solid content was very high at the interface and decreased towards the center (Rastogi, Angersbach, and Knorr, 2000a, 2000b, 2003). Most dehydrated foods are rehydrated before consumption. Loss of solids during rehydration is a major problem associated with the use of dehydrated foods. Rastogi, Angersbach, Niranjan, and Knorr (2000c) have studied the transient variation of moisture and solid content during rehydration of dried pineapples, which were subjected to high pressure treatment prior to a two-stage drying process consisting of osmotic dehydration and finish-drying at 25C (Fig. 6). The diffusion coefficients for water infusion as well as for solute diffusion were found to be significantly lower in high-pressure pre- treated samples. The observed decrease in water diffusion coefficient was attributed to the permeabilization of cell membranes, which reduces the rehydration capacity (Rastogi and Niranjan, 1998). The solid infusion coefficient was also lower, and so was the release of the cellular components, which form a gel- network with divalent ions binding to de-esterified pectin (Basak and Ramaswamy, 1998; Eshtiaghi, Stute, and Knorr, 1994; Rastogi Angersbach, Niranjan, and Knorr, 2000c). Eshtiaghi, Stute, and Knorr (1994) reported that high-pressure treatment in conjunction with subsequent freezing could improve mass transfer during rehydration of dried plant products and enhance product quality. Figure 4 Microstructures of control and pressure treated pineapple (a) control; (b) 300 MPa; (c) 700 MPa. ( 1 cm = 41.83 m) (from Rastogi and Niranjan, 1998). Ahromrit, Ledward, and Niranjan (2006) explored the use of high pressures (up to 600 MPa) to accelerate water uptake kinetics during soaking of glutinous rice. The results showed that the length and the diameter the of the rice were positively correlated with soaking time, pressure and temperature. The water uptake kinetics was shown to follow the well-known Fickian model. The overall rates of water uptake and the equilibrium moisture content were found to increase with pressure and temperature. Zhang, Ishida, and Isobe (2004) studied the effect of highpressure treatment (300-500 MPa for 0-380 min at 20C) on the water uptake of soybeans and resulting changes in their microstructure. The NMR analysis indicated that water mobility in high-pressure soaked soybean was more restricted and its distribution was much more uniform than in controls. The SEM analysis revealed that high pressure changed the microstructures of the seed coat and hilum, which improved water absorption and disrupted the individual spherical protein body structures. Additionally, the DSC and SDS-PAGE analysis revealed that proteins were partially denatured during the high pressure soaking. Ibarz, Gonzalez, Barbosa-Canovas (2004) developed the kinetic models for water absorption and cooking time of chickpeas with and without prior high-pressure treatment (275-690 MPa). Soaking was carried out at 25C for up to 23 h and cooking was achieved by immersion in boiling water until they became tender. As the soaking time increased, the cooking time decreased. High-pressure treatment for 5 min led to reductions in cooking times equivalent to those achieved by soaking for 60-90 min. Ramaswamy, Balasubramaniam, and Sastry (2005) studied the effects of high pressure (33, 400 and 700 MPa for 3 min at 24 and 55C) and irradiation (2 and 5 kGy) pre-treatments on hydration behavior of navy beans by soaking the treated beans in water at 24 and 55C. Treating beans under moderate pressure (33 MPa) resulted in a high initial moisture uptake (0.59 to 1.02 kg/kg dry mass) and a reduced loss of soluble materials. The final moisture content after three hours of soaking was the highest in irradiated beans (5 kGy) followed by high-pressure treatment (33 MPa, 3 min at 55C). Within the experimental range of the study, Peleg’s model was found to satisfactorily describe the rate of water absorption of navy beans. A reduction of 40% in oil uptake during frying was observed, when thermally blanched frozen potatoes were replaced by high pressure blanched frozen potatoes. This may be due to a reduction in moisture content caused by compression and decompression (Rastogi and Niranjan, 1998), as well as the prevalence of different oil mass transfer mechanisms (Knorr, 1999). Solid Liquid Extraction The application of high pressure leads to rearrangement in tissue architecture, which results in increased extractability even at ambient temperature. Extraction of caffeine from coffee using water could be increased by the application of high pressure as well as increase in temperature (Knorr, 1999). The effect of high pressure and temperature on caffeine extraction was compared to extraction at 100C as well as atmospheric pressure (Fig. 7). The caffeine yield was found to increase with temperature at a given pressure. The combination of very high pressures and lower temperatures could become a viable alternative to current industrial practice. Figure 5 Distribution of (a, b) relative moisture and (c, d) solid content as well as (e, f) cell disi

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China to provide bird flu virus samples China has agreed to share virus samples from bird flu outbreaks in poultry and the first batch should arrive at overseas laboratories within weeks, World Health Organisation officials say. The move will meet a WHO request for China to go beyond sending samples collected from people and help international efforts to fight the spread of the disease. "I hope that we'll get the samples soon," Shigeru Omi, the WHO's Western Pacific regional director, told reporters. "Our request is that they be even more regular and consistent in the months to come. "China has done an excellent job, but we need more information," he said. China has not shared samples of the virus from birds since 2004, although it has been sending genetic information. The samples, up to 20 in all, should arrive within weeks, added Julie Hall, who is in charge of the WHO's outbreak response in China. But the country still has a long way to go in its fight against bird flu, which has killed 103 people in Asia and the Middle East since 2003, including 10 in China, and has most recently been blamed for five deaths in Azerbaijan. China's agriculture minister was quoted by state media this week as saying the country's wide scale poultry vaccination campaign had been very effective, and denied any healthy, vaccinated birds had been infected with the H5N1 strain of the disease. The WHO has said that studies are needed to see if China's vaccination programme might be "masking" the virus, though the organisation originally backed a plan to vaccinate billions of poultry. "Vaccination played a role in reducing transmission," Omi said. "But it has to be implemented carefully and surveillance for animals has become more important because immunisation may mask symptoms of infected animals." The risk of asymptomatic poultry came to light earlier this month when a man died in southern Guangdong province after visiting several live poultry markets and officials later said he probably caught the disease from live but H5N1-infected birds. Another problem, highlighted by China's 15 bird flu cases in humans all occurring in areas with no reported bird outbreaks, is that die-offs of sick chickens might not immediately be linked to the disease. In some areas, poultry cases were only found after human deaths. "In this surveillance for animals, particularly at the grassroots level, there's some room for improvement in China," Omi said. "It's too early to make any conclusion that the virus is already eliminated in China." And bird flu keeps spreading globally, pushing into Africa and Western Europe. "The number of human cases is on the rise ... and the virus continues to remain very changeable," Omi said. But he added there were some reasons for optimism. "In spite of this geographical expansion and diversity in the nature of the virus, when it comes to the risk of transmission, we don't have any hard evidence to indicate that the virus has become more infectious," Omi said.

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On June 4, 1989, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) regime sent its army in to suppress peacefully protesting students and other citizens, a move that sent shockwaves around the world and came to be known at the June 4 Incident, or Tiananmen Square Massacre. Although 23 years have passed since those events took place, memories of what happened have not faded, except in China itself. The Chinese government finds it difficult to understand why, so many years after the event, people around the world still cling to the issue. In fact, the reason is quite simple: When a government openly deploys armed forces to slaughter people in its own capital city, it has gone beyond humanity’s bottom line; it is a tyranny among tyrannies. When it crushed the democracy movement, the Chinese government challenged not just the Chinese people, but the basic dignity and ground rules of the whole human race. If such behavior is tolerated, social order cannot be maintained. That is the main reason why the June 4 events marked out the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) as an enemy of humanity. Western countries may do business with Beijing and show it feigned courtesy, but in their hearts they still regard China’s rulers as barbarians. People around the world have, for many years, been calling for the events of June 4 to be reassessed and for those involved in the 1989 democracy movement to be rehabilitated. However, things have moved on and perhaps now it would be more fitting to call for the official verdict on June 4 to be overturned. The difference is that rehabilitation would have to be done by the CCP, whereas overturning the verdict would be a decision made by ordinary people and facilitated by objective developments. Of course, if the CCP were to reassess June 4 of its own accord, that would doubtless be the best way of resolving the questions that surround the events, because it would allow society to pay the smallest price. Rumors have recently circulated that Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao (溫家寶) and other CCP figures have been talking among themselves about June 4, and these rumors have given people some hope that things might change. However, current indications are that the CCP is extremely unlikely to take the initiative in resolving the issue. Although there is no evidence to confirm such reports at the moment, some things could be taken as grounds for assessing whether the CCP is getting ready to resolve the June 4 problem. For example, the authorities could allow exiled activists from the 1989 movement to return to China, or permit Chinese to discuss June 4 openly, or they could engage in collective dialogue with the Tiananmen Mothers, and so on. However, we have seen no change or progress whatsoever in these areas. China’s process of reform and opening up has been going on for more than three decades and it has been accompanied by increasingly serious corruption. As a result, many possibilities for resolving political issues are impeded by concerns over economic interests. Even if individual leaders are willing to make a few changes, opposition from gigantic political interest groups is sure to prevent them from doing so. In view of this reality, any expectation that the CCP will take the initiative to reassess and rehabilitate June 4 is no more than an illusion. China’s political situation has reached a stalemate. The authorities are fully aware of the public’s dissatisfaction and hopes for democratization, but they are hopelessly entangled and paralyzed by the old system and groups that have a vested interest in its continued existence. The only possible way of breaking this stalemate is to further strengthen civil society and move as quickly as possible toward concentrating, mobilizing and integrating popular pressure groups. A movement built from the bottom up, such as through street protest movements, would put the authorities under massive pressure to make historic concessions and such concessions would, in turn, activate popular forces. The starting point for such a process must be a resolution of the June 4 issue. That is what is meant by “reversing the June 4 verdict.” We are now 23 years on from June 4, 1989, but nobody can be sure when the verdict on those events will be overturned. However, anyone who has researched history and drawn lessons from it must be aware that a ruling clique as corrupt as the CCP is bound to crack sooner or later. When and how this will happen, we do not and cannot know, but that day will surely come. Wang Dan is a visiting associate professor at National Tsing Hua University’s College of Humanities and Social Sciences. Translated by Julian Clegg

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The Government of Canada, in section 35(2) of the Constitution Act of 1982, defines 3 groups of Aboriginal people in the Constitution: Indians, Inuit and MÉTIS. Indians are categorized as status (also referred to as registered), non-status and treaty Indians. According to the INDIAN ACT, legislation which was first passed in 1876 but which stemmed from similar pre-Confederation laws, a status Indian is registered as an Indian under the Indian Act, and a non-status Indian has not registered under the Act. A treaty Indian is a status Indian who belongs to a First Nation that signed a treaty with the Crown. Many Indians in Canada self-identify using traditional terms from their own languages. For example, Siksika replaces BLACKFOOT, Anishinabek replaces OJIBWA, Chippewa, and Salteaux, and INNU replaces Naskapi. To some people "Indian" is somewhat pejorative and as a result many Indians are more comfortable with terms such as native people, Aboriginal people, Indigenous people or FIRST NATIONS for self-reference. There is no single, widely-accepted term that is used to identify the first peoples of Canada. Enfranchisement is the term used to describe an Indian who has lost his or her status either by choice or by circumstance. There were several processes by which Indians could lose their status. Before 1985, a status Indian woman lost her status if she married a man who did not have status; children from these marriages also "lost" their status. The Indian Act, until 1955, forced many status Indians to enfranchise, but some status Indians chose to enfranchise or voluntarily surrender their legal status. Before 1955 status Indians who graduated from a college or university were among the many categories within the Indian Act for whom enfranchisement was imposed. Also, any status Indian who resided outside of Canada for 5 years or longer resigned his or her status. All status Indians are recorded on a registry maintained by the federal government. They are divided into 2 groups: treaty Indians and registered Indians outside treaty areas. Treaty Indians are people or ancestors of people who "took treaty." A treaty is an agreement between the Crown and a specific group of Indians who are held to have surrendered their land rights for specified benefits (see INDIAN TREATIES). The register contains the names, birthdates, death dates, and marriage and divorce details, as well as records of persons transferring from one band to another, for all status Indians. Registered Indians are people who reside in areas of Canada where treaties were never made, or people of Indian status in treaty areas who, for a variety of reasons, have not taken treaty. With the exception of specific promises contained in treaties, treaty Indians and registered Indians outside treaty receive identical benefits and privileges from the federal government. For example, all status Indians are exempt from paying income tax on any income they earn on a reserve and the personal property of a status Indian cannot be seized if it is situated on a reserve. Status Indians are subject to the regulations contained in the Indian Act and only then can "own" land on a reserve. Non-status Indians are people of Indian ancestry who are not entitled to registration, or have lost their legal status while retaining their Indian identity. Status Indians and non-status Indians are located in every province and territory. In 2005 approximately 53% of Aboriginal people lived on reserves, 3% lived on crown land, and 44% lived off reserve; however, there has been a significant migration to urban centres, and by 2006 the census indicated that more than half of all Aboriginal people lived off-reserve. In 2010 there were 615 First Nation communities comprised of more than 50 nations. Since the 1860s many people had lost their Indian status because of unfair terms in the Indian Act. In 1985 the federal government introduced Bill C-31 which changed the Indian Act by enabling Indian women who had lost their legal status through marriage to men who did not possess Indian status to regain their status. Bill C-31 also enabled all first-generation children of these marriages and any Indians who had enfranchised to regain their legal status as Indians. For the individuals in many of the First Nations, the population who are eligible for membership within a band can differ from inclusion on the Indian registry. There were more than 719 000 status Indians in 2003, of whom approximately 114 000 became status Indians as a result of Bill C-31 which amended the Indian Act. The 2006 census reported that approximately one million people, or 4% of the Canadian population, identified themselves as Aboriginal, and that of those people, 53% were registered Indians, 30% were Métis, 11% were non-status Indians and 4% were Inuit. In 2010 there were approximately 800 000 registered Indians and this number is expected to increase to 920 100 by 2026. Author HARVEY MCCUE J. Frideres, R. Gadacz, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada (7th ed, 2005); P. Cumming and N. Mickenberg, Native Rights in Canada (2nd ed, 1972); B. McCardle, Indian History and Claims: A Research Handbook (1982). Links to Other Sites Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada The official website of Canada's Department of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, which is responsible for meeting the Government of Canada's obligations and commitments to First Nations, Inuit and Métis. Canadian Aboriginal Writing and Arts Challenge The website for the Canadian Aboriginal Writing and Arts Challenge, which features Canada's largest essay writing competition for Aboriginal youth (ages 14-29) and a companion program for those who prefer to work through painting, drawing and photography. See their guidelines, teacher resources, profiles of winners, and more. From the Historica-Dominion Institute. The Making of Treaty 8 in Canada's Northwest This site, which features poignant oral histories and archival material, commemorates the signing of Treaty 8 in the 19th Century and considers the complex issues relating to past, present, and future First Nations treaty negotiations in Canada. From the Virtual Museum of Canada. Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples The website for the "Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples." Click on the links for feature articles about Canada's many multicultural communities, access to their extensive digital archives collection, learning modules, and much more. From "Multicultural Canada." Raid on Deerfield A narrated history of the 1704 Raid on Deerfield and its aftermath from Native and European perspectives. Also features fascinating stories about Native societies, cultures, trade practices, and traditions. This multimedia website is from the Memorial Hall Museum in Deerfield, Massachusetts. Four Directions Teachings Elders and traditional teachers representing the Blackfoot, Cree, Ojibwe, Mohawk, and Mi’kmaq share teachings about their history and culture. Animated graphics visualize each of the oral teachings. This website also provides biographies of participants, transcripts, and an extensive array of learning resources for students and their teachers. In English with French subtitles. This series is the saga of five great First Nations chiefs -- Sitting Bull, Pontiac, Joseph Brant, Black Hawk and Poundmaker. Their stories form a central drama of the history of the North American continent. Features still photos and video clips. A National Film Board website. Knowledge of non-official languages This appendix presents the non-official language classifications used for the 2006, 2001 and 1996 Censuses. The classification, with the exception of English, French and non-verbal languages, is the same as the one used in establishing mother tongue, home language and language of work. From Statistics Canada. Congress of Aboriginal Peoples The Congress of Aboriginal Peoples represents off-reserve Indian, Inuit, and Métis people, and acts as an advocate for the rights of all Aboriginal peoples. Their website offers background notes, reports, and articles about current programs and issues. Aboriginal Healing Foundation The Aboriginal Healing Foundation’s mission is to encourage and support Aboriginal people in building and reinforcing sustainable healing processes that address the legacy of physical abuse and sexual abuse in the residential school system, including intergenerational impacts. This site features an overview of aboriginal history and many recipes for bannock, pemmican, and other traditional foods. A Government of British Columbia website. Glossary: Aboriginal Studies This glossary is adapted from Alberta's Aboriginal Studies 10–20–30 program. The terms and definitions, while not prescriptive, take into consideration Aboriginal diversity and also relate to the overall generic understandings of Aboriginal historical chronology. A Government of Alberta website.

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City of London The City of London, the historic central core of the city, is an independent entity about a mile square. Britain's financial services industry and central bank (Bank of England) are located within the City of London. There is a London Corporation that runs the City; it is not run by greater London. It has its own police force and is headed by a Lord Mayor. About 10,000 people call the City "home" but nearly 350,000 work in the City of London, including many lawyers and litigators. Historically, the City harkens back to Roman London, founded around 50 A.D. and known as Londinium. The City waxed and waned for centuries but by the 16th century was taking on its modern profile as a banking and commercial center. A stock exchange was eventually founded and many international merchants made their headquarters in the City. By the 18th century, Britain's Industrial Revolution was beginning and the Empire itself was expanding. London spread out far beyond the City of London, but the City itself gained enormous power as the British conquered one-fourth of the world, colony by colony. The City of London has its own motto: "Domine dirige nos" – "Lord, direct (guide) us." It has its own coat of arms and flag. It maintains its unique status as perhaps the world's oldest incorporated city, with 25 wards that also serve as political districts. Each ward has an Alderman and Beadles, as well as a Ward Club – something like a residents' association. The City of London supports performing arts centers and administers the Bridge House Trust, which in turn supervises the famous bridges of central London, including London Bridge and Blackfriars Bridge. All this is somewhat beside the point, however. In reality, the City of London is actually the epicenter of an Anglo-American power elite that has dominated world finance for 500 years or more. The elite's modern genealogy is said to include Venetian bankers who arrived in Britain and intermarried with English royalty. Today, the world's most powerful families make the City of London either their home or base of operations. Even the Queen of England bows before she enters the City of London and when she walks in ceremonial parades, her place is a few steps behind the Lord Mayor. Today, the City of London is the epicenter of central banking worldwide. It is the place from which world wars have emanated and plans for global conquest are apparently hatched there even today. The fear-based dominant social themes that the power elite uses to extract wealth and power from Western middle classes have their home in the City of London. The UN and League of Nations were given birth there and the EU was likely conceived there. Every centralizing influence in the world today of any note has its roots in the City of London or its sister-municipalities, Washington, DC and the Vatican. These three "independent" city-states function as a trilogy of money power, the building blocks of the New World Order, the epicenter of an effort that apparently seeks to organize the world into one large medieval plantation. The City of London may seem like a quaint, historical backwater but it likely lies at the heart of the world's current turmoil. The Rothschilds themselves do business out of the City of London and the vastness of resources located in and around the City of London must number in the tens or even hundreds of trillions. Money power is centralized in the City of London and has never been dispersed, despite ever-present talk about how the "City" is losing its clout as a major financial player. It is not. News & Analysis |05/20/13||An Unpredictable Recovery| |04/09/13||Margaret Thatcher, Enlarger of WHAT Freedom ... Have You Looked at England Lately?| |12/20/12||Brits Rename Piece of Antarctica 'Queen Elizabeth Land'| |10/01/11||Blaming Wall Street Is Wrong| |06/11/11||China Tries to Start a War?| |12/30/12||Godfrey Bloom on Feminism, Globalism and the Coming Collapse of the European Union| |12/15/11||Evelyn De Rothschild on China's Growth, International Currency and Climate Change| |11/28/11||Roman Catholic Church Hopes to Stop Climate Change?| |05/02/11||How the City of London Controls World Power|

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2010 is the International Year of Biodiversity. Why should you care? Biodiversity is the number of different species that exist in a given area. The healthier an area is, the more biodiversity it has. Different forms of wildlife and plants inhabit areas, and these plants and animals learn to coexist and form ecological relationships with each other. In unhealthy environments, only a few kinds of species of each plant or animal exist. This is what is known as a monoculture, and monocultures are unhealthy. Whether a monoculture is ten thousand or a hundred thousand acres planted all together of one kind of crop, or an entire subdivision with lawns all growing the same five plants, monocultures are vulnerable to pests and disease. For example, part of the fire ant problem in the United States is exacerbated by homeowners, because fire ants prefer monocultures and will shy away from biodiverse areas. By contrast, the more kinds of species that inhabit an area, the more likely it is that at least a few strains of plants or animals will be resistant to pests and disease. If you have thirty kinds of plants, and a virus blows in across the ocean from a remote island, your lawn has a better chance of surviving and renewing itself than if you have only five kinds of plants. In the same way, having more species of wild birds will provide more secure insect control than having only a few kinds of wild birds. So, by growing more kinds of plants in your yard, you will attract more animals, and help to increase your neighbourhood’s biodiversity.

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Instrumental Music Service Instrumental Music Service West Lothian Council’s Instrumental Music Service provides free instrumental music lessons to primary and secondary school pupils and opportunities for these pupils to play in one of the many bands and ensembles that perform regularly at a range of venues and events locally, nationally and internationally. The Service is delivered in schools by professional instrumental music teachers who provide a structured and progressive music curriculum which is encapsulated in the four capacities of Curriculum for Excellence - to enable each child or young person to be a successful learner, a confident individual, a responsible citizen and an effective contributor. The Instrumental Music Service is managed by a Principal Officer who is based within Education Services. How will learning to play a musical instrument help my child? As well as musical development, the many general benefits gained from learning to play a musical instrument include: enhanced listening and concentration, discipline, co-ordination, language development, memory and social skills. It helps your child to become part of a team and to respect other team members whilst increasing your child’s confidence and participation in the wider school and community. How much will it cost? Lessons are free, but you will be asked to buy music and some pieces of equipment, reeds, strings etc. For a more accurate estimate, please contact your child’s instrumental teacher. How can my child become part of this? We aim, within the available resources, to provide opportunities for pupils to learn to play a musical instrument in all primary and secondary schools. Instrumental music teachers provide instruction in a range of strings, brass, woodwind, guitar and percussion instruments. Availability of specific instruments varies in different cluster areas. Demand usually exceeds availability so children are selected using established musical selection procedures. Your child’s instrumental music teacher will recommend the most appropriate instrument. Depending on resources, an instrument will be provided on loan without charge for an initial period of tuition, but it is also possible to purchase an instrument through your child’s school using (AIPS) - the Assisted Instrument Purchase Scheme. AIPS Enables you to buy a musical instrument without paying VAT. When are the lessons and how do I check on progress? The lessons are free, once a week during the school day but are, wherever possible, provided on a rotational basis so that no particular curriculum subject is affected. The length of the lesson can vary. Individual learning plans/targets are agreed with pupils, their progress is checked weekly and a written report is issued each year. Children are also encouraged to take part in nationally recognised music exams such as music medals to boost their sense of achievement. Is there anything I can do to help? Your role in supporting your child is an important one. • Encourage regular practice in a quiet place and listen to them playing from time to time. • Be positive, especially in the early stages. • Encourage your child to attend lessons regularly. • Be prepared to buy music and accessories. • Don’t hesitate to contact your child’s instrumental teacher if you need advice. • Encourage your child to take up opportunities to perform solo and in groups. What happens as my child progresses? All the way through instrumental music teaching, your child will be encouraged to assess themselves, first with Music Medals, then by sitting SQA and external examinations. Music exams passed at grades 6, 7 or 8 also score valuable points on University and College application forms (UCAS). There are bands and ensembles in most schools that usually play weekly after school hours. There are also Area Ensembles playing all kinds of music from popular to jazz to classical. These bring young musicians from different schools together to perform, often with professional musicians at prestigious venues around the world. Where can I get more information? The Instrumental Music Service team from Education Services will be happy to talk to you about any questions you may have. The Education Services' Instrumental Music Service Team is: Juliet Hosie, Principal Officer of Instrumental Music Tel: 01506 281995 ; email: firstname.lastname@example.org Steven Gray, Co-ordinator of Instrumental Music Tel: 01506 281996 ; email: email@example.com Derek Rae, Music Development Officer Tel: 01506 281144 ; email: firstname.lastname@example.org Hugh Foster, Instrumental Music Service Support Officer Tel: 01506 281145; email: email@example.com Updated 13 September 2012

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| This article or section is a Cataclysm stub. You can help expand it by editing it. Ancient Shark Jaws is a common fossil archaeology artifact. Sharks have no true bones, only cartilage. Because their feeding habits involve biting things with a great deal of force, losing Teeth is Common. Therefore, sharks have multiple rows of teeth which they replace constantly throughout their lifetimes. Patches and hotfixes - Patch 4.0.3 (15-Nov-2010): Added

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The History of our past and the beginnings of our liberty and freedom are a constant reminder of what it takes to make a strong America. Schools teach us the history in the fashion it has been taught for hundreds of years, yet there must be more. Who were these entrepreneurial men, ready to put their lives at stake in the pursuit of liberty? In Desperate Sons by Les Standiford, we are accorded a history of the radicals known as the Sons of Liberty, those who put their lives on the line in an effort to give the colonies the right to be a part of their own rule, and if that failed, find a way to gain their liberty from a nation that was intent on using them to build their coffers. The intrigues and ideal of this secret group of young men, begin as a few muttered concerns, but bring about the Revolution and the freedom and liberty of America as we know it. Some of the names are known for numerous reasons and often are accorded their place in history, Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, and John Hancock to name a few, but there was more to the depth of the accounts that stirred up the hornets’ nest that became a revolution. With both sides taking a strong stance, ego was a powerful weapon. When peace was a possibility it would take only the fire of incredulity to fan the breezes. Many of the actions and happenings are documented, other are just told from bits and pieces passed down through generations, but there is no doubt that the men between these pages had an incendiary part of the happenings of the fate of all those in the colonies during the time before revolution raised its head. Standiford has taken us on a journey into the past, into the very lives of the men we find most interesting. The organization and building of such a strong radical force took time and strong conviction, and Samuel Adams was full of both. With his other compatriots they set the stage for fairness, freedom and liberty. Unlike the histories from our early school years, Desperate Sons draws you in to the insidiousness of trade and taxation, and how it affected the early settlers. The consequences of such actions could not have been foretold as they came to happen. If you enjoy history and politics this is a must have for your library. Many of the concepts and ideas are well charted and organized. This would be an excellent book for a reading or discussion group. Be prepared to bring your arguments. This is a fascinating read, taking you to the depths of flame that still flickers to this day. The actions set in motion a finely crafted set of events the progressively lead to the American Revolution. This book was received free through the publicist. All opinions are my own based off my reading and understanding of the material.

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Woodcreepers are in the order Passeriformes, suborder Furnarii and family Dendrocolaptidae. There are 13 genera and 50 species within the family. Woodcreepers are small to medium sized birds. Most have brown plumage with some white spots or streaks. Their tails usually have rigid shafts and spiny tips that help the birds climb trees. They are Neotropical birds found from Mexico to central Argentina. Woodcreepers live primarily in lowland tropical forests and are mainly insectivores. Some species follow swarms of army ants and eat the insects that are flushed by the ants. Most species are monogamous although some form dispersed leks. Woodcreepers are poor dispersers and, like many bird species, they are suffering from habitat loss and fragmentation. Some species are better able to cope with human disturbance than others, but preservation of their habitat is crucial. (Campbell and Lack, 1985; Dickinson, 2003; Marantz and Hutson, 2003; Marantz, et al., 2003; Wetmore, 1972) Woodcreepers are Neotropical birds; their range extends from Mexico south to central Argentina. The highest diversity of woodcreepers occurs in the lowlands of the Amazon Basin. (Campbell and Lack, 1985; Marantz and Hutson, 2003; Marantz, et al., 2003; Wetmore, 1972) Most woodcreepers live in lowland tropical rainforest. However, some species can be found in forest edge habitats, semi-open habitats, cloudforest, savanna or arid scrub. Most species are found below 1000 m, but some can be found in the mountains up to 3600 m. Species that have been able to adapt to human disturbance can be found in some suburban and urban areas. (Marantz and Hutson, 2003; Marantz, et al., 2003) Woodcreepers are small to medium sized birds (13 to 36 cm and 11 to 160 g). They are typically brown, olive or rufous colored with white spots, streaks or bars. Species that live in open areas are lighter colored underneath. Their broad, rounded wings and specialized tail are often rufous colored and the tips of their remiges (flight feathers) are usually darker. Woodcreepers molt once each year, however, molting does not change their appearance. Most species are not sexually dimorphic. However, in some species the males are larger and some males are able to raise their crown feathers while females are not. Different species of woodcreepers are often very difficult to tell apart. Many species have similar behaviors, colors and shapes. Often they can only be told apart by their calls. Juveniles generally have more barring than adults, a shorter tail and a darker, shorter bill. Bill size and shape is variable in woodcreepers and reflects foraging strategy. Bills range from long to short, thick to thin and straight to very decurved. Long-billed woodcreepers (Nasica longirostris) have a bill that is one quarter of their body length. Woodcreepers’ tails are specialized to help them climb trees; the tail feathers have stiff, spiny shafts that are claw-like. Their foot and leg morphology also help them climb and their claws are very curved. (Campbell and Lack, 1985; Marantz and Hutson, 2003; Marantz, et al., 2003; Wetmore, 1972) Most woodcreepers are monogamous and some species remain in their pairs throughout the year. Some (from the genus Dendrocincla) may be polygynous with a dispersed lek system. (Marantz and Hutson, 2003; Marantz, et al., 2003) Some woodcreepers are year-round breeders and others are seasonal. Those that breed seasonally breed in the summer. They nest in cavities, but do not excavate their own sites. Instead they use woodpecker cavities, holes in stumps, abandoned termite mounds, or man-made structures. Most nests are within 5 m of the ground and may have a long, narrow nest entrance. Nests are lined with bark chips or wood shavings or are a shallow cup made of roots, leaves and other plant fibers. The female usually lays 2 (sometimes 3) white, unmarked eggs. Incubation and nestling periods are not well known, however, the available information suggests that incubation lasts 14 to 16 days and fledging occurs 17 to 25 days after hatching. Young may be dependent on adults for up to one year after hatching, although many remain with their parents for only a few months. (Campbell and Lack, 1985; Marantz and Hutson, 2003; Marantz, et al., 2003; Wetmore, 1972) Incubation and nestling periods are not well known, however, the available information suggests that incubation lasts 14 to 16 days and fledging occurs 17 to 25 days after hatching. Species with bi-parental care have shorter times to fledging than species with only female parental care. In monogamous species, both the male and female build the nest, incubate eggs, brood young and feed nestlings and fledglings. In the polygynous species of the genus Dendrocincla, usually only the female provides parental care. The altricial chicks are fed primarily insects, beetle larvae, grasshoppers, spiders and small lizards. Young may be dependent on adults for up to one year after hatching, although many remain with their parents for only a few months. Woodcreepers are often found in family groups. (Campbell and Lack, 1985; Marantz and Hutson, 2003; Marantz, et al., 2003; Wetmore, 1972) Like most small birds, woodcreepers probably live on average only two to five years. (Gill, 1995) Woodcreepers are found alone, in pairs, small family groups, or mixed species flocks. The mixed-species flocks usually include other insectivorous species that some species of woodcreepers join as they follow swarms of army ants and catch insects that the ants flush as they move through the forest. Most species are sedentary, although some make nomadic wanderings and altitudinal shifts in response to food availability. They have an undulating flight and sing at dawn and dusk. They roost alone in cavities at night. Woodcreepers will not cross large, unforested gaps; this may become a problem for their survival as their habitat becomes increasingly fragmented. Woodcreepers spend most of their time in trees and are morphologically adapted for tree climbing (see Physical Description). They creep or “hitch” up trees using their tail as a brace. They are very aggressive and larger species are dominant over smaller species. They defend territories, but their defensive behavior usually entails chasing intruders out of flocks rather than out of a defended area. Woodcreepers sunbathe and have been seen anting, a behavior that is thought to help prevent or remove ectoparasites. (Marantz and Hutson, 2003; Marantz, et al., 2003) The songs of woodcreepers are simple and unmusical. They often consist of a single repeated note or whistle, creating a rattle or trill. A few species have more complex calls and mates have contact calls that they use to communicate with each other. The frequency of woodcreeper calls is between 840 to 8830 Hz; larger species with longer bills have lower frequency songs. Woodcreepers sing at dawn and dusk; they sing to mark their territories and to maintain contact with mates. Lekking species sometimes sing in choruses. Geographic variation exists in woodcreeper songs. Different species of woodcreepers are often very difficult to tell apart; many have similar behaviors, colors and shapes. Often they can only be told apart by their calls. (Marantz and Hutson, 2003; Marantz, et al., 2003) Woodcreepers have diverse bill morphologies that reflect their diverse foraging strategies. Some of the foraging strategies include: gleaning, flycatching, probing and chiseling. They often poke through vegetation (including epiphytic plants), pry off bark, and probe along tree surfaces in search of insect prey. Most species find food while climbing on tree trunks or branches. They begin foraging at the base of a tree, work their way up and then fly to the base of another tree and begin again. Some species of woodcreepers forage by following army ant (subfamily Ecitoninae) swarms to catch the prey that are flushed by the swarms. Woodcreepers are primarily insectivores, although they occasionally eat small vertebrates (such as lizards, frogs, snakes and salamanders), crabs (Decapoda) and snails (Mollusca). The most common foods consumed by woodcreepers include: grasshoppers and crickets (Orthoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), cockroaches (Blattodea), ants (Formicidae) and spiders (Araneae). Only very rarely do woodcreepers eat seeds or fruit. A notable sighting was that of a great rufous woodcreeper (Xiphocolaptes major) eating a small bat. (Campbell and Lack, 1985; Marantz and Hutson, 2003; Marantz, et al., 2003; Wetmore, 1972) Snakes (suborder Serpentes) are common predators of eggs and nestlings. Adults are taken by forest raptors (order Falconiformes). Woodcreepers’ coloration helps them avoid predation by blending in with their habitat. (Marantz, et al., 2003; Wetmore, 1972) Woodcreepers are important members of their ecosystems. They have an impact on populations of the prey they eat and are food for their predators. They are also hosts to a number of blood parasites and feather lice. (Marantz, et al., 2003) Because encounters between woodcreepers and humans are limited, woodcreepers have no direct positive impacts on the economy other than the important ecosystem roles they play. (Marantz, et al., 2003) There are no known adverse affects of woodcreepers on humans. Habitat fragmentation and destruction for agriculture, logging, mining and the growth of urban areas are the main threats facing woodcreepers. Woodcreepers will not cross large, unforested gaps. This may become a problem for their survival as their habitat becomes increasingly fragmented. The dramatic reduction in lowland forest is also causing a reduction in the number of army ant colonies. Without the army ants, the foraging success of many species of woodcreepers will be reduced. There is a need for more preserves to protect the remaining intact forest. Some species of woodcreepers are better able to cope with human encroachment than others. For example, some species nest in man-made structures or forage on the insects attracted to lights at night. The IUCN lists two species of woodcreepers. Moustached woodcreepers (Xiphocolaptes falcirostris) are listed as vulnerable and greater scythbills (Campylorhamphus pucherani) are listed as near threatened. (IUCN, 2003; Marantz, et al., 2003) Alaine Camfield (author), Animal Diversity Web. Kari Kirschbaum (editor), Animal Diversity Web. living in the southern part of the New World. In other words, Central and South America. uses sound to communicate young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth/hatching. In birds, naked and helpless after hatching. Referring to an animal that lives in trees; tree-climbing. having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria. an animal that mainly eats meat uses smells or other chemicals to communicate to jointly display, usually with sounds, at the same time as two or more other individuals of the same or different species having markings, coloration, shapes, or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment; being difficult to see or otherwise detect. ranking system or pecking order among members of a long-term social group, where dominance status affects access to resources or mates animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds. parental care is carried out by females union of egg and spermatozoan forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality. An animal that eats mainly insects or spiders. fertilization takes place within the female's body offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes). parental care is carried out by males Having one mate at a time. having the capacity to move from one place to another. This terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains, either without vegetation or covered by low, tundra-like vegetation. the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic. generally wanders from place to place, usually within a well-defined range. reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body. having more than one female as a mate at one time rainforests, both temperate and tropical, are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground. Epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant. Precipitation is typically not limiting, but may be somewhat seasonal. scrub forests develop in areas that experience dry seasons. breeding is confined to a particular season remains in the same area reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female associates with others of its species; forms social groups. living in residential areas on the outskirts of large cities or towns. uses touch to communicate Living on the ground. defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south. A terrestrial biome. Savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy. Extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical Africa and South America, and in Australia. A grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees, a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest. See also Tropical savanna and grassland biome. A terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes (>23.5° N or S latitude). Vegetation is made up mostly of grasses, the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available. Fire and grazing are important in the long-term maintenance of grasslands. living in cities and large towns, landscapes dominated by human structures and activity. uses sight to communicate breeding takes place throughout the year Campbell, B., E. Lack. 1985. A Dictionary of Birds. Vermillion: Buteo Books. Dickinson, E. 2003. The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World, 3rd edition. London: Christopher Helm. Gill, F. 1995. Ornithology, Second Edition. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. IUCN, 2003. "2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species" (On-line). Accessed April 09, 2004 at http://www.redlist.org/. Marantz, C., A. Aleixo, L. Bevier, M. Patten. 2003. Family Dendrocolaptidae (Woodcreepers). Pp. 358-447 in J del Hoyo, A Elliott, D Christie, eds. Handbook of Birds of the World, Vol. 8. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. Marantz, C., A. Hutson. 2003. Woodcreepers. Pp. 442-445 in C Perrins, ed. The New Encyclopedia of Birds. Oxford: Oxford Univeristy Press. Payne, R. 2003. "Bird Families of the World" (On-line). Accessed April 09, 2004 at http://www.ummz.lsa.umich.edu/birds/Bird_Families_of_the_World.html. Sibley, C., J. Ahlquist. 1990. Phylogeny and Classification of Birds, A study in Molecular Evolution. New Haven: Yale University Press. Wetmore, A. 1972. The Birds of The Republic of Panama, Part 3. Washington: Smithsonian Institute Press.

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For the longest time, Amy’s mother didn’t think there was anything wrong with her daughter needing to go to the bathroom every time right after meals. Her youngest had trouble with a “nervous stomach,” as she called it, for as long as she could remember. Eventually, though, she became concerned with her child’s weight. At the age of 11, Amy was five feet tall but weighed less than 60 pounds. “All the popular kids in her class are super thin,” she told me when we first met for a consultation at my practice. “It’s the look they see and adore on TV and the Internet.” Dieting for looks is not unusual among young girls. The message that “you can’t be too thin” is conveyed to all of us by the media. But because children are far more impressionable than adults, they tend to take these beliefs much more to heart and act accordingly. Peer pressure, the desire to live up to certain fashion standards as well as body changes during the early stages of puberty are all well-known factors that can contribute to the development of eating disorders at a young age. Of course, weight-consciousness does not automatically result in eating disorders. The issue of dieting during childhood has only come to the forefront with the ever-growing childhood obesity epidemic. Still, clinical studies have found that children who diet for weight loss are much more likely to develop dysfunctional eating habits later in life. What are eating disorders? Eating disorders are foremost psychological disturbances. People who suffer from eating disorders have a dysfunctional relationship to food. Fear of becoming overweight – and therefore unattractive – is only one of many possible causes, although a common one. This state of mind is clinically called “anorexia nervosa” (AN), which is derived from the Greek words an, meaning “without,” and orexis, meaning appetite. Taken literally, however, the term is somewhat misleading. Anorexics don’t starve themselves because of lack of appetite. Rather, they are afraid of what eating even small amounts of food can do to their body image. Especially girls and young women who work (or aspire to work) as photo models in the fashion industry or have athletic ambitions are at risk of developing anorexia. Another frequently occurring form of eating disorder is called “bulimia nervosa” (BN), which can include regular bouts of overeating or binge eating followed by self-induced vomiting or use of laxative to prevent weight gain. Like anorexics, bulimics are deeply concerned about their body image, but because their eating patterns are inconsistent, they resort to extreme measures to undo the perceived damage. On the other end of the spectrum, there is a behavior called “binge eating disorder” (BED), which results in compulsive overeating without subsequent countermeasures to avoid weight gain. Those suffering from BED are likely to face weight problems eventually. All eating disorders carry great health risks, especially when they start early in life. Potentially serious harm is not only caused to the physical- but also the mental health and well-being of those who engage in this kind of dysfunctional behavior. How does one recognize and treat eating disorders? Regrettably, eating disorders among children are not yet sufficiently understood both by science and the public. Parents are often not equipped to deal appropriately with the phenomenon. Sometimes, it can be hard to even recognize the symptoms of unhealthy behavior when kids go through different phases of growing up. But if there are any indications that something is amiss, parents should look for a number of potential warning signs, such as rapid changes in eating patterns, self-imposed dieting, skipping meals or refusing to eat in the presence of other family members. Parents who find their kids taking diet pills or laxatives on their own and without supervision should definitely be alarmed. Other possible indicators are changes in physical appearance, like swelling of the cheeks or jaw or stained teeth and bad breath from self-induced vomiting. When parents become aware of this kind of behavior, they must take action at once and get professional help for their kids if necessary. Effective treatment of eating disorders may require consultations with several health care specialists besides your family doctor, possibly a pediatrician, psychiatrist and nutrition therapist. Parents may have to participate in the therapeutic process as well. Eating disorders do normally not develop in a vacuum. Older siblings, friends, classmates, even the parents themselves can contribute to a child’s disturbed relationship to food. There are a number of proactive measures concerned parents can take. For starters, it is important to maintain a healthy “food culture” at home. Children should learn from early on to appreciate the value of good nutrition. Food-oriented family activities, like grocery shopping and farmers market visits, growing a vegetable garden or preparing meals together can help promote healthy eating habits. Food should never be used as means of reward or punishment. It is up to the adults to be good role models. That includes open discussions about issues of physical beauty and self-esteem. If parents deal with negative body images themselves and convey these by, let’s say, obsessive dieting or fitness training, they are likely to pass their sentiments on to their kids as well. As it is often the case, leading by good example may be the best approach to get everybody back on track. If you enjoyed this article, you may also be interested in reading “Exercise at a Young Age Has Many Benefits Besides Physical Fitness” and “Helping Your Child With Weight Problems.” Timi Gustafson R.D. is a clinical dietitian and author of “The Healthy Diner – How to Eat Right and Still Have Fun™,” is available on her blog http://www.timigustafson.com and at Amazon. Her latest book, “Kids Love Healthy Foods™” is now available in e-book format at www.amazon.com

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U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Endangered Bats of America Bats have lived in America since the age of dinosaurs. Today they rank among our most endangered wildlife. The loss of bats threatens the balance of nature and our economy. The majority of bats in the United States eat insects; a few bat species in the Southwest and in Florida drink nectar and pollinate plants. In fact, bats are very important controllers of night-flying insects. One little brown bat can catch up to 1,200 mosquitoes in just one hour! Bats help control many insects that attack farm and garden crops. Having bats around helps reduce our dependence on insect-killing chemicals, benefitting human health and nature. Of the 45 kinds of bats living in the United States, seven are in danger of The greater (Mexican) long-nosed bat (Leptonycteris nivalis) is an insect- and nectar-feeding bat found in the Big Bend region of southwestern Texas. Nectar-feeding bats are primary pollinators and spread the seeds of many desert plants. The lesser long-nosed bat (Leptonycteris curasoae yerbabuenae) is an insect- and nectar-feeding bat found in the caves and mines of the Southwest. This bat helps pollinate the saguaro and organ-pipe cacti and the agave, the plant from which tequila is made. The Hawaiian hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus semotus) is Hawaii’s only native bat. It helps control night-flying insects. The gray bat (Myotis grisescens) forages over rivers and reservoirs in the Southeast and depends on a few caves in Arkansas, Missouri, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Alabama to hibernate, roost, and bear young. The Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) roosts in hollow trees or underneath the loose bark of trees in eastern woodlands during the summer and depends on just nine caves for winter hibernation. The Virginia big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii virginianus) is found only in a few caves in the mountain and plateau regions of Kentucky, West Virginia, Virginia, and North Carolina. The Ozark big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii ingens) is found only in a few caves in the Ozark Mountains of Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma. Despite their many values, more than half of America’s bat species are endangered or in decline. But you can help keep these bats alive! Ø Learn all you can about bats. Ø Do not use pesticides or dump chemicals into waterways. Ø Stay out of caves that are gated or have signs posted Ø Never shoot, poison, or harm bats or the places they live. Ø If you find a bat, please leave it alone. Bats can bite in self-defense like most wild animals. For more information about endangered bats, visit the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s web site at http://endangered.fws.gov/ bats/bats.htm, the National Wildlife Federation’s Keep The Wild Alive campaign web site at http://www.nwf.org/wildalive, or Bat Conservation International at 1-800/538-BATS or visit their web site at “The mission of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is working with others to conserve, protect, and enhance fish, wildlife, and plants and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the American people.” Developed in cooperation with Bat Conservation International and the National Wildlife Federation. Virginia big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii virginianus) Click tabs to swap between content that is broken into logical sections.

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John Singer Sargent |John Singer Sargent| Self Portrait, 1906, oil on canvas, 70 × 53 cm, Uffizi Gallery, Florence. January 12, 1856| |Died||April 14, 1925 London, United Kingdom |Nationality||American (United States)| |Training||École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts| |Works||Portrait of Madame X The Daughters of Edward Darley Boit Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose Lady Agnew of Lochnaw |Influenced by||Carolus-Duran, Léon Bonnat, Diego Velázquez, Frans Hals, Antonio Mancini| John Singer Sargent (January 12, 1856 – April 14, 1925) was an American artist, considered the "leading portrait painter of his generation" for his evocations of Edwardian era luxury. During his career, he created roughly 900 oil paintings and more than 2,000 watercolors, as well as countless sketches and charcoal drawings. His oeuvre documents worldwide travel, from Venice to the Tyrol, Corfu, the Middle East, Montana, Maine, and Florida. His parents were American, but he was trained in Paris prior to moving to London. Sargent enjoyed international acclaim as a portrait painter, although not without controversy and some critical reservation; an early submission to the Paris Salon, his "Portrait of Madame X", was intended to consolidate his position as a society painter, but it resulted in scandal instead. From the beginning his work was characterized by remarkable technical facility, particularly in his ability to draw with a brush, which in later years inspired admiration as well as criticism for a supposed superficiality. His commissioned works were consistent with the grand manner of portraiture, while his informal studies and landscape paintings displayed a familiarity with Impressionism. In later life Sargent expressed ambivalence about the restrictions of formal portrait work, and devoted much of his energy to mural painting and working en plein air. He lived most of his life in Europe. Early life Before Sargent's birth, his father, FitzWilliam (b. 1820 Gloucester, Massachusetts), was an eye surgeon at the Wills Eye Hospital in Philadelphia 1844–1854. After John's older sister died at the age of two, his mother, Mary (née Singer), suffered a breakdown, and the couple decided to go abroad to recover. They remained nomadic expatriates for the rest of their lives. Although based in Paris, Sargent's parents moved regularly with the seasons to the sea and the mountain resorts in France, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland. While Mary was pregnant, they stopped in Florence, Italy because of a cholera epidemic. Sargent was born there in 1856. A year later, his sister Mary was born. After her birth, FitzWilliam reluctantly resigned his post in Philadelphia and accepted his wife's entreaties to remain abroad. They lived modestly on a small inheritance and savings, living a quiet life with their children. They generally avoided society and other Americans except for friends in the art world. Four more children were born abroad, of whom only two lived past childhood. Although his father was a patient teacher of basic subjects, young Sargent was a rambunctious child, more interested in outdoor activities than his studies. As his father wrote home, "He is quite a close observer of animated nature." His mother was quite convinced that traveling around Europe, and visiting museums and churches, would give young Sargent a satisfactory education. Several attempts to have him formally schooled failed, owing mostly to their itinerant life. Sargent's mother was a fine amateur artist and his father was a skilled medical illustrator. Early on, she gave him sketchbooks and encouraged drawing excursions. Young Sargent worked with care on his drawings, and he enthusiastically copied images from The Illustrated London News of ships and made detailed sketches of landscapes. FitzWilliam had hoped that his son's interest in ships and the sea might lead him toward a naval career. At thirteen, his mother reported that John "sketches quite nicely, & has a remarkably quick and correct eye. If we could afford to give him really good lessons, he would soon be quite a little artist." At the age of thirteen, he received some watercolor lessons from Carl Welsch, a German landscape painter. Although his education was far from complete, Sargent grew up to be a highly literate and cosmopolitan young man, accomplished in art, music, and literature. He was fluent in French, Italian, and German. At seventeen, Sargent was described as "willful, curious, determined and strong" (after his mother) yet shy, generous, and modest (after his father). He was well-acquainted with many of the great masters from first hand observation, as he wrote in 1874, "I have learned in Venice to admire Tintoretto immensely and to consider him perhaps second only to Michelangelo and Titian." An attempt to study at the Academy of Florence failed as the school was re-organizing at the time, so after returning to Paris from Florence, Sargent began his art studies with Carolus-Duran. The young French portrait artist, who had a meteoric rise, was noted for his bold technique and modern teaching methods, and his influence would be pivotal to Sargent during the period from 1874 to 1878. In 1874, on the first attempt, Sargent passed the rigorous exam required to gain admission to the École des Beaux-Arts, the premier art school in France. He took drawing classes, which included anatomy and perspective, and gained a silver prize. He also spent much time in self-study, drawing in museums and painting in a studio he shared with James Carroll Beckwith. He became both a valuable friend and Sargent's primary connection with the American artists abroad. Sargent also took some lessons from Léon Bonnat. Carolus-Duran's atelier was progressive, dispensing with the traditional academic approach, which required careful drawing and underpainting, in favor of the alla prima method of working directly on the canvas with a loaded brush, derived from Diego Velázquez. It was an approach that relied on the proper placement of tones of paint. This approach also permitted spontaneous flourishes of color not bound to an under-drawing. It was markedly different from the traditional atelier of Jean Léon Gérôme, where Americans Thomas Eakins and Julian Alden Weir had studied. Sargent was the star student in short order. Weir met Sargent in 1874 and noted that Sargent was "one of the most talented fellows I have ever come across; his drawings are like the old masters, and his color is equally fine." Sargent's excellent command of French and his superior talent made him both popular and admired. Through his friendship with Paul César Helleu, Sargent would meet giants of the art world, including Degas, Rodin, Monet, and Whistler. Sargent's early enthusiasm was for landscapes, not portraiture, as evidenced by his voluminous sketches full of mountains, seascapes, and buildings. Carolus-Duran's expertise in portraiture finally influenced Sargent in that direction. Commissions for history paintings were still considered more prestigious, but were much harder to get. Portrait painting, on the other hand, was the best way of promoting an art career, getting exhibited in the Salon, and gaining commissions to earn a livelihood. Sargent's first major portrait was of his friend Fanny Watts in 1877, and was also his first Salon admission. Its particularly well-executed pose drew attention. His second salon entry was the Oyster Gatherers of Cançale, an impressionistic painting of which he made two copies, one of which he sent back to the United States, and both received warm reviews. Early career In 1879, at the age of 23, Sargent painted a portrait of teacher Carolus-Duran; the virtuoso effort met with public approval, and announced the direction his mature work would take. Its showing at the Paris Salon was both a tribute to his teacher and an advertisement for portrait commissions. Of Sargent's early work, Henry James wrote that the artist offered "the slightly 'uncanny' spectacle of a talent which on the very threshold of its career has nothing more to learn." After leaving Carolus-Duran's atelier, Sargent visited Spain. There he studied the paintings of Velázquez with a passion, absorbing the master's technique, and in his travels gathered ideas for future works. He was entranced with Spanish music and dance. The trip also re-awakened his own talent for music (which was nearly equal to his artistic talent), and which found visual expression in his early masterpiece El Jaleo (1882). Music would continue to play a major part in his social life as well, as he was a skillful accompanist of both amateur and professional musicians. Sargent became a strong advocate for modern composers, especially Gabriel Fauré. Trips to Italy provided sketches and ideas for several Venetian street scenes genre paintings, which effectively captured gestures and postures he would find useful in later portraiture. Upon his return, Sargent quickly received several portrait commissions. His career was launched. He immediately demonstrated the concentration and stamina that enabled him to paint with workman-like steadiness for the next twenty-five years. He filled in the gaps between commissions with many non-commissioned portraits of friends and colleagues. His fine manners, perfect French, and great skill made him a standout among the newer portraitists, and his fame quickly spread. He confidently set high prices and turned down unsatisfactory sitters. In the early 1880s Sargent regularly exhibited portraits at the Salon, and these were mostly full-length portrayals of women, such as Madame Edouard Pailleron (1880) (done en plein-air) and Madame Ramón Subercaseaux (1881). He continued to receive positive critical notice. Sargent's best portraits reveal the individuality and personality of the sitters; his most ardent admirers think he is matched in this only by Velázquez, who was one of Sargent's great influences. The Spanish master's spell is apparent in Sargent's The Daughters of Edward Darley Boit, 1882, a haunting interior that echoes Velázquez's Las Meninas. As in many of his early portraits, Sargent confidently tries different approaches with each new challenge, here employing both unusual composition and lighting to striking effect. One of his most widely exhibited and best loved works of the 1880s was The Lady with the Rose (1882), a portrait of Charlotte Burckhardt, a close friend and possible romantic attachment. His most controversial work, Portrait of Madame X (Madame Pierre Gautreau) (1884) is now considered one of his best works, and was the artist's personal favorite; he stated in 1915, "I suppose it is the best thing I have done." when unveiled in Paris at the 1884 Salon, it aroused such a negative reaction that it likely prompted Sargent's move to London. Sargent's self-confidence had led him to attempt another risky experiment in portraiture—but this time it unexpectedly back-fired. The painting was not commissioned by her and he pursued her for the opportunity, quite unlike most of his portrait work where clients sought him out. Sargent wrote to a mutual acquaintance: I have a great desire to paint her portrait and have reason to think she would allow it and is waiting for someone to propose this homage to her beauty. ...you might tell her that I am a man of prodigious talent." It took well over a year to complete the painting. The first version of the portrait of Madame Gautreau, with the famously plunging neckline, white-powdered skin, and arrogantly cocked head, featured an off-the-shoulder dress strap which made the overall effect more daring and sensual. Sargent changed the strap to try to dampen the furor, but the damage had been done. French commissions dried up and he told his friend Edmund Gosse in 1885 that he contemplated giving up painting for music or business. Writing of the reaction of visitors, Judith Gautier observed: Is it a woman? a chimera, the figure of a unicorn rearing as on a heraldic coat of arms or perhaps the work of some oriental decorative artist to whom the human form is forbidden and who, wishing to be reminded of woman, has drawn the delicious arabesque? No, it is none of these things, but rather the precise image of a modern woman scrupulously drawn by a painter who is a master of his art." Prior to the Madame X scandal of 1884, Sargent had painted exotic beauties such as Rosina Ferrara of Capri, and the Spanish expatriate model Carmela Bertagna, but the earlier pictures had not been intended for broad public reception. Sargent kept the painting prominently displayed in his London studio until he sold it to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1916, a few months after Gautreau's death. Before arriving in England, Sargent began sending paintings for exhibition at the Royal Academy. These included the portraits of Dr. Pozzi at Home (1881), a flamboyant essay in red and his first full-length male portrait, and the more traditional Mrs. Henry White (1883). The ensuing portrait commissions encouraged Sargent to complete his move to London in 1886. Notwithstanding the Madame X scandal, he had considered moving to London as early as 1882; he had been urged to do so repeatedly by his new friend, the novelist Henry James. In retrospect his transfer to London may be seen to have been inevitable. English critics were not warm at first, faulting Sargent for his "clever" "Frenchified" handling of paint. One reviewer seeing his portrait of Mrs. Henry White described his technique as "hard" and "almost metallic" with "no taste in expression, air, or modeling." With help from Mrs. White, however, Sargent soon gained the admiration of English patrons and critics. Henry James also gave the artist "a push to the best of my ability." Sargent spent much time painting outdoors in the English countryside when not in his studio. On a visit to Monet at Giverny in 1885, Sargent painted one of his most Impressionistic portraits, of Monet at work painting outdoors with his new bride nearby. Sargent is usually not thought of as an Impressionist painter, but he sometimes used impressionistic techniques to great effect. His Claude Monet Painting at the Edge of a Wood is rendered in his own version of the impressionist style. In the 1880s, he attended the Impressionist exhibitions and he began to paint outdoors in the plein-air manner after that visit to Monet. Sargent purchased four Monet works for his personal collection during that time. Sargent was similarly inspired to do a portrait of his artist friend Paul César Helleu, also painting outdoors with his wife by his side. A photograph very similar to the painting suggests that Sargent occasionally used photography as an aid to composition. Through Helleu, Sargent met and painted the famed French sculptor Auguste Rodin in 1884, a rather somber portrait reminiscent of works by Thomas Eakins. Although the British critics classified Sargent in the Impressionist camp, the French Impressionists thought otherwise. As Monet later stated, "He is not an Impressionist in the sense that we use the word, he is too much under the influence of Carolus-Duran." Sargent's first major success at the Royal Academy came in 1887, with the enthusiastic response to Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose, a large piece, painted on site, of two young girls lighting lanterns in an English garden in Broadway in the Cotswolds. The painting was immediately purchased by the Tate Gallery. His first trip to New York and Boston as a professional artist in 1887-88 produced over twenty important commissions, including portraits of Isabella Stewart Gardner, the famed Boston art patron. His portrait of Mrs. Adrian Iselin, wife of a New York businessman, revealed her character in one of his most insightful works. In Boston, Sargent was honored with his first solo exhibition, which presented twenty-two of his paintings. Back in London, Sargent was quickly busy again. His working methods were by then well-established, following many of the steps employed by other master portrait painters before him. After securing a commission through negotiations which he carried out, Sargent would visit the client's home to see where the painting was to hang. He would often review a client's wardrobe to pick suitable attire. Some portraits were done in the client's home, but more often in his studio, which was well-stocked with furniture and background materials he chose for proper effect. He usually required eight to ten sittings from his clients, although he would try to capture the face in one sitting. He usually kept up pleasant conversation and sometimes he would take a break and play the piano for his sitter. Sargent seldom used pencil or oil sketches, and instead lay down oil paint directly. Finally, he would select an appropriate frame. Sargent had no assistants; he handled all the tasks, such as preparing his canvases, varnishing the painting, arranging for photography, shipping, and documentation. He commanded about $5,000 per portrait, or about $130,000 in current dollars. Some American clients traveled to London at their own expense to have Sargent paint their portrait. Around 1890, Sargent painted two daring non-commissioned portraits as show pieces—one of actress Ellen Terry as Lady MacBeth and one of the popular Spanish dancer La Carmencita. Sargent was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and was made a full member three years later. In the 1890s, he averaged fourteen portrait commissions per year, none more beautiful than the genteel Lady Agnew of Lochnaw, 1892. His portrait of Mrs. Hugh Hammersley (Mrs. Hugh Hammersley, 1892) was equally well received for its lively depiction of one of London's most notable hostesses. As a portrait painter in the grand manner, Sargent had unmatched success; he portrayed subjects who were at once ennobled and often possessed of nervous energy. Sargent was referred to as "the Van Dyck of our times." Although Sargent was an American expatriate, he returned to the United States many times, often to answer the demand for commissioned portraits. Sargent painted a series of three portraits of Robert Louis Stevenson. The second, Portrait of Robert Louis Stevenson and his Wife (1885), was one of his best known. He also completed portraits of two U.S. presidents: Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. Asher Wertheimer, a wealthy Jewish art dealer living in London, commissioned from Sargent a series of a dozen portraits of his family, the artist's largest commission from a single patron. The paintings reveal a pleasant familiarity between the artist and his subjects. Wertheimer bequeathed most of the paintings to the National Gallery. In 1888, Sargent released his portrait of Alice Vanderbilt Shepard, great-granddaughter of Cornelius Vanderbilt. Many of his most important works are in museums in the United States. By 1900, Sargent was at the height of his fame. Cartoonist Max Beerbohm completed one of his seventeen caricatures of Sargent, making well-known to the public the artist's paunchy physique. Although only in his forties, Sargent began to travel more and to devote relatively less time to portrait painting. His An Interior in Venice (1900), a portrait of four members of the Curtis family in their elegant palatial home, Palazzo Barbaro, was a resounding success. But, Whistler did not approve of the looseness of Sargent's brushwork, which he summed up as "smudge everywhere." One of Sargent's last major portraits in his bravura style was that of Lord Ribblesdale, in 1902, finely attired in an elegant hunting uniform. Between 1900 and 1907, Sargent continued his high productivity, which included, in addition to dozens of oil portraits, hundreds of portrait drawings at about $400 each. In 1907, at the age of fifty-one, Sargent officially closed his studio. Relieved, he stated, "Painting a portrait would be quite amusing if one were not forced to talk while working…What a nuisance having to entertain the sitter and to look happy when one feels wretched." In that same year, Sargent painted his modest and serious self-portrait, his last, for the celebrated self-portrait collection of the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy. As Sargent wearied of portraiture he pursued architectural and landscapes subjects . During a visit to Rome in 1906 Sargent made an oil painting and several pencil sketches of the exterior staircase and balustrade in front of the Church of Saints Dominic and Sixtus, now the church of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum. The double staircase built in 1654 is the design of architect and sculptor Orazio Torriani (fl.1602 — 1657). In 1907h e wrote: "I did in Rome a study of a magnificent curved staircase and balustrade, leading to a grand facade that would reduce a millionaire to a worm...." The painting now hangs at the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University and the pencil sketches are in the collection of the Harvard University art collection of the Fogg Museum. Sargent later used the architectural features of this stair and balustrade in a portrait of Charles William Eliot, President of Harvard University from 1869-1909. Sargent's fame was still considerable and museums eagerly bought his works. That year he declined a knighthood and decided instead to keep his American citizenship. From 1907 on, Sargent largely forsook portrait painting and focused on landscapes in his later years. He made numerous visits to the United States in the last decade of his life, including a stay of two full years from 1915 to 1917. By the time Sargent finished his portrait of John D. Rockefeller in 1917, most critics began to consign him to the masters of the past, "a brilliant ambassador between his patrons and posterity." Modernists treated him more harshly, considering him completely out of touch with the reality of American life and with emerging artistic trends including Cubism and Futurism. Sargent quietly accepted the criticism, but refused to alter his negative opinions of modern art. He retorted, "Ingres, Raphael and El Greco, these are now my admirations, these are what I like." In 1925, soon before he died, Sargent painted his last oil portrait, a canvas of Grace Curzon, Marchioness Curzon of Kedleston. The painting was purchased in 1936 by the Currier Museum of Art, where it is on display. During Sargent's long career, he painted more than 2,000 watercolors, roving from the English countryside to Venice to the Tyrol, Corfu, the Middle East, Montana, Maine, and Florida. Each destination offered pictorial stimulation and treasure. Even at his leisure, in escaping the pressures of the portrait studio, he painted with restless intensity, often painting from morning until night. His hundreds of watercolors of Venice are especially notable, many done from the perspective of a gondola. His colors were sometimes extremely vivid and as one reviewer noted, "Everything is given with the intensity of a dream." In the Middle East and North Africa Sargent painted Bedouins, goatherds, and fisherman. In the last decade of his life, he produced many watercolors in Maine, Florida, and in the American West, of fauna, flora, and native peoples. With his watercolors, Sargent was able to indulge his earliest artistic inclinations for nature, architecture, exotic peoples, and noble mountain landscapes. And it is in some of his late works where one senses Sargent painting most purely for himself. His watercolors were executed with a joyful fluidness. He also painted extensively family, friends, gardens, and fountains. In watercolors, he playfully portrayed his friends and family dressed in Orientalist costume, relaxing in brightly lit landscapes that allowed for a more vivid palette and experimental handling than did his commissions (The Chess Game, 1906). His first major solo exhibit of watercolor works was at the Carfax Gallery in London in 1905. In 1909, he exhibited eighty-six watercolors in New York City, eighty-three of which were bought by the Brooklyn Museum. Evan Charteris wrote in 1927: "To live with Sargent's water-colours is to live with sunshine captured and held, with the luster of a bright and legible world, 'the refluent shade' and 'the Ambient ardours of the noon.'" Although not generally accorded the critical respect given Winslow Homer, perhaps America's greatest watercolorist, scholarship has revealed that Sargent was fluent in the entire range of opaque and transparent watercolor technique, including the methods used by Homer. Other work As a concession to the insatiable demand of wealthy patrons for portraits, Sargent dashed off hundreds of rapid charcoal portrait sketches, which he called "Mugs." Forty-six of these, spanning the years 1890–1916, were exhibited at the Royal Society of Portrait Painters in 1916. All of Sargent's murals are to be found in the Boston/Cambridge area. They are in the Boston Public Library, the Museum of Fine Arts, and Harvard's Widener Library. Sargent's largest scale works are the mural decorations that grace the Boston Public Library depicting the history of religion and the gods of polytheism. They were attached to the walls of the library by means of marouflage. He worked on the cycle for almost thirty years but never completed the final mural. Sargent drew on his extensive travels and museum visits to create a dense art historial melange. The murals were restored in 2003–2004. Sargent worked on the murals from 1895 through 1919; they were intended to show religion's (and society's) progress, from pagan superstition up through the ascension of Christianity, concluding with a painting depicting Jesus delivering the Sermon on the Mount. But Sargent's late 1919 paintings of "The Church" and "The Synagogue" inspired a debate about whether the artist had represented Judaism in a stereotypic, or even an anti-Semitic, manner. Drawing upon iconography that was used in medieval paintings, Sargent portrayed Judaism and the synagogue as a blind, ugly hag, and Christianity and the church as a lovely, and radiant young woman. He also failed to understand how these representations might be problematic for the Jews of Boston; he was both surprised and hurt when the paintings were criticized (Promey ). The paintings were objectionable since they seemed to show Judaism defeated, and Christianity triumphant ("New Painting At Public Library" 48). The Boston newspapers also followed the controversy, noting that while many found the paintings offensive, not everyone was in agreement. In the end, Sargent abandoned his plan to finish the murals, and the controversy eventually died down. The paintings were not displayed until 2003–2004, when the Boston Public Library restored the murals, including the two controversial panels, making them available to audiences once again (Lehmann-Barclay). Upon his return to England in 1918 after a visit to the United States, Sargent was commissioned as a war artist by the British Ministry of Information. In his large painting Gassed and in many watercolors, he depicted scenes from the Great War. Later life and death In 1922 Sargent co-founded New York City's Grand Central Art Galleries together with Edmund Greacen, Walter Leighton Clark, and others. Sargent actively participated in the Grand Central Art Galleries and their academy, the Grand Central School of Art, until his death in 1925. The Galleries held a major retrospective exhibit of Sargent's work in 1924. He then returned to England, where he died on April 14, 1925 of heart disease. Sargent is interred in Brookwood Cemetery near Woking, Surrey. Memorial exhibitions of Sargent's work were held in Boston in 1925, and at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and the Royal Academy and Tate Gallery in London in 1926. The Grand Central Art Galleries also organized a posthumous exhibition in 1928 of previously unseen sketches and drawings from throughout his career. Relationships and personal life Sargent was a lifelong bachelor who surrounded himself with family and friends. Among the artists with whom Sargent associated were Dennis Miller Bunker, James Carroll Beckwith, Edwin Austin Abbey (who also worked on the Boston Public Library murals), Francis David Millet and Claude Monet, whom Sargent painted. Between 1905 and 1914, Sargent's frequent traveling companions were the married artist couple Wilfrid de Glehn and Jane Emmet de Glehn. The trio would often spend summers in France, Spain or Italy and all three would depict one another in their paintings during their travels. Sargent developed a lifelong friendship with fellow painter Paul César Helleu, whom he met in Paris in 1878 when Sargent was 22 and Helleu was 18. Sargent's friends and supporters included Henry James, Isabella Stewart Gardner (who commissioned and purchased works from Sargent, and sought his advice on other acquisitions), and Edward VII. Sargent was extremely private regarding his personal life, although the painter Jacques-Émile Blanche, who was one of his early sitters, said after his death that Sargent's sex life "was notorious in Paris, and in Venice, positively scandalous. He was a frenzied bugger." The truth of this may never be established. Some scholars have suggested that Sargent was homosexual. He had personal associations with Prince Edmond de Polignac and Count Robert de Montesquiou. His male nudes reveal complex and well-considered artistic sensibilities about the male physique and male sensuality; this can be particularly observed in his portrait of Thomas E. McKeller, but also in Tommies Bathing, nude sketches for Hell and Judgement, and his portraits of young men, such as Bartholomy Maganosco and Head of Olimpio Fusco. However, there were many friendships with women, as well, and a similar suppressed sensualism informs his female portrait and figure studies (notably Egyptian Girl, 1891). Art historian Deborah Davis suggests that Sargent's interest in women he considered exotic, Rosina Ferrara, Amélie Gautreau and Judith Gautier, was prompted by infatuation that transcended aesthetic appreciation. The likelihood of an affair with Louise Burkhardt, the model for Lady with the Rose, is accepted by Sargent scholars. Critical assessment In a time when the art world focused, in turn, on Impressionism, Fauvism, and Cubism, Sargent practiced his own form of Realism, which made brilliant references to Velázquez, Van Dyck, and Gainsborough. His seemingly effortless facility for paraphrasing the masters in a contemporary fashion led to a stream of commissioned portraits of remarkable virtuosity (Arsène Vigeant, 1885, Musées de Metz; Mr. and Mrs. Isaac Newton Phelps-Stokes, 1897, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) and earned Sargent the moniker, "the Van Dyck of our times." Still, during his life his work engendered negative responses from some of his colleagues: Camille Pissarro wrote "he is not an enthusiast but rather an adroit performer," and Walter Sickert published a satirical turn under the heading "Sargentolatry." By the time of his death he was dismissed as an anachronism, a relic of the Gilded Age and out of step with the artistic sentiments of post-World War I Europe. Elizabeth Prettejohn suggests that the decline of Sargent's reputation was due partly to the rise of anti-Semitism, and the resultant intolerance of 'celebrations of Jewish prosperity.' It has been suggested that the exotic qualities inherent in his work appealed to the sympathies of the Jewish clients whom he painted from the 1890s on. Nowhere is this more apparent than in his portrait Almina, Daughter of Asher Wertheimer (1908), in which the subject is seen wearing a Persian costume, a pearl encrusted turban, and strumming an Indian tambura, accoutrements all meant to convey sensuality and mystery. If Sargent used this portrait to explore issues of sexuality and identity, it seems to have met with the satisfaction of the subject's father, Asher Wertheimer, a wealthy Jewish art dealer. Foremost of Sargent's detractors was the influential English art critic Roger Fry, of the Bloomsbury Group, who at the 1926 Sargent retrospective in London dismissed Sargent's work as lacking aesthetic quality: "Wonderful indeed, but most wonderful that this wonderful performance should ever have been confused with that of an artist." And, in the 1930s, Lewis Mumford led a chorus of the severest critics: "Sargent remained to the end an illustrator…the most adroit appearance of workmanship, the most dashing eye for effect, cannot conceal the essential emptiness of Sargent's mind, or the contemptuous and cynical superficiality of a certain part of his execution." Part of Sargent's devaluation is also attributed to his expatriate life, which made him seem less American at a time when "authentic" socially conscious American art, as exemplified by the Stieglitz circle and by the Ashcan School, was on the ascent. Despite a long period of critical disfavor, Sargent's popularity has increased steadily since the 1950s. In the 1960s, a revival of Victorian art and new scholarship directed at Sargent strengthened his reputation. Sargent has been the subject of large-scale exhibitions in major museums, including a retrospective exhibition at the Whitney Museum of American Art in 1986, and a 1999 "blockbuster" travelling show that exhibited at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the National Gallery of Art Washington, and the National Gallery, London. In 1986, Andy Warhol commented to Sargent scholar Trevor Fairbrother that Sargent "made everybody look glamorous. Taller. Thinner. But they all have mood, every one of them has a different mood." In a Time Magazine article from the 1980s, critic Robert Hughes praised Sargent as "the unrivaled recorder of male power and female beauty in a day that, like ours, paid excessive court to both." Posthumous sales In December 2004, Group with Parasols (A Siesta) (1905) sold for $US 23.5 million, nearly double the Sotheby's estimate of $12 million. The previous highest price for a Sargent painting was $US 11 million. Important works A Street in Venice, 1882, Clark Art Institute Madame × (Madame Pierre Gautreau), 1884, oil on canvas, 234.95 × 109.86 cm, Manhattan: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose, 1885–86, the Tate, London. Two Girls Lying on the Grass, oil on canvas, 1889. Metropolitan Museum of Art Winifred, Duchess of Portland, oil on canvas, 1902 Bedouins, watercolor, c. 1905–1906. Brooklyn Museum of Art Dolce Far Niente, 1907, Brooklyn Museum of Art Artist in the Simplon, watercolor, c. 1909. Fogg Museum of Art Escutcheon of Charles V, watercolor, 1912. Metropolitan Museum of Art Karer See, watercolour, 1914 John D. Rockefeller, painted in 1917 Selected works - Portrait of Madame Edouard Pailleron (1880) Corcoran Gallery of Art - Portrait of Madame Ramón Subercaseaux (1881) Private collection - Dr. Pozzi at Home (1881) Hammer Museum - Lady with the Rose (1882) Metropolitan Museum of Art - El Jaleo (1882) Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum - The Daughters of Edward Darley Boit (1882) Boston Museum of Fine Art - Portrait of Mrs. Henry White (1883) Corcoran Gallery of Art - Portrait of Madame X (1884) Metropolitan Museum of Art - Portrait of Robert Louis Stevenson and his wife (1885) Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art - Portrait of Arsène Vigeant (1885) Musées de Metz - Claude Monet Painting by the Edge of a Wood (1885) Tate Collection - Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose (1885-6) Tate Collection - Boston Public Library murals (1890–1919) Boston Public Library - Portrait of Isabella Stewart Gardner (1888) Isabella Stuart Gardner Museum - Portrait of the composer Gabriel Fauré (1889) Paris Museum of Music - Portrait of Edwin Booth (1890) hanging at the The Players Club - La Carmencita. Portrait of the dancer Carmencita. Musée d'Orsay, Paris (1890) - Portrait of Mrs. Thomas Lincoln Manson Jr. (ca. 1890) Honolulu Museum of Art - Egyptian Girl (1891) Art Institute of Chicago - Portrait of Mrs. Hugh Hammersley (1892) Metropolitan Museum of Art - Lady Agnew of Lochnaw (1892) National Galleries of Scotland - Portrait of Frederick Law Olmsted (1895) Biltmore Estate - Portrait of Mr. and Mrs. Isaac Newton Phelps-Stokes (1897) Metropolitan Museum of Art - On his holidays (1901) Lady Lever Art Gallery - Portrait of Theodore Roosevelt (1903) White House - Santa Maria della Salute (1904) Brooklyn Museum of Art - The Chess Game (1906) Harvard Club of New York City - Mrs. Louis E. Raphael (Henriette Goldschmidt) (ca. 1906) Montgomery Museum of Fine Arts, Montgomery, Alabama - Portrait of Almina, Daughter of Asher Wertheimer (1908) Tate Collection - In a Garden, Corfu (Portrait of Jane Emmet de Glehn) (1909) Terra Museum of American Art, Chicago, Illinois - Portrait of John D. Rockefeller (1917) - Portrait of Grace Curzon, Marchioness Curzon of Kedleston (1925) - "While his art matched to the spirit of the age, Sargent came into his own in the 1890s as the leading portrait painter of his generation". Ormond, p. 34, 1998. - "At the time of the Wertheimer commission Sargent was the most celebrated, sought-after and expensive portrait painter in the world". New Orleans Museum of Art - Stanley Olson, John Singer Sargent: His Portrait, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986, p. 1, ISBN 0-312-44456-7 - Wilson, James Grant; Fiske, John, eds. (1900). "Sargent, Paul Dudley". Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton. - Olson, p. 2. - Olson, p. 4. - Trevor Fairbrother, John Singer Sargent, New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1994, p. 11, ISBN 0-8109-3833-2 - Olson, p. 9. - Olson, p. 10. - Olson, p. 15. - Olson, p. 18. - Carl Little, The Watercolors of John Singer Sargent, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998, p. 7, ISBN 0-520-21969-4 - Olson, p. 23 - Olson, p. 27. - Olson, p. 29. - Fairbrother, p. 13. - Little, p. 7. - Olson, p. 46. - Elizabeth Prettejohn: Interpreting Sargent, p. 9. Stewart, Tabori & Chang, 1998. - Olson, p. 55. - Fairbrother, p. 16. - Prettejohn, p. 14, 1998. - Prettejohn, p. 13, 1998. - Olson, p. 70. - Olson, p. 73. - Fairbrother, p. 33. - Olson, p. 80. - Ormond, Richard: "Sargent's Art", John Singer Sargent, pp. 25–7. Tate Gallery, 1998. - Ormond, p. 27, 1998. - Fairbrother, p. 40. - Richard Ormand and Elaine Kilmurray, Sargent: The Early Portraits, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998, p. 114, ISBN 0-300-07245-7 - Fairbrother, p. 45. - Olson, p. 102. - Ormand and Kilmurray, p. 113. - Fairbrother, p. 47. - Fairbrother, p. 55. - Cited in Ormond, pp. 27–8, 1998. - Ormond, p. 28, 1998. - Fairbrother, p. 43. - Olson, p. 107. - Fairbrother, p. 61. - Olson, plate XVIII - Ormand and Kilmurray, p. 151. - Fairbrother, p. 68. - Fairbrother, pp. 70–2. - Olson, p. 223. - Ormand and Kilmurray, p. xxiii. - Fairbrother, p. 76, price updated by CPI calculator to 2008 at data.bls.gov - Fairbrother, p. 79. - Ormond, pp. 28-35, 1998. - John Singer Sargent Virtual Gallery, "Robert Lewis Stevenson and his Wife" - Ormond, pp. 169-171, 1998. - Ormond, p. 148, 1998. - Exhibit at the Amon Carter Museum in Fort Worth, Texas - Fairbrother, p. 97. - Little, p. 12. - Fairbrother, p. 101. - Fairbrother, p. 118. - Olson, p. 227. - Fairbrother, p. 124. - Twentieth C. Paintings in Asholeum Museum by Katharine Eustace, 17-19, http://books.google.com/books?id=mXFAr_4aCMEC&pg=PA19#v=onepage&q&f=false - http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/art/310499 Accessed 2-24-2013 - http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/HVDpresidents/eliot.php Accessed 2-24-2013 - "In the history of portraiture there is no other instance of a major figure abandoning his profession and shutting up shop in such a peremptory way." Ormond, Page 38, 1998. - Kilmurray, Elaine: "Chronology of Travels", Sargent Abroad, page 242. Abbeville Press, 1997. - Fairbrother, p. 131. - Fairbrother, p. 133. - Currier Museum of Art, "Grace Elvina, Marchioness Curzon of Kedleston" retrieved 4/5/2007, Currier Museum - Little, p. 11. - Prettejohn, page 66-69, 1998. - Fairbrother, p. 148. - Ormond, p. 276, 1998. - Little, p. 110. - Little, p. 17. - John Singer Sargent Virtual Gallery, "Royal Society of Portrait Painters" - The Sargent Murals at the Boston Public Library - John Singer Sargent's "Triumph of Religion" at the Boston Public Library: Creation and Restoration, Ed. Narayan Khandekar, Gianfranco Pocobene, and Kate Smith, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Art Museum, and New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009. - Little, p. 135. - "Painters and Sculptors' Gallery Association to Begin Work", New York Times, December 19, 1922. - Roberts, Norma J., ed. (1988), The American Collections, Columbus Museum of Art, p. 34, ISBN 0-8109-1811-0. - "John Singer Sargent". Necropolis Notables. The Brookwood Cemetery Society. Retrieved 2007-02-23. - Taken from Sargent's Sketchbook, The New York Times, February 12, 1928; Sargent Sketches in New Exhibit Here, The New York Times, February 14, 1928. - JSS Gallery - Kilmurray, Elaine: "Traveling Companions", Sargent Abroad, pp. 57-8. Abbeville Press, 1997. - Kilmurray: "Chronology of Travels", p. 240, 1997. - Fairbrother, Trevor John Singer Sargent: The Sensualist (2001) ISBN 0-300-08744-6, p. 139, Note 4. - Little, p. 141. - Davis, pp. 11–22. - Ormond, p. 14, 1998. - This from Auguste Rodin, upon seeing The Misses Hunter in 1902. Ormond and Kilmurray, John Singer Sargent: The Early Portraits, p. 150. Yale University, 1998. - Rewald, John: Camille Pissarro: Letters to his Son Lucien, p. 183. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980. - Prettejohn, p. 73, 1998. - Sargent's friend Vernon Lee referred to the artist's "outspoken love of the exotic...the unavowed love of rare kinds of beauty, for incredible types of elegance." Charteris, Evan: John Sargent, p. 252. London and New York, 1927. - Fairbrother, p. 140. - Fairbrother, p. 141. - Seattle art museum - See Trevor Fairbrother," Warhol Meets Sargent at Whitney," Arts Magazine 6 (February 1987): 64-71. - Fairbrother, p. 145. - The Age, December 3, 2004. - Davis, Deborah. Sargent's Women, pages 11–23. Adelson Galleries, Inc., 2003. ISBN 0-9741621-0-8 - Fairbrother, Trevor: John Singer Sargent: The Sensualist (2001), ISBN 0-300-08744-6, Page 139, Note 4. - Joselit, Jenna Weissman. "Restoring the American 'Sistine Chapel' " The Forward, 13 August 2010. - Kilmurray, Elaine: Sargent Abroad. Abbeville Press, 1997. Pages 57–8, 242. - Lehmann-Barclay, Lucie. "Public Art, Private Prejudice." Christian Science Monitor, 7 January 2005, p. 11. - "New Painting At Boston Public Library Stirs Jews to Vigorous Protest." Boston Globe, 9 November 1919, p. 48. - Noël, Benoît et Jean Hournon: Portrait de Madame X in Parisiana — la Capitale des arts au XIXème siècle, Les Presses Franciliennes, Paris, 2006. pp 100–105. - Ormond, Richard: "Sargent's Art" in John Singer Sargent, page 25–7. Tate Gallery, 1998. - Prettejohn, Elizabeth: Interpreting Sargent, page 9. Stewart, Tabori & Chang, 1998. - Promey, Sally M. "John Singer Sargent's Triumph of Religion at the Boston Public Library." http://www.bpl.org/central/sargenttriumph.htm - Rewald, John: Camille Pissarro: Letters to his Son Lucien, page 183. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: John Singer Sargent| |Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: John Singer Sargent| |Wikisource has original works written by or about: - Biography, Style and Artworks - John Singer Sargent — Gallery of 809 paintings. - "Mrs. Edward Goetz" at [Brigham Young Museum of Art] - John Singer Sargent Virtual Gallery - Sargent at Harvard — searchable database by Harvard University Art Museums - The Sargent Murals at Boston Public Library - John Singer Sargent — News, biography and works - John Singer Sargent Letters Online at the Smithsonian Archives of American Art - "Sargent and the Sea at the Royal Academy", review by Richard Dorment, The Guardian, 12 July 2010 - John Singer Sargent at harpers.org - John Singer Sargent at Smithsonian American Art Museum - John Singer Sargent exhibition catalogs - A video discussion about Sargent's Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose from Smarthistory at Khan Academy.

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Every horse owner has the right to know the safety and efficacy of medications a veterinarian prescribes for their horse. But even the most experienced horse owners may not be aware of the health risks involved with using compounded drugs. Compounded drugs are unregulated drugs produced by altering or combining other drugs to serve a patient’s particular need. Recently, compounded drugs have been linked to tragic incidents in the horse industry, including the sudden death of 21 polo ponies in April and the deaths of several horses in Louisiana in 2006. Because compounded drugs are not regulated, other incidents remain unreported. The American Association of Equine Practitioners acknowledges that reputable pharmacies produce legitimate compounded drugs to improve the health of horses when an FDA-approved option doesn’t exist. However, when inappropriately compounded and used, these drugs may pose a serious threat to the health of your horse. Knowing the facts about legitimate and illegitimate compounded drugs will help you and your veterinarian decide on the best treatment option for your horse. What is a compounded medication? Compounding is a process to produce a medication by combining or altering ingredients for the special needs of an equine patient. Only a licensed veterinarian may write a prescription for the compounded medication. Because there is a scarcity of approved medications for use in horses, there is a legitimate need for compounding in equine veterinary medicine. Some examples of legitimate compounding would include crushing a tablet and creating a paste or gel to aid in the administration to the patient or mixing two anesthetics in the same syringe for use in your horse. Weigh the risks of unregulated medication. Compounded drugs are not approved by the Food and Drug Administration and can vary in potency, stability, purity and effectiveness. And because these products are unregulated by the government, compounded drugs have the potential to pose serious safety risks to horses. Compounded drugs are not generic drugs. Because compounded drugs are generally cheaper than FDA-approved medications, horse owners often confuse compounded drugs with generic drugs. Generic drugs are biologically equivalent to a brand-name drug. Unlike compounded drugs, generic drugs go through an FDA approval process and are manufactured in an FDA-approved facility.

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Pub. date: 2002 | Online Pub. Date: September 15, 2007 | DOI: 10.4135/9781412950664 | Print ISBN: 9780761922582 | Online ISBN: 9781412950664| Publisher:SAGE Publications, Inc.About this encyclopedia Evolutionary Perspectives on Crime Although evolutionary theory was developed by biologists, social scientists since the last quarter of the twentieth century have been applying its principles to the study of human culture (anthropology) and the human mind (psychology). This fusion has been called sociobiology (Wilson 1975). Recently, criminologists interested in biosocial theory have begun to apply an evolutionary understanding to the study of the causes of crime. This development promises to expand the reach of criminological theory. Modern evolutionary theory began with the early nineteenth-century effort by theologians to enlist the assistance of naturalists and philosophers in proving the existence of God. In an argument originating with Thomas Aquinas, the perfection of the design of the natural world was said to demonstrate the existence of a divine creator. In 1859, in The Origin of Species , Charles Darwin provided a convincing argument that the design of living organisms can be explained by the process ...

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Discover a world of dinosaurs at Scienceworks as you explore the science of palaeontology. Scienceworks invites visitors of all ages to explore ‘how we know what we know’ about those most famous of prehistoric creatures – dinosaurs! A new exhibition, Explore-a-saurus, has been developed by Scienceworks to demonstrate the ways in which palaeontologists use fossil evidence to learn about how dinosaurs lived; from what they ate and how fast they ran, to what colour they may have been and even how they cared for their young. Discover the forensic method scientists use to learn about prehistoric life in a setting inhabited by Scienceworks’ own animatronic dinosaurs! This interactive exhibition will explore the concepts of palaeontology in a fun and hands-on way by testing your strength against the strength of a T-Rex jaw and looking through the eyes of a carnivore or herbivore dinosaur. Try your hand at being a palaeontologist by uncovering fossils and bones, comparing the types of plants that dinosaurs ate, examining insects under microscopes, recreating the sounds of various dinosaurs and seeing how they digested their food. Uncover how dinosaurs lived, and see some of them come to life including herbivores Stegosaurus, Triceratops and Apatosaurus, as well as the carnivorous Tyrannosaurus rex, King of the Cretaceous Period! Download the Explore-a-saurus video video Watch this video with a transcript Subscribe to e-news to receive the latest news on events, programs and exclusive competitions associated with Explore-a-saurus. Adults $18, Concession $6 and Children (3 - 16 years) $5. Prices include general entry to Scienceworks. MV Members receive discounted entry. Buy tickets online Phone 13 11 02 Gift vouchers available. To avoid disappointment, pre-purchasing of tickets is strongly recommended, especially during peak periods such as public holidays and school holidays. We love receiving comments, but can’t always respond. Hi Po-Suan; no, this exhibition is un related to the Dinosaur Walk exhibition - Dinosaur Walk is a permanent exhibition at Melbourne Museum with displays of numerous skleltons of dinosaurs and other large extinct vertebrate animals, wheras Explore-a-saurus is a temporary exhibition at Scienceworks with animatronic dinosaurs and interactive displays. The display at Docklands has no connection to Museum Victoria and is unrelated to Explore-a-saurus and Dinosaur Walk. Tim and Tracee - you can indeed book tickets for this exhibition online, have a look at the link above. The exhibition runs until April 2012 Explore-a-saurus is suitable for all age groups. Hope this helps! Hi Jenny, the dinosaurs don't move very much - just their necks and mouths. However, they do roar quite loudly at times... We hope this helps in planning your visit. Karyn - Thanks for your feedback. Just to clarify that the $18 adult entry into Explore-a-saurus includes general entry to Scienceworks. An adult would normally pay $8 for general admission and children and concession are free. I hope this clarifies the pricing for you and makes it more affordable as this will make it a full day’s outing. Jack - an interesting question, considering many palaeontologists regard birds as a type of dinosaur now. Given this, you could say that dinosaurs haven't really died out at all! However, the 'non-avian' dinosaurs (i.e. the 'dinosaurs that were not birds') became extinct 65.5 million years ago during a mass extinction event. This event marks the boundary of two major time periods in the geological time scale, this extinction is called the K-Pr boundary (meaning Cretaceous-Paleogene, formerly the K-T or Cretaceous-Teriary, boundary). Tyrannosaurus was one of the last of these dinosaurs, and was still around when the extinction event occurred 65.5 million years ago. As far as non-avian dinosaurs go, T.rex was one of the most recent. Explore-a-saurus is suitable for all ages and, similar to other exhibitions on offer at Scienceworks, is very child-friendly and engaging. Whilst there is a lot of physical movement and loud noises, we have had many anecdotal comments (see John’s comment above) about young children thoroughly enjoying Explore-a-saurus. Of course, every child is unique, which will influence how they respond to certain experiences. But if your 3 year old is a big fan of dinosaurs they should not find the exhibition scary. Hi Stamatina,On the Lower Ground Floor at Scienceworks we have a baby change room with two stations for changing nappies and a screened area with an armchair for baby feeding. The room also has a microwave for heating baby food and drink and a family toilet. It is shown on the map of the site Explore-a-saurus is off to Perth June to October 2012. At this stage it will not be returning to Scienceworks Hi Son is a dino fan, There are no plans to exhibit Explore-a-saurus in Adelaide. At this stage its tour itinerary consists only of Perth and then Brisbane (TBC). After that, the exhibition’s future is unresolved. I went here today with my 4 year old and 2&1/2 year old boys - they had an absolutely wonderful time, the only problem was getting them to leave! Well done ... To read the latest tweets from @scienceworks_mv Follow Scienceworks on Tim, check out www.airah.com.au. Also on the foot bridge from Chinatown to darling harbour is first refrigeration site in Australia; there is a plaque on the s...

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People who are stressed out are more likely to lapse back into easy habits rather than to work toward their goals, and now researchers say they may know why. Healthy study participants who took stress hormone pills were more likely to keep performing the same task, which earned them chocolate as a reward, even after they'd had their fill, whereas people given a placebo changed their course and worked harder to earn a different treat. Brain images of the "stressed out" participants suggested that the interaction of two stress hormones — cortisol and adrenaline — lowered the activity of brain regions involved in goal-directed behavior. The hormones didn't affect brain regions involved in habitual behaviors. "This impairment of the goal-directed system produces habit behavior," and is likely to hamper people's abilities to make changes in their behavior, the researchers wrote in their study published July 25 in the Journal of Neuroscience. Stress, chocolate milk and orange juice The study involved 69 healthy, normal-weight university students. Researchers screened the students to make sure they liked orange juice and chocolate milk, which were used as rewards in the study. Participants were divided into four groups: one group took hydrocortisone pills, which raise cortisol levels; another group took a drug called yohimbine, which raises the body's adrenaline levels; a third group took both drugs; and a fourth was given a placebo. To test the hormones' effects, participants were given a computer task that involved selecting certain symbols, and were rewarded for completing it by being allowed to eat as much of one treat — either oranges or chocolate pudding — as they wanted. This at-will consumption "weakens the value of the reward," said study researcher Lars Schwabe, a cognitive psychology researcher at Ruhr-University Bochum in Germany. For example, people who eat as much chocolate pudding as they want lose their attraction to cocoa, he said. The same happens to those who eat a lot of oranges — they lose their appetite for orange juice. Participants were then given a new computer task, in which they could keep up their old habit — selecting the same symbols as in the first task, and earn a very similar treat (chocolate milk or orange juice) — or they could select different symbols, which was a harder task, and earn a new treat. Results showed that participants who received the placebo were satisfied with one treat, and worked toward earning the other. Additionally, those treated with one hormone but not the other showed this goal-directed behavior. But for those treated with both stress hormones, satiation had no effect. Participants who had eaten chocolate pudding, for example, opted for the easier task of continuing to select the same symbols, and earning themselves chocolate milk. MRIs of these participants' brains showed reduced activity in two regions, called the orbitofrontal cortex and the medial prefrontal cortex, linked with goal-directed behaviors. In contrast, brain regions important in habitual learning were similarly active in all participants. Stress and addiction The results may explain not only why many people return to unhealthy habits when they are stressed, but also one reason why people with addictions tend to relapse. "It is well known that stress is a major risk factor for addiction, particularly for relapse to addictive behavior," the researchers wrote. The finding that two hormones are involved in reducing brain activity needed for goal-directed behavior has implications for how people with addiction disorders may be treated, they said. Pass it on: Stress makes it easier to fall back into old habits because it reduces the brain's ability to work toward goals.Copyright 2012 MyHealthNewsDaily, a TechMediaNetwork company. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.

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The home folder in OS X is the default location where your account's settings and data are stored. By default your home folder is located in the Users directory at the root of the main boot drive, will be named the same as your account's short username, and will have a house icon when you are logged into your account. Having the home directory located on the main boot volume is a convenient option for quick and easy setup; however, there may be instances where you would like to have it on a separate partition, or better yet on a secondary hard drive altogether. - Managing large files If you regularly generate large files that would quickly fill up your hard drive, you might benefit from storing these files on a large secondary drive. While you can keep them in a separate folder, programs using them might cache them, create other temporary files, or organize support files in other locations within your user account and take up space on your hard drive. In this scenario having your user account on its own separate drive might be beneficial. The advent of solid-state drive (SSD) devices has really opened up the data throughput bottlenecks that hard drives have imposed on computers; however, you can still increase your system's speed a bit by storing data separately from the drive containing the system software. When applications run, the system will be using the hard drive to store RAM contents as part of virtual memory, which will be using some of the drive's throughput. This use will decrease the performance of the drive when loading data or other items, so spreading this to other drives should make up for any performance hit. Storing user accounts on a separate hard drive makes them more portable, so you can preserve your data separately from the operating system installation. With this setup, you can easily format or even partition the boot drive while maintaining your user account, so you can quickly get your account settings back after a quick format if necessary. This by itself is perhaps not necessary given advanced backup tools like Time Machine, but might make sense when coupled with other reasons for managing the account on separate drives. If you have decided you would like to migrate your home folder to a secondary hard drive, the process is actually quite simple. Your home folder is just a collection of files and folders owned by your user account, which you have complete control over, so to migrate it just follow these steps. - Make sure you have a secondary admin account. When adjusting user settings there is always the potential for something to go wrong, so to ensure that you will at least be able to log in, you should create a new admin account, which will allow you to easily revert changes if needed. You can do this in the Users & Groups (or Accounts) system preferences. - Copy the home folder to the location of choice. You can place the home folder anywhere on the secondary drive, though I recommend creating a "Users" folder in which to place it. Once you have established where you would like it to go, open the Users directory on your boot drive and copy your home directory to its destination (it may take a long time to copy, depending on the number and size of files in the home folder). - Open your user account settings. Go to the Users & Groups (or Accounts) system preferences, and select your username. You may have to authenticate first by clicking the lock at the bottom of the window. - Go to the advanced settings. Right-click your username and choose "Advanced Options," which should bring up a window containing a number of details such as the user ID, group, account name, and log-in shell. The window will also contain a warning stating that changes to these settings might damage your account. - Change your home folder directory. In this advanced options window, click the Choose button next to the Home Directory field, and then browse to the new location where you copied your home folder. Select the home folder and click Open, and the path to the new folder should now be in the "Home Directory" field. After you have made these changes, click "OK" and then log out of your account. Then log back in and your account should load from its location on the secondary hard drive. If all goes well then you should see no difference in behavior. However, if something does go awry then you can log in to the secondary administrator account and edit your account in the same way to revert the home directory back to its original default location. After logging in to your account successfully, you can then go back to the Users directory on your boot drive and remove the old home folder in there if you would like. While moving your home folder is easy to do and has its benefits, do keep in mind that there are a few potential drawbacks. For one, secondary drives and volumes are not as protected as your main drive. They can easily be formatted and also set so permissions are ignored, which will allow your home folder to be easily browsed by other accounts on the system and thereby potentially compromise the security of your data on a multiuser setup; however, the impact of this would depend on who you allow access to your computer. While moving your home folder to a new drive might seem like the only way to quickly access a larger secondary drive through your home directory, there are some alternative setups that will perform the same functions. One easy option is to just mirror the home folder directories (Music, Movies, Documents, and so on) to a directory on the secondary drive, and then create aliases to these folders within the respective folders in your account. This setup will still use the account's library contents (application preferences and settings) from the main boot drive, while allowing you to easily access the external drive through the aliases so you can store your data and documents. The one drawback to this setup is that some programs will need to be configured to access the external drive instead of the original home folder. For instance, Safari's default downloads folder will need to be changed to point to the secondary drive, and you will need to set the location of your iTunes or iPhoto libraries to point to their locations on the external drive as well, but once these changes are done then everything should work properly. Do you have a custom or unique home folder setup that has its benefits? If so, let us know about it below in the comments.

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International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ||The English used in this article may not be easy for everybody to understand. (October 2011)| International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is a treaty of the United Nations to ensure the civil rights affirmed by Universal Declaration of Human Rights and one of the most important treatis on international human rights law. This Covenant has adopted in 1966 together with the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and ented into force in 1976. The United Nations set up the Committee on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR) to carry out the treaty. Main contents [change] - Article 1. Right to self-determination. - Article 6. Right to life and on Genocide Convention. - Article 7. Free form torture and any inhuman treatments. - Article 8. Free from slavery and unfree labour. - Article 9. Right to personal security and protection from arbitrary arrest and detention. Right to demand remedy if proved innocent. - Article 10. The right to be treated with humanity and repected dignity while in detention. - Article 12. Freedom of movement, freedom to leave and to enter one's own country. - Article 14. The right to a fair trial and to be regarded as innocent until found guilty. - Article 16. Right to be recognized as a person before law. - Article 17 Right to privacy and protection from attack of honour. - Article 18. Freedom of thought, conscience and freedom of religion. - Article 19. Freedom of expression and freedom of speech but with special duty and responsibility not to harm others. - Article 20. prohibition of propaganda of war and any inciting of hatred and discrimination. - Article 21. Freedom of assembly. - Article 22. Right to association and trade union. - Article 25. Right to free and fair voting. - Article 26. Equality before law and protection from all discriminations by law. - Article 27. Right to minority groups and ethnic group and to use their own language. Optional Protocols [change] This Covenant has two Optional Protocols. One of them is to make a person of a country who has suffered from the violation of this Covenant enable to claim before the CCPR. The other is to prohibit the death penalty. But there are countries that do not agree with one of or both of the Optional Protocols.

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Restrictions of freedom Under section 7 of the Constitution, it is stated that there shall be no interference in personal integrity or deprivation liberty without legitimate grounds prescribed by an Act of Parliament. The lawfulness of any other form of deprivation of liberty may be submitted to judicial review. The Mental Health Act (No. 1116) of 1990 lays down guidelines for mental health work and the organisation of mental health services. It is also an Act of Parliament, which provides a framework for legitimising the deprivation of liberty in that it deals with involuntary treatment in a psychiatric hospital. The conditions for involuntary internment For a person to be committed for treatment against his/her will the following three criteria must be met: - The person has been diagnosed as mentally ill; - S/he must be in need of treatment for mental illness which, if not treated, would become considerably worse or would severely endanger his/her health or safety or that of other people; and - All other mental health services are inapplicable or inadequate. If the police are of the opinion that there is a person who might meet the criteria for involuntary treatment, they must report this to a health centre. In urgent cases, they can take the person to the health centre to be examined. Similarly, if the chief health centre doctor considers that the criteria have been met, s/he should issue a referral for observation and if necessary arrange for the person to be taken to hospital. The procedure for involuntary internment In order to determine whether the three criteria have been met, the person must be admitted to hospital for observation. First, however, the person must be examined by a doctor. If the doctor considers that treatment is necessary, s/he draws up a written statement (known as a referral for observation) which must contain a well-founded opinion of whether the conditions for commitment are likely to be met. On the basis of this statement, which must not be older than 3 days, the person is admitted to hospital for observation. The doctor carrying out the observation must produce a written statement no later than four days following admission. According to paragraph 11, before the person can be involuntarily admitted to hospital for treatment, his/her opinion must be sought. It is stated that the parents or guardians of minors should be heard during the decision making process. However, there is no reference made to guardians of adults who lack mental capacity and are hence unable to give their opinion on the matter. The chief doctor in charge of psychiatric care is responsible for deciding on internment. This cannot be the same person who made the referral for observation. His/her decision must be in writing and based on the referral for observation, the statement on observation and the case history. The decision must state whether the conditions have been met and the person must be informed of the decision. According to section 27 of the Mental Health Act, the Administrative Court or the Supreme Administrative Court can appoint a legal counsel to a person who has been ordered to treatment against his or her will if the person asks for it or the court otherwise considers it necessary. This is covered by the Legal Aid Act (257/2002). The Administrative Court or the Supreme Administrative Court can appoint a legal counsel even if the person has not requested one. In such cases, the appointment of the counsel and appropriate fees and reimbursements to be paid to the counsel are subject to the provisions of the Legal Aid Act irrespective of whether the person ordered to treatment has been or will be granted legal aid referred to in the Legal Aid Act. The duration of involuntary internment The person may be detained for up to 3 months. This period can be extended unless the person objects, in which case a new observation would have to be made. The decision to prolong the period of involuntary treatment and detention must be made by the chief doctor who made the original decision. The person must be informed without delay and the approval of the provincial administrative court must be obtained. Treatment can be prolonged for a period of six months after which a new observation must be made. If during any period of detention of involuntary treatment it is found that the conditions which led to internment are no longer valid, the person must be immediately discharged if s/he so desires. The right to appeal According to §24 an appeal may be lodged with the provincial administrative court against the hospital doctor's decision to order a person to treatment, to continue treatment against a person's will, to take possession of a patient’s personal property or to limit his/her contact. The appeal must be lodged within 14 days of notification of the decision. Otherwise all appeals are subject to the provisions of the Administrative Judicial Procedure Act (586/1996). Appeals can also be lodged against a decision of the National Institute for Health and Welfare to order a person to treatment or to continue treatment against the person’s will or to order a person to hospital examination in a case referred to in section 21 (criminal cases), and against a decision concerning special care given against a person’s will. Alternatively, an appeal can be made to the chief doctor in charge of psychiatric treatment in the hospital or to another person appointed for this purpose within the appeal period. The chief doctor sends the petition, documents relating to the appeal and his/her statement about the appeal to the relevant authority without delay. However, once the decision has been made to involuntarily intern a person for treatment or to treat him/her against his/her will, it is immediately enforced irrespective of whether the decision has been submitted to another authority for confirmation or whether an appeal has been made. On the other hand, once an appeal has been received the relevant authority may forbid enforcement of the decision. According to section 11 of the Act on the Status and Rights of Patients, No. 785 of 1992, there must be a patient ombudsman in every health care unit. His/her tasks include: - advising patients on issues contained in above mentioned Act (No. 785 of 1992). - helping patients to formulate complaints. - informing patients of their rights. - acting in favour of the promotion and implementation of patients' rights. Restriction of personal liberty Section 6 of the Constitution states that everyone has the right to life and personal liberty, physical integrity and security of person and that no-one should be tortured or otherwise treated in a degrading manner. Furthermore, it is stated that there shall be no interference in personal integrity or deprivation of libertywithout legitimate groundsprescribed by an Act of Parliament. Restraint and other coercive measures The Mental Health Act contains several paragraphs which address the issues of coercive measures, abuse and unlawful deprivation of freedom. However, this only applies to involuntary treatment in psychiatric hospitals or wards. People with dementia are usually treated elsewhere e.g. in nursing homes where coercive measures are sometimes used. There is still no adequate legislation in Finland covering the use of coercive measures in ordinary hospitals or nursing homes. For this reason, the National Supervisory Authority for Welfare and Health (Valvira) has produced guidelines:"Use of restraints for patients". According to the Valvira, the use of restraint for patients is only permitted to prevent serious harm to a patient’s health or safety. It further states that: - a doctor must make a written/documented statement of his/her decision concerning the use of restraint for a patient. - the need for restraint has to be evaluated regularly. - the proper equipment must be used in accordance with guidelines on the use of restraint. (In 2010, the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health established a working group whose aim was to assemble the provisions relating to the deprivation of liberty and self-determination of all patients/clients of social and welfare, within the same act if possible. The reform of the legislation specifically addresses the deprivation of liberty in the care of people with mental disabilities and dementia. Its goal is also to strengthen the multidisciplinary co-operation and the availability and development of services in such a way as to lessen the need to limit liberty and self-determination. The term of office of the working group ends on 31.12.2011. Concerning the way patients are treated in the healthcare setting, the Act on the Status and Rights of Patients, No. 785/92 of 17 August 1992 provides details on how patients should be treated. Section 3 states that the care of the patient should be arranged in such a way that: - his/her human dignity is not violated - that his/her beliefs and privacy are respected - that his/her mother tongue, individual needs and culture are taken into account as far as possible in his/her medical care and other treatment. Sections 5 to 8 of the Penal Code of Finland (39/1889 with subsequent amendments) cover assault: Section 5 - Assault (578/1995) (1) A person who employs physical violence on another or, without such violence, damages the health of another, causes pain to another or renders another unconscious or in a comparable condition, shall be sentenced for assaultto a fine or to imprisonment for up to two years. (2) An attempt is punishable. Section 6 - Aggravated assault (654/2001) (1) If in the assault (1) grievous bodily injury or serious illness is caused to another or another is placed in mortal danger, (2) the offence is committed in a particularly brutal or cruel manner, or (3) a firearm, edged weapon or other comparable lethal instrument is used and the offence is aggravated also when assessed as a whole, the offender shall be sentenced for aggravated assaultto imprisonment for at least one year and at most ten years. (2) An attempt is punishable. Section 7 - Petty assault (578/1995) If the assault, when assessed as a whole and with due consideration to the minor significance of the violence, the violation of physical integrity, the damage to health or other relevant circumstances, is of minor character, the offender shall be sentenced for petty assaultto a fine. Negligence, endangering others and abandonment The following extracts from the Penal Code of Finland (39/1889 with subsequent amendments) cover bodily injury resulting from negligence, including that which endangers the life or health of another person and abandonment: Section 10 -Negligent bodily injury(578/1995) A person who, through negligence, inflicts significant bodily injury or illness on another shall be sentenced for negligent bodily injuryto a fine or up to six months’ imprisonment. Section 11 -Grossly negligent bodily injury(578/1995) If in the negligent bodily injury the bodily injury or illness is inflicted through gross negligence, and the offence is aggravated also when assessed as a whole, the offender shall be sentenced for grossly negligent bodily injuryto a fine or to imprisonment for up to two years. Section 13 -Imperilment(578/1995) A person who intentionally or through gross negligence places another in serious danger of losing his/her life or health, shall be sentenced, unless the same or a more severe penalty for the act is provided elsewhere in the law, for imperilmentto a fine or to imprisonment for at most two years. Section 14 -Abandonment(578/1995) A person who renders another helpless or abandons a helpless person of whom s/he should take care, and thereby endangers the life of the said person, shall be sentenced for abandonment to a fine or up to 2 years’ imprisonment. Since 2004, doctors have been legally obliged to report to the police any patient with a medical condition which makes him or her unfit to drive. Whilst many doctors object to this obligation, hundreds of reports have been made, resulting in numerous withdrawals of licence, some of which were for people with dementia (Sulkava, 2008). However, it is important to note that a diagnosis of dementia does not automatically lead to the withdrawal of a person’s driving licence. According to Sulkava (2008), a person with dementia can keep his/her driving licence if the following criteria are met: - His/her dementia must be mild (this usually means an MMSE score of more than 20. - There must be information from the relatives and friends that s/he is driving safely and has no traffic offences due to dementia. - S/he must undergo a clinical examination by a doctor (usually a neurologist or geriatrician). This examination includes a clock drawing test (to reveal possible agnosia). In case of doubt, an “on the road” driving test or laboratory traffic test is carried out. People with mild dementia may be permitted to drive for just one year or even a shorter period of time but must report any deterioration in symptoms and are advised not to drive alone, either at night or in bad conditions. Professional driving licenses, on the other hand, are always withdrawn when cognitive disorders are detected. Furthermore, certain impairments and difficulties always result in the withdrawal of the driving licence even if the person only has mild dementia e.g. in the case of obvious impairments in executive functions (as in the case of fronto-temporal dementia), lack of insight and/or a marked slowing of movement and thinking. Sulkava, Raimo, (2008), Practice of competence assessment in dementia: Finland. In Stoppe Gabriela (Edit.),Competence Assessment in Dementia. EDCON 2008. p.109-111.) Valvira is the National Supervisory Authority for Welfare and Health and a centralised body operating under the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. Its statutory purpose is to supervise and provide guidance to healthcare and social services providers, alcohol administration authorities and environmental health bodies and to manage related licensing activities. The most important task is to protect the right of all Finnish residents to a living environment that promotes their health and welfare and to assure their access to social and healthcare services that are both safe and adequate. Last Updated: mercredi 14 mars 2012

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Cross Cradle Hold (Tummy-to-Tummy) - Sit comfortably. A pillow or footstool may help. - Cradle your baby with your arm, his/her tummy against yours, and your hand at the base of the head and neck. Keep your baby’s ear, shoulders and hip in a straight line. - Tuck your baby’s lower arm out of the way, with his/her mouth close to your breast. (You will use opposite hands from the cradle hold). - Support your breast with your free hand; place all of your fingers underneath it, well away from the areola. - est your thumb lightly on top of your breast above your areola. - Lift your breast upward and lightly stroke your nipple on your baby’s lower lip. As part of the rooting reflex, his/her mouth will open wide. This may take a few minutes to happen. - Pull your baby quickly onto your breast to latch-on when his/her mouth is opened wide, like a big yawn, and the tongue is down. Do not lean over your baby. Instead pull your baby up to your breast. - Nursing a newborn infant. - Learning how to position an infant correctly.

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Research and Tracking Accurately tracking birth defects is the first step in preventing them and reducing their effect. Birth defects tracking systems are vital to help us find out where and when birth defects occur and who they affect. This gives us important clues about preventing birth defects and allows us to evaluate our efforts. We base our research on what we learn from tracking. By analyzing the data collected, we can identify factors that increase or decrease the risk of birth defects and identify community or environmental concerns that need more study. In addition, research helps the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) answer critical questions about the causes of many of these birth defects. What We’ve Learned We know what causes some birth defects, such as Down syndrome and fetal alcohol syndrome. However, for about two-thirds of birth defects, the causes are unknown.1 Also, we don’t understand well how certain factors might work together to cause birth defects. While there is still more work to do, we have learned a lot about birth defects through past research. For example: - Taking supplements containing folic acid, a B vitamin, at least 1 month before getting pregnant and during pregnancy lowers the risk of having a baby with serious birth defects of the brain and spine (neural tube defects). For this reason, all women who can become pregnant should take supplements containing 400 micrograms of folic acid every day. - Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can cause the baby to be born with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs). Pregnant women should not drink alcohol any time during pregnancy. Women also should not drink alcohol if they are planning to become pregnant or are sexually active and do not use effective birth control. - Smoking in the month before getting pregnant and throughout pregnancy increases the chance of premature birth, certain birth defects (such as cleft lip, cleft palate, or both), and infant death. Quitting smoking before getting pregnant is best. However, for women who are already pregnant, quitting as early as possible can still help protect against some health problems. - Women who are obese when they get pregnant have a higher risk of having a baby with serious birth defects of the brain and spine (neural tube defects) and some heart defects. Helping women to reach a healthy weight before they get pregnant could prevent birth defects. - Poor control of diabetes in pregnant women increases the chance for birth defects, and might cause serious complications for the mother, too. If a woman with diabetes keeps her blood sugar well-controlled before and during pregnancy, she can reduce the chance of having a baby with birth defects. - Taking certain medications during pregnancy can cause serious birth defects, but the safety of many medications taken by pregnant women has been difficult to determine. If you are pregnant or planning a pregnancy, you should not stop taking medications you need or begin taking new medications without first talking with your doctor. This includes prescription and over-the-counter medications and dietary or herbal products. Birth Defects Tracking and Research The Metropolitan Atlanta Congenital Defects Program (MACDP) MACDP is a population-based tracking system for birth defects among children born to residents of metropolitan Atlanta. Population-based means that the researchers look at all babies with birth defects who live in a defined study area, which is important to get a complete picture of what is happening within this known population. Established in 1967, MACDP was the nation's first population-based system for active collection of information about birth defects. Active data collection means that committed staff members seek out information about birth defects and continually review medical records at multiple health care facilities in a given geographic area. Information obtained from MACDP is used to understand the characteristics of affected children, learn about other health outcomes associated with birth defects, and provide data for education and health policy decisions leading to prevention of birth defects. The system also serves as a model to help other programs develop and implement new tracking methods. Learn more about the Metropolitan Atlanta Congenital Defects Program (MACDP) » State-Based Tracking Systems CDC funds population-based birth defects tracking systems in 14 US states and territories. The tracking systems use the data to help prevent birth defects and to refer infants and children with birth defects to needed services. Identifying birth defects at a state level also strengthens public health officials' ability to estimate prevalence and evaluate risk factors that are the most important in their community. State-based birth defects tracking programs provide important insights into our continued efforts to prevent birth defects and support families affected by them. National Birth Defects Prevention Network (NBDPN) CDC supports and collaborates with the NBDPN. The NBDPN is a group of over 225 individuals working at the national, state, and local levels, who are involved in tracking, researching, and preventing birth defects. The NBDPN serves as a forum for exchanging ideas about preventing birth defects for tracking and researching birth defects, and providing technical support for state and local programs. Established in 1997, the NBDPN assesses the effect of birth defects on children, families, and the health care system. It also identifies risk factors for birth defects. This information can be used to develop strategies to prevent birth defects and to assist families and their providers in preventing other disabilities in children with birth defects. International Clearinghouse for Birth Defects Surveillance and Research (ICBDSR) The ICBDSR brings together birth defects programs from around the world with the aim of conducting worldwide tracking and research to prevent birth defects and to improve the lives of people born with these conditions. CDC supports and collaborates with the ICBDSR as a way to gain knowledge and expertise on birth defects worldwide and to further our domestic goals and those of the international community. Environmental Public Health Tracking (EPHT) Environmental public health tracking is the ongoing collection, integration, analysis, interpretation, and dissemination of data on environmental hazards, exposures to those hazards, and health effects that may be related to the exposures. CDC has worked with representatives from 23 state and local health departments that have received EPHT grants to develop a monitoring system for 12 birth defects. These defects were selected because they are serious birth defects that are relatively easily identified at or around the time of birth, have some potential for environmental risk factors, and could be adequately ascertained by the different types of birth defects tracking systems. The EPHT Network tracks the prevalence of these defects and publishes annual data tables and maps in the national portal. Currently, the national portal has birth defects data for Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Maine, Massachusetts, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Utah, and Wisconsin. National Birth Defects Prevention Study (NBDPS) Established in 1997, NBDPS is the largest population-based U.S. study looking at risk factors and potential causes of over 30 major birth defects. CDC funds the study and collects data with researchers from other study sites, collectively called the Centers for Birth Defects Research and Prevention (CBDRP). Participating sites have included Arkansas, California, Georgia (CDC), Iowa, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Texas, and Utah. Understanding the potential causes of birth defects can help us learn how to prevent them. The NBDPS has made key contributions in understanding the risk of specific medications when used just before and during pregnancy. Data from the NBDPS has also clearly demonstrated that maternal obesity is a strong risk factor for a number of major birth defects and has confirmed the association between maternal smoking and orofacial clefts. The NBDPS is one key step toward bringing us to a day when fewer babies are born with birth defects. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) NHANES is a nationally-representative survey designed to look at the health and nutritional status of adults and children in the United States. The survey is unique in that it combines interviews and physical examinations, including the collection of blood samples. CDC uses information from these studies to look at the amount of folic acid taken in from food and dietary supplements. Green vegetables, fruits, and juices have natural folate, and other foods, such as cereal and bread, have folic acid added to them. CDC is looking at NHANES data to see how people get folic acid and to see if they are getting the recommended amount. This information will help determine if adding different levels of folic acid to these foods or different types of foods would affect peoples’ intake. CDC is also using these data to look at folic acid intake and blood folate concentrations among women who are pregnant, or who may become pregnant, as well as specifically among women who are obese or who have diabetes. CDC also uses NHANES data to look at patterns of prescription medication use among pregnant women. This information will help determine the most commonly used medications during pregnancy, which CDC will use to identify medications that need future research to characterize their safety or risk during pregnancy. - Nelson K, Holmes LB. 1989. Malformations due to presumed spontaneous mutations in newborn infants. New England Journal of Medicine 320:19-23. - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities Division of Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities 1600 Clifton Road Atlanta, GA 30333 TTY: (888) 232-6348 New Hours of Operation

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Next: The Contemporary Campus Up: Cornell College Catalogue 2004-2005 Previous: Enrollment Reservation The idea for an institution of higher education in the frontier country of eastern Iowa and the dynamic spirit that turned this dream into a reality belonged to the Reverend George Bryant Bowman (1812-1888), a native of North Carolina. Bowman began his ministry in Missouri and came to Iowa City in 1841 as pastor of the Methodist church. Six years later he was the Presiding Elder of the Dubuque District and in 1850 was appointed pastor of the Linn Grove Circuit. These last two assignments required him to travel through much of the territory along the old Military Road (now Highway 1) between Dubuque and the state capital in Iowa City. In his travel he visited the settlement of Mount Vernon, whose first resident had arrived in 1837, nine years before Iowa's entrance into the Union as the 29th state. Mount Vernon, platted in 1847, was considered by the early 1850s to be ``one of the most beautiful, healthy, and prosperous villages in the State,'' according to the 1857-58 college catalogue. Mount Vernon was Bowman's choice for the location of the new school and on the Fourth of July in 1852 ground was broken on a hilltop site of 15 acres on the edge of this pioneering community for the Seminary Building, ``a fine brick edifice, seventy-two feet long, by forty wide, and three stories high.'' The Iowa Conference Seminary, as the new institution was called, opened in September 1853, even though the building was still unfinished. The first term was taught in the Methodist Episcopal Church until the morning of November 14, 1853, when the faculty and students, having assembled in the church, walked in procession through the village and took formal possession of the Seminary Building on the new campus. There were 161 students enrolled in one or more of the College's three terms, of whom 57 were women, and six faculty, four of whom were women. Samuel M. Fellows led the small school with his large title of ``Principal, and Professor of Mental and Moral Science and Belle Lettres.'' Bowman was President of the Board of Trustees for every year but one between 1853 and 1865. In July 1855, the Board of Trustees resolved to organize the Seminary into a college and named it Cornell College. Elder Bowman had called upon a well-known Methodist philanthropist in New York City, received a small contribution from him, and decided that he was a gentleman worthy of having this nascent college named after him. William Wesley Cornell (1823-1870) was a prominent New Yorker and a partner with his brother, John Black Cornell (1821-1887), in the firm of J. B. and W. W. Cornell, one of the largest iron works in the country erecting fireproof buildings. Their distant cousin, Ezra Cornell, endowed Cornell University, which opened in 1868 in Ithaca, New York. The Iowa Conference Seminary opened as Cornell College on August 27, 1857. It had 294 students, a faculty of seven, and one building. The Seminary Building, today known as Old Sem, contained the chapel, music and recitation rooms, a kitchen and dining room, and housed some of the faculty and students, the women occupying the second floor and the teachers and a few male students the third floor. The majority of the male students lived in private residences in town. As the enrollment increased and the institution made plans for a full collegiate program, a second building, the Main College Building (today known as College Hall), was built in 1857 and the Seminary Building was converted to a Ladies' Boarding Hall. During the winter months the ladies paid an extra fee to have firewood cut and carried to their rooms. For more than 30 years Cornell's women continued to board and room in the building despite its lack of modern conveniences. To those young women who moved out of ``the old Sem'' and into Bowman Hall in 1885, this new dormitory must have seemed like one of the wonders of the world. Here were four stories capable of housing 100 women in comfortable double rooms illuminated by gas lights. Each floor had a bathroom and hot and cold running water. The dining room, where male students who roomed in town might take their meals, could seat 200 people at one sitting. In the early years, the students and faculty dined in Old Sem, in the area now occupied by the Business Office. The College cows, whose milk was consumed at every meal, roamed the campus and were a continual source of annoyance for unwary students. From 1885 to 1930, most students who took their meals on campus ate in Bowman Hall. After Pfeiffer Hall was opened in 1930, half the students were assigned to eat there while the other half continued to dine at Bowman. This arrangement continued until The Commons opened in January 1966. Although residence halls for women were the norm at Cornell, early attempts to provide the men with an opportunity to live on campus were less successful. When the Cornell Boarding Association Hall, now South Hall, was built in 1873, it was at first popular, but the dormitory style of life soon proved less appealing than that of the rooming houses which clustered around the campus, and the new building was gradually converted for academic use. It was not until 1929, when male freshmen were housed in Guild Hall, and 1936, when Merner Hall was built, that the College was able to interest men in living on campus. Perhaps the most important place on Cornell's campus to generations of alumni has been its chapel. The need for a separate chapel building was recognized in 1874, the cornerstone was laid in 1876, and the present stone chapel was completed in 1882. The chapel served not only for religious services but also for all kinds of College assemblies, lectures, recitals, debates, pep rallies, theatricals, weddings, and funerals. Until 1957, chapel services were held each morning except on Saturdays and Sundays, and all students were required to attend. Required attendance at weekly chapel (after 1964 weekly convocation) continued until 1970. The library has, since 1904, been the library for the City of Mount Vernon as well as for the College. Only three other libraries in the world serve their communities in this way. Cornell's first library was opened in 1854 on the third floor of what is now Old Sem in a room 10 x 16 feet, which, Dr. Stephen N. Fellows wrote, ``was my bedroom, sitting room and parlor, and not being sufficiently utilized, became the library room.'' Between 1857 and 1880, the library was located in a room in College Hall. A common punishment for students found guilty of misconduct was to deny them library privileges for one or two weeks. In 1880 the library was moved to the newly opened north end of the lower floor of King Chapel and in 1891 to the second floor of Old Sem. Because of the generosity of industrialist Andrew Carnegie, the College in 1905 dedicated its first building designed for the exclusive use of the library. Originally called the Carnegie Library, it is now known as the Norton Geology Center and Anderson Geology Museum. The continually increasing size of the collection led in 1957 to the construction of the present Russell D. Cole Library which was opened as a combined library-social center. In 1966 the social center was moved from the library into the newly opened student center and Maxwell Auditorium was built in its place in the lower level of the library. In 1995 a $3.7 million renovation updated the Cole Library and brought it firmly into the information age. Cornell has always offered a diversified curriculum. Besides the various collegiate programs, the corporate institution used to include a Primary Department (middle school), Conservatory of Music, School of Art, School of Oratory and Physical Culture, and Preparatory Department (renamed the Cornell Academy in 1894 and the Cornell College High School in 1916). From 1857 to 1890, the Preparatory Department had greater enrollments than the College proper. Its purpose was to prepare students from two- and three-year high schools and schools with limited or inadequate curricula for admission to the College, or for careers in teaching (Normal course) or business (Commercial course). The Primary Department was discontinued in 1866. The High School closed in June of 1921. Music, art, speech and dramatics, physical education, and teacher education have become departments within the College. Cornell was one of the first colleges in the nation to offer its students a choice of degree programs. In addition to the Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees, Cornell has awarded during its long history the degrees of Mistress of English Literature (last conferred 1865), Bachelor of Civil Engineering (conferred 1875-1917), Bachelor of Philosophy (conferred 1881-1904 and 1974-1995), Bachelor of Music (first conferred 1921), Bachelor of School Music (conferred 1925-1945), and Bachelor of Music Education (conferred 1946-1964). The first Bachelor of Special Studies degrees were conferred in May 1972. Masters degrees in Art, Science, Civil Engineering, Philosophy, and Music were offered by the College at various times from its inception until 1943, although the last such degree was granted in 1936. Since 1857 the College catalogues have contained specific provisions for the preparation of teachers. Courses in education were offered for the first time in 1872, one of the earliest recognitions of this discipline in the country. Sociology was added to the curriculum in 1899, only six years after the University of Chicago established the first academic department of sociology in the United States. The first instruction in geology was offered here in 1855, and a professorship established in 1881. Cornell's Department of Geology is the oldest in Iowa. Instruction in music had been offered to the first group of Seminary students, but in 1878 the Conservatory of Music was inaugurated ``to supply superior advantages for pursuing the study of Music in all its branches, both theoretical and practical, under the ablest Professors.'' In 1960 it became the Department of Music. The Conservatory initiated the Spring Music Festival in 1899, the first such annual festival in Iowa. From 1903 to 1963, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra appeared annually at the Festival, with Dr. Frederick Stock as its conductor until 1942. More than 60 stars of the Metropolitan Opera Company as well as other world-famous musical artists have appeared on the stage of King Chapel. After its 100th anniversary in 1998 the Festival became Music Mondays, a series of four to five concerts held throughout the year. By appointment of the Secretary of War, an army officer and graduate of West Point taught military science on the campus from 1873 until 1901 when physical training replaced infantry drills. All able-bodied male Cornellians during this period were organized into companies and known as the ``Cornell Cadets.'' A ``Ladies Battalion'' was officially formed in 1889 although women students had drilled in uniform as early as 1874. Historically, Cornell has been a pioneer in the cause of women's rights. During that first academic year of 1853, one of the first students to enroll was a woman, and women comprised 35% of the student body. The College was the first institution of higher learning west of the Mississippi to grant women the same academic rights and privileges as men, and the first in Iowa to confer a baccalaureate degree on a woman, in 1858. Cornell women studied chemistry and other sciences in coeducational classrooms and laboratories before their sisters at other colleges or universities were allowed to do so. In 1871, Cornell conferred upon Harriette J. Cooke the first full professorship ever given to a woman in the United States with a salary equal to that of her male colleagues. Soon after her promotion, she founded and became the first president of The Cornell Association for the Higher Education of Women, one of the first such organizations in the nation. Elizabeth Cady Stanton in 1869 and Susan B. Anthony in 1879 came to Mount Vernon and made Cornellians more aware of the important concerns of women. As early as 1916, the Women's League at Cornell organized vocational conferences for women students and sponsored lectures by women prominent in the professions, business, and public life. This tradition continues. During the 1970s, a number of faculty members at Cornell introduced courses that focused on women and integrated the new feminist scholarship rapidly emerging in most disciplines. A major in Women's Studies was approved in 1989. Literary societies dominated student social and cultural life from 1853 until the 1920s. The first was the Amphictyon Literary Society, founded November 18, 1853, which was the oldest literary society in Iowa and possibly west of the Mississippi River. More than 20 societies are known to have been chartered at Cornell, and 11 were still in existence in 1927, when they all voluntarily disbanded. The first eight had paired off, a men's group affiliating with a women's group, so that the partnership possessed one of the four prestigious meeting rooms on the third floor of College Hall. On Friday and Saturday evenings, these societies presented various programs to which the college community and the townspeople were often invited. Such presentations were usually lectures, debates, or dramatic readings interspersed with musical selections (the College did not permit theatrical performances until 1899). From the membership of these public societies were formed secret societies, of which little is known except that they became the nuclei for today's social groups. The society halls were the first social centers. Student government was organized in 1919, and the various religious and cultural organizations consolidated into the ``Cornell Student Association'' in 1927. The first Homecoming took place in 1913; the first Parents Day in 1932. The Cornell Athletic Association was organized in 1888, two years after Cornell began playing intercollegiate baseball. Intercollegiate football followed in 1891, then track and field, basketball, cross-country, and wrestling. At first the gymnasium was the ``great outdoors,'' which was not so great during Iowa's long, cold winters. In 1873 the College finally provided in the basement of College Hall ``rooms and appliances for regular and careful physical training under competent supervision'' for men and women. The men of Cornell built their own gymnasium building, 24 x 40 feet, in December 1889. Ill luck attended this venture, for the building burned to the ground in February 1891. After many years of making do with temporary accommodations, Cornell students celebrated the opening of the Alumni Gymnasium (now McWethy Hall, home of the art department) in 1909 with unbounded enthusiasm. In 1953 the Field House was erected. The Richard and Norma Small Multi-Sport Center, which opened in 1986, allows indoor practice for some teams, and serves as a fitness facility for all students. Cornell athletes participated in all the Olympic Games between 1924 and 1964. Eight Cornellians were members of Olympic wrestling teams, and 25 Cornell men have won individual national championships in wrestling. In 1947, Cornell won the National Collegiate (NCAA) and the National AAU championships in wrestling. Cornell College remains the smallest college, as well as the only private college, ever to achieve these honors. In 1977, a proposal was put before the faculty, students, and Board of Trustees to change the academic calendar from a traditional semester system to something new and innovative. The idea was to adopt a calendar system in which students would take, and faculty would teach, a single course each month. The advantages and disadvantages were published, discussed, and dissected. On March 9, 1978, the faculty voted by a margin of 2 to 1 in favor of One-Course-At-A-Time, the term used thereafter to describe the Cornell academic calendar. The new system began that fall. Leslie H. Garner, Jr. is the 14th president of the College. His predecessors were: Richard W. Keeler, 1857-59; Samuel M. Fellows, acting president 1859-60 and president 1860-63; William Fletcher King, acting president 1863-65 and president 1865-1908; James E. Harlan, 1908-14; Charles W. Flint, 1915-22; Harlan Updegraff, 1923-27; Herbert J. Burgstahler, 1927-39; John B. Magee, 1939-43; Russell D. Cole, 1943-60; Arland F. Christ-Janer, 1961-67; Samuel E. Stumpf, 1967-73; Philip B. Secor, 1974-84; and David Marker, 1984-94. The following have served as acting presidents: Hugh Boyd, 1873-74; Alonzo Collin, June - September, 1880; Hamline H. Freer, 1914-15; William S. Ebersole, 1922-23 and February - May 1927; Charles M. Cochran, 1973-74; and C. William Heywood, February - July, 1994. The motto of the College, DEUS ET HUMANITAS (God and Humanity), is said to have been George Bowman's personal motto. Although frequently translated as ``humanity,'' the Latin word humanitas does not mean, as it often does in English, human beings considered collectively. Harper's Latin Dictionary gives the following definitions: ``liberal education, humane and gentle conduct toward others, philanthropy, kindness, politeness, and elegance of manner and language.'' The college published its first scholarly history, Cornell College: A Sesquicentennial History, by C. William Heywood and Richard Thomas, in 2004. Charles Milhauser’s illustrated history book, Cornell College: 150 Years from A to Z, was published in 2003. In 2003-2004 Cornell celebrated its 150th year of existence with several events. One of these was a grade procession of students, staff, faculty, trustees, and townspeople across campus, through Old Sem, and into King Chapel for a convocation on November 14, 2003.

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Vascular (or multi-infarct) dementia refers to a decline in a person's mental abilities that results from a series of strokes. A stroke occurs when blood flow to part of the brain is blocked, cutting off the blood supply to the brain. Vascular dementia often progresses step by step, with declines in memory and mental functions occurring each time another stroke occurs. The specific symptoms a person has depend on which area of the brain the strokes have affected. Not all strokes cause symptoms. Vascular dementia is often associated with hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis) caused by high cholesterol, high blood pressure, or diabetes. A person can reduce the risk of future strokes by controlling high blood pressure, reducing cholesterol, quitting smoking, and taking aspirin and other drugs used to treat these conditions. eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise To learn more visit Healthwise.org © 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated. Find out what women really need. Most Popular Topics Pill Identifier on RxList - quick, easy, Find a Local Pharmacy - including 24 hour, pharmacies

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EPi offers a variety of electroplating chemical processes for metal finishers. When it comes to electroplating and chemical plating, EPi is a leader in the industry. EPi’s electroplating chemicals are of extremely high quality. Zinc plating, nickel plating, and copper plating chemicals are just a few of the many metal plating solutions EPi has to offer. EPi developed a single additive cyanide copper electroplating process in 1954 using the now famous E-Brite 23-11 brightener and a single additive nickel plating process in 1961. EPi was first in the electroplating industry to develop a production-proven, non-cyanide, non-pyrophosphate, alkaline copper electro plating process, the E-Brite 30/30 process in 1991. It is an excellent strike bath on steel, stainless steel, brass, copper, zincated aluminum, die cast zinc and white metals. It makes an outstanding heat treat stop-off plate as well as a decorative copper plate. The E-Brite 200 acid copper plating process is the best leveling acid copper available and is unsurpassed in brightness, ductility and resistance to treeing and burning. It has excellent buff ability – the easiest to buff acid copper on the market. EPi uses non-cyanide copper to plate the back of an iPod at Sur/Fin 2008. Check out the YouTube video. Learn more about a Copper Plating High School Experiment. What is Electroplating? Electroplating is the process of using an electrical current to coat an electrically conductive object with a thin layer of metal. If you are interested in learning more about the electroplating process; check out the section on the Electrochemistry Encyclopedia. With a proven electroplating track record, EPI has proven their ability to deliver product as promised. For more information on Metal Plating, check out the following articles: • Plating Silver Without Cyanide • Plating on Aluminum Without Cyanide or Nickel

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Skip to comments.11,000-Year-Old Grain Shakes Up Beliefs On Beginnings Of Agriculture Posted on 06/19/2006 1:04:07 PM PDT by blam Jun. 18, 2006 0:24 | Updated Jun. 18, 2006 10:45 11,000-year-old grain shakes up beliefs on beginnings of agriculture By JUDY SIEGEL-ITZKOVICH Bar-Ilan University researchers have found a cache of 120,000 wild oat and 260,000 wild barley grains at the Gilgal archaeological site near Jericho that date back 11,000 years - providing evidence of cultivation during the Neolithic Period. The research, performed by Drs. Ehud Weiss and Anat Hartmann of BIU's department of Land of Israel studies and Prof. Mordechai Kislev of the faculty of life sciences, appears in the June 16 edition of the prestigious journal Science. It is the second time in two weeks that Kislev and Hartmann have had an article in Science. They recently wrote about their discovery of 10,000-year-old cultivated figs at the same Jordan Valley site. According to the researchers, the newest find shows that the transition from nomadic food gathering and the beginning of agriculture were quite different than previously thought. Until now, the general assumption has been that agriculture was begun by a single line of human efforts in one specific area. But the BIU researchers found a much more complicated effort undertaken by different human populations in different regions, drawing a completely new picture of the origins of agriculture. Agriculture, the BIU researchers suggest, originated through human manipulations of wild plants - sometimes involving the same species - that took place in various spatially and temporally distinct communities. Moreover, some of these occasions were found to be much earlier than previously thought possible. (Excerpt) Read more at jpost.com ... That would also push back the discovery of beer. They've discovered the container of Quaker Oats cereal I've had in my cupboard all this time. When I saw the word grain I immediately thought..."Mmmm, beer" "That would also push back the discovery of beer." First thing I thought too. The research, performed by Drs. Ehud Weiss Coincidence?...I think not! I wonder if they'll try and germinate them?............. The have to try to germinate them. This is a good find. How does one "discover" beer? Wine I can see. Grape juice, sits in storage till it ferments and viola, you've got wine. Beer, on the other hand, requires a scientific approach to brewing ingredients, cooking, fermenting, etc. One does not accidentally come upon beer, it must be planned and researched......... I've heard that wheat grains from Egyptian tombs will germinate after 5,000 or so years. This would double that!........ Consider that a common way to prepare whole grains for cooking is to soak them for at least a day. Also consider that sprouting is a way to enhance the nutrition of grains. I didn't think they had violas that long ago.. Ah, yes---beer---"Proof that God loves us and wants us to be happy." Benjamin Franklin Indicates that beer predates wine. Take that frogs! "How does one "discover" beer? Wine I can see. Grape juice, sits in storage till it ferments and viola, you've got wine. Beer, on the other hand, requires a scientific approach to brewing ingredients, cooking, fermenting, etc. One does not accidentally come upon beer, it must be planned and researched........." I always thought making wine and mead was much more complicated. I've made beer for years but when I read a book on wine making I thought it was pretty fussy. I have a vice. And one I love so dear. It's really nice To have a vice. And all thanks to weissen beer........... They had to have something to play "How Dry I Am" on........... But then someone would have to have let them sit for a long time in order to ferment, and add yeast to the mix. Maybe it was an offshoot of breadmaking. Someone smelled the alcohol coming from the yeast in the bread and said, "Hmmmm, I wonder if..........." "I would like the angels of Heaven to be among us. I would like an abundance of peace. I would like full vessels of charity. I would like rich treasures of mercy. I would like cheerfulness to preside over all. I would like Jesus to be present. I would like the three Marys of illustrious renown to be with us. I would like the friends of Heaven to be gathered around us from all parts. I would like myself to be a rent payer to the Lord; that I should suffer distress, that he would bestow a good blessing upon me. I would like a great lake of beer for the King of Kings. I would like to be watching Heaven's family drinking it through all eternity." She worked in a leper colony which found itself without beer, "For when the lepers she nursed implored her for beer, and there was none to be had, she changed the water, which was used for the bath, into an excellent beer, by the sheer strength of her blessing and dealt it out to the thirsty in plenty." Brigid is said to have changed her dirty bathwater into beer so that visiting clerics would have something to drink. Obviously this trait would endear her to many a beer lover. She also is reputed to have supplied beer out of one barrel to eighteen churches, which sufficed from Maundy Thursday to the end of paschal time. Yeast is not required for bread baking. Think flat bread. I think there's an urban myth about wheat seeds being grown from those found in King Tutts tomb. "Israeli scientists say they've succeeded in growing a sapling from what's believed to be the oldest seed ever germinated a date palm seed 2,000 years old." "One of the scientists leading the project said she hopes the ancient DNA from the seed will reveal medicinal secrets that have disappeared from the modern plant." Ah, a saint with her priorities straight. Beer that is exposed to the surrounding open air to allow natural/wild yeast and bacteria to literally infect the beer, are spontaneous fermented beers. One of the typical yeasts is the Brettanomyces Lambicus strain. Beers produced in this fashion are sour, non-filtered and inspired by the traditional lambics of the Zenne-region. This brewing method has been practised for decades in the West Flanders region of Belgium. Your post encouraged me to pop a cool one (Carlsberg). Ahhhh! Why do they believe it's 11,000 years old? This goes against the grain. see post #22 "I didn't think they had violas that long ago.." Being a southerner, I was wondering who the heck this Viola woman was ... the original woman in "wine, women and song," I guess. One does not accidentally come upon beer, it must be planned and researched......... And Moses came down from the mountain with a frosty mud and said "Let there be beer". The people rejoiced. Wild yeast is all over the place and airborne. There are certain types of Belgian beers that are fermented with wild yeast in open containers. But somewhere along the line someone did use yeast to make bread, and alcohol would have been smelled in the process. The Egyptians were making beer thousands of years befor Christ. Yeasts were known to exhibit the fermentation processes. Some smart gut, possibly and Egyptian, must have put two and two together and came up with BEER! Thus the phrase, "Walk like an Egyptian!".......... Well he was gone for forty days. Just long enough............ You joke, but of course. "Don't drink the water, drink beer" warned Saint Arnold of Metz (b. 580 AD, d. 640), concerned about the dangers of drinking impure water. He believed that the polluted water caused illness, while the boiled and processed water used for beer was a safer alternative. According to legend he ended a plague when he submerged his crucifix into a brew kettle and persuaded people to drink only beer from that "blessed" kettle. He is reported to have said "From man's sweat and God's love, beer came into the world". This thread has a way of making me thirsty. Weizenbier. Not the thin American stuff. Grain Belt beer looks inviting. We have a specialty beer store that I will check to see if I can get it in California. That looks like a can of brake fluid. Also, you don't need to "add" yeast - yeast floats around in the air as a naturally occuring substance. Leave some soaked grains around long enough and yeast will find it and grow on it. I would imagine that's where beer got it's start. A week or two ago, I looked up from cooking when someone on TV news said there was pot growing on the front lawn of a state house or town hall . . . looked urban but Ididn't catch where. Apparently, they'd dug the lawn up to redo it and rains came before they got any further. When the sun came out, there were pot seedlings all over the place! They're from WWII's Hemp for the cause, or whatever it was called. From 60 years ago, my brief peek looked like damn good germination rate. Don't count on it. Those unfortunate enough to get the kind with seeds love to spread them on police station/city hall lawns and in potted plants inside the station. Or so I'm told... Which makes sense, yeast is more likely to infect a wort than dough. Probaly, just some old acid heads letting their grain go moldy. Johnny Pot Seed strikes again! LOL! I'm just saying what the people who are there said. Someone failed to sow their wild oats.

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What is Diabetes? - Diabetes results when glucose can no longer be absorbed properly due to irregularities in levels of the hormone insulin that is produced in the pancreas. There are two types of diabetes. - Type 1 Diabetes: Type 1 diabetes (formerly known as juvenile diabetes) is characterized by the body's inability to produce insulin. Why the body does not produce insulin is currently unknown. - Type 2 Diabetes: Type 2 diabetes (formerly known as adult onset diabetes) is characterized by a resistance to insulin; 90-95% of people diagnosed with diabetes are diagnosed with type 2. Type 2 diabetes is increasing among young people as the amount of overweight youth increases. - Diabetes Symptoms - Symptoms of type 1 diabetes may include frequent urination, unusual thirst, extreme hunger, unusual weight loss, extreme fatigue and irritability.2 - Symptoms of type 2 diabetes may include frequent urination, unusual thirst, extreme hunger, unusual weight loss, extreme fatigue and irritability, frequent infections, blurred vision, slow healing cuts and bruises, tingling/ numbness in the hands and feet, recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections. Prevalence and Cost of Diabetes - Diabetes impacts millions of people annually, with 1.6 million new cases of the disease diagnosed each year. While cancer and HIV/AIDS may seem more prevalent due to the resource and attention they receive, diabetes is actually the more common chronic disease in the U.S. with nearly 24 million Americans - 7.8 percent of the population - suffering from the disease. - On its current course, the number of people with diabetes is projected to nearly double to 44.1 million by 2034 due in large part to the aging of the baby boomer population and increased rates of overweight Americans and obesity.4 - Diabetes is one of the costliest diseases in America, with total direct and indirect costs for diabetes and pre-diabetes estimated at $218 billion in 2007. Understanding Diabetes Treatment & Management - Diabetes cannot yet be cured, but it can be managed. With the proper diet, exercise, regular blood sugar testing and treatment therapy, people living with diabetes can lead full and active lives. - When left untreated or poorly controlled, diabetes can have serious complications, including stroke, kidney disease, high blood pressure, blindness, nerve problems and amputations. If detected early and treated properly, complications can be prevented or delayed. - Good blood glucose control, or glycemic control has long been established as the cornerstone of successful diabetes treatment, however many patients in the U.S. are not achieving recommended A1C targets, which are a measure of a person's average blood glucose control for the past 2 to 3 months. - Adequate patient self-management has been identified as a critical component for successful short- and long-term treatment of diabetes and its complications. - For people living with diabetes, healthy eating, physical activity, blood glucose and one or more diabetes medicines including, insulin, pills and other injectable medicine to control blood glucose levels, are the basic management tools for diabetes. - Insulin therapy, discovered nearly 90 years ago remains one of the most significant discoveries in the field of medicine and continues to be a mainstay of diabetes treatment as a way to reduce the risk of developing serious complications.7 - Despite the effectiveness of insulin treatment, several factors have been suspected to impact insulin usage, including needle anxiety, fear of injection pain and inconvenience coupled with psychological barriers to insulin initiation (e.g. social embarrassment). - Insulin plays an important role in managing diabetes. To get the full benefits of insulin therapy, people with diabetes need to take it exactly as directed by their physicians. For many patients, it will be important to choose an insulin delivery method that works for their lifestyle, whether it be a vial and syringe or an easy-to-use insulin delivery device. - Insulin delivery devices are an integral part of diabetes treatment and the successful outcome of treatment today; however, the adoption rates among physicians and patients in the U.S. are still relatively low. - Today in the U.S only 17% of insulin units are delivered through insulin pens (durable, refillable or prefilled disposable insulin pens) compared to 95% and 88% in Japan and Europe, respectively, according to a September 2009 study.8 - Today there are approximately 10 insulin delivery pens available on the market providing options to diabetes patients to help them actively manage their own health. Diabetes Impact: Multicultural & Generational Reach - Diabetes prevalence increases with age: - 23.5 million or 10.7% of all people 20 years of age or older have diabetes - 12.2 million or to 23.1% of people age 60 or older have diabetes2 - Diabetes disproportionately affects minority communities in the U.S. including, African Americans, Hispanics, Asians and Pacific Islanders, American Indians, and Alaskan Natives. The increasingly diverse population of people living with diabetes has created new variables for healthcare professionals to consider when treating patients to ensure they address the beliefs, attitudes and practices of each unique culture or background. - One in seven (14.7%) non-Hispanic blacks aged 20 years or older has diabetes though only one in nine has been diagnosed with the disease. This population is 1.8 times as likely to have diabetes as non-Hispanic whites aged 20 years or older, 6.6% of who have diagnosed diabetes. - One in ten (10.4%) Hispanic/Latino Americans aged 20 years or older has diagnosed diabetes. Among Mexican Americans one in nine (11.8%) aged 20 years or older are diagnosed. - One in six (16.5 %) Native Americans and Alaskan natives aged 20 years or older has diagnosed diabetes. - One in 13 (7.5%) Asian Americans aged 20 or older has been diagnosed with diabetes.

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District Police Departments Use of forcible means When on duty, the police have the right in certain situations to use forcible means that can be considered justifiable. In determining this justifiability, the factors considered include the importance and urgency of the duty, the dangerousness of the resistance being shown and the available resources. The police are entitled to use forcible means in order to Only the minimum necessary force is used. The lock to an apartment, for example, will not be broken unless this is urgently required. Instead, the police will acquire a key with which entry can be made without causing any damage. Use of force is permitted in all types of police duties. While it is most commonly used in uniformed police duties, force may also be used by other police officers when, for example, apprehending offenders. Police officers, as indeed anyone else, also have the right of self-defence. Back | Print page

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