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Like Pearls, Corals help make up the very small list of organic jewelry materials. Also, like pearls, Corals consist of more than 90% calcium carbonate. The corals used in bead and jewelry making are not the protected coral species of the fragile coral reefs, but the more common and hearty species such as corallium japonicum or corallium rubrum. Coral is sensitive to heat, direct sunlight and cosmetics. Currently the International Commission of Colored Gemstones (CIBJO) recognizes only five organic (once living material) gemstones: Ammolite, amber, pearl, jet, and coral.

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Astronomers Argue Pluto is a Planet Disgruntled scientists renewed their vows this week to call Pluto a planet despite an international governing body's latest ruling to reclassify the tiny world. On Wednesday, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) declared that Pluto will henceforth be known as a "plutoid," a new class of objects that has two members (the other being Eris, a small body beyond Pluto). The IAU, considered in charge of naming celestial objects, has been around since 1919. It demoted Pluto to "dwarf planet" status in 2006. The latest decision was announced by email to the press, and it took researchers by surprise. Even IAU members and astronomers who discovered Eris and other objects that might eventually be called plutoids were not consulted or informed. That's left many scientists peeved that the IAU developed the new term and its definition behind closed doors. They accuse the IAU of being secretive, out of touch and of failing to consider basic physical characteristics that researchers use to define planets. "The derision for this group [the IAU] is now spreading virally," said Alan Stern, former assistant administrator for the Science Mission Directorate at NASA and lead investigator for the New Horizons mission to Pluto. Stern has also hinted that a rival group to the IAU might be formed. When asked about this possibility, he said: "There is a disturbance in the force. Enough said." Many astronomers support the IAU or have no strong opinion on the matter. But Stern and others are increasingly dismissing the IAU's authority. "The IAU is embracing a 19th-century world view, back before we had spacecraft, landers, orbiting telescopes and other modern means of understanding the physical characteristics of objects," said Mark V. Sykes, director of the Planetary Science Institute in Tucson. "I see no reason to wait for the IAU to adopt the broader perspective of planetary scientists (who are mostly geophysicists and not astronomers)," Sykes told SPACE.com today. "People simply continue to use an alternative system in their discussions and [scientific] papers. Sykes said questions about the IAU definition presume that the IAU defines things for everyone. "That may be convenient for some, but does not reflect reality," he said. At least they are round Everyone agrees that a planet has to at least be round. Beyond that, there are many bones of contention. The new IAU definition of plutoid: "Plutoids are celestial bodies in orbit around the sun at a distance greater than that of Neptune that have sufficient mass for their self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that they assume a hydrostatic equilibrium (near-spherical) shape, and that have not cleared the neighborhood around their orbit." Sykes and some other astronomers prefer to consider planets based on "shared physical characteristics." He says the geophysical definition for a planet is this: "A planet is a round object (in hydrostatic equilibrium) that orbits a star." He notes that objects large enough to make themselves round tend to have signs of geology (volcanism, tectonics and atmospheres) that don't exist on smaller objects. This week's IAU decision was meant to further clarify a controversial 2006 decision that stripped Pluto of its planethood and redefined it as a "dwarf planet" and not a real planet. That attempt at defining the word "planet" was confined to our solar system and said nothing about planets around other stars. "It's hard to find anyone who thinks this is (i) necessary, (ii) a step forward, or even (iii) useful," Stern said in an email interview. And of the new plutoid ruling: "About all it has accomplished is to convert some people who were on the fence to agreeing with those of us that planet definition needs a rethink" and that the process needs to be "out in the open." The whole fiasco is now a two-part question: What is the definition of a planet? And is the IAU relevant as a governing body? The IAU defense IAU President Catherine Cesarsky defended the group's actions. She said the 2006 "dwarf planet" ruling, approved at a meeting in Prague, included this clause: "An IAU process will be established to select a name for this category," meaning that it was always the IAU's intent to further define "dwarf planet" in relation to Pluto. (Critics at the time complained that only 424 astronomers were present to vote on the Prague ruling. One observer at the time said it immediately created a rift in the science community. See an interview with Cesarsky on that topic.) "We put the question to Division III and the naming committees a few months after Prague," Cesarsky said in an email interview this week. "It took some time for the committees to do their work. We had their proposal in hand many months ago, but this is business for the IAU Executive Committee, which meets only once a year. The Executive Committee just met in Oslo, and approved the proposal by Division III and the naming committees. This is normal IAU procedure." Cesarsky said, "you can never satisfy 100 percent of the membership" in a democratic organization like the IAU. "I don't know whether they were expecting it," she said, "but we had pledged to do this in Prague, and we did it." Stern complains, however, that the IAU's 10,000 members are not well represented. "About 10 (0.1%) get quietly appointed to some committee, make a decision, send it to the Executive Committee (another dozen or so), and then the IAU reports this to the world as astronomical consensus!" Stern said. "It's a closed process that does not represent the members or, frankly, the IAU, very well." Astronomers behaving badly Steve Maran, a retired NASA astronomer and author of "Astronomy for Dummies," favors reinstating Pluto as a planet but has taken a somewhat moderate stance on the debate. "I think there is a strong sentiment among a modest number of astronomers and a great many laypersons that Pluto should be reinstated or that the IAU action on Pluto should be ignored," Maran said. He faults the IAU's 2006 planet definition as being confined to our solar system and excluding all extrasolar planets, among other problems. There is "strong sentiment among a large number of astronomers" that the IAU definition is "useless for scientific purposes" said Maran, who is co-authoring "Astronomers Behaving Badly," slated for publication in 2010. In that book, Maran will make the case for Pluto as a planet, while co-author Larry Marschall sides with the IAU. Nonetheless, Maran said this week's IAU decision "makes perfect sense, but rather than believing that this makes reinstating Pluto as a planet less likely, I consider that it makes it perfectly reasonable." The way he sees it, "'plutoids' can mean 'objects like the planet Pluto' whether that is the intention of the experts who proposed this terminology or not." Hundreds of planets Other researchers have predicted there will be hundreds of Pluto-like objects found as technology improves. That’s one reason some have argued for demoting Pluto. Maran sees no problem with hundreds of planets, however. They could simply be called "planets of the plutoid class." Some astronomers have said the whole debate is meaningless and that "planet" will never be defined. Others disagree strongly. "It is crucial that planetary scientists be able to classify their subject matter," Stern said. "Imagine if astrophysicists could not agree on what a star is?" Scientists will take the whole debate up at a meeting Aug. 14-16 at Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. There, meeting co-organizer Hal Weaver said nobody will vote, but researchers will "address this question in terms of a scientific conference." Advocates of both sides of the "is Pluto a planet?" debate are expected to attend. MORE FROM SPACE.com

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Explore the loose collection of stars and nebula. What stories or pictures do you see? Leave a note in the comments below. The star cluster NGC 2060 is a family of stars that are drifting apart. These stellar siblings were born from the same star cloud but now they are no longer gravitationally bound. Within a few million years the grouping will cease to be as all the stars will have dispersed. The nebula is full of little gems besides young stars. Look just left of center in the image. A supernova, created when a massive hot star ended its short life after burning all of its nuclear fuel, exploded blowing a bubble within the cloud about 10,000 years ago. The dark area near the center of the image is a dense cloud of cold dust between Earth and the cloud. Other smaller dark globs of dust blot out the starlight from behind. Fierce stellar winds and blistering ultraviolet radiation from the young stars in this nebula push the glowing gas and dust into arcs and pillars NGC 2060 is part of 30 Doradus, the brightest star-forming region that we know about 170,000 light-years from Earth in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The LMC is a dwarf galaxy near our Milky Way Galaxy. The massive nebula is home to some of the most massive stars in our cosmic neighborhood. It is so bright and close, that Hubble can see individual stars offering scientists information on how stars are born, evolve and die.

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DIN - The Hunting Season In the words of MALACHI WALD: "There is a Hebrew phrase, a fighting slogan going back to Biblical times: DAHM YISRAEL NOKEAM- "The blood of Israel will take vengeance." Thus, in the first months of 1945, Five Jews named WALD, BECKER, JUDAH KLEIN, BENNO the MESSENGER, and HANNAH BAUM, formed the nucleus of a sinister conspiracy which dwarfed accusations in years gone by when Jews were once accused of poisoning the wells of European communities. These five ex-partisan fighters, along with fifty other active accomplices, formed a highly secret organization of conspirators and assassins, whose group came to be known by the first letter of each word: DAHLED, YOD, NUN. The letters of which spell out another Hebrew word: DIN, or "judgment." These assassins are referred to by Jewish author URI DAN in his book, "To the Promised Land." He writes: "The fury against the Germans took the form of Haganah squads who hunted Nazis across Europe and killed them without trial." Pg. 59. The murderous scope of their efforts and intentions , however, were directed not so much at NAZIS, as Mr. Dan wrote, but at MILLIONS of human beings innocent of any wrong doing. Curiously, and correctly, Mr. Dan refers to these assassins as "Haganah squads." Aside from such bloodthirsty cults as the THUGS of India or the ASSASSINS of Arabia, or the Biblical Book of Esther, or the mass slaughter of the first-born of Egypt, history fortunately offers few parallels for what is to follow. In the latter half of 1945, hundreds of thousands of Jews from every nook and cranny in Eastern Europe were streaming into Germany along with a massive flux of non-Jewish refugees fleeing from Stalin's hordes. There were incidents which cropped up between the Gentile refugees and the Jewish refugees. The allies were accused, with justification, of showing favouritism to the Jews, whom the non-Jews maintained received better and larger rations and preferential treatment. Indeed, a good number of Jews were encouraged and allowed to dispossess ethnic Germans of their homes, victuals and property, much as the ancient Egyptians were once despoiled of theirs. Indeed, Hitler as Pharaoh seems to be an appropriate analogy to make in this regard. These Jewish refugees mixed with the recently released masses from the concentration camps unleashing a reign of terror in many German towns and cities. As a direct consequence of these and similar offenses, the Allies were required to round up the liberated camp inmates and re-inter them in camps. There, these hate-filled survivors were able to mix with ex-Jewish partisan fighters, and from this unholy union, a conspiracy was soon hatched which promoted vengeance as its creed and mass murder of the innocent as its goal. In fact, murder was on the agenda throughout Eastern Europe, where Jews with a vendetta were appointed to administer the slave and death camps of Stalin in Poland, Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union, and Yugoslavia, where hundreds of thousands of German civilians perished due to mass murder, neglect, torture, and epidemics. The identities of many of these camp commanders have since become known. Today many of them are still alive and living a protected life in Eretz Israel, where the government refuses to hand them over to authorities in Europe to answer for their heinous crimes. While these atrocities were being committed against ethnic Germans in diverse places such as Poland and Siberia, Jewish refugees continued to pour into camps in Germany, nourished and protected by such agencies as the UNRRA. While Jewish refugees were accorded preferential treatment, authorities within the UNRRA were working feverishly to repatriate Gentile East Europeans back to the rapacious and blood-stained hands of the Soviets, in order to make more room for the continuing flow of Jewish refugees pouring over the German border. Two allied Generals, who were foolish enough to make public statements concerning these illegals and black-marketeers, were unceremoniously dismissed from their posts and replaced with Generals who towed the appropriate UNRRA line. It was in one of these camps where the conspiracy soon took root. From the camp of Feldafing, three Jews, Dr. Zalman Grinberg, Wladislaw Friedheim, and Isaac Ratner despatched runners to all the camps holding Jewish refugees. Forty one Jewish delegates answered the summons. When they arrived, they were greeted by Major Zvi Caspi, a member of the Jewish Brigade, the Palestinian Jews who fought for the British army during the war. It was Jewish members of the British field police who captured not only Hoess, but also Himmler, whose captor happened to be none other than a future President of Israel, Chaim Herzog. Major Caspi brought a message with him from the VAAD LEUMI the national council of the Palestine Jewish Community. That message was simple and terse: "You are bone of our bone, flesh of our flesh. We in Palestine wait to welcome you with open arms, and it will be done. Be strong, united, organized and disciplined." On that day the Jewish resistance added the British to their list of enemies. They called their clandestine organization Sheerit Hapleetah, the "Surviving Remnant." Yet, this group was merely a front which drew attention to itself publicly while a far more sinister organization was being primped for secret illegal action throughout Europe. From the Hagana, the secret Jewish resistance movement in Palestine, a hundred agents were clandestinely smuggled into Europe. Yehuda Arazi went to Milan, Ehud Avriel to Belgrade, Shaul Avigur to Paris, Elkhanan Gafni to Bucharest ,Moshe Bar-Gilad to Vienna, Hoter Yishai, Ephraim Deckel, Ruth Klieger, and many others to Germany. This group was dubbed "BRICHA," or escape, and worked under cover to smuggle hundreds of thousands of Jews illegally into Palestine. To facilitate this sometimes dangerous and massive project, the underground called upon those who had already tasted blood as partisan fighters during the war. They were to serve as armed escorts for the illegals. The commanders of these armed squads, ruthless and determined men and women, were names known to the German Security Police during the war: Avraham Blumovicz of Byelorussia, Zvi Horowitz from Kovno, Abba Kovner, Abram Hornick, Anton Zuckerman, Mordechai Rosman from Warsaw, and many others. However, the most ruthless among this band of future assassins were those who led the first columns of Jewish refugees out of the Lublin stockade-MALACHI WALD, AVRAHAM BECKER, MIRA LAN, "BENNO" the Messenger, JUDAH KLEIN, and "Little sister," HANNAH BAUM. While most of those who were smuggled out simply wanted to escape the cauldron of suffering and painful memories in Europe, hoping to start a new life in the Promised Land where they could resume their lives in peace, there were others, such as the WALD group, who had no desire for peace at any price. Filled with hate and driven by a rancorous vendetta worse than any ever devised by the most blood-thirsty Mafia chieftain, they decided to remain behind and implement their criminal conspiracy. Thus, they set out for Frankfurt, with the blessings and assistance of their brothers. In this manner DIN was born. They set about planning and plotting to fulfill their murderous plans. Their confederates were carefully screened and chosen; only those whose furious hatred matched their own were selected and entrusted with key assignments. Their devious, highly sophisticated spy network, was composed exclusively of Jews who held key positions throughout occupied Europe. Most important among them were those who worked within the Soviet or Allied war crimes Commissions and could open the files to DIN. There were two sergeants working in the transport pool attached to U.S. Army Headquarters at the I.G. Farben building in Frankfurt, along with their equivalents in the British and French zones of occupation, whose assignment was to provide military transport vehicles for the assassins. Among them was a young American rabbi, a chaplain with the U.S. First Army. Within a few weeks, the DIN had a net spread across Germany and Austria. At this time approximately 300 individuals were actively involved in the organization. All had different tasks as either forgers, thieves or, like the Mafia, scouted out places where the killers could "take to the mattresses" after one of their hits. Plants, accomplices, and informers were placed inside camps where German prisoners of war were detained. Informants were, in fact, everywhere, and sent their information on to the assassins of DIN. No one was allowed to know more than he or she SHOULD know, and of course, all of those involved were Jews. An informant named "Israel" soon brought them information which would result in their first special action. This man had happened to stumble upon information from Jewish informants regarding a group of some 140 German youths who were allegedly meeting clandestinely by a river near Ulm, Bavaria. It was alleged that these youths had secretly stored automatic weapons in crates hidden below the surface of the water. Groups of Jewish spies from a neighbouring internment camp were dispatched to observe the actions of the group and record their coming and going. Two weeks later the assassins of DIN were ready. The concealed assassins opened fire with automatic weapons on the assembled youths, and finished them off with hand grenades, leaving 140 corpses behind them. This massacre brought unwanted heat on the killers, for the anguished parents of the murdered youngsters clamored for the apprehension and punishment of the assassins. Of course the assassins were neither identified nor apprehended, but by a curious quirk of fate, an inquest into the mass murder led to yet another gruesome action by the cut-throats of DIN. Immediately after the hearing, this same ISRAEL followed the attorney for the plaintiffs, who soon led him to yet another man. ISRAEL abandoned his tail of the attorney and surreptitiously pursued his prey. To the surprise of the DIN agent, HE also was being followed! The clever ISRAEL led his quarry directly into the lions den-DIN headquarters, where the unfortunate man was overpowered by the assassins. There the man was deliberately and fiendishly tortured until he revealed his identity. It was claimed that he was former SS Obersturmfuehrer Hubert Schwart, once stationed at Auschwitz. The torture became so unbearable that the unfortunate man blurted out that he was the bodyguard for Dr. Ernst Wetzel, who was on the allied list of accused war criminals. This was the man who had allegedly written Reichskommissar Heinrich Lohse in 1941, instructing him to gas Jews unsuitable for work. The assassins, having obtained what they wanted, dragged the mutilated man into an alley and slit his throat. Proceeding to Wetzels home, they dragged him out under cover of night and tortured him for two days before finally snuffing out his life. The murder was done in fine Mafia style, and the horribly disfigured corpse of Wetzel was wrapped in wire, and dumped into the Chiemsee, where the slain man could sleep with the fishes for eternity. The name of Wetzel still appears on lists of accused Nazi war criminals. Soon after this slaying, the DIN assassins were approached by a French Jew-Victor Berger, a major in the French Army. The meeting would prove to be a particularly fateful and DEADLY alliance. Becker explained that he had come to offer his services to the conspirators. To his initial surprise,the group did not respond to his suggestion with much gusto. As a matter of fact, after their bloody mass murder and the torture slaying of 2 ex- National Socialist officials, Bergers "Aryan" appearance was a cause for concern and suspicion among the apprehensive assassins. Berger, realizing this, offered to expose his circumcised ***** as evidence of his reliability. Berger, undaunted by the suspicions expressed by the DIN group, proceeded to present his case to the assembled Jews. His reason for being there was simple: He was out for vengeance. He admitted that he had already murdered Heinz Braune, assistant to Theodore Dannecker, Eichmanns representative in France, who was in charge of deportations of French Jews in 1942. Now Berger was after SS Obersturmfuehrer Konrad Schumann, also a member of Eichmann's Bureau. His proposal was this: If the DIN assassins would assist him in locating and killing Schumann, he was prepared to "give them" the lives of 200 Waffen SS prisoners of war-theirs for the killing in one fell sweep-along with a promise to be forever in their service for greater and bloodier deeds in the future. Thus Faust sold his soul and signed his covenant in the blood of his innocent victims. He was IN with DIN. Before agreeing to accept Bergers proposal, the DIN assassins decided to check him out with a Jewish American Army Sergeant named Meyer Tugend, who worked for the CIC in Frankfurt. Berger checked out, so Judah Klein was sent to negotiate the final terms of the agreement between Berger and DIN. Berger told Klein that Konrad Schumann was among some 800 SS men being held for interrogation at a POW camp in Muenster. Berger claimed that Schumann possessed false identity papers which described him as being a member of the Panzer Lehr Division. He claimed that an additional 200 men were being held separately at this same facility, because it was alleged that they had served as guards in concentration camps, or were ex-members of the Einsatzgruppen. It was these accused 200 men that Berger proposed to "give" to the DIN assassins in exchange for Schumann. Berger was too well known at the facility, so he proposed this scheme to the DIN squad: He would give Klein papers from the French war crimes commission along with a forged temporary transfer request for Schumann. He also proposed to give him an official armoured vehicle, some French army uniforms, and a hundred pounds of explosives. He had stolen all of these items weeks before and assured his accomplices in crime that they could never be traced. DIN was delighted with the arrangements and accepted the plan with enthusiasm. Four days later, Klein and four other assassins drove up to the compound, armed with the forged warrants, the explosives , and boxes of wine. The explosives were diverted toward the area which allegedly held the 200 ex-camp guards. The wine was supposedly a delivery for the Americans. The plan worked like a charm. Almost as soon as they drove out of the gates with their handcuffed victim, the bombs detonated and the force of the explosion was so great that it nearly blew them off the road. Body parts of the murdered were strewn all over the camp. The Jews retreated to the safety of a Jewish Displaced persons camp, which served as the base for their murderous activities. The camp was under the protection of the UNRRA. Schumann was handed over to Berger, who tortured him all the way to a little town named Sondershausen. Berger gagged and tied his victim in the manner utilized by serial killers and left him on the floor of the vehicle, which he parked in the middle of the town square before dawn. Berger thereupon exited the vehicle, locked the doors, and lit the fuse to a half case of dynamite hidden in the trunk. In this manner he murdered a man alleged to be Schumann. Publicly the murder was hushed up by the authorities and simply referred to as a "terrible accident." Months later, the French authorities were able to trace the disappearance of the stolen items to Berger, who was ignominiously released from service in the French army. He was not indicted for any of the murders which he himself committed or was responsible for arranging. As for DIN the taste of blood left them thirsty for more. Word of their bloody exploits reached the ears of the Jewish survivors still residing in the DP camps throughout Germany, but, instead of denouncing the band of murderers to the authorities, they decided to assist them! A simple denunciation was all it took to set the wheels of murder in high gear. Every Jew with a grudge denounced Germans for whom they held a grievance. DIN did not bother to question the veracity of any claim. The process by which people were denounced and then slated for assassination was relatively uncomplicated. The survivors" took their information to the headquarters of the Sheerit Hapleetah, the Jewish DP organization, where the organization would then forward the complaint to the military authorities. That was the "official" version; unofficially, the reports went to one of DINs "plants." There were dozens of Allied agencies dealing with "war criminals", and in most of these were Jews who were ready to lend a hand to the shadowy group of avengers. Materials were secretly copied from files, photos of the accused were passed on to the agents of DIN, along with complete personnel records. Many of these files came from the Red Army, as in the case of "Ivan the Terrible." The Red Army passed these alleged "authentic" documents on to two Poles who were appointed to prosecute accused war criminals on behalf of Poland-Tadeuz Cyprian and Jerzy Sawicki. A Jewish lawyer working for Sawicki photographed the materials and sent them along to his masters in DIN. Every man kidnapped was told he could save his life if only he would lead them to others "bigger" than himself. Some of the victims, out of fear for their lives, implicated other individuals. The Jewish assassins broke their promise and murdered not only the person in their charge, but also any other individuals named by their victim. Soon DIN developed a "hit list" - "targets", "marks," similar to those composed by the Mafia. It was when this master list was finally completed that they referred to their grisly conspiracy as "the Hunting Season." To execute the plan, DIN became better organized, despatching hit squads to various locations throughout Germany. These were divided into four zones, and the squads were accommodated with a list of secret Jewish operatives whom they were to contact for additional information. The contacts also supplied them with fake ID, uniforms and sometimes "get-a-way" vehicles. They were given insignia from the various armed forces. If the items could not be obtained from a Jewish plant, then they were taken by stealth or by force. Vehicles were easier to obtain in the British Zone, as many members of the "Jewish" Brigade were stationed there. In fact, there was NEVER an instance where the Jewish Brigade ever refused its services to the assassins. Thus, this hit squad achieved a high degree of organization. People simply disappeared off the streets-even in broad daylight. Victims were simply whisked away, like Eichmann, never to be seen again. The methods of killing varied. Most of the victims were garroted-Mafia style. Others were simply tortured to death. Distraught families searched frantically for their loved ones, who were by then lying dismembered in a shallow grave. Often "suicides" were arranged. In fact, suicides" were rather common-place. According to DIN, they murdered the following individuals: SS Brigadier General Dr. Wilhelm Albert allegedly because he assisted in evacuating the Lodz Ghetto. SS major Dr. Wilhem Altenloch, because he supervised the deportation of some 30,000 Jews. SS Captain Hans Bothmann, who was a member of the Prinz Eugen Division. SS Colonel Dr. Hans Geschke, Chief of Security Police in Hungary. Geschke received a commendation from Himmler who enjoined him to "keep your honour unsullied just as you must protect the honour of others and defend the defenceless." Paul Giesler-Gauleiter of Munich. SS General Odilo "Globus" Globocnik - (Who is still listed as "whereabouts unknown"). SS Brigadier General Dr. Ernst Grawitz-chief medical officer of the SS. SS Colonel Professor Albert Hohlfelder. SS Lieutenant General Dr. Friedrich Wilhelm Krueger - Higher SS and Police Leader in the General Government. SS Lieutenant Kurt Mussfeld-supervisor of Auschwitz crematorium no 2. SS Major Adalbert Neubauer. SS Major Karl Puetz - Chief of the Security Police at Rovno. SS Major Christian Wirth. (Listed today as whereabouts unknown). In short, practically any one who could have shed light on the Jewish policy of the Third Reich was murdered! Denunciations and "documents" supplied by the Soviet Union assured that each and every victim would die a very unpleasant death. Within two months, these self-appointed death squads had murdered at least 200 individuals. Soon, whether out of greed or fear, the DIN agents decided to relocate their base of operations to ALT-AUSSEE, where it was rumoured that Himmler had hoarded millions of dollars worth of gold. The killers now became treasure hunters. However, being unsuccessful in this venture they soon reverted to what they did best-murder. Their next move was to lie in wait outside of the Salzburg POW camp. There they once again left a trail of blood. They allegedly ambushed and killed Colonel Fritz Suhren, former Commander of Ravensbrueck,, along with approximately 20 other individuals whom they claimed were former commanders or members of the Einsatzgruppen. In spite of their overwhelming success in "getting away" with multiple murders, or perhaps BECAUSE of this fact, the DIN members soon became more enterprising. Steeped in blood though they were, their appetite for the red liquid could not be satiated to their satisfaction. Not ENOUGH blood had been shed. Not enough individuals had been butchered. The assassins talked it over, and soon decided to abandon bloody work in favor of a new plan, which they dubbed "Tochnit Aleph-Plan A-the plan to murder 1.5 million German civilians. The real author of Tochnit Aleph remains unknown to this day. No one would take credit for it publicly and no one broke the OMERTA of silence, but the details are well known. The idea behind the plan was to poison the water supply of a 1.5 Germans, much as Jews were once accused of poisoning the wells of Europe. Death in this case would come out of the turn of a faucet. Only the most ruthless members of DIN were chosen to carry out this heartless task. Once the assassins were chosen, the band split up and the remainder of the group fled to Palestine. The hard core of assassins sat down to work out the details. They identified four trouble-spots in implementing their nefarious plan, according to the author of "Forged in Fury": 1. The poison had to be odourless, tasteless, colourless, and hygroscopic- capable of maintaining fatal virulence when mixed in any amount of water. 2. The had to select a city or cities, target areas relatively free of Jews. 3. They had to place their agents in a position where they could introduce the poison directly into the water supply. 4. They had to work out an escape route to Israel. Their headquarters were stationed in Augsburg, with the man called "Israel" coordinating the effort from that vantage point. His assistant was Hannah "Little Sister" Baum-a tried and tested member of the inner core of assassins. She, like Emma Goldmann, who would not flinch from planting bombs to assassinate the innocent, was to be Israel's "Chief Lieutenant." Once the dirty deed was accomplished, the fugitives planned to flee from Europe by way of Marseilles. Berger was to supply the necessary papers. Two members of the "British" Jewish Brigade were appointed to serve as "technicians." It was these last two who chose the targets: MUNICH, WEIMAR, NUREMBERG, and WANNSEE. Symbolism obviously played a major role in their selection. The two engineers trained the men who were to serve as plants and agents to distribute the poison in the water supply of the doomed cities. Though it took some time and intricate manoeuvring, their agents were soon prepared to carryout the foul deed in at least two cities-MUNICH and NUREMBERG-one city being the birth- place of the National Socialist Party and the other being the domain of Julius Streicher and the site of the Nuremberg rallies-a German city which, perhaps more than others, symbolized the essence of National Socialism. A total of 1,380,000 German souls became their intended target. Malachi Wald, Avraham Becker, and Judah Klein were chosen to obtain the lethal poison, but it was once again Victor Berger who provided the first essential leads in carrying out the plan. Berger, through his wartime association with French bacteriologist and chemical warfare expert Professor Pasteur Valery- Radot, arranged to meet him for dinner one evening and liberally plied the unsuspecting man with drinks. By the time the evening was concluded, Berger had all the information he required: A couple of men, armed with a few suitcases full of a variety of choice compounds, and with access to bakeries, dairies, or bottling plants or the reservoirs, could in theory at least leave the cities a graveyard. The professor indicated two possible choices: a compound of an irritant poison unaffected by heat or the baking process, and which would cause rapid paralysis of the respiratory system, or one could spread Bubonic Plague-the Black Death of the Middle Ages. Berger jotted everything down and returned to DIN headquarters. The plotters were now ready for their next move. It was clear that a scientist was needed. One who could be relied upon. Clearly, they needed a Jew or number of Jews sympathetic to their plans. They needed Jews motivated by revenge. The answer seemed clear to those present: The search for a bacteriologist must be undertaken in Palestine, either at the medical school of Hebrew University in Jerusalem, or among the Jewish scientists at the research institute in Rehovot, around the Zionist leader, Chaim Weizmann, who was himself one of the worlds great bio- chemists. The decision being made, Malachi Wald was dispatched to Palestine to make the necessary arrangements. Wald entered the country equipped with false identification papers describing him as a Palestinian born building worker named Eleazar Ben-Chaim. His mission was to make contact with Jewish resistance cells in Palestine and enlist their support, but things had changed while he and his fellow assassins were in the midst of their machinations in Europe, Wald was informed that a new group was being formed which would supplant the DIN organization, as it was felt that DIN had served its purpose, and should now be dissolved to hide all traces of the criminal murder squads. Not that the work would be discontinued, no-the assignment would simply be transferred to new agents operating under a different guise. But Wald was not satisfied with this proposal. He for one did not plan to sit idly by and watch all of DINs plans go down the tubes. The decision had already been made to murder over one million German civilians, and that is what he intended to do-with or without the Haganah. Wald decided to approach Chaim Weizman on his own initiative. No record exists of this meeting between the respected bio-chemist and future president of Israel and the terrorist spawned out of the Ghettoes of Eastern Europe. No two people could have been less alike, yet, Wald was able to conjure up demons to frighten the old man who had lived through so much and fought so hard to achieve a dream which was once thought to be an impossible proposition. According to Wald, the venerable old man seemed to wince and shrink back with grief and pain. Finally, he is alleged to have said, "If I were you, having lived as you, I would do what you will do." Thereupon, Weizman, according to Wald, gave him the name of a bacteriologist, allegedly one Berman, and signed a message of introduction for him. According to Wald, a man honoured as none other by the Jewish people had given backing to the depraved plan hatched by the conspirators back in Augsburg. Wald did indeed meet with the chemist, who has since been identified. This chemist did indeed supply Wald with the lethal vector necessary for the implementation of his plan. Wald had one more item to fill on his agenda before embarking for Europe: a meeting with the heads of the Haganah in Palestine. Wald informed them of DINs plan as well as having received what he believed to be the blessing of Chaim Weizman. He had but one request of Haganah organization: that they furnish succour in assisting the conspirators to flee from Europe to Palestine once their mission was accomplished. One month later, Wald was summoned to Haganah headquarters where he was informed that he was to be smuggled out of Palestine and into Egypt, where he would pose as a Polish officer making his way back to Europe. Once there, he was to contact Haganah agents who would escort him to DIN headquarters. From that point on, they were on their own. Haganah agreed to smuggle the assassins out of the country once the plot was executed. Armed with the poison, Wald set out as arranged, but was apprehended by the British authorities while in transit and thrown into gaol. Thus the dream of murdering one million Germans vanished with the click of British manacles around the wrists of Wald. How did the British discover the plot? No one knows for certain and no one is claiming the credit. Wald himself believes the Haganah betrayed him. He completely discounted the notion that Weizman was the informant because Weizman referred him to the chemist who supplied him with the poison. On the other hand, it is possible that the French were the informants. Perhaps Professor Valery-Ridot was not as drunk as Victor Berger had thought. This explanation seems to be plausible when we consider that it was the French who discovered Bergers involvement in DIN in the first place, the consequences of which precipitated his dishonourable discharge from the French armed forces. Needless to add, none of these crimes have ever been accounted for and not one of the murderers was ever brought before the bar of justice to answer for their horrible crimes. When one considers that, according to the Bible, 77,000 Persians were once slain upon the mere complaint of a Jew that one man was planning the destruction of the Jewish race in Persia, one wonders why those who planned to murder one million Germans should go unpunished and continue living a life of ease and comfort in Israel today. As a curious footnote to the above, Haganah called the remaining assassins back to Israel once Wald had been apprehended. The remaining DIN members refused to comply with the order. Like the tales about the Devil leaving a foul stench before being induced to depart from tormenting the living, the DIN assassins were not about to retreat without spilling more blood in their wake. Thus, Victor Berger reappeared and proposed TOCHNIT Beth-Plan B. By this time, he knew quite a bit about poison and even had access to some. The group selected a target to expend their murderous energy-an Interrogation Center of the Joint Allied Control Center outside Nuremberg. The facility intrigued them, for it contained more than 8,000 Waffen-SS prisoners of war. Not even a small segment of this massive contingent of prisoners ever served in either the Einsatzgruppen or the camps. They learned which German bakery supplied bread to the camp, using flour allocated by the American army. The group insinuated their agents into the bakery, and there infused the bread destined for the prisoners with lethal poison. Berger himself had supplied the poison. A watchman was murdered so the criminals could carry on the working of basting the bread with lethal doses of poison. A dog was also killed to quiet its barking. A third man strangled to death on a gag which had shoved down his throat by Hannah Baum. They commandeered a truck and delivered the poisoned loaves to the camp. Once the bread was distributed, they fled into Czechoslovakia, and from there, into Israel. Their poison had worked rather well. More than 700 German veterans had died, most of them young men and boys, none of whom had anything to do with the deportation and incarceration of Jews. Over a thousand more were seriously ill, and a good number of them were expected to die as well. Fate caught up with Avraham Becker, who was eventually killed in the Negev desert. Judah Klein eventually lost a leg to Arab armor. But in 1952-DIN was reformed by Malachi Wald to embark upon a new task of destruction. Most of the old gang was alive and still propelled by the same hate which motivated all their dastardly murders in previous years. New faces were brought into the Brotherhood of Murder-primarily by Victor Berger. Former SS Captain Fritz Hartjenstein was the first to fall victim to their blood lust. He was run down in a street in Paris. Undoubtedly they were also responsible for the murder of SS officer Jochen Peiper, who was gunned down outside his country home in France, but not before putting up one hell of a fire-fight, in which one or more of the assassins may have been injured. This group was also undoubtedly responsible for the mail bomb which was sent to Alois Brunner, Eichmanns aide, which cost him his hand. In fact, DINs criminal activities now encompassed the globe. Whenever and wherever it was possible, deaths were arranged to appear "accidental" or made to appear as "suicides." Thus, SS Lieutenant Hans Groetner was found dead in a roadside ditch. Hans Stuckart, once in charge of Jewish Affairs in Berlin, met a similar fate. Otto Abetz burned to death in a car when something went wrong with his steering wheel on a busy highway. Theo Dannecker "hanged himself" in his home, as did SS Lieutenant Kurt Mussfeld. Other alleged suicides were former Gauleiter Jacob Sprenger and Georg Puetz, a former Gestapo officer, who curiously was alleged to have committed suicide by injecting kerosene into his blood-stream while awaiting a minor operation in the hospital! The bloodied hands of DIN even may have reached into the German prison system, where accomplices could have been bribed or otherwise solicited in furthering the criminal plans of the assassins. Thus, Franz Stangl and Richard Baer both perished while in prison under mysterious circumstances. In short, every officer who might have been able to shed light on the Jewish policy of the Third Reich mysteriously perished-with the exception of two-Adolf Eichmann and Josef Mengele. Mengele, of course, died a natural death, but not for want of DINs repeated attempt to locate him. However, even Rudolf Hess perished under suspicious circumstances. However, Eichmann's case was special-he was wanted alive for a show trial in Israel, and for this purpose DIN which had actually LOCATED Eichmann in Buenos Aires, proposed a deal to the Israeli government. Instead of killing him, they would hand him over to Israel for a show trial. Wald went to Isser Harel-former chief of Israels Security Service-"SS," if you will-and put an "if" to him. "IF" we could lead you to Eichmann, could you take him to Israel; and would you then hand him over to us for our purposes?" Wald received no direct comment from Harel, but Ben Gurion agreed to his proposal. In fact, DINs original plan was to torture Eichmann and his entire family to DEATH. In fact, knowing what we know today, is it any wonder that Eichmann agreed to whatever his captors wanted him to say at the trial? Curiously, Eichmann's youngest son, who was still an infant at the time his father was illegally abducted, recently met with his fathers captor and swallowed the line of his fathers alleged guilt hook, line, and sinker, which caused his eldest brothers to reprimand him, which was reported in an article in PEOPLE Magazine not long ago. Undoubtedly, he had no idea what DIN had in store for his mother, brothers, and himself had his father not made his own ultimate sacrifice to save the lives of his family. In fact, the incessant harping and whining of certain alarmist Jewish groups, such as the Wiesenthal Center and the Jewish run offices of the OSI, concerning the subject of bringing accused Nazi "war criminals to justice, appears to be more than a bit hypocritical in light of the fact that the murderers of DIN and Stalin's Slave Labour Kapos are still living foot-loose and fancy free under the protection of the Israeli Government today. Postscript; After completing this article, I received a mailed copy of an article by Michael Freedland, a writer for the English Newspaper, The Observer. In this article, which appeared on March 15, 1998, and which bears the caption, "The Jewish Executioner," the journalist interviews former DIN assassin Joseph Harmatz. Harmatz has now decided to break his decades long self-imposed silence and has just written a book about his experiences as an assassin. Harmatz is proud and unabashed concerning his role in countless murders. After discussing his role as chief bread poisoner, he gloats with satisfaction, "I felt very good." Though he makes a number of interesting revelations, a number of facts appear to have been purposely downplayed by both the author of the article and Harmatz himself. Lets examine what this writer believes to be the most relevant portions of the article: Harmatz reveals that the original plan conceived by DIN actually encompassed the idea of poisoning six million German civilians in retaliation for the six million Jews allegedly killed by the Nazis. According to Freedland: Joseph Harmatz has kept silent about these events for 50 years; now he has spoken for the first time. And hes done so without the slightest suggestion of regret at the mass killing he planned and administered. Yet Harmatz DOES speak of regrets. For instance, he remarks: We were the Avengers. Unfortunately, we did not do more. Our ultimate intention was to kill six million Germans, one for every Jew slaughtered by the Germans. Indeed, Freedland observes: Harmatz draws none of the usual distinctions between Germans and Nazis. "I put them all together," he says. "And I don't feel any differently today. When I read of the Queen Mother unveiling the statue to Bomber Harris who was responsible for the bombing of Dresden, I was very pleased." Freedland discloses that Harmatz was much more open in his interview than he was in his soon to be published book, "From the Wings." In fact, Harmatz feels comfortable and at ease in his apartment in the fashionable suburb of Ramat Aviv, a block away from the home of the assassinated Israeli Premier Yitzhak Rabin. It seems that bloody assassinations still follow him around to this day. Briefly recounting Harmatz life story, he was born and raised in Vilna, once known as the "Jerusalem of Lithuania." Like so many young, idealistic Jews of his generation, Harmatz, an atheist, was a member of the Young Communist organization in his native country, a fact which could not have endeared either him or his associates to the National Socialists or Lithuanian population in general. When the war broke out, Harmatz and his accomplices, all fellow Jews, were give arms by the Soviets. Harmatz was denounced to the Gestapo by a native Lithuanian who had had enough of the new "Socialist experiment." Fortunately for Harmatz, he was able to escape the clutches of the Gestapo and submerge himself into the mass of Lithuanian Jews living in the Ghettoes. It was then that Harmatz made contact with Jewish partisan groups, supplied with guns and materials from the Soviet Union. According to Harmatz: Many of our people had come from camps of armed forces where they would work. Through our connections with the Communist party-we would buy guns. (Other sources such as Isaac Kowalski claim that guns, ammunition, and supplies were all distributed by the Soviets free of charge to their agents behind the lines.) Seemingly confirming the oft expressed suspicion of the Gestapo that the ghettoes served as bases for all types of illegal activities, Harmatz admits: I would let people who had guns through the gates. A guy called Baruch Goldstein would come through an entrance to the ghetto, which was very high up. When he had guns, he would raise his finger. So we started pushing and shouting and he would sneak in with the guns under his clothes. We were instructed in the use of arms, pistols, and grenades. Hounded by the Gestapo, the partisan groups fled to the forests 40 kilometers south of Vilna. There he met up with the likes of Abba Kovner. Harmatz states that after the war, it was the Jewish ghetto Police who became the first victims of assassination, yet, curiously, he also states that he and his fellow assassins knew "nothing about concentration camps" and had "assumed" that the Jewish population of Vilna had been taken to the nearby town of Polnar and shot! Apparently, this baseless charge was also repeated by Kowalski. The Jewish police, who assisted in the deportation measures, were also "assumed" to have been guilty of collaboration with the Nazis. In a rare moment of pure candidness, Harmatz expands upon the role of the so- called "Jewish Brigade." He says, Some of their members would, before long, personally execute SS personnel. In one operation, dressed as military policemen, they "took in for questioning" all the members of a Nazi cell-and strangled them-except for one SS man who was thrown, alive, off a cliff. Curiously, it was also members of this same "Jewish Brigade" who captured SS General Hans Pruetzmann and Heinrich Himmler, who were later officially classified as "suicides." Even more astounding is the fact that Harmatz next claims to have heard about the horrors of the concentration camps after the war. Astonishingly, his own mother, who was one of those deported from the Vilna Ghetto, and who was assumed to be among the "dead" at Polnar, SURVIVED and was reunited with her son! Yet, Harmatz found nothing incongruous about all of this, for his two brothers perished during the war. How they perished is unknown and for all we know they, too, could have died while fighting with partisan groups. However, the very fact that Harmatzs mother survived should serve as a clarion call to exterminationists, for Isaac Kowalski writes in his three volume work on Jewish Resistance to the Nazis that it was precisely people like Harmatz mother who were slated to be immediately killed by the Nazis! However, these facts were of little concern to Harmatz for they would have interfered with his plans of revenge against all Germans who dominated his murderous fantasies based upon real and imagined persecution under the Nazis. This being his objective, he immediately sojourned to Israel after the war to enlist support for his cause. There, he discovered, were two schools of thought-one school, dominated by David Ben Gurion, wished to exact revenge against the Germans by economic means-through reparations- the other, by killing. In fact, both means were apparently decided upon. Now, at this point, both the Jewish journalist, Freedland, and Harmatz, discuss the role of Chaim Weizmann in the plan to murder over one million German civilians-and both seek to downplay the role of the elder Jewish Statesman and leading Zionist of his time. They claim that Weizmann was not told in detail about the plan to murder millions of human beings in Germany; they claim he was told only about the plot to poison the bread of SS men, but this contradicts what the leader of the plot, Abba Kovner had to say on this issue. According to the author of "Forged in Fury," he writes: "Wald asked him then, "They who did this to these, and to the thousands and the millions, they who did it, who applauded it or allowed it, shall they not now pay? That which they have sowed, shall they not reap?" According to Freedland, "Harmatz says he has no idea why Weizmann agreed to cooperate." All we do know is that enough poison was hidden in cans of condensed milk to thoroughly wipe out the populations of whole cities.

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Article I, Section 7 clearly states that bills cannot be presented to the president for signature unless they have been approved by both houses of Congress in the same form. If the House approves the Senate bill in the same legislation by which it approves changes to the Senate bill, it will fail that requirement.The actual constitutional text is: "Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States." No one doubts that the House can consolidate two bills in a single measure; the question is whether, having done so, it may then hive the resulting bill into two parts, treating one part as an enrolled bill ready for presidential signature and the other part as a House bill ready for senatorial consideration. That seems inconsistent with the principle that the president may sign only bills in the exact form that they have passed both houses. A combination of two bills is not in "the same form" as either bill separately.McConnell is fending off the argument that the House, under Article I, §5 ("Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings"), has the authority to bundle 2 bills together and vote on them at the same time. He also must contend with the argument — which has some case law in support — that the House makes the final call on the meaning of the Constitution in this area. Read lawprof Jack Balkin's response to McConnell: As I understand the rule in question, it does not actually "consolidate two bills into a single measure." Rather, it says that once the House votes on the reconciliation measure, it also votes on the Senate Bill.... McConnell's objection is formalist: He concedes that the House could have separate votes on both bills, and send one to the President and the other to the Senate. His sole objection is that the House leadership has decided to vote on them together using a single procedural rule. But if he wants to make that kind of formalist argument, the House has an equally formalist rejoinder: The use of this particular procedural rule does not consolidate the two measures into a single measure. It just consolidates a vote on the two measures. In fact, the language of the rule actually preserves their separate character; it refers to the language of the reconciliation measure and the Senate bill separately. What the leaders of the House would say is that McConnell has made a basic mistake: He has confused a bill with an internal rule for voting on a bill.... ... The Constitution leaves to Congress to decide how to authenticate bills, and the Court won't second-guess the evidence....What I've observed is that the Supreme Court employs formalistic-sounding arguments as a convention of opinion-writing when it is confronting Congress over matters like this and finding something unconstitutional. But, I think, a judicial intuition that something is amiss precedes the opinion-writing, and that intuition has to do with much more than a parsing of the text. As Balkin shows, you can go either way with the text if you want. The deeper question is whether the procedure deprives us — the people — of a structural safeguard that would protect us from the abuse of power. Is this something that matters, something we should care about, something that operates to preserve the accountability of our representatives? And the answer to that question must be disaggregated from the question whether we like the substance of the bill/bills. If you go with Balkin because you want the health care reform, or with McConnell because you don't, then you are not talking about the Constitution. McConnell's main aim is to create doubt about the "deem and pass" and thereby affect the vote in the House. He ends his op-ed: Will wavering House members want to use this procedure when there is a nontrivial probability that the courts will render their political sacrifice wasted effort? To hazard that risk, the House leadership must have a powerful motive to avoid a straightforward vote.Whether you want to think about the Constitution or not, you may ask: If this reform really is desirable, why are they doing it in such a bizarre way? The constitutional questions add heft to that question. If McConnell's interpretation is good, the procedure is all the more bizarre, and the doubts that arise are aggravated. If Balkin's right, then everything's fine, calm down, let it go. They are talking about law, but they are talking to Congress, trying to affect the vote. Predictions about what courts will and will not do play into the present debate. What seems most important to me, both politically and in answering the constitutional question (if it, ultimately, becomes necessary), is whether the members of the House of Representatives understand and make it absolutely transparent that what they are doing is voting on 2 bills and that the Senate bill, if approved, will go independently and directly to the President for signature, and that, upon the President's signature, that bill will become law on its own, without any regard to whether that other bill ever makes it through the Senate and into law later on. If the members of the House of Representatives are going to deny that they voted for the Senate bill that became law (on its own) or if they will say that they were somehow caught unaware or betrayed by the Senate or tricked, then I think the rule is unconstitutional. But if they cannot use the rule that way — as political cover — why use it at all?

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Green Chemistry Education Network The Green Chemistry in Education Workshop is for educators in the chemical sciences interested in incorporating green or sustainable chemistry concepts into the organic chemistry curriculum and laboratory. This five-day workshop held on the University of Oregon campus will be a combination of lectures, discussion, and hands-on time in the laboratory. Leaders in the field will address the need for green chemistry in the undergraduate curriculum and provide strategies for designing, adapting and incorporating new green experiments into existing organic chemistry curricula. The primary goal for this workshop is establishing a network of chemical educators who are promoting green chemistry and increasing the number of educators who incorporate green chemistry experiments and concepts into their teaching. During the lecture sessions, a panel of speakers will introduce green chemistry, discuss the adoption of green organic experiments and lecture materials, address the challenges and opportunities in green chemistry education, and provide advice on developing new green chemistry materials. Ample time will be made available for participants to discuss their own plans for adopting green chemistry with the lecturers and fellow participants. During the laboratory sessions, participants will have an opportunity to perform and evaluate greener organic laboratory experiments developed at the University of Oregon and elsewhere. Educational materials used in teaching the green organic chemistry lab will be distributed during the workshop, including our recently published textbook, "Green Organic Chemistry: Strategies, Tools, and Laboratory Experiments," by Kenneth M. Doxsee and James E. Hutchison, published by Brooks/Cole. The Workshop speakers will be a diverse panel of scientists and educators who will present the latest trends in the green chemistry field based on their own experiences in either industry or academia. The Green Chemistry in Education Workshop will be held at the University of Oregon in Eugene, Oregon.

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“We are liquidating the earth’s natural assets to fuel our consumption.” In World on the Edge, Lester Brown of the Earth Policy Institute, writes “The world’s ever-growing herds of cattle, sheep, and goats are converting vast stretches of grassland to desert. Forests are shrinking by 13 million acres per year as we clear land for agriculture and cut trees for lumber and paper. Four fifths of oceanic fisheries are being fished at capacity or overfished and headed for collapse. In system after system, demand is overshooting supply.” Lester Brown Chapter 1 On the Edge Human expansion into the environment for shelter, food, and fuel, exacerbated by the sprawl around cities, is squeezing wildlife into the last remaining islands of shrinking habitat. What is at stake? In 1979, 1.2 million elephants roamed the African continent. That number currently is 300,000 elephants. We have lost 75% of the elephant herds mainly due to poaching, loss of habitat and human conflict. Wildlife Direct Elephant Slaughter is Recurring Kenya’s Lions are on the brink of extinction. The total population of mountain gorillas worldwide is 786 because of shrinking habitat. North America inexplicably began losing bee colonies. Chemicals in the water supply cause small amphibians to show mutations. A giant Garbage Patch in the Pacific floats unnoticed by humans, but putting plastics into the DNA of birds. The list is long and depressing. But this conflict that threatens the futures of both wildlife and humans has a solution – with abundant cold fusion energy technology. Growing food locally and sustainably is economically viable using cold fusion energy. The first commercial device of this revolutionary technology is essentially a steam generator, which could provide affordable clean water, as well as hot water and heat, off-grid in the remotest locations to support agriculture, horticulture, aquaculture, and domestic needs. Designed to run on hydrogen and a recyclable nickel powder, only one gram of nickel can provide 10 kilowatts of thermal energy from a small portable unit, recharging in about six-months. Even in cold climates, steam generators can heat greenhouses for organic food all year long. With plentiful energy, it becomes economically viable to recycle all waste, reducing the need for more virgin resources, and no more plastic into the environment! With clean and abundant cold fusion energy, we can stop the pollution from fossil fuels and the end resource wars limited supplies engender. Carbon-burning steam power revolutionized farming in the 19th century. Nickel-Hydrogen Exothermic Reaction steam power can revolutionize world agriculture in the 21rst century. In the ancient Mediterranean villages where philosophy and science began, problems associated with increasing population in were taken care of by shipping off a portion of the tribe to a new location, sometimes forcefully, and founding a new colony. 21rst century humans do not have that same opportunity. There is no ‘Unknown’ area on Earth to expand into. Moon base 2020? Not likely without cold fusion energy. On Earth, there is only what we choose to programas Nature. ‘Nature’ can only be a work of Art with the participation of All. Why should we care about the wildlife of this world? One of the first philosophers in the Greek world was Empedocles. He lived around 450BC and came from the island of Sicily. In one of his surviving fragments of writing, he relates to his student Pausanias the importance of listening carefully to the words his teacher Empedocles is saying. And why is listening to the teacher Empedocles’ words so important? “If you press them down underneath your dense-packed diaphragm and oversee them with good will and with pure attention to the work, they will all without the slightest exception stay with you for as long as you live. And, from them, you will come to possess many other things. For they grow, each according to its own inner disposition, in whatever way their But if you reach out instead after other kinds of things – after the ten thousand worthless things that exist among humans, blunting their cares – then you can be sure they will only too gladly leave you with the circling of time, longing to return to their own dear kind. For you need to know that everything has intelligence and a share Empedocles 450BC translated by Peter Kingsley inReality Cold Fusion Now! Reality by Peter Kingsley www.peterkingsley.org Earth Policy Institute You can help animals and birds in your neighborhood by providing fresh drinking water, putting bird seed in feeders, and plant indigenous to feed local wildlife. Refrain from toxic chemical use in and around your home, and recycle even the tiniest of plastic pieces. To Learn More about Endangered Species

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Convert calendar time to local time #include <time.h> struct tm* localtime_r( const time_t* timer, struct tm* result ); - A pointer to a time_t object that contains the calendar time that you want to convert. - A pointer to a tm structure where the function can store the converted time. Use the -l c option to qcc to link against this library. This library is usually included automatically. The localtime_r() function converts the calendar time pointed to by timer into local time, storing the information in the struct tm that result points to. Whenever you call localtime_r(), it calls tzset(). You typically get a calendar time by calling time(). That time is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC, formerly known as Greenwich Mean Time or GMT). You typically use the date command to set the computer's internal clock using Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). Use the TZ environment variable or _CS_TIMEZONE configuration string to establish the local time zone. A pointer to result, the struct tm.

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|dye with a high affinity for cellulose fibers (cotton or rayon etc.) [syn: direct dye]| any of a class of coloured, water-soluble compounds that have an affinity for fibre and are taken up directly, such as the benzidine derivatives. Direct dyes are usually cheap and easily applied, and they can yield bright colours. Washfastness is poor but may be improved by aftertreatment. Most packaged dyes sold for home use are direct dyes. Learn more about substantive dye with a free trial on Britannica.com. |a stew of meat, vegetables, potatoes, etc.| |the offspring of a zebra and a donkey.|

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On this page: - What is gastroparesis? - What causes gastroparesis? - What are the symptoms of gastroparesis? - How is gastroparesis diagnosed? - How is gastroparesis treated? - How is gastroparesis treated if a person has diabetes? - What are the problems of gastroparesis? - Points to Remember - Hope through Research - For More Information What is gastroparesis? Gastroparesis, also called delayed gastric emptying, is a disorder that slows or stops the movement of food from the stomach to the small intestine. Normally, the muscles of the stomach, which are controlled by the vagus nerve, contract to break up food and move it through the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The GI tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. The movement of muscles in the GI tract, along with the release of hormones and enzymes, allows for the digestion of food. Gastroparesis can occur when the vagus nerve is damaged by illness or injury and the stomach muscles stop working normally. Food then moves slowly from the stomach to the small intestine or stops moving altogether. What causes gastroparesis? Most people diagnosed with gastroparesis have idiopathic gastroparesis, which means a health care provider cannot identify the cause, even with medical tests. Diabetes is the most common known cause of gastroparesis. People with diabetes have high levels of blood glucose, also called blood sugar. Over time, high blood glucose levels can damage the vagus nerve. Other identifiable causes of gastroparesis include intestinal surgery and nervous system diseases such as Parkinson’s disease or multiple sclerosis. For reasons that are still unclear, gastroparesis is more commonly found in women than in men. What are the symptoms of gastroparesis? The most common symptoms of gastroparesis are nausea, a feeling of fullness after eating only a small amount of food, and vomiting undigested food—sometimes several hours after a meal. Other symptoms of gastroparesis include - gastroesophageal reflux (GER), also called acid reflux or acid regurgitation—a condition in which stomach contents flow back up into the esophagus, the organ that connects the mouth to the stomach - pain in the stomach area - abdominal bloating - lack of appetite Symptoms may be aggravated by eating greasy or rich foods, large quantities of foods with fiber—such as raw fruits and vegetables—or drinking beverages high in fat or carbonation. Symptoms may be mild or severe, and they can occur frequently in some people and less often in others. The symptoms of gastroparesis may also vary in intensity over time in the same individual. Sometimes gastroparesis is difficult to diagnose because people experience a range of symptoms similar to those of other diseases. How is gastroparesis diagnosed? Gastroparesis is diagnosed through a physical exam, medical history, blood tests, tests to rule out blockage or structural problems in the GI tract, and gastric emptying tests. Tests may also identify a nutritional disorder or underlying disease. To rule out any blockage or other structural problems, the health care provider may perform one or more of the following tests: - Upper gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy. This procedure involves using an endoscope—a small, flexible tube with a light—to see the upper GI tract, which includes the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum—the first part of the small intestine. The test is performed at a hospital or outpatient center by a gastroenterologist—a doctor who specializes in digestive diseases. The endoscope is carefully fed down the esophagus and into the stomach and duodenum. A small camera mounted on the endoscope transmits a video image to a monitor, allowing close examination of the intestinal lining. A person may receive a liquid anesthetic that is gargled or sprayed on the back of the throat. An intravenous (IV) needle is placed in a vein in the arm if general anesthesia is given. The test may show blockage or large bezoars—solid collections of food, mucus, vegetable fiber, hair, or other material that cannot be digested in the stomach—that are sometimes softened, dissolved, or broken up during an upper GI endoscopy. - Upper GI series. An upper GI series may be done to look at the small intestine. The test is performed at a hospital or outpatient center by an x-ray technician, and the images are interpreted by a radiologist—a doctor who specializes in medical imaging. Anesthesia is not needed. No eating or drinking is allowed for 8 hours before the procedure, if possible. If the person has diabetes, a health care provider may give different instructions about fasting before the test. During the procedure, the person will stand or sit in front of an x-ray machine and drink barium, a chalky liquid. Barium coats the small intestine, making signs of gastroparesis show up more clearly on x rays. Gastroparesis is likely if the x ray shows food in the stomach after fasting. A person may experience bloating and nausea for a short time after the test. For several days afterward, barium liquid in the GI tract causes stools to be white or light colored. A health care provider will give the person specific instructions about eating and drinking after the test. - Ultrasound. Ultrasound uses a device, called a transducer, that bounces safe, painless sound waves off organs to create an image of their structure. The procedure is performed in a health care provider’s office, outpatient center, or hospital by a specially trained technician, and the images are interpreted by a radiologist; anesthesia is not needed. The images can show whether gallbladder disease and pancreatitis could be the cause of a person’s digestive symptoms, rather than gastroparesis. - Gastric emptying scintigraphy. The test involves eating a bland meal—such as eggs or an egg substitute—that contains a small amount of radioactive material. The test is performed in a radiology center or hospital by a specially trained technician and interpreted by a radiologist; anesthesia is not needed. An external camera scans the abdomen to show where the radioactive material is located. The radiologist is then able to measure the rate of gastric emptying at 1, 2, 3, and 4 hours after the meal. If more than 10 percent of the meal is still in the stomach at 4 hours, the diagnosis of gastroparesis is confirmed. - SmartPill. The SmartPill is a small electronic device in capsule form. The SmartPill test is available at specialized outpatient centers. The images are interpreted by a radiologist. The device is swallowed and moves through the entire digestive tract, sending information to a cell-phone-sized receiver worn around the person’s waist or neck. The recorded information provides a detailed record of how quickly food travels through each part of the digestive tract. - Breath test. With this test, the person eats a meal containing a small amount of radioactive material; then breath samples are taken over a period of several hours to measure the amount of radioactive material in the exhaled breath. The results allow the health care provider to calculate how fast the stomach is emptying. How is gastroparesis treated? Treatment of gastroparesis depends on the severity of the person’s symptoms. In most cases, treatment does not cure gastroparesis, which is usually a chronic, or long-lasting, condition. Gastroparesis is also a relapsing condition—the symptoms can come and go for periods of time. Treatment helps people manage the condition so they can be as comfortable and active as possible. Eating, Diet, and Nutrition Changing eating habits can sometimes help control the severity of gastroparesis symptoms. A health care provider may suggest eating six small meals a day instead of three large ones. If less food enters the stomach each time a person eats, the stomach may not become overly full, allowing it to empty more easily. Chewing food well, drinking noncarbonated liquids with a meal, and walking or sitting for 2 hours after a meal—instead of lying down—may assist with gastric emptying. A health care provider may also recommend avoiding high-fat and fibrous foods. Fat naturally slows digestion and some raw vegetables and fruits are more difficult to digest than other foods. Some foods, such as oranges and broccoli, contain fibrous parts that do not digest well. People with gastroparesis should minimize their intake of large portions of these foods because the undigested parts may remain in the stomach too long. Sometimes, the undigested parts form bezoars. When a person has severe symptoms, a liquid or puréed diet may be prescribed. As liquids tend to empty more quickly from the stomach, some people may find a puréed diet helps improve symptoms. Puréed fresh or cooked fruits and vegetables can be incorporated into shakes and soups. A health care provider may recommend a dietitian to help a person plan meals that minimize symptoms and ensure all nutritional needs are met. When the most extreme cases of gastroparesis lead to severe nausea, vomiting, and dehydration, urgent care may be required at a medical facility where IV fluids can be given. Several prescription medications are available to treat gastroparesis. A combination of medications may be used to find the most effective treatment. Metoclopramide (Reglan). This medication stimulates stomach muscle contractions to help with gastric emptying. Metoclopramide also helps reduce nausea and vomiting. The medication is taken 20 to 30 minutes before meals and at bedtime. Possible side effects of metoclopramide include fatigue, sleepiness, and depression. Currently, this is the only medication approved by the FDA for treatment of gastroparesis. However, the FDA has placed a black box warning on this medication because of rare reports of it causing an irreversible neurologic side effect called tardive dyskinesia—a disorder that affects movement. Erythromycin. This antibiotic, prescribed at low doses, may improve gastric emptying. Like metaclopramide, erythromycin works by increasing the contractions that move food through the stomach. Possible side effects of erythromycin include nausea, vomiting, and abdominal cramps. Other medications. Other medications may be used to treat symptoms and problems related to gastroparesis. For example, medications known as antiemetics are used to help control nausea and vomiting. Botulinum toxin is a nerve blocking agent also known as Botox. After passing an endoscope into the stomach, a health care provider injects the Botox into the pylorus, the opening from the stomach into the duodenum. Botox is supposed to help keep the pylorus open for longer periods of time and improve symptoms of gastroparesis. Although some initial research trials showed modest improvement in gastroparesis symptoms and the rate of gastric emptying following the injections, other studies have failed to show the same degree of effectiveness of the Botox injections.1 1Bai Y, Xu MJ, Yang X, et al. A systematic review on intrapyloric botulinum toxin injection for gastroparesis. Digestion. 2010;81(1):27–34. Gastric Electrical Stimulation This treatment alternative may be effective for some people whose nausea and vomiting do not improve with dietary changes or medications. A gastric neurostimulator is a surgically implanted battery-operated device that sends mild electrical pulses to the stomach muscles to help control nausea and vomiting. The procedure may be performed at a hospital or outpatient center by a gastroenterologist. General anesthesia may be required. The gastroenterologist makes several tiny incisions in the abdomen and inserts a laparoscope—a thin tube with a tiny video camera attached. The camera sends a magnified image from inside the stomach to a video monitor, giving the gastroenterologist a close-up view of the tissues. Once implanted, the settings on the battery-operated device can be adjusted to determine the settings that best control symptoms. If medications and dietary changes don’t work, and the person is losing weight or requires frequent hospitalization for dehydration, a health care provider may recommend surgically placing a feeding tube through the abdominal wall directly into a part of the small intestine called the jejunum. The surgical procedure is known as a jejunostomy. The procedure is performed by a surgeon at a hospital or outpatient center. Anesthesia is needed. The feeding tube bypasses the stomach and delivers a special liquid food with nutrients directly into the jejunum. The jejunostomy is used only when gastroparesis is extremely severe. When gastroparesis is so severe that dietary measures and other treatments are not helping, a health care provider may recommend parenteral nutrition—an IV liquid food mixture supplied through a special tube in the chest. The procedure is performed by a surgeon at a hospital or outpatient center; anesthesia is needed. The surgeon inserts a thin, flexible tube called a catheter into a chest vein, with the catheter opening outside the skin. A bag containing liquid nutrients is attached to the catheter, and the nutrients are transported through the catheter into the chest vein and into the bloodstream. This approach is a less preferable alternative to a jejunostomy and is usually a temporary treatment to get through a difficult period of gastroparesis. How is gastroparesis treated if a person has diabetes? An elevated blood glucose level directly interferes with normal stomach emptying, so good blood glucose control in people with diabetes is important. However, gastroparesis can make blood glucose control difficult. When food that has been delayed in the stomach finally enters the small intestine and is absorbed, blood glucose levels rise. Gastric emptying is unpredictable with gastroparesis, causing a person’s blood glucose levels to be erratic and difficult to control. The primary treatment goals for gastroparesis related to diabetes are to improve gastric emptying and regain control of blood glucose levels. In addition to the dietary changes and treatments already described, a health care provider will likely adjust the person’s insulin regimen. To better control blood glucose, people with diabetes and gastroparesis may need to - take insulin more often or change the type of insulin they take - take insulin after meals, instead of before - check blood glucose levels frequently after eating and administer insulin when necessary A health care provider will give specific instructions for taking insulin based on the individual’s needs and the severity of gastroparesis. In some cases, the dietitian may suggest eating several liquid or puréed meals a day until gastroparesis symptoms improve and blood glucose levels are more stable. What are the problems of gastroparesis? The problems of gastroparesis can include - severe dehydration due to persistent vomiting - gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), which is GER that occurs more than twice a week for a few weeks; GERD can lead to esophagitis— irritation of the esophagus - bezoars, which can cause nausea, vomiting, obstruction, or interfere with absorption of some medications in pill form - difficulty managing blood glucose levels in people with diabetes - malnutrition due to poor absorption of nutrients or a low calorie intake - decreased quality of life, including work absences due to severe symptoms Points to Remember - Gastroparesis, also called delayed gastric emptying, is a disorder that slows or stops the movement of food from the stomach to the small intestine. - Gastroparesis can occur when the vagus nerve is damaged by illness or injury and the stomach muscles stop working normally. Food then moves slowly from the stomach to the small intestine or stops moving altogether. - Most people diagnosed with gastroparesis have idiopathic gastroparesis, which means a health care provider cannot identify the cause, even with medical tests. - Diabetes is the most common known cause of gastroparesis. People with diabetes have high levels of blood glucose, also called blood sugar. Over time, high blood glucose levels can damage the vagus nerve. - The most common symptoms of gastroparesis are nausea, a feeling of fullness after eating only a small amount of food, and vomiting undigested food— sometimes several hours after a meal. Other common symptoms include gastroesophageal reflux (GER), pain in the stomach area, abdominal bloating, and lack of appetite. - Gastroparesis is diagnosed through a physical exam, medical history, blood tests, tests to rule out blockage or structural problems in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and gastric emptying tests. - Changing eating habits can sometimes help control the severity of gastroparesis symptoms. A health care provider may suggest eating six small meals a day instead of three large ones. When a person has severe symptoms, a liquid or puréed diet may be prescribed. - Treatment of gastroparesis may include medications, botulinum toxin, gastric electrical stimulation, jejunostomy, and parenteral nutrition. - For people with gastroparesis and diabetes, a health care provider will likely adjust the person’s insulin regimen. Hope through Research The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases’ (NIDDK’s) Division of Digestive Diseases and Nutrition supports basic and clinical research into GI motility disorders, including gastroparesis. Researchers are studying whether new medications or surgery can improve gastric emptying and reduce gastroparesis symptoms. Researchers are evaluating the safety and effectiveness of nortriptyline for treatment of gastroparesis. More information about one such study, funded under the National Institutes of Health clinical trial number NCT00765895, can be found at www.ClinicalTrials.gov. Participants in clinical trials can play a more active role in their own health care, gain access to new research treatments before they are widely available, and help others by contributing to medical research. For information about current studies, visit www.ClinicalTrials.gov. For More Information International Foundation for Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders P.O. Box 170864 Milwaukee, WI 53217–8076 Phone: 1–888–964–2001 or 414–964–1799 Publications produced by the Clearinghouse are carefully reviewed by both NIDDK scientists and outside experts. This publication was reviewed by Linda A. Lee, M.D., Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse The National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse (NDDIC) is a service of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). The NIDDK is part of the National Institutes of Health of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Established in 1980, the Clearinghouse provides information about digestive diseases to people with digestive disorders and to their families, health care professionals, and the public. The NDDIC answers inquiries, develops and distributes publications, and works closely with professional and patient organizations and Government agencies to coordinate resources about digestive diseases. This publication is not copyrighted. The Clearinghouse encourages users of this publication to duplicate and distribute as many copies as desired. NIH Publication No. 12–4348 Page last updated June 15, 2012

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RICHLAND, Wash. – Workers have started moving highly radioactive material, called sludge, away from the Columbia River, marking a significant milestone in the U. S. Department of Energy (DOE)’s cleanup of the Hanford Site in Washington State. Today, DOE contractor CH2M HILL Plateau Remediation Company (CH2M HILL) safely transferred the first large container of highly radioactive sludge from a basin next to a former plutonium production reactor to dry storage in the center of the site. Today’s transfer is the first of six shipments this summer to remove the most radioactive material. At the same time, a separate system is being built to remove the rest of the sludge from the basin by the end of 2015. “Removing the sludge reduces the risk from highly radioactive material being stored next to the Columbia River,” said Matt McCormick, Manager, DOE Richland Operations Office. “This sludge has been stored underwater in the basin for more than 30 years, and today marks a turning point in our cleanup. This is a great step toward reducing risk to the Columbia River. My thanks go out to the Hanford workers who made sure the work was done safely.” Sludge is material less than a quarter inch in diameter that resulted from the corrosion of spent reactor fuel stored in the basin and other debris left from plutonium production operations. Currently, approximately 35 cubic yards of sludge is stored 17 feet underwater in a large basin adjacent to Hanford’s K West reactor. The water keeps the sludge particles cool and acts as protective shielding to workers. CH2M HILL is removing the highly radioactive portion of the sludge this summer in six shipments. This material was retrieved from containers, called knock-out pots, that were part of a system used to clean spent fuel as it was removed from the basin for dry storage in central Hanford. “Today’s shipment marks the first removal of highly radioactive sludge away from the river and is a major step forward in preparing the basin for eventual demolition,” said John Lehew, CH2M HILL President and Chief Executive Officer. “This challenging work is going smoothly and safely thanks to months of hands-on training and preparation at a full-scale mock-up facility.” CH2M HILL engineers, operators and technicians developed innovative technologies, tools, and equipment for handling sludge in a non-radioactive environment. Crews trained together and provided input on equipment design and methods used to process the sludge before moving into the highly radioactive environment of the K West Reactor basin. In the basin, workers transferred the sludge material into a storage container that was subsequently vacuum-dried at the nearby Cold Vacuum Drying Facility. The container was then shipped to a facility in central Hanford, the Canister Storage Building, for interim storage, consistent with the management of spent nuclear fuel. Once all of the knock-out pot sludge is removed, CH2M HILL will begin removing the remaining sludge, which is stored large, underwater containers in the basin.

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Some color shades offer better protection against sun’s ultraviolet rays Economy-minded consumers who want protection from the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays — but rather not pay premium prices for sun-protective clothing — should think blue and red, rather than yellow. Scientists in Spain are reporting that the same cotton fabric dyed deep blue or red provide greater UV protection than shades of yellow. Their study, which could lead to fabrics with better sun protection, is scheduled for the Nov. 4 issue of ACS' Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, a bi-weekly journal. Ascensión Riva and colleagues explain that the color of a fabric is one of the most important factors in determining how well clothing protects against UV radiation. Gaps, however, exist in scientific knowledge about exactly how color interacts with other factors to influence a fabric's ability to block ultraviolet protection factor (UPF). The scientists describe use of computer models that relate the level of UV protection achieved with three fabric dyes to their effects in changing the UPF of fabrics and other factors. In doing so, they dyed cotton fabrics in a wide range of red, blue, and yellow shades and measured the ability of each colored sample to absorb UV light. Fabrics with darker or more intense colors tended to have better UV absorption. Deep blue shades offered the highest absorption, while yellow shades offered the least. Clothing manufacturers could use information from this study to better design sun-protective clothing, the scientists indicate. Source: American Chemical Society - A honey of a natural sunblock for UV-protective clothing: Honeysuckle extractWed, 1 Jun 2011, 17:34:54 EDT - X-rays show why van Gogh paintings lose their shineMon, 14 Feb 2011, 14:32:50 EST - Ultraviolet radiation not culprit killing amphibians, research showsMon, 24 May 2010, 11:36:00 EDT - Technology protects cotton from caterpillar's appetiteTue, 1 Feb 2011, 13:10:23 EST - Was Kepler's supernova unusually powerful?Tue, 11 Sep 2012, 14:05:27 EDT - Some Color Shades Offer Better Protection Against Sun’s Ultraviolet Raysfrom Science DailyThu, 15 Oct 2009, 13:35:09 EDT - Some colour shades offer better protection against sun's ultraviolet raysfrom Science CentricThu, 15 Oct 2009, 5:21:21 EDT - Some color shades offer better protection against sun`s ultraviolet raysfrom PhysorgWed, 14 Oct 2009, 14:56:35 EDT Latest Science NewsletterGet the latest and most popular science news articles of the week in your Inbox! It's free! Learn more about Check out our next project, Biology.Net From other science news sites Popular science news articles No popular news yet No popular news yet - Stem cell transplant restores memory, learning in mice - Superstorm Sandy shook the US - 2 landmark studies report on success of using image-guided brachytherapy to treat cervical cancer - Calculating tsunami risk for the US East Coast - Researchers discover mushrooms can provide as much vitamin D as supplements

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1. “The Greenwald girl” represents a concept of a young woman who followed her heart—and her non-Jewish lover—and brought a chain of disasters upon her family. Discuss Esther's action in light of this concept. Did she become “A Greenwald girl?” 2. Girls’ innocence and purity are sacred in the ultra-Orthodox world of Jerusalem Maiden. Even today, many women in religious societies—Jewish, Christian, Hindu or Islam—live in even worse oppressive enclaves both in the West and in the Middle East, Asia and Africa. What are the tools used to control them in various places? Do these women share responsibility for their own insulation? Can they change their fate? Should we interfere in their cultural or religious practices? 3. In Esther's ultra-Orthodox society, adherence to all Commandments and decrees is paramount. Discuss the difference with what you know of today’s Jewish Orthodox societies in the USA—their child-rearing practices, education and the status of women. 4. Esther does not desert her faith. She only rebels against the religious establishment. Have you experienced that gap? 5. What kind of medical practices were available at the time of the story? Discuss the role of the midwife as a medical practitioner. 6. Discuss the relationship between Esther and her mother during Esther's adolescence—and her view of that relationship as an adult. What were her mother’s expectations, and what were Esther's? 7. When Aba recites Woman of Valor from the Book of Proverbs, Esther finds the expectations unattainable. What expectations exist today that reflect an unfeasibility similar to that of the Woman of Valor? 8. Esther felt she never belonged in her world—neither in Me’ah She’arim, nor in Jaffa. Was there anything she should have done differently? Was it “her, or them,” as Nathan asks? 9. Twice in the novel Esther physically emerges from a dark place where she connected with her ancestors—at Rachel’s Tomb and at Hezekiah Tunnel. Discuss the physical and spiritual illumination. Have you had similar experiences? 10. Was Mlle. Thibaux an early feminist, or was she just a “back-street” mistress? Discuss her character and her life’s choices. Would she have been a different person had she been married? 11. Esther's marriage to Nathan was not a bad one. She was comfortable and safe. Yet she was willing to throw it all away. Discuss her character and her dissatisfaction with what would have been many women’s dream. 12. Esther’s relationship with guilt fluctuates as she ages, accompanying rebellion, acquiescence, indignation and impetuousness. Throughout her life, how do her desires produce guilt, and how does she reconcile it at each step? 13. Chaim Soutine is the one true-to-life character in this novel. Read about him and check out his art—and if possible travel the Philadelphia-based Barnes Collection. 14. Esther's sojourn in Paris is supposed to be a vacation. Discuss the point at which it turns to abandonment of her children. Also, is her settling in Paris a betrayal of the Holy Land? 15. Even in today’s open, free society, many women do not follow their hearts or their dreams to discover “The Primordial Light.” Why? Discuss what it takes for a woman to focus and to fully develop her talents. 16. Relationship between sisters can be complex. Discuss Esther and Hanna’s, starting in their childhood and how their different personalities and choices played a role. 17. In the end, Esther gives up the only two things she loves and which let her be who she is. Discuss her double sacrifice. What kind of a woman will she be in Jaffa and what life will she have back there?

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Portrait of Mary McLeod Bethune by Carl Van Vechten. Published 1949. Source: Carl Van Vechten, photographer, Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division (Reproduction Number LC-USZ62-42476DLC) CHARACTER NAME: Mary McLeod Bethune BIRTH DATE: July 10, 1875 BIRTH PLACE: Mayesville, South Carolina FAMILY BACKGROUND: One of 17 children of Samuel and Patsy McLeod, former slaves. Mary worked in the cotton fields with her family. Married Albertus Bethune and had a son. EDUCATION: Maysville Presbyterian Mission School, Scotia Seminary and the Moody Bible Institute (Dwight Moody's Institute for Home and Foreign Missions). DESCRIPTION OF ACCOMPLISHMENTS: Founded the Daytona Normal and Industrial Institute for Negro Girls (now Bethune-Cookman College) in 1904, and served as president from 1904-1942 and from 1946-47. Was a leader in the black women's club movement and served as president of the National Association of Colored Women. Was a delegate and advisor to national conferences on education, child welfare, and home ownership.Was Director of Negro Affairs in the the National Youth Adminstration from 1936 to 1944. Served as consultant to the U.S. Secretary of War for selection of the first female officer candidates. Appointed consultant on interracial affairs and understanding at the charter conference of the U.N. Founder of the National Council of Negro Women. Vice-president of the NAACP. Was awarded the Haitian Medal of Honor and Merit, that country's highest award. In Liberia she received the honor of Commander of the Order of the Star of Africa. DATE OF DEATH: May 18, 1955 PORTRAYED BY: Madelyn Sanders Mary McLeod Bethune from the Florida Memory Project Mary McLeod Bethune from the National Women's Hall of Fame Mary McLeod Bethune speaks of the power of education (sound files) from New York Public Library Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture Profiles in Caring: Mary McLeod Bethune from the National Association for Home Care - Mary McLeod Bethune Presented by Lakewood Public Library

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Welcome to MedLibrary.org. For best results, we recommend beginning with the navigation links at the top of the page, which can guide you through our collection of over 14,000 medication labels and package inserts. For additional information on other topics which are not covered by our database of medications, just enter your topic in the search box below: Edward III of England is "often described as the ancestor of the British upper-middle class" through his sons John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York and Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester. All of Edward's legitimate children were by Philippa of Hainault. The Wars of the Roses were fought between the different factions of Edward III's descendants. The following list outlines the genealogical background of that conflict. The Wars of the Roses were a civil war over the throne of the Kingdom of England fought among the descendants of King Edward III through his five surviving adult sons. Each branch of the family had competing claims through seniority, legitimacy, and/or the sex of their ancestors. - The eldest son of Edward III predeceased his father and never became king. Edward's only surviving child was Richard II who ascended to the throne but produced no heirs. Richard II designated as his heir presumptive his cousin Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March, senior heir of the female line, the grandson of Lionel of Antwerp, but this succession never took place as Richard II was eventually deposed and succeeded by another of Richard's cousins, Henry Bolingbroke (who ascended as Henry IV), who was senior heir of the male line. - Lionel also predeceased his father. Lionel's only child, Philippa, married into the powerful Mortimer family, which as noted above had exerted enormous influence during the reigns of Edward II and Edward III. Philippa's son Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March was the designated heir of Richard II (but predeceased him, leaving his young son Edmund as heir presumptive). Anne Mortimer, Edmund's eldest sister, Lionel of Antwerp's great-granddaughter, married Richard, Earl of Cambridge of the House of York, merging the Lionel/Mortimer line into the York line. - From John of Gaunt descended legitimate male heirs, the Lancasters (Henry IV, who deposed Richard II, and then Henry V and Henry VI). This line ended when Henry VI was successfully deposed by Edward IV of the York faction and Henry's son Edward of Westminster was killed. - The Lancaster kings derived their ancestry also (through Blanche of Lancaster, wife of John Gaunt) from Edmund Crouchback, 1st Earl of Lancaster, who was the second son of Henry III of England and Eleanor of Provence. A legend without foundation was developed claiming that Edmund was older than his brother Edward I of England but passed over in the succession because of physical infirmity. - John of Gaunt's legitimized heirs were the Beauforts, his descendants through his mistress (later, his wife) Katherine Swynford. A daughter of the house, Gaunt's great-granddaughter Margaret Beaufort, married into the House of Tudor, producing a single child who would become Henry VII. While the Beaufort offspring had been legitimized after Gaunt's eventual marriage to Swynford, this was on the condition that they be barred from ascending the throne. Undeterred by this, upon the failure of the primary Lancastrian line, the Tudors claimed precedence to the Yorks and eventually succeeded them, after the last Yorkist King Richard III was killed in battle with Henry. - The Dukes of Beaufort are his direct male line descendants and thus the lone surviving male line descendants of the House of Plantagenet. - His descendants were the Yorks. He had two sons: Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York, killed fighting alongside Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt, and Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge, executed by Henry V for treason (involving a plot to place heir presumptive Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March, Cambridge's brother-in-law and cousin, on the throne). As noted above, Richard had married Anne de Mortimer, this giving their son (and the House of York), through Lionel of Antwerp, a more senior claim than that of both the House of Lancaster, which descended from a younger son than Lionel, and the House of Tudor, whose legitimized Beaufort ancestors had been debarred from the throne. In 1460 Richard, 3rd Duke of York claimed the throne on this basis, but an Act of Accord meant he instead became heir. However he was killed later that year, causing his son Edward to take over. (6) Thomas of Windsor (1347 – 1348) (7) William of Windsor (24 June 1348 – 5 September 1348). Died of plague. - Thomas, who was one of the Lords Appellant influential under Richard II, was murdered or executed for treason, likely by the order of Richard II; his eventual heir was his daughter Anne, who married into the Stafford family, whose heirs became the Dukes of Buckingham. Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, descended on his father's side from Thomas of Woodstock, and on his mother's side from John Beaufort. Thus, the senior Plantagenet line was ended with the death of Richard II, but not before the execution of Thomas of Woodstock for treason. The heirs presumptive through Lionel of Antwerp were passed over in favour of the powerful Henry IV, descendant of Edward III through John of Gaunt. These Lancaster kings initially survived the treason of their Edmund of Langley (York) cousins but eventually were deposed by the merged Lionel/Edmund line in the person of Edward IV. Internecine killing among the Yorks left Richard III as king, supported and then betrayed by his cousin Buckingham, the descendant of Thomas of Woodstock. Finally, the Yorks were dislodged by the remaining Lancastrian candidate, Henry VII of the House of Tudor, another descendant of John of Gaunt, who married the eldest daughter of Yorkist King Edward IV. - Isabella of England (16 June 1332 – 1382), married Enguerrand VII de Coucy, 1st Earl of Bedford. Had issue. Their oldest daughter, Marie de Coucy, is the ancestress of many European Royal Houses. - Joan of England (February 1334 – 2 September 1348) died of the plague in Bayonne, on her way to marry Pedro of Castile. No issue. - Blanche (1342), died young. - Mary of Waltham (10 October 1344 – 1362), married John V, Duke of Brittany. No issue. - Margaret (20 July 1346 – 1361), married John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke. No issue. - Joan (born 1351) - Burke's Presidential Families of the USA, 1981 - John of Gaunt also had legitimate descendants through his daughters Philippa of Lancaster, Queen of Portugal, the mother of Edward, King of Portugal; Elizabeth of England, Duchess of Exeter, the mother of John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter; and Catherine of Lancaster, Queen of Castile, a granddaughter of Pedro of Castile and the mother of King Juan II, but these Castilians engaged in their own wars over the Spanish succession and did not assert any claims to the English throne in the Wars of the Roses — and they all were of the female line, something the Lancaster claim avoided because they were originally secondary to certain senior female descents such as the Mortimers.

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Definition of sponson a projection on the side of a boat, ship, or seaplane. a gun platform standing out from a warship’s side. a short subsidiary wing that serves to stabilize a seaplane. a buoyancy chamber fitted to a boat’s hull, especially on a canoe. a triangular platform supporting the wheel on a paddle steamer.

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First of all, just like in any other religion, people are people, first and foremost. Some Pagans probably love roller coasters and some like Hello Kitty, but that doesn't mean all of them do. Secondly, it's very important that you understand (a) not all Pagans follow the rule of "Harm None" and (b) even among those who do follow it, there are varying interpretations. For many Pagans, equally as important as the idea of caring about animals is the concept of responsible wildlife management. The fact is, in some areas, wild animals such as whitetail deer, antelope, and others have reached the status of nuisance animal. In the state of Ohio alone, in 2007, there were nearly 700,000 whitetails roaming around. Some are hit by cars, others die when the amount of animals in an area outweighs the available resources, and still more are plagued by disease caused by overpopulation. For many hunters, Pagan or not, eliminating some of these animals is seen as an act of mercy and of responsible wildlife management. Not only that, any responsible hunter does so fairly - no shooting at wolves from helicopters, or unethical practices like that. How do you think our ancient Pagan ancestors got their food? They hunted and fished and trapped, and caught it. Most of the Pagans in centuries gone by were not vegetarians. They were people of the land, who lived responsibly and caught what they could eat. What they didn't need, they left alone, allowing it to scamper away and go on to create life for the next season. Most ancient cultures had deities that personified the hunt. In parts of Britain, Herne (an aspect of Cernunnos) symbolized the wild hunt, and was depicted wearing the antlers of a great stag, carrying a bow and horn. In Greek mythology, Artemis is not only a goddess of the hunt, but also a protector of animals. For a lot of modern Pagans, hunting is a way to get back to the natural world as our ancestors did, to provide healthy food for our family, and to pay tribute to those who survived hard times in centuries gone by. In some traditions, the hunt is still ritualized, and the deer or other animal is honored as sacred following the kill. Even the consumption of the animal is celebrated. Hunting is one of those issues that there are clearly dividing lines on in the Pagan community. However, much like eating meat, it's one of those things that you don't have to do if you don't want to... but don't be surprised if people get irritated when you try to lecture at them about it.

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The issue of Nubian rights is an often neglected and poorly understood issue for public opinion. This is not a big surprise since Egyptians did not get any education on that part of their country and it hardly ever surfaces as part of the political discussion. Despite the active participation of Nubians in and before the revolution; their efforts to highlight their cause and their history of discrimination, little attention is given to them. Nubians have more recently become a part of the political discussion, more evident in the presidential race. However, as usual Nubians were excluded from participating in shaping their country’s future as none of them was selected to be in the constitution drafting committee. Nubians are the inhabitants of a historical part in the South of Egypt and Northern Sudan. Their suffering started long before the building of the High Dam in 1964; it was in 1902 when Aswan Dam was built. The end result was about 44 villages that drowned along with the historic area that witnessed one of the humanity’s earliest civilizations. Some of the villages even drowned without prior notice; village inhabitants would wake up one day to find their property, their land and their cattle drowned. They were moved away to the desert land of Kom Ombo despite their heavy reliance on the Nile for agriculture all their life. They never received their rightful compensation for their displacement despite many promises made by successive regimes. They postponed the call for their rights several times for considerations of war and national crises. In addition, Nubians suffered from political, economic and cultural marginalization. School curricula exclude their cultural heritage and their language is not taught in schools (even in areas where they live) and it may become extinct if efforts are not made to preserve it. Despite the marginalization, Nubian always asserted their “Egyptianness”. They have taken numerous patriotic stances and sacrificed several times for the sake of their country. They deserve respect not only for their struggle, but because they’re Egyptian and deserve full citizenship. They are fighting for their rights and their place in the new scene after the revolution. However their struggle exemplifies the many of the issues that Egypt suffers from: Firstly, the “Nubian issue” reflects our crisis with growing racism and intolerance. Clearly, discrimination against different groups in Egypt is not uncommon whether it was based on gender, religious beliefs, class, etc. Activist Fatma Emam recently wrote an article of her experience as a black Egyptian and the racism she encounters on a daily basis. Her article served as a wakeup call for so many who were unaware of such experiences to “black Egyptians”. Moreover, a common issue often cited by Nubians is that most Egyptians assume they’re Sudanese or African as if Egypt doesn’t have that southern part where darker-skinned people live. The problem highlighted here is not only that we are being racist, but we are also in deep denial about it. However, it’s not hard to find reasons why the situation has become so deteriorated. We lived under a centuries of authoritarianism and colonialism. Both systems usually play the cards of racism and divide-and-conquer very well; and they deprive societies from progressing towards pluralism. I am not justifying the racism or discrimination. However, I believe that’s a major lesson to be learnt. The more marginalized people are, the more likely people would want to rebel. And we can take South Sudan as an example. When people do not enjoy full participation and self-determination, they no longer want to be part of a country that denies them those rights. Secondly, the “Nubian issue” also reflects a crisis with our “elite”, and by elite here I mean our opinion leaders, intellectuals, and media people. We may also add the emerging younger elite that started to gain more visibility after the revolution. A few of the elite come out to speak up about discrimination, racism, and Nubian rights. This can be seen a part of bigger elite crisis reflected in their detachment from the public and their failure to truly engage the public. Even when the revolution began, it was hardly credited for the efforts of the elite. It is sad that the people who should lead the change get trapped by infighting and at many cases follow their own personal interests. One explanation that could be given as to why “the elite” shy away from the Nubian cause is considerations of populism. It seems like the Nubian issue is not “sexy” or “doesn’t sell” for intellectuals, so more favorable topics are preferred. For example, we will not find a lack of “elite” who spoke out against Palestinian displacement, but a handful who spoke against Nubian displacements. We know that activism is more effective when there is more solidarity from different groups. That’s why women issues would be further promoted if more men stand by them, and Christians’ rights would be easier to attain if more Muslims speak up against their violations. It is true that more people now calling for inclusion and representation than ever before, but a strong stance against racism, sectarianism and discrimination is still much needed. Thirdly, history tells us that many peoples were exploited under many guises. Arab nationalism was one of those ideologies under which lots of abuses and violations against minorities in different Arab countries were justified. The attack on other languages and cultures within Arab nations carried the banner of Arab nationalism. I would personally be happy with Arab union and with breaking geographical and economic barriers between us one day. However, all I can see that from now are big shiny words about Arab brotherhood and solidarity, while none of it is materializing. Until now, Nubians are accused of separationism when they speak up for their rights. And more often than not they’re told it’s not the right time to bring it up. It’s time for us to realize that values of democracy and diversity must be respected and should never be taken away under any ideological guise or notion. Discrimination cannot be condoned or downplayed anymore; we can’t even afford it anymore. Thanks Fatma Emam for the advice given for producing this piece.

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Security in the Cloud Security risks are a concrete expression of the lack of control a business faces when considering moving critical business systems to the cloud. From the perspective of the enterprise, there are seven major risks to be considered. Of these seven, four can be easily controlled or mitigated by the Enterprise. The remaining three remain the responsibility of the cloud provider of which the Enterprise has little real control, other than voting with their wallet. It may be argued that the Enterprise should make “demands” of the cloud provider through the use of contracts or third party audits, but in reality the market will determine the amount of security provided to Enterprises by cloud service providers and the level of acceptable risk. It may turn out that the cheaper price of cloud computing comes with necessarily increased risk, which may be a self-limiting factor in itself to the pervasive use of cloud computing by Enterprises. We outline the top security risks as follows: 1. Insecure, Porous APIs: Most cloud services offer two categories of web-accessible APIs: Those based on web services (called SOAP) and those based on pure HTTP (called REST). Increasingly, some cloud providers are offering only REST style APIs which lack robust “Enterprise class” message level security and authentication mechanisms. Some APIs, such as the Twitter API are purposely designed for rapid development and allow and even encourage the use of unprotected user credentials which are more susceptible to man in the middle or replay attacks. While some providers, such as Amazon.com offer strong authentication mechanisms, it’s not clear yet how well these APIs stand up to content-based threats such as code injection, denial of service attacks, script injection, or malicious XML content. Moreover, it’s also not clear how much trust should be placed in data received by the Enterprise from a cloud API for potential threats. A compromised cloud service API session may be a direct avenue for an attack. Internal information systems exposed to the cloud at the API layer offer a universal tunnel for a savvy attacker. Without explicit protection, cloud APIs essentially expose previously guarded Enterprise data across the Internet into the hands of a third party. Moreover, for IaaS systems that expose XML based APIs for image management, these management APIs also require strong authentication and access control as an attacker may conveniently replace a trusted machine image with a rouge one. 2. Logical Multi-Tenancy: With shared cloud computing infrastructure, the division of Enterprise data is now logical rather than physical. This logical separation is typically achieved through the use of virtualized infrastructure which is a cheap and easy way to support a multi-tenant architecture at the cloud service provider. The perceived risk in this scenario is for an attacker to subvert the logical division provided by the guest virtual machine and gain access to the data of another tenant. A number of attacks on virtual machines, from detecting the presence of a hypervisor to running arbitrary code on the host have been documented3. These attacks highlight the uncertain security of multitenant, shared environments for critical Enterprise data. An Enterprise horror story would be an attacker signing up for a “free” account at the cloud service provider, detect the presence of a virtual machine and “escape out” of the VM instance to access the physical server operating system and potentially gain access to the Enterprise data. Technology such as Intel® Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) are available that can mitigate this type of attack, but responsibility for implementation ultimately still lies with the cloud service provider. 3. Data Protection and Confidentiality: Data stored, processed or indexed in a remote cloud service defines the extent of the new perimeter for the Enterprise. This new “fuzzy” boundary changes and moves with the data itself, not the traditional firewall. A necessary complication here is that for data to be used effectively by cloud services it must remain unencrypted or else SaaS providers will have a hard time indexing it for any function that relies on search. Common examples include spell-checking in a Google document or looking up sales leads in a CRM application. The Enterprise may have to give up encryption and data privacy requirements for some of its data but should also recognize the option of applying selective field or message level protection mechanisms for data before it reaches the cloud. A practical example of this is protecting employee or critical customer information on messages before the data is released to the cloud. This is one aspect of data protection that an Enterprise can control on data before it reaches the cloud service provider. 4. Data Loss and Reliability: When critical business data is moved to a cloud service, there is some inherent risk of data loss. Even if cloud service vendors offer multiple back-ups and data redundancy, there is no perfect way to protect against the failure of physical media and disasters are apt to strike at just the wrong time. To take an example, services such as Amazon’s storage service offer “credits” in the face of data unavailability4 within a given month. This SLA may be too weak a proposition for business critical data and Enterprises may need more protection to manage this risk. Data loss and unavailability at precisely the wrong time may completely cripple an Enterprise. It may be argued that this is a false risk because the Enterprise has a similar risk of catastrophic data loss inside its own datacenter and simply moving the data to the cloud doesn’t change the equation. This claim ignores the fact that the cloud service provider is offering the same product at a much cheaper price and the reliability that the Enterprise has built around its data may simply not be present with the cloud service provider. It should be noted that this risk may turn out to be a red herring. The convenience and cost savings of the cloud service and record of actual failures may reduce this potential risk to near-zero, but it is too early to tell. 5. Audit and Monitoring: The first step in managing the security of any system to know when specific risky events occur. If an Enterprise decides that cloud services provide value to the Enterprise but wants to audit when these services are accessed to evaluate risk, it needs a way to know when data flows to and from the cloud. Enterprises need to know who is making the service request, when the request is happening, how much data is sent or received and how the data is used. Given the convenience and ease with which cloud service providers can be accessed the biggest risk to an Enterprise concerns the use of unmanaged “rogue” cloud services or projects that go unnoticed or unmanaged by the Enterprise CSO. 6. Cloud Provider Insider Threats: A potential problem or weak spot with cloud services is the mismatch between the security requirements inside the Enterprise as compared to those employed by the cloud service provider. To take an example, many large Enterprises make special efforts to secure “endpoint” data on IT-issues laptops with two-factor authentication technology, forced password rotation and fully encrypted hard-disk drives. Moreover, data is often segmented with access controls that distinguish between full employees and contractors, especially in large companies with diverse geographies. In most cases these controls increase the security of the Enterprise data. It should be noted that has taken Enterprises many years to reach this level of increased protection. Once the data is moved from protected assets to the cloud, however, an instant “weak spot” is created. Security breaches are often breaches of the weakest link, and a determined attacker motivated either by financial gain or industrial espionage will likely find it easier to execute an insider threat from the cloud service provider to gain access to the Enterprise data rather than try to execute a brute force attack on an encrypted hard disk. It should be noted that this is not the same as “hacking into Amazon’s API” or “hacking Google documents.” Sophisticated attackers use social engineering techniques and insider connections to find the weakest link. A motivated attacker may even take a low level job at the cloud provider itself if it provides an easier path to the Enterprise data. 7. Account Hacking, Tiered Access Control and Authorization: While hacking an account through a stolen password or compromised credential is nothing new, Enterprises to date have done a decent job of segmenting credentials and access control throughout their infrastructure. This is actually a property or benefit of the somewhat localized security inherent in individual operating systems and the uses of role based (RBAC) and attribute based access control (ABAC) within the Enterprise. In other words, if an attacker gains root access to a networked system or database they may have access to other assets, but the breach of a single system is more often than not directly localized to the breached system. Further, breaches of a single account are self-limiting by the role or attributes associated with that account in the Enterprise LDAP system. It is true that sophisticated attackers can use information from any compromised system as a stepping stone for more sophisticated attacks, but more work is required by the attacker unless they are extremely lucky in breaching the exact system they need. If we contrast this to cloud service providers, a few such as Salesforce.com have rudimentary segmented access control and privileges5, but for the majority of these a breach of one account may grant the keys to the entire castle. In fact, the pay-off for an attacker who knows that he must hack just one account to gain access to all of the Enterprises resources may seek to employ cheap, readily available cloud computing resources for brute force attacks on passwords and cryptographic keys. Moreover, fine-grained authorization of Enterprise resources is a problem just now being solved inside the Enterprise and it will be some time before cloud providers reach the same sophistication of locking down the use of individual data elements, fields, URIs, resources or API calls to individuals with a specific role or specific attributes. Account hacking from an Enterprise insider also needs to be considered. Once the Enterprise moves to cloud computing traditional insider attacks can be more costly because the Enterprise must rely on the cloud provider to help prevent the insider breach. In short, not only are the keys to the castle held in the cloud, but the Enterprise has to protect its traditional assets and now cloud assets from insider attacks. The previous seven risks are summarized in Table 1. Here we list the risks, a description of the threat and which party (Enterprise or Cloud Provider) is on the hook for reducing the threat. Ultimately, shoring up security risks is the job of both the Enterprise and the cloud providers. Short of a boycott, however, Enterprises have little real control over how security is implemented on the provider side. Cloud providers have yet to segment their offerings to provide increased levels of security targeted for Enterprise requirements such as higher levels of risk protection, integration with Enterprise identity systems, guarantees around multi-tenancy platform sharing (or isolation) and integration with monitoring, alerting and security event management systems. Instead, providers appear to be implementing minimum levels of security for their perceived target market. Whether this minimum security will rise as the industry matures is an open question, but for Enterprises that need to reduce risk while cautiously adopting cloud services we advocate the use of a high performance edge-oriented service gateway for those categories of risk that the Enterprise can control. This provides the necessary balance between the cost savings promised by cloud computing and the management of tangible risks that are under the Enterprise control. The next section outlines the concept of a service gateway and how it can reduce risk in four areas: (a) API protection and strong authentication, (b) Data protection and leakage, (c) Auditing and Monitoring, (d) Access Control and Authorization.

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The History of Ice Cream Also important was the invention of the wooden bucket freezer with rotary paddles improved ice cream's manufacture. Augustus Jackson, a confectioner from Philadelphia, created new recipes for making ice cream in 1832. In 1846, Nancy Johnson patented a hand-cranked freezer that established the basic method of making ice cream still used today. William Young patented the similar "Johnson Patent Ice-Cream Freezer" in 1848. In 1851, Jacob Fussell in Baltimore established the first large-scale commercial ice cream plant. Wide availability of ice cream in the late 19th century led to new creations. In 1874, the American soda fountain shop and the profession of the "soda jerk" emerged with the invention of the ice cream soda. In response to religious criticism for eating "sinfully" rich ice cream sodas on Sundays, ice cream merchants left out the carbonated water and invented the ice cream "Sunday" in the late 1890's. The name was eventually changed to "sundae" to remove any connection with the Sabbath. Alfred Cralle patented an ice cream mold and scooper used to serve on February 2 1897. Ice cream became an edible morale symbol during World War II. Each branch of the military tried to outdo the others in serving ice cream to its troops. In 1945, the first "floating ice cream parlor" was built for sailors in the western Pacific. When the war ended, and dairy product rationing was lifted, America celebrated its victory with ice cream. Americans consumed over 20 quarts of ice cream per person in 1946. In the 1940's through the '70s, ice cream production was relatively constant in the United States. As more prepackaged ice cream was sold through supermarkets, traditional ice cream parlors and soda fountains started to disappear. Now, specialty ice cream stores and unique restaurants that feature ice cream dishes have surged in popularity. These stores and restaurants are popular with those who remember the ice cream shops and soda fountains of days past, as well as with new generations of ice cream fans. Saturday, July 15, 2006 Annual Old Fashioned Ice Cream Social Come and enjoy Abbots Ice Cream with a variety of yummy toppings, activities in the Hansen Nature Center and tours of the Tinker Homestead and Farm Museum. A FUN, FREE FAMILY EVENT!Town of Henrietta

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In order to be a photographer, you must be able to make decisions, not simply point a camera and press a button. Photography can be an important activity as it can help people, adults and children, understand what the media projects every day. Besides that, it is a good hobby, and photography can help people understand the world around them, especially through someone else’s eyes. It is a great way to bring together a community project as well. Don’t be afraid to post and ask your own questions as they crop up along the way. Once you get started, you will have many questions that will have to be answered in order for you to improve and grow as a budding photographer. Most photographers are very excited to share their knowledge with others discovering the passion, and will help with your problems as they occur. The autofocus of most cameras has a two-step shutter release. Pressing the button down half-way locks the focus of the picture, and pressing it down all the way takes the picture. Depressing the shutter only half-way allows you to select what part of the picture you would like to be clearly focused; after holding the button halfway down, you can move the picture so that the subject is where you want it to be and yet is still focused. Always press the button gently, not jerkingly, so as not to move the camera too much from the frame and composition. Learning photography is great fun; you will enjoy taking photographs of your own. So look at photographs online or join a community and sign up for a class. Related knowledge of photo editing software:

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No matter what time you work with math, our new "Morning Math" series is a great way to open students' eyes to the daily uses of math. Simple word problems for beginning math students ("Draw 5 apples. Put an X over 3 of them. How many apples do you have?") start the series. Common Core: K.OA1, K.OA2, 1.OA1

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Osteoarthritis Signs & Symptoms Osteoarthritis (OA) is a localized disease in which is connected to the natural process of aging. Symptoms are generally limited to the affected joint(s), and any joint can be affected by OA. The cartilage surrounding an arthritic bone progressively wears down until bones rub against each other. Spurs develop on the exposed bones and malformation of the joints often occurs. This process is generally painful and causes an inflammatory response. The most common osteoarthritis symptom experienced in any joint is pain. Aching joints characterize the disease. This pain becomes exacerbated when it is stressed or in motion and it feels relief while immobile. As the disease worsens, patients may experience joint pain while the affected joint is at rest. For many OA patients, stiffness often follows periods of rest. Stiffness lasts a while during stillness and is eased by working out and stretching. Arthritic pain can be so severe that it keeps patients awake at night. The pain is often exacerbated in humidity and before rain. Joint relief and mobility may follow even intense throbbing pain. Other symptoms include: -Loss of full range of motion of joints -Joint effusion (swelling) -Crepitus (cracking noise) upon movement of an arthritic knee -Deteriorating manual dexterity Fatigue and general weakness are often mistakenly thought of as symptoms of osteoarthritis. Cases of OA are characterized uniquely different in each joint. With each case, pain is experienced if any symptoms at all are present. -OA may impact one or both hips simultaneously -Pain may be experienced in the groin, buttocks and knees in addition to the hips -Commonly experienced loss of range of motion -Very often experienced (because hips bear so much weight) -Affected knees often maintain range of motion and function -Very often experienced (because knees bear so much weight) -OA usually develops in the Heberden’s nodes (first joint below fingertips) -Often damages the base of the thumb -Cysts commonly develop in the affected fingers -Loss of mobility -May cause pain in the lower back -May cause pain in the neck and result in trouble with swallowing -Less commonly experienced -Commonly stems from a previous shoulder injury -May cause stiffness in the back of the shoulder Symptoms of OA tend to progress slowly over decades. Many OA patients, most of them under the age of forty, do not experience any symptoms of their disease. If the pain last for a few weeks, or if the aching becomes so harsh that a person cannot move the affected joint or bone, a doctor should be contacted right away. If you think you may have osteoarthritis, call your healthcare professional and discuss your symptoms and medical history so that your doctor can help you to live a better quality life.

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You know it is election season in Peru when the number of public works projects (obras) increases so much that traffic comes to a virtual standstill. That’s how Lima is today ahead of the municipal and regional elections that will be held in October 2010. Much is at stake as the outcomes are a telltale sign for what may happen in next year’s presidential election The massive display of obras during an election year is not uncommon. In fact, they are strategic. Visible projects—like the construction of an electric train and bus system in Lima—are displays of what the government has done for its people, and are often used as a form of propaganda by candidates running in incumbent seats. Closely following the Latin American tradition of populismo, incumbent candidates appeal to the masses through these obras. Yet, the use of public works projects as propaganda can pose risks too. Publicly displayed accomplishments might also expose the corruption associated with their construction. Lima has a history of failed public works projects. During President Alan García’s first term (1985—1990) he invested in a national project to construct a Tren Electrico—a train system that would run through the city. However, the project was abandoned and some parts of the construction turned into artwork. At the same time President García was accused of rampant corruption and mismanagement of the project. Then after winning the presidency again in 2006, he promised to complete the project by the end of his term in 2011.

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HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHTS OF BAYLOR UNIVERSITY Baylor University was founded under the leadership of Judge R.E.B. Baylor, Reverend James Huckins, and Reverend William Milton Tryon, three farsighted pioneer missionaries working through the Texas Baptist Education Society. They, along with other associations, sent representatives in 1848 to create the Baptist State Association, which later became the Baptist State Convention. 1845-Baylor chartered on February 1 by the Republic of Texas. 1849-Instruction in law begun. 1857-School of Law organized. 1883-School of Law closed. 1920-School of Law reorganized. 1886-Baylor merged with Waco University and moved to Waco. 1903-College of Medicine organized in Dallas by assuming responsibility for operating the University of Dallas Medical Department. 1943-Moved to Houston. 1969-Given independent status. 1903-College of Pharmacy organized in Dallas. 1930-College of Pharmacy terminated. 1905-Theological Seminary organized in Waco. 1907-Separated from Baylor University. 1910-Moved to Fort Worth. 1918-College of Dentistry organized in Dallas by taking over the State Dental College which had been founded in 1905. 1971-The College was separately incorporated in 1971, although Graduate programs continued to be offered through Baylor University. 1996 -The College became a part of the Texas A&M System on September 1, 1996. 1919-Baylor Hospital organized in Dallas – now Baylor University Medical Center. 1919-College of Arts and Sciences organized. 1919-College of Fine Arts organized, which consisted of offerings in music and in expression. 1921-Terminated in favor of the present School of Music. 1919-School of Education organized. 1920-School of Nursing organized as a diploma-granting program. 1921-School of Music organized. 1923-School of Business organized. 1959-Renamed Hankamer School of Business in honor of Mr. and Mrs. Earl Hankamer of Houston. 1947-Graduate School organized. Graduate study and degrees had been offered since 1894. 1950-The School of Nursing reorganized as an academic unit of Baylor University offering a Bachelor of Science in Nursing degree. 2000-Renamed Louise Herrington School of Nursing in honor of Louise Herrington Ornelas. 1951-Graduate program in hospital administration established in conjunction with the Army Medical Field Service School, Fort Sam Houston. 1971-Graduate program in physical therapy added. 1971-Program in physicianʼs assistant added in collaboration with the Army Medical Field Service School, Fort Sam Houston. Terminated in 1977. 1972-Name of Army Medical Field Service School changed to Academy of Health Sciences of the U.S. Army. 1973-Baylor University Memorandum of Agreement with the U.S. Army Academy of Health Sciences affiliated more than 20 programs of instruction with 150 course offerings for academic credit at Baylor University. Terminated in 1977. 1987-University School organized. Responsibilities were reassigned to other academic units in 1992. 1993-George W. Truett Theological Seminary organized in Waco. 1994-Seminary classes begin. 1995-School of Engineering and Computer Science organized. 2002-Honors College organized. 2005-School of Social Work granted independent status from the College of Arts and Sciences.

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Reuters Health Information (2011-08-25): Vaccines largely safe, U.S. expert panel finds Vaccines largely safe, U.S. expert panel finds Last Updated: 2011-08-25 12:00:09 -0400 (Reuters Health) CHICAGO (Reuters) - After a close review of more than 1,000 research studies, a federal panel of experts has concluded that vaccines cause very few side effects, and found no evidence that vaccines cause autism or type 1 diabetes. The report, issued on Thursday by the Institute of Medicine, part of the National Academies of Sciences, is the first comprehensive report on vaccine side effects since 1994. "We looked at more than 1,000 articles evaluating the epidemiological and biological evidence about whether vaccines cause side effects," said committee chair Ellen Wright Clayton, professor of pediatrics and law, and director of the Center for Biomedical Ethics and Society at Vanderbilt University in Nashville. "The big take-home message is that we found only a few cases in which vaccines can cause adverse side effects, and the vast majority of those are short-term and self-limiting," she said in a telephone interview. The report was commissioned by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to help guide the Vaccine Injury Compensation Program, which provides a pool of money to take care of children who experience side effects from vaccines. The panel looked at vaccines against measles-mumps-rubella (MMR), diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussis (DTaP), chickenpox, influenza, hepatitis B, meningococcal, tetanus and human papillomavirus (HPV). Once again, the IOM found that the MMR vaccine does not cause autism, nor does it cause type 1 diabetes, Dr. Clayton said. "The DTaP vaccine, which is the pertussis vaccine, does not cause type 1 diabetes, and the killed flu vaccine does not cause Bell's palsy (temporary facial paralysis) and it doesn't make your asthma get worse," Dr. Clayton said. "The evidence was really quite strong that vaccines don't cause these side effects," she said. Among the side effects vaccines can cause, she said most are short-lived. The panel found that the MMR vaccine can cause seizures in people who develop high fevers after getting the vaccine, but these pass quickly. "They are scary to be sure, but they do not cause any long-term harm and they are not a sign the child will get epilepsy," Dr. Clayton said. MMR can also cause a rare form of brain inflammation in some people with severe immune system deficiencies. With the varicella vaccine against chickenpox, some people can develop brain swelling, pneumonia, hepatitis, meningitis or shingles, but this occurs most often in people with compromised immune systems. Six vaccines -- MMR, varicella, influenza, hepatitis B, meningococcal, and the tetanus-containing vaccines -- also can trigger anaphylaxis. But Dr. Clayton said doctors can address this risk by having patients remain in the waiting room for 15 minutes after their shot to make sure they do not have an allergic reaction. She said the report should reassure many people that vaccines are largely safe. "Despite looking very hard, it was really hard to find that vaccines cause injuries and the injuries they do cause are generally pretty mild and self-contained," she said. The Institute of Medicine's report is available at http://bit.ly/nbxcom.

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(CNN) -- The first human trials of a swine flu vaccine are expected to start in Australia Wednesday, as the World Health Organization confirmed that more than 700 people had died from the virus worldwide. A scientist examines samples from suspected swine flu patients at a WHO laboratory in Melbourne, Australia. Melbourne-based company CSL Ltd. plans to test a vaccine for the H1N1 virus, also known as swine flu, on 240 volunteers, a company representative said. The test will be conducted on healthy adults between the ages of 18-64. Participants will receive two shots three weeks apart and will undergo blood tests to determine if they are generating an appropriate immune response to the virus, the company said. "We appreciate that new influenza strains like the 'swine flu' can surprise us with properties that mean they might require higher dosing and two injections rather than one to provoke the desired level of immune response in humans," said Dr. Russell Basser, global director of clinical development for CSL. The World Health Organization revealed Tuesday that more than 700 people had died after contracting the virus, 260 more than the latest death toll, released July 6. The jump in the death toll is due simply to the two-week gap in reporting cases, a WHO spokeswoman explained. The H1N1 virus has spread around the world with unprecedented speed, according to the WHO. Past influenza viruses have needed more than six months to spread as widely as the current H1N1 virus has spread in less than six weeks, it said. Because there are so many cases emerging so quickly, the WHO changed its reporting guidelines last week. It decided to stop giving a tally of cases and focus instead on identifying unusual patterns. The counting of all cases is no longer essential because it is exhausting countries' resources, the organization said Monday, commenting on the policy change. While the virus is spreading quickly, the WHO offered some reassurance to those concerned about the disease. It said the virus has so far been characterized by mild symptoms in most patients, who usually recover -- even without medical treatment -- within a week of developing symptoms. Meanwhile, a group of British children and teachers quarantined for almost one week in a Beijing hotel because of swine flu fears have been allowed to leave their hotel. A spokesman from Britain's Foreign Office could not confirm the number of children and teachers released from quarantine, but said they were among a group of 111 that was sequestered in a Beijing hotel six days ago. The students and teachers came from various schools in Britain and were all traveling to China together as members of the same British school association, the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust. Twelve children were hospitalized and diagnosed with the H1N1 virus, commonly known as swine flu. One child is in the hospital awaiting test results to confirm the virus, the Foreign Office said. The group released from quarantine Tuesday will now be moved to a different hotel, the Foreign Office said. The second group is due to be released from quarantine Wednesday, the Foreign Office said. WHO declared H1N1 a global pandemic on June 11. More than 120 countries have reported cases of human infection since the virus was first identified in Mexico in April. There are more than 98,000 documented cases worldwide |Most Viewed||Most Emailed||Top Searches|

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ESSENTIAL UNDERSTANDING 3: INDIVIDUAL DIVERSITY There is great diversity among individual American Indians as identity is developed, defined and redefined by entities, organizations and people. A continuum of Indian identity, unique to each individual, ranges from assimilated to traditional. There is no generic American Indian. There are 2.3 million American Indians/Alaskan Natives, according to U.S. Census estimates for 1997. They represent only roughly one percent of the U.S. population. Identity is an issue with which human beings struggle throughout their lifetime. Questions of “Who am I?” and “How do I fit in?” are universal questions of the human condition. Historically, schools have been places for students to explore their identities. However, when the culture of students’ homes and communities is not evident in school, finding a way to belong within that system is more difficult and can lead to frustration. Educators need to ensure that each student has an opportunity to feel included in the classroom either through materials or pedagogical practices. Even larger issues of “Who is an Indian/Tribal Member?” exist among Indian people themselves. The federal, state and tribal governments may all have their own definitions for who is a member. As a general principle, an Indian is a person who is of some degree Indian blood and is recognized as an Indian by a tribe/village and/or the United States. There exists no universally accepted rule for establishing a person's identity as an Indian because the criteria for tribal membership differ from one tribe to the next. To determine a particular tribe's criteria, one must contact that tribe directly. For its own purposes, the Bureau of the Census counts anyone an Indian who declares to be such. Amidst all of these issues, educators must remember that Indian students come to school with a variety of backgrounds. There are those who show characteristics of tribal ways of being and belief and those who show themselves to be tribally affiliated, yet do not have what some people might regard as American Indian behavior and appearance. They have differences of skin color, dress, and behavior; and there may be deeper and subtler differences of values and of ways of being and learning. What is important is that all humans be allowed feelings of integrity and pride connected with who they are and with whom they identify in order to help them develop the self-esteem and self-confidence that will enhance their learning. “There is no single American Indian learning style, nor is there a group of several styles of learning that fits all American Indians, either as individuals or tribal groups … Teachers should recognize various learning styles and adapt their teaching methods to individual learners. At the same time teachers should build on and expand the individual student’s approaches to learning.” (Cleary and Peacock 154) However, recognizing that teachers must use a variety of teaching methods to meet individual learning styles does not mean that culture doesn’t influence learning styles. The differences in the cultures of home and school certainly impact the teaching/learning process. Classrooms need to integrate culture into the curriculum to blur the boundaries between home and school. Schools need to become a part of, rather than separate from, the communities in which they serve.

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Definition of warmth : 1. A state of lively and excited interest; zeal; ardor; fervor; passion; enthusiasm; earnestness; as, the warmth of love or piety; he replied with much warmth. 2. The glowing effect which arises from the use of warm colors; hence, any similar appearance or effect in a painting, or work of color. 3. The quality or state of being warm; gentle heat; as, the warmth of the sun; the warmth of the blood; vital warmth. partiality, high temperature, congenialness, solicitude, cordialness, liberality, support, warmness, earnestness, genialness, caring, frenzy, congeniality, eighties, heating system, heating, eagerness, lovingness, zeal, excitement, passionateness, rage, mania, heating plant, white heat, agreeableness, passion, fanaticism, feelings, hot, geniality, agreeability, rut, tepidity, heart, centigrade, fancy, Fahrenheit, absolute zero, violence, ecstasy, excite, warmheartedness, pleasantness, tepidness, fervency, inspiration, fervidness, affectionateness, generosity, consideration, amiability, philia, cordiality, excitation, charity, heat energy, fervor, F., intensity, amenity, good, attitude, ardency, Celsius, rapture, C, vehemence, altruism, oestrus, affability, amiableness, sociability, boiling point, sociableness, ardor, degree, lukewarmness, bimetallic strip, emotion, extravagance, hospitality, intenseness, hotness, estrus, enthusiasm, cacoethes, transport affection (part of speech: noun) heat (part of speech: verb) - And what warmth and light there was to look upon! - "A Man and a Woman", Stanley Waterloo. - But in winter, at least, when you need warmth, you must have to fall back on our old friend the sheep. - "Equality", Edward Bellamy. - The night was more chilly than the preceding one, and the warmth of the blankets would have been pleasant to both. - "The Lost Trail", Edward S. Ellis.

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Hockerton Housing Project The Hockerton Housing Project (HHP) is the UK’s first earth sheltered, self-sufficient ecological housing development. The residents of the five houses generate their own clean energy, harvest their own water and recycle waste materials causing minimal pollution or carbon dioxide emissions. The houses are amongst the most energy efficient, purpose-built dwellings in Europe. The houses are the focus of a holistic way of living, which combines the production of organic foods, low intensity fish farming, promotion of wildlife, and the planting of thousands of trees. The project was conceived in the early 1990’s. It took two years to complete the planning agreement with the local authority and a further two years to build the homes and facilities. Over the years the project has established itself as an exemplar of sustainable development. As a result of this, it has developed a range of services through the creation of a small on-site business. This workers’ co-operative provides a level of employment for its members, whilst promoting sustainable development. Its activities include running guided tours, workshops, talks, consultancy and, soon to be launched, a match-making service. Although each family has their own home, the community share food growing, site maintenance, managing the facilities and a common sustainable business.

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You have been insulted, your ego is bruised, your pride is hurt, you have been shown powerless and diminished in some way, and now you are hurt and mad as hell! You have just been humiliated, it is unfair, and you don't like feeling foolish. Humiliation often results in violent retaliation and revenge. Remember, at the end of the day, the only opinion of yourself that matters is - Feeling disrespected. - A loss of stature or image. - An image change reflecting a decrease in what others believe about your - Induced shame - To reduce the pride or fail to recognize the dignity of another - An event perceived to cause loss of honor and induce - Feeling powerless. - Being unjustly forced into a degrading position. - Ridicule, scorn, contempt or other treatment at the hands of others. Root: from Latin humilis, low, lowly, from humus, ground. Literally, “reducing to dirt”. Synonyms include losing face, being made to feel like a fool, feeling foolish, hurt, disgraced, indignity, put-down, debased, dejected, denigrated, dishonored, disrespected, dis'ed, defamed, humbled, scorned, slighted, slurred, shamed, mortified, rejected, being laughed at. While humility is considered a strength, humiliation is hurtful; the distinction pivots on autonomy. Appreciation is the opposite of humiliation. Humiliation involves an event that demonstrates unequal power in a relationship where you are in the inferior position and unjustly diminished. Often the painful experience is vividly remembered for a long time. Your vindictive passions are aroused and a humiliated fury may result. There are three involved parties: 1) the perpetrator exercising power, 2) the victim who is shown powerless and therefore humiliated, and 3) the witness or observers to the event. Because of the powerlessness and lack of control that it exposes, humiliation may lead to anxiety. Humility is recognizing and accepting our own limitations based on an accurate and modest estimate of our importance and significance. The humble person recognizes he is one among the six billion interdependent people on this earth, earth is one planet circling the sun, and our sun is one of a billion stars in the presently known universe. Because of this broad and sound perspective on her significance, the truly humble person cannot be humiliated. Humility reduces our need for self-justification and allows us to admit to and learn from our mistakes. Our ego Humiliation and Shame Shame is private, humiliation is public. The essential distinction between humiliation and shame is this: you agree with shame and you disagree with humiliation. Humiliation is suffering an insult. If you judge the insult to be credible, then you feel shame. Others can insult and humiliate you, but you will only feel shame if your self-image is reduced; and that requires your own assessment and decision. A person who is insecure about their genuine stature is more prone to feeling shame as a result of an insult. This is because they give more credibility to what others think of them than to what they think of themselves. This can result in People believe they deserve their shame, they do not believe they deserve their humiliation. Humiliation is seen as unjust. Forms of Humiliation Humans have many ways to slight others and humiliate them. For example: - Overlooking someone, taking them for granted, ignoring them, giving them the silent treatment, treating them as invisible, or making them wait unnecessarily for you, - Rejecting someone, holding them distant, abandoned, or isolated, - Withholding acknowledgement, denying recognition, manipulating - Denying someone basic social amenities, needs, or human - Manipulating people or treating them like objects (it) or animals, rather than as a person (thou). - Treating people unfairly, - Domination, control, manipulation, abandonment, - Threats or abuse including: verbal (e.g. name calling), physical, psychological, or sexual, - Assault, attack, or injury - Reduction in rank, responsibility, role, title, positional power, or - Betrayal, or being cheated, lied to, defrauded, suckered, or duped, - Being laughed at, mocked, teased, ridiculed, given a dirty look, spit on, or made to look stupid or foolish. - Being the victim of a practical joke, prank, or confidence scheme. - False accusation or insinuation, - Public shame, disrespect, or being dis'ed, downgraded, defeated, or - Forced nakedness, - Rape or incest, - Seeing your love interest flirt with another, induced jealousy, violating your love interest, cuckolding, - Seeing your wife, girlfriend, sister, or daughter sexually violated, - Poverty, unemployment, bad investments, debt, bankruptcy, foreclosure, imprisonment, homelessness, punishment, - Denigration of a person's values, beliefs, heritage, race, gender, appearance, characteristics, or affiliations, - Dependency, especially on weaker people, - Losing a dominance contest. Being forced to submit. - Trespass such as violating privacy or other boundaries, - Violating, denying, or suppressing - Losing basic personal freedoms such a mobility, access, or autonomy; being controlled, dominated, intruded on, exploited, or manipulated, - Diminished competency resulting from being disabled, immobilized, tricked, weakened, trapped, mislead, thwarted goals, opposed, sabotage, or let down. - Diminished resources resulting from being defrauded, robbed, cheated, evicted, or being deprived of privileges, or rights, - Having safety or security reduced by intimidation or threat, - Dismissing, discounting, or silencing your story, - Being treated as an equal by a lower stature person. The Paradox of Humiliation An insult usually hurts, but it is important to resolve in your own mind, based on evidence, why the insult hurts. What loss does it represent to you? Decide if the insult: - is an unjustified attack that does not decrease your stature, diminish your self-image, nor tarnish your public image or reputation, or - is justified and has diminished your public image or reputation, or - is justified and has diminished or revised your self-image. Begin the analysis by deciding if the insult is based on information that accurately represents you. Then reflect and consider if your image accurately represents your stature. If you decide the insult is unjustified then you can simply ignore it (“don't take the bait”) or you can describe why it is unfair and ask your offender for an apology. If your public image exceeds your stature, then the insult may a justifiable retaliation for your arrogance and it may contain an important message you can learn from. If the insult is justified it may cause you to feel shame and then lead you to revise your better align it with your stature. The insult is never justified if it is an attempt to reduce your stature below the threshold of human Public Image, Self-Image, Stature, and Revenge For an insult to diminish your public image, the public has to believe it is true. For an insult to diminish your self-image or self-esteem, you have to believe it is true. An insult cannot diminish your stature because your self-image is not your self. An insult may cause you to reassess your self-image or self-esteem. Revenge is often sought as a remedy for humiliation; perhaps using the phrase “protecting honor” as justification. But revenge cannot be an effective remedy for humiliation, because it does nothing to increase your stature. Humiliation is more demeaning and hurtful than “taking offense” at something. “Taking offense” is cognitive; you have questioned, disagreed with, or attacked my beliefs and perhaps my values. We disagree, and I think you are wrong. Offense is intellectual; it is about what I think. “Humiliation” is visceral; you have attacked me, my being, my self, and made me feel foolish about who I am. The attack is personal and credible enough that you have caused me to doubt my own worth, and thereby induced my shame. Humiliation is existential; it is about who I am. Humiliation has been linked to academic failure, low self-esteem, social isolation, conflict, delinquency, abuse, discrimination, depression, learned helplessness, social disruption, torture, and even death. People in power use humiliation as a form of social control; it is a common tool of oppression. The fear of humiliation is also a powerful motivating force. Although shame and humiliation are human universals, the particular circumstances and events that cause humiliation can vary greatly from one culture to the next. An event that is benign in one culture may cause great offense, shame, and humiliation in another. For example: - Under Islamic law a woman who spends time alone with an unrelated man brings great shame to her family. Victims of humiliation may be able to achieve resolution through either of two paths. The first is to reappraise the humiliating experience in some way that acknowledges the victim's strength and ability to cope with a difficult situation. This approach increases self-confidence and diminishes the fear of humiliation. The second path is to leave the degrading environment and find a more appreciative - “The most dangerous men on earth are those who are afraid they are wimps.” ~ James Gilligan - “No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.” ~ - “The truly humble person cannot be humiliated.” ~ Donald Klein - “The fear of humiliation appears to be one of the most powerful motivators in individual and collective human behavior.” ~ Donald Klein - “Persistent humiliation robs you of the vantage of rebellion.” ~ M. - “Ridicule is man's most potent weapon.” ~ - “The difference between how a person treats the powerless versus the powerful is as good a measure of human character as I know.” ~ Robert I. - “When you dismiss my story you dismiss who I am; you diminish me.” ~ Leland R. Beaumont On Apology, by Aaron Lazare Somebodies and Nobodies: Overcoming the Abuse of Rank, by Robert W. Fuller Violence, by James The No Asshole Rule, by Robert I. Sutton Threatened Egotism to Violence and Aggression: The Dark Side of High Self-Esteem, Psychology Review, 1996, Vol. 103, No. 1, 5-33, by Roy F. Baumeister, Laura Smart, Joseph M. Boden Humiliation and Assistance: Telling the Truth About Power, Telling a New Story, by Linda M. Hartling, Wellesley College The Humiliation Dynamic, Donald C. Klein, Ph.D., The Union Institute Humiliation: Assessing the Specter of Derision, Degradation, and Debasement, Linda M. Hartling (1995) Doctoral dissertation. Cincinnati, OH: Union Institute Graduate School.

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Freedom of the Press Freedoms of speech and of the press are constitutionally protected in Honduras, but the killing and intimidation of journalists continued to limit press freedom in practice during 2011. The ongoing lack of accountability since the 2009 coup has had a negative effect on freedom of expression. Honduras Human Rights Commissioner Ramón Custodio has failed to provide for serious investigations in a number of cases of murdered journalists, and despite President Porfirio Lobo’s expressed determination to bring perpetrators of such crimes to justice, little had been done by year’s end. Given this culture of impunity, many journalists fear that the killings are carried out on the orders of, or with the concealed approval of, the police, the military, and other governmental authorities. Despite the 2005 abolition of the penal code’s desacato (disrespect) provision, which was aimed at protecting the honor of public officials, restrictive press laws are still used to subpoena and punish journalists who report on sensitive issues such as government corruption, drug trafficking, and human rights abuses. Lack of access to public information is a major problem. In July 2011, a Truth and Reconciliation Commission delivered its report on the 2009 military-led overthrow of former president Manuel Zelaya. It found that the military committed major violations of freedom of expression. Self-censorship among journalists has been exacerbated by an increase in threats, and a number of journalists were dismissed due to their reporting during 2011. In July, reporter Lenis Fajardo was fired from the Tegucigalpa-based station Radio Globo after a story she investigated led to the loss of the station’s advertising contract with a government agency. In August and November, journalists Claudia Mendoza and Eleana Borjas were dismissed from their positions at the online magazine Revistazo.com. The women had previously practiced objective reporting on sensitive issues, but the magazine allegedly succumbed to political pressure and refrained from covering topics such as labor and human rights violations. Harassment, detention, and violent attacks against journalists increased in 2011, especially when journalists covered protests or reported on sensitive issues. In March, police launched a tear gas canister at the vehicle of Radio Globo director David Romero and Canal 36 television reporter Lidieth Díaz as they were interviewing protesters. Also in March, police temporarily detained Pedro López of Radio Progreso as he was covering a separate protest. Manuel Acosta Medina, general manager of the newspaper La Tribuna, survived an assassination attempt in May. In December, gunmen fired on the offices of La Tribuna, seriously wounding a security guard. The daily had published a statement saying its staff had faced attempted shootings, threats, and harassment in response to critical reporting. While fewer journalists were murdered in 2011 than in previous years, the increase in intimidation and harassment still made Honduras one of the world’s most dangerous countries for journalists. In many instances, gangs targeted journalists who reported on their organized crime activity. However, due to the government’s negligence in investigating these attacks, it is often difficult to identify the culprits. In May, Héctor Francisco Medina Polanco, manager and news anchor of the Omega Visión station, was shot and killed after leaving work in Morazán. He had reported on alleged acts of corruption by local authorities. Also in May, Channel 24 owner Luis Mendoza Cerrato was murdered by three heavily armed men as he arrived at his station in Danlí. In December, two men on a motorcycle murdered radio host Luz Marina Paz and a driver in Tegucigalpa as they headed to her radio station, Cadena Hondureña de Noticias. Paz had a reputation for investigative journalism and criticism of the 2009 coup. Honduras has nine daily newspapers, six private television stations, and five radio stations that broadcast nationally. Community radio stations are not clearly recognized by law, meaning they operate under threat of closure. Although the independent media sector is active and can report without government restriction, most outlets are owned by a small group of business magnates who have political and commercial interests and exercise considerable control over content. Corruption among journalists and government manipulation of state advertising purchases remain common. According to a 2008 report by the Open Society Institute, journalists often entered into contracts with government officials and received payments in return for favorable reporting. Around 16 percent of the population had access to the internet in 2011, but poor infrastructure in rural areas limits accessibility. No restrictions on the internet were reported during the year.

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In the Garden: Northern & Central Midwest This tree split because of a poor branch angle. So many areas of the country have seen severe storm damage this season, including my town. As I drove around after our last wind storm, I looked more closely at trees that were damaged. A few interesting characteristics emerged. First of all, trees that lost major limbs were mostly what arborists commonly call "trash trees". I dislike that term since I feel that there is worth and dignity in all trees, but there are a few species that are more prone to problems than others. Slow-Growing is Best Generally, trees that grow quickly tend to have weaker stems and branches than slower-growing trees. Lignin is the material that gives woody plants their structure, and the more lignin laid down in the cell walls means a sturdier plant. Growing slowly means plenty of time for lignin to be acquired. Fence Row Trees Not the Best We all know how often silver maples, Siberian elms, willows, and green ash trees pop up in fence rows and shrub borders, starting out as saplings and very quickly turning into large trees. Their fast growth should indicate that they are not prime trees to have in our landscapes. Good things are worth waiting for, and this applies to tree choices as well as other things in life. Insects and Disease Other damaged plants had disease or insect problems. I found this in my own damaged trees. Two oaks lost fairly large branches, and since oaks are slow-growing and strong, I looked more closely. Both branches were hollow, having become this way because of insect damage early in their formation. It was only natural that strong, twisting winds would snap them off. Norway maples in town had a lot of damage, and these trees are prone to a disease called verticillium wilt. This is a fungal disease that eventually chokes off and kills branches. However, before the branch actually dies, it becomes quite weak. Again, strong winds naturally snapped these branches off. If you lost a branch from your Norway or Schwedler maple, take a look at the interior of the branch. Verticillium is indicated by dark staining in the layer just between the bark and inner wood. Some trees that came down or had major damage had obvious problems with structural integrity. Branch angles in a deep V shape are quite weak. Strong angles are those closer to ninety degrees. Some plants such as ornamental pears naturally have poor branch angles, but when planting a young tree, you can have some effect on the integrity by pruning selectively for wider branch angles. Some trees are naturally shallow-rooted, making them candidates to tip over. Douglas fir and Colorado spruce fall into this category. We can't do anything about the storms that come through, but we can select our landscape trees carefully and get to know the ones we already have. Then it's simply a matter of learning to tolerate "nature's pruning" and cleaning up the mess. Care to share your gardening thoughts, insights, triumphs, or disappointments with your fellow gardening enthusiasts? Join the lively discussions on our FaceBook page and receive free daily tips!

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The Old Man and the Sea Summary and Analysis Santiago notices the bird again, and suspects that he has found fish. Soon after, the old man sees a tuna leap from the water and the bird dives to catch the bait fish stirred up by the tuna's jump. Santiago gently moves toward the school and soon feels a bite. He pulls the albacore in the boat and clubs him to death. The old man soon realizes that he is talking to himself. "It was considered a virtue not to talk unnecessarily at sea and the old man had always considered it so and respected it. But now he said his thoughts aloud many times since there was no one that they could annoy" (39). Santiago recalls himself from such thinking, saying "Now is the time to think of only one thing. That which I was born for" (40). Soon, there, is a strong bite on one of the lines Santiago cast out earlier. Santiago notices a bite on his hundred-fathom-deep line. The first bite is hard, and the stick to which the line is connected drops sharply. The next tug is more tentative, but Santiago knows exactly what it is. "One hundred fathoms down a marlin was eating the sardines that covered the point and the shank of the hook where the hand-forged hook projected from the head of the small tuna" (41). Encouraged by a bite at so deep a depth so far out in the Gulf, Santiago reasons that the fish much be very large. The marlin nibbles around the hook for some time, refusing to take the bait fully. Santiago speaks aloud, as if to cajole the fish into accepting the bait. He says, "Come on... Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren't they lovely? Eat them good now and then there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely. Don't be shy fish. Eat them" (42). After many false bites, the marlin finally takes the tuna and pulls out a great length of line. Santiago waits a bit for the marlin to swallow the hook and then pulls hard on the line to bring the marlin up to the surface. The fish is strong, though, and does not come up. Instead, he swims away, dragging the old man and his skiff along behind. Santiago wishes he had Manolin with him to help. Alone, though, he must let the fish take the line it wants or risk losing it. Eventually, the fish will tire itself out and die. "But four hours later the fish was still swimming steadily out to sea, towing the skiff, and the old man was still braced solidly with the line across his back" (45). As the sun goes down, the marlin continues on in the same direction, and Santiago loses sight of land altogether. The result is a curious stalemate. As Santiago says, "I can do nothing with him and he can do nothing with me....Not as long as he keeps this up" (47). He wishes for the boy again and muses that "no one should be alone in their old age....But it is unavoidable" (48). As if in response to this expression of loneliness, two porpoises come to the surface. Seeing the frolicking couple, Santiago remarks, "They are good....They play and make jokes and love one another. They are our brothers like the flying fish" (48). Santiago then remembers a female marlin he and Manolin caught. The male marlin had stayed beside the boat in despair, leaping in the air to see his mate in the boat before he disappeared into the deep ocean. It was the saddest thing Santiago had ever seen. Something then takes one of the baits behind Santiago, but he cuts the line order to avoid distraction from the marlin, wishing Manolin was there to watch the other lines. Expressing his resolve, Santiago says, "Fish... I'll stay with you until I am dead" (52). He expresses ambivalence over whether he wants the fish to jump, wanting to end the struggle as quickly as possible but worrying that the hook might slip out of the fish's mouth. Echoing his former resolve though with less certainty, Santiago says, "Fish... I love you and respect you very much. But I will kill you dead before this day ends" (54). That the fishermen call all the fish tuna and only differentiate between them when they sell them is at once a statement of the theme of unity and a repudiation of the market. It is not ignorance that underlies this practice, but rather a simplifying appreciation of the unity of the sea. There are fish and there are fisherman; those who are caught and those who catch. This distillation of parts heightens the allegorical quality of the novel. The market forces the fisherman to forget this symbolic binary relationship and focus on differentiation, requiring a multiplication of the terms of difference. As the novella stakes out a position of privileging unity, this market-driven divisionism come across negatively. This makes sense in light of Hemingway's previously mentioned anger at the unappreciative literary audience for his previous effort. Hemingway's description of the marlin's initial nibbling on the bait utilizes the same phrases again and again, e.g. "delicate pulling." While this may express the actual event perfectly, the repetition creates a distancing effect, pushing the prose more toward poetry and less towards realistic objectivity. This heightens the allegorical quality of the narrative, which, at least explicitly, Hemingway denied. The response with which Santiago's thoughts of loneliness are met is another expression of the theme of unity in the novella. Santiago thinks to himself, "No one should be alone in their old age....But it is unavoidable" (48). As if in response to this, Hemingway introduces a pair of friendly dolphins in the very next paragraph. "They are good," says Santiago. "They make jokes and love on another. They are our brothers like the flying fish" (48). Santiago begins to feel sorry for the marlin he has hooked. This pity for the great fish is intensified when Santiago recalls seeing the misery of a male marlin after he had caught its mate. Suddenly, Santiago is speaking of his actions as "treachery," an odd word for a fisherman to use in describing his trade. The more he identifies with the sea and its creatures, the more despicable his actions become. Soon, though, Santiago's treachery is transformed from his act of killing to his having gone out further than most fisherman go. The image of a struggle between two figures alone in the great "beyond" certainly conjures an air of monumental conflict. This heroic angle is played up even more when Santiago ends these reflections by thinking, "Perhaps I should not have been a fisherman....But that was the thing I was born for" (50). Again, this emphasis on fate is typical of heroic stories, especially tragedies. Santiago's identification with and affection for the marlin increases the longer he is with the fish. In order to convince the fish to be caught and to steel himself for his difficult task, Santiago says, "Fish... I love you and respect you very much. But I will kill you before this day ends" (54). Soon after, Santiago tells the bird that has landed on his boat that he cannot help because he is "with a friend" (55). And later, Santiago goes as far as to wish that he could feed the marlin, calling it his brother. The Old Man and the Sea Essays and Related Content - The Old Man and the Sea: Major Themes - The Old Man and the Sea: Essays - The Old Man and the Sea: Questions - The Old Man and the Sea: Purchase the Novel and Related Material - Ernest Hemingway: Biography - The Old Man and the Sea Summary - About The Old Man and the Sea - Character List - Glossary of Terms - Major Themes - Quotes and Analysis - Summary and Analysis of pages 1-18 - Summary and Analysis of pages 19-37 - Summary and Analysis of pages 38-54 - Summary and Analysis of pages 55-72 - Summary and Analysis of pages 73-90 - Summary and Analysis of pages 91-108 - Summary and Analysis of pages 109-127 - The Ernest Hemingway Collection at the John F. Kennedy Library - Gregorio Fuentes: The Inspiration for the Character of Santiago - Related Links on The Old Man and the Sea - Suggested Essay Questions - Test Yourself! - Quiz 1 - Test Yourself! - Quiz 2 - Test Yourself! - Quiz 3 - Test Yourself! - Quiz 4 - Author of ClassicNote and Sources

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Entrepreneurs are among America's greatest resources. These individuals try to change the status quo because they expect to use resources to create higher value than those resources are currently producing. This takes investments, and investments are risky. The return to these investments is the economic growth that they create, which is profit. Yet the government often taxes these profits twice, once at the business level and then again when the profits are distributed to individuals. This double taxation not only dampens the incentive to invest, but also obscures who actually bears the burden of these taxes. Corporations are often personified and demonized, but a corporation is a legal entity, not an actual person. Because a corporation is made up of a group of individuals but is not actually an individual, corporate taxes are really taxes on the stakeholders in the corporation. In a U.S. Treasury report, William Gentry points out that empirical studies show that employees and consumers really bear the cost of corporate and investment taxes. Simulation results show that repealing the corporate income tax alone, which would cost approximately $300 billion in annual tax revenue, would produce by 2012: - 2 million more jobs than the baseline scenario; - $280 billion more in real (inflation-adjusted) gross domestic product (GDP); - $4,000 more in real disposable income for a family of four; and - $707 billion more in household net wealth-the base of economic strength and stability. Losing Our Competitive Edge In a global economy, investments will flow to the areas where they can earn the highest returns. Many factors-such as labor supply, resource availability, and legal structure-influence the return on investments. In particular, taxing returns on investment discourages investment, holding all else constant. According to a recent Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) working paper, of the three taxes (income, corporate, and consumption), corporate taxes are most harmful to economic growth. Other countries are aware of this and have steadily reduced their corporate tax rates. The U.S. has been the exception. Chart 1 shows how most other countries in the global economy have undercut U.S. competitiveness in corporate tax rates. If Congress repealed the corporate income tax, investments would flow into the country. Multinational and international companies would be encouraged to operate in the United States, bringing jobs and new technology to meet today's economic challenges. Owners of corporations-those who earn the profits-would have more resources to invest in things that create value for others. Eliminating the corporate tax would also encourage owners to hire and train people and to invest in their workforces because a more competitive tax structure would give corporations a greater incentive to domicile in the U.S. Further, higher levels of investment would require new skills of employees. As these investments paid off, economic growth would occur. Implementing the President's Stated Goals Repealing the corporate income tax would accomplish President Barack Obama's stated goals of increasing investment and ushering in an era of responsibility and economic growth, all at a lower cost than the recently passed stimulus bill. First, the President's call for investment seems to demonstrate that he knows that investment drives economic growth. Finding solutions to economic challenges requires investment, and in the United States, that is precisely what businesses do. Businesses throughout the country have an "on the ground" view of these challenges and knowledge of the available resources. Businesses have already mobilized individuals that specialize in providing these solutions to consumers, and businesses are making investments. Removing a barrier to business would be a quicker and more effective way to foster economic growth than spending billions to assess "worthy" investment projects and wasting time trying to bid resources away from private citizens. Second, the President has said that he believes in personal responsibility. Individuals who make investments are personally responsible for the outcome. In fact, their viability depends on it. On the other hand, a politician's viability is not directly tied to an investment outcome. When the government makes an investment decision, no one has ownership of any specific project. Instead, taxpayers are the owners and must spend more of their valuable time and resources monitoring their agents, the politicians. Having the government make investment decisions weakens individual responsibility. Removing a barrier to encourage more individuals to take ownership of their investments would be more stimulative than creating an additional layer of bureaucracy. Third, the President has said that economic growth depends not only on individuals doing their part, but also on government doing its part. Numerous studies, notably at the International Monetary Fund and World Bank, have found that sound fiscal policy based on low taxes, transparent collections, manageable debt-to-GDP ratios, and consistent justice systems are significant factors in economic development and growth. Focusing the government on governing and providing a fiscally stable environment while allowing individual entrepreneurs to invest in valuable new ideas is the best recipe for sustained economic growth. The bottom line is that the stimulus bill and the President's proposed federal budget borrow billions of dollars, raising the nation's debt-to-GDP ratio to precariously high levels. We have little experiential understanding of how much risk these levels of debt will inject into the U.S. economy, which was built by a nation of entrepreneurs over the past few centuries. Simulation Shows Effectiveness of the Policy Analysts at The Heritage Foundation simulated the effect of repealing the corporate income tax using the Global Insight (GI) short-term macroeconomic model of the U.S. economy and the Tax Policy Advisers (TPA) overlapping-generations dynamic general equilibrium model. The GI structural model gives quantitative results on many detailed macroeconomic variables, while the TPA model gives direction on the underlying behavioral effects in the economy. The GI model indicates that annual GDP growth would average 0.6 percentage point higher over the next four years. This is not as high as the average 10 percent increase in investment because the higher productivity from the investments allows individuals to enjoy an improved quality of life from the labor-leisure trade-off. That is, people can sustain their standard of living with less labor time. This quality-of-life benefit is not captured in the GDP measure. Both models show that housing investment and the housing capital stock would decrease. The distortionary effect of housing deductions in the tax code along with double taxes on profits has led to a higher-than-efficient investment in housing relative to investments in output-producing capital. The economic efficiency gained from this reallocation away from housing and toward productive new capital can be seen in higher GDP. If this reallocation had been less efficient, GDP would have fallen relative to the baseline. Eliminating the distortions of the corporate income tax allows the economy to recapture this deadweight loss, thereby increasing GDP. The higher stock of productive capital makes labor more productive and wages increase. Wages and salaries in the private sector are 3 percent ($177 billion) higher in 2012 than the baseline. This corresponds to about $4,000 more in disposable income for a family of four in 2012. Higher disposable income allows families to spend more and to save and invest more. The net worth of households (assets minus liabilities) is $717 billion higher in 2012. This result further strengthens the economic fundamentals that lead to a higher living standard for those in the economy. Over the next four years, net foreign investment (U.S. investment abroad minus foreign investment in the U.S.) decreases by an average nominal amount of $61 billion indicating greater foreign investment in the U.S. A meta-analysis of elasticity estimates finds that a 1 percent decrease in the average effective corporate tax rate increases foreign direct investment by 3.3 percent. Consistent with the meta-analysis, the simulation using the GI structural model shows that both exports and imports increase over the next four years, but imports increase much more. The relative higher change in imports versus exports implies a higher trade deficit and thus a higher capital account surplus. The increased demand for U.S. dollars increases the value of the U.S. dollar further, demonstrating this policy's contribution to strengthening the fundamentals of the U.S. economy. The increased investment both domestically and from abroad creates more jobs, while reducing the unemployment rate. By 2012, this policy produces approximately 2 million more jobs than the baseline scenario, and the unemployment rate averages 0.6 percentage point lower over the next four years. (For detailed results from the GI model, see Appendix C.) Economic Trade-offs and Considerations The short-term potential losers from the repeal of the corporate income tax would involve industries built on providing corporate income tax services, businesses that have made decisions based partly on a tax benefit, and politicians who use business tax credits as bargaining chips. These groups may be more vocal and cohesive than the silent majority that does not "see" all the investment that is being forgone due to this double taxation. Thus, this policy change requires effective leadership that seeks ways to compensate temporary losers as the economy transitions to greater efficiencies in which investment decisions are based on fundamental resource considerations rather than on avoiding taxes. Some might think that eliminating the corporate income tax would encourage en-masse conversions to the C-corporation designation from other types of corporate structures. In fact, repealing the corporate income tax would just remove a layer of tax on individuals, thus leveling the tax playing field among different designations. The owners of any type of organizational form would still be taxed through dividends, capital gains, or higher salary, depending on how closely the ownership is held. Therefore, legal structures would be based on considerations of liability exposure and efficient financing needs. Another concern is that owners would have more of an incentive to earn profits than to pay higher salaries to their workers. With a corporate income tax, salaries and wages reduce profit and therefore reduce the tax liability. However, this fear is misplaced. As mentioned above, employees bear much of the tax burden through lower wages. Taxing something will reduce the supply of that item or activity. Taxing businesses reduces business operations, which means that businesses pay less in wages to employees or hire fewer employees. Conversely, eliminating the corporate income tax would encourage more businesses to form, which would increase competition for labor and apply upward pressure on wages, as the simulation results show. A final issue is that owner-operated corporations could pay the owner the profits in the form of dividends instead of as a salary if the tax on dividends is less than the tax on wages. For example, if a business incorporated as a C corporation earns a profit of $100,000 before paying the manager's salary and the owner is also the manager and the only shareholder, then the owner could pay himself a salary of $100,000 and earn zero profit or take no salary and pay himself the profit as a $100,000 dividend. Assuming that the tax on dividends is 20 percent and the average effective tax on the $100,000 salary is 28 percent, the business owner would be wise to forego the salary and instead take a dividend of $100,000. Ideally, this possibility would be addressed by bringing marginal labor and capital taxes more in line at a low rate. Reducing taxes for businesses would convert those tax savings into growth-creating savings and investment in the economy. Businesses have already mobilized individuals and other resources that are working together for productive purposes. These savings would provide the capital that entrepreneurs need to invest in their ideas for growth-creating projects. Regrettably, because these benefits are broad and corporate tax repeal opens many direct and indirect positive feedback channels, the effects are difficult to trace directly and are dismissed as having no effect on the "average" household. It is easy to be lulled into the rhetoric that our system privatizes gains but socializes losses. In fact, the gains are also socialized, but they are too often taken for granted. The modern conveniences of the American standard of living required business investments in the past. The jobs that people hold today were created through past successful investments by entrepreneurs. Conversely, most people do not realize that they perhaps lost job opportunities because the U.S. corporate tax is higher than the corporate tax rates of almost all other developed countries. Repealing the corporate income tax is a relatively low-cost way to implement the President's stated goals. At a time when U.S. employees are seeing jobs leave the country, a tax plan that increases the competitiveness of the U.S. business environment and encourages saving and investment by individuals would allow entrepreneurs to implement their ideas for dealing with the challenges of the 21st century. It would also encourage job-creating businesses to locate in the U.S. It is important that this country's leaders signal that the United States is still the land of opportunity. Karen A. Campbell, Ph.D., is Policy Analyst in Macroeconomics in the Center for Data Analysis at The Heritage Foundation. Analysts at The Heritage Foundation used the Global Insight short-term macroeconomic model to simulate the effects of a repeal of the corporate income tax. The simulation was implemented as follows: - The statutory rate on corporate profits was reduced from 35 percent to zero percent. - Recent OECD research estimated that reducing the corporate tax rate by 5 percentage points would increase productivity growth by 0.4 percentage point. This implies an elasticity of total factor productivity to the corporate tax rate of 0.08. - Using this elasticity, repealing the U.S. corporate income tax (a 100 percent reduction) would increase productivity growth by 8 percent per year or 2 percent per quarter. - The quarterly change in the TFPTREND variable is thus increased by 2 percent starting in the first quarter of 2009. - Since the corporate tax really taxes individual stakeholders, employees, shareholders, and consumers, repealing the tax rate causes micro-level behavior adjustments for the individuals who bear the tax. Evidence suggests that the employees bear most of the burden. - A simulation of the macroeconomy using the Tax Policy Advisers overlapping-generations model reveals the direction of the micro-level adjustments. This model predicts a decrease in labor supply as individuals, now with higher wages, choose relatively more leisure. The TPA model is a general equilibrium model; therefore, the implied labor supply is the full employment or potential of the economy, which implies a higher natural rate of unemployment. - For this reason, the natural rate of unemployment variable was increased in the structural model. This variable was adjusted by the natural rate of unemployment-to-TFP-trend ratio. Applying this baseline ratio to the higher TFP trend increased the natural rate of unemployment, ranging from 0.0002 percentage point to 0.01 percentage point as increased productivity growth accelerates the wealth effect, allowing individuals to choose more leisure and less labor. - Although increased productivity should lower prices and expected inflation, the structural model interprets price reductions as decreases in demand, which lowers investment and production. For this reason, the price and expected inflation variables as well as the consumer confidence variable are held constant. If the model had correctly incorporated the lower prices resulting from increased supply, the increased consumption would cause reported real GDP to be higher. Thus, the results in this paper can be interpreted as a conservative, lower bound on the effects of the corporate tax repeal. Using two models helps to validate the results and provides greater insight into the likely effects, both in the long term and along the transition path. The TPA model found that non-housing investment would be higher, and the structural model quantifies this as an average of 5 percent higher. This leads to a higher level of capital stock. The TPA model predicts a higher interest rate as the unleashing of investment demand outweighs the increased supply of savings. A check of the Global Insight structural model's quantitative results against the qualitative results predicted by the TPA model, which is based on micro-level foundations, validates the reported effects. - The TPA model predicts a decrease in residential investment and an increase in non-residential investment as the bias is removed from these two types of capital investment. The structural model also produced these results. - The TPA model predicts an increase in wages due to the increased productivity and tightening of the labor market as individuals are happy to choose more leisure. The structural model quantifies an increase in wages as well. - The TPA model predicts a long-term increase in the equilibrium interest rate as the increased demand for investment outweighs the increased supply of savings. The structural model predicts an initial decrease in interest rates as the cost of capital is lower due to reducing the tax liability. However, as this lower cost of capital encourages greater investment and shifts the demand for investment outward as new businesses are incorporated, interest rates in this model also increase. This movement in the rental cost of capital demonstrates the positive feedback effects that this policy unleashes. First, the tax repeal lowers the cost of capital. This leads to increased investment, which increases labor productivity. Higher productivity increases the wages paid to labor and increases the relative cost of labor so that more capital is demanded, which bids up the rents paid to capital. This process continues as new capital again increases the productivity of workers. Academic literature has found inconclusive results with respect to the effects of the corporate tax rate on stock market returns. David Cutler finds that there are winners and losers depending on a firm's degree of leverage. Corporations that have a high level of debt earn lower before-tax profits, but their after-tax profits are similar to those earned by firms that are less leveraged because of the former's ability to reduce their tax liability by the amount of interest paid on the debt. Thus, repealing the corporate income tax would cause highly leveraged firms to have lower profits relative to their less leveraged peers. This would reduce the relative value of their stock or, conversely, increase the relative value of their peers' stock. The structural model shows these mixed results. The S&P 500 initially increases but then decreases. However, the yield on the S&P 500 is consistently higher over the entire forecast horizon due to the higher earnings of corporations in general because of reduced tax expenses. example, studies show that employees pay about 60 percent of the corporate income tax in lower wages. Some of this occurs through less investment and higher business costs. Less capital and fewer technology investments cause worker productivity to be lower, and this lowers wages. Higher consumer prices caused by higher business costs lead to less demand for a business's product and therefore less demand for workers in that business. William M. Gentry, "A Review of the Evidence on the Incidence of the Corporate Income Tax," U.S. Department of the Treasury, Office of Tax Analysis Paper No. 101, December 2007, at http://www.treas.gov/offices/tax- policy/library/ota101.pdf (September 11, 2008). Åsa Johansson, Christopher Heady, Jens Arnold, Bert Brys, and Laura Vartia, "Tax and Economic Growth," Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Economics Department Working Paper No. 620, July 11, 2008, at http://www.olis.oecd.org/olis/2008doc.nsf/LinkTo/NT00003502/ $FILE/JT03248896.PDF (September 5, 2008). OECD working paper found that total factor productivity (TFP) is 0.4 percentage point higher after 10 years from only a 5 percent reduction in the corporate income tax rate. Jens Arnold and Cyrille Schwellnus, "Do Corporate Taxes Reduce Productivity and Investment at the Firm Level? Cross-Country Evidence from the Amadeus Dataset," Centre d'Etudes Prospectives et d'Informations Internationales Working Paper No. 2008-19, September 2008, at /static/reportimages/07F84051C6F5B1DCD66ED93F124E8EE0.pdf (March Office of Management and Budget, A New Era of Responsibility: Renewing America's Promise (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2009). For example, see Luiz R. De Mello, Jr., "Can Fiscal Decentralization Strengthen Social Capital?" Public Finance Review, Vol. 32, No. 1 (January 2004), pp. 4-35, and Anwar Shah and Jeffrey Huther, "Applying a Simple Measure of Good Governance to the Debate on Fiscal Decentralization," World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 1894, November 1999, at .com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=620584 (February 9, For information about the details and operation of the Global Insight U.S. macroeconomic model, see The Heritage Foundation, "Description of the Global Insight Short-Term US Macroeconomic Model," at http://www.herita ge.org/cda/upload/globalinsightmodel.pdf (March 4, 2009). The methodologies, assumptions, conclusions, and opinions in this report are entirely the work of Heritage Foundation analysts. They have not been endorsed by and do not necessarily reflect the views of the owners of the GI model. The GI model is used by leading government agencies and Fortune 500 companies to provide indications to policymakers of the probable effects of economic events and public policy changes on hundreds of major economic For a description of the TPA model, see John W. Diamond and George R. Zodrow, "Description of the Tax Policy Advisers' Model," The Heritage Foundation, March 15, 2005, at http://www.heritage.org/cda/upload/TPA_ Model_No_TDA_03_15_05.pdf (March 4, 2009). The methodologies, assumptions, conclusions, and opinions in this paper are entirely the work of Heritage Foundation analysts. They have not been endorsed by and do not necessarily reflect the views of TPA. The TPA model is used by leading government agencies to indicate the probable effects of economic events and public policy Standard economic theory shows how individuals value leisure and consumption. Since individuals must use their labor to earn income for consumption, they must trade off some of their valuable leisure time. The more that individuals can consume with a given amount of labor, the better off they are. In fact, as consumption possibilities increase, empirical evidence shows that individuals will often forgo additional consumption (work less) and spend more time on their other valuable non-work priorities. This arguably improves one's quality of life because one can consume the same amount of goods and services and have more time to enjoy personal activities. In this case, there may be somewhat less measured employment, all else equal, but this is due to the decision not to supply employment rather than a lack of demand for employment. Furthermore, measured gross domestic output may be somewhat less because the national income and product accounts do not capture the value of having additional leisure Ruud A. De Mooij and Sjef Ederveen, "Taxation and Foreign Direct Investment: A Synthesis of Empirical Research," International Tax and Public Finance, Vol. 10, No. 6 (November 2003), pp. 673-693. Increases in foreign direct investment would increase the capital account of the U.S. as more dollars are purchased to buy U.S. investments. A capital account surplus implies a current account deficit, which is the balance of A C corporation is a legal entity that limits the liability of the owners of the corporation. This allows many individuals to participate in the ownership of a corporation through stocks without exposing other personal assets, beyond those invested in the shares, to lawsuits or creditors. This allows corporations to raise large amounts of equity finance that can be invested to take advantage of economies of scale. Since the owners are an investing class, rather than involved in day-to-day operations, public C corporations have more stringent financial reporting requirements and therefore may not make sense for smaller entities. Privately held C corporations may make sense from a liability standpoint for smaller entities. This is an over-simplified example to illustrate a potential consideration for policymakers implementing this reform. Many other factors, particularly social insurance contributions, would affect the dividend versus salary Carroll, "Comparing International Corporate Although the behavioral change in the model is driven by this substitution effect, the natural rate of unemployment could also increase for another reason that is not captured in current models. Repealing the corporate income tax would increase the competitiveness of U.S. businesses. This would create more job opportunities and greater investment in new technology. More job opportunities would increase frictional unemployment (individuals changing jobs more often as new opportunities become available), while greater investment would increase structural unemployment (new technology requiring new skills, displacing individuals as demand for new skills David Cutler, "Tax Reform and the Stock Market: An Asset Price Approach," American Economic Review, Vol. 78, No. 5 (December 1988), pp. 1107-1117.

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Any of a genus of bristly-hairy herbs with showy red, yellow, or white flowers. (Screw Tug: t. 93; l. 88’0”; b. 19’0”; dr. 7’3”; s. 8 k.; a. 1 heavy 12-pdr. S.B., 1 12-pdr. rifle). Poppy (Screw Tug), originally white oak steamer Addie Douglass, was purchased at Philadelphia 31 October 1863 from J. Alderdice; renamed Poppy; and commissioned 10 November 1863. During the Civil War, Poppy served as a tender to the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron. On 25 November 1863 she was with ironclad Roanoke off Newport News. On 4 February 1864 she was in Hampton Roads. By 17 March she was back off Newport News, again serving as a picket guard for ironclad Roanoke. On the night of 8 April a small boat succeeded in attacking frigate Minnesota, flagship of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, with a torpedo, making a clean escape. Poppy was ordered to ram the intruder, but was unable to do so because her steam was not up. Poppy was then used as mail and supply tug until 17 June when she was stationed in the James River above Wilson’s Wharf as a tender and ram to ironclads. Late in the year she became a tug in Hampton Roads and operated there and in the James River, becoming an ordnance tug at Norfolk in April 1865. She was sold at New York 30 November 1865 to William Farrington.

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Health Protection Agency (HPA) scientists have shown that specific antibodies, which are produced by a patient's own immune system, are a more common cause of encephalitis than previously recognised. This new finding was revealed in a study published in the Lancet Infectious Diseases today. Encephalitis is a rare, but often deadly, inflammation of the brain, which often starts as a flu like illness or headache with symptoms rapidly getting worse over a short period of time. A person may experience seizures (fits), changes in mental state, such as confusion or drowsiness, a loss of consciousness, or lapse in to a coma. The most common known causes of encephalitis are infections by a virus. But, in most cases, a cause is never found, which makes it difficult to devise new treatments or develop interventions to prevent serious complications. Around 700 people in England develop acute encephalitis every year and about 7% of these cases are fatal. In the largest study of its kind in England, led by scientists at the HPA, over 200 patients with encephalitis were studied. Researchers found a cause for 63% of cases, the most frequent being the herpes simplex virus, which usually causes cold sores with no serious complications. But they also found that almost 10% of all cases were caused by antibodies made by the body's immune system against certain brain proteins and not caused directly by infection. Whilst it had previously been known that this could be a cause, the frequency with which it occurred had not previously been established. The importance of these results is that it shows drugs to "dampen down" the immune system are more likely to be required to treat encephalitis than previously thought, as brain damage is thought to occur through immune attack of the brain. Dr David Brown, director of the HPA's virus reference department, said: "The aim of this study was to learn more about the many causes of encephalitis and we are delighted that our findings have significantly contributed to our knowledge of the disease. "We found that almost 10% of all cases in the group of patients we studied were related to antibodies found within the brain. These patients were also shown to have the worst outcomes. But the good news is that this form of encephalitis is potentially treatable, especially when therapy is started early, so it is hoped our findings will help clinicians in diagnosing and treating patients as early as possible." Dr Brown continued: "This important study has led to the production of a national clinical case definition for encephalitis and also better methods for identifying the cause. It has also pulled together multi-disciplinary experts from around the country with an interest and expertise in encephalitis, creating a unique knowledge network here in the UK, which could also benefit patients worldwide. We have also received lots of interest from colleagues from all around the world."

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Some providers may request metabolic testing for individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). It is helpful for individuals with ASD and their families to understand why this test may be requested. Metabolic testing is a way to study the body’s chemistry in action. By measuring blood and urine samples at specific times in relation to fasting or meals, one can determine if a metabolic disorder is present that can contribute to autism. As an example, problems with energy production can result from insufficient activity of mitochondria, which are important parts of all cells and may function abnormally in as many as 20% of children with autism. The week little Neil Buckley lost all his words, Maura and Paul Buckley lost their bearings. The Lurie Center for Autism conducts innovative research to advance knowledge of autism spectrum and developmental disorders. The Lurie Center for Autism is committed to advancing knowledge about autism spectrum disorders (ASD) for families, professionals, students, and trainees.

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Definition of Diesel exhaust particle Diesel exhaust particle: A respirable particle produced during the compression ignition of diesel fuel. Diesel particles are composed of elemental and organic carbon compounds as well as trace amount of other elements with toxic properties including transition metals. See also: Diesel exhaust. Last Editorial Review: 10/9/2012 Back to MedTerms online medical dictionary A-Z List Need help identifying pills and medications? Get the latest health and medical information delivered direct to your inbox FREE!

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January 18, 1813 Joseph Farwell Glidden: The Father of Barbed Wire Joseph Farwell Glidden was born on January 18, 1813, and became known as the "Father of Barbed Wire." In 1874, Glidden was issued patent #157,124 for the first wire technology that was capable of restraining cattle. While his barbed wire was neither the first nor the last, it was ruled the best after a three year legal battle.

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By Margaret Southern For many people in the United States, food comes from the grocery store. Most Americans would be hard pressed to determine the real origins of much of the food we eat. But residents of the Cayos Cochinos islands off the northern coast of Honduras know exactly where their food comes from: the ocean outside their doors. Here, it’s not just their stomachs that rely on the bounty of the ocean—it’s almost their entire economy. But overfishing and industrial fishing continues to put pressure on their marine resources. The Nature Conservancy is working with partners and locals to protect their reefs through education, conservation and income-generating projects. In 2007, the Conservancy and the Cayos Cochinos Foundation identified almost 20 income-generating projects with the goal of increasing income for households that depend heavily on the reef. One of these projects was the construction of a small tourist complex managed by the East End community. The community hopes to attract tourists with two eco-friendly cabins, which were built with outside funding, and an ocean-view restaurant serving traditional Garifuna meals, funded by the Conservancy. The Conservancy is connecting the community with tourism service providers to promote best practices and ensure the protection of conservation targets. The Cayos Cochinos Foundation, along with the Conservancy and other groups, has also worked with the communities to establish management plans that encourage no-take zones and the construction of artificial reefs that serve as nurseries for small fish. And through other partnerships, laws have been passed that will eventually prohibit industrial fishing around the marine protected area. All of these initiatives are important in creating sustainability in the reefs and communities of Cayos Cochinos. According to Francisco Velasquez, a school teacher in East End, if it weren’t for the Conservancy, they wouldn’t still be living on that island. “Our livelihood depends on fishing, but in the past large ships would come in and sweep the whole ocean clear of fish. There was nothing left for us to eat,” Velasquez said. “But now with the conservation of this area the fish are returning, and through the tourism project we are creating new solutions to increase our income and improve our lives.” In Cayos Cochinos, these projects would not have been possible without Anthony Ives. A former San Francisco stock trader who at one point was managing 50 billion dollars for the state of California, Ives found his way to Honduras after Sept. 11 through the Peace Corps. He created the Foundation Heart Ventures-Grupo de Apoyo al Desarollo (IHV-GAD) to have a focus on education, conservation and job creation, with the idea that it is not possible to separate the three objectives. “We have found that an integrated approach is much more sustainable, and we’re very happy that the Conservancy shares our long-term vision to sustainable conservation,” Ives said. “We hope to convince other organizations that through an integrated approach that involves education, we can achieve sustainable development while focusing on the environment.”January 03, 2011

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Win or lose on Election Day, Republican Mitt Romney has already made history as the first Mormon to win a major party presidential nomination. But has his race for the White House changed Americans' perceptions and stereotypes of the small, insular but fast-growing religion, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints? And, by extension, has Romney affected how Mormons view their place in the nation? George Frey/Getty Images The Mormon Salt Lake temple in Salt Lake City. The Mormon Salt Lake temple in Salt Lake City. George Frey/Getty Images Two noted Mormon experts we turned to as the 2012 presidential campaign draws to a close said that they see national perceptions of the religion emerging largely unchanged by Romney's run, but that perhaps it has helped Mormonism shed a bit of its mystery. "I think the general reader has become more educated about Mormonism, and some of its reputation for strangeness has worn off, though it retains its deserved reputation for difference," says Kathleen Flake, author of The Politics of American Religious Identity: The Seating of Senator Reed Smoot, Mormon Apostle. "Certainly, more people will have heard of it," says Flake, a Vanderbilt Divinity School American religion professor. "But with few exceptions, what they have heard pro and con seems remarkably similar to what was being said in the 1970s." Matthew Bowman, author of The Mormon People: The Making of An American Faith and an assistant religion professor at Hampden-Sydney College, says he has come to a similar conclusion. "The main obstacle to integration for any religion in the U.S. is, simply, size," Bowman says. "Fear and antagonism toward Catholics in America declined in tandem with the growth of the Catholic population in the U.S." "Mormons," he said, "still make up only 2 percent of the American population; they likely still have hills to climb." A Pew Research Center survey of American Mormons released in January, well before Romney captured the GOP nomination, explored the church members' vision of themselves, and how they believe they are perceived by non-Mormons. We also asked Flake and Bowman to help us discern how the past 10 months may have affected attitudes reflected in the study. Romney isn't the first Mormon to seek the presidency. In fact, nine others sought the nation's highest office before Romney. They include Mormon founder Joseph Smith in 1844, and Romney's father, George, in 1968. Additionally, former Utah Gov. Jon Huntsman made a brief run for the GOP nomination this year. Here's what we wanted to know, and what Bowman and Flake had to tell us: NPR: The church, along with its attributes of community and giving and focus on family, has also been consistently portrayed as inward looking, and with a complicated history that includes polygamy, discrimination and accumulation of wealth. Has Romney's run done anything to change that, and, if so, what and how? Bowman: Romney, unfortunately, tends to embody some of the more benign stereotypes: wealthy, awkward and so on. What his run has done, however, is bring attention to the diversity of Mormons in the United States. The variety of Mormons who have become prominent in the media, and Romney's occasional head-butting with his co-religionist [Senate Majority Leader] Harry Reid [the Nevada Democrat], have done a fair amount to refute the great myth of Mormonism: that it's a monolith. Flake: Probably not. More than sound bites, drive-by photo ops and editorials are needed on these complex issues and common canards. This is not to fault the press. Electioneering is not given to much more than this and most Americans have never had any patience for theology. NPR: The question of whether Mormonism is a Christian religion still divides the general public and has made Romney's path to the Republican nomination even more historic. Mormons say they feel hostility from evangelical Christians, an important part of the GOP base, and they should, given Pew's findings. We're now seeing numbers that suggest [a] party highly motivated to support Romney. Politically, what have you seen happen over the past 10 months that brought this part of the Republican electorate around? Bowman: I don't know that the electorate has, actually, changed much. Evangelicals are rather bitterly divided over Romney, but that's been true from the beginning, and I suspect most of that faction of evangelicals who make up the religious right are in the religious right because of their politics, and will swallow hard and vote for the candidate who best matches those politics. That said, there is probably some small faction who are just going to stay home. Mitt Romney, his wife, Ann, and then-Sen. Robert Bennett, R-Utah, attend the 2008 funeral of Gordon B. Hinckley, president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, in Salt Lake City. Mitt Romney, his wife, Ann, and then-Sen. Robert Bennett, R-Utah, attend the 2008 funeral of Gordon B. Hinckley, president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, in Salt Lake City. Getty Images Flake: Romney's nomination necessitated the silencing of evangelical anti-Mormonism. Other explanations, it seems to me, underestimate their antipathy — racial and religious — of the present administration and their fear of a second term. NPR: There are still people uncomfortable with the notion of a Mormon president; some cite the Mormon belief that the Constitution, and, with it, democracy, were "divinely inspired," as Richard and Joan Ostling wrote in "Mormon in America." If Mitt Romney wins the White House, how do you see his faith informing his decisions? How is this different from John F. Kennedy becoming the first Catholic president? Bowman: Romney is far different from Kennedy. Kennedy's election marked the culmination of a long process of Catholic integration in the U.S. Romney's run is still early in Mormonism's integration. Of course Romney's faith might inform his decisions as president, just as the faith of any believer informs the ways they live their lives and do their job. Mormon faith in American exceptionalism, though it differs in origin from that of, say, conservative Protestants in America, is not so different than that held by, for instance, Ronald Reagan or George Bush, which means it's well within the spectrum of American politics. Some might be worried, as some were worried about Kennedy, that the leader of their faith would dictate the decisions of the president. Kennedy specifically repudiated this possibility; Romney has not. But in practice it's extraordinarily unlikely that the LDS leadership would do something like it; they are well aware of these suspicions, have been since the early 20th century. Flake: Our times and his party, not Romney's faith, would mark the difference. Whereas Kennedy could satisfy his electorate by pledging separation from religion, Romney will have to offer special status to religion, as promised in his 2007 speech on the subject. As for the extent to which Mormonism will inform his decisions, the campaign seems the best measure of that. If you can find Mormonism in his current policy decisions, you will see it in future ones. NPR: Nearly half of the Mormons surveyed by Pew said that there is "a lot of discrimination" against Mormons. In what context do you think Mormons experience discrimination, and how might Romney's run, and potential presidency, alleviate the perception and/or the condition? Bowman: There's a lot of residual sense of persecution within Mormonism, deriving, of course, from the church's historic experience in America, but also from the rather unending barrage of evangelical countercult organizations that target Mormonism. Regardless, I think a lot of Mormons were rather distressed at much of what came out in the past couple of years: [Former Arkansas Gov.] Mike Huckabee's comments in Romney's first run, the Book of Mormon musical, and so on. What's interesting is that while traditionally anti-Mormonism presented Mormons as a dangerous threat to America, more recently, Mormons have been presented as naive, uptight, and unbearably nice. Caricatures of Romney himself certainly fall into the latter category, and thus will probably reinforce rather than eliminate stereotype. Flake: "Discrimination" is an inapt term for the treatment of Latter-day Saints. In America, they are simply too white and middle class to deserve its use. More accurately, they are ridiculed and stereotyped from the right and left as wrongly religious or too religious, respectively. This estimation of them as presumptively threatening or foolish will, I expect, continue to diminish as they become better known. If Romney is elected, press coverage of him may lead to greater familiarity with his religion. At least, this will be the case if the press continues to try to explain his politics in terms of his religion. NPR: Another interesting Pew finding was that only 30 percent of Mormons said that others see Mormonism as mainstream, yet 63 percent said acceptance of Mormonism "is rising." Where do you think that Mormons find this rising acceptance, and has Romney specifically done anything the 10 months since the survey was released to make Mormonism "mainstream"? Bowman: To many Americans the problem is that Mormons are "too" mainstream, with their white shirts, conservative haircuts, and so on. They're a poor fit in an America that increasingly prizes diversity and informality. I don't know that Romney has specifically tried to persuade Americans that Mormons are mainstream because, in fact, many Mormons "feel" mainstream, even if other Americans don't think so. Romney has almost certainly had about zero angst over whether or not his religion's particular theology might prevent him from running for president, just as Stephenie Meyer (author of the Twilight series) probably sees no conflict between writing about vampires and going to a Mormon chapel on Sundays. That, I think, may account for the discrepancy in this poll: Mormons are talking about how they perceive others perceiving them, not about themselves. Flake: Latter-day Saints probably see improvement in the mere fact of the general public's attempt to understand them as they see themselves, not simplistically as their sectarian antagonists have caricatured them. Romney's refusal to be drawn into theological discussions has probably helped to direct the conversation away from historically internecine debates and toward understanding his church as a contemporary social phenomenon.

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Fire stories from the national parks highlight events, incidents, and the like, associated with fire and fuels management, as well as fire education, technology, partnerships, and more. Stories highlight work related to Department of the Interior initiatives as well as local and regional initiatives. Bolinas Ridge Fuelbreak Uses Best Management Practices Point Reyes National Seashore, California National Fire Plan, Fuels Reduction* During the 2009 field season, the hazardous fuels crew for the San Francisco Bay Area National Parks completed the second phase of work on a 5-mile fuelbreak along the Bolinas Ridge fire road. This fire road marks the border between National Park Service and Marin Municipal Water District lands in the western part of Marin County, California. A fire moving east across this fire road could threaten thousands of homes in the San Geronimo Valley and the town of Fairfax, as well as a critical drinking water supply which serves the majority of the county. A fire moving west across the fire road could threaten thousands of homes in Olema, Bolinas and Stinson Beach. The goal of this project was to improve the fire road for emergency access and for use as a fire control line if necessary. The fuel treatment extends from the Randall Trail intersection south to Bolinas-Fairfax Road, 60-80 feet from the edge of the fire road in a mixture of Douglas fir / redwood forest and maritime chaparral. Small trees, 8 inches in diameter or less are being removed, while larger trees are being limbed up to a height of 10 feet. Most shrubs and all large, down woody fuels are being removed within the first 15 feet of the road. Farther out, shrubs are being spaced at a distance of one and a half times their height. Fuel loads in this area have increased in recent years due to the die off of trees associated with Sudden Oak Death. An important consideration in planning this fuelbreak was the existence of three rare plants in the project area, which include one manzanita and two ceanothus species. These plants are fire stimulated obligate seeders whose populations are very small, and are thought to be declining in the absence of fire. Furthermore, Northern spotted owls, a federally threatened species also nests in the project area. Mitigations to avoid impacts to these species were crucial to the success of the project. Prior to finalizing the prescription for treatment, the National Park Service contracted with biologists to survey populations of the rare Marin manzanita and develop recommendations for management. These efforts included forming an advisory group to ensure the final report establishing best management practices would undergo rigorous peer review. All of the rare plants in the project area are being flagged and are being left intact by the fuels crew, who also receives training in how to recognize these plants. Meanwhile, bird nesting surveys are completed each year before work begins under a cooperative agreement with PRBO Conservation Science, a nationally recognized bird conservation organization. The thinning treatment on Bolinas Ridge may in fact benefit the rare plants by opening up areas to more sunlight and increasing seed production. In the meantime, fuel has been substantially reduced on approximately 30 acres of the 60-acre project so far. Comments by the public who use the trail for recreation indicate they are enthused by the obvious reduction in fire hazard, and collaboration with the Marin Municipal Water District about fuels management along the fire road has increased as a result of the work accomplished to date. Contact: Jennifer Chapman, Fire Communication and Education Specialist Phone: (415) 464-5133

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Low Blood Oxygen in Dogs Treatment is dependent on the underlying cause of the oxygen deficiency. Oxygen will be given to support your dog's heart and lungs (cardiovascular system) using a face mask placed securely around the muzzle to deliver the oxygen. It is important to keep in mind, however, that this treatment is not always successful. If the problem is low cardiac output, intravenous (IV) medications to strengthen muscle action will be prescribed. In case of cardiac failure, diuretics and oxygen will be administered, as well as medications to strengthen muscle action. If there is hemorrhaging, injury, or shock from infection, hospitalization will be required to get an IV inserted and fluids flowing into the veins. This will also allow the oxygen to reach appropriate levels. Living and Management Hypoxemia is a life-threatening condition. Therefore, observe your dog's behavior carefully following the treatment. Symptoms to watch for include a decreased ability to breathe, as well any paleness of the tissues, which would be indicative of a lack of oxygen diffusion to the tissues. Frequent follow-up visits to the veterinarian will be needed to track arterial blood gas levels. A medical condition in which the patient has an abnormally fast heartbeat The term for a quick heartbeat The term for the nostrils and muscles in the upper and lower lips of an animal; may also be used to describe a type of tool used to keep an animal from biting Movement of material from an area highly concentrated to an area where there is a lower concentration The process of removing tissue to examine it, usually for medical reasons. A condition of the blood in which normal red blood cell counts or hemoglobin are lacking. Blood Transfusion Reactions in Dogs There are a variety of reactions that can occur with the transfusion of any blood... Latest In Dog Nutrition Five Life-Lengthening Health Tips for Your ... Anyone who has ever had a dog or cat wishes just one thing — that he or she has a... Pet Food Ingredients that Promote Longer Life Pet foods, in order to promote a healthy long life, must be balanced and complete...

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Heads of Laboratories During mitosis, a full set of chromosomes must be equally distributed to the offspring of each dividing cell, and failure to do so can result in numerous disorders, including birth defects and tumor progression. The Funabiki lab studies how chromosomes signal to spatially and temporally orchestrate a precise series of mitotic events to ensure accurate chromosome segregation. A mitotic cell undergoes a series of dramatic morphological changes, including chromosome condensation, spindle formation, chromosome segregation and cytokinesis. These events must occur at the right place, at the right time, in the right order. In particular, the Funabiki lab studies: Spatial control of chromosome-induced signals during spindle formation. The Funabiki lab demonstrated that mitosis-specific phosphorylation of histone H3, the major component of chromosomes, is vital in formation of the spindle, a cellular apparatus to segregate chromosomes. They found that Survivin, whose expression is implicated in cancer development, binds histone H3 that is phosphorylated at the threonine 3 residue (H3T3ph). This binding results in recruitment and activation of the kinase Aurora B, which leads to spindle assembly around chromosomes. They are now trying to understand the mechanistic basis for the kinase activation upon binding to H3T3ph and the resulting spindle assembly. Temporal control that converts the chromosome-induced signals into different intracellular architectures. At the end of mitosis, chromosomes must stop supporting the spindle assembly and initiate nuclear envelope assembly. This dramatic conversion of chromosome-assisted intracellular architecture is mediated in part by silencing the Aurora B activity on chromosomes. However, the nuclear envelope should not reform before completion of chromosome segregation; thus the timing of this conversion must be accurately controlled. The Funabiki lab has shown that dephosphorylation of H3T3ph plays a key role in this process, and they are now studying how the activity of H3T3 kinase, Haspin, is regulated during the cell cycle. Furthermore, the lab is investigating a novel chromosome-binding protein, which is specifically conjugated with ubiquitin-like protein, SUMO, upon binding chromosomes and opposes the function of Aurora B. Through these studies, Dr. Funabiki aims to understand the mechanisms by which the precise order of events at the exit from mitosis is controlled. Mechanical control that transduces microtubule attachment into the chemical signal to permit chromosome separation. In order to segregate chromosomes, microtubules must attach to the proteinaceous structure, the kinetochore, which is built on each centromere of chromosomes. Importantly, until all the kinetochores attach to microtubules in the right orientation, unattached kinetochores activate the signaling pathway called the “spindle assembly checkpoint” to delay sister chromatid separation and exit from mitosis. Collaborating with Rockefeller’s Fred Cross, Dr. Funabiki discovered that the protein phosphatase 1 at the kinetochore is critical for silencing the checkpoint upon microtubule attachment. They aim to understand the mechanism by which the phosphatase converts the microtubule attachment event into the checkpoint silencing. Roles of histone modifications during mitosis. Upon entry into mitosis, chromosomes show dramatic structural changes accompanied with histone phosphorylation. The functional significance of mitotic histone phosphorylation remains largely unclear. The Funabiki lab aims to develop a method to examine the role of histone modification using frog egg extracts. Impact of DNA structural changes. Collaborating with Rockefeller’s Brian Chait, the Funabiki lab developed a proteomic method to identify proteins and modifications that specifically associate with DNA with double-strand breaks. Using this method, the lab identified a novel ubiquitin-mediated pathway to remove DNA-damage repair protein and also identified SMARCAL1, whose mutation is responsible for Schimke immuno-osseous dysplasia, a multisystem autosomal recessive disorder. Dr. Funabiki received his bachelor’s degree in chemistry in 1990 and his Ph.D. in cell biology in 1995, both from Kyoto University in Japan. From 1996 until 2000, he worked as a postdoc in the physiology department at the University of California, San Francisco, and then at Harvard University as a postdoc in molecular and cellular biology. He came to Rockefeller as an assistant professor and head of the Laboratory of Chromosome and Cell Biology in 2002 and was promoted to associate professor in 2007. Dr. Funabiki received the Alexandrine and Alexander L. Sinsheimer Fund Scholar Award and the Irma T. Hirschl/Monique Weill-Caulier Trusts Research Award in 2003. He received the Searle Scholar Award from the Chicago Community Trust in 2002. He was a special fellow of the Leukemia and Lymphoma Society from 1999 to 2002 and a Leukemia and Lymphoma Society fellow from 1996 to 1999. |Return to full listing|

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A massive weather formation has developed that is nearly nine thousand miles long, stretching from the equatorial Pacific into the northern part of the northern hemisphere, driving moist tropical air from the Pacific deep into the United States. The formation is causing flooding in previously drought-afflicted Texas, and is driving a flow of warm, extremely moist air far to the north. It is unusual for a weather system this large to develop in earth's atmosphere, and its presence could be another sign of climate change. In The Coming Global Superstorm, Art Bell and Whitley Strieber referred to theories that very large scale atmospheric phenomena like this would develop as the earth warmed, and the storm described in the book starts when a gigantic flow of warm, moist tropical air drives into the far north, a flow that is interrupted when ocean currents cease to support it. There is then a collision between the tropical air mass and cold air pouring down from the arctic in the wake of the collapsed currents. There has been evidence that surface features of the North Atlantic Current have been weakening since 1999, and the recent severe storms that swept northern Europe may be connected with this process. At the present time, arctic weather conditions are relatively normal for this time of year. However, if a significant temperature spike should now appear in the arctic, it would be cause for concern. In any case, the penetration of warm, humid tropical air so deeply into the northern hemisphere at this time of year sets the stage for further dramatic weather over the next few weeks, possibly taking the form of strong blizzards across the midwest. NOTE: This news story, previously published on our old site, will have any links removed.

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Click here to learn more. We all know that canines are amazing when it comes to search-and-rescue operations, but what would happen if you paired a highly trained rescue dog with a robotic assistant? Researchers recently found out when Carnegie Mellon University's Biorobotics Lab teamed up with Ryerson University's Network-Centric Applied Research Team (NCART) Lab to conduct such an experiment with a German Shepherd rescue dog named Freitag. According to an article in IEEE Spectrum, the scientists developed a snakebot that can be operated by Freitag. Once the dog reaches a spot in a disaster zone that's either too tight for him to get through or unsafe to access, he can bark to deploy the robot snake, which is affixed with a camera that can send live video feed to human rescuers above ground. Watch this video to see a demo of how CARD (Canine Assisted Robot Deployment) works from the snakebot's perspective. Like this article? Have a point of view to share? Let us know! Thank You For Signing Up for the Petwire newsletter, sending you all the pet news each week directly to your inbox. Get the latest pet news, tips, tricks, and expert advice sent right to your inbox! An animal control officer followed noises coming from a steep ravine and found a 5-year-old dog nursing a tiny… Dr. Andy Roark (dressed in a dog suit) gives us a comical but poignant reminder that heat stress can happen to any… From the short-legged Munchkin to the affectionate Ragamuffin, we rounded up felines with fun and clever monikers. A photographer who loves animals volunteered his services for Alley Cat Allies and fell in love with his future wife. This photo of Bridget Evans and Hero graduating from college quickly went viral after she posted it on Reddit. The new Queens Zoo residents no longer need to worry about someone huffing and puffing and blowing their house in! Despite all of his barking and bouncing, Corgnelius can't seem to convince the German Shepherd to play with him. The fun-loving American Curl is a sociable and joyous feline who enjoys playing fetch and cuddling in your lap. If the video doesn't start playing momentarily, please install the latest version of Flash.

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Docs On Call: Blogs Multiple Sclerosis in Children Story Updated: Feb 1, 2013 A new study suggests obese girls may be at increased risk for multiple sclerosis. Researchers in California identified 75 children, aged 2 to 18, who had been diagnosed with MS. Records of body mass index before symptoms appeared were also accessed. The children with MS were then compared to more than 900-thousand children without the disease. All were grouped by weight - normal, overweight, moderately obese or extremely obese. Nearly 51-percent of the children with MS were overweight or obese, compared to 37-percent of the children who did not have MS. The risk of developing MS was more than 1-and-half times higher for overweight girls compared to normal weight girls nearly 1-point-8 times higher in moderately obese girls- and nearly four times higher in extremely obese girls. The same association was not found in boys. Once considered rare in children, multiple sclerosis has become more common, especially in teenage girls. Researchers say an increase in childhood obesity may be one cause. I'm Dr. Cindy Haines of HealthDay TV with the news doctors are reading health news for healthier living.

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In China, the art of face reading has always been considered an indispensable tool to understanding the human psyche and the fates. Chinese Philosopher Gui Gu Tzu is widely acknowledged as the father of face reading and his book Xiang Bian Wei Mang is still in print today! The Chinese art of face reading is complex technique that categorizes individual facial features according to color, shape, disfigurements and birthmarks on specific areas of the face. One of the methods used in face reading to determine times of your life where you will face obstacles and difficulties involves the demarcation of the plane of the face into different age periods. In general, your ears and the top part of your face represent the early part of your life when you are in your pre-teens, teens and early twenties. As you live through your life, you progress down your face towards your eyebrows, nose, cheeks, lips and finally, your chin. The diagram here shows in more detail where your current age falls within your face. Using the diagram here, determine which part of your face you are currently at. If your age is on the left side of your face, it is work and career matters that take up your time. If you are at the center part of your face, you are at a crossroad in your life. Marks, discolorations, spots, creases and indentations indicate problems. And where they are found on your face gives you an idea at what age you will be facing such problems. Problem can be in the form of illness, bad relationships, money troubles and so forth. The bigger and the darker the mark on you face, the more serious the problem you will face. If you have a birthmark on one of your ears, for examples, this indicates a difficult time during your childhood years. Marks on your nose indicate a tough time in your twenties. Discoloration at the end your nose point to troubles in your forties. Generally, when your forehead is flawed, it means you will have a difficult relationship with your parents. (Or it could indicate you were a bit of a rebel when you were a troublesome teen!) When your forehead is small or bony, it indicates your parents were not well heeled and could not afford expensive schooling fees. If you have a broad forehead, it indicates easy and pampered growing up years. Markings, spots, scars and indentations in your face can change overtime, which denotes that your life fate is not fixed, but can change through the years. This could be the result of the trinity of luck working together, where good mankind and earth luck influences your heaven luck. If you find you are at a difficult age period in your life, one way to deal with it is to grit your teeth and be even more determined to improve the other two third of your luck to compensate or the unlucky fates. Or get yourself a bottle of moisturizing cream and book yourself in for a facial to iron out the trouble spots on your features.

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Fermi-LAT Designer Awarded 2012 Panofsky Prize William Atwood, a leading member of the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope collaboration, will receive the 2012 W. K. H. Panofsky Prize in Experimental Particle Physics from the American Physical Society for his work as co-designer of the Large Area Telescope, the main instrument on Fermi, and for using the LAT to investigate the universe in gamma rays. "Nobody was more surprised than myself" upon learning of the award, Atwood said. Now with the Santa Cruz Institute for Particle Physics, Atwood was a long-time SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory particle physicist who maintains his lab ties through the Fermi collaboration. "I'd just finished my SLAC cyber-security refresher course when I got this email," he continued. "I thought, 'Oh, jeez, this is just spam.'" But once Atwood confirmed the email's contents, he said, he was "blown away." In 1970, as a graduate student from Caltech, Atwood joined the team at SLAC that scattered high-energy electrons off protons and neutrons and discovered they were made of something even smaller – quarks. SLAC physicist Richard Taylor, principal investigator, was awarded the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work. It was obvious in 1970 that Atwood “had tremendous potential," Taylor said, adding that he "was a remarkable physicist, even then." Stanford physicist Peter Michelson, Atwood's partner in developing the LAT, was not surprised at Atwood's win. "To capture his contributions in a single quote ... I'm struggling," Michelson said. "Bill's deep understanding of particle physics led to the original design of the LAT, and what's flying is essentially that design, which he came up with literally overnight.” Atwood also adapted the design for use in space and has done substantial scientific work with the LAT, such as contributing "a very efficient algorithm for blind searches for gamma-ray pulsars,” Michelson added. SLAC managed the development of the LAT, assembled it from parts made at laboratories around the world, and now runs a center that processes LAT data and makes it available to researchers. Astrophysics and particle physics may seem strange bedfellows, but Atwood has no trouble explaining how a telescope designer could win an award named after the founding director of a linear accelerator, or how a particle physicist could be enticed to work on a satellite. "Almost all light comes from something hot," he said. In astronomical observing terms, visible light comes from the nuclear fires of the stars. Infrared light comes from hot dust and gas. But gamma rays are an exception to this rule. “Stuff can’t get hot enough” to produce photons of light in the gamma-ray range, with energies measured in the millions and billions of electron volts, Atwood said. What that means is that gamma rays show us the "non-thermal universe" – in other words, the part of the sky that heat cannot reveal. Only extreme conditions can generate gamma rays, Atwood said – "black holes and neutron stars, pulsars. The gamma-ray sky is full of these exotic objects." And these exotic objects provide the extreme conditions necessary to accelerate particles to high energy. At first, Atwood said, both the particle physics and the astrophysics communities were skeptical that this telescope was the proper instrument to conduct particle physics research or gamma ray astronomy. "In the end, a good idea is a good idea and people came around," he said. In fact, "this instrument would not have been possible without the active participation of both communities."

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Image: Field label for Magpie-lark (BF 2227) A good, clear field label for specimens. Note the data that has been included: the location where the bird was found, the date it was found and the name of the collector. In this instance, the collector has also put the age, sex and scientific name of the bird, but don't worry about writing any of this if you do not know the details. Staff in the Bird Section will fill in those details. A waterproof pen was used to write this label; if you do not have one, a pencil is an excellent substitute. - Jaynia Sladek - © Australian Museum

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1938 Buick Y Job Concept cars have been a mainstay of automotive design and marketing for more than a century. While Henry Leland's Osceola is considered the world's first concept car that actually made it into production, the 1938 Buick Y Job is another early example of a true concept car. Built under the direction of General Motors' first design director, Harley Earl, the Y-Job was never intended for production but instead foreshadowed the styling and engineering cues Earl and his team hoped to use on future GM vehicles. In its day, the Y-Job earned praise for its modern style that included integrated fenders, hidden headlamps, and no running boards. The positive reaction helped several of its design cues to make it into production, including the stubby tail fins that would appear on the iconic 1948 Cadillacs and the grille design that continues to influence Buick design. Although the Y-Job didn't make production, it remains an example of the good a concept car can do for a company and the industry. We can't help but wonder what would have happened, though, if Buick put the Y-Job into production. The company would have been in an even better position postwar.

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Courage means proceeding in spite of feeling afraid, and having strength of mind and will in the face of danger. The courage of individuals can bring about political change and ensure justice and the happiness of society. Many famous Americans have praised the value of courage. President Andrew Jackson said, “One man with courage makes a majority.” In his “Duty, Honor, Country” Address, General Douglas MacArthur described the temperament of the American soldier as a “predominance of courage over timidity.” The Founders displayed courage in issuing the Declaration of Independence, fighting the Revolutionary War, and framing a new form of republican government through the Constitution. Citizens today can exhibit the courage to engage in political speech, to serve in the military, and to stand up for their rights and the rights of others.

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Who says North is up? Upside Down maps (also known as South-Up or Reversed maps) offer a completely different perspective of the world we live in. Technically speaking, even referring to the earth with words like “up” or “down” or comparing places with words “above” or “below” is flawed, considering that the earth is a spherical body (it’s actually slightly “fatter” at the equator) and flying through 3 dimensional space with no reference of up or down. However, the issue of “up” and “down” does become an issue when viewing the surface of the earth projected onto a flat piece of paper (a map). And the effect of the orientation of a map is more significant than you might realize. As all maps require orientation for reference, the issue of how to layout the map orientation is as old as maps themselves. As map orientation is completely arbitrary, it is not surprising that they differed throughout time periods and regions. The convention of North-up is usually attributed to the Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy (90-168 AD). Justifications for his north-up approach vary. In the middle ages, East was often placed at top. This is the origin of the term “The Orient” to refer to East Asia. During the age of exploration, European cartographers again followed the north-up convention…perhaps because the North Star was their fixed reference point for navigation, or because they wanted (subconsciously or otherwise) to ensure Europe’s claim at the top of the world. In modern times, reversed maps are made as a learning device or to illustrate Northern Hemisphere bias. Different from simply turning a north-up map upside down, a reversed map has the text oriented to be read with south up. The famous “Blue Marble” photograph of the Earth taken from on board Apollo 17 was originally oriented with the south pole at the top, with the island of Madagascar visible just left of center, and the continent of Africa at its right. However, the image was turned upside-down to fit the traditional view. While the orientation of a map might seem harmless, it can have a significant effect on one’s perception of the world, and the relative importance of the different place in it. In speech, we often refer to places being “above” or “below” others. Think of how you would say you’re about to travel to the state or country to your north or south (to go “down” to Kentucky from Indiana, or “up” to Canada from the US). Without even mentioning geography, ask any grade school student whether Mexico is “above” or “below” the United States. We’re all familiar with the “land down under”. As we often correlate importance to relative height (think how a citizens of a country will fly their flag higher than all other flags), the north-up convention reinforces the idea that northern bodies are more important than their southern neighbors. Suddenly, traveling “down” to the South might have an inference much deeper than geographic location. After looking at the map more closely, you may realize that the South-Up orientation may change your perception of the relative status of different places. For example, South America suddenly looks to have more prominence, and Africa and the Middle East completely dwarf Europe. Likewise, tucking Northern Europe, Canada, and Russia away at the bottom of the map, subconsciously takes away their status. To summarize, unconditionally accepting the north-up map convention without at least appreciating the effect stands at odds with viewing all people and places within the world equally. x x

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Food & Farm News » July 5, 2005 « Things are looking up, literally, for overseas shipments of California farm goods. A study predicts that airplanes will carry a larger share of the state's farm exports. The report, issued by California State University, Fresno, says the value of airborne farm exports has increased sharply the past four years. Most of those shipments head to Asia. But one of the study's authors predicts that inland airports will begin non-stop, passenger and freight service to European cities. The situation has changed since the government last surveyed horse owners about how they protect their animals' health. In the seven years since the last nationwide survey, West Nile virus began striking horses. The disease killed more than 200 California horses last year, and sickened hundreds more. Horses can be vaccinated against the disease. About 200 Californians who own horses and other equines will be asked to participate in the health-management survey. Modified management of grazing lands improves water quality while providing ranchers with economic benefits, according to rangeland specialists. University of California farm advisors say ranchers can reduce runoff into streams by slowing irrigation rates on hillside pastures. They say that moving cattle from pasture to pasture at certain times also benefits grazing lands and the streams that flow through them. To avoid flooding this spring, a study says reservoir operators released enough water to accommodate more than 1 million Californians. That water flowed through the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, unused, into the Pacific Ocean. The California Farm Water Coalition says the released water was above that needed to serve environmental needs in the delta. It urged the state to consider additional storage for water that's available during similar high flows.Top

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|Office of Community Oriented Policing Services U.S. Department of Justice A Guide to Developing, Maintaining, and Succeeding With Your School Resource Officer Program Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS), July 2005. Many SRO programs have experienced difficulty recruiting, screening, retaining, training, and supervising SROs. This new COPS report documents promising methods that selected SRO programs have used to address these potential problem areas of SRO program operations. The information in the report is intended to enable other SRO programs-and jurisdictions that are thinking of starting SRO programs-to benefit from the experiences of these selected programs by adopting or adapting some of their approaches to establishing and maintaining a successful program. Blueprints for Violence Prevention Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), July 2001. Through the Blueprints for Violence Prevention Initiative, OJJDP provides information to communities on a broad array of violence prevention and intervention programs that have proven to be effective. This bulletin describes the demanding criteria established by the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence to designate model Blueprints programs. It also outlines the activities of the 11 programs (out of the more than 500 that have been reviewed to date) found to meet those rigorous standards. The document provides contact information for each program, and discusses replication and funding resources. Bomb Threats in Schools Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS), February 2005. This guide addresses the problem of bomb threats in schools, public or private, kindergarten through 12th grade. The guide reviews the factors that increase the risk of bomb threats in schools and then identifies a series of questions that might assist departments in analyzing their local problem. Finally, the guide reviews responses to the problem and what is known about these from evaluative research and police practice. Bullying in Schools Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS), January 2004. There is always concern about school violence, and police have assumed greater responsibility for helping school officials ensure students safety. As pressure increases to place officers in schools, police agencies must decide how best to contribute to student safety. Bullying in Schools provides police with information about the causes and extent of bullying in schools and recommendations for developing effective approaches and practices that contribute to student safety. COPS Gangs Toolkit The COPS Gangs Toolkit consists of resources for law enforcement officials, educators, and parents to address specific types of crimes committed by gangs. The following resources provide details of community policing solutions to youth crime and school violence. The COPS Office encourages law enforcement agencies to analyze their local gang problems and use these resources, as appropriate. COPS Innovations: Assessing School Related Crime and Disorder Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS), September 2001. This report is based on the activities of COPS School Based Partnership grantees. Tips and recommendations are provided for developing successful school based problem-solving efforts COPS Innovations – Creative Partnerships: Supporting Youth, Building Communities Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS), September 2002. This COPS Innovations piece highlights community policing approaches to developing partnerships with youth. Three youth-focused programs funded by the COPS Office serve as examples of partnerships that law enforcement, schools, and community organizations can form to address issues of juvenile crime and victimization. COPS School Safety CD-ROM Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS), March 2005. The School Safety CD-ROM contains more than 30 COPS Office and other U.S. Department of Justice agency links and documents related to youth violence, gangs, bullying, and drugs, and is a resource for local policy makers, school administrators, parents, and students. Early Warning, Timely Response: A Guide to Safe Schools Department of Education, August 1998. This guide offers research-based practices designed to help school communities identify early warning signs and develop prevention, intervention, and crisis response plans. The guide includes sections on characteristics of a school that is safe, early warning signs, getting help for troubled children, developing a prevention and response plan, responding to crisis, resources, and methodology. Gang Reference Card for Parents English Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS), Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), and Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), July 2005. This quick and easy reference guide provides common warning signs of gang involvement. Parents are encouraged to familiarize themselves with local gangs symbols, seek help early, and consider contacting school officials, local law enforcement, faith leaders, and community organizations for additional assistance. Guide to Using School COP to Address Student Discipline Problems Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS), September 2001. This Guide is designed to help school administrators, police officers assigned to a school, and non-sworn school security staff reduce student discipline and crime problems using a new software application called the School Crime Operations Package, or School COP. School COP is designed to enable you to record and store detailed information about incidents involving student misconduct and crime. Kids, COPS, and Communities National Institute of Justice (NIJ), June 1998. This NIJ Issues and Practices Report is designed to help law enforcement administrators and officers understand and institute a strategy to help prevent violence-specifically, community-oriented policing services carried out in collaboration with youth-serving organizations. RetroGrade: How School Crime Sets You Back Training Video Florida Regional Community Policing Institute (FLRCPI) and Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS). This 30-minute, MTV-style video is based on true cases. It alerts students not only to the criminal and legal aspects of the various crimes, but also to the moral and ethical issues involved. Instructors may pause the tape between each scenario and discuss with students the ethical decision-making conversation that began on the screen. Winner of local and national video awards, RetroGrade can be an important tool for any concerned SRO, teacher, counselor, or administrator. It is a product of the COPS-funded Florida Regional Community Policing Institute. School Violence: An Overview – Creating Safe Schools and Conflict Resolution Education Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), June 2001. This document provides an overview of the current state of school violence, a guide to comprehensive safe school planning, and a way to prepare youths for a less violent future through conflict resolution skills. School Vandalism & Break-ins Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS), August 2005. This guide addresses school vandalism and break-ins, describing the problem and reviewing the risk factors. It also discusses the associated problems of school burglaries and arson. The guide then identifies a series of questions to help you analyze your local problem. Finally, it reviews responses to the problem, and what is known about them from evaluative research and police practice. SRO Performance Evaluation: A Guide to Getting Results Circle Solutions, Inc and Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS), August 2005. The evaluation captures the lessons-learned from a COPS-funded, 2-year pilot project conducted by Circle Solutions, Inc. The result is a step-by-step guide to help law enforcement and school personnel use school resource officers (SRO) effectively. To better address school crime and disorder, it also provides guidance on how to match the SRO's actual performance to their evaluations. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS), September 2004. This guide addresses the problem of underage drinking. It begins by describing the problem and reviewing factors that increase the risks of it. The guide also identifies a series of questions that might assist you in analyzing your local problem. Finally, it reviews responses to the problem and what is known about these from evaluative research and police practice. Violence After School: Juvenile Justice Bulletin Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), November 1999. This OJJDP Bulletin is gives readers quick, focused access to some of the most critical findings from the wealth of data regarding school violence. The data reported in this Bulletin document the need for schools and communities to develop strategies for youth during the after-school hours.

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3 Designing problems/ tasks: four steps This section outlines four key steps in the design of PBL tasks. To illustrate the discussion, a specific task relating to the UK housing market will be considered in detail in this section. The design features outlined in this section are further illustrated by additional exemplars provided in the Appendix. When designing a task, one should first be aware of the learning activities that students will perform when tackling the task and, secondly, try and visualise (and thus eliminate) possible difficulties that may arise in the process (Bouhuijs and Gijselaers, 1993). In relation to the first consideration, one needs to design tasks that are consistent with the learning outcomes specified for the module and to ensure that the learning outcomes intended are actually realised. Poor problem design may result in actual and intended learning outcomes being different (Dolmans et al., 1993). In respect of the second consideration, a number of difficulties may arise that prevent students from realising intended learning outcomes. One must ensure, for example, that the learning resources required to tackle the task are available – computing facilities, general library resources, access to journal articles, etc. The designer must also ensure that key references are in adequate supply – there is no point in having large numbers of students trying to access one text within a limited time-frame. Step 1: Determine the form of the PBL environment In a ‘partial’ PBL environment, in which PBL is used to organise seminars in support of lectures, PBL groups will probably only have an opportunity to meet for 1 hour per week. In a ‘full-format’ PBL environment, where PBL replaces lectures, PBL groups will have an opportunity to meet for at least 2 and possibly 3–4 hours per week. Clearly the form of the PBL environment will affect task design in a number of ways, particularly in respect of the learning activities embodied in the tasks and the form of response required of students. Tasks designed for a full-format PBL environment must span the full syllabus, whereas this is not necessarily the case when designing tasks for a partial environment. In the latter context, one must decide which parts of the syllabus will be reinforced by PBL methods; additionally, one may decide to design tasks that focus on particular learning outcomes, such as data acquisition and/or simple model application. Tasks designed for a full-format environment must relate to all the learning outcomes of the module, and there must also be sufficient time for students to evaluate competing theories, etc. These possibilities and limitations must be taken into account when designing tasks. Step 2: Focus on target learning outcomes The focus for the PBL task should be provided by the subject-specific and transferable outcomes that are being developed. It is useful to start from the outcomes appropriate to the level of the award for which the task is being designed. The target outcomes I use when designing tasks for level 1 students are summarised in Box 1. To facilitate development of the skills identified in Box 1, tasks normally comprise 3–4 components, encompassing the following elements: (a) diagrammatic manipulation; (b) fact finding; (c) model application; and (d) appraisal. The first three are regarded as being most important at this level. Not all subject-specific skills need be developed by every task. At the introductory level it is also a good idea to have group responses to PBL tasks take the form of presentations (although groups should still provide a written list of sources used). Some target outcomes for students working at level 3 are presented in Box 2. My level 3 classes are all full-format, with no formal lectures. Once again, tasks normally incorporate 3–4 components. Box 1: Subject-specific and transferable skills at Level 1 - Use of basic diagrams (i.e. models) and economic concepts to explain, describe and analyse real-world situations. - Use of varied information sources: introductory texts, internet, newspapers, statistical sources and, occasionally, non-technical journal articles and government reports when appropriate (e.g. the occasional online article from Fiscal Studies, Economic & Labour Market Review). - Use of key facts in support of one’s viewpoint. - Evaluation and appraisal skills – evaluation of a particular situation or public policy issue and ability to give a considered viewpoint or conclusion (though this is given less weighting at level 1 than the other subject-specific outcomes). - As part of a team provide, as required, either a formal verbal presentation of the team’s response to the task using OHP facilities or a brief written summary. A written listing of all sources accessed must be included in both cases. Box 2 Subject-specific and transferable skills for a final honours module - Use of relevant statistical sources, competence in presenting statistical information and an awareness of the limitations of statistical sources used. - Competence in the use and evaluation of economic models. - Evaluation of relevant journal articles in support of one’s viewpoint. - Evaluation and appraisal of economic analysis and public policy. - PBL groups will provide, as required, either a formal presentation of the team’s response to the task, or a written report. Full referencing of all sources accessed must be included in both cases. - In respect of presentations, teams will demonstrate effective presentational skills using appropriate resources within the time allocated Step 3: Determine the learning activities associated with the task Table 1 illustrates how the task is related to the chosen target outcomes. This particular task was designed for level 1 students within a partial PBL environment in which PBL was used to organise seminars in support of formal lectures. The task requires students to apply an economic model (supply and demand analysis) to a real-world situation (the UK housing market). It also requires students to undertake information-seeking activities and to share ideas and experiences with peers. Although the basic supply and demand model is introduced during lectures, no reference to the housing market or the related information sources is made during lectures. Data on the UK housing market are available from a wide range of sources, many of which can be accessed via the Bized website.[note 8] Tasks can be tailored to accommodate non-specialist students. In the case of law students taking introductory economics, for example, one can design tasks that relate economics to the issue of soft-drug legalisation, discrimination and gender earnings differentials. Table 1 Designing a PBL task: the UK housing market Task components (content) Skills developed (purpose) 1. Provide regional data for UK house prices Data acquisition (Web and media-based) 2. Model (diagrammatic) manipulation 3. Explain regional variations in UK house prices 4. Consider the differences between owner-occupier, private-rented and social housing sectors 5. Group delegation of study tasks; collection, synthesis and presentation of group response to set task Team skills, independent learning, presentation skills Step 4: Presenting the task to students Provide all students with a written copy of the task, presented in a format that is helpful to them. The example shown in Figure 5, which is in the format that students receive at the University of Ulster, includes four sections: - statement of the tasks; - guidance for the group leader; - suggested sources of information; - anticipated learning outcomes. Key concepts (supply, demand) are highlighted in the task instructions to draw students’ attention to the theory they are expected to investigate. At the start of the teaching period, each student is provided with a PBL handbook containing all the tasks for the module (all presented in the same format as Figure 5). Thus each team member has a personal copy of these instructions before their group meeting. The times allocated within each phase of the PBL first session make it more likely that the process is completed within the available time. In this example, first- meeting sessions are restricted to 40 minutes to facilitate the formal presentations that are featured in the partial PBL format outlined in section 5; under the full-format mode, all meetings are of 55 minutes duration (see section 5 for further details). In my experience it is helpful to provide students with the general guidance depicted in Figure 5, as this is one way of ensuring that actual and intended learning outcomes coincide; it also ensures that the self-directed learning effort by students is channelled in the right direction (Bouhuijs and Gijselaers, 1993). Make the last task more demanding than earlier tasks and use it as a ‘tester’ to gauge how well PBL has worked in terms of developing subject-specific and transferable skills. In this task students are provided with specific online articles relating to the UK housing market. This is highly recommended in the first PBL task. In later tasks students are expected to incorporate their own online sources. Figure 5 Example of instructions for students (A) List four factors that are likely to cause the market supply of UK owner-occupied housing to shift and four factors that are likely to cause the market demand for UK owner-occupied housing to shift. (B) Using supply and demand diagrams, illustrate how each of the factors listed in (A) are likely to affect UK owner-occupied house prices. (C) Explain (i) why there are regional variations in UK house prices (provide regional house price statistics in support of your answer) and (ii) the fall in UK house prices since 2007Q3. (D) Identify, giving reasons, the factors listed in (A) that are also likely to influence the price of UK private-rented accommodation. (E) Comment briefly on the factors affecting the provision of social housing in the UK. 1. Appoint a ‘Recorder’ for the session, and ensure everyone has pen and paper ready to make notes. (5 mins) 2. ‘Brainstorm’ session during which group members discuss ideas (given spontaneously) as to what information they feel is required to provide an adequate response to the task. (15 mins) 3. Identify ‘learning objectives’ (to be noted by Recorder): these relate to concepts/ideas arising in 2 above which the group feels arepossibly relevant to providing adequate response, but which require additional research time to fully understand/assess relevance. (15 mins) 4. Allocate responsibility for research tasks (to be noted by Recorder). It is via research tasks undertaken between meetings that the group is able to realise the learning objectives identified in 3 above and provide a final, agreed, response to the set task. Emphasise that members must report back their research results to the group at the next meeting. (5 mins) You may need to prompt the group to encourage discussion in the following areas: Key concepts: Supply, demand, own price, conditions of supply and demand, equilibrium price, market mechanism, supply and demand diagrams. Housing Market Explained, http://www.housingmarket.org.uk, 18/2/2009. ‘Housing shored up by lack of supply’ The Financial Times, 15/5/2009. ‘Demand for rented homes soars as buyers shun market’, The Financial Times, 23/10/2008. ‘Brown told to put £6bn into social housing’, The Financial Times, 23/2/2009. ‘House prices rise in good state school catchment areas’, The Times, 15/8/2008. 1. To make students aware of the factors affecting the supply, demand and market prices of UK housing. 2. To encourage students to use supply and demand diagrams. 3. To make students aware of the Internet as an information source. 4. To encourage discussion between students. 5. To encourage group responsibility and sharing of economic ideas and knowledge. After this task students will: 1. Be aware of the factors affecting the UK housing market. 2. Have manipulated supply and demand diagrams to analyse the UK housing market. 3. Have interacted with peers. 4. Have acquired information for the group and accessed relevant websites and other sources.

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This is a list of missions for the Apollo program from 1967 to 1972. Each mission had their own mission insignia. Save for Apollo 15, which was displayed also in a bar in Bozeman, Montana, ( ) some of these insignia were displayed in the Star Trek: First Contact 602 Club on Earth in 2143. ( : " ENT ") Apollo 1 was the first Apollo mission. It was crewed by Gus Grissom, Edward Higgins White, and Roger B. Chaffee. ( : " ENT ") was the scene of a tragic fire which killed all three astronauts and destroyed the command module. It would not be until a year had passed before the next manned mission was launched. For further information, see Apollo 1 . Apollo 7 was crewed by Wally Schirra, Donn F. Eisele, and Walter Cunningham. ( : " ENT ") 's command/service module successfully orbited the Earth. For further information, see Apollo 7 . Apollo 8 was crewed by Frank Borman, Jim Lovell, and William Anders. ( : " ENT ") A photo of Earth rising over Luna was photographed from this spacecraft and later seen in the First Flight USS . ( Enterprise library computer : " TOS " The Cage remastered) 's command/service module was the first to successfully orbit Luna. For further information, see Apollo 8 . Apollo 9 was crewed by James McDivitt, David Scott, and Rusty Schweickart. ( : " ENT ") successfully launched both the command/service module and the lunar module into Earth orbit, and marked for the first time that both modules were docked in space. For further information, see Apollo 9 . Apollo 10 Edit Apollo 10 was the tenth in the Apollo series of missions. It was crewed by Eugene Cernan, Thomas P. Stafford, and John Young. ( : " ENT ") 's command/service module and lunar module successfully orbited Luna, performing the first lunar orbit rendezvous. For further information, see Apollo 10 . Apollo 11 Edit had a crew of three, including Apollo 11 Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin and was the first successful landing of Humans on Luna. ( : " ENT ", " Carbon Creek "; First Flight : " TOS ") Tomorrow is Yesterday crewmember was Michael Collins, who has not been mentioned or referred to in Apollo 12 Edit Apollo 12 was the second successful landing on Earth's Moon. Jonathan Archer kept an image of one of the crewmembers, Pete Conrad, standing next to the US flag on the moon in his apartment in San Francisco. ( : " ENT ") Shockwave Alan Bean and Richard F. Gordon, Jr. were the other two crewmembers. ( : " ENT ") landed in the Ocean of Storms, and the astronauts surveyed the landing site of . For further information, see Apollo 12 . Apollo 13 Edit Apollo 13 was the next mission in the Apollo program. The motto for this mission, " Ex Luna, Scientia" (" Knowledge, from Luna"), was changed for Starfleet Academy to " Ex Astris, Scientia" (" Knowledge, from Stars"). ( : " TNG "; The First Duty ) Star Trek Encyclopedia was crewed by Jim Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise. The spacecraft suffered a catastrophic explosion to Luna, forcing cancellation of the planned lunar landing and a perilous return journey to Earth. The lunar module served as a makeshift shelter until the astronauts landed safely on Earth. The motto itself was a modification of a motto first used by the United States Navy: " Ex scientia tridens From knowledge, sea power "). For further information, see Apollo 13 . Apollo 14 Edit Apollo 14 was the 14th Apollo mission. Alan Shepard was one of the crewmembers. ( opening credits) The other two members were Star Trek: Enterprise Stuart Roosa and Edgar Mitchell. ( : " ENT ") landed in the Fra Mauro. Footage of Alan Shepard before the launch of was in the opening credits of Star Trek: Enterprise . For further information, see Apollo 14 . Apollo 15 Edit Apollo 15 was the 15th Apollo mission. It comprised three crewmembers: James Irwin, David Scott, and Alfred Worden. ( : " ENT ") landed in the Hadley Rille. The astronauts explored the Rille by foot and by rover, a first in the program. For further information, see Apollo 15 . Apollo 16 Edit Apollo 16 was the 16th, and second last Apollo mission. It was crewed by Charles Duke, Ken Mattingly, and John Young. ( : " ENT ") landed in the Descartes Highlands. For further information, see Apollo 16 . Apollo 17 Edit Apollo 17 was the final Apollo mission and was crewed by Eugene Cernan, Ronald Evans, and Harrison Schmitt. ( : " ENT ") landed in the Taurus-Littrow. This was the last manned mission to Luna. For further information, see Apollo 17 . The mission patch for the mission was modified and used for the Charybdis mission patch in : " TNG ". The Royale

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||This article needs additional citations for verification. (June 2007)| - For the novel by Nicole Krauss, see Great House. For the architecture of great houses, see Mansion. For the great house masonry pueblos, see Chaco Culture National Historical Park. For the politically powerful dynasties featured in the Dune franchise, see Landsraad. A great house is a large and stately residence; the term encompasses different styles of dwelling in different countries. The name refers to the makeup of the household rather than to any particular architectural style. It particularly refers to large households of times past in Anglophone countries (especially those of the turn of the 20th century, i.e., the late Victorian or Edwardian era in the United Kingdom and the Gilded Age in the United States), such as the English country house, the "stately homes of England" and the homes of various "millionaires' row" (or "millionaires' mile") in some U.S. cities such as Newport, Rhode Island, with luxurious appointments and great retinues of indoor and outdoor staff. By some reports, the summer homes of the wealthy at Newport averaged four servants per family member. There was often an elaborate hierarchy among staff, domestic workers in particular. In Ireland, the term big house is usual for the houses of the Anglo-Irish ascendancy. It was considered declassé to refer to one's own townhouses, estates or villas (or those of friends) as mansions and modern etiquette books still advise that the terms house, big house or great house be used instead. As in the past, today's great houses are limited to heads of state, the very rich, or those who have inherited them; few in the developed world are staffed at the level of past centuries. The International Guild of Butlers estimates that the annual salaries of a 20-25 person household staff total in excess of US$1,000,000. In countries with supplies of cheap domestic labour, the middle classes are still able to afford household help, but not approaching the numbers involved in the running of a great house. On large estates or in families with more than one residence, there may be a steward (or the modern equivalent, an estate manager) who oversees direction of the entire establishment. Today, it is not uncommon for a couple to split the duties of management between them. Household staff |Butler||the head of household staff in most homes; in charge of the pantry, wine cellar and dining room. In a small house the butler also valets for the master of the house. Male staff report to him. The butler is often engaged by the master of the house but usually reports to the lady of the house or sometimes to the housekeeper. | |Cook||in charge of the kitchen and kitchen staff. Sometimes a chef is employed with several subordinate cooks. The cook usually reports directly to the lady of the house but sometimes to the housekeeper. If the cook is female, she is always addressed as Mrs regardless of marital status. | |Housekeeper||responsible for the house and its appearance; in charge of all female servants. In grand homes the butler and cook sometimes report to the housekeeper. The housekeeper is always addressed as Mrs., regardless of marital status. | Support household staff Junior household staff - Hall boy - Useful Man also called houseman Grounds staff An Estate Manager may have charge of the maintenance and care of the grounds, landscaping, and outbuildings (pool, cabana, stables, greenhouse etc.) which is divided into departments run by the: |Head Gardener||responsible for the grounds around the house; in charge of any additional gardeners or seasonal men and women brought in at times of harvest or planting.| |Stable Master||various titles used for the individual responsible for the keeping of animals, particularly those used for recreational pursuits such as horseback riding, fox hunting or dog fancy.| |Master of the Horse| |Master of the Hounds| Support grounds staff Depictions of great houses - Backstairs at the White House (miniseries) - Brideshead Revisited (TV serial) - Conrad's Fate - Stallery Mansion is a Great House with over a thousand servants. - Downton Abbey (ITV television series) - The Edwardian Country House - Gosford Park - Mansfield Park - The Remains of the Day (film) - Servants (BBC television series) - Sense and Sensibility (film) - Upstairs, Downstairs - You Rang, M'Lord? Notable great houses - Belcourt Castle - Boldt Castle - Biltmore Estate - The Breakers - Burghley House - Eaton Hall (Cheshire) - The Elms - Hatfield House - Hearst Castle - Holkham Hall - Hyde Park - Mansion House, London - Marble House - Moore Hall, County Mayo - Rose Hall - Syon House - Westbury House - White House See also - Pakenham, Valerie (2001). The Big House in Ireland. photographs by Thomas Pakenham. Cassell. ISBN 0-304-35422-8. - Evangeline Holland. "Domestic Servants in Edwardian England". Retrieved 2013-01-30. - Bricks & Brass. "Staff Roles". Retrieved 2013-01-30.

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Osama bin Laden Osama bin Laden (10 March 1957 – 2 May 2011), or simply known as bin Laden or Osama, was the founder and former leader of al-Qaeda, a militant Islamic organization that has been involved in terrorist attacks against civilian and military targets around the world, especially against Western countries. - After our victory in Afghanistan and the defeat of the oppressors who had killed millions of Muslims, the legend about the invincibility of the superpowers vanished. Our boys no longer viewed America as a superpower. So, when they left Afghanistan, they went to Somalia and prepared themselves carefully for a long war. They had thought that the Americans were like the Russians, so they trained and prepared. They were stunned when they discovered how low was the morale of the American soldier. America had entered with 30,000 soldiers in addition to thousands of soldiers from different countries in the world. ... As I said, our boys were shocked by the low morale of the American soldier and they realized that the American soldier was just a paper tiger. - Acquiring weapons for the defense of Muslims is a religious duty. If I have indeed acquired these weapons, then I thank God for enabling me to do so. And if I seek to acquire these weapons, I am carrying out a duty. It would be a sin for Muslims not to try to possess the weapons that would prevent the infidels from inflicting harm on Muslims. - In response to the interviewer stating: "The U.S. says you are trying to acquire chemical and nuclear weapons." Time Magazine Interview (23 December 1998) - In today's wars, there are no morals. We believe the worst thieves in the world today and the worst terrorists are the Americans. We do not have to differentiate between military or civilian. As far as we are concerned, they are all targets. - The pieces of the bodies of infidels were flying like dust particles. If you would have seen it with your own eyes, you would have been very pleased, and your heart would have been filled with joy. - I'm fighting so I can die a martyr and go to heaven to meet God. Our fight now is against the Americans. - Statement in al-Quds al-Arabi, as quoted in "Bin Laden: I Didn't Do It" CBS News (12 September 2001); also at Positive Atheism's "Big List of Scary Quotes" - Neither I had any knowledge of these attacks nor I consider the killing of innocent women, children, and other humans as an appreciable act. Islam strictly forbids causing harm to innocent women, children, and other people. Such a practice is forbidden ever in the course of a battle. ... I have already said that we are against the American system, not against its people, whereas in these attacks, the common American people have been killed. - Interview with Karachi Ummat (28 September 2001) - Every Muslim must rise to defend his religion. The wind of faith is blowing. - We had notification since the previous Thursday that the event would take place that day. We had finished our work that day and had the radio on. It was 5:30 PM our time. I was sitting with Dr. Ahmad Abu al-Khair. Immediately, we heard the news that a plane had hit the World Trade Center. - Undated video released by the US Department of Defense (13 December 2001) - I tell you, freedom and human rights in America are doomed. The U.S. government will lead the American people in — and the West in general — into an unbearable hell and a choking life. - Al-Jazeera interview, (21 October 2001), as reported in "Bin Laden's sole post-September 11 TV interview aired" CNN (31 January 2002) - We say our terror against America is blessed terror in order to put an end to suppression, in order for the United States to stop its support to Israel. - If inciting people to do that is terrorism, and if killing those who kill our sons is terrorism, then let history be witness that we are terrorists. - Just like you kill us, we will kill you. - The first thing that we are calling you to is Islam. The religion of the Unification of God; of freedom from associating partners with Him, and rejection of this; of complete love of Him, the Exalted; of complete submission to His Laws; and of the discarding of all the opinions, orders, theories and religions which contradict with the religion He sent down to His Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). Islam is the religion of all the prophets, and makes no distinction between them - peace be upon them all. It is to this religion that we call you; the seal of all the previous religions. It is the religion of Unification of God, sincerity, the best of manners, righteousness, mercy, honour, purity, and piety. It is the religion of showing kindness to others, establishing justice between them, granting them their rights, and defending the oppressed and the persecuted. It is the religion of enjoining the good and forbidding the evil with the hand, tongue and heart. It is the religion of Jihad in the way of Allah so that Allah's Word and religion reign Supreme. And it is the religion of unity and agreement on the obedience to Allah, and total equality between all people, without regarding their colour, sex, or language. It is the religion whose book - the Quran - will remained preserved and unchanged, after the other Divine books and messages have been changed. The Quran is the miracle until the Day of Judgment. Allah has challenged anyone to bring a book like the Quran or even ten verses like it. - We will continue to fight you as long as we have weapons in our hands. - There is no dialogue except with weapons. - Audiotape aired on Al-Jazeera (18 October 2003) - This war in Iraq makes millions of dollars for big corporations, either weapons manufacturers or those working in the reconstruction, such as Halliburton and its sister companies. . . It is crystal clear who benefits from igniting the fire of this war and this bloodshed: They are the merchants of war, the bloodsuckers who run the policy of the world from behind the scenes. President Bush and his ilk, the media giants, and the U.N. . . all are a fatal danger to the world, and the Zionist lobby is their most dangerous member. God willing, we will persist in fighting them. . . - English translation by MEMRI (Middle East Media Research Institute) of statement by bin Laden (15 April 2004) - Your security is not in the hands of Kerry or Bush or al Qaeda. Your security is in your own hands. Each and every state that does not tamper with our security will have automatically assured its own security. - Videotape broadcast on al-Jazeera TV as reported in a BBC article (29 October 2004) - Free people do not relinquish their security. This is contrary to Bush's claim that we hate freedom. Let him tell us why we did not strike Sweden, for example. - Videotape broadcast on al-Jazeera TV as reported by BBC (29 October 2004) - We fought with you because we are free, and we don't put up with transgressions. We want to reclaim our nation. As you spoil our security, we will do so to you. - It never occurred that the highest leader of the military armed forces would leave 50,000 people to face the horror that they faced all by themselves when they needed him most. - Videotape broadcast on al-Jazeera TV as reported by CNN (29 October 2004) - And as I was looking at those towers that were destroyed in Lebanon, it occurred to me that we have to punish the transgressor with the same, and that we had to destroy the towers in America, so that they taste what we tasted and they stop killing our women and children. - Videotape broadcast on al-Jazeera TV as reported by CNN (29 October 2004) - We have not found it difficult to deal with the Bush administration in light of the resemblance that it bears to the regimes in our countries, half of which are ruled by the military and the other half which are ruled by the sons of kings. - Videotape broadcast on Aljazeera and CNN (29 October 2004) - All we have to do is send two mujaheddin [...] to raise a small piece of cloth on which is written "al-Qaeda" in order to make the generals race there, to cause America to suffer human, economic and political losses. - Unidentified 2004 video message - Koppel, Ted (12 September 2010). "Nine years after 9/11, let's stop playing into bin Laden's hands". Washington Post. Retrieved on 2010-09-11. - Every Muslim, from the moment they realize the distinction in their hearts, hates Americans, hates Jews and hates Christians. For as long as I can remember, I have felt tormented and at war, and have felt hatred and animosity for Americans. - As quoted in Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama bin Laden (2005) by Bruce Lawrence ISBN 1844670457 - Thinking people, when disaster strikes, make it their priority to look for its causes, in order to prevent it happening again. - I am the one in charge of the 19 brothers … I was responsible for entrusting the 19 brothers … with the raids. - On the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, in an audiotape broadcast on Al Jazeera (23 May 2006) - People of America: the world is following your news in regards to your invasion of Iraq, for people have recently come to know that, after several years of tragedies of this war, the vast majority of you want it stopped. Thus, you elected the Democratic Party for this purpose, but the Democrats haven't made a move worth mentioning. - As for those who condemned these operations looked at the event [9/11] in isolation and failed to connect them to past events and did not look at the causes that lead to this result. So their point of view is narrow. - Al - Jazeera Broadcast Tape - On 9/11 and the American reaction (the release date is needed for this ) 1996 Fatwa - Osama Bin Laden's Jihad and text of Fatwahs and Declaration of War, Text of the August 1996 Fatwa at PBS - It should not be hidden from you that the people of Islam had suffered from aggression, iniquity and injustice imposed on them by the Zionist-Crusaders alliance and their collaborators; to the extent that the Muslims blood became the cheapest and their wealth as loot in the hands of the enemies. Their blood was spilled in Palestine and Iraq. The horrifying pictures of the massacre of Qana, in Lebanon are still fresh in our memory. Massacres in Tajikistan, Burma, Kashmir, Assam, Philippines, Pattani, Ogaden, Somalia, Eritrea, Chechnya, and in Bosnia-Herzegovina took place, massacres that send shivers in the body and shake the conscience. All of this and the world watch and hear, and not only didn't respond to these atrocities, but also with a clear conspiracy between the USA and its' allies and under the cover of the iniquitous United Nations, the dispossessed people were even prevented from obtaining arms to defend themselves. The people of Islam awakened and realized that they are the main target for the aggression of the Zionist-Crusaders alliance. All false claims and propaganda about "Human Rights" were hammered down and exposed by the massacres that took place against the Muslims in every part of the world. - Mentioning various massacres and atrocities, including the Srebrenica massacre, to justify his policies of violence. 1998 Fatwa - English translation of a statement in al-Quds al-Arabi (23 February 1998) "Summary/Review of Reports Concerning Threats by Osama Bin Laden to Conduct Terrorist Operations Against the United States and/or her Allies - 23 February 1998 to 16 June 1998" - First, for over seven years the United States has been occupying the lands of Islam in the holiest of places, the Arabian Peninsula, plundering its riches, dictating to its rulers, humiliating its people, terrorizing its neighbors, and turning its bases in the Peninsula into a spearhead through which to fight the neighboring Muslim peoples. If some people have in the past argued about the fact of the occupation, all the people of the Peninsula have now acknowledged it. The best proof of this is the Americans' continuing aggression against the Iraqi people using the Peninsula as a staging post, even though all its rulers are against their territories being used to that end, but they are helpless. Second, despite the great devastation inflicted on the Iraqi people by the crusader-Zionist alliance, and despite the huge number of those killed, which has exceeded 1 million... despite all this, the Americans are once again trying to repeat the horrific massacres, as though they are not content with the protracted blockade imposed after the ferocious war or the fragmentation and devastation. So here they come to annihilate what is left of this people and to humiliate their Muslim neighbors. Third, if the Americans' aims behind these wars are religious and economic, the aim is also to serve the Jews' petty state and divert attention from its occupation of Jerusalem and murder of Muslims there. The best proof of this is their eagerness to destroy Iraq, the strongest neighboring Arab state, and their endeavor to fragment all the states of the region such as Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Sudan into paper statelets and through their disunion and weakness to guarantee Israel's survival and the continuation of the brutal crusade occupation of the Peninsula. - The ruling to kill the Americans and their allies — civilians and military — is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque [Mecca] from their grip, and in order for their armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim. Quotes about bin Laden - Alphabetized by author - Last year, when the need to form a fact-finding team to undertake a thorough investigation concerning the hidden elements involved in September 11 incident was brought up; an idea also endorsed by all independent governments and nations as well as by the majority in the United States, my country and myself came under pressure and threat by the government of the United States. Instead of assigning a fact-finding team, they killed the main perpetrator and threw his body into the sea. Would it not have been reasonable to bring to justice and openly bring to trial the main perpetrator of the incident in order to identifY the elements behind the safe space provided for the invading aircraft to attack the twin world trade towers? Why should it not have been allowed to bring him to trial to help recognize those who launched terrorist groups and brought wars and other miseries into the region? Is there any classified information that must be kept secret? - Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, Speech to the United Nations General Assembly (22 September 2011). - I would like to emphasize here, on Al-Arabiya TV, that I place Sheik Osama on the same level as my father, and I love him perhaps even more than my father. - Nasser Al-Bahri, A.K.A. "Abu Jandal," former bodyguard of Osama bin Laden, on Al-Arabiya TV (4 May 2007) as quoted in "Former Osama bin Laden Bodyguard in Al-Arabiya TV Interview : I Love Him More Than I Love My Own Father" (6 June 2007) - As a human being, bin Laden may have deserved compassion and even forgiveness, the Dalai Lama said in answer to a question about the assassination of the al-Qaeda leader. But, he said, "Forgiveness doesn't mean forget what happened. ... If something is serious and it is necessary to take counter-measures, you have to take counter-measures." - Though it took a decade to find bin Laden, there is one consolation for his long evasion of justice: He lived long enough to witness what some are calling the Arab Spring, the complete repudiation of his violent ideology. - Tonight, I can report to the American people and to the world that the United States has conducted an operation that killed Osama bin Laden, the leader of al-Qaeda. - Last August, after years of painstaking work by our intelligence community, I was briefed on a possible lead to bin Laden. It was far from certain, and it took many months to run this thread to ground. I met repeatedly with my national security team as we developed more information about the possibility that we had located bin Laden hiding within a compound deep inside of Pakistan. And finally, last week, I determined that we had enough intelligence to take action, and authorized an operation to get Osama bin Laden and bring him to justice. Today, at my direction, the United States launched a targeted operation against that compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan. A small team of Americans carried out the operation with extraordinary courage and capability. No Americans were harmed. They took care to avoid civilian casualties. After a firefight, they killed Osama bin Laden and took custody of his body. - Barack Obama, in remarks on the death of bin Laden (2 May 2011) - In what people irritatingly call "iconic" terms, Bin Laden certainly had no rival. The strange, scrofulous quasi-nobility and bogus spirituality of his appearance was appallingly telegenic, and it will be highly interesting to see whether this charisma survives the alternative definition of revolution that has lately transfigured the Muslim world. The most tenaciously lasting impression of all, however, is that of his sheer irrationality. What had the man thought he was doing? Ten years ago, did he expect, let alone desire, to be in a walled compound in dear little Abbottabad? - What happened in Abbottobad ... has been the second death of Osama bin Laden. His physical one. Meanwhile, his symbolic, political and ideological [death] had already occurred on the squares of Cairo, Tunis, Damascus and Bengasi, where Al Qaeda had been ignored. Nobody exhalted it. Nobody mentioned it. The "Arab spring" has blossomed and exploded for want of democracy and freedom. It is not provoked by Islamic fanaticism, and even less inspired by the idea of a caliphate... launched by bin Laden. It is not a choice. It is outdated, even if its sporadic followers are still able to strike. Before the Americans, bin Laden had been symbolically killed by the people on Tahrir square and Burghiba avenue. - Bernardo Valli, in "Il giovane viziato con lo sguardo timido diventato il 'principe del terrore': I soldi del padre e la svolta nella lotta contro l'Urss in Afghanistan" in La Republica (3 May 2011) - We should give him credit for only one thing : unlike other vile tyrants, he did not live in golden palaces, but avoided them. - Gabriele Romagnoli, Osama: Quando Muore un Fantasma, Vanity Fair (11 May 2011) - Interpol Profile - FBI's 10 Most Wanted Fugitives poster - "Hunting Bin Laden" PBS (November 2002) - 'I met Osama bin Laden' BBC News (26 March 2004) - "Young Osama" by Steve Coll, The New Yorker (12 December 2005) - "Listening to Bin Laden" by Said Shirazi at PrintCulture (31 March 2006) - Transcript: Full Text of Bin Ladin 4 January Audio Message (4 March 2004).

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Collective Intelligence and Evolution by Akira Namatame The mission of collective evolution is to harness the systems of selfish agents to secure a sustainable relationship, so that desirable properties can emerge as 'collective intelligence'. Why do colonies of ants work collectively, and how do they do it so effectively? One key to answering this question is to look at interactions among ants. For the last decade, attempts have been made to develop some general understanding, which has produced the theory of collective systems, that is, systems consisting of a large collection of agents. It is common to refer to the desirable emergent properties of collective systems as 'collective intelligence'. Interactions are able to produce collective intelligence at the macroscopic level that is simply not present when the components are considered individually. The concept of collective intelligence observed in social insects can be extended to humans. In his book, The Wisdom Of Crowds, Surowiecki explores a simple idea that has profound implications: a large collection of people are smarter than an elite few at solving problems, fostering innovation, coming to wise decisions, and predicting the future. His counterintuitive notion, rather than crowd psychology as traditionally understood, provides us with new insights for understanding how our social and economic activities should be organized. On the other hand, the fact that selfish behaviour may not achieve full efficiency is also well known in the literature. It is important to investigate the loss of collective welfare due to selfish and uncoordinated behavior. Recent research efforts have focused on quantifying this loss for specific environments, and the resulting degree of efficiency loss is known as 'the price of anarchy'. Investigations into the price anarchy have provided some measures for designing collective systems with robustness against selfish behaviour. Collective systems are based on an analogous assumption that individuals are selfish optimizers, and we need methodologies so that the selfish behaviour of individuals need not degrade the system performance. Of particular interest is the issue of how social interactions should be restructured so that agents are free to choose their own actions, while avoiding outcomes that none would choose. Darwinian dynamics based on mutation and selection form the core of models for evolution in nature. Evolution through natural selection is often understood to imply improvement and progress. If multiple populations of species are adapting each other, the result is a co-evolutionary process. However, the problem to contend with in Darwinian co-evolution is the possibility of an escalating arms race with no end. Competing species may continually adapt to each other in more and more specialized ways, never stabilizing at a desirable outcome. The Rock-Scissors-Paper (RSP) game is a typical form of representing the triangular relationship. This simple game has been used to explain the importance of biodiversity. We generalize a basic rock-scissors-paper relationship to a non-zero-sum game with the payoff matrix shown in Table 1. In this triangular situation, diversity resulting from proper dispersal by achieving Nash equilibrium is not efficient, and the agents may benefit from achieving a better relationship. In particular, we have examined the system of interactive evolving agents in the context of repeated RSP games, by considering a population of agents located on a lattice network of 20x20. They repeatedly play the generalized RSP game with their nearest eight neighbours based on the coupling rules, which are updated by the crossover operator. 400 different rules, one for each agent, are aggregated at the beginning into a few rules with many commonalities. The game between two agents with the learned coupling rule becomes a kind of stochastic process. The transitions of the outcome are represented as the phase diagram in Figure 1, and they converge into the limit cycle, visiting the Pareto-optimal outcomes: (0,1) (1,2) (2,0) (1,0) (2,1) (0,2). Therefore each agent learns to behave as follows: win three times and then lose three times. In this way, the agents succeed in collectively evolving a robust learning procedure that leads to near-optimal behaviour based on the principle of give and take. The framework of collective evolution is distinguished from co-evolution in three aspects. First, there is the coupling rule: a deterministic process that links past outcomes with future behaviour. The second aspect, which is distinguished from individual learning, is that agents may wish to optimize the outcome of the joint actions. The third aspect is to describe how a coupling rule should be improved, using the criterion of performance to evaluate the rule. In biology, the gene is the unit of selection. However, the collective evolutionary process is expected to compel agents towards ever more refined adaptation, resulting in sophisticated behavioural rules. Cultural interpretations of collective evolution assume that successful behavioural rules are spread by imitation or learning by the agents. This approach to collective evolution is very much at the forefront of the design of desired collectives in terms of efficiency, equity, and sustainability. Further work will need to examine how collective evolution across the complex socio-economical networks leads to emergent effects at higher levels. Akira Namatame, National Defense Academy, Japan Tel: +81 468 3810

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Preparing Fresh Fruits and Vegetables for Safe Consumption Listen to the article The average American consumes 300 pounds of fresh produce per year, and health educators are encouraging more. Children, elderly and those with weakened immune systems may be especially vulnerable to the bacteria that sometimes contaminate fresh produce. You can take precautions to protect your family from food borne illnesses associated with eating contaminated uncooked food. - Store fruits and vegetables in the refrigerator. Bacteria that is present on fruits and vegetables is likely to thrive at room temperatures. - As consumers we should realize that the kitchen sink is our last line of defense in making sure fruits and vegetables are clean and safe to eat. Scrub and rinse each piece of product carefully, especially if you intend to eat it raw. Although this will not kill bacteria, it will reduce the numbers. Do not wash foods in soapy water because the soap can leave residues of its own. - Rinse lettuce leaves individually under cool tap water. You may want to peel away and toss the very outside layer of leafy produce. - Scrub root vegetables, even if you plan on peeling them later. - Rinse delicate fruit, such as berries in a colander. Remove the leafy stems as they often harbor bacteria. - Rinse sprouts and fresh herbs before serving. - Rinse and scrub fruits even if their peels are not consumed. Lemons for example are often in contact with other foods or beverages. When melon is sliced, bacteria on the rind is introduced into the flesh. If you were wondering, the thin, waxy coat on some produce (such as apples and cucumbers) is not a cause for concern. The practice of waxing fruit and vegetables helps maintain the quality of the produce by retaining the moisture, protecting the food from bruising and to preventing spoilage. Waxed produce should also be washed in water. There is no need to peel waxed produce. Sources: UMC Grapevine Newsletter, Nov/Dec 1997, p. 9 & 10 Childrens Food Safety Kit", National Center for Nutrition and Dietetics of the American Dietetics Association Glenda I. Kinder, KinderG@missouri.edu Nutrition and Health Education, Information Technology Clay County, Missouri University of Missouri Extension

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A Teacher's Guide to Distance Learning With the increased popularity of the Internet, computer technologies are receiving more and more attention as a means of delivering distance learning. The primary computer technologies used for distance education include e-mail, online collaborations, and Web-based education. In addition to "regular" e-mail messages, bulletin boards and listserves can also be used to conduct distance learning initiatives. Bulletin boards (also called discussion groups or newsgroups) are electronic forums where students can "post" messages or read messages that others have posted. A threaded discussion group is a bulletin board that allows students to reply to specific messages (the reply is then indented or in some way linked to the original message). Listserves are automated e-mail distribution systems. In other words, if you send an e-mail message to a listserve, it will automatically be distributed to all other members of the listserve. Many faculty members establish bulletin boards or listserves for distance learning classes to facilitate the interactions among the students. The advantages of e-mail communications include versatility and convenience. In addition to sending straight text, most e-mail systems now allow students to attach files. That means that they can send PowerPoint files, spreadsheets, or any other type of file to each other. The convenience of e-mail is that it can be accessed at any time of the day or night. In addition, students can often obtain an e-mail account for little or no cost. Disadvantages of e-mail include the requirement to have an Internet connection and the complexity of learning to use e-mail software and attachments. Although more and more students have access to the Internet at home, it is not safe to assume that they will all have equal access. Prior to involving students in e-mail instruction, you must ensure that they all have the hardware, software, and knowledge to make the communications successful. Online Collaboration: Internet Chat and ConferencingE-mail communications are asynchronous, meaning that they do not take place simultaneously. However, synchronous communications are possible through online chat, shared whiteboards, and videoconferences. Online chat refers to a two-way, interactive exchange on the Internet. In chat mode, two or more people at remote computers connect to the same chat "room" and type messages. As each types his or her message, the others can see the messages on a shared screen (see Figure 7). Online chat allows students and teachers to communicate in "real-time." For example, many instructors will establish virtual office hours, during which they will be available to chat with any students who may have questions. Because the chat takes place on the Internet, there are no phone charges to worry about! Figure 7. Chat screen. Shared whiteboards are another form of collaboration of the Internet. If two or more people are connected to the Internet at the same time, they can communicate through graphic images on a shared whiteboard (see Figure 8). Simple drawing tools are provided that allow them to draw arrows, circles, and other simple symbols in the shared space. In addition, one or both of them can paste in images or text that was copied from another source. Some of the more advanced software even allows users at remote sites to share applications. For example, an instructor may have Excel on his or her computer and be able to display it on a remote student's computer. The student and teacher will both be able to input data and make revisions. Figure 8. A shared white board in use. The advantages of online collaboration through chat or shared whiteboards are that the communications are synchronous and the feedback for the students is immediate. The disadvantages include the need for similar software at both sites and the requirement to schedule the interactions in advance. In addition, the number of participants may be limited for simultaneous collaboration. WebQuestsWebQuest is an inquiry-oriented activity that provides an excellent example of how the various resources on the Internet can be effectively integrated for a classroom project. WebQuests are designed to guide learners as they research a specific issue and to incorporate the results of the research into an authentic product or project. WebQuests are appealing to educators because they provide structure and guidance both for students and for teachers. The following six components are essential for implementing WebQuests. - Introduction – Background on the activity to be completed - Task – Description of main research question and anticipated end product - Process – Steps for completing the task - Resources – Websites that provide information relative to the task - Evaluation – Guidelines for evaluation (often includes a rubric) - Conclusion – Opportunities for reflection and extension For more information about WebQuests, visit the WebQuest pages at http://www.webquest.org/index.php and http://www.zunal.com/. Web-based ResourcesThe World Wide Web has opened a whole new arena for distance learning courses and the access to remote resources. The Web can be used to enhance education through remote access to resources or experts or it can be used to deliver educational programs. As an enhancement to education, teachers can locate relevant Websites for students to explore or have students conduct searches for information related to a specific topic. Bookmark files or Web pages with links can be developed to provide quick access to appropriate sites for the students. For example, Figure 9 presents a Web page that was created for the study of art. Figure 9. Web page with links to relevant art resources. As a delivery tool, teachers can locate existing instruction on the Web, or they can create their own instruction. For example, the Blue Web'n site offers a list of tutorials that are appropriate for students in various topics and grade levels. See the Educational Technology Clearinghouse for additional resources for each subject area. There is also a great deal of instruction on the Web that is designed for K-12 teachers. The Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust provides thousands of Web pages with images, sounds, original plays, student activities, and links to relevant Holocaust sites for teachers to use in the classroom (see Figure 10). Figure 10. A Teachers Guide to the Holocaust at http://fcit.usf.edu/Holocaust. Creating Web Resources for the Classroom There are several ways that teachers can create Web resources for their classroom, including: - Use a template - Websites, such as TeacherWeb, provide templates for teachers that are completely customizable and easy-to-use. - Use an application program - Almost all applications, such as Microsoft Word or PowerPoint allow the user to convert the document to a Web page simply by selecting Save As...Web Page. - Use a Web editor - Programs such as DreamWeaver and Nvu are designed to create Web pages. They provide a WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) interface. Dreamweaver is commercial program by Adobe, while Nvu is a free program. - Create a Web pages by hand - Web pages consist of HTML code, which can be typed into NotePad or other text editors. See Making the Connections for specific instructions on using HTML. Many school districts are using a course management system (CMS) to provide a portal for students. For example, Blackboard offers a comprehensive system where students and parents can log in to access assignments, online resources, bulletin boards, quizzes, chat rooms, and a gradebook. Systems such as Blackboard can be used to deliver an entire distance learning course or to supplement a traditional classroom. Although Blackboard requires a fee, Moodle is a course management system that is open source and completely free to use. Advantages of Computer Technologies - Allow self-paced instruction. Computers allow learners to proceed at their own pace, receive feedback immediately, and review as often as they like. - May incorporate text, graphics, audio, and video. With the trend toward digital audio, digital video, and computer animations, it is easy to incorporate various media into computer programs. - Allow high levels of interactivity. Computer technologies allow embedded questions and interactions, as well as online collaboration. - Provide written record of discussions and instruction. Computer logs can easily be generated for computer interactions in distance learning. - Inexpensive. With access to the Internet, it is relatively inexpensive to participate in computer technologies for distance learning. - Worldwide access. The Internet can be accessed by millions of people throughout the world. There is no other way to reach so many people for so little money. Disadvantages of Computer Technologies - Require hardware and software. At a minimum, a computer and Internet connection are required for most distance learning options that involve computers. - Generally rely on written communications. Although it is possible to include audio and video in computer-based distance learning, most of the communications are in the form of text. - Require substantial planning . E-mail and other asynchronous computer technologies require a great deal of planning and preparation on the part of the instructor. - Computer viruses. If students send assignments via a computer, there is always a risk of viruses -- especially if they send programs or attached files. - No guaranteed performance. Computer networks are notoriously unreliable. If students wait until the last minute to check their e-mail messages or search the Web, there is always the risk the server may be down or the Websites may have moved. Guidelines for Incorporating Computer Technologies - Provide adequate structure and guidelines. The most successful asynchronous projects include deadlines and a structure. - Provide timely feedback to participants. Since the communications in computer-based distance learning are more impersonal than video-based delivery, it is extremely important to provide quick and relevant feedback to students. - Get to know the students. If possible, try to meet the students, either in person or through video. In some cases, the students may be able to meet once or twice; if not, videotapes can be sent to students to increase personal communications. - Ensure sufficient technical support. In a perfect world, the computer and the technology would be invisible to the students. It is very important to provide sufficient technical support so that the students can get help when they need it. Table of Contents Produced by the Florida Center for Instructional Technology, College of Education, University of South Florida © 1999, 2009.

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Introduction | Integration of Treatment With Rehabilitation: Two Sides of the Same Coin | Principles of Psychiatric Rehabilitation | Evidence-Based Rehabilitation Services | Assessment of Patients for Treatment Planning, Monitoring, and Clinical Decision Making | Dissemination and Adoption of Evidence-Based Services | Toolkits to Make Evidence-Based Treatments User-Friendly | Conclusion | References The growing recognition that long-term disability is experienced by a large proportion of persons with serious and persistent mental disorders has spurred the development of the field of psychiatric rehabilitation. Even with the best evidence-based treatment, individuals with psychotic disorders have suboptimal outcomes, with symptoms persisting despite appropriate treatment (Lieberman et al. 2005). Beyond persisting symptoms, social maladjustment in family and vocational roles interferes with the quality of life of an exceedingly high number of those with psychotic disorders (Marshall et al. 2005).

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China has worked actively and seriously to tackle global climate change and build capacity to respond to it. We believe that every country has a stake in dealing with climate change and every country has a responsibility for the safety of our planet. China is at a critical stage of building a moderately prosperous society on all fronts, and a key stage of accelerated industrialization and urbanization. Yet, despite the huge task of developing the economy and improving people’s lives, we have joined global actions to tackle climate change with the utmost resolve and a most active attitude, and have acted in line with the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities established by the United Nations. China voluntarily stepped up efforts to eliminate backward capacity in 2007, and has since closed a large number of heavily polluting small coal-fired power plants, small coal mines and enterprises in the steel, cement, paper-making, chemical and printing and dyeing sectors. Moreover, in 2009, China played a positive role in the success of the Copenhagen conference on climate change and the ultimate conclusion of the Copenhagen Accord. In keeping with the requirements of the Copenhagen Accord, we have provided the Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change with information on China’s voluntary actions on emissions reduction and joined the list of countries supporting the Copenhagen Accord. The targets released by China last year for greenhouse gas emissions control require that by 2020, CO2 emissions per unit of GDP should go down by 40% - 45% from the 2005 level, non-fossil energy should make up about 15% of primary energy consumption, and forest coverage should increase by 40 million hectares and forest stock volume by 1.3 billion cubic meters, both from the 2005 level. The measure to lower energy consumption alone will help save 620 million tons of standard coal in energy consumption in the next five years, which will be equivalent to the reduction of 1.5 billion tons of CO2 emissions. This is what China has done to step up the shift in economic development mode and economic restructuring. It contributes positively to Asia’s and the global effort to tackle climate change. Ladies and Gentlemen, Green and sustainable development represents the trend of our times. To achieve green and sustainable development in Asia and beyond and ensure the sustainable development of resources and the environment such as the air, fresh water, ocean, land and forest, which are all vital to human survival, we countries in Asia should strive to balance economic growth, social development and environmental protection. To that end, we wish to work with other Asian countries and make further efforts in the following six areas. First, shift development mode and strive for green development. To accelerate the shift in economic development mode and economic restructuring provides an important precondition for our efforts to actively respond to climate change, achieve green development and secure the sustainable development of the population, resources and the environment. It is the shared responsibility of governments and enterprises of all countries in Asia and around the world. We should actively promote a conservation culture and raise awareness for environmental protection. We need to make sure that the concept of green development, green consumption and a green lifestyle and the commitment to taking good care of Planet Earth, our common home are embedded in the life of every citizen in society. Second, value the importance of science and technology as the backing of innovation and development. We Asian countries have a long way to go before we reach the advanced level in high-tech-powered energy consumption reduction and improvement of energy and resource efficiency. Yet, this means we have a huge potential to catch up. It is imperative for us to quicken the pace of low-carbon technology development, promote energy efficient technologies and raise the proportion of new and renewable energies in our energy mix so as to provide a strong scientific and technological backing for green and sustainable development of Asian countries. As for developed countries, they should facilitate technology transfer and share technologies with developing countries on the basis of proper protection of intellectual property rights. Third, open wider to the outside world and realize harmonious development. In such an open world as ours, development of Asian countries and development of the world are simply inseparable. It is important that we open our markets even wider, firmly oppose and resist protectionism in all forms and uphold a fair, free and open global trade and investment system. At the same time, we should give full play to the role of regional and sub-regional dialogue and cooperation mechanisms in Asia to promote harmonious and sustainable development of Asia and the world. Fourth, strengthen cooperation and sustain common development. Pragmatic, mutually beneficial and win-win cooperation is a sure choice of all Asian countries if we are to realize sustainable development. No country could stay away from or manage to meet on its own severe challenges like the international financial crisis, climate change and energy and resources security. We should continue to strengthen macro-economic policy coordination and vigorously promote international cooperation in emerging industries, especially in energy conservation, emissions reduction, environmental protection and development of new energy sources to jointly promote sustainable development of the Asian economy and the world economy as a whole. Fifth, work vigorously to eradicate poverty and gradually achieve balanced development. A major root cause for the loss of balance in the world economy is the seriously uneven development between the North and the South. Today, 900 million people in Asia, or roughly one fourth of the entire Asian population, are living below the 1.25 dollars a day poverty line. We call for greater efforts to improve the international mechanisms designed to promote balanced development, and to scale up assistance from developed countries to developing countries, strengthen South-South cooperation, North-South cooperation and facilitate attainment of the UN Millennium Development Goals. This will ensure that sustainable development brings real benefits to poor regions, poor countries and poor peoples. Sixth, bring forth more talents to promote comprehensive development. The ultimate goal of green and sustainable development is to improve people’s living environment, better their lives and promote their comprehensive development. Success in this regard depends, to a large extent, on the emergence of talents with an innovative spirit. We need to build institutions, mechanisms and a social environment to help people bring out the best of their talents, and to intensify education and training of professionals of various kinds. This will ensure that as Asia achieves green and sustainable development, our people will enjoy comprehensive development. Ladies and Gentlemen, We demonstrated solidarity as we rose up together to the international financial crisis in 2009. Let us carry forward this great spirit, build up consensus, strengthen unity and cooperation and explore a path of green and sustainable development. This benefits Asia. It benefits the world, too. In conclusion, I wish this annual conference of the Boao Forum for Asia a complete success.

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Saint Germanus the Daco-Roman was born in the mid-fourth century, probably on the borders of Cassian and the Caves in the diocese of Tomis (in what is now Romania), and was related to St John Cassian (February 29). St Germanus, who was older than St John, was tonsured at one of the local monasteries when he was still a young man. The holy bishop St Theotimus I (April 20) may have been his Spiritual Father. In turn, St Germanus became the Spiritual Father, friend, and teacher of St John Cassian, instructing him in monastic perfection. They both lived at one of the monasteries of Dacia Pontica for a short time, and then worked together in Bethlehem from 380-385. Later, they traveled to Egypt and visited some of its cenobitic monasteries. They also visited the hermits of Nitria and Mount Sinai, seeking to benefit from their holy example and wise counsel. Sts Germanus and John went to Constantinople in 399 in order to be near St John Chrysostom (November 13), and around this time Germanus was deemed worthy of ordination to the holy priesthood. When Chrysostom was deposed and exiled in 404, the two saints journeyed to Rome in order to plead his case before Pope Innocent I. St Germanus completed the course of his life in the early fifth century, perhaps at the monastery estabished by St John Cassian at Marseilles, or in one of the monasteries of Dacia Pontica.

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There is new scientific evidence to support the time-honored advice to students cramming for exams to get themselves a good night's sleep after studying. Researchers who analyzed brain activity in sleeping volunteers who had learned to navigate through a computer-generated virtual town have discovered evidence that spatial memories are consolidated during deep sleep. Also, the researchers say that they have shown for the first time that the activity level in the brain's learning center, the hippocampus, correlates with the improvement in memory performance when the subjects are tested the next day. According to Philippe Peigneux and his colleagues, "A growing body of experimental evidence shows the influence of sleep on the consolidation of recent memory traces. The underlying hypothesis posits that the information that is acquired during wakefulness is actively altered, restructured, and strengthened during sleep." However, they said, exploring this consolidation process was difficult because of the complexities of both sleep and memory. For example, sleep consists of two major stages -- rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and non rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Evidence from animal studies of learning and sleep indicated that spatial memories seem to be replayed in the hippocampus during the deep "slow wave sleep" (SWS) during the NREM sleep stage. Peigneux and his colleagues explored the memory consolidation process by asking volunteers to learn the layout of a virtual town that the researchers adapted from a popular computer game. They then tested the subjects on their knowledge of the town by challenging them to quickly find routes through the town to specific locations. The researchers divided the subjects into three experimental groups: - one that underwent training in the virtual town and whose brains were scanned during testing while they were awake; - one that underwent training and testing and whose brains were then scanned during sleep; - one that did not undergo any training and whose brains were scanned. The researchers measured the subjects' brain activity using positron emission tomography (PET) to measure blood flow in the subjects' brain regions. In PET, test subjects receive a harmless dose of radioactive tracer, and their brains are scanned as the tracer infuses through the brain. Blood flow through specific brain structures constitutes a measure of activity in that structure. The researchers found that the first group -- compared to the non-trained group -- showed greater activity in their hippocampus and an adjacent learning-related region as they took the route tests, with greater activity correlated with better performance. The group scanned during sleep after testing also showed greater hippocampal brain activity during sleep, compared to the non-trained group. Importantly, when the researchers compared the hippocampal activity during SWS sleep in the trained group and the non-trained group, they found that the first group showed higher activity. Next, the researchers tested the trained group after their sleep session and compared their performance with the brain activity measured during sleep. They found that the higher the gain in post-sleep performance, the higher had been their NREM brain activity during sleep. No such correlation was found in REM brain activity. To ensure that they were, indeed, measuring brain activity due to spatial processing, Peigneux and his colleagues also compared brain activity data from the spatially trained group with data from a fourth group that had only taken a reaction time test. In that test, the subjects' brains were scanned as they pressed a key as fast and accurately as possible corresponding to the location of a dot on a computer screen. Thus, the data from the fourth group allowed the researchers to distinguish brain activity changes due to spatial processing from those due to general mental processing. The researchers' comparisons of the brain activity in the groups confirmed that the hippocampal activity they detected was due to spatial processing. "Our results provide critical evidence that spatial memory traces are processed during NREM sleep in humans," wrote the scientists. "Moreover, the hippocampal activity during sleep is shown to correlate with the improvement in memory performance on the next day. To the extent of our knowledge, this effect has not yet been reported in the animal hippocampus." Source: Eurekalert & othersLast reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 21 Feb 2009 Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved. Hope is the thing with feathers that perches in the soul. -- Emily Dickinson

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On New Year’s Eve 2005, Taiwanese President Chen Shui-bian officially opened the world’s tallest building, Taipei 101. The bottle-green, 1,667-foot, $1.8 billion structure was designed by native architect C.Y. Lee to reflect a distinctly Chinese aesthetic, calling to mind stacked pagodas or, according to some, a stick of bamboo. “Chinese people love bamboo because it’s very strong and very flexible,” says Cathy Yang, vice president of Taipei Financial Center Corporation, the company that owns the building. “Bamboo is hollow inside. Chinese philosophy teaches us that the hollow bamboo reminds us to be modest and humble inside.” Well, perhaps it’s a symptom of cultural myopia, but when this Western eye takes in Taipei 101, this Western brain does not register humility. And when factoring into account that eight of the ten tallest buildings in the world are now located on the continent of Asia, very different theories begin to take shape. A little research reveals that most skyscraper construction in Asia took place in the late 1980s and 1990s, when many economies in the region became inexhaustible dynamos of wealth production. While the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, the Jin Mao Tower in Shanghai, and Central Plaza in Hong Kong — all among the world’s ten tallest skyscrapers — were built in the 1990s, the two remaining American buildings on the list — the Sears Tower and the Empire State Building — were completed in 1974 and 1931, respectively. Asia’s Edifice Complex likely came about when the continent’s newly minted billionaires looked longingly at gleaming American cities like Chicago and New York which, until that moment, had skylines unsurpassed in anyone’s imagination. Argentine-American architect Cesar Pelli, designer of the Petronas Towers, puts it most elegantly: “Very tall buildings touch us intimately, in deep chords of our psyche. It’s a very old human urge to point toward heaven.” Many might easily be convinced that Pelli’s distinct, Islamic-influenced concept for the Petronas Towers — intended to evoke an Arabesque, he says — resulted in a structure that inspires the soul. The same could be said of many less thoughtfully imagined buildings that are still awe-inspiring as creations of man. But at least one Asian skyscraper compels the psyche in a decidedly different direction. The Ryugyong Hotel in Pyongyang, rumored to have been conceived in the mind of Dear Leader Kim Jong Il himself, is a 1,082-ft., 105-story monstrosity whose jagged form looms over the rest of the city like the ghost of Stalin. Its sinister 75-degree angles and hulking girth are reminiscent of a vampire sarcophagus. Indeed, one can assume that the estimated $750 million it took to get the project off the ground in 1987 — some two percent of the country’s GDP at that time — literally sucked the life’s blood out of many of the country’s starving citizens. But perhaps the most disturbing aspect of this nightmare vision is that the Ryugyong Hotel remains unoccupied and unfinished — many experts even suspect that it is structurally unsound. Recent satellite photos show that its windows have not been fitted with panes. The sound it likely produces when the wind blows must curdle the neighbors’ blood. But the Asian building spree continues unabated elsewhere, with billionaires seeking immortality through structures that kiss the sky. Although the vast majority of the seekers are men, there was a case of female Edifice Envy when, in the mid-1990s, diminutive Hong Kong businesswoman Nina Kung Wang set her sights on building a 108-story structure that would have become the tallest in the world. A sometime artist, the eccentric widow (at age 66, she still maintains a fondness for mini-skirts and pig-tails) painted a traditional Chinese silk-screen of her proposed “Nina Tower” in 1996. The image depicts an impossibly tall edifice piercing a tiny, distant, glowing red sun. Alas, the government of Hong Kong put an end to Ms. Wang’s fantasies when it determined that the proposed tower’s proximity to the island’s airport would make it a hazard to low- and not-so-low-flying planes alike. The Shanghai native’s appeal to the mainland did little to sway Hong Kong authorities, and the project remains but a twinkle in Ms. Wang’s eye. But in the end, the title of “world’s tallest building” could return again to these shores in 2009, when construction on the new World Trade Center and its centerpiece, the Freedom Tower, is scheduled to be completed. “A tower is a spiritual quest,” says Daniel Libeskind, master-plan architect for the project. “Whether it’s San Gimignano or the Freedom Tower, it’s about the ancient poetic desire to reach the sky.” And there can be no more fitting tribute to the American psyche than that. A man of faith in a godless age is hitting Americans where it hurts. Mr. and Mrs. American Spectator Reader, let P.J. O’Rourke talk sense to your kids. In Britain, defending your property can get you life. The debacle of this president’s administration is both a cause and a symptom of the decline of American values. Unless Congress impeaches him, that decline will go on unchecked. An eminent jurist surveys the damage and assesses the chances for the recovery of our culture. It won’t take long for conservatives to scratch this presidential wannabe off their 2008 scorecard. The American Christmas, like the songs that celebrate it, makes room for everybody under the rainbow. Is that why so many people seem to be hostile to it? Was the President done in by the economy, or by the politics of the economy?

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Discovered in 1988, the Roman Hippodrome in Beirut is situated in Wadi Abou Jmil, next to the newly renovated Jewish Synagogue in Downtown Beirut. This monument, dating back for thousands of years, now risks to be destroyed. The hippodrome is considered, along with the Roman Road and Baths, as one of the most important remaining relics of the Byzantine and Roman era. It spreads over a total area of 3500 m2. Requests for construction projects in the hippodrome’s location have been ongoing since the monument’s discovery but were constantly refused by former ministers of culture of which we name Tarek Metri, Tamam Salam and Salim Warde. In fact, Tamam Salam had even issued a decree banning any work on the hippodrome’s site, effectively protecting it by law. Salim Warde did not contest the decree. Current minister of culture Gabriel Layoun authorized constructions to commence. When it comes to ancient sites in cities that have lots of them, such as Beirut, the current adopted approach towards these sites is called a “mitigation approach” which requires that the incorporation of the monuments in modern plans does not affect those monuments in any way whatsoever. The current approval by minister Layoun does not demand such an approach to be adopted. The monument will have one of its main walls dismantled and taken out of location. Why? to build a fancy new high-rise instead. Minister Layoun sees nothing wrong with this. In fact, displacing ruins is never done unless due to some extreme circumstances. I highly believe whatever Solidere has in store for the land is considered an “extreme circumstance.” The Roman Hippodrome in downtown Beirut is considered as one of the best preserved not only in Lebanon, but in the world. It is also the fifth to be discovered in the Middle East. In fact, a report (Arabic) by the General Director of Ruins in Lebanon, Frederick Al Husseini, spoke about the importance of the monument as one that has been talked about in various ancient books. It has also been correlated with Beirut’s infamous ancient Law School. He speaks about the various structures that are still preserved and only needing some restoration to be fully exposed. He called the monument as a highly important site for Lebanon and the world and is one of Beirut’s main facilities from the Byzantine and Roman eras, suggesting to work on preserving and making this site one of Beirut’s important cultural and touristic locations. His report dates back from 2008. MP Michel Aoun, the head of the party of which Gabriel Layoun is part, defended his minsiter’s position by saying that: “there are a lot of discrepancies between Solidere and us. Therefore, a minister from our party cannot be subjected to Solidere. Minister Layoun found a way, which is adopted internationally, to incorporate ancient sites with newer ones… So I hope that media outlets do not discuss this issue in a way that would raise suspicion.” With all due respect to Mr. Aoun and his minister but endangering Beirut’s culture to strip away even more of the identity that makes it Beirut is not something that should concern him or Solidere. What’s happening is a cultural crime to the entirety of the Lebanese population, one where the interests of meaningless politicians becomes irrelevant. Besides, for a party that has been anti-Solidere for years, I find it highly hypocritical that they are allowing Solidere to dismantle the Roman Hippodrome. The conclusion is: never has a hippodrome been dismantled and displaced in any parts of the world. Beirut’s hippodrome will effectively become part of the parking of the high-rise to be built in its place. No mitigation approach will be adopted here. It is only but a diversion until people forget and plans go well underway in secrecy. But the time for us to be silent about this blatant persecution of our history cannot continue. If there’s anything that we can do is let the issue propagate as much as we can. There shouldn’t be a Lebanese person in the 10452 km2 that remains clueless about any endangered monument for that matter. Sadly enough, this goes beyond the hippodrome. We have become so accustomed to the reality of it that we’ve become very submissive: the ancient Phoenician port is well behind us, there are constructions around the ancient Phoenician port of Tyre and the city itself risks of being removed off UNESCO’s list for Cultural Heritage Sites. The land on which ancient monuments are built doesn’t belong to Solidere, to the Ministry of Culture or to any other contractor – no matter how much they’ve paid to buy it. It belongs to the Lebanese people in their entirety. When you realize that of the 200 sites uncovered at Solidere, those that have remained intact can be counted with the fingers of one hand, the reality becomes haunting. It’s about time we rise to our rights. Beirut’s hippodrome will not be destroyed.

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Location accuracy depends on which of the following location data sources are available to My Location or Latitude from your device. You can improve location accuracy by turning on WiFi (wireless network), especially when indoors where the GPS signal is weak. You don’t even need to be connected to a network for location accuracy to improve with WiFi. The following location data sources may be used to derive location: - GPS: GPS accuracy can be up to several meters depending on your GPS signal and connection. Your phone must support GPS, have it enabled, and allow Google Maps access to it. - WiFi: WiFi (wireless network) accuracy should be similar to the access range of a typical WiFi router, or about 200m or better. Your phone must support WiFi and have it enabled. - Cell ID: Cell ID (cell tower) accuracy depends on cell tower density and available data in Google's cell ID (cell tower) location database. Accuracy may be approximated at distances up to several thousand meters. Note: Some devices do not support cell ID location. Other available device sensors, such as accelerometer, compass, gyroscope and barometer, are also used to improve the overall location experience. This includes but is not limited to capabilities like improving fine-scale positioning and improving battery life. Coverage for Google's cell ID and WiFi location databases varies by location and is not complete. We are always working to improve both coverage and accuracy over time as usage of our location-based services continues to grow. Note: When Latitude is running in the background, it will default to cell ID (cell tower) location on most phones to preserve your battery life.

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War casualties; Prisoners of war; Guards; Horses; Cavalry; Horse artillery; War; World War, 1914-1918 Pictured are German military personnel who are prisoners of war following the American drive on the Hindenburg Line. These German POW's are walking along while carrying stretchers containing their wounded. Their guards are riding on horseback. Sandbags; Fortifications; Castles & palaces; Military headquarters; War; Poperinge (Belgium); World War, 1914-1918 Caption reads: "Gold Fish Chateau constructed into a Brigade Hdq. By 105 Engrs. Located on Poperinghe-Ypres Road." The Chateau is a three story building, made up mostly of brick. Sandbags, used for fortification, are stacked outside the entrance. War; Machine guns; Fishing nets; Camouflage (Military science); World War, 1914-1918 This machine gun emplacement on the East Poperinghe line is covered in cloth and fish net. They serve as camouflage for the machine gun in order for it to blend into the surrounding area. Caption reads: "Machine Emplacement on East Prop. Line The... War; War relief; War damage; First aid; Emergency medical services; Military hospitals; World War, 1914-1918 Photograph pictures a first aid station located on the Rue de dixmude at the "Dead End" of the Ypres Canal. The facility's location is marked by a Red Cross flag. The area is surrounded by wartime destruction and debree. The image features shelled... The caption reads, "Second Bn. 105th Engineers Hdq. Near Brandhock." Writing on the picture reads, "2nd Bn. Hdq. Brandhock Belgium." Several buildings can be seen in the picture next to a wooden walkway. Soldiers; Military uniforms; Campaigns & battles; Howitzers; Cannons; Artillery (Weaponry); World War, 1914-1918 Group of American soldiers in the process of loading a howitzer. There is a sign on a tree that reads: "7th Bty Howitzer Regt CAC" indicating this group to be a part of the Seventh Battery Howitzer Regiment of the Coastal Artillery Corps. World War, 1914-1918; Antiaircraft guns; Artillery (Weaponry); Firearms; Machine guns; Arms & armament A German soldier is shown in a field at his sunken station aiming his antiaircraft gun skyward. The shadow of the war photograph appears in the image. A two-wheeled cart is in the background of the shot. World War, 1914-1918; Soldiers; Military uniforms; Firearms; Trench warfare French soldiers standing and sitting in a front line trench. Three soldiers are standing casually and looking outside the trench. Two soldiers below them, one standing and the other sitting, are conversing with one another. The interior of the...

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - This article is about the introduction of agriculture during the Stone Age. See agricultural revolution (disambiguation) for later historical breakthroughs in agriculture. The Neolithic Revolution or Neolithic Demographic Transition, sometimes called the Agricultural Revolution, was the world's first historically verifiable revolution in agriculture. It was the wide-scale transition of many human cultures from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of agriculture and settlement which supported an increasingly large population. Archaeological data indicates that the domestication of various forms of plants and animals evolved in separate locations worldwide, starting in the geological epoch of the Holocene around 12,000 14C years ago (10,000–5,000 BC). However, the Neolithic Revolution involved far more than the adoption of a limited set of food-producing techniques. During the next millennia it would transform the small and mobile groups of hunter-gatherers that had hitherto dominated human history into sedentary societies based in built-up villages and towns, which radically modified their natural environment by means of specialized food-crop cultivation (e.g., irrigation and food storage technologies) that allowed extensive surplus food production. These developments provided the basis for high population density settlements, specialized and complex labor diversification, trading economies, the development of non-portable art, architecture, and culture, centralized administrations and political structures, hierarchical ideologies, and depersonalized systems of knowledge (e.g., property regimes and writing). The first full-blown manifestation of the entire Neolithic complex is seen in the Middle Eastern Sumerian cities (ca. 5,500 BP), whose emergence also inaugurates the end of the prehistoric Neolithic period. The relationship of the above-mentioned Neolithic characteristics to the onset of agriculture, their sequence of emergence, and empirical relation to each other at various Neolithic sites remains the subject of academic debate, and seems to vary from place to place, rather than being the outcome of universal laws of social evolution. Agricultural transition The term Neolithic Revolution was coined in 1923 AD by Vere Gordon Childe to describe the first in a series of agricultural revolutions in Middle Eastern history. The period is described as a "revolution" to denote its importance, and the great significance and degree of change affecting the communities in which new agricultural practices were gradually adopted and refined. The beginning of this process in different regions has been dated from perhaps 8000 BC in Melanesia to 2500 BC in Subsaharan Africa, with some[who?] considering the developments of 9000–7000 BC in the Fertile Crescent to be the most important. This transition everywhere seems associated with a change from a largely nomadic hunter-gatherer way of life to a more settled, agrarian-based one, with the inception of the domestication of various plant and animal species—depending on the species locally available, and probably also influenced by local culture. There are several competing (but not mutually exclusive) theories as to the factors that drove populations to take up agriculture. The most prominent of these are: - The Oasis Theory, originally proposed by Raphael Pumpelly in 1908, popularized by Vere Gordon Childe in 1928 and summarised in Childe's book Man Makes Himself. This theory maintains that as the climate got drier due to the Atlantic depressions shifting northward, communities contracted to oases where they were forced into close association with animals, which were then domesticated together with planting of seeds. However, today this theory has little support amongst archaeologists because climate data for the time actually shows that at the time, the climate of the region was getting wetter rather than drier. - The Hilly Flanks hypothesis, proposed by Robert Braidwood in 1948, suggests that agriculture began in the hilly flanks of the Taurus and Zagros mountains, where the climate was not drier as Childe had believed, and fertile land supported a variety of plants and animals amenable to domestication. - The Feasting model by Brian Hayden suggests that agriculture was driven by ostentatious displays of power, such as giving feasts, to exert dominance. This required assembling large quantities of food, which drove agricultural technology. - The Demographic theories proposed by Carl Sauer and adapted by Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery posit an increasingly sedentary population that expanded up to the carrying capacity of the local environment and required more food than could be gathered. Various social and economic factors helped drive the need for food. - The evolutionary/intentionality theory, developed by David Rindos and others, views agriculture as an evolutionary adaptation of plants and humans. Starting with domestication by protection of wild plants, it led to specialization of location and then full-fledged domestication. - Peter Richerson, Robert Boyd, and Robert Bettinger make a case for the development of agriculture coinciding with an increasingly stable climate at the beginning of the Holocene. Ronald Wright's book and Massey Lecture Series A Short History of Progress popularized this hypothesis. - The postulated Younger Dryas impact event, claimed to be in part responsible for megafauna extinction, and which ended the last ice age, could have provided circumstances that required the evolution of agricultural societies for humanity to survive. The agrarian revolution itself is a reflection of typical overpopulation by certain species following initial events during extinction eras; this overpopulation itself ultimately propagates the extinction event. - Leonid Grinin argues that whatever plants were cultivated, the independent invention of agriculture always took place in special natural environments (e.g., South-East Asia). It is supposed that the cultivation of cereals started somewhere in the Near East: in the hills of Palestine or Egypt. So Grinin dates the beginning of the agricultural revolution within the interval 12,000 to 9,000 BP, though in some cases the first cultivated plants or domesticated animals' bones are even of a more ancient age of 14–15 thousand years ago. - Andrew Moore suggested that dawn of the neolithic revolution originated over long periods of development in the Levant, possibly beginning during the Epipaleolithic. In "A Reassessment of the Neolithic Revolution", Frank Hole further expanded the relationship between plant and animal domestication. He suggested the events could have occurred independently over different periods of time, in as yet unexplored locations. He noted that no transition site had been found documenting the shift from what he termed immediate and delayed return social systems. He noted that the full range of domesticated animals (goats, sheep, cattle and pigs) were not found until the sixth millennium at Tell Ramad. Hole concluded that "close attention should be paid in future investigations to the western margins of the Euphrates basin, perhaps as far south as the Arabian Peninsula, especially where wadis carrying Pleistocene rainfall runoff flowed." Domestication of plants Once agriculture started gaining momentum the three little pigs had some, human activity resulted in the selective breeding of cereal grasses (beginning with emmer, einkorn and barley), and not simply of those that would favour greater caloric returns through larger seeds. Plants that possessed traits such as small seeds or bitter taste would have been seen as undesirable. Plants that rapidly shed their seeds on maturity tended not to be gathered at harvest, thus not stored and not seeded the following season; years of harvesting selected for strains that retained their edible seeds longer. Several plant species, the "pioneer crops" or Neolithic founder crops were named by Daniel Zohary, who highlighted importance of the three cereals, and suggesting domestication of flax, pea, chickpea, bitter vetch and lentil came a little later. Based on analysis of the genes of domesticated plants, he preferred theories of a single, or at most a very small number of domestication events for each taxa that spread in an arc from the Levantine corridor around the fertile crescent and then later into Europe. Gordon Hillman and Stuart Davies carried out experiments with wild wheat varieties to show that the process of domestication would have happened over a relatively short period of between twenty and two hundred years. Some of these pioneering attempts failed at first and crops were abandoned, sometimes to be taken up again and successfully domesticated thousands of years later: rye, tried and abandoned in Neolithic Anatolia, made its way to Europe as weed seeds and was successfully domesticated in Europe, thousands of years after the earliest agriculture. Wild lentils present a different challenge that needed to be overcome: most of the wild seeds do not germinate in the first year; the first evidence of lentil domestication, breaking dormancy in their first year, was found in the early Neolithic at Jerf el Ahmar (in modern Syria), and quickly spread south to the Netiv HaGdud site in the Jordan Valley. This process of domestication allowed the founder crops to adapt and eventually become larger, more easily harvested, more dependable in storage and more useful to the human population. Selectively propagated Figs, wild barley and wild oats were cultivated at the early Neolithic site of Gilgal I, where in 2006 archaeologists found caches of seeds of each in quantities too large to be accounted for even by intensive gathering, at strata datable c. 11,000 years ago. Some of the plants tried and then abandoned during the Neolithic period in the Ancient Near East, at sites like Gilgal, were later successfully domesticated in other parts of the world. Once early farmers perfected their agricultural techniques, their crops would yield surpluses that needed storage. Most hunter gatherers could not easily store food for long due to their migratory lifestyle, whereas those with a sedentary dwelling could store their surplus grain. Eventually granaries were developed that allowed villages to store their seeds longer. So with more food, the population expanded and communities developed specialized workers and more advanced tools. The process was not as linear as was once thought, but a more complicated effort, which was undertaken by different human populations in different regions in many different ways. Agriculture in the Fertile Crescent Early agriculture is believed to have originated and become widespread in Southwest Asia around 10000–9000 BP, though earlier individual sites have been identified. The Fertile Crescent region of Southwest Asia is the centre of domestication for three cereals (einkorn wheat, emmer wheat and barley) four legumes (lentil, pea, bitter vetch and chickpea) and flax. The Mediterranean climate consists of a long dry season with a short period of rain, which may have favoured small plants with large seeds, like wheat and barley. The Fertile Crescent also had a large area of varied geographical settings and altitudes and this variety may have made agriculture more profitable for former hunter-gatherers in this region in comparison with other areas with a similar climate. Finds of large quantities of seeds and a grinding stone at the paleolithic site of Ohalo II in the vicinity of the Sea of Galilee, dated to around 19,400 BP has shown some of the earliest evidence for advanced planning of plant food consumption and has led Ehud Weiss, an archeologist, to suggest that humans at Ohalo II processed the grain before consumption. Tell Aswad is oldest site of agriculture with domesticated emmer wheat dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BC. Soon after came hulled, two-row barley found domesticated earliest at Jericho in the Jordan valley and Iraq ed-Dubb in Jordan. Other sites in the Levantine corridor that show the first evidence of agriculture include Wadi Faynan 16 and Netiv Hagdud. Jacques Cauvin noted that the settlers of Aswad did not domesticate on site, but "arrived, perhaps from the neighbouring Anti-Lebanon, already equipped with the seed for planting". The Heavy Neolithic Qaraoun culture has been identified at around fifty sites in Lebanon around the source springs of the River Jordan, however the dating of the culture has never been reliably determined. Agriculture in China Northern China appears to have been the domestication centre for foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) with evidence of domestication of these species approximately 8000 years ago. These species were subsequently widely cultivated in the Yellow River basin (7500 years ago). Rice was domesticated in southern China later on, however, there may have been a separate domestication event for rice in India also. Agriculture in Africa The Revolution developed independently in different parts of the world, not just in the Fertile Crescent. On the African continent, three areas have been identified as independently developing agriculture: the Ethiopian highlands, the Sahel and West Africa. The most famous crop domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands is coffee. In addition, khat, ensete, noog, teff and finger millet were also domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands. Crops domesticated in the Sahel region include sorghum and pearl millet. The kola nut, extracts from which became an ingredient in Coca Cola, was first domesticated in West Africa. Other crops domesticated in West Africa include African rice, yams and the oil palm. A number of crops that have been cultivated in Africa for millennia came after their domestication elsewhere. Agriculture in the Nile River Valley developed from crops domesticated in the Fertile Crescent. Bananas and plantains, which were first domesticated in Southeast Asia, most likely Papua New Guinea, were re-domesticated in Africa possibly as early as 5,000 years ago. Asian yams and taro were also cultivated in Africa. Prof. Fred Wendorf and Dr. Romuald Schild, of the Department of Anthropology at Southern Methodist University, originally thought to have found evidence of early agriculture in Upper Paleolithic times at Wadi Kubbaniya, on the Kom Ombos plateau, of Egypt, including a mortar and pestle, grinding stones, several harvesting implements and charred wheat and barley grains—which may have been introduced from outside the region. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating since their first reports has invalidated their hypothesis. Many such grinding stones are found with the early Egyptian Sebilian and Mechian cultures and evidence has been found of a neolithic domesticated crop-based economy dating around 7000 BP. Philip E. L. Smith writes: "With the benefit of hindsight we can now see that many Late Paleolithic peoples in the Old World were poised on the brink of plant cultivation and animal husbandry as an alternative to the hunter-gatherer's way of life". Unlike the Middle East, this evidence appears as a "false dawn" to agriculture, as the sites were later abandoned, and permanent farming then was delayed until 6500 BP with the Tasian and Badarian cultures and the arrival of crops and animals from the Near East. Agriculture in the Americas Corn, beans and squash were among the earliest crops domesticated in Mesoamerica, with maize beginning about 7500 BC, squash, as early as 8000 to 6000 BC and beans by no later than 4000 BC. Potatoes and manioc were domesticated in South America. In what is now the eastern United States, Native Americans domesticated sunflower, sumpweed and goosefoot around 2500 BC. At Guilá Naquitz cave in the Mexican highlands, fragments of maize pollen, bottle gourd and pepo squash were recovered and variously dated between 8000 to 7000 BC. In this area of the world people relied on hunting and gathering for several millennia to come. Sedentary village life based on farming did not develop until the second millennium BC, referred to as the formative period. Agriculture in Papua New Guinea Evidence of drainage ditches at Kuk Swamp on the borders of the Western and Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea shows evidence of the cultivation of taro and a variety of other crops, dating back to 11,000 BP. Two potentially significant economic species, taro (Colocasia esculenta) and yam (Dioscorea sp.), have been identified dating at least to 10,200 calibrated years before present (cal BP). Further evidence of bananas and sugarcane dates to 6,950 to 6,440 BP. This is the altitudinal limits of these crops, and it has been suggested that cultivation in more favourable ranges in the lowlands may have been even earlier. CSIRO has found evidence that taro was introduced into the Solomons for human use, from 25,000 years ago, making taro cultivation the earliest crop in the world. It seems to have resulted in the spread of the Trans–New Guinea languages from New Guinea east into the Solomon Islands and west into Timor and adjacent areas of Indonesia. This seems to confirm the theories of Carl Sauer who, in "Agricultural Origins and Dispersals", suggested as early as 1952 that this region was a centre of early agriculture. Domestication of animals When hunter-gathering began to be replaced by sedentary food production it became more profitable to keep animals close at hand. Therefore, it became necessary to bring animals permanently to their settlements, although in many cases there was a distinction between relatively sedentary farmers and nomadic herders. The animals' size, temperament, diet, mating patterns, and life span were factors in the desire and success in domesticating animals. Animals that provided milk, such as cows and goats, offered a source of protein that was renewable and therefore quite valuable. The animal’s ability as a worker (for example ploughing or towing), as well as a food source, also had to be taken into account. Besides being a direct source of food, certain animals could provide leather, wool, hides, and fertilizer. Some of the earliest domesticated animals included dogs (about 15,000 years ago), sheep, goats, cows, and pigs. Domestication of animals in the Middle East The Middle East served as the source for many animals that could be domesticated, such as sheep, goats and pigs. This area was also the first region to domesticate the dromedary camel. Henri Fleisch discovered and termed the Shepherd Neolithic flint industry from the Bekaa Valley in Lebanon and suggested that it could have been used by the earliest nomadic shepherds. He dated this industry to the Epipaleolithic or Pre-Pottery Neolithic as it is evidently not Paleolithic, Mesolithic or even Pottery Neolithic. The presence of these animals gave the region a large advantage in cultural and economic development. As the climate in the Middle East changed, and became drier, many of the farmers were forced to leave, taking their domesticated animals with them. It was this massive emigration from the Middle East that would later help distribute these animals to the rest of Afroeurasia. This emigration was mainly on an east-west axis of similar climates, as crops usually have a narrow optimal climatic range outside of which they cannot grow for reasons of light or rain changes. For instance, wheat does not normally grow in tropical climates, just like tropical crops such as bananas do not grow in colder climates. Some authors, like Jared Diamond, have postulated that this East-West axis is the main reason why plant and animal domestication spread so quickly from the Fertile Crescent to the rest of Eurasia and North Africa, while it did not reach through the North-South axis of Africa to reach the Mediterranean climates of South Africa, where temperate crops were successfully imported by ships in the last 500 years. The African Zebu is a separate breed of cattle that was better suited to the hotter climates of central Africa than the fertile-crescent domesticated bovines. North and South America were similarly separated by the narrow tropical Isthmus of Panama, that prevented the llama from being exported from the Andes to the Mexican plateau. Social change It is often argued[by whom?] that agriculture gave humans more control over their food supply, but this has been disputed by the finding that nutritional standards of Neolithic populations were generally inferior to that of hunter-gatherers, and life expectancy may in fact have been shorter, in part due to diseases. Average height, for example, went down from 5' 10" (178 cm) for men and 5' 6" (168 cm) for women to 5' 3" (165 cm) and 5' 1" (155 cm), respectively, and it took until the twentieth century for average human height to come back to the pre-Neolithic Revolution levels. The shift to agricultural food production supported a denser population, which in turn supported larger sedentary communities, the accumulation of goods and tools, and specialization in diverse forms of new labor. The development of larger societies led to the development of different means of decision making and to governmental organization. Food surpluses made possible the development of a social elite who were not otherwise engaged in agriculture, industry or commerce, but dominated their communities by other means and monopolized decision-making. The widespread adoption of patriarchy as the dominant form of social organization also appears to coincide with the Neolithic revolution. The dominance of males, the control of female sexuality and patrilineal descent structures, all of which characterize the patriarchy, may have, in part, arisen from the growing need for an orderly means of transferring accumulated goods between generations through inheritance. Subsequent revolutions Andrew Sherratt has argued that following upon the Neolithic Revolution was a second phase of discovery that he refers to as the secondary products revolution. Animals, it appears, were first domesticated purely as a source of meat. The Secondary Products Revolution occurred when it was recognised that animals also provided a number of other useful products. These included: - hides and skins (from undomesticated animals) - manure for soil conditioning (from all domesticated animals) - wool (from sheep, llamas, alpacas, and Angora goats) - milk (from goats, cattle, yaks, sheep, horses and camels) - traction (from oxen, onagers, donkeys, horses, camels and dogs) - guarding and herding assistance (dogs) Sherratt argues that this phase in agricultural development enabled humans to make use of the energy possibilities of their animals in new ways, and permitted permanent intensive subsistence farming and crop production, and the opening up of heavier soils for farming. It also made possible nomadic pastoralism in semi arid areas, along the margins of deserts, and eventually led to the domestication of both the dromedary and Bactrian camel. Overgrazing of these areas, particularly by herds of goats, greatly extended the areal extent of deserts. Living in one spot would have more easily permitted the accrual of personal possessions and an attachment to certain areas of land. From such a position, it is argued, prehistoric people were able to stockpile food to survive lean times and trade unwanted surpluses with others. Once trade and a secure food supply were established, populations could grow, and society would have diversified into food producers and artisans, who could afford to develop their trade by virtue of the free time they enjoyed because of a surplus of food. The artisans, in turn, were able to develop technology such as metal weapons. Such relative complexity would have required some form of social organisation to work efficiently, so it is likely that populations that had such organisation, perhaps such as that provided by religion, were better prepared and more successful. In addition, the denser populations could form and support legions of professional soldiers. Also, during this time property ownership became increasingly important to all people. Ultimately, Childe argued that this growing social complexity, all rooted in the original decision to settle, led to a second Urban Revolution in which the first cities were built. Throughout the development of sedentary societies, disease spread more rapidly than it had during the time in which hunter-gatherer societies existed. Inadequate sanitary practices and the domestication of animals may explain the rise in deaths and sickness following the Neolithic Revolution, as diseases jumped from the animal to the human population. Some examples of diseases spread from animals to humans are influenza, smallpox, and measles. In concordance with a process of natural selection, the humans who first domesticated the big mammals quickly built up immunities to the diseases as within each generation the individuals with better immunities had better chances of survival. In their approximately 10,000 years of shared proximity with animals, such as cows, Eurasians and Africans became more resistant to those diseases compared with the indigenous populations encountered outside Eurasia and Africa. For instance, the population of most Caribbean and several Pacific Islands have been completely wiped out by diseases. According to the Population history of American indigenous peoples, 90% of the population of certain regions of North and South America were wiped out long before direct contact with Europeans. Some cultures like the Inca Empire did have one big mammal domesticated, the Llama, but the Inca did not drink its milk or live in a closed space with their herds, hence limiting the risk of contagion. The causal link between the type or lack of agricultural development, disease and colonisation is not supported by colonization in other parts of the world. Disease increased after the establishment of British Colonial rule in Africa and India despite the areas having diseases for which Europeans lacked natural immunity. In India agriculture developed during the Neolithic period with a wide range of animals domesticated. During colonial rule an estimated 23 million people died from cholera between 1865 and 1949, and millions more died from plague, malaria, influenza and tuberculosis. In Africa European colonisation was accompanied by great epidemics, including malaria and sleeping sickness and despite parts of colonised Africa having little or no agriculture Europeans were more susceptible than the Africans. The increase of disease has been attributed to increased mobility of people, increased population density, urbanisation, environmental deterioration and irrigation schemes that helped to spread malaria rather than the development of agriculture. In his book Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond argues that Europeans and East Asians benefited from an advantageous geographical location that afforded them a head start in the Neolithic Revolution. Both shared the temperate climate ideal for the first agricultural settings, both were near a number of easily domesticable plant and animal species, and both were safer from attacks of other people than civilizations in the middle part of the Eurasian continent. Being among the first to adopt agriculture and sedentary lifestyles, and neighboring other early agricultural societies with whom they could compete and trade, both Europeans and East Asians were also among the first to benefit from technologies such as firearms and steel swords. In addition, they developed resistances to infectious disease, such as smallpox, due to their close relationship with domesticated animals. Groups of people who had not lived in proximity with other large mammals, such as the Australian Aborigines and American indigenous peoples, were more vulnerable to infection and largely wiped out by diseases. During and after the Age of Discovery, European explorers, such as the Spanish conquistadors, encountered other groups of people who had never or only recently adopted agriculture, such as in the Pacific Islands, or lacked domesticated big mammals such as the people of the New Guinea Highlands. The dispersal of Neolithic culture from the Middle East has recently been associated with the distribution of human genetic markers. In Europe, the spread of the Neolithic culture has been associated with distribution of the E1b1b lineages and Haplogroup J that are thought to have arrived in Europe from North Africa and the Near East respectively. In Africa, the spread of farming, and notably the Bantu expansion, is associated with the dispersal of Y-chromosome haplogroup E1b1a from West Africa. See also - Çatalhöyük, a Neolithic site in southern Anatolia - Aşıklı Höyük, in Anatolia, one of the earliest agricultural communities (ca 8200 BC) - Natufians, a settled culture preceding agriculture - Original affluent society - Haplogroup G (Y-DNA) - Haplogroup J2 (Y-DNA) - Haplogroup J (mtDNA) - Neolithic tomb - Surplus product - Göbekli Tepe - Mehrgarh, a Neolithic site in Balochistan - Other types of agricultural revolutions that have occurred recently: - Jean-Pierre Bocquet-Appel (July 29, 2011). "When the World's Population Took Off: The Springboard of the Neolithic Demographic Transition". Science 333 (6042): 560–561. Bibcode:2011Sci...333..560B. doi:10.1126/science.1208880. PMID 21798934. Retrieved June 10, 2012. - "International Stratigraphic Chart". International Commission on Stratigraphy. Retrieved 2012-12-06. - Graeme Barker (25 March 2009). The Agricultural Revolution in Prehistory: Why did Foragers become Farmers?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-955995-4. Retrieved 15 August 2012. - "The Slow Birth of Agriculture", Heather Pringle* - "Wizard Chemi Shanidar", EMuseum, Minnesota State University - Diamond, J.; Bellwood, P. (2003). "Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions". Science 300 (5619): 597–603. Bibcode:2003Sci...300..597D. doi:10.1126/science.1078208. PMID 12714734. - Denham, Tim P.; et al. (2003). "Origins of Agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the Highlands of New Guinea". Science 301 (5630): 189–193. doi:10.1126/science.1085255. PMID 12817084. - The Kuk Early Agricultural Site - Gordon Childe (1936). Man Makes Himself. Oxford university press. - Scarre, Chris (2005). "The World Transformed: From Foragers and Farmers to States and Empires" in The Human Past: World Prehistory and the Development of Human Societies (Ed: Chris Scarre). London: Thames and Hudson. Page 188. ISBN 0-500-28531-4 - Charles E. Redman (1978). Rise of Civilization: From Early Hunters to Urban Society in the Ancient Near East. San Francisco: Freeman. - Hayden, Brian (1992). "Models of Domestication". In Anne Birgitte Gebauer and T. Douglas Price. Transitions to Agriculture in Prehistory. Madison: Prehistory Press. pp. 11–18. - Sauer, Carl O. (1952). Agricultural origins and dispersals. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. - Binford, Lewis R. (1968). "Post-Pleistocene Adaptations". In Sally R. Binford and Lewis R. Binford. New Perspectives in Archaeology. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company. pp. 313–342. - Rindos, David (December 1987). The Origins of Agriculture: An Evolutionary Perspective. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-589281-0. - Richerson, Peter J.; et al. (2001). "Was Agriculture Impossible during the Pleistocene but Mandatory during the Holocene?". American Antiquity 66 (3): 387–411. doi:10.2307/2694241. - Wright, Ronald (2004). A Short History of Progress. Anansi. ISBN 0-88784-706-4). - Grinin L.E. Production Revolutions and Periodization of History: A Comparative and Theoretic-mathematical Approach. / Social Evolution & History. Volume 6, Number 2 / September 2007 - Hole, Frank., A Reassessment of the Neolithic Revolution, Paléorient, Volume 10, Issue 10-2, pp. 49-60, 1984. - Zohary, D., The mode of domestication of the founder crops of Southwest Asian agriculture. pp. 142-158 in D. R. Harris (ed.) The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia. UCL Press Ltd, London, 1996 - Zohary, D., Monophyletic vs. polyphyletic origin of the crops on which agriculture was founded in the Near East. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 46 (2) pp. 133-142 - Hillman, G. C. and M. S. Davies., Domestication rate in wild wheats and barley under primitive cultivation: preliminary results and archaeological implications of field measurements of selection coefficient, pp. 124-132 in P. Anderson-Gerfaud (ed.) Préhistoire de l'agriculture: nouvelles approches expérimentales et ethnographiques. Monographie du CRA 6, Éditions Centre Nationale Recherches Scientifiques: Paris, 1992 - Weiss, Ehud; Kislev, Mordechai E.; Hartmann, Anat (2006). "Autonomous Cultivation Before Domestication". Science 312 (5780): 1608–1610. doi:10.1126/science.1127235. PMID 16778044. - "Tamed 11,400 Years Ago, Figs Were Likely First Domesticated Crop". - Brown, T. A.; Jones, M. K.; Powell, W.; Allaby, R. G. (2009). "The complex origins of domesticated crops in the Fertile Crescent". Trends in Ecology & Evolution 24 (2): 103. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2008.09.008. - Mithen, Steven (2006). After the ice : a global human history, 20.000 - 5.000 BC (1. paperback ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press. p. 517. ISBN 0-674-01570-3. - Compiled largely with reference to: Weiss, E., Mordechai, E., Simchoni, O., Nadel, D., & Tschauner, H. (2008). Plant-food preparation area on an Upper Paleolithic brush hut floor at Ohalo II, Israel. Journal of Archaeological Science , 35 (8), 2400-2414. - Ozkan, H; Brandolini, A; Schäfer-Pregl, R; Salamini, F (October 2002). "AFLP analysis of a collection of tetraploid wheats indicates the origin of emmer and hard wheat domestication in southeast Turkey". Molecular Biology and Evolution 19 (10): 1797–801. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004002. PMID 12270906. - van Zeist, W. Bakker-Heeres, J.A.H., Archaeobotanical Studies in the Levant 1. Neolithic Sites in the Damascus Basin: Aswad, Ghoraifé, Ramad., Palaeohistoria, 24, 165-256, 1982. - Hopf, Maria., "Jericho plant remains" in Kathleen M. Kenyon and T. A. Holland (eds.) Excavations at Jericho 5, pp. 576-621, British School of Archaeology at Jerusalem, London, 1983. - Jacques Cauvin (27 July 2000). The Birth of the Gods and the Origins of Agriculture, p. 53. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65135-6. Retrieved 15 August 2012. - E. J. Peltenburg; Alexander Wasse; Council for British Research in the Levant (2004). Maya Haïdar Boustani, Flint workshops of the Southern Beqa' valley (Lebanon): preliminary results from Qar'oun* in Neolithic revolution: new perspectives on southwest Asia in light of recent discoveries on Cyprus. Oxbow Books. ISBN 978-1-84217-132-5. Retrieved 18 January 2012. - L. Copeland; P. Wescombe (1966). Inventory of Stone-Age Sites in Lebanon: North, South and East-Central Lebanon, p. 89. Impr. Catholique. Retrieved 3 March 2011. - Fuller, D. Q. (2007). "Contrasting Patterns in Crop Domestication and Domestication Rates: Recent Archaeobotanical Insights from the Old World". Annals of Botany 100 (5): 903–924. doi:10.1093/aob/mcm048. PMC 2759199. PMID 17495986. - Diamond, Jared (1999). Guns, Germs, and Steel. New York: Norton Press. ISBN 0-393-31755-2. - DR Harris, HE Gove, P Damon "The Impact on Archaeology of Radiocarbon Dating by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry" Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A323, 23–43 1987 - The Cambridge History of Africa - Smith, Philip E.L., Stone Age Man on the Nile, Scientific American Vol. 235 No. 2, August 1976. - Denham, Tim et al (received July 2005) "Early and mid Holocene tool-use and processing of taro (Colocasia esculenta), yam (Dioscorea sp.) and other plants at Kuk Swamp in the highlands of Papua New Guinea" (Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 33, Issue 5, May 2006) - McGourty, Christine (2002-11-22). "Origin of dogs traced". BBC News. Retrieved 2006-11-29. - Fleisch, Henri., Notes de Préhistoire Libanaise : 1) Ard es Saoude. 2) La Bekaa Nord. 3) Un polissoir en plein air. BSPF, vol. 63. - Shermer, Michael (2001) The Borderlands of Science, Oxford University Press p.250 - Eagly, Alice H. & Wood, Wendy (June 1999). "The Origins of Sex Differences in Human Behavior: Evolved Dispositions Versus Social Roles". American Psychologist 54 (6): 408–423. - Sherratt 1981 - Furuse, Y.; Suzuki, A.; Oshitani, H. (2010). "Origin of measles virus: Divergence from rinderpest virus between the 11th and 12th centuries". Virology Journal 7: 52. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-7-52. PMC 2838858. PMID 20202190. - Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies - Jared Diamond, 1997 - Marshall, P. J. Ed. (1996), Cambridge illustrated History: British Empire, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-00254-0, p. 142 - Semino et al, O; Magri, C; Benuzzi, G; Lin, AA; Al-Zahery, N; Battaglia, V; MacCioni, L; Triantaphyllidis, C et al. (2004). "Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area". American Journal of Human Genetics 74 (5): 1023–34. doi:10.1086/386295. PMC 1181965. PMID 15069642. - Lancaster, Andrew (2009). "Y Haplogroups, Archaeological Cultures and Language Families: a Review of the Multidisciplinary Comparisons using the case of E-M35". Journal of Genetic Genealogy 5 (1). Further reading - Bailey, Douglass. (2000). Balkan Prehistory: Exclusions, Incorporation and Identity. Routledge Publishers. ISBN 0-415-21598-6. - Bailey, Douglass. (2005). Prehistoric Figurines: Representation and Corporeality in the Neolithic. Routledge Publishers. ISBN 0-415-33152-8. - Balter, Michael (2005). The Goddess and the Bull: Catalhoyuk, An Archaeological Journey to the Dawn of Civilization. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-4360-9. - Bellwood, Peter. (2004). First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-20566-7 - Bocquet-Appel, Jean-Pierre, editor and Ofer Bar-Yosef, editor, The Neolithic Demographic Transition and its Consequences, Springer (October 21, 2008), hardcover, 544 pages, ISBN 1402085389 Template:ISBN-13978-1402085383, trade paperback and Kindle editions are also available. - Cohen, Mark Nathan (1977)The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02016-3. - Diamond, Jared (1999). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York: Norton Press. ISBN 0-393-31755-2. - Diamond, Jared (2002). "Evolution, Consequences and Future of Plant and Animal Domestication". Nature, Vol 418. - Harlan, Jack R. (1992). Crops & Man: Views on Agricultural Origins ASA, CSA, Madison, WI. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/history/lecture03/r_3-1.html - Wright, Gary A. (1971). "Origins of Food Production in Southwestern Asia: A Survey of Ideas" Current Anthropology, Vol. 12, No. 4/5 (Oct.–Dec., 1971), pp. 447–477 - Bartmen, Jeff M. (2008). Disease. - House of Anansi Press page for the book[dead link] - CBC Radio, Ideas, page on the Massey Lectures 2004 also includes streaming audio of Chapter 1 of 5[dead link] - Chapter I - Gauguin's Questions - Stu’s Notes #11 a useful summary of many selected passages from the book - Civilization is a Pyramid Scheme an online copy of Wright's earlier short article - Chapter I podcast at http://www.radio4all.net (note this site is notoriously unreliable but it does come back up eventually) - Chapter II podcast at http://www.radio4all.net - An Interview with Ronald Wright, April 10, 2005, EcoTalk on Air America podcast at http://www.radio4all.net - Evidence for food storage and predomestication granaries 11,000 years ago in the Jordan Valley . - Co-Creators How our ancestors used Artificial Section during the Neolithic Revolution

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Gasthof & Metzgerei Zur Einkehr Wikipedia:The Rhine–Main–Danube Canal (German: Rhein-Main-Donau-Kanal; also called Main-Danube Canal,... Sunset at carp pond Erlangen is a Middle Franconian city in Bavaria, Germany. It is located at the confluence of the river Regnitz and its large tributary, the Untere Schwabach. Erlangen has more than 100,000 inhabitants. Erlangen is today dominated by the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg and the numerous branch offices of Siemens AG, as well as a large Institute of the Fraunhofer Society. An event that still influences the city was the settlement of Huguenots after the withdrawal of the Edict of Nantes in 1685.

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Great Copper Mountain was a mine in Falun Falun is a city and the seat of Falun Municipality in Dalarna County, Sweden, with 36,447 inhabitants in 2005. It is also the capital of Dalarna County... Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund.... , that operated for a millennium A millennium is a period of time equal to one thousand years —from the Latin phrase , thousand, and , year—often but not necessarily related numerically to a particular dating system.... from the 10th century to 1992. It produced as much as two thirds of Europe's copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish... needs and helped fund many of Sweden's wars in the 17th century. Technological developments at the mine had a profound influence on mining globally for two centuries. Since 2001 it has been designated a Unesco world heritage site as well as a museum. There are no written accounts establishing exactly when mining operations at the Great Copper Mountain began. Archaeological Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of human society, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes... Geology is the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which it evolves. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth, as it provides the primary evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates... studies indicate, with considerable uncertainty, that mining operations started sometime around the year 1000. The mine was definitely operating by 1080, but no significant activities had begun before 850. Objects from the 10th century have been found containing copper from the mine. In the beginning, operations were of a small scale, with local farmers gathering ore, smelting Smelting is a form of extractive metallurgy; its main use is to produce a metal from its ore. This includes iron extraction from iron ore, and copper extraction and other base metals from their ores... it, and using the metal for household needs. Around the time of Magnus III of Sweden Magnus III Ladulås of Sweden, Swedish: Magnus Birgersson or Magnus Ladulås was King of Sweden from 1275 until his death in 1290.... , King of Sweden from 1275 to 1290, a more professional operation began to take place. Nobles and foreign merchants from Lübeck The Hanseatic City of Lübeck is the second-largest city in Schleswig-Holstein, in northern Germany, and one of the major ports of Germany. It was for several centuries the "capital" of the Hanseatic League and, because of its Brick Gothic architectural heritage, is listed by UNESCO as a World... had taken over from farmers. The merchants transported and sold the copper in Europe, but also influenced the operations and developed the methods and technology used for mining. The first written document about the mine is from 1288. It records that, in exchange for an estate, the Bishop of Västerås acquired a 12.5% interest in the mine. By the mid 14th century, the mine had grown into a vital national resource and a large part of the revenues for the Swedish state in the coming centuries would be from the mine. The then King, Magnus IV of Sweden Magnus Eriksson as Magnus IV was king of Sweden , including Finland, as Magnus VII King of Norway , including Iceland and Greenland, and also ruled Scania . He has also vindictively been called Magnus Smek... , visited the area personally and drafted a charter for mining operations, ensuring the financial interest of the sovereign. The principal method for extracting copper was heating the rock via large fires, known as fire-setting Fire-setting is a method of mining used since prehistoric times up to the Middle Ages. Fires were set against a rock face to heat the stone, which was then doused with water... . When the rock cooled down, it would become brittle and crack, allowing manual tools such as wedges and sledge hammers to be brought to bear. After the ore had been transported out of the mine it was roasted to reduce sulfur content in open hearth In common historic and modern usage, a hearth is a brick- or stone-lined fireplace or oven often used for cooking and/or heating. For centuries, the hearth was considered an integral part of a home, often its central or most important feature... s. The thick, poisonous smoke produced would be a distinguishing feature of the Falun area for centuries. After the roasting, the ore was smelted; the output of which was a copper rich material. The cycle of roasting and smelting was repeated several times until crude copper was produced. This was the final output from the mine; further refinement took place at copper refineries elsewhere. This process was used without any major change for seven centuries, until the end of the 19th century. It is likely that the methods and technology for fire setting and drainage were imported from German mines, such as in the Harz Mountains. The organizational structure An organizational structure consists of activities such as task allocation, coordination and supervision, which are directed towards the achievement of organizational aims. It can also be considered as the viewing glass or perspective through which individuals see their organization and its... of the Great Copper Mountain created under the 1347 charter A charter is the grant of authority or rights, stating that the granter formally recognizes the prerogative of the recipient to exercise the rights specified... was advanced for its time. Free miners owned shares of the operation, proportional to their ownership of copper smelters. The structure was precursor to modern joint stock companies, and Stora Enso Stora Enso Oyj is a Finnish pulp and paper manufacturer, formed by the merger of Swedish mining and forestry products company Stora and Finnish forestry products company Enso-Gutzeit Oy in 1998. It is headquartered in Helsinki, and it has approximately 29,000 employees... , the modern successor to the old mining company, is often referred to as the oldest company still operational in the world. In the 17th century, production capacity peaked. During this time, the output from the mine was used to fund expansionary politics of Sweden during its great power era. The Privy Council of Sweden The High Council of Sweden or Council of the Realm consisted originally of those men of noble, common and clergical background, that the king saw fit for advisory service... referred to the mine as the nation's treasury and stronghold. The point of maximum production occurred in 1650, with over 3,000 tonnes of copper produced. The mountain had been mined for nearly half a millennium towards the end of its golden era. Production had intensified in the preceding decades, and by 1687 the rock was crisscrossed by numerous shafts and cave-ins were not unusual. Great effort went into producing maps of the mine for navigation, but there was no overall organization nor any estimation of the strength of the mountain. In the summer of 1687, great rumblings could be heard regularly from the mountain. On Midsummer's Eve of that year, the dividing wall between the main pits and the foundations gave way, and a significant portion of the mine collapsed. This could easily have become a great catastrophe, killing and trapping the hundreds of men working in the mine, had it not occurred on Midsummer's Eve, one of the two days of the year which the miners were not working (the other being Christmas). Life in the mine Fires were lit at the end of the day to heat the ore and allowed to burn through the night. The next morning the fires would be put out and the ore broken loose. In this manner, the miners could advance about 1 m (3 ft) per month. The miners working the fires and breaking the rock were the best paid and most skilled. Hand barrows were used to transport the broken ore, in relays of about 20 m (65.6 ft) with multiple teams working long distances. This was usually the work newcomers were assigned to prove themselves. The work was hard and the mines very hot from the constant fires so it was not surprising that the miners were good customers of local drinking establishments. Drunkenness was considered quite normal for miners. Carl Linnaeus visited the mine and produced a vivid description of the life of the miners. He described that the miners climbed rickety ladders with sweat pouring from their bodies like "water from a bath" . He continued: "The Falun mine is one of the great wonders of Sweden but as horrible as hell itself" . Linnaeus' description of the environment the miners worked in is as follows: "Soot and darkness surrounded them on all sides. Stones, gravel, corrosive vitriol, drips, smoke, fumes, heat, dust, were everywhere" Sweden had a virtual monopoly on copper which it retained throughout the 17th century. The only other country with a comparable copper output was Japan Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south... , but European imports from Japan were insignificant. In 1690, Erik Odhelius, a prominent metallurgist, was dispatched by the King to survey the European metal market. Although copper production had already begun to decline by the time he made his report, something Odhelius made no secret of, he still stated "For the production of copper Sweden has always been like a mother, and although in many places within and without Europe some copper is extracted it counts for nothing next to the abundance of Swedish copper." But by modern standards, the production was not large. The peak production barely reached 3,000 tonnes of copper, falling to less than 2,000 tonnes by 1665 and from 1710–1720 it was barely 1,000 tonnes per year. Present worldwide copper production is near 15 million tons Peak copper is the point in time at which the maximum global copper production rate is reached. Since copper is a finite resource, at some point in the future new production from within the earth will diminish, and at some earlier time production will reach a maximum. When this will occur is a... Copper production was declining during the 18th century and the mining company began diversifying. It supplemented the copper extraction with iron and timber production. Production of the iconic falu red Falu red or Falun red is the name of a Swedish, deep red paint well known for its use on wooden cottages and barns. The paint originated from the copper mine at Falun in Dalarna, Sweden. The traditional colour remains popular today due to its effectiveness in preserving wood. In Finland, it is... paint began in earnest. In the 19th century, iron and forest products continued to grow their importance. In 1881 gold was discovered in the Great Copper Mountain, resulting in a short-lived gold rush. A total of 5 tonnes of gold would eventually be produced. But there was no escaping the fact that the mine was no longer economically viable. On December 8, 1992 the last shot was fired in the mine and all commercial mining ceased. Today the mine is owned by the Stora Kopparberget foundation which operates the museum and tours. In 2001 the Great Copper Mountain was selected as a UNESCO World Heritage site, one of 12 in Sweden. In addition to the mine itself, the world heritage area also covers the town of Falun, including 17th century miners’ cottages residential areas and Bergsmansbygden, a wider area which the free miners settled and often built estates mirroring their wealth. The museum has around 100,000 visitors per year. It displays the history of mining at the Great Copper Mountain through the centuries; including production of minerals, models of machinery, tools and the people at the mine. It also has a large collection of portraits, starting from the 17th century, of significant people at the mine.

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Science Fair Project Encyclopedia He had a natural talent for journalism and the stage, and, at twenty-six, retired Irons less congenial business to devote himself to the writing of plays. More than sixty of his melodramas, operettas and comedies were produced in London. At the same time he contributed to a variety of magazines and newspapers, and founded and edited the Field. In 1841 Lemon and Henry Mayhew conceived the idea of a humorous weekly paper to be called Punch, and when the first number was issued, in July 1841, were joint-editors and, with the printer and engraver, equal owners. The paper was for some time unsuccessful, Lemon keeping it alive out of the profits of his plays. On the sale of Punch Lemon became sole editor for the new proprietors, and it remained under his control until, his death, achieving remarkable popularity and influence. Lemon was an actor of ability, a pleasing lecturer and a successful impersonator of Shakespearian characters. He also wrote a host of novelettes and lyrics, over a hundred songs, a few three-volume novels, several Christmas fairy tales and a volume of jests. He died at Crawley, Sussex , on the 23rd of May 1870. The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

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Alleged Discrepancies and the Flood Name a Bible subject that has been scoffed at or ridiculed more than the account of the Noahic Flood. Name a topic that has borne the brunt of more jokes, or that the unbeliever has used more often to poke fun at the Bible, than Noah’s ark. Likely it would be difficult to find any Bible subject that has received more derision in modern times, or has been the subject of more mockery than the story recorded in Genesis 6-9. The biblical account of the great Flood is one of the more prominent stories in Scripture, with more space allotted to it in the book of Genesis than to the creation of “the heavens, and the earth, the sea, and all that is in them” (Exodus 20:11; Genesis 1-2). Four of the first nine chapters of Genesis are devoted to the record of Noah, his immediate family, and the Flood. We know more about the Flood than any other event (recorded in Holy Writ) from approximately the first 2,000 years of man’s existence on Earth. What’s more, there are several New Testament references to Noah and the Flood (Matthew 24:37-39; Luke 17:26-27; Hebrews 11:7; 1 Peter 3:20; 2 Peter 2:5). Yet, the account of Noah, his ark, and the great Flood has been, and still is, a favorite target of Bible critics. More than a century ago, renowned American agnostic Robert Ingersoll penned his infamous book titled Some Mistakes of Moses. Regarding Noah’s ark and the Flood, he wrote: “Volumes might be written upon the infinite absurdity of this most incredible, wicked and foolish of all fables contained in that repository of the impossible, called the Bible. To me it is a matter of amazement, that it ever was for a moment believed by any intelligent human being” (1879, p. 155). In more recent times, evolutionist Douglas Futuyma asked: “Can you believe that any grown man or woman with the slightest knowledge of biology, geology, physics, or any science at all, not to speak of plain and simple common sense, can conceivably believe this? (1983, p. 203). In that same year, skeptic Dennis McKinsey, the one-time editor of the journal Biblical Errancy (touted as “the only national periodical focusing on biblical errors”), argued that there is a “large number of contradictions between biblical verses with respect to what occurred” in Genesis 6-9 (1983a, p. 1, emp. added). Furthermore, McKinsey has alleged there also exist a “great number of difficulties, impossibilities, and unanswered questions accompanying the biblical account” of the Flood (p. 1). Before answering some of the alleged problems with the Flood and Noah’s ark, one must first recognize that we are addressing four chapters of the Bible that involve the prevailing power of an omnipotent God Who performed various supernatural feats. Although a skeptic might consider any mention of the miraculous in connection with the Flood as an untenable defense by a Bible believer, the simple truth is that Genesis 6-9 makes it clear that God worked several miracles during the Flood. Just as God worked miracles prior to the Flood (e.g., creating the world and everything in it—Genesis 1-2), and just as He worked miracles after the Flood (e.g., confusing the language of all the Earth—Genesis 11:1-9), He performed wonders during the Flood. As John Whitcomb noted in his book The World That Perished: “A careful analysis of the relevant exegetical data reveals at least six areas in which supernaturalism is clearly demanded in the doctrine of the Flood” (1988, p. 21). What are these areas? “(1) [T]he divinely-revealed design of the Ark; (2) the gathering and care of the animals; (3) the uplift of the oceanic waters from beneath; (4) the release of waters from above; (5) the formation of our present ocean basins; and (6) the formation of our present continents and mountain ranges” (p. 21; cf. 2 Peter 3:4ff.). The fact is, “one cannot have any kind of a Genesis Flood without acknowledging the presence of supernatural powers” (Whitcomb and Morris, 1961, p. 76). Thus, certain “difficulties, impossibilities, and unanswered questions accompanying the biblical account” (McKinsey, 1983a, p. 1) of the Flood may be explained sufficiently simply by acknowledging God’s supernatural involvement. However, apologists do not have to appeal to an “endless supplying of miracles to make a universal flood feasible,” as Bernard Ramm suggested (1954, p. 167). In truth, many of the alleged contradictions and proposed absurdities involving Noah and the Flood are logically explained by an honest and serious study of the Scriptures. ADEQUATE ARK OR DEFICIENT DINGHY? One of the most frequently criticized parts of the biblical account of the Flood involves the size of Noah’s ark and the number of animals that lived in the vessel during the Flood. Allegedly, “[T]he ark...was far too small to be able to contain the earth’s millions of...animal species” (Wells, 2008). Another critic asked: “How could two of every animal survive for approximately 10 months on a boat encompassing 1,518,750 cubic feet. The food alone would absorb tremendous space” (McKinsey, 1983a, p. 1). In a document titled “Biblical Absurdities,” infidel.org board member Donald Morgan wrote: “The size of Noah’s Ark was such that there would be about one and a half cubic feet for each pair of the 2,000,000 to 5,000,000 species to be taken aboard” (2008). Even one of the evolutionary scientists interviewed in Ben Stein’s recent documentary, Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed, mocked the Bible’s account of Noah housing all of the various kinds of land animals on the ark (2008). All of these criticisms beg the question, “Was Noah’s vessel an adequate ark or a deficient dinghy?” Adapted from an Image courtesy of Vance Nelson, CreationTruthMinistries.org First, contrary to popular belief, the Bible does not teach that Noah took aboard the ark two of every species of animal on Earth. The Hebrew term used in the Flood account (as in the Creation account) to distinguish animals is min (translated “kind” 10 times in Genesis 1 and seven times in Genesis 6-7). The Bible was written long before man invented the Linnaean classification system. The “kinds” of animals that Adam named on the sixth day of Creation and that accompanied Noah on the ark were likely very broad. As Henry Morris observed: “[T]he created kinds undoubtedly represented broader categories than our modern species or genera, quite possibly approximating in most cases the taxonomic family” (1984, p. 129, emp. added). Instead of Noah taking aboard the ark two of the brown bears species (Ursus arctos), two of the polar bear species (Ursus maritimus), two of the American black bear species (Ursus americanus), etc., he could have simply taken two members of the bear family (Ursidae), which could have possessed enough genetic variety so that bears thousands of years later could look significantly different. Even in recent times scientists have learned of a polar bear and brown bear producing an offspring. Some have tagged the bear with the name “pizzly,” in order to reflect its “polar” and “grizzly” heritage (see Wittmeyer, 2007). Truly, “[i]t is unwarranted to insist that all the present species, not to mention all the varieties and sub-varieties of animals in the world today, were represented in the Ark” (Whitcomb and Morris, 1961, p. 67). Still, even after analyzing the number of birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians proposed by evolutionary taxonomist Ernst Mayr, Whitcomb and Morris concluded that “there was need for no more than 35,000 individual vertebrate animals on the Ark,” plus the small, non-marine arthropods and worms (1961, p. 69). Needless to say, the “2,000,000 to 5,000,000 species” proposed by Donald Morgan is grossly overstated. Second, supposing that the cubit in Noah’s day was 17.5 inches (a most conservative “cubit” considering the Egyptian cubit, the Mesopotamian cubit, and the “long” cubit of Ezekiel 40:5 all exceeded this measurement by two inches; see Free and Vos, 1992, pp. 38-39), then Noah’s ark would have been at the very least 437.5 feet long, 72.92 feet wide, and 43.75 feet high. “[T]he available floor space of this three-decked barge was over 95,000 square feet,” the equivalent of slightly more than 20 standard basketball courts, “and its total volume was 1,396,000 cubic feet” (Whitcomb, 1988, p. 25), which means “the Ark had a carrying capacity equal to that of 522 standard stock cars as used by modern railroads” (Whitcomb and Morris, 1961, pp. 67-68). What’s more, “if 240 animals of the size of sheep could be accommodated in a standard two-decked stock car,” then 35,000 animals could be housed in less than 150 such cars (p. 69), which is less than 30% of the ark’s total capacity. Suffice it to say, “[T]he dimensions of the Ark were sufficiently great to accomplish its intended purpose of saving alive the thousands of kinds of air-breathing creatures that could not otherwise survive a year-long Flood” (Whitcomb, 1988, p. 25). [NOTE: God likely allowed Noah to take young animals into the ark, instead of those that were fully grown, in order to save space and reduce the amount of necessary food. It also would have meant that, on average, the animals would have lived longer and produced even more offspring after the Flood.] THE “WINDOW” OF THE ARK After informing Noah about an upcoming worldwide flood, and commanding him to build a massive boat of gopher wood, God instructed His faithful servant, saying, “You shall make a window for the ark, and you shall finish it to a cubit from above” (Genesis 6:16, emp. added). Upon reading about this window in Noah’s ark, many have challenged its usefulness. Since, historically, windows have served two basic purposes (lighting and ventilation), inquiring minds want to know what good one window, about 18 inches square, would be on an ark with a capacity of roughly 1,400,000 cubic feet, occupied by thousands of animals. Dennis McKinsey has asked: “How could so many creatures breathe with only one small opening which was closed for at least 190 days?” (1983a, p. 1). Other skeptics also have ridiculed the idea that sufficient ventilation for the whole ark could have come through this one window (see Wells, 2008). In fact, anyone even slightly familiar with animal-house ventilation needs is taken aback by the apparent lack of airflow allowed by the ark’s design. Unless God miraculously ventilated the ark, one little window on a three-story boat, the length of which was approximately a football-field-and-a-half long, simply would not do. Questions regarding the “window” on Noah’s ark and the problem of ventilation have escalated largely because the Hebrew word translated window (tsohar) in Genesis 6:16 appears only here in the Old Testament, and linguistic scholars are unsure as to its exact meaning (see Hamilton, 1990, p. 282). Translators of the KJV and NKJV use the word “window” to translate tsohar; however, according to Old Testament commentator Victor Hamilton, they “do so on the basis of the word’s possible connection with sahorayim, ‘noon, midday,’ thus an opening to let in the light of day” (p. 282). Hebrew scholar William Gesenius defined tsohar in his Hebrew lexicon as simply “light,” and translated Genesis 6:16 as “thou shalt make light for the ark” (1847, p. 704). He then surmised that this “light” represented, not a window, but windows (plural). The ASV translators also preferred “light” as the best translation for tsohar. Still more recent translations, including the RSV, NIV, and ESV, have translated Genesis 6:16 as “[m]ake a roof” for the ark, instead of make a “window” or “light.” Such disagreement among translations is, admittedly, somewhat discouraging to the person who wants a definite answer as to how tsohar should be translated. What is clear, however, is that the word translated “window” two chapters later, which Noah is said to have “opened” (8:6), is translated from a different Hebrew word (challôwn) than what is used in Genesis 6:16. Challôwn (8:6) is the standard Hebrew word for “window” (cf. Genesis 26:8; Joshua 2:18). Yet, interestingly, this is not the word used in 6:16. One wonders if, in 8:6, Noah opened one of a plurality of aligned windows that God instructed him to make in 6:16. Another assumption often brought into a discussion regarding the “window” (tsohar) of 6:16 is that it was one square cubit. Although many people have imagined Noah’s ark as having one small window about 18 inches high by 18 inches wide, the phrase “you shall finish it to a cubit from above” (6:16, NKJV; cf. RSV) does not give the Bible reader any clear dimensions of the opening. The text just says that Noah was to “finish it to a cubit from the top” (NASB; “upward,” ASV). The simple truth is, the size of the lighting apparatus mentioned in this verse is unspecified. The text indicates only the distance the opening was from the top of the ark, rather than the actual size of the window. Thus we cannot form a definite picture of it. But, we do know that nothing in the text warrants an interpretation that the “window” was just a “small opening” (as critics allege). A more probable theory, which aligns itself appropriately with the text, is that the opening described in Genesis 6:16 extended around the ark’s circumference 18 inches from the top of the ark with an undeterminable height. According to geologist John Woodmorappe, such an opening would have provided sufficient light and ventilation for the ark (1996, pp. 37-44). [For further reading on this subject, see Woodmorappe’s book, Noah’s Ark: A Feasibility Study.] It is important to remember that many details about biblical events are not revealed to the reader. So it is with the plans for Noah’s ark. As Henry Morris commented, “It was obviously not the intention of the writer to record the complete specifications for the ark’s construction, but only enough to assure later readers that it was quite adequate for its intended purpose...‘to preserve life on the earth’” (1976, p. 182). Truly, absolute certainty regarding the openings on the ark cannot be determined. We know of an opening mentioned in Genesis 6:16 (tsohar), as well as one mentioned in 8:6 (challôwn). And, since Noah, his family, and the animals on the ark survived the Flood, it is only logical to conclude that God made proper ways to ventilate the ark in which they lived during the Flood. Although nothing in Scripture demands that those living millennia after the Flood know how it was ventilated, lighted, etc., it is very likely that God used the opening mentioned in Genesis 6:16. HOW MANY ANIMALS OF EACH KIND DID NOAH TAKE INTO THE ARK? Ask children who are even vaguely familiar with the biblical account of the Flood how many animals of each kind Noah took into the ark, and you likely will hear, “Two!” Most Bible students are familiar with the instructions recorded in Genesis 6:19 that God gave to Noah: “And of every living thing of all flesh you shall bring two of every sort into the ark, to keep them alive with you; they shall be male and female” (Genesis 6:19, emp. added; cf. 7:15). It seems that fewer people, however, are aware that God also instructed Noah, saying, “You shall take with you seven each of every clean animal, a male and his female; two each of animals that are unclean, a male and his female; also seven each of birds of the air, male and female, to keep the species alive on the face of all the earth” (Genesis 7:2-3, emp. added). According to Bible critics, these verses are contradictory. “Are clean beasts to enter by 2’s or by 7’s?” asked skeptic Dennis McKinsey (1983b, p. 1). Michelle Andrews, writing for a special 2004 collector’s edition of U.S. News and World Report, was so bothered by the differences between Genesis 6:19 and 7:2-3 that she claimed, “there are two versions of the story of Noah and the flood” in Genesis, neither of which supposedly was written by Moses (2004, p. 28). The biblical text, however, is rather easy to understand without giving up on the inspiration of Genesis, or the authorship of Moses: the clean beasts and birds entered the ark “by sevens” (KJV), while the unclean animals went into the ark by twos. There is no contradiction here. Genesis 6:19 indicates that Noah was to take “two of every sort into the ark.” Then, four verses later, God supplemented this original instruction, informing Noah in a more detailed manner, to take more of the clean animals. If a farmer told his son to take two of every kind of farm animal to the state fair, and then instructed his son to take several extra chickens and two extra pigs for a barbecue, would anyone accuse the farmer of contradicting himself? Certainly not. It was necessary for Noah to take additional clean animals because, upon his departure from the ark after the Flood, he “built an altar to the Lord, and took of every clean animal and of every clean bird, and offered burnt offerings on the altar” (Genesis 8:20). If Noah had taken only two clean animals from which to choose when sacrificing to God after departing the ark, then he would have driven the various kinds of clean beasts and birds into extinction by sacrificing one of each pair. Thus, after God told Noah to take two of every kind of animal into the ark, He then instructed him to take extras of the clean animals. Similar to how Genesis chapter 2 supplements the first chapter of Genesis by giving a more detailed account of the Creation (see Lyons, 2002), the first portion of Genesis 7 merely supplements the end of the preceding chapter, “containing several particulars of a minute description which were not embraced in the general directions first given to Noah” (Jamieson, et al., 1997). One translation difficulty, which should not trouble a person’s faith, revolves around the actual number of clean animals taken into the ark. Through the years, various Bible students have wondered whether this number was seven or fourteen (Genesis 7:2). The Hebrew phrase shibb’ah shibb’ah is translated somewhat vaguely in both the King James and American Standard versions. [According to the King James Version, clean animals were taken into the ark “by sevens” (Genesis 7:2). The American Standard Version has the clean animals taken “seven and seven.”] Newer translations are worded more clearly, but there is general disagreement among them. The New King James and New International versions both agree that Noah took seven of each clean animal into the ark, whereas the Revised Standard Version, the New English Bible, and the English Standard Version all translate shibb’ah shibb’ah to mean “seven pairs” of clean animals. Although some believe that “there can be no certainty on this point” (Willis, 1979, p. 171), H.C. Leupold argued that the Hebrew phrase shibb’ah shibb’ah “would be a most clumsy method of trying to say ‘fourteen’ (1990, 1:290). Comparing similar language within Genesis 7, Whitcomb and Morris persuasively argued: “The Hebrew phrase ‘seven and seven’ no more means fourteen than does the parallel phrase ‘two and two’ (Gen. 7:9,15) mean four!” (1961, p. 65). Still another allegation skeptics make concerning Genesis 7:2 is that “[c]lean and unclean animals were not delineated until the eleventh chapter of Leviticus. The Mosaic law arose 600 years after the Flood. There were no Jews, Israelites, or clean/unclean animals in Noah’s time” (McKinsey, 1983b, p. 1). Thus, regardless of how one answers the question concerning the number of animals on the ark, this second allegation still lingers in the minds of skeptics. Supposedly, instructions regarding clean and unclean animals were not given until hundreds of years after the Flood (see Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14). Skeptics refuse to see, however, that simply because Moses made laws concerning clean and unclean animals at a much later time than the Flood, does not mean that such rules concerning animals could not have existed prior to Moses—yes, even prior to the Flood. As commentator John Willis noted: “A law or a truth does not have to have its origin with a certain individual or religion to be a vital part of that religion or to be distinctive in that religion” (p. 170). Jesus, for example, was not the first person to teach that man needs to love God with all of his heart (cf. Deuteronomy 6:5), or that man must love his neighbor (cf. Leviticus 19:18), and his enemies (cf. Proverbs 25:21-22). Yet these teachings were central to Christ’s message (cf. Matthew 22:34-40; Matthew 5:43-48). Similarly, simply because God chose circumcision as a sign between Himself and Abraham’s descendants, does not mean that no male in the history of mankind had ever been circumcised before the circumcision of Abraham and his household (Genesis 17). What’s more, Moses wrote in the book of Leviticus years after Abraham lived: “If a woman has conceived, and borne a male child, then she shall be unclean seven days; as in the days of her customary impurity she shall be unclean. And on the eighth day the flesh of his foreskin shall be circumcised” (12:2-3, emp. added). Moses, however, was not laying down a new law. On the contrary, he knew very well what was expected from God concerning the matter of circumcision, even before he included this sort of instruction as part of Mosaic Law (read Exodus 4:24-26). For skeptics to allege that differentiation between clean and unclean animals was nonexistent prior to Moses, is totally unsubstantiated. Mankind had been sacrificing animals since the fall of man (cf. Genesis 3:20). That God had given laws concerning animal sacrifices since the time of Cain and Abel is evident from the fact that the second son of Adam was able to offer an animal sacrifice “by faith” (Hebrews 11:4; Genesis 4:4). Since “faith comes by hearing, and hearing by the word of God” (Romans 10:17), Abel must have received revelation from God on how to offer acceptable animal sacrifices. Such revelation easily could have dealt with which sacrificial animals were acceptable (“clean”), and which were unacceptable (“unclean”). Furthermore, more than 400 hundred years before Moses gave the Israelites laws differentiating clean and unclean animals, God made a covenant with Abraham concerning the land that his descendants eventually would possess (Genesis 15). Part of the “sign” that Abraham was given at that time involved the killing of a heifer, a female goat, a ram, a turtledove, and a pigeon (Genesis 15:9). “It just so happens” that all of these animals were later considered clean under the Law of Moses (cf. Leviticus 1:2,10,14). Without a doubt, the distinction between clean and unclean animals existed long before the Law of Moses was given. Although this distinction did not include all of the details and applications given by Moses (prior to the Flood the distinction seems only to have applied to the matter of animals suitable for sacrifice, not for consumption—cf. Genesis 9:2-3), animal sacrifice to God was practiced during the Patriarchal Age, and it is apparent that the faithful were able to distinguish between the clean and unclean. Noah certainly knew of the difference. HOW DID NOAH’S ARK REST ON THE MOUNTAINS OF ARARAT? In Genesis 8:4, the Bible indicates that Noah’s ark rested “on the mountains of Ararat.” This statement, like so many others in Genesis 6-9, has come under attack by critics. For example, in his two-part article on the Flood, skeptic Dennis McKinsey asked: “How could the Ark have rested upon several mountains at once?” (1983a, p. 2). Three months later, McKinsey commented on the passage again, saying, “Gen. 8:4 says ‘mountains,’ plural, not ‘a mountain,’ singular.... Apologists repeatedly say one should read the Bible as one reads a newspaper, which is what I am doing. I assume the book says what it means and means what it says” (1984, p. 3). How could the ark rest on more than one mountain? Although the ark was a huge vessel, it obviously did not rest on more than one of the mountains of Ararat. So why then does the text literally say “the mountains of Ararat?” The answer involves the understanding of a figure of speech known as synecdoche. Merriam-Webster defines this term as “a figure of speech by which a part is put for the whole (as fifty sail for fifty ships), the whole for a part (as society for high society)...or the name of the material for the thing made (as boards for stage)” (2008, italics in orig.). Just as Bible writers frequently used figures of speech such as simile, metaphor, sarcasm, and metonymy, they also used synecdoche. As seen above (in the definition of synecdoche), this figure of speech can be used in a variety of ways (see Dungan, 1888, pp. 300-309): A whole can be put for the part. A part may be put for the whole. Time might be put for part of a time period. The singular can be put for the plural. And the plural can be put for the singular. In Genesis 8:4, the plural obviously was put for the singular. Only a few chapters later this same figure of speech is used again. Sarah asked, “Who would have said to Abraham that Sarah would nurse children? For I have borne him a son in his old age” (Genesis 21:7, emp. added). Anyone who knows much about the history of the Old Testament and the genealogy of Christ knows that Sarah had but one child (Isaac). In certain contexts, however, one might use a synecdoche and speak of one child (as did Sarah) by using the word “children.” Often, when I call for the attention of my two sons and one daughter, I refer to them as “boys and girls.” I actually have only one daughter, but summoning my children with the expressions “boys and girl” or “boys and Shelby,” simply does not flow as well as “boys and girls.” Thus, I frequently use the plural (“girls”) for the singular (“Shelby”). The emphasis is not on the singularity or plurality of the nouns, but on particular categories (“boys” and “girls”). Another apparent example where Bible writers used “the whole for the part” or “the plural for the singular” is found in Matthew 27:44 and Mark 15:32. In these passages, Matthew and Mark claimed that “the robbers” (plural) who were crucified with Christ reviled Him. Luke, however, mentioned that “one of the criminals who were hanged blasphemed” Christ (23:39, emp. added). Luke then went on to document the humble attitude of the penitent thief. So why did Matthew and Mark indicate the “thieves” (plural) reviled Jesus? Although the penitent thief could have reviled Christ earlier, it is feasible that Matthew and Mark were using the plural in place of the singular in their accounts of the thief reviling Christ on the cross. The emphasis, once again, would be on a particular category, and not the number of a noun. Just as other groups reviled Christ (e.g., passers-by [Matthew 27:39], Jewish leaders [Matthew 27:41-43], and soldiers [Luke 23:36]), so did the “robbers” (Matthew 27:44; Mark 15:32)—not necessarily a plurality of robbers, but the category known as “robbers,” which included at least one thief who reviled Christ (Luke 23:39). Although skeptics may dislike the Bible writers’ use of figures of speech, if critics are honest, they must acknowledge the possibility that Moses, Paul, and others occasionally used figurative language (just as people do in modern times). Once a person recognizes the use of figures of speech (e.g., synecdoche) in Scripture, he cannot deny that a very plausible explanation for the use of “mountains” in Genesis 8:4 is that it is written in the plural form, even though it is referring to a single “mountain.” WHERE DID ALL OF THE FLOOD WATERS GO? According to evolutionist Bill Butler, “The greatest geologic fiction that the Creationists adhere to is Noah’s Flood” (2002). The idea that water ever covered the entire Earth, including the highest hills and mountains (Genesis 7:19-20), supposedly is unthinkable (and impossible). In Butler’s article, “Creationism = Willful Ignorance,” he asked: “If the earth’s surface were covered by an additional 29,000+ feet of water, how do you get rid of it?” If Mount Everest reaches a height of over 29,000 feet, then the Bible allegedly indicates that the Flood waters reached even higher—approximately 23 feet higher than the peak of Mount Everest (Genesis 7:20). If such is the case, where did all of the water go? First, the Bible is more specific about Who caused the waters to subside, than where exactly all of the waters went. Moses wrote: “God made a wind to pass over the earth, and the waters subsided.... And the waters receded continually from the earth” (Genesis 8:1,3). Years later, the prophet Isaiah recorded how Jehovah compared a promise He made to Israel with His promise “that the waters of Noah would no longer cover the earth” (Isaiah 54:9). Although these passages do not tell us exactly where the waters went, for the person who believes that God worked several miracles during the Flood, it is reasonable to conclude that God did something with the Flood waters. Second, the skeptic’s assertion (that there presently is not enough water on the Earth for there ever to have been the kind of flood described in Genesis 6-8) is based upon invalid assumptions. The truth is, no one knows the height of the mountains or the depth of the ocean valleys in Noah’s day. Thus, one cannot know how much water was on the Earth during the Noahic Flood. Psalm 104:6-8 indicates that, at some time in the past, God established new heights and depths for the Earth’s mountains and valleys. Directing his comments to Jehovah, the psalmist proclaimed: You covered it [the Earth—EL] with the deep as with a garment; the waters were standing above the mountains. At Your rebuke they fled, at the sound of Your thunder they hurried away. The mountains rose; the valleys sank down to the place which You established for them” (NASB, emp. added). Just as God miraculously altered the Earth’s topography during the Creation week (Genesis 1:9-13), and just as He miraculously sent flood waters upon the Earth, God miraculously caused the waters to subside. In all likelihood, the antediluvian world was vastly different from the Earth of today (cf. 2 Peter 3:6). It is reasonable to believe that the mountains of Noah’s day were much smaller than such peaks as Mount Everest or Mount McKinley that are so well known to us. Thus, the Flood would not have had to rise to levels of 29,000+ feet to cover everything on the Earth. According to the Scriptures, the waters rose above the mountaintops; however, we simply cannot know the heights reached by the antediluvian mountains. (Interestingly, marine fossils have been found in the Himalayas; see “Mt. Everest,” n.d.) In an attempt to defend his criticism of the Noahic Flood, and to discredit anyone who would argue that the Earth’s topography after the Flood was likely very different than it was before the Flood, Butler suggested the following. First, he emphatically states that, since “[t]he Tigris/Euphrates valley existed in its present form before the flood,” the topography of the Earth could not have changed that much during (and after) the Flood. Second, he argued that “the text specifically states the flood covered ‘all the high mountains.’ If the mountains were low at this time, the word ‘high’ would not be used” (2002). Notice, however, the faulty reasoning involved in both points Butler made. First, there is no proof that “The Tigris/Euphrates valley existed in its present form before the flood.” In fact, according to Genesis 2:10-14, there was one river that went out of Eden that then parted and became four rivers. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers of today, however, do not branch from a common source, but flow from separate sources in the Armenian mountains. The rivers of the same name in Genesis 2 are different from those that exist today by the same name. (It is very possible that the people who left the ark, as well as their descendants, used familiar names for the new rivers they found.) Second, simply because Genesis 7:19-20 stresses that the Flood waters covered “all the high hills/mountains” (emp. added), does not mean these mountains could not have been somewhat lower than the mountains of today. Butler stated: “If the mountains were low at this time, the word ‘high’ would not be used” (emp. added). On what basis does he make such an assertion? If in a particular class of dwarfs, some were taller than others, could we not speak of certain “tall dwarfs” in his class? Who is to say that we could not use the word “tall” when speaking of a few particular dwarfs who might be much taller than the rest of the class? Similarly, just because Genesis 7:19-20 uses the word “high,” does not mean that the antediluvian mountains were at their current height. Truthfully, however tall the mountains were before the Flood, some were “higher” than others, and thus could be referred to as the “high mountains.” Third, Butler wrote: “Water is less dense than the rock of the earth’s surface. Thus it would not drain down below the surface. Even if you forced it down, where is it? No oil or gas well has ever hit a subterranean ocean 29,000+ feet thick” (2002). As is often the case with Bible critics, time is not their friend. Repeatedly throughout history, time has helped exonerate Bible writers. Whether it is archaeologists finding remains of a particular biblical people, which critics once alleged never existed (e.g., the Hittites; cf. Butt, 2002), or scientists finally learning why the eighth day of a child’s life would have been the perfect day to perform circumcision (cf. Genesis 17:11; Holt and McIntosh, 1953, p. 126), again and again time has turned out to be a friend of the Bible and a foe to the ever-changing theories of man (cf. Harrub and Thompson, 2002). Consider Butler’s comments. He confidently asserted that the Flood waters would be unable to “drain down below the surface.” He then asked, “even if you forced it [the Flood water—EL] down, where is it?” Apparently, in 2002, no one knew about great amounts of water below the crust layer of the Earth. With the passing of time, however, scientists have learned differently. Livescience.com staff writer Ker Than reported that “[s]cientists scanning the deep interior of Earth have found evidence of a vast water reservoir beneath eastern Asia that is at least the volume of the Arctic Ocean” (2007, emp. added). “The discovery,” Ker Than added, “marks the first time such a large body of water was found in the planet’s deep mantle” (2007, emp. added). Butler criticized the biblical Flood account because the Flood waters supposedly “would not drain below the surface” of the Earth, yet a large amount of water has been discovered “in the planet’s deep mantle.” What’s more, “researchers estimate that up to 0.1 percent of the rock sinking down into the Earth’s mantle in that part of the world [eastern Asia—EL] is water” (Than). Once again, time has become the foe of the Bible’s critics. Although no one can be certain what happened to all of the water that once flooded the Earth, it is very possible that God sent some of it to reside “in the planet’s deep mantle.” Regardless, it is unreasonable to reject the Genesis Flood account because one assumes the Flood waters could not have relocated beneath the Earth’s crust. One wonders how Flood critics will react to news of a “vast water reservoir beneath eastern Asia.” Where did all of the Flood waters go? The most logical answer in light of the Scriptures appears to be that God made room for the waters by adjusting the Earth’s topography. Much of the water from the Flood likely has retreated into the deeper ocean trenches—valleys that, in places, are over seven miles deep. What’s more, some (or perhaps much of it) may very well be under the Earth’s crust. Skeptic Dennis McKinsey wrote that “[a]nyone believing in the Flood must provide rational answers to...questions” (1983a, p. 1) regarding Noah’s ark, the number of clean and unclean on the ark, where the ark eventually rested, what happened to all of the Flood waters, etc. The fact is, “rational answers” do exist to these questions and many others. Given adequate time and tools (beginning with the Bible), an apologist can reasonably counter any and all criticisms of the Flood and Noah’s ark. Andrews, Michelle (2004), “Author, Author?” U.S. News & World Report—Special Collector’s Edition, Fall, pp. 28-29. Butler, Bill (2002), “Creationism = Willful Ignorance,” [On-line], URL: http://www.durangobill.com/Creationism.html. Butt, Kyle (2002), “Hidden Hittites,” [On-line], URL: http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/1750. Dungan, D.R. (1888), Hermeneutics (Delight, AR: Gospel Light, reprint). Free, Joseph P. and Howard F. Vos (1992), Archaeology and Bible History (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan). Futuyma, Douglas J. (1983), Science on Trial: The Case for Evolution (New York: Pantheon). Gesenius, William (1847), Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1979 reprint). Hamilton, Victor P. (1990), The Book of Genesis: Chapters 1-17 (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans). Harrub, Brad and Bert Thompson (2002), “No Missing Links Here...,” Reason & Revelation, May, 1:20-R, [On-line], URL: http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/2509. Holt, L.E. and R. McIntosh (1953), Holt Pediatrics (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts), 12th edition. Ingersoll, Robert (1879), Some Mistakes of Moses (Buffalo, NY: Prometheus, 1986 reprint). Jamieson, Robert, et al. (1997), Jamieson, Fausset, Brown Bible Commentary (Electronic Database: Biblesoft). Leupold, H.C. (1990 reprint), Exposition of Genesis (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker). Lyons, Eric (2002), “Did God Create Animals or Man First?” [On-line], URL: http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/513. McKinsey, Dennis (1983a), “Commentary,” Biblical Errancy, pp. 1-2, November. McKinsey, Dennis (1983b), “Commentary,” Biblical Errancy, pp. 1-2, December. McKinsey, Dennis (1984), “Letters to the Editor,” Biblical Errancy, p. 3, February. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (2008), [On-line], URL: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary. Morgan, Donald (2008), “Bible Absurdities,” The Secular Web, [On-line], URL: http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/donald_morgan/absurd.html. Morris, Henry (1976), The Genesis Record (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker). Morris, Henry (1984), The Biblical Basis for Modern Science (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker). “Mt. Everest” (no date), Earth Observatory, [On-line], URL: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=15300. Ramm, Bernard (1954), The Christian View of Science and Scripture (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans). Stein, Ben and Kevin Miller (2008), Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed (Premise Media). Than, Ker (2007), “Huge ‘Ocean’ Discovered Inside Earth,” LiveScience.com, [On-line], URL: http://www.livescience.com/environment/070228_beijing_anomoly.html. Wells, Steve (2008), Skeptic’s Annotated Bible, [On-line], URL: http://www.Skepticsannotatedbible.com. Whitcomb, John C. (1988), The World That Perished (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker), second edition. Whitcomb, John C. and Henry M. Morris (1961 reprint), The Genesis Flood (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker). Willis, John T. (1979), Genesis (Austin, TX: Sweet). Wittmeyer, Alicia P.Q. (2007), “Rare Hybrid Bear Coming to Reno Hunting Show,” Associated Press, January 19, [On-line], URL: http://www.tahoedailytribune.com/article/20070119/REGION/101190071. Woodmorappe, John (1996), Noah’s Ark: A Feasibility Study (Santee, CA: Institute for Creation Research).

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1. ARCO's Computerized Testing Equipment 2. Battery Facts 3. Corrosion Protection 4. Causes of Starter Failure 5. How to Determine Starter Rotation 6. Drive Gear Facts 7. Tilt Trim Motor Tips 8. Alternator Tips 9. Charging Systems 10. Battery Isolator Circuits 11. Voltage and Recommended Wire Sizes 12. Solenoid Types, Circuits and Testing The more you know and understand a marine electrical system, the easier it will be to diagnose and solve problems. For this reason we have included numerous pages in our catalog addressing common problems facing today's marine electrical technician.

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Animal Species:Green Tree Frog The Green Tree Frog is a familiar frog to many Australians and is the most popular species of pet frog overseas. Green Tree Frogs are one of the largest Australian frogs. The scientific name caerulea means 'blue', which was the colour of the specimen that arrived in London in 1790. The alcohol preservation may have altered the frog's true colour, fooling the early scientists. Nevertheless sometimes blue individuals are found that lack the yellow pigment and, much more rarely, yellow individuals that lack the blue pigment. Green Tree Frogs are one of the most widespread of Australia's amphibians, found in all states except Victoria and Tasmania. Green Tree Frogs live in urban areas, forests and woodlands, wetlands and heath. They have a habit of taking up residence in and around suburban houses, around shower blocks and water tanks. Feeding and Diet Green Tree Frogs sometimes sit beneath outside lights at night to catch insects that are attracted to the light, but they are also capable of taking larger prey on the ground, including mice. They have also been recorded catching bats around cave entrances. The call of a Green Tree Frog is like a 'crawk...crawk....crawk'. The Green Tree Frog population, like many frogs, has also suffered a decline over recent years. The species is long-lived and the oldest recorded captive frog died at 23 years of age. Because of this longevity the population decline went unnoticed for several years. Adults are still seen and heard regularly but young frogs are becoming scarce.

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Human Anatomy, Physiology, and Medicine. Anything human! 12 posts • Page 1 of 1 I read an article that was brought to me by my cousin. It was stated there that HIV is the virus that is calculated by its behavior but has never been photographed nor physically spotted in any other way. Here is a brief summary of that article transladed by me from Russian. (sorry for my mistakes if there are any) "Immunodeficiency virus has never been found. Given that no one denies that AIDS has been known for more than 40 years, it causes the most serious diseases: from pneumonia to tuberculosis, etc.) However, the hypothesis that the disease is responsible for the spread of HIV is not scientifically confirmed. This implies another interesting consequence. As you know, in order to make a diagnostic test for a virus you need a protein extracted from a particular virus. But if there is no virus, there is no protein and its derivatives. All existing tests for HIV are not performed in this manner, they do not diagnose the virus itself, but merely trying to guess the existence of immunodeficiency itself but that is not the same thing. Accordingly, the test gives a positive result in all cases with a sharp decline in immunity." I was wondering if there are any ideas??? Medical diagnostics of HIV relies on detection of the viral proteins as well as nucleic acids (here RNA), so that alone should pretty clearly indicate that there is a virus and that it has been identified. Also, detecting specific antibodies in the patient's blood gives indirect evidence of the virus. Furthermore, multiple electron microscope images of HIV exist, pick your favourite microbiology textbook or some reliable (university/research centre) microbiology web site and have a look. HIV or its fragments can be isolated from AIDS positive patients, and HIV positive persons almost invariably develop AIDS at some stage, although proper medication can delay that for decades. People suffering from AIDS can infect other people, who then become HIV positive and later develop AIDS. There is nothing in HIV that would make it so special that it couldn't be diagnosed or visualised in a similar way many other viruses are. There is a lot of more evidence of HIV and its relationship to AIDS than there is for many other viruses and their respective diseases. To be honest, I don't know what the hell the author of that "article" is trying to say or achieve, but sounds like they're either completely clueless or try deliberately confuse people who do not know much about the given disease... Last edited by biohazard on Thu Dec 04, 2008 3:31 pm, edited 2 times in total. Well, just crossed my mind... from what year that article was? I mean, if it's 2008 or so then it's just bullshit. But if it's like 1986 or something this is a completely another story There's an article with pretty much similar claims (mostly referring to articles from -97 to -99 or so): There's a lot of room for nitpicking here: certain people claim that HIV hasn't been "found" if the whole viral particles can only be found from cell/virus cultures and not from the blood of the patients. I'm not sure why they insist on isolating complete viral particles from the blood in the first place, since viral proteins & nucleic acids pretty clearly indicate the existence of the virus. Furthermore, the virus can be readily isolated from the white blood cells where it replicates. For most of the time during the infection, the amount of the actual virus in the plasma is small, but it does exist in the plasma and can be detected from there. Maybe the tests 10-15 years ago indeed were as poor as claimed in this article, but I can assure you that for example my colleagues do HIV testing almost daily in the building next to me, and their systems are extremely reliable in detecting the presence of the virus itself, as well as its direct link to AIDS. Although you shouldn't blindly believe in anything, you should still consider what are the odds if 1 scientist claims that there is no HI virus and the tests target something completely different, and then there are 9999 scientists who have carefully studied the virus and its diagnostics for decades and agree that the current tests reliably do what they are said to do. If you have any doubts, I suggest you read e.g. Janeway's Immunobiology (7th edition, 2008) by Murphy, Travers & Walport and read the chapter concerning HIV. It's very comprehensive and well-written, and pretty damn clearly explains the existence of the virus (even with pictures of the virus itself ) Yes i agree!! But still... which are the chances of a wrong "HIV positive diagnosis" by the "indirect evidence". Other viruses might have viral proteins, nucleic acids and RNA. I still did not share the idea of this article from the first place but today i found this link from a different forum. So, this article was written by AIDS dinialists and here is a source from wiki http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS_denialism Well, it seems every broadly accepted theories have people who doubt them, be it AIDS, evolution, vaccination safety or whatever. To a certain degree this is good, because the fact that a lot of people believe in something does not guarantee that something is so. After all, everybody thought the Earth was flat less than a millennium ago. Or as a more recent example, only a few decades ago any scientist or physician who would have claimed that gastric ulcers were caused by bacteria would have been laughed at and even endangered their career, until one Barry Marshall actually ate a culture of Helicobacter pylori in order to prove the sceptics that it were bacteria, not stress or spicy food that actually caused the ulcers. This being said, whilst certain amount of scepticism is okay, refusing to look at an overwhelming amount of scientific facts isn't okay, it is stupid. Wrong negative HIV test results may happen in certain very rare cases, and even these are usually double checked. False positive results with modern diagnostics are RARE, I dare to say that with up to date equipment and kits they do not happen, unless someone mixes up the samples. Without going too much into details of today's HIV diagnostics, I can assure you that even though all viruses contain viral proteins and nucleic acids, the modern tests can reliably pick out the HIV specific ones - just like in any other similar viral diagnostic procedure. I think even the introductory part of that Wiki article quite well states that the group of AIDS denialists base their shaky theories on outdated data and refuse to accept an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence. Some people just stick to their weird ideas no matter what you say or how you try to convince them. Rest assured, my friend, HIV does exist, the strains of that virus are the causative agent of a condition called AIDS, and it can be reliably and specifically identified with routine laboratory diagnostics. The virus can also be cultured, or with some more sophisticated methods it can be isolated from the white blood cells, lymphatic tissue or even from the plasma. Ironically, I'm in the process of editing that very Wiki article for it's amazing amount of inconsistencies and sometimes downright wrong/deceitful portrayl of the facts. I am really saddened to see how little is really known about HIV right back to it's supposed origins. I'm not going to do a massive history lesson, but suffice it to say a lot of the "science" around HIV has been guess work or assumptions. While some believe that HIV doesn't exist, most HIV DISSIDENTS believe either it alone cannot cause AIDS (i.e. a co-factor is required or it is useless, such as it's actual founder, Luc Montagnier, believes), or that HIV exists, but cannot create AIDS no matter how you cut it. You'll find a considerable amount of the HIV defenders themselves try to cite original, "outdated" data that has now been proven to be corrupted by Gallo and rewritten to suit a very specific agenda. In fact one line scribbled out by Gallo specifically stated that, "Despite intensive research efforts, the causative agent of AIDS has not yet been identified." Source: http://www.fearoftheinvisible.com/ Even if you believe that the original studies were pure, when Gallo was called to trial in an Australian court he admitted that only 40% of the original AIDS patients he studied had HIV. When HAART drugs were introduced into the market in the early 90s their effectiveness at "saving lives" convinced several dissidents to jump on the HIV=AIDS bandwagon, BUT when you look at a few other interesting circumstances you see how useless/dangerous the drugs really are. First, why the decrease in deaths when HAART began? Well in 1993 the CDC changed the definition of AIDS patients to allow perfectly healthy, symptom free HIV+ people to be diagnosed with AIDS if their CD4 cells dropped below a certian level. Because this can happen naturally, changes throughout the day, and has been shown to be a useless diagnosis of immunity, more healthy people than ever were being given drugs for which there was no cause. Of course there weren't as many AIDS patients dying when the definition of the disease just changed. The LATEST figures from any government/scientific census show that the leading cause of death among "AIDS" patients is kidney/liver failure/disease. Unfortunately, those aren't the result of any of the opprotunistic infections that can afflict an AIDS patient-- those are the side effects of the drugs the AIDS patient is taking. "If HIV doesn't exist then how is it destroying Africa?!" It isn't. South Africa's own government acknowledges that HIV/AIDS amounts for ONE percent of all mortalities in the country (I know Africa is more than just South Africa, but it's just one example). source: http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/ ... P03093.pdf I'm not saying there isn't evidence to support the HIV/AIDS theory, because there is. However, to be scientific and objective you have to look at the many holes in the theory AND the support of evidence for the HIV=Harmless side as well, which the orthodox is blindly ignoring (with the exception of the Semmelweis Society who awarded Prof. Duesberg <the scientist most outspoken against HIV=AIDS> with the prestigious "clean hands" award). This is just the tip of the iceberg for the case against HIV, but that alone will hopefully make some people think. Probably any new theory in today's science, when it's first published, has its flaws and there may even be plain mistakes on the way as well. I don't think citing some old work from Gallo or other early HIV researchers really helps anything - there is a lot of recent data with more solid basis because of all the independent data gathered since. Whether HAART treatment is the right choice for HIV patients is a whole different story. I'm pretty sure that everybody who has had anything to do with that treatment knows that it causes a lot of side effects and problems, and many patients stop taking their medication because of that. This being said, I've seen pretty solid figures about the HAART 's effect on the progress of the disease, and in most cases it can give years, even decades for the patients. And what comes to South Africa and it's government: they have a long tradition of giving out misleading data as well as misleading information on their HIV/AIDS situation, so I'm not sure if their reports are worth that much. Their current government claims the times have changed, but much of the data under that url is from -97 onwards, so who knows how correct it is. And even if it was correct, AIDS accounting for 1% of deaths is a lot for any country, even though I know many African countries have much worse AIDS situation than South Africa. I also admit that there are things we don't know about HIV yet, and the treatments are new as well. So yes there is certainly lot to improve in HAART, but I don't think the drawbacks in it are nearly as severe as the disease it treats (unless of course you have that kidney failure and kick the bucket...). Pharmaceutical companies surely want to give a rosy picture about their precious tools of trade for sure, so I'm more than glad that there are people who view the situation critically. I'm not quite as happy to see people still claiming HIV to be harmless or not causing AIDS, though, because THAT link has been so extensively studied and proved that there shouldn't be any doubt left. If someone manages to disprove that, then I guess the next thing we'll see is that the Earth is flat after all I'll acknowledge that every new theory has it's flaws, but the problem is when you present a clearly flawed theory from the start as fact and begin treating people accordingly. Remember, in the past Gallo tried to link HIV to cancer during the "War on Cancer," and as soon as the fight changes to AIDS, HIV is now the cause of that too. I think the dissidents focus on the early research not because new data counters their claims, but because the new data is in some way BASED off of the old research. You mentioned HAART drugs prolonging lives, but again, remember that these numbers are often from healthy, active people who happen to test HIV+ and have low t-cells (which even newer studies are beginning to question the assumed importance of T-cells since many people can have an AIDSish number and still be very healthy) so were given HAART to save them from the future. You make the side-effects sound like an upset stomach or a dry mouth. The side-effects can range from AIDS type diseases, or kidney/liver shut-down. Again, looking at the cause of death in AIDS patients, MORE are dying from drug type side effects than the known opportunistic infections. I'll also agree that 1% of deaths is still a lot, but it's hardly an epidemic of massive proportions. Even if they give misleading data, I highly doubt they would be downright fraudulent (i.e. the mortality rate from HIV is really 20%). In fact, I think it was the CDC that just admitted the number of AIDS victims in Africa may have been overstated by 7 million, with independent researchers hypothesizing the numbers may be as high as 15 million. I'm not sure on this one but I think I read something about a similar situation in India. It will be very hard for someone to disprove that HIV=AIDS theory because everyone is operating off the paradigm that this theory is correct. Therefore all the research is geared towards how/why. Think about how many times the theory on how HIV worked or what it does has changed SO many times. You could argue that we're learning more, or you could also argue that the theory doesn't quite fit so we have to keep giving the virus new properties/methods for it to fit into the existing idea. Luc Montangier just won the Nobel Prize for his discovery of HIV, but he has been interviewed saying quite a few disturbing facts: 1. He did not purify HIV (side note: the photographs of HIV are all "old" and these photographs that came from Gallo were in fact proven to not be HIV by the very lab taking them <that's actually in the feartheinvisible.com papers>) 2. HIV cannot cause AIDS by itself, it needs a co-factor 3. A normal, healthy person's immune system will render HIV harmless. Even the man who created the PCR, the test used to show the viral load is an HIV Dissident and said his test should NOT be used in HIV. I have to run, but just wanted to comment real quick. I still think it is not worthwhile citing isolated quotes from few selected scientists in order to support these claims. We'd need to know for example the date of the interview, the context in general and whether the given scientist has later changed their mind. And even so, one can always find quotes that support whatever claims one might have - I think the big picture is what counts, not what a few persons have said. Much may have been said when these persons didn't yet know as much about the virus as they did afterwards. Also, the inventor of PCR does not necessarily know much about HIV, or viral diseases in general. Also, out of curiosity, what is this co-factor that HIV is said to need? It is well known that HIV requires that certain receptors are expressed on the surface of the target cells, and that along its primary target molecule the virus also needs a so-called co-receptor (the receptor/co-receptor requirements vary by the HIV strain). But this does not change anything about the virus and its realtionship with AIDS. Or does someone suspect there is some completely independent co-factor, like another virus or a drug..? And if so, what that might be? Then something about statistics: you say that HAART causes more deaths than opportunistic infections. Well, at the moment this could even be the case among patients on HAART, because they do not develop secondary (opportunistic) infections - that is the ultimate goal of the treatment after all. When you compare populations on HAART and with no treatment at all, you can see that virtually all people without treatment eventually die on secondary infections and their life expectancy is much shorter than for people that receive treatment. Treating AIDS is a lot like treating cancer: the methods are often harsh, but the disease is even more so. Both treatments also have many side-effects, of which some are very serious. A normal person's immune response may be able to eliminate HIV before it can cause a systemic infection - as far as I know the scientists still aren't sure about the initial first steps of the infection. That is, it is unclear whether the immune system can sometimes protect us from the infections if we get exposed to the virus. However, what is not unclear is that when exposed to the virus, vast majority of us is in danger of contracting the disease, and when the infection is established, it is permanent (with current treatment options). Some very few people seem to have mutations in the target receptors of the virus and are thus immune to some strains. Also, I think there are some cases of people (mainly prostitutes) who have been repeatedly exposed to the virus, but their immune response manages to eliminate the virus. Some of these people have later been infected when they have lessened their exposure to the virus, apparently because the immune response has weakened with lesser exposure. These are some very rare cases, though, so you or I would probably be majorly screwed if we were exposed to the virus... Finally, not all electron micrographs or other images of HIV come from Gallo like your side note suggests. There are loads of reliable pictures from various research groups published every year. Here is a 2003 example of some nice AFM images for you in a peer-reviewed form: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articl ... tid=254268 That is also a good article about imaging HIV and its structure in general with various quality control methods to ensure the results are what they are supposed to be. There are also good references to other such studies. Enjoy. I'm not a biologist but I did read somewhere that many cases of aids in 3rd world countries are diagnoses without blood sampling. They're also not usually treated. So in the case of many African countries, local doctors (not in the big cities) would diagnose based on symptoms or the presence of other diseases that don't usually occur unless one has a compromised immune system. A seperate article I read was that long term bacterial infections like malaria in 3rd world countries can suppress the immune system enough to allow diseases like TB to surface and others usually seen in someone with a compromised immune system. So in my mind, putting clues together I theorize that many people that are claimed to have aids in 3rd world countries may not, but rather, have a compromised immune system from common bacterial infections and then manifest herpes breakouts, tb and other diseases considered triggered by the lack of immunity. Still, HIV does exist, if the above is true or not and there is an undeniable link to AIDS. Even if research is iffy, millions of examples suggest a connection. That is probably true: whilst AIDS patients often develop typical secondary infections, you cannot give a reliable diagnosis based on those, unless the patient has been earlier tested positive for HIV. However, in Africa most of the patients diagnosed only by symptoms are quite likely AIDS patients, since other pathogens fairly rarely make patients susceptible to similar secondary infections. This cases do occur, though, and can be falsely categorised as AIDS. Any statistics emerging from many parts of Africa must be viewed critically, because the local epidemic surveillance is often much behind of the standards we've used to in the industrialised countries. These things never have to be proven to the patient, or even the doctor: the important thing is putting faith in the research scientists who set up the protocols. Consider the how history of this medical hypothesis was fraught with controversy: the accidental ingestion of the inhalant amyl nitrate could cause kaposi's sarcoma and pneumonia, but this was not explored as a disease source in the initial patients - instead, a theory was developed of the first retrovirus that was said to be deadly within an indeterminate amount of time, antibodies to which would mean infection, the target cells being something that belonged in the lymph nodes where the technology was just emerging to count in the blood. Less than half the patients exhibited the antibodies, which were a group of ten or so proteins, and a standard has never been universally applied for their evaluation; when data was made available from military inductions, a strong trend towards those of African descent being more frequently positive was shown (this tendency has been depicted as showing the results of greater promiscuity in the black community) so the notion these are genetically normal antibodies has not been eliminated. This was also the first time antibodies were used to demonstrate hopeless infection rather than the body overcoming an infection, because the theory was the body's system failed. The test inserts all say that particular test is not conclusive proof of the presence of the virus - however, once a test is done with the group of proteins for the antibodies combined, it is confirmed by virtually the same test that simply separates the proteins so that each band can be identified: while neither test claims to show the virus, both together being positive would show the antibodies are there, and faith in the presumption they are relevant enforces the belief the virus is present. In Africa, a slimming disease that had existed long before somehow became indisputable evidence of the effects of a new virus; a recent 60 Minutes piece showed testing splitting up happy couples, giving a message of doom to the seemingly healthy, and implied the children who tested positive but were not taken in for treatment died of disease (my suspicion was the community would no longer feed them) - taking the medication was all-important, even though one young girl could not say what would happen if she did not. Treatment for a retrovirus had never before existed. The testing for azt by available accounts, did not stand up to ideal scientific method: reputedly, patients in the placebo group became aware the others were getting the real 'medication' because they were becoming so ill they required transfusions for anemia, and they began to share; as patients became progressively sicker, there may have been some switching across groups; and as was reported on public radio, when the toxicity of this drug at high doses had its ultimate effect, the camera came in to show the world what aids was. There are numerous personal accounts where those who for some reason did not take the high-dose azt had to bury their friends who did. Then came the era of the cocktail, the current protocol, where azt was reduced to a level where its toxicity would be less immediately apparent, hence the lives of patients were 'lengthened': the insert says it can cause the symptoms people associate with aids. It stops replication because it resembles the amino acid in dna that terminates the chain. The protease inhibitor has been associated with failure of the digestive tract (from independent testing on mice). The 'side effects' are endured in the hope of the villain virus being held at bay; some patients are switched onto similar protocols when they have been undergoing severe reactions. The inserts admit to a variety of problems that can be caused by ingesting those substances. But the t-cells were tagged and monitored by a virologist who found those using this cocktail may have had higher counts in the blood, but those cells were dying faster than the ones in untreated patients whose t-cells remained where they belonged in the lymph - cell migration has been admitted as the reason for higher cell counts in treated patients. As for the testing of the progression of 'the disease' there are two surrogate markers, viral load and t-cell count. The count of t-cells in healthy people can vary widely, and its response to protocol has been considered. If viral load testing were done on the general public, many healthy people could be terrified at how high theirs is - but it comes down to undetectable once a dna chain terminator has been introduced into the system, which makes patients feel good about their condition, perhaps despite how they actually feel. The viral load test counts the growing of fragmentary material in the laboratory. It is not the job of even a specialist in the field to question the protocol; and since the patients have a predetermined death sentence, fervently inducing them to use apparently toxic medication to have better results for misleading surrogate markers until they perish (liver failure has been reported as frequent) cannot be spun as anything but an act of kindness. It is not necessary to prove anything about hiv and aids, but we all must believe what we have been told, lest we become the guilty party for having lost faith in our betters. 12 posts • Page 1 of 1 Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 2 guests

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Public Drinking Water Systems The Drinking Water Program (DWP) regulates public water systems; oversees water recycling projects; permits water treatment devices; certifies drinking water treatment and distribution operators; supports and promotes water system security; provides support for small water systems and for improving technical, managerial, and financial (TMF) capacity; provides funding opportunities for water system improvements. For more about DWP activities, click on a link below. Private domestic wells are not regulated by DWP; the State Water Resources Control Board has information pertinent to private domestic well water quality. For other CDPH water-related topics, click here. DWP is within the Division of Drinking Water and Environmental Management.

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The effect of monocular depth cues on the detection of moving objects by a moving observer As observers move through the environment, they must detect moving objects. Previously, we showed that observers can use 2D image speed to detect moving objects in the radial optic flow field generated by a moving observer. However, a difference in image speed may signal either a moving object or a depth difference between stationary objects. Adding depth information may remove this ambiguity. We tested observers' ability to detect a moving object in scenes that contained increasingly salient monocular depth cues. We simulated observer motion in a straight line at a speed of 3 m/sec toward a scene that consisted of a textured ground plane with 8 objects located 12 m from the observer. In two conditions the objects were featureless red disks (diameter: 0.4 m) located on the horizontal midline that were either separate from the ground plane (condition 1) or connected to it with a thin line, giving a cue to distance (condition 2). In condition 3, the objects were textured blocks (width: 0.55 m; height: 1.6 m) located on the ground plane, giving further cues to depth. In half the trials one object moved faster (or slower) than the other objects in the scene. The speed differences ranged from 10% to 100% of the image speed of non-targets. Each trial lasted 1 sec. Observers indicated with a key press whether or not the scene contained a moving object. Thresholds were computed by fitting the data with a sigmoidal curve and determining the percent speed difference that led to 75% accuracy. For the 6 subjects tested, the results show a significant effect of scene condition, with average threshold speed changes of 43%, 37% and 25% for conditions 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Thus, monocular depth cues aid the detection of moving objects by moving observers.

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Household pets, like cats and dogs, are the most common sources of animal allergens. |Allergens: Chemical Sensitivity Detailed information on synthetic and natural substances that cause sensitivity to the skin |Allergens: Dust and Dust Mites Dust mites are microscopic organisms that can live and thrive throughout homes and businesses. Detailed information on food allergy, including food intolerance and food allergy symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment |Allergen: Insect Stings Detailed information on allergic reactions to insect bites and stings Mold spores or fragments may be inhaled through the nose and into the lungs, where they cause allergic reactions or asthma. |Allergens: Poison Ivy/Poison Oak/Poison Sumac Poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac can all cause bumps and blisters that itch. Teach your children what these plants look like and how to avoid them. Pollen is the most common cause of seasonal allergic rhinitis, sometimes known as "hay fever." |Asthma and Pregnancy With proper asthma management and good prenatal care, most women with asthma can have healthy pregnancies. |About Arthritis and Other Rheumatic Diseases Arthritis, itself a group of more than 100 different diseases, is one category of rheumatic diseases.

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Sun of York Description"Now is the winter of our discontent made glorious summer by this … "Sun of York" (Richard III, Ace I, Scene 1) The Wars of the Roses (1453-1485) were the result of the struggle for the English crown between the Houses of Lancaster and York … both descended from the Plantagenet line … both with equal claim to the throne. By the end of the bloody struggle, both houses would be extinct and the crown grasped by the first of the Tudors. Sun of York is a card game depicting the tactical battles fought between these two royal houses. Represented by the cards are all the day's major leaders, including King Henry VI (too weak a leader to maintain control of the kingdom), Margaret of Anjou (Henry's strong-willed and manipulative queen), King Edward IV (organizational genius and longest holder of the Crown), King Richard III (charismatic leader of questionable morals) and Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick (the "King Maker"). Each Leader is rated for combat ability and his affect on the morale of the troops he leads. Troop cards include foot soldiers, missile units, pole arms and cavalry, all of different types and qualities, including mercenaries from the Continent. Each troop card is rated for its cohesion (the amount of damage it can sustain as well as deal out), its ability to move around the battlefield, and its combat quality. A variety of terrain cards are included, and are used to configure the battlefield prior to play. "Special" cards are included to provide period flavor and enable results so prevalent during a period where great heroics and insidious backstabbing by allies were common. The heart of the game system (and that which separates it from similar games) is its "Orders" system. Generally, leaders on the battlefield give orders to the units under their command. Units without leaders can only move through the play of Orders cards (unused Leader, Terrain and Special cards). Calling up reinforcements also requires the play of Orders. Often, players will have to make the choice between discarding excellent troops in order to get any kind of troop into battle before their line collapses. This simulates wonderfully the chaotic melees these battles often became, and the difficulty the commanders had in retaining control of their forces once they engaged. All the major (and several minor) engagements are included in Sun of York, as well as a random setup, for a total of twenty scenarios! Also included is a campaign system allowing players to fight out the Wars, one battle at a time, to their bloody conclusion. - Players: 1 - 4 - Time: 120 or more minutes - Ages: 12 and up read more at boardgamegeek

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Five Ways to Use Online Portfolios in the ClassroomJanuary 22, 2013 | Heather Hiles Our digital world is transforming the way we learn, and today's teachers are tasked with the challenging job of sifting through the deluge of educational technologies and creating a meaningful learning experience for students. In my 15 years in education, I've seen firsthand how opportunities and a little guidance can positively impact a person's future and change the life path they're following. In fact, as a result of serving on the San Francisco School Board, where I learned about the obstacles to education, I've seen how creating learning opportunities can impact a long-term digital identity. Next-generation education portfolio platforms -- such as Digication, Pathbrite, Taskstream and Epsilen -- are one way for teachers to start early and educate students about how they can manage their own academic and professional accomplishments. From using portfolios for giving students educational feedback to the portability of transcripts and official academic documents, new opportunities exist for lifelong learning and sharing. Based on my work with K-12 and higher education institutions, I've seen some amazing results -- teachers reporting huge leaps in student engagement and vastly increased peer-to-peer collaboration -- as a result of using online portfolios in the classroom. Given this, I've developed five best practices for implementing an education portfolio platform in any K-12 or college classroom. 1. Build in Opportunities for Peer-to-Peer Learning Focus on the goal of increasing students' digital literacy by fostering a collaborative learning environment where some of the more tech-savvy students can guide and help others learn. These practices can generate trust, offer problem-solving opportunities, and deepen peer-to-peer learning on the educational lessons taught in the course. 2. Create Lessons That Foster Data and Knowledge Curation Sifting through the endless hoards of information on the Internet is becoming a necessary skill. Students need to learn how to find reliable sources and how to conduct research in an organized and discriminating way. Eleventh-grade English teacher Amy McGeorge of Leadership Public Schools, a high school in the San Francisco Bay Area, began using next-generation education portfolios in the classroom to teach the literary classic Catcher in the Rye. She assigned a digital literary analysis and asked students to create an online portfolio that included what they learned about the characters. The results showed better-than-ever student engagement and understanding of the story. 3. Engaging for All Levels of Learners One of the biggest challenges for today's large classrooms and high student-to-teacher ratios is offering high-performing students engaging activities that won't hold them back while the teachers focus on students who need additional support. Online portfolio projects are a stimulating activity that allows learners of all levels to deepen their knowledge on a subject matter or assignment while maintaining a common ground with their peers. 4. Develop Organization Skills and Plan for the Future Instead of sorting through crumpled assignments in the bottoms of backpacks, students are able to login to their online portfolios and find everything in an organized manner. Using tags for common subject areas helps students sort through all of the information they have collected so that they can see the "bigger picture" and be reminded of all the work they have done in a specific area. I saw one example from a graduate level course at the University of Illinois in the School of Library and Information Science. Here, students were given the assignment of creating an online portfolio that showed digital materials reflecting theoretical concepts on gender, race and sexuality learned in the course. Not only did student understanding of the concepts far surpass the classes that weren't using online portfolios, but students also reported high levels of satisfaction with their ability to share their class portfolios with professional and personal contacts beyond the classroom. 5. Not All Online Portfolios are Created Equal When picking an online portfolio, look for portfolios where the creators remain the owners of the data compiled. It's important that students and users have access to the content of the portfolio beyond the course or college education. Using online portfolios successfully gives early adopters in the classroom the latitude to teach peers how to master the technology. Learning can be accelerated through the process of independently curating new knowledge and can also be extended beyond the classroom for a long-term collection of academic and professional successes.

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Dr. Suzanne Trupin is a Clinical Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology at the University Of Illinois College Of Medicine at Urbana-Champaign. She graduated from Stanford University and completed her medical training at New York Medical in Valhalla, New York. She received her residency training at the University of Southern California Women's Hospital in Los Angeles, California. She is Board-Certified by the American Board of Obstetrics and Gynecology. Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD, is a U.S. board-certified Anatomic Pathologist with subspecialty training in the fields of Experimental and Molecular Pathology. Dr. Stöppler's educational background includes a BA with Highest Distinction from the University of Virginia and an MD from the University of North Carolina. She completed residency training in Anatomic Pathology at Georgetown University followed by subspecialty fellowship training in molecular diagnostics and experimental pathology. Mastitis is an infection of the tissue of the breast that occurs most frequently during the time of breastfeeding. This infection causes pain, swelling, redness, and increased temperature of the breast. It can occur when bacteria, often from the baby's mouth, enter a milk duct through a crack in the nipple. This causes an infection and painful inflammation of the breast. Breast infections most commonly occur one to three months after the delivery of a baby, but they can occur in women who have not recently delivered as well as in women after menopause. Other causes of infection include chronic mastitis and a rare form of cancer called inflammatory carcinoma. The breast is composed of several glands and ducts that lead to the nipple and the surrounding colored area called the areola. The milk-carrying ducts extend from the nipple into the underlying breast tissue like the spokes of a wheel. Under the areola are lactiferous ducts. These fill with milk during lactation after a woman has a baby. When a girl reaches puberty, changing hormones cause the ducts to grow and cause fat deposits in the breast tissue to increase. The glands that produce milk (mammary glands) that are connected to the surface of the breast by the lactiferous ducts may extend to the armpit area (axilla). A breast infection that leads to an abscess (a localized pocket or collection of pus) is a more serious type of infection. If mastitis is left untreated, an abscess can develop in the breast tissue. This type of infection may require surgical drainage.

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"We the People of the United States": The Bicentennial of a People's Revolution By Richard B. Morris President of the Association, 1976 This presidential address was delivered at the annual meeting of the American Historical Association in Washington, December 28, 1976. American Historical Review 82:1 (January 1977): 1-19. Books by Richard B. Morris "It is quite obvious," said Richard M. Nixon in March 1976, "that there are certain inherently governmental actions which, if undertaken by the sovereign in protection of the interest of the nation's security, are lawful but which, if undertaken by private persons are not." Nixon was responding in writing to questions put to him by the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, concerning alleged abuses of the executive power during his administration.1 That a former president of the United States should, during the course of the Bicentennial year, advance the notion that the executive is the sovereign seems not only ill-timed but curiously at variance with the principles for which the American Revolution was fought and upon which the Federal Constitution was framed. Gouverneur Morris, whose felicitous choice of the phrase "We the People of the United States" designated the people of the whole nation as the source of sovereignty, said of the president: "This Magistrate is not the King but the prime-Minister. The People are the King."2 Morris was a better statesman than a prophet. He did not live to see the imperial presidency. The Nixon commentary was of a piece with the attitude of the national government toward the commemoration of the Bicentennial. The two words most muted during the two hundredth year of American independence have been "people" and "revolution." But government officials are not the only ones who are guilty of a benign neglect on this score. A recent massive treatment of the War for Independence has as its subtitle A People's History of the American Revolution.3 Therein one might expect to find the focus shifted from the elite to the common people, to the private in the ranks and the civilian on the home front. Alas, we have good old-fashioned narrative history, often written with compelling power, but withal a traditional military and political account. One would have to search elsewhere in sources and monographs comparatively discrete to understand why this war was indeed a "people's revolution," to divine how ordinary people gave a distinct cast to what was an extraordinary event for its own time, and to comprehend why, after two centuries, the American Revolution can still inspire and admonish the American people. To explain an epoch as complex as the American Revolution and to understand how a durable constitutional order evolved therefrom one must first recognize how so many aspects of the movement touched a popular chord. Mobilization of public opinion was central to the winning of a war for political independence which was at the same time the first successful effort in the modern era by a colonial people to sever an imperial connection with a great world power. Public sentiment clearly dictated the replacement of an unresponsive and corrupt monarchical system by a republic founded on public morality and, through the elective system and representative institutions, recognizing the sovereignty of the people. If the American Revolution gave birth to a new nation, different from the nations of the Old World and destined to fix the direction of modern nationalism, its distinctive character was shaped in no small part by the enormous demographic changes in the two generations prior to the Revolution and by a popular culture which geographical separation, environmental factors, and sociocultural forces nurtured. It is a commonplace that out of the principal issue concerning the relation of colonies to metropolis the American Revolution forged an anticolonial principle, once central, later peripheral, but still troubling the American conscience. That principle was in obeisance to the sentiments of sovereign people on the move, giving reality to the paper boundaries drawn by the Peace of Paris in 1783. It was popular apprehension about the aggrandizement of power that prompted the promulgation of novel constitutional principles governing the relation of the state to the people, that recognized certain rights of the individual to be inherent, and that under the rubric of federalism imposed limitations on the authority of the central government. That other dimension of the American Revolution, a transforming egalitarianism, was manifest in the spirit of reform which characterized the American Revolutionary epoch and in the noteworthy degree of upward political mobility which was achieved. The Founding Fathers never doubted the central role of the people in bringing about the final break with England. Time after time they felt impelled to pay obeisance to the people's participation from the start of hostilities in order to refute customary Loyalist and British accusations that the break with the mother country resulted from a deep-rooted conspiracy of the leadership.4 That last point was so much "moonshine," George Mason charged. Writing from Gunston Hall in 1778 to an English correspondent, the Virginian asserted: There never was an idler or a falser Notion than that which the British Ministry have imposed upon the Nation "that this great Revolution has been the Work of a Faction, of a Junto of ambitious Men against the Sense of the People of America." On the Contrary, nothing has been done without the Approbation of the People, who have indeed out run their Leaders; so that no capital Measure hath been adopted, until they called loudly for it: to any one who knows Mankind, there needs no greater Proof than the cordial Manner in which they have co-operated, and the Patience and Perseverence with which they have strugled under their Sufferings; which have been greater than you, at a Distance, can conceive, or I describe.5 So constant and so consistent was the Revolutionary elite in acknowledging the people's indispensable role, in adopting the rhetoric of the transforming democratic radicalism of the American Revolution that, as one recent scholar sees it,6 the leadership contributed to its own political demise. By the last quarter of the twentieth century the common man had replaced the uncommon man in the nation's leadership, a process that seems irreversible. If the focus here is on the ordinary person of the American Revolution it is not from any intention to slight the role of the Patriot elite. Their concern with legality and constitutional principles, along with their sense of moderation, distinguished the American Revolution from almost all others to follow. Possessing a keen perception of the national interest, they made sure that a hoop encircled the barrel and bound the thirteen staves together. Their conviction that America had a unique role as a symbol of freedom gave the new nation the twin notions of mission and asylum--serving to render it distinctive among the states of the world.7 For almost two centuries now historians and editors have paid deference to the revolutionary leaders. Their virtues have been extolled, their faults exposed, their differences expatiated upon, their motives defended or impugned. Even their sex lives have been delved into and their psyches analyzed. Above all, their compulsive literary energies have inspired scholars to embark upon new, accurate, full, and erudite editions of their writings, a notable series of projects sponsored by the National Historical Publications and Records Commission. And now it is the people's turn. The generic term "people" encompasses all the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies, not even excluding the upper ranks of society whose roles have been so well publicized. It includes whites and blacks, men and women, slave and free. It encompasses the stout-hearted Patriot and the fair-weather Patriot. It embraces the Loyalists, or "Petticoat Gentry," who, whether from conviction or expediency, made haste to tear up their wives' underthings and affix a red ribbon to their hats. It includes fence-sitters or neutralists, and that final group that confounds all quantifiers--those who took oaths of loyalty to both sides. For this paper "the people" of the Revolution is limited to the inhabitants who contributed to the decisions of revolution, change, and reform. This segment of the population comprises the free white males, mostly adults, who shared the Patriot viewpoint. As regards women, their part in maintaining morale was critical, and their vigilant mobilization against violators of nonimportation agreements, hoarders, and profiteers is a story by itself. Women were, however, excluded from the political process not only in America but everywhere, with New Jersey for a brief idiosyncratic period as a possible exception. Such exclusion accorded with the conventional view of male politicians. Thirty years after the start of the American Revolution, Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin had the presumption to suggest to President Thomas Jefferson that the latter might consider women for public service and elicited this sharp rejoinder: "The appointment of a woman to office is an innovation for which the public is not prepared, nor am I."8 Second, Indians and blacks must also be excluded. Since the American revolutionaries fought for empire over the West as well as for their own freedom in the East, the Indian was regarded as being outside the constituency. Despite the theoretical commitment in the Declaration of Independence to the principle of equality and the antislavery convictions of certain northern Patriot leaders, blacks were usually not considered part of the constituency. They were not, and by the nature of their situation, could not be effectively recruited for the Patriot cause. Antislavery sentiment failed to prove a decisive factor in the contest for the loyalty of the Negro in the Revolution. Indeed it is doubtful that it could have overcome deep-seated resistance.9 Third, we must exclude the white bondsmen. They lacked that proof of independence normally regarded as a requisite to political activity. True, their status was temporary. But, excepting apprentices in the towns who participated in anti-British demonstrations,10 the indentured servants were not mobilized for the Revolution. Save in cases of bound servants gaining their freedom by enlistment, often over their masters' vehement protests, the Revolution did nothing to end and little to ameliorate white bondage. What makes the point critical is that by the eve of the war, thanks to a rising wave of redemptioner immigration, to a substantial traffic in white convict servants, and to an expanding roll of judgment debtors sold into servitude, the number of white servants held by indenture for limited terms exceeded the totals for any other period in colonial history.11 Even with these exclusions we still have an impressive number of persons of whom the leadership had to take account. Consensus historians prefer to see this mass as bound together by middle-class aspirations, if not necessarily of the middle class themselves. One perceptive historian speaks of "a numerous, relatively aggressive, and largely enfranchised middle-class public."12 True enough, America, lacking a titled aristocracy, offering a widely distributed freehold tenure, and occupied by a large English-speaking Protestant population, presented an image of homogeneity and classlessness. It is now recognized, however, that the assumption that America skipped the feudal stage of history, like other oversimplifications, conveys a partial truth, while ignoring or minimizing not only the remnants of feudalism still present in pre-Revolutionary America but even, as some historians now insist, an increasing feudalization or Europeanization of the American scene, a process productive of social tensions.13 Everywhere one finds inequality. Everywhere colonial society was divided into ranks or orders. Though affluence increased in the eighteenth century, so did poverty. While the standard of living of craftsmen, small shopkeepers, and laborers improved, their position vis-à-vis the more prosperous merchants deteriorated. In selected rural areas the same disparity was found.14 The poorest taxpayers in the two generations preceding the Revolution enjoyed a continued rise in income while suffering a declining share of the assessed taxable wealth.15 Retrospectively such disparities in income between the top and bottom ranks seem the inevitable result of the vast expansion of commercial farming and large-scale commerce. Even in New England, land of subsistence farming, population growth significantly decreased the land available per person and contributed to economic polarization.16 To compound the antagonism between ranks in society, an amorphous body of free-floating workers, unwelcome in many cases, sharing a common poverty, now posed an increasing problem to an urban society which was slowly assuming some of the characteristics of modernization, with its spreading commercialism, occupational specialization, and social atomization.17 In essence, whether we are considering the assumptions of present-day historians, divided on the significance of urban poverty in the pre-Revolutionary period, or examining the testimony of contemporaries, the prospect depends on the eye of the beholder. Where Crèvecoeur saw the American dwelling in a climate of "pleasing equality,"18 John Day, a Nova Scotia merchant who spent a good deal of time in the other North Atlantic port cities, pictured a "rising aristocracy" and a "numerous vagrant poor."19 Admittedly, the American Revolution did not witness an uprising of the sans-culottes like that of France some years later. It is hard to make out of it a class struggle, when the very term "class" did not yet enjoy wide currency.20 Notwithstanding, the attachment to the cause of revolution by the lower and middling orders, as they were then known, was central both to its initiation and its ultimate success. These orders were distinguished from their "betters" by dress, and often, too, by speech, manners, and habits. M'Fingal might jeer at "each leather-aproned dunce grown wise," a point of view shared by many who wore silks and velvets, covered their heads with powdered wigs, wore silver-buckled shoes, and rode in chaises. What surprised them more often than not was how the "village Hampden" and the "mute inglorious Milton" made their discontent known, though deemed to be inarticulate. Their use of songs, jigs, and toasts, of effigies, parades, and demonstrations, even of mobbing and tarring and feathering proved that the inarticulate were by no means mute.21 Neither literary correspondents nor diarists, careless in preserving farm and account books, they wrote the stories of their lives in baptismal registers and on gravestones, in the court records, the deeds and wills, the inventories of estates, the assessment, tax, and tithable rolls, the militia lists, and in countless newspaper notices placed by craftsmen, shopkeepers, and owners of runaway servants. United only in resenting privilege, the lower ranks of society voiced different grievances in different areas. In interior Massachusetts the court system and the aggrandizement of power by the justices of the peace aroused their ire.22 In Vermont, New York, and the Jerseys, New York patentees, manor lords, or the Jersey proprietors blocked the settlers' quest for fee-simple lands.23 Pennsylvania found frontiersmen arrayed against the Eastern inhabitants, while the back country regulators of the Carolinas registered protests against regressive taxation, unequal representation, inequitable or inadequate justice,24 and in the southern towns white mechanics joined to limit the employment of slaves in the handicraft trades.25 The severe social strains which so many members of the lower orders experienced, while perhaps accounting for some of the frenzied rhetoric of the period,26 failed to unite all the aggrieved, if disparate, groups in support of independence. Contrariwise, where landlords happened to be stout Whigs, tenants understandably became Tories. Imperial measures aroused the seaboard from end to end, while the frontier remained sharply divided in allegiance. It is not a fictitious unity of the aggrieved inhabitants that is relevant to the Revolution, but rather the evidence that the various movements they began, to eliminate inequities in society, gathered strength and thereby defined the reform goals of the Revolution. If a large segment of the lower orders in rural areas defected from the Patriot cause, the reverse was true of towns wherein the action was centered. With few exceptions, the town mechanics, laborers, and seamen were either involved in the pre-Revolutionary agitation or were swept up into the Revolution. When we use the word "mechanics" we are employing a catchall covering anyone who worked with his hands, including master artisans and journeymen wage-earners (tomorrow's master mechanics) and, even more broadly, comprehending all groups below the ranks of merchants and lawyers. Ranging from skilled and creative silversmiths and cabinetmakers to common laborers and cartmen, from master craftsmen who owned their shops and employed journeymen and apprentices to the unskilled dock workers, the "mechanics," with their families, made up a respectable segment of the inhabitants of the major Revolutionary ports and of the smaller towns.27 Like the Parisian sans-culottes, they were "the people . . . without the frosting."28 Masters or journeymen mechanics, like so many other people of the lower and middling orders, they did not exclusively identify themselves with a single category or regard their status as permanent, any more than the American worker does at the present time.29 In the towns the Revolutionary movement drew its strength from the "crowd" or the "mob," depending on whether one views the political actions as purposeful and disciplined or lawless and subject to manipulation, with most modern and contemporary scholars taking the former view.30 If not manipulated, the crowd clearly shared the political principles of its leaders who endorsed the contemporary radical Whig ideology, stressing constitutional rights and political liberty. Beyond that one detects among the lower orders an oft-voiced bias against wealth and privilege,31 along with something of that "moral economy" which a current student of mass behavior finds to have informed crowd action in England.32 On this side of the ocean, food riots and demonstrations against engrossers and price-fixing violators attest to the transplantation of some of these values.33 Perhaps the most sensational incident occurred in Philadelphia well on in the war, when an inflamed populace attacked "Fort Wilson," James Wilson's residence and refuge for a group of his republican merchant friends commonly believed to have manipulated the price of goods.34 It may be straining the evidence to establish a genealogical nexus between components of crowds that rioted against smallpox inoculations, protested grain shortages, and tore down brothels. On the other hand, the impressment riots mobilized seamen, dock-workers, and the entire maritime industry against the Royal Navy and helped cement the alliance between maritime workers and merchant shippers against customs and naval authorities, an alliance so fateful in its consequences.35 In other trades as well, labor's grievances against employers over work and wages were submerged as both sides found common cause in resisting British policies.36 Remote as historians of today are from the violent temper of pre-Revolutionary times, it is indubitably easier for us to view these mounting demonstrations with a detachment understandably lacking among the victims of mobbism. Henry Laurens suffered a visitation by a crowd during the Stamp Act furor and castigated the Sons of Liberty "Devil Burners" of Charleston as a "Mob" which had "committed unbounded acts of Licentiousness and at length Burglary and Robbery."37 Some time later, when he had become a true-blue Patriot, Laurens was accused by Daniel Moore, the customs collector, of raising "a Mob" against him. "No such thing as Mobbing was ever thought of," Laurens protested. The crowd that surrounded the king's officer did nothing worse than threaten to cut off his ears!38 The participation of the mechanics had a profound effect upon the commitment of the leading towns toward the Revolution and helped radicalize the movement of imperial protest. Henceforth leaders like John Jay, who were conciliatory on principle but activist by temperament, recognized the signals and joined the revolutionary current.39 The crowd action that propelled the American towns along the road to independence has been examined so often that the sequence of events in which the crowd participated against British measures hardly needs an accounting.40 From the Stamp Act riots to the Boston Tea Party, a logical progression of crowd demonstrations responded to British programs and policies. Behind crowd action one uncovers an elaborate Patriot infrastructure facilitated by the unities of everyday life in preindustrial American towns.41 Boston, for example, found radical operations shared by the Loyal Nine, both genesis and executive committee of the Sons of Liberty, the three area Caucus Clubs, and assemblages at favorite meeting places--taverns, a distillery, and a newspaper office. The radical network linked artisans and mechanics, the church, the Boston town meeting, and the provincial council and assembly. At the center functioned the ubiquitous Samuel Adams, and around him the crowd leaders like Ebenezer Mackintosh. Outside the towns, where the sanctions of the crowd did not reach, the militia provided a lever to move public opinion. With all its deficiencies, the militia posed to each able-bodied male a commitment of loyalty, thereby helping to politicize communities as well as individuals. As one historian has remarked, "firearms were great levelers, and the use of them by ordinary men against established authority was in itself enough to generate leveling thoughts."42 Together, popular assemblages and the militia recruited a broad-based support for revolution. Without such support the leadership never could have carried the day for independence, even allowing for the French alliance and British incompetence. In fact, demands for independence rose from the grass roots, and leaders, even Samuel Adams, reflected popular sentiment quite as much as they encouraged it.43 On May 1, 1776, Joseph Hawley could write Elbridge Gerry: "For God's sake, let there be a full revolution, or all has been done in vain. Independence and a well planned continental government will save us."44 When, nine days later, the Massachusetts House of Representatives put the question of independence to the towns,45 the response of the inhabitants was emphatic. So mighty was the torrent of instructions and resolutions that poured forth from the towns and so various were the reasons vouchsafed for independence, that it would be straining the evidence to attribute these opinions to elitist leaders, however much the initiative had remained with the Boston Committee of Correspondence.46 "Every Post and every Day rolls in upon us," said John Adams. "Independence like a Torrent."47 Since popular-based support was not confined to Massachusetts, elsewhere decisions were made by large bodies of inhabitants assembled in town, county, or provincial meetings and responsive to public opinion. The reverse was of course true in Britain.48 How town meetings and county conventions were transformed into mass meetings of the "Body of the People" is the story of the way in which royal government was supplanted by extralegal bodies representing "the people," "the community," or "a majority of the community."49 That story has a twofold significance. First, its telling is essential to an understanding of the formation of the Union; and second, the central role of the people transformed the American Revolution from a war for independence into a broad-based movement of change and reform. As for the constitutional aspect of popular sovereignty, the record shows that selection of delegates to the First and Second Continental Congresses occurred largely outside the colonial legislative bodies. Selection was accomplished in different ways--by revolutionary committees, by the polling of freeholders, or by elections by illegal assemblies and revolutionary conventions. The use of conventions, so important in mobilizing public opinion not only during the war but in the years preceding Shays' Rebellion,50 may have been modeled upon English usage in the seventeenth century, and the American example was closely followed by British reformers like James Burgh and the followers of Wyvill.51 In part, these extralegal methods of registering the public's will may have been fortuitous; in part, they sprang from the necessities of the revolutionary situation. The selection of delegates to the First Congress took place in the spring and summer of 1774 after the adjournment of the regular winter meeting of most colonial assemblies. Unless the colonial governors summoned special legislative sessions, the assemblies could not convene or act. To fill this vacuum of power, popular or revolutionary bodies chose a majority of the delegations to Congress. In fact, only four out of the twelve colonies represented in the First Continental Congress used their regular assemblies to elect delegates, and two of these bodies were extralegal. Elsewhere I have detailed the steps by which the First and Second Continental Congresses were constituted and their respective relations to the colonies and the states.52 Because the methods used to select delegates to both Congresses are crucial to our understanding of the forging of the union as well as popular sovereignty, I shall make these points here very briefly. For picking delegates to the First Congress, the speaker rather than the governor called the assembly into session in Delaware; in Massachusetts Bay, the General Court held its session, openly defying the governor. Only in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island did regular assemblies elect delegates to the Congress without interference from their respective governors, and both were exceptional colonies. One was proprietary, the other self-governing--and in neither did the royal government exercise control over the convening of the legislature. With scrupulous attention to a choice of words, in formal resolutions after assembling, delegates to the First Congress described themselves as being appointed or elected "by the good people of the several colonies," and their secretary, Philadelphia's popular Whig leader Charles Thomson, underscored "good people."53 The evidence demonstrating that selection of delegates to the First Congress occurred largely outside the colonial legislative bodies supports Joseph Story's contention that the Continental Congress was organized "with the consent of the people acting directly in their primary sovereign capacity," and reminds us that there was something more than the ritualistic rhetoric of the nationalists to his claim that the union was "spontaneously formed by the people of the United Colonies."54 Confident that its actions would find strong popular support and acting with less divisiveness than has traditionally been attributed to it,55 the First Congress, as one of its concluding actions in October 1774, called for a successor Congress to convene on May 10, 1775. The instructions went out to all "the Colonies, in North-America" to choose deputies, with a separate appeal "to the Inhabitants of the Province of Quebec," urging them "to unite with us in the social compact." They were instructed to elect, at town and district meetings, deputies to a provincial congress, which in turn would choose delegates to the Congress at Philadelphia.56 The procedure was extralegal, if not subversive, and involved a series of popular acts in open defiance of authority. This time around the delegates from the thirteen colonies were chosen during the winter and early spring when most provincial assemblies were holding their regular sessions. Anticipating that the crown-appointed governors would prorogue the assemblies rather than permit them to partake in the election process, the people in eight of the colonies chose their delegates through extralegal assemblies or conventions.57 As the authority of royal governors and colonial assemblies disintegrated and the upstart revolutionary congresses or conventions pointedly ignored both branches,58 the Second Congress filled the continuing power vacuum by assuming the initiative in establishing revolutionary governments in the colonies and ultimately transforming them into states. Meanwhile, extralegal committees of public safety, patterned after the revolutionary committees in England during the Puritan Revolution and in the American colonies during the upheavals of 1689, assumed the direction of the revolutionary movement in several colonies. On July 18, 1775, the Continental Congress recommended that those colonies lacking such committees set them up to direct their defenses while the assemblies or conventions were in recess.59 In some five colonies, committees of safety were established on Congress's initiative, and by 1777 every state had one.60 Not only did Congress turn to the people to set up a continental-wide revolutionary machinery, but it also took the lead in issuing a call to the people of the colonies to organize state governments, first on an ad hoc basis,61 and, at length and in response to public opinion, it made this practice formal. On May 15, 1776, Congress issued its justifiably renowned resolution urging assemblies and conventions, "where no Government sufficient to the Exigencies of their affairs hath been hitherto established, to adopt such Government as shall, in the Opinion of the Representatives of the People, best conduce to the happiness and Safety of their Constituents in particular, and America in General."62 The twin processes--the election of delegates to the two Congresses and the procedures for framing state constitutions under Congressional directive--set loose a torrent of assertions that the people were the constituent power.63 Some urged direct election of the delegates to Congress by "the freeholders, or freemen at large."64 Others, like the "Mechanicks of New York City," insisted that the decision "to accept or reject a Constitution" was the "birthright of every man" who "is, or ought to be, a co-legislator with all the other members of that community."65 To explain to a French visitor the convention and ratification procedures which produced the Massachusetts Constitution of 1780, Samuel Adams, voicing sentiments found in a declaration of the Massachusetts General Court in 1776 that "power resides always in the body of the people," pointed out that far more than the necessary two-thirds vote endorsed the Constitution, thus proving that "the true sovereign are the people."66 In adopting the Declaration of Independence, an act of paramount, sovereign authority, Congress acted for the people rather than for thirteen separate states, since only four state governments, three of them provisional, had been formed prior to its passage. Jefferson's felicitous phrasing described "one people" as dissolving the political bands connecting them with another, affirmed that governments derived "their just powers from the consent of the governed," and proclaimed "the right of the people" to alter or abolish "a government destructive of the ends set forth." Good Whig rhetoric or political reality? The United States Supreme Court thought it was the latter. Members of the first Court, who--one might say--were present at the creation, characterized the Great Declaration as the act of the "whole people," one which transferred sovereignty "from the crown of Great Britain" to "the people." Chief Justice Jay, who never went back to Philadelphia to sign the document that New York's delegates had been originally enjoined from endorsing, might, if pressed, have conceded that the "whole people" excluded the substantial segment opposed to independence.67 Then as now, one might add, the High Court demonstrated at times an uninhibited facility to generalize about complex issues in constitutional history. In the period of congressional government, running from September 1774 to March 1, 1781, prior to the Articles of Confederation, the Supreme Court perceived Congress as exercising powers derived from the people, expressly conferred through the medium of state conventions or legislatures, and, once exercised, "impliedly ratified by the acquiescence and obedience of the people."68 In sum, a review of the historical evidence makes abundantly clear that the Supreme Court accepted the rhetoric while recognizing the reality of the process whereby the United States was created by the people in collectivity, rather than by the individual states. The process of selecting the delegates for the First and Second Congresses underscores the revolutionary role of the people of the colonies in establishing a central governing body. Congress alone possessed those attributes of external sovereignty which entitled it to be called a state in the international sense, while the separate states, exercising a limited or internal sovereignty, may rightly be considered a creation of the Continental Congress, which preceded them and brought them into being.69 Without the attachment of a substantial body of the people to the cause of independence, that goal could not have been achieved, nor could the union have been forged, if it had not rested upon a national consensus.70 Indubitably, the elite leadership recognized the urgency of establishing a national character. John Jay did more than coin a phrase when he observed in 1797: "I wish to see our people more Americanized, if I may use that expression; until we feel and act as an independent nation, we shall always suffer from foreign intrigue."71 If emerging nationalism depended primarily on a political consensus,72 then the boycotts, protest movements, and the élan generated in fighting for independence heralded the emergence of a distinctive American culture.73 From the first, Dr. David Ram say understood the springs of young America's cultural nationalism.74 This sense of national purpose and uniqueness moved the common man, albeit with misgivings, to support a Constitution, whose ratification under a broad suffrage was so joyfully greeted by working-class people in every city in the land. With the aspirations of the common man in mind, we may see the Constitution, which assured the survival of a federal union, not as a counter-revolutionary event, but as part of the revolutionary process which had enlisted the energies and loyalties of masses of plain men and women for more than two decades.75 In the face of an impressive body of evidence of social tension and of mounting pressures to end inequities between ranks and regions, consensus historians still deny that the American Revolution was a rising of the masses against their oppressors.76 Nobody today seriously argues that an internal war over who should rule at home was fought between the propertyless masses and the privileged minority. Property was too widely distributed or the expectation of possessing it too broadly held for society to divide over this issue. In fact, despite their many differences, the people did unite in a common cause. What unified the discordant elements of the Patriot populace was the conviction that only through independence could they build a free society. What informed their common purpose was a republican ideology that recognized the people as the constituent power. To fill the vacuum of governmental authority which the act of revolution created, it was necessary to build a new political structure both for the thirteen states and for the nation. In the ensuing series of experiments in constitution-making and legislation, a people, liberated from the strictures of the old colonial order, began an era of innovation unprecedented in that day and age.77 The constitutions of the states embodied safeguards for civil liberties, checks upon executive usurpation, frequent elections, rotation in office, and other limits upon power, and in at least one state what amounted to manhood suffrage. Framers of these laws and constitutions were forced to confront long-standing inequities which had aroused the populace for different reasons and in different areas. Impressive strides were made in correcting the inequitable representation of the interior and upcountry. States moved the burdens from poor to rich or from debtor to creditor either by issuing copious amounts of paper currency while postponing taxes necessary to support it--a lesson some of our modern cities seem to have mastered--or by overhauling the tax structure, shifting from polls to property, or from equal acreage to ad valorem taxes. The reformers made perfectly clear that they wanted these tax reforms to strike at the power "in the hands of the rich and chief men exercised to the oppression of the poor."78 Small wonder that a troubled Landon Carter or a perturbed Charles Carroll of Carrollton should voice fears that the reforms proposed in their respective states would result in a government "independent of the rich men" and clearly "levelling" in their aims.79 Since taxation precipitated the American Revolution, it is understandable that the colonial tax structure should be overhauled when Britain no longer ruled.80 In a society overwhelmingly agrarian, land was the measure of wealth and opportunity. A reformation of real-property law to curb monopolies and encourage equality was seen by Jefferson to be essential to reform. Jefferson's real-property reforms were at the very least a symbolic blow against a class-structured society, a blow emulated in most of the thirteen states, while it achieved a liquidity of assets which an indebted planter class so desperately needed. England waited until 1925 to pass the Real Property Act and thereby reach the point to which Jefferson had brought Virginia by 1776.81 That gap of one hundred and fifty years marks the contrast between a society that achieved democracy by a revolution and one that reached it by glacial stages. Confiscation of Loyalist estates, carried out in America with far more rigor than was to be the case in France,82 enlarged the freeholding class. Granted that the initial purpose of forfeitures was fiscal rather than social, evidence suggests that rural holdings were extensively subdivided--immediately by exercise of pre-emption rights by tenants on large estates or later by purchases from speculators. The long-range effect of the program was indubitably egalitarian.83 If those targeted for confiscation proved to be landowners so imprudent as to have chosen the wrong side in the war, instead of all the big landowners, evidence exists that huge land monopolies were anathema to some Patriot reformers. Loyalists warned against the leveling that would follow independence. The best evidence was a provision in the draft Constitution of 1776 for Pennsylvania which the radicals were unable to have incorporated in the final document. It warned that "an enormous Proportion of Property vested in a few Individuals is dangerous to the Rights, and destructive of the Common Happiness of Mankind; and therefore every free State hath a Right by its Laws to discourage the Posesssion of such Property."84 Rejected or not, this principle governed the seizure of the proprietary lands in Pennsylvania. "It was taken from the Proprietarys, not in a way of confiscation," one correspondent reminded Lady Juliana Penn in the summer of 1782, "but upon principle of policy and expedience. . . . They thought the estate two [sic] large for a subject to possess, supposing it dangerous to the public that so much property should rest in the hand of one family."85 In doubling the territory of the new United States, the Peace of Paris directly contributed to the process of democratization which was already under way in America, and held out a vision of boundless resources which only recent circumstances have forced Americans to modify. Vast unoccupied lands were now available to war veterans, landless New Englanders, and speculators. Consider that, from a population of some twenty-five thousand on the eve of the Revolution, the area west of the mountains increased fivefold in less than seven years. Settlement of the West proved perhaps to be the most important social movement to emerge from the American Revolution. This migration of the dissatisfied tempered frustrations and reduced social tensions. To the extent that the westward movement incorporated notions of squatter sovereignty, the borderers invested their settlements with decided social overtones.86 No review of the socioeconomic dimension of the American Revolution can afford to ignore the wartime debtor-creditor confrontation between tobacco planters and English and Scottish merchants. Many Virginians, as George Mason reminded Patrick Henry, fought the war to get rid of these debts.87 If the British creditors were tenacious in pressing the besieged government at home for their pound of flesh, the American debtors employed every legal dodge to evade payment. This brought a swarm of hornets about the ears of the federal court judges, their repeated decisions in favor of creditors notwithstanding. As minister plenipotentiary to Great Britain, Chief Justice Jay found it expedient to strip the Supreme Court of final jurisdiction over such issues, and the treaty which bears his name permitted appeals to a mixed commission. The United States would assume payments for all debts validated by the commission. Thereby many debtors managed to socialize their debts, even though the government succeeded in scaling down its obligations. The issue of the planters' debts is perhaps the best example of how the Revolution redistributed liabilities rather than assets.88 The case for significant social change during the Revolution still needs to be made. One could point to the insolvency laws, to the democratization of education, and to church disestablishment and religious liberty legislation. Indubitably, reform in these diverse categories helped create a more egalitarian and pluralistic society. In no area is the social effect of the American Revolution more visible than in the opportunities for new men to enter government, business, and the professions. The Revolution brought all the "dregs" to the top, complained a Philadelphia grandee.89 Some who enjoyed a precipitous rise capitalized on the special opportunities the Revolution afforded in privateering, war manufacturing, and provisioning, on the new trade patterns resulting from the war, and on speculative opportunities provided by wartime and postwar inflation. A large body of statistical evidence is now available to show how state legislatures were altered to the advantage of newly settled areas and of men of less-established families. Statistics document some displacement of the old colonial "upper" class."90 James Madison, without benefit of a computer, had long before reached this same conclusion. In his Sixty-second Federalist he stressed "the mutability in the public councils," which he attributed to "a rapid succession of new members." "Every new election in the States," he said "is found to change one half of the representatives." The biographical record also demonstrates how the Revolutionary War brought a transformation in politics, business, and the professions. Consider that populist prototype, the New Yorker Abraham Yates, Jr., always an object of venom among the Federalists, who reserved for him choice epithets ranging from the "late cobbler of laws and old shoes" to "an old booby." Apprenticed to a shoemaker, he became a lawyer, and as sheriff allied himself with Robert Livingston, Jr. in the skirmishes against the so-called tenant rebels. A central figure in putting the new state government into operation, he proved both in Congress and in the state legislature an unreconstructed anti-Federalist. Or take the Irish redemptioner Matthew Lyon, whose pugnacity, enterprise, and leadership (not to speak of an influential second marriage) elevated him within a decade after war's end to an established position in his region, even if his affluence failed to render some of his coarser habits acceptable. That orphaned backwoodsman Andrew Jackson, who would spend more time on horseracing and cockfighting than on Blackstone, was admitted to practice in 1788 after two years of haphazard tutelage, adjudged by the court to be "a person of unblemished moral character, and competent . . . [in] knowledge of the law." And why not Henry Clay? That barefoot boy of the Slashes in old Hanover was left by his mother at the age of fifteen in the office of the Virginia Court of Chancery. As he recalled it, he started his practice in Lexington in 1797 "without patrons, without favor or countenance of the great or opulent [and] without the means of paying my weekly board." Jackson's and Clay's was a vastly different era from the prewar years. A transformed society had spawned a new breed of professionals and politicians.91 A people's revolution achieved more than independence and nationhood. It brought new men to power, raised people's political aspirations, made the new governments of the Revolution more responsive to social inequities, and underpinned the notion of the sovereign people as the constituent power, of which the Preamble of the Federal Constitution is the most eloquent affirmation. 4. Among others, John Jay, for example, felt impelled to deny, as late as December 1775, that the Continental Congress aimed at independence. "Proofs that the Colonies Do Not Aim at Independence" [Philadelphia, after December 11, 1775], in Richard B. Morris et al., eds., John Jay: The Making of a Revolutionary, Unpublished Papers, 1745-1780 (New York, 1975), 198-201. [back to text] 6. Gordon S. Wood, "The Democratization of Mind in the American Revolution," in Leadership in the American Revolution, Library of Congress Symposia on the American Revolution (Washington, 1974), 84. [back to text] 7. See my Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny: The Founding Fathers as Revolutionaries (New York, 1975); "The American Dream Among Nations--What Promise? What Fulfillment?" in America at 200, Foreign Policy Association, Headline Series, number 227 (New York, 1975), 3-35. [back to text] 8. Thomas Jefferson to the Secretary of the Treasury, January 13, 1807, in Paul Leicester Ford, ed., Writings of Thomas Jefferson (New York, 1892-99), 9:7. See also Joan Hoff Wilson, "The Illusion of Change: Women and the American Revolution," in Alfred F. Young, ed., The American Revolution: Explorations in the History of American Radicalism (DeKalb, Ill., 1976), 383-445. [back to text] 9. The view of Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968), 342, 244, that the success of antislavery in the last quarter of the eighteenth century was almost within reach is controverted by David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770-1820 (Ithaca, 1975), 255-57, and Edmund S. Morgan, "Slavery and Freedom: The American Paradox," Journal of American History 59 (1972): 6. For the role of blacks in the Revolution, see Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution (Chapel Hill, 1961), 111-57; George H. Moore, "Historical Notes on the Employment of Negroes in the American Army of the Revolution," Magazine of History, with Notes and Queries, No. 1 (1907); Richard B. Morris, The American Revolution Reconsidered (New York, 1967), 72-76. For the unfulfilled expectations of some black Tory refugees, see G. Halliburton, "The Nova Scotia Settlers of 1792," Sierra Leone Studies, N. S., No. 9 (December 1957): 16-25; Anthony Kirk-Greene, "David George: The Nova Scotia Experience," Sierra Leone Studies, N. S., No. 14 (December 1960): 93-120. [back to text] 10. Dirk Hoerder, "Boston Leaders and Boston Crowds, 1765-1776," in Young, ed., The American Revolution, 242, 248. For apprentices in the Philadelphia militia, see Eric Foner, Tom Paine and Revolutionary America (New York, 1976), 65, 126. [back to text] 11. See Richard B. Morris, Government and Labor in Early America (New York, 1946), 147-49, 314 n., 326, 362-63. The indentured servants were increasingly concentrated in rural areas, while towns like Boston were suffering a relatively rapid decline in immigration. James A. Henretta, "Economic Development and Social Structure in Colonial Boston," WMQ, 3d ser., 22 (1965): 83. In Philadelphia and its environs, the importation of German and Scotch-Irish redemptioners recommenced at the end of the Seven Years' War, while slave imports declined. Gary B. Nash, "Slaves and Slaveowners in Colonial Philadelphia," WMQ, 3d ser., 30 (1973), 223-56. Nevertheless, it is estimated that slaves and servants together of working age declined from 21 percent of Philadelphia's population (1767) to 16 percent (1775) and 5.5 percent (1783). [back to text] 13. Richard B. Morris, The American Revolution Reconsidered (New York, 1965), 60-65; Rowland Berthoff and John M. Murrin, "Feudalism, Communalism, and the Yeoman Freeholder: The American Revolution Considered as a Social Accident," in Stephen G. Kurtz and James H. Hutson, eds., Essays on the American Revolution (Chapel Hill, 1973), 256-88; Jack P. Greene, "The Social Origins of the American Revolution: An Evaluation and Interpretation," PSQ, 88 (1973): 1-22; Kenneth A. Lockridge, "Social Change and the Meaning of the American Revolution," Journal of Social History, 6 (1972-73): 403-59. For the argument that so far as New York was concerned, the neofeudal trappings of the great manors had little meaning by the mid-eighteenth century, see Sung Bok Kim, "A New Look at the Great Landlords of Eighteenth-Century New York," WMQ, 3d ser., 27 (1970): 581-614; Patricia U. Bonomi, A Factious People: Politics and Society in Colonial New York (New York, 1971), 196-200. For a re-evaluation of the impact of quitrents in one royal colony, see Alan D. Watson, "The Quitrent System in Royal South Carolina," WMQ, 3d ser., 33 (1976): 183-211. [back to text] 15. See James T. Lemon and Gary B. Nash, "The Distribution of Wealth in Eighteenth-Century America: A Century of Change in Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1693-1782," Journal of Social History, 2, No. 1 (1968): 1-24. For the view that the small man's economic position advanced in eighteenth-century Virginia, see Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery-American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York, 1975), 338-46. [back to text] 20. The Oxford English Dictionary lists a use of "class" in the sense of "orders" of society as early as 1656, but it was not in common currency for well over a century. See also Raymond Williams, Culture and Society, 1780-1950 (New York, 1960), xii. [back to text] 23. See Edward Countryman, "Out of the Bounds of the Law: Northern Land Riots in the Eighteenth Century," in Young, ed., The American Revolution, 39-69; Marvin L. Michael Key, "The North Carolina Regulation, 1766-1776: A Class Conflict," ibid., 73-123. [back to text] 26. This is an argument in Gordon S. Wood, "Rhetoric and Reality in the American Revolution," WMQ, 3d ser., 23 (1966): 3-32. The extent to which religious revivalism in the colonial interior infected the rhetoric of the time is suggestively treated by Rhys Isaac, "Preachers and Patriots: Popular Culture in Revolutionary Virginia," in Young, ed., The American Revolution, 125-54. [back to text] 27. See Staughton Lynd and Alfred F. Young, "After Carl Becker: The Mechanics in New York City Politics, 1774-1801," Labor History, 5 (1964): 215-24. The Philadelphia mechanics were mainly independent entrepreneurs, according to Charles S. Olton, Artisans for Independence: Philadelphia Mechanics and the American Revolution (Syracuse, 1975), 38. In Philadelphia the tools alone which master mechanics possessed seemed to constitute sufficient property for most to qualify for the suffrage. Ibid., 51, 52. See also David Montgomery, "The Working Class of the Pre-Industrial City, 1780-1830," Labor History, 9 (1968): 5; Roger J. Champagne, "Liberty Boys and Mechanics of New York City, 1764-1774," Labor History, 8 (1967): 124, 125. For estimates of the working-class population, see Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in Revolt: Urban Life in America, 1743-1776 (New York, 1955), 283; Benjamin W. Labaree, Patriots and Partisans: The Merchants of Newburyport, 1764-1815 (Cambridge, Mass., 1962), 4-5. For the enlistment of master ship carpenters in the nonimportation movement, see James H. Hutson, "An Investigation of the Inarticulate: Philadelphia's 'White Oaks'," WMQ, 3d ser., 28 (1971), 3-25. [back to text] 29. For a comment on Lyndon B. Johnson's characteristic assumption of pluralist thought as regards class or occupation, see Doris Kearns, Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream (New York, 1976), 156, 157. [back to text] 30. For the former view of English and continental crowd action, see George Rudé, The Crowd in History, 1730-1848 (New York, 1964), 52 ff. A similar view of the American revolutionary crowd is found in Bernard Bailyn, ed., Pamphlets of the American Revolution, 1750-1776 (Cambridge, Mass., 1965- ), 1:581-83, 740 n., and in Pauline Maier, From Resistance to Revolution: Colonial Radicals and the Development of American Opposition to Britain, 1765-1776 (New York, 1974). A dissenting view of Hiller B. Zobel, The Boston Massacre (New York, 1970) has been vigorously criticized by Jesse Lemisch, review article in Harvard Law Review, 84 (1970): 485-504, and by Pauline Maier, The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 2 (1971): 119-35. [back to text] 33. For the grass-roots support for price-fixing in the Revolution, see Morris, Government and Labor, 127-32. See also Ronald Hoffman, "The 'Disaffected' in the Revolutionary South," in Young, ed., American Revolution, 282, 298. [back to text] 35. See Jesse Lemisch. "The Radicalism of the Inarticulate: Merchant Seamen in the Politics of America," in Alfred F. Young, ed., Dissent: Explorations in the History of American Radicalism (DeKalb, Ill., 1968), 39-82. Richard M. Brown, "Violence in the American Revolution," in Kurtz and Hutson, eds., Essays on the American Revolution, 66, has identified seventeen Boston riots out of thirty anti-British demonstrations that were directed against customs enforcement and six over impressment by the Royal Navy. [back to text] 37. Henry Laurens to Joseph Brown, October 22, 1765, in George C. Rogers, Jr., and David R. Chesnutt, eds., The Papers of Henry Laurens, 5 vols. (Columbia, S.C., 1968- ), 5:27; Laurens to James Grant, November 1, 1765, ibid., 39, 40. [back to text] 40. The Sons of Liberty and Sons of Neptune, which prepared the early organization and mobilization of the crowd, have been studied by, among others, Henry B. Dawson, The Sons of Liberty in New York (New York. 1859); Herbert M. Morais, "The Sons of Liberty in New York," in Richard B. Morris, ed., The Era of the American Revolution (New York, 1939); Roger J. Champagne, "New York Radicals and the Coming of Independence," Journal of American History, 51 (1964): 21-40; Richard Walsh, Charleston's Sons of Liberty: A Study of the Artisans, 1763-1789 (Columbia, S.C., 1959). [back to text] 42. Morgan, American Slavery-American Freedom, 379; John Shy, A People Numerous and Armed (New York, 1976), 218, 220; Daniel J. Boorstin, The Americans: The Colonial Experience (New York, 1958), 345, 372. [back to text] 44. Joseph Hawley to Elbridge Gerry, May 1, 1776, in James T. Austin, Life of Elbridge Gerry (Boston, 1828-1829), 1:175-76. For the role of the Committee of Privates, a group of extreme radicals in the Pennsylvania militia, see Olton, Artisans for Independence, 74. [back to text] 45. Peter Force, ed., American Archives: Fourth Series, Containing a Documentary History of the English Colonies in North America, from the King's Message to Parliament, of March 7, 1774, to the Declaration of Independence by the United States (6 vols., Washington, 1837-46), 6:420. [back to text] 46. See, e.g., Instructions of Malden, May 27; Scituate, June 4; Resolve of Natick, June 20, 1776, Massachusetts Archives, lib. 156:fols. 101, 103, 113. See also Richard D. Brown, Revolutionary Politics in Massachusetts: The Boston Committee of Correspondence and the Towns, 1772-1774 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), 95-99, 208. [back to text] 48. For the popular response in Philadelphia, see John J. Zimmerman, "Charles Thomson, 'The Sam Adams of Philadelphia'," Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 45, No. 3 (1958): 464-80; for Charleston, see Walsh, Charleston's Sons of Liberty. See Ian R. Christie and Benjamin W. Labaree, Empire or Independence, 1770-1776: A British-American Dialogue on the Coming of the American Revolution (New York, 1976). [back to text] 49. G. B. Warden, Boston, 1689-1776 (Boston, 1970), 218-19; Brown, "Violence in the American Revolution," in Kurtz and Hutson, eds., Essays on the American Revolution, 108 ff.; Thad W. Tate, "The Social Contract in America. 1774-1787: Revolutionary Theory as a Conservative Instrument," WMQ, 3d ser., 22 (1965): 375-91. [back to text] 50. Morris, Government and Labor, 117-18; Richard B. Morris, "Insurrection in Massachusetts," in Daniel Aaron, ed., America in Crisis: Fourteen Crucial Episodes in American History (New York. 1952), 28, 29. [back to text] 57. For a criticism of the rump character of some of the extralegal elections, see "The Censor," an unidentified Philadelphia newspaper. March 5, 1776, in Force, ed., American Archives: Fourth Series, 5:71-72. [back to text] 58. For an informed review of this transitional period of governmental authority at the colony level, see Merrill Jensen. The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution, 1763-1776 (New York, 1968), 508-34. [back to text] 61. For the authorizations to New Hampshire and South Carolina, see Jere R. Daniell, Experiment in Republicanism: New Hampshire Politics and the American Revolution, 1741-1794 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), 106-12; Edward McCrady, The History of South Carolina in the Revolution, 1775-1780 (New York, 1901), 110, 115, 235. [back to text] 62. Ford, ed., Journals of the Continental Congress, 4:342. The resolve was voted on May 10: the preamble, written by John Adams, was adopted five days later, ibid., at 357-58. See Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, Lyman H. Butterfield et al., eds. (Cambridge, Mass., 1961), 3:335n., 382-86. [back to text] 64. Force, ed., American Archives: Fifth Series, Containing a Documentary History of the United States of America from the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776, to the Definitive Treaty of Peace with Great Britain, September 3, 1783 (3 vols., Washington, 1848-53), 2:113-14 (September 1776). [back to text] 66. François Jean, Marquis de Chastellux, Travels in North America, in the Years 1780, 1781, and 1782, J. Kent, trans. (London, 1787), 1:268 ff. See also Oscar and Mary Handlin, eds., The Popular Sources of Political Authority. Documents on the Massachusetts Convention of 1780 (Cambridge, Mass., 1966), esp. 51-53. [back to text] 71. John Jay to Colonel John Trumbull, Albany, October 27, 1797, (ALS advertised in American Book Prices Catalogue, 1897), in Henry P. Johnston, ed., The Correspondence and Public Papers of John Jay (New York, 1893), 4:232. [back to text] 78. "Instructions to the Delegates from Mecklenburg to the Provincial Congress at Halifax in November, 1776," William L. Saunders, ed., The Colonial Records of North Carolina (10 vols., Raleigh, 1968), 10:870a-870f. [back to text] 80. See Robert A. Becker, "Revolution and Reform: An Interpretation of Southern Taxation, 1763 to 1783," WMQ, 3d ser., 32 (1975): 417-42; for Maryland, Hoffman, "The 'Disaffected'," in Young, ed., American Revolution, 280-82, 307-08. [back to text] 81. Richard B. Morris, Studies in the History of American Law (New York, 1930), 123, 124. For a perceptive critique of the thesis of C. Ray Keim ("Primogeniture and Entail in Colonial Virginia," WMQ, 3d ser., 25 : 585-86), see Berthoff and Muffin, "Feudalism, Communalism, and the Yeoman Freeholder," in Kurtz and Hutson, eds., Essays on the American Revolution, p. 283n. For a New Englander's affirmative evaluation of the egalitarian impact of partible descent and the abolition of entails, see Timothy Picketing to Charles Tillinghast, December 24, 1787, Massachusetts Historical Society, Proceedings, 5 (1862): 413. [back to text] 83. Compare Beatrice G. Reubens, "Pre-Emptive Rights in the Disposition of a Confiscated Estate: Pittsburgh Manor, New York," WMQ, 22 (1965): 435-56; Catherine S. Crary, "Forfeited Loyalist Land in the Western District of New York: Albany and Tryon Counties," New York History, 35 (1954): 329-58; Richard D. Brown, "The Confiscation and Disposition of Loyalists' Estates in Suffolk County, Massachusetts," WMQ, 3d ser., 21 (1964): 549. [back to text] 90. Jackson Turner Main, "Government by the People: The American Revolution and the Democratization of the Legislatures," WMQ, 3d ser., 23 (1966): 391-407; The Upper House in Revolutionary America, 1763-1788 (Madison, Wisc., 1968); Political Parties Before the Constitution (Chapel Hill, 1973), for the lower house. See also James Kirby Martin, Men in Rebellion: Higher Governmental Leaders and the Coming of the American Revolution (New Brunswick, N. J., 1973), 195-96. For the advance of the common man in Philadelphia office-holding, see Olton, Artisans for Independence, 80. [back to text] 91. Alfred F. Young, The Democratic Republicans of New York: The Origins, 1763-1797 (Chapel Hill, 1967), 44, 45; Anton-Hermann Chroust, The Rise of the Legal Profession in America (Norman, Okla., 1965), 2:38; Calvin Colden, ed., The Life, Correspondence and Speeches of Henry Clay (New York, 1857), 1:29; Aleine Austin, "Matthew Lyon, New Man of the Democratic Revolution: His Early Career, 1749-1801" (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1970). [back to text] Text scanning: JSTOR Text proofing and correction: Liz Townsend 11/4/00 Text encoding and annotation: Robert Townsend 1/14/01 Version © 2001, American Historical AssociationLast Updated: August 9, 2012 9:47 AM

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DNA – Deoxyribonucleic Acid – is the genetic material within every living organism which determines the characteristics of the organism. Since every human being has DNA and the DNA within every person is distinct, DNA testing can be used to answer many questions about a person’s physical make up and his or her relationship with other people. TYPES OF DNA TESTING - Paternity/Maternity or Relationship – DNA can be used to establish familial relationships. - Forensics – DNA results can be used as evidence in criminal trials. - Ancestry – An individual’s DNA can be compared to the DNA profiles of population groups to discover what areas of the world one’s ancestors come from. - Medical – DNA testing can be used to detect genetic defects that prevent normal metabolism of prescription and over the counter drugs. PATERNITY OR RELATIONSHIP TESTING Paternity testing is a means of establishing a familial relationship that is recognized by the judicial system, federal and state government agencies, and insurance companies. - Child Support - DNA paternity testing can be used to establish paternity in legal matters involving child support. - Child Custody/Visitation Rights - DNA testing may be required in custody/visitation issues to determine if a man is the father of a child – which can be a deciding factor in a court’s decision to allow or deny legal access to a child. - Immigration - The U.S. State Dept. often requires DNA testing of non-citizen family members of U.S. citizens who wish to immigrate into the United States. - Adoption - Adoption agencies require both biological parents of a child to release a child to them for adoption. In cases where the paternity of a child is in question, DNA testing must be performed to determine who the father of a child is so that he can sign the child over to the adoptive parents. - Insurance – Insurance companies may require proof of paternity to add a child to an alleged father’s insurance policy. This can happen when the mother and father are not married or if the alleged father’s name is not on the birth certificate at the time of birth. In these cases DNA testing is the only proof insurance companies will accept. - Inheritance – Courts will take into account family relationships in determining how an estate will be divided. This usually happens in cases when no will is available or the will is not specific enough when it comes to the division of the estate between family and non-family members. REDUCED FEE PATERNITY TESTING Any Connecticut resident can obtain reduced fee paternity testing for child support purposes by filing for child support at the Connecticut Department of Social Services (DSS). Men who deny paternity, but who must be tested can also apply at DSS for the reduced fee test. Testing is arranged by DSS and the fee for the testing is significantly lower than the fee a private lab would charge. ACCREDITED PATERNITY (DNA) TESTING FACILITIES Set fee relationship/paternity testing can be obtained from private testing facilities. The AABB (formerly known as the American Association of Blood Banks) provides a list of accredited DNA testing facilities at their website, http://www.aabb.org/Content/Accreditation/Parentage_Testing_ Accredited_Parentage_Testing_Laboratories/aboutptlabs.htm. Out of state testing facilities can make arrangements for in-state sample collection. TO FIND PROVIDERS IN CONNECTICUT’S COMMUNITY RESOURCES DATABASE: Search by service name: Paternity/Maternity Establishment. SOURCE: Genelex: “Health & DNA: Reasons for Paternity Testing,” “AABB Accredited Relationship Testing Facilities,” http://www.aabb.org/Content/Accreditation/Parentage_Testing_Accreditation_ PREPARED BY: 211/rj CONTENT LAST REVIEWED: July 2009

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Given figure A and Figure B such that ar(A) = 20sq.units and ar( B ) = 20 sq. A. Figure A and B are congruent B. Figure A and B are not congruent C. Figure A and B are similar D.Figure A and B may or may not be congruent write a factual description of the scene at the park in your locality in the morning hours I am given the following reaction: 2NH3(g) -------> N2(g) + 3H2(g) My question is: 6.4 mols of ammonia gas has been put into a 1.7 L flask and has been permitted to reach equilibrium in accordance to the reaction listed above. If the equilibrium mixture has 4.2 mols of nitr... I want to apoligize. The equilibrium is 4HCl(g) + O2(g)--->2H2O(g) + 2Cl2(g) Not 4HCl(g) + O2(g) ---> 2H2(g) + 2Cl2(g). which quantum number, or quantum numbers, can be connected with the direction a particular orbital position points in space, regarding wave mechanics? what is the legend of kailashnath templee.. in kanchipuram.?? plzz reply .. need it urgently .. I checked dozens of web sites about the Kailashnath Temple and none mentions any legends. This is the most complete article I found about the temple. http://www.4to40.com/discoverin... Newspaper Article Review i was very impressed For Further Reading

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Basics: What is the GRE®? The Graduate Record Examination (GRE®) is a standardized test used by graduate programs to help determine who gets in and who receives grants and fellowships. The exam comes in two types: the general exam, which covers a range of non-specific skills developed over a long period of time and years of schooling, and the subject tests, which test depth of knowledge in eight different fields. Worldwide, about half a million people take the general test each year, while a much smaller number takes the subject exams. The general test is computer-based and consists of three sections, verbal, quantitative, and analytical writing. Verbal and quant are each scored on a scale of 130-170, in 1-point increments, plus a percentile rank. The writing section is scored on a scale of 0-6, in half-point increments. The test does not cover specifics in any field of study, but rather a set of skills thought to be important for prospective grad students. The subject tests, on the other hand, are paper-based and administered 3 times a year. Unlike the general test, the subject test assumes extensive knowledge. Tests cover the following areas: Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology; Biology; Chemistry; Computer Science; Literature in English; Mathematics; Physics; and Psychology. To determine whether you should take the general test or one of these subject-specific exams, you’ll need to check with the programs where you’re applying. For any field without a subject test, you’ll take the general exam. Next Basics article: GRE® Test Format

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Introduction to Stereomicroscopy The first stereoscopic-style microscope having twin eyepieces and matching objectives was designed and built by Cherubin d'Orleans in 1671, but the instrument was actually a pseudostereoscopic system that achieved image erection only by the application of supplemental lenses. A major drawback of the d'Orleans design was that the left-side image was projected to the right eyepiece and the right-side image project to the left eyepiece. It wasn't until over 150 years later when Sir Charles Wheatstone wrote a treatise on binocular vision that enough interest was stimulated in stereomicroscopy to provide the impetus for further work. During the mid-nineteenth century, Francis Herbert Wenham of London designed the first truly successful stereomicroscope. Wenham incorporated a novel approach by utilizing an achromatic prism to split the light beam at the rear of a single objective. A few years later, John Ware Stephenson produced a similar instrument (see Figure 1). The Wenham binocular, as the microscope design became known, suffered from artifacts brought about by the single lens and did not actually produce a true stereoscopic effect. In the early 1890's, Horatio S. Greenough, an American instrument designer, introduced a novel design that was to become the forefather of modern stereomicroscopes. Greenough convinced the Carl Zeiss Company of Jena to produce the microscope, but instead of incorporating Greenough's lens erecting system, Zeiss engineers designed inverting prisms to produce an erect image. This design has withstood the test of time (and a large number of microscopists), and was a workhorse in medical and biological dissection throughout the twentieth century. The microscope is still a favorite for many specific applications. Stereomicroscopes manufactured during the first half of the twentieth century, or dissection microscopes as they were called, were much like traditional compound microscopes of the era. They were heavy, constructed mainly from brass, utilized prisms for image erection, and had simple lens systems consisting of one or two doublets. The working distance was inversely proportional to the magnification, and was quite short at the highest available magnifications. These microscopes were employed primarily for dissection, because there were very few industrial applications involving small assemblies that required a microscope for examination. Even watchmakers used monocular loupes! The first modern stereomicroscope was introduced in the United States by the American Optical Company in 1957. Named the Cycloptic®, this breakthrough design featured a die-cast aluminum housing, a constant working distance (that, at four inches, was the one of the longest produced), and an internal magnification changer, which allowed the observer to increase the objective magnification from 0.7x to 2.5x in five steps. In addition, the microscope utilized one-piece glass erecting prisms, was equipped with a variety of accessories including stands, arms, and illuminators, and conformed to 1950's styling with a two-tone gray paint scheme (see Figure 2). The microscope's name was derived from a single large central objective at the bottom of the body through which both the left and right channel accumulated light from the specimen. In later microscopes, the Cycloptic feature was renamed Common Main Objective (CMO). This design uses a single large objective lens which, when focused on the specimen, forms an image at infinity. The Cycloptic, unlike most of the early stereomicroscope designs, had a threaded mount in the lower microscope body to secure the objective into position just beneath a rotatable drum containing two pairs of afocal Galilean-style telescopes. As the drum rotated, the telescope lenses were used in both forward and reversed orientations (magnifying and minifying), to yield four different magnifications. The fifth magnification resulted from an open channel with no glass. Galilean lens systems have the advantage of a small focal length, a very small field diameter, and seldom have magnifications exceeding 2x or 3x. A 2x Galilean lens will provide either 2x or 1/2x magnification, depending upon orientation, and matched pairs can be arranged to produce many variations. The Cycloptic's head contained what is now known as tube lenses, erecting prisms, and a pair of eyepieces. This microscope quickly became popular with early semiconductor manufacturers, most notably Western Electric. Two years later (in 1959), Bausch & Lomb introduced a stereomicroscope to compete with the Cycloptic, but with a cutting-edge advance: continuously variable, or zoom, magnification. Named the StereoZoom®, this microscope was the first stereomicroscope without erecting prisms and was fashioned around the basic Greenough design, which will be discussed in detail below. It was generally the same size and shape as the Cycloptic (Figure 3), and had a comparable magnification range (0.7x to 3.0x) with similar working distances. The microscope also featured a new Bausch & Lomb invention: four first-surface mirrors with enhanced aluminum coatings, which were strategically positioned to perform the function of both inclination prisms and Porro erecting prisms. In stereomicroscopy erect images are useful because microscopists often must perform interactive manipulations on the specimen while under observation. Tasks such as dissection, micro-welding, industrial assembly, or microinjection of oocytes are more conveniently conducted when the specimen has the same physical orientation on the microscope stage as it does when viewed through the eyepieces. Also, the study of true spatial relationships between specimen features is aided by a natural, erect image. In addition to having a reduced cost when compared to prism-equipped microscopes, the StereoZoom was also lighter in weight. The basic microscope system or "Power Pod", as it was called, was complemented by an enormous selection of auxiliary lenses, eyepieces, illuminators, arms and stands, all produced with a trend-setting style that endured for over 40 years. Acceptance of the StereoZoom by a rapidly emerging semiconductor industry was immediate and long-lived. This novel design dominated the stereomicroscope market for many years until production was halted in 2000 by Leica, which in the 1980's had combined the microscope resources of American Optical, Bausch & Lomb, Leitz, Reichert, and Wild. During the early 1960's, zooming stereomicroscopes were introduced by Nikon, Olympus, Unitron, and other (not so well known) Japanese companies that were beginning to make their presence known in the United States. Collectively, the Japanese, American, and European microscope manufacturers continued advancing the development of "bigger and better" stereomicroscopes having a host of new features. These advances were accelerated by the invention of high-speed computers, which made it feasible for optical designers to tackle the complex problem of creating an effective variable magnification zoom lens system with well-corrected optical aberrations. Today's stereomicroscope designs feature high numerical aperture objectives that produce high contrast images, which have a minimum amount of flare and geometrical distortion. The observation tubes will accommodate high-eyepoint eyepieces having a field of view up to 26 millimeters, with a diopter adjustment that allows the image and reticle to be merged into focus simultaneously. In addition, many models sport high zoom ratios (up to 12x-15x) that provide a wide magnification range (between 2x and 540x) and reduce the necessity to change objectives. Ergonomic features incorporated into the microscope designs help to reduce fatigue during long hours of operation, and new accessories enable modern stereomicroscopes to image specimens that were impractical just a few years ago. The human eyes and brain function together to produce what is referred to as stereoscopic vision, which provides spatial, three-dimensional images of the objects surrounding us. This is because of the brain's interpretation of the two slightly different images received from each of the retinas. The average human eyes are separated by a distance of approximately 64-65 millimeters, and each eye perceives an object from a somewhat different viewpoint that differs by a few degrees from the other. When transmitted to the brain, the images are fused together, but still retain a high degree of depth perception, which is truly remarkable. The stereomicroscope takes advantage of this ability to perceive depth by transmitting twin images that are inclined by a small angle (usually between 10 and 12 degrees) to yield a true stereoscopic effect. In some stereomicroscope systems, specimens are imaged utilizing two separate compound microscope optical trains, each consisting of an eyepiece, an objective, and intermediate lens elements. Other designs employ a common objective shared between two individual optical channels. Two distinct images, originating from slightly different viewing angles, are projected onto the microscopist's retinas, where they stimulate nerve endings to transfer the information to the brain for processing. The result is a single three-dimensional image of the specimen whose resolution is limited by the microscope optical system parameters and the frequency of nerve endings in the retina, much like the limiting grain size in photographic film or the pixel density in a charged coupled device (CCD) digital camera. Stereomicroscopes can be roughly divided into two basic families, each of which has both positive and negative characteristics. The oldest stereomicroscopic system, named after the inventor Greenough, utilizes twin body tubes that are inclined to produce the stereo effect. A newer system, termed the common main objective (introduced above), utilizes a single large objective that is shared between a pair of eyepiece tubes and lens systems. Either type of microscope can be equipped with step-type individual lenses to change magnification, or a continuously variable zoom-type magnification system. The following discussion addresses the advantages and disadvantages of both the Greenough and common main objective stereomicroscope designs. The Greenough design, introduced by Zeiss at the turn of the twentieth century, consists of two identical (and symmetrical) optical systems each containing a separate eyepiece and objective arranged in accurate alignment within a single housing (Figure 4). A major advantage of this design is the high numerical apertures that can be obtained because the objectives are very similar in design to those utilized in classical compound microscopes. In general, the lower portions of the body tubes, containing the slender objectives, are tapered and converge at the best focus of the object plane. The upper end of the body tubes project a pair of images into the observer's eyes, normally with a pair of standard eyepieces. The size, focus, rotation, and centering of the two images must be held constant within very tight tolerances, so that the eyes view essentially the same scene. The one departure from sameness is the slightly different viewing angle at which each image is projected onto the retina. Because of the convergence angle, typically ranging from 10 to 12 degrees in modern designs, the left eye views the object from the left side while the right eye views the same object from a slightly different perspective on the right side. A pair of erecting prisms or mirror system is utilized to de-rotate and invert the magnified image received from the objectives and present it to the observer as it would appear without a microscope. The body tubes are built to provide a straight line-of-sight in some designs, while others enlist the aid of additional prisms to allow inclination of the tubes and a more natural viewing position for the microscopist. Because the image-forming light rays pass through the complex lens system on center, the quality of the image is symmetrical about its center, as is the case with most compound microscopes. In addition, correction for optical aberrations in Greenough-type microscopes is less difficult than with common main objective designs, because the lenses are smaller, axially symmetrical, and do not rely heavily on light rays passing through the objective periphery. Interactive Flash Tutorial A distortion artifact arises in the Greenough microscope design due to the oblique separation of each body tube from a common axis. Termed the Keystone effect, this distortion causes the area on the left side of the right eye to appear slightly smaller than that on the right-hand side of the same image, and of course the reverse is true for the left eye's image (see Figure 5). Keystone distortion arises from the fact that the intermediate images produced by each body tube are inclined with respect to the specimen plane, and tilted relative to each other, so that only the central regions are in simultaneous focus at identical magnifications. The result is that peripheral portions of the viewing field are focused either slightly above or below the actual specimen plane and have very small differences in magnification, although the eyes usually compensate for this effect and it is often not noticeable to the microscopist. During prolonged observation periods, however, fatigue and eyestrain can be accelerated by the Keystone effect. The small change in magnification and focus across the field of view in Greenough stereomicroscopes might be noticed in a photograph or video image produced through one side of the instrument, especially if the object is primarily flat and rectilinear. In photomicrography, focus discontinuities brought on by the inclination angle are easily compensated by tilting either the specimen or one of the beam paths so that the microscope optical axis is perpendicular to the lateral specimen plane. When undertaking measurements with a reticle, the linear eyepiece grid should be positioned in a vertical direction to minimize the Keystone effect. Another solution is to tip the specimen or the microscope five or six degrees and negate the convergence. Interactive Java Tutorial Common main objective stereomicroscope designs center on the refracting action of a single, large diameter objective lens, through which both the left and right channels view the object . Each channel operates as an independent optical train parallel to the other (this is the reason they are also known as parallel microscopes; Figure 4), and there is collimated light between the individual channels and the objective (the image is projected to infinity). This arrangement guarantees that convergence of the left and right optical axes coincide with the focal point in the specimen plane. Because this parallel axis arrangement is usually extended to include the eyepieces, the left and right images are viewed by the microscopist's eyes with little or no convergence. A major advantage of the common main objective system is that the optical axis of the objective is normal to the specimen plane, and there is no inherent tilt of the image at the eyepiece focal plane. Although in most situations there are the usual 10 to 12 degrees of convergence at the specimen, the brain is not used to interpreting three-dimensional images without convergence, leading to a unique anomaly that is specific to CMO stereomicroscopes. When viewing specimens through this type of microscope, the center portions of the specimen appear to be slightly elevated, so that a flat specimen now appears to have a convex shape. For example, a coin will have the appearance of being thicker in the center, so it would rock from side to side when inverted on a flat surface. This artifact is referred to as a perspective distortion, but should not cause concern unless the microscope is utilized to judge flatness or height (see Figure 5). Specimens with complex or rounded shapes, while displaying a certain amount of perspective distortion, often do not appear to be distorted when viewed through the stereomicroscope. Perspective distortion is sometimes referred to as doming or the globular effect, and results from a combination of keystone and pincushion distortion. As an example, presented in Figure 5 is a slightly exaggerated illustration of how a United States Lincoln penny, a disc-shaped flat coin, would appear in a stereomicroscope with severe perspective distortion. The original penny is shown at the top of the illustration to have a flat surface. Just beneath are the images projected simultaneously by the microscope to both the left and right eyes, which demonstrate an asymmetrical pincushion distortion directed toward the central axis of the microscope. The final result is perception of a dome- or globe-shaped object when the images from both eyepieces are projected onto the retinas and fused together in the brain. Most high-end research grade common main objective stereomicroscopes produced by the major manufacturers have virtually eliminated this artifact, but it still occurs in some less expensive microscopes. Another artifact often encountered with common main objective stereomicroscopes is that small amounts of off-axis aberrations such as astigmatism, coma, and lateral chromatic aberration appear in the center of each image. This occurs because each optical channel is receiving light rays from an off-center region of the large objective instead of directly from the center, where aberrations (especially those occurring off-axis) are at a minimum or practically non-existent in lenses with the best optical corrections. The effect is generally not noticed when both eyes are employed to view the specimen, but a photomicrograph or digital image may have asymmetric geometry across the field. Interactive Java Tutorial In general, the chromatic aberrations are difficult and expensive to correct, especially considering the large size and volumes of glass used in manufacture of the objectives. Some CMO stereomicroscope designs have made this a non-issue by providing the facility to offset the large central objective, positioning it on the axis of either the left or right side channel. Other microscope designs even provide a means for replacing the large objective with a conventional infinity-corrected objective that can be utilized to view and photograph specimens at high magnifications (and numerical apertures). The greatest design feature and practical advantage of a common main objective stereomicroscope, as with most modern microscopes, is the infinity optical system. A collimated light pathway, with two parallel axes for the channels, exists between the objective and removable head/observation tube assembly (labeled infinity space in Figure 6). This allows the effortless introduction of accessories, such as beamsplitters, coaxial episcopic illuminators, photo or digital video intermediate tubes, drawing tubes, eyelevel risers, and image transfer tubes into the space between the microscope body and head. It is also possible to place these accessories in the space between the objective and zoom body, although this is rarely done in practice. Because the optical system produces a parallel bundle of light rays between the body and microscope head, the added accessories do not introduce significant aberrations or shift the position of images observed in the microscope. Such versatility is not available in stereomicroscopes designed around the Greenough principles. It is a difficult task to determine which of the two designs (CMO or Greenough) is superior, because there are no universally accepted criteria for comparing performance between the stereomicroscope systems. Common main objective microscopes, in general, have a greater light-gathering power than the Greenough-design and are often more highly corrected for optical aberration. Some observations and photomicrography might best be conducted utilizing a CMO microscope, while other situations may call for features exclusive to the Greenough design. As a consequence, each microscopist must make the determination whether one design will be more appropriate for the task at hand and use this information to develop a strategy for stereomicroscopy investigations. In most circumstances, the choice between Greenough or common main objective stereomicroscopes is usually based on the application, and not whether one design is superior to the other. Greenough microscopes are typically employed for "workhorse" applications, such as soldering miniature electronic components, dissecting biological specimens, and similar routine tasks. These microscopes are relatively small, inexpensive, very rugged, simple to use, and easy to maintain. Common main objective microscopes are generally utilized for more complex applications requiring high resolution with advanced optical and illumination accessories. The wide spectrum of accessories available for these microscopes lends to their strength in the research arena. In many industrial situations, Greenough microscopes are likely to be found in production lines, while common main objective microscopes are limited to the research and development laboratories. Another consideration is the economics of microscope purchase, especially on a large scale. Common main objective stereomicroscopes can cost several times more than a Greenough microscope, which is a chief consideration for manufacturers who may require tens to hundreds of microscopes. However, there are exceptions. If a common main objective microscope is the better tool for a job, the true cost of ownership may be lower in the end. Magnification in Stereomicroscopy: Objectives and Eyepieces The total magnification achieved in a stereomicroscope is the product of the objective and eyepiece magnifications, plus that contributed by any intermediate or external auxiliary magnifying lens systems. Over the years, a number of independent methods have been developed to change (increase or decrease) the magnification factor of stereomicroscopes. In the simplest microscopes, the objectives (or single objective in a CMO design) are permanently mounted in the lower body housing, and magnification can only be altered by introducing eyepieces of varying power. Slightly more complex microscopes have interchangeable objectives that allow total magnification factors to be adjusted either by using a higher or lower power objective or by substituting eyepieces of differing magnification. Objectives in these models are mounted by screw threads or clamps, which enable relatively quick changeover to a new magnification. Mid-level stereomicroscopes are equipped with either a sliding objective housing or a rotating turret containing several matched sets of objectives to produce varying magnification factors. In order to adjust the microscope magnification, the operator simply twists the turret to position a new auxiliary paired set of objectives beneath the channel tubes. Microscopes having this design were once very popular, but are rarely manufactured today. The highest quality stereomicroscopes are equipped with a zoom lens system or a rotating drum containing Galilean telescopes that are utilized to increase and decrease overall magnification. The rotating drum system functions as an integral intermediate tube (or piece) containing paired sets of lenses that can be installed into the optical pathway by rotating the drum. In most models, positive détentes are employed to act as "click stops" to secure the lens mounts into correct alignment, and are marked to notify the operator of the new magnification factor. The drum usually has a pair of empty lens mounts that are devoid of auxiliary lenses and can be positioned into the optical path to allow use of the objective and eyepiece combination without additional magnification. Zoom systems (illustrated in Figure 7) provide a continuously variable magnification range that can be adjusted by turning a knob located either on the periphery of the microscope body or integrated within the body itself. This design eliminates the blank-out that occurs with possible visual loss of spatial relationships between specimen features when magnification is changed in discrete, stepped settings. In some of the older literature, zoom systems are often referred to as pancratic systems after the Greek words pan for "each" and kratos for "power". Zoom ratios vary between 4:1 and 15:1, depending upon the microscope age, manufacturer, and model. In general, a zoom lens system contains a minimum of three lens groups, enlisting two or more elements for each group, which are strategically positioned with respect to each other. One element is fixed within the channel tube, while the other two are smoothly translated up and down within the channel by precision cams. The system is designed to allow rapid and continuous changes in magnification while simultaneously keeping the microscope in focus. Following the zoom system, additional lens elements are utilized to relay and/or erect the image before projecting it into the eyepieces. Several of the newer stereomicroscope models employ a positive click-stop that alerts the microscopist at selected magnification positions in the zoom range. This distinction is essential for calibration of the magnification level at a given power step, a feature often found useful when performing linear measurements. Early stereomicroscope zoom lens systems had a magnification range of approximately 7x to 30x. The magnification factors slowly grew as optical performance improved in this class of microscopes, and more recent student microscopes now feature zoom ranges between 2x and 70x. Mid-level stereomicroscopes have zoom magnification factors with an upper magnification limit between 250x and 400x, while high-end research microscopes sport zoom systems that can reach over 500x in magnification. This wide magnification range is complemented by a depth of field and working distances that are much larger than are found in compound microscopes having equivalent magnifications. The working distance on modern stereomicroscopes varies between 20 and 140 millimeters, depending upon the objective magnification and zoom ratio. With the addition of specialized auxiliary attachment lenses, working distances of 300 millimeters or more can be achieved. Field diameters are also much wider than those attainable with compound microscopes. Auxiliary attachment lenses can be fitted to the objective barrel on specially designed stereomicroscopes (Figure 8). In general, the attachment lenses are threaded to rotate into a matching thread set on the front of the objective barrel. Other versions attach to the barrel with a clamping device. These lenses enable the microscopist to either increase or decrease the magnification of the primary objective. Attachment lenses are useful when image quality is not the overriding factor, because optical corrections cannot be as accurately performed due to the fact that the lens is not mounted in the identical position each time it is attached. In addition, attachment lenses modify the objective working distance (the distance between the specimen and the objective front lens element). A lens that increases the microscope magnification will also simultaneously render a short working distance, while an attachment lens that serves to decrease magnification produces a corresponding increase in working distance. Modern stereomicroscopes are equipped with standardized widefield high-eyepoint eyepieces that are available in magnifications ranging from 5x to 30x in approximately 5x increments. Most of these eyepieces can be utilized with or without eyeglasses, and protective rubber cups are available to avoid contact between a microscopist's eyeglasses and the eyepiece eyelens. Eyepieces generally are equipped with a diopter adjustment to allow simultaneous focusing of the specimen and measuring reticles, and binocular microscope observation tube mounts (heads) now have moveable tubes that enable the operator to vary the interpupillary distance between eyepieces over a range of 55 to 75 millimeters. The interpupillary adjustment is often accomplished by rotating the prism bodies with respect to their optical axes. Because the objectives are fixed in their relationship to the prisms, the adjustment does not alter the stereoscopic effect. This convenience reduces fatigue during extended observation periods, but requires re-adjustment when the instrument is used by more than one operator. Note that microscopists who wear eyeglasses to correct for shortsightedness and differences in vision between eyes should also wear their glasses for microscopy. Eyeglasses worn only for close-up work should be removed during observation because the microscope produces the image at some distance. The field of view (sometimes abbreviated FOV), which is visible and in focus when observing specimens in a microscope, is determined by the objective magnification and the size of the fixed field diaphragm in the eyepiece. When the magnification is increased in either a conventional or stereomicroscope, the field of view size is decreased if the eyepiece diaphragm diameter is held constant. Conversely, when magnification is decreased, the field of view is increased at fixed eyepiece diaphragm diameters. Changing the size of the eyepiece diaphragm opening (this must be done during manufacture) will either increase the field of view at fixed magnification (for a larger diaphragm size), or decrease the field of view (smaller diaphragm size). In most compound and stereomicroscope eyepieces, the physical diameter of the field diaphragm (located either in front or behind the eyepiece field lens) is measured in millimeters and called the field number, which is often abbreviated and referred to simply as FN. The actual physical size of the field diaphragm and apparent optical field size can vary in eyepiece designs having a field lens below the diaphragm. Measuring and photomicrography reticles are placed in the plane of the eyepiece field diaphragm, so as to appear in the same optically conjugate plane as the specimen. The field number of the eyepiece, usually inscribed on the housing exterior, is divided by the magnification power of the objective to quantitatively determine the field of view size. Included in the calculation should also be the zoom setting and any additional accessories inserted into the optical path that may have a magnification factor. However, the eyepiece magnification is not included, which is a relatively common mistake made by novices in microscopy. When a wider field of view is desired, the microscopist should choose eyepieces with a higher field number. In the lower magnification ranges, stereomicroscopes have substantially larger fields of view than classical laboratory compound microscopes. The typical field size with a 10x eyepiece and a low power objective (0.5x) is around 65 to 80 millimeters (depending upon the zoom factor), which greatly exceeds the size observed (about 40 millimeters) with a compound microscope at comparable magnification. These large field sizes require a high degree of illumination, and it is often difficult to provide a continuous level of illumination across the entire viewfield. Resolution and Depth of Field in Stereomicroscopy Resolution in stereomicroscopy is determined by the wavelength of illumination and the numerical aperture of the objective, just as it is with any other form of optical microscopy. The numerical aperture is a measure of the resolving power of the objective and is defined as one-half the angular aperture of the objective multiplied by the refractive index of the imaging medium, which is usually air in stereomicroscopy. By dividing the illumination wavelength (in microns) by the numerical aperture, the smallest distance discernible between two specimen points is given by the equation (the Raleigh Criterion): Resolution (d) = 0.61 × λ / (n × sin(θ)) where d is the smallest resolvable distance, λ is the illuminating wavelength (usually a mixture centered around 550 nanometers in stereomicroscopy), n is the refractive index of the medium between the objective and specimen, and θ is the objective one-half angular aperture. As an example, a Nikon SMZ1500 stereomicroscope equipped with a 1.6x apochromatic objective having a numerical aperture of 0.21, will have a maximum resolution of approximately 1.6 micrometers when the specimen is illuminated with white light having an average wavelength of 550 nanometers. Note that the resolution calculated for the 1.6x objective assumes the imaging medium between the specimen and the objective is air. Objective lenses manufactured for common main objective stereomicroscopes typically vary in magnification from 0.5x to 2.0x, with three or four intermediate values. The magnification, working distance, and numerical aperture of typical stereomicroscope objectives at varying magnification are presented in Table 1. In the past, several manufacturers have assigned color codes to their stereomicroscope objective magnification values. Table 1 also lists the color code assignment for a series of Nikon stereomicroscope objectives having this identifying information. Note that many manufacturers do not assign a specific color code to stereomicroscope objectives, and the codes listed in Table 1 are intended only to alert readers that some objectives may display this and other specialized proprietary nomenclature. Stereomicroscope Objective Specifications The resolving power of stereomicroscope objectives is determined solely by the objective numerical aperture and is not influenced by optical parameters of the eyepiece. Overall resolution will not be affected when exchanging 10x eyepieces for 20x or higher magnification eyepieces, although specimen detail that is not visible at the lower magnification will often be revealed when the eyepiece magnification is increased. The highest power eyepieces (30x or higher) may approach empty magnification, especially when the total microscope magnification exceeds that available from the objective numerical aperture. In order to gauge and compare the performance of one microscope to another, the resolution value is often expressed in terms of line pairs per millimeter (lp/mm). In the case of the Nikon 1.6x objective discussed above, the resolution approaches 630 line pairs per millimeter under optimum conditions. Auxiliary attachment lenses, which range in power from 0.3x to 2.0x, can alter the working distance and resolving power of a stereomicroscope optical system. In general, the resolving power influence is proportional to the magnification factor of the attachment lens. The field diameter is inversely proportional to the magnification factor, while the depth of field is inversely proportional to the magnification factor squared. Changes in working distance are also inversely proportional to the magnification factor, but are difficult to compute because the function is not linear. In addition, use of these auxiliary lenses will not have significant impact on image brightness in most cases. Numerical Aperture and Equivalent f-Number Values Lenses designed for general photography are rated with a system that is based on f-numbers (abbreviated f), rather than numerical aperture (Table 2). In fact, these two values appear different, but actually express the same quantity: the light gathering ability of a photography lens or microscope objective. F-numbers can be easily converted to numerical aperture (and vice versa) by taking the reciprocal of twice the other's value: f-Number (f) = 1 / (2 x NA) and NA = 1 / (2 x f) Numerical aperture (in microscopy) is equal to the refractive index of the imaging medium multiplied by the angular aperture of the objective. The f-number is calculated by dividing the focal length of the lens system by the aperture diameter. If a 50-millimeter focal length lens has the same aperture diameter as a 100-millimeter lens, the shorter lens has twice the f-number as the longer. In cases where the maximum diameter is the same in both lenses, the size is f/2 for the 50-millimeter lens and f/4 for the 100 millimeter lens. The aperture diameter is fixed in a stereomicroscope objective, similar to the situation with conventional compound microscope objectives. As the microscope magnification is increased or decreased by changing the zoom factor, the focal length is also altered accordingly. At higher magnifications, the ratio of the aperture diameter to focal length increases, and the opposite is true as magnification is decreased. The focal length of a 2.0x stereomicroscope objective is half that of a 1.0x objective, which in turn, is half that of a 0.5x objective. In some of the Nikon SMZ series stereomicroscopes (U, 10a, 800, and 1000), the 0.5x objective has a focal length of 200 millimeters, while the 1.0x is 100 millimeters, and the 2.0x objective focal length is 50 millimeters. The relative size of the zoom system aperture (as compared to that of the objective) functions to control the f-number (and numerical aperture) of the entire microscope system. In late model microscopes, such as the SMZ1500, objective focal lengths have been reduced in order to increase the total system numerical aperture. Thus, a 0.5x objective designed for the SMZ1500 has a 160-millimeter focal length, with the 1.0x and 2.0x objectives having focal lengths equal to one-half and one-quarter that of the 0.5x lens, respectively. Some manufacturers supply adapter rings that allow objectives designed for a specific microscope to be used on other (usually earlier model) stereomicroscopes. In several cases, two objectives having the same magnification can have different focal lengths due to variations in tube lens and zoom channel aperture specifications. As an example, the Nikon SMZ-U stereomicroscope 1.0x objective has a focal length of 100 millimeters, while the later model SMZ1500 microscope employs a focal length of 80 millimeters for an objective having similar magnification and optical corrections. The difference between the two microscope designs is the size of the zoom system aperture, which results in shorter focal lengths for the SMZ1500 series objectives. When interchanging objectives having the same magnification but different focal lengths, an additional factor must be introduced into total magnification calculations to correct for the focal length differences. Depth of Field in Stereomicroscope Objectives Depth of field is an important concept in stereomicroscopy (perhaps even more so than with other common forms of optical microscopy), and is strongly influenced by the total magnification of the instrument, including the contribution from both the objective and auxiliary attachment lenses. At a magnification of 50x, using a 1x objective (numerical aperture 0.10), 10x eyepieces, and a zoom factor of 5, the depth of field exhibited by a typical stereomicroscope is approximately 55 micrometers. If a 2x attachment lens is added to the microscope when it is configured for operation at 50x, the new magnification will be 100x, but the depth of field drops to about 14 micrometers, a substantial decrease from the value (55 micrometers) without the auxiliary lens. In this situation, it is wiser to change the eyepiece magnification from 10x to 20x to achieve the added magnification so as to retain the larger depth of field value (see Table 3). Increasing the objective numerical aperture through enhanced optical correction (for instance, from achromat to apochromat) will also produce a modest decrease in field depth. Depth of field values for a Nikon plan apochromatic 1x objective are presented in Table 3, where they are listed as a function of zoom magnification factor and eyepiece magnification. It is clear from the data in the table that numerical aperture increases with increasing zoom magnification, while the depth of field decreases with increasing eyepiece and zoom magnification factors. Interactive Flash Tutorial Reducing the size of the double iris diaphragm positioned between the objective and the eyepieces can enhance depth of field. This diaphragm is opened and closed using a wheel or lever in the microscope body housing. There are actually two diaphragms, one for each of the channels, in the common main objective stereomicroscope design. The role of these diaphragms is to produce an increase in field depth while simultaneously improving specimen contrast observed in the eyepieces. Depth of field and numerical aperture variations, as a function of diaphragm opening size, are presented in Table 4 for the Nikon plan apochromatic 1x objective at the highest zoom magnification factor (11.25). As the diaphragm size is ramped down, the depth of field utilizing a 10x eyepiece increases from 26 to 89 millimeters, approximately a 200 percent increase. Simultaneously, the numerical aperture drops from a value of 0.131 to 0.063, or almost 100 percent. Similar effects are observed at higher eyepiece magnifications. Depth of Field and Numerical Aperture Iris Diaphragm Opening Size Closing the iris diaphragms will also produce a decrease in overall light intensity, increasing exposure times for both digital and film camera systems. In most cases, the optimum setting for the diaphragms is determined by experimentation. As the diaphragms are slowly closed, the image begins to display more contrast as illumination intensity slowly fades. At some point, depending upon the optical configuration of the microscope, the image begins to degrade and specimen details exhibit diffraction phenomena while minute structural details disappear. The best setting is a balance between maximum specimen detail and maximum contrast as seen in the eyepieces, on film, or in digital images. Photomicrography and Digital Imaging Both Greenough and common main objective stereomicroscopes are readily adaptable to image capture utilizing traditional photomicrography techniques (film) or through advanced digital imaging. Often photomicrography is employed as a tool for recording the spatial distribution of specimen details prior to observation and imaging with a higher-power compound microscope. This technique is often necessary for biological specimens, where dissecting, staining, and selective mounts are performed. The principal concern with digital imaging and photomicrography in stereomicroscopy is the low numerical aperture of the objectives, and the inability to capture on film (or in a digital image) the tremendous depth of field observed through the eyepieces. There are also several limiting factors that should be considered when photographing specimens through a single body tube utilizing a Greenough-style stereomicroscope. Because the microscope objective is positioned at a slight angle to the specimen, depth and resolution seen in the microscope eyepieces is not recorded on film. Some manufacturers once provided accessories that help to alleviate these problems, but many of the older microscopes have spare and accessory parts inventories that are exhausted, limiting the choices for photomicrographers. Older stereomicroscopes can be equipped with a digital or film camera using attachments that are available over the Internet or through optics and science supply houses. These attachments exist for almost every conceivable camera system, and many will fit the camera directly onto an observation tube with the eyepiece left in place. Newer stereomicroscopes have trinocular heads or photographic intermediate tubes (sometimes requiring a projection eyepiece) as an option, but these are often limited in use to the camera systems specified by the microscope manufacturer. The microscope presented in Figure 9 is a state-of-the-art Nikon research-level stereomicroscope equipped for both traditional imaging with Polaroid film and with a digital video camera. The camera systems are coupled to the microscope through a beamsplitter attachment that is attached as an intermediate piece between the microscope body and the binocular head. Both single and double-port beamsplitters are available from Nikon for use with either one or two camera systems. The optical path is directed into the camera ports with a selection lever located on the front portion of the intermediate piece. Standard c-mount, f-mount, and proprietary coupling systems are available to support a wide variety of camera systems. In addition, Nikon offers projection lenses of varying magnification that can be utilized to vary the image size on film or in digital images. Interactive Java Tutorial A photo reticle can be inserted into one of the eyepieces for composing images for capture, or the focus finder in the exposure monitoring system can be utilized for the same purpose. Magnification in photomicrographs or digital images is calculated by the product of the projection lens magnification (if used) times the zoom magnification and the objective magnification. Some beamsplitter ports also introduce a fourth magnification factor, usually 0.5x to 2.5x that must be included in the calculation. Other microscope manufacturers offer similar camera systems designed exclusively for their stereomicroscope product line-ups. A unique aspect of photomicrography in stereomicroscopy is the ability to compose images that are stereo pairs, by employing specimens having significant three-dimensional spatial relationships among structural details. The first step is to photograph the specimen using the left eyepiece, followed by another photograph through the right eyepiece. An alternative procedure that can also be utilized with common main objective stereomicroscopes involves tilting the specimen on the horizontal (stage) axis by an angle of seven to eight degrees to the left of the microscope optical axis. After capturing a photomicrograph or digital image, the specimen is tilted an identical amount to the right of the optical axis and another photomicrograph (digital image) is recorded. This maneuver produces the same effect as taking two sequential photographs with a Greenough-style stereomicroscope. After printing (or digital image processing) the photomicrographs, they can be mounted (or displayed on a computer monitor) side-by-side and viewed with a stereo viewer, rendering specimen details in striking three-dimensional displays. It is important that the orientation and alignment of the stereo pairs coincides with the requirements of the stereo viewer. Magnification is often thought of as the most important criteria for judging the performance of an optical microscope. This is far from true, because the correct magnification is the one sufficient for the task at hand and should not be unnecessarily exceeded. Many classical investigations into the basis of cellular structure and function, and the minute details of semiconductor anatomy, are best conducted with classical transmitted and reflected compound optical microscopes. Magnifications in the 400x to 1000x range are required for these studies, which usually do not rely heavily on large depths of field for successful observation. On the other hand, a wide variety of specimens must be examined at smaller magnifications, but require a larger depth of field with a high degree of contrast. Stereomicroscopes have characteristics that are valuable in situations where three-dimensional observation and perception of depth and contrast is critical to the interpretation of specimen structure. These instruments are also essential when micromanipulation of the specimen is required in a large and comfortable working space. The wide field of view and variable magnification displayed by stereomicroscopes is also useful for construction of miniature industrial assemblies, or for biological research that requires careful manipulation of delicate and sensitive living organisms. Considering the wide range of accessories currently available for stereomicroscope systems, this class of microscopes is extremely useful in a multitude of applications. Stands and illuminating bases are available from all of the manufacturers, and can be adapted to virtually any working situation. There are a wide choice of objectives and eyepieces, enhanced with attachment lenses and coaxial illuminators that are fitted to the microscope as an intermediate tube. Working distances can range from 3-5 centimeters to as much as 20 centimeters in some models, allowing for a considerable amount of working room between the objective and specimen. Modern stereomicroscopes are designed with ergonomic issues in mind, and most of the optical assemblies are sealed pods that are protected against dust and tampering, and contain lens shields to protect the optical elements from environmental hazards. Antireflective coatings vaporized onto the surface of large objective front lenses serve to protect these delicate parts from attack by corrosive liquids or gasses, or from abrasive particles that might cause chips and scratches. The utility of stereomicroscopes is limited only by their resolving power. These microscopes are enjoying widespread use in a variety of disciplines that have tasks requiring the features found in modern instruments of this class. Among them are education (biology, chemistry, botany, geology, and zoology), medicine and pathology, the semiconductor industry, metallurgy, textiles, and other industries that require assembly and inspection of miniature components. Paul E. Nothnagle - Avimo Precision Instruments, 78 Schuyler Baldwin Drive, Fairport, New York, 14450. William Chambers - Microscopy Consultant, Nikon Instruments Inc., Melville, New York 11747. Michael W. Davidson - National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, 1800 East Paul Dirac Dr., The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, 32310.

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The Chinese Birth Chart is also known as the Chinese Birth Calendar or the Chinese Pregnancy Calendar. It is important when using the Chinese Birth Chart, to use it the correct way to predict baby gender.* 1. Go to the Chinese Pregnancy Calendar page, then follow the steps below to get your most accurate results. 2. Take note of the mother's age at the time of conception. 3. Take note of the month when the baby was conceived. 4. Locate that month on the top portion of the Chart and the age on the left side of the chart. (Example) 5. Finally, follow each row and column on the Chinese Birth Calendar to the spot where they meet and intersect, and look for the corresponding box labeled B for boy, or G for girl (they have also been color coded pink or blue as well). Not Accurate? - You may find more valuable and scientifically based information regarding gender selection and pregnancy in with our online ovulation calculator that can help you plan the sex of your child based on your body. Many parents and parents to be have used the above method to accurately predict their babys' gender. *Although across the internet the Chinese Birth Chart maintains a high accuracy rate for baby gender prediction, it is not a scientifically proven method for baby gender selection.

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If we can't rely on the accuracy of basic measurements used to set loan prices, we can't respond effectively to brewing financial crises. Matt Taibbi asks why nobody is freaking out about the LIBOR scandal, Robert Reich calls it the scandal of all scandals, and Dylan Matthews has a great explainer of the whole thing here. Abigail Field has more at Reality Check. This can be confusing stuff, so I want to go through a very simple example of how this impacts the markets. Here's a basic equation for the price of a loan: The rate of a loan consists of adding the "risk-free" rate to a risk-premium. If either the risk-free rate or risk-premium goes up, then the price of a loan goes up. If you are a particularly risky borrower, you will pay more for a loan. This is because your risk-premium, compared to other borrowers, is higher, and that is added into your loan rate. If the risk-free rate is 3 percent and your risk of not paying back a mortgage requires a 2 percent premium, then your mortgage rate is 5 percent. If your risk of not paying back unsecured debt on a credit card requires an 8 percent premium, then your interest rate on your credit card is 11 percent. More complicated models include more types of risk-premia and other things, but this basic approach is how financial markets work. They all need a measure of what money costs independent of the risks associated with any specific loan. As a result, all the most complicated models have this "risk-free" rate at their core. Now think of some of the scandals and controversies over recent loan pricing. Here's a great Washington Post piece by Ylan Mui on African American homeowners scarred by the subprime implosion. There are cases where people with the same risk profiles were given different interest rates. Here's a report from EPI by Algernon Austin arguing that African Americans and Latinos with the same credit risks as whites were charged a higher total interest rate for mortgages even though the risk-free rate and their risk-premium rate should have been the same. The data implies that an additional, illegitimate "+ race" was added to the equation above. There's also debates about what is appropriate to add to the risk-premium equation. The FTC alleged that credit card companies were using charges for marriage counseling or massage parlors to increase the risk-premium, and thus the total rate. Some would argue that, from the credit risk modeling point-of-view, these are appropriate measures to hedge against divorce; others would say that it looks like a cheap excuse to jack up the total rate using the risk-premium part of the equation as an excuse. But those issues focus on how to price risk and what the total rate should look like. Running underneath all of these loans is what the "risk-free" rate should be. And by manipulating that rate, which forms the core of any financial model of how to price a loan, you manipulate every loan. Digging through some old financial engineering textbooks, it's amusing how many mathematical cartwheels are done to try and get an edge on the movement of LIBOR. Sadly. one can't model the dynamic of making an internal phone call and asking to please manipulate the numbers. Now let's build out from a very simple model of a financial instrument to one of the more complicated ones -- the Black-Scholes PDE for pricing options and derivatives: There's a lot of stuff going on in this equation which you can learn about here. But there's one variable you should catch. That "r" in the equation is the risk-free rate, which is usually LIBOR. One of the things Black-Scholes does is create a framework for understanding options and derivatives as owning pieces of the underlying object along with some cash, and getting the price of a derivative by understanding what it would mean to manipulate those two items. The cash in this framework, a crucial part, has its value determined by LIBOR. Which, as many are pointing out, implicates the gigantic derivatives market in this scandal. Implicating the derivatives market makes it clear why this matters to the market. But what about the role this scandal played in the financial crisis? This brings me to part of Karl Smith's argument for why this scandal doesn't matter much. On Up with Chris Hayes he argued that both parts of the allegations shouldn't get us too upset, and in particular that the second allegation, that Barclays systemically manipulated its LIBOR rates downward (perhaps with the approval of regulators) to make it seem like it was healthier than it was, is a good thing. Why? Because it made the financial system seem healthier than it was, which was important to prevent a collapse. In two follow-up posts (I, II) Smith clarifies his response. Smith argues that since the central banks were facing a financial crisis of epic proportions, one that would hurt many people, banks manipulating LIBOR helped keep that crisis at bay, which is a great thing. I think Smith has a theory I'm not following in which the only problem the banks had in 2008 was insufficient monetary policy, and not the fact that these banks were sitting on hundreds of billions of dollars in toxic loans that were causing a repo market bank run combined with an opaque over-the-counter derivatives system designed to induce counterparty risk in a crisis. But the reason it matters is because that tactic can't work forever. You can manipulate prices and juke government stress tests and otherwise lie to make people believe your bank's balance-sheet is healthier than it is, but eventually that system is going to collapse. And, crucially, if the primary objective is "delay," then when the crisis actually hits, it hits in an overwhelming way with no plausible way to fairly allocate losses or take other actions. As a side-note, if Smith agrees with manipulating LIBOR to look healthier, then he must really support the actions the Federal Reserve Bank of New York was taking in March 2008 to juke Lehman Brother's stress tests: "The FRBNY developed two new stress scenarios: 'Bear Stearns' and 'Bear Stearns Light.' Lehman failed both tests. The FRBNY then developed a new set of assumptions for an additional round of stress tests, which Lehman also failed. However, Lehman ran stress tests of its own, modeled on similar assumptions, and passed." Thank god that prevented an out-of-nowhere collapse that totally surprised the entire market! The "TED Spread" is the difference between LIBOR and U.S. Government debt, and many used it in 2008 to track the financial crisis in real time (here's Krugman with "My Friend TED" from the time). Pushing LIBOR down makes the TED Spread look better. This looking healthier than it should meant that there was less pressure by regulators and legislators to find ways to allow these firms to fail, and that the most obvious way of dealing with the crisis was with a mass bailout. If you really want to deal with the crisis, you should affect either end of it that the price is reflecting, by either making the banks healthier or making sure we can deal with the failure. The possibility that the regulators were in on it further clarifies the "protect the health of the largest banks at all costs" approach, one that squeezes every last bit of blood out of our turnip housing market and creates mass unemployment through a balance-sheet recession. And even if they weren't, that means that future measures to adeqately monitor the health of the banks through disclosures and market information might also be manipulated without (or even with) serious jail time or penalties. This, by Smith, is wrong: "To my knowledge no one takes out an adjustable rate mortgage saying, 'what I really want is for my mortgage rate to reflect the level of panic in the global financial system should there by a once in 75 year crisis.' No, what everyone thinks is that they are getting the rate set by Federal Reserve and the Bank of England." No, if that was the case there would be no use for LIBOR, and people would just use those rates. As Nemo summarizes in a great post on LIBOR from his bond series from years ago, the people pricing any loans at LIBOR want the pricing of a systemic credit crisis in their model. As Nemo says, "It is impossible to overstate how fundamental LIBOR is to the bond market." These prices are supposed to mean something, and the ability to add that information is a crucial reason it has shown up in so many pricing models. It would be a better world if those numbers weren't being manipulated to the advantage of inside traders. Mike Konczal is a Fellow at the Roosevelt Institute.

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Peace At Last ( Originally Published 1918 ) WAR came upon the world in August, 1914, with a suddenness and an impact that dazed the world. When it seemed, in 1918, that mankind had habituated himself to war and that the bloody struggle would continue until the actual exhaustion and extinction of the nations involved, peace suddenly appeared. The debacle of the Teutonic alliance was both dramatic and unexpected, except to those who knew how desperate were the conditions in the nations that were battling for autocracy. Bulgaria was first to crumble, then Turkey fell, and Austria-Hungary deserted Germany. The Kaiser and his military advisers, left alone, appealed to the Allies through President Wilson, for an armistice during which peace terms might be negotiated. Prince Maximilian of Baden, a statesman whose liberal ideas were rumored rather than demonstrated, was chosen to open negotiations. President Wilson, acting in concert with the Allies, referred Prince Maximilian to Marshal Foch. While negotiations were pending, a cabled message was received on November 7th to the effect that the armistice had been signed and that all soldiers would cease fighting on two o'clock of that afternoon. It was a false re-port, but it spread with incredible speed throughout the country. Celebrations which included virtually every American, made the country a gala place for twenty-four hours. The American people with characteristic good nature laughed at the hoax next day and settled down in patience to await the inevitable declaration of an armistice. The true report arrived about three o'clock, Eastern time, in the morning of November 11th. Shrieks of whistles, the booming of cannon, and the clangor of bells, awoke millions of sleeping persons, many of whom trooped into the streets to mingle their rejoicings with those of their neighbors. For a day there was high carnival in town and country throughout the land, then the nation settled down to face the imminent problems of reconstruction. One of these had to do with the immediate. reduction of government expenditures during the approaching year. President Wilson had appealed to the voters to elect a Democratic Congress as an evidence of approval for his administration. The reply was a Republican House of Representatives and a Republican Senate. The Congress that had been in continuous session since America entered the war, ended its labors in mid-November. For length, bulk of appropriations for the war and the number and importance of legislative measures passed, the session was unprecedented. Appropriations passed aggregated $36,298,-000,000, making the total for this Congress more than $45,000,000,000, of which $19,412,-000,000 was appropriated at the first (an extra) session, at which war was declared on Germany. Legislation passed included bills authorizing billions of Liberty bonds ; creation of the War Finance Corporation; government control of telegraphs, telephones and cables; executive re-organization of government agencies, and extensions of the espionage act and the army draft law by which men between eighteen and forty-five years of age were required to register. Prohibition and woman suffrage furnished sharp controversies throughout the session. The war-time "dry" measure was completed, but after the woman suffrage constitutional amendment resolution had been adopted, January 10th, by the House, it was defeated in the Senate by two votes. Every man, woman and child in the belligerent nations owed almost seven times as much money when peace came as he did at the beginning of the war. Figures of the war's cost to the world compiled by the Federal Reserve Board were summarized in the statement that the approximate public debt per capita had increased from $60 before the war to almost $400 at the end of July, 1918. To this was added the cost since July, which is at the highest rate of the entire period. The direct cost of the war was calculated by the board at somewhere between $170,000,000,-000 and $180,000,000,000, not taking into ac-count the authorization of the debt or the cost of indemnities. Four-fifths of the huge burden fell upon the shoulders of the future, only Great Britain and America absorbing a considerable amount by taxation. The total debt of the seven principal belligerents before the war did not exceed $25,000,000,000. The board contrasted these figures with the total value of the gold and silver extracted from the earth since the beginning of the world, which, it said, hardly exceeded $30,000,000,000. The belligerent nations, therefore, owed about six times the amount of all the gold and silver produced in all time. Prices rose to three times the average of what they were at the beginning of the war. Great Britain's debt increased almost ten times over in the period of the war, or from $3,580,000,000 to $32,450,000,000 down to June, 1918. These figures do not include the debts of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa, British colonies. France's debt was quadrupled by the beginning of 1918, increasing from $6,833,000,000 to $25,410,000,000. Italy's debt rose from $2,929,000,000 to $6,918,000,000. Figures for Russia were brought up only to September, 1917, but they showed that at that time she owed $26,287,000,000, as compared with $5,234,000,000 at the beginning of the war. The public debt of the United States was calculated to January 1, 1918, in order to be in line with those of other countries, increasing by that date to over $8,000,000,000 from a pre-war figure of a billion and a quarter. Since that time $11,500,000,000 have been subscribed to the Liberty Loans, thus increasing the national debt about sixteen fold. The most extraordinary increase of all was that of Germany, rising from $1,208,000,000 to $26,332,000,000. Austria owed $2,736,000,000 at the beginning of the war, which was increased by June, 1917, to $11,573,000,000. Hungary increased her debt from $1,392,-000,000 to $5,910,000,000 by December, 1917. The neutrals, Denmark, Spain, Holland, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland together owed $2,871,000,000 when war began and in-creased their debts only to $3,710,000,000. Existing war obligations of the United States at the close of 1918 matured as follows: First Liberty Loan, $2,000,000,000, redeem-able at the option of the Treasury after 1932 and payable not later than 1947; Second Liberty Loan, $3,808,000,000, redeemable after 1927, payable in 1942; Third Liberty Loan, $4,176,000,000, redeemable and payable without option in 1928; Fourth Liberty Loan, $6,989,047,000, redeemable after 1933, payable in 1938; War Savings, $879,300,000 up to November, 1918, payable in 1923. With this program of maturity, the Treasury by exercising its option could call in the nation's war debt for redemption in installments every five years until 1947. Secretary of the Treasury, William Gibbs McAdoo, who was also Director General of Transportation, created a sensation when he resigned both offices in November, 1918, the resignation to take effect January 1, 1919. Coming upon the eve of the peace conference in Paris and the announcement that President Wilson intended to head the American delegates to the conference, the resignation caused widespread surprise. The reasons given by Mr. McAdoo were ill-health and a serious depreciation of his private fortune during his incumbency of governmental positions. Following the armistice, steps were immediately taken for the repatriation of a considerable portion of the American forces in France and the return to their homes of the men in American training camps. The Third Army of the United States, commanded by General Dickman, was ordered to the western shore of the Rhine, there to co-operate with the troops of the Allies until the conclusion of peace negotiations. The country was amazed on November 23d when General March announced that the casualties of the American forces which had been anticipated as being less than 100,000, had in reality exceeded 236,000. Explanation for this lay in the fierce on-rush of the American forces during the last month of the war. A forecast that many thousands of American boys would remain in France was given by Andre Tardieu, General Commissioner for Franco-American affairs, when addressing the Association of Foreign Correspondents in New York City, after the armistice had been signed. This was one of the great by-products of the war. Thousands of young Americans, vigorous evangels of democratic thought, remained in Europe to bring American ideals and American force into the affairs of the old world. Those who returned were formidable factors in re-shaping the affairs of the nation. Grave injustices were done in some instances to young men who had volunteered in the early days of the war through patriotic motives and who returned to find their places in industry taken by others. In the main, however, the process of absorption went forward steadily and without serious incident. One factor making for satisfactory adjustment was the insurance system put into effect by the United States Government, affecting its war forces. Immediately following the armistice, the following announcement was made : Preparations by the government for reinsuring the lives of soldiers and sailors on their return home have been hastened by the signing of the armistice. Although regulations have not yet been fully drafted, it is certain that each of the 4,250,000 men in the military or naval service now holding voluntary government insurance will be permitted within five years after peace is declared to convert it without further medical examination into ordinary life, twenty-pay life, endowment maturing at the age of sixty-two, or other prescribed forms of insurance. This insurance will be arranged by the government, not by private companies, and the cost is expected to be at least one-fourth less than similar forms offered by private agencies. The low cost will result from the fact that the government will pay all overhead administration expenses, which, for private companies, amount to about seventeen per cent of premium receipts ; will save the usual solicitation fees and, in addition, bear the risk resulting, from the wounding or weakening of men while in the service. Private companies would not write insurance on many wounded men, or their rates would be unusually high. The government will arrange to collect premiums monthly, if men wish to pay that way, or for longer periods in advance. This may be done through post-offices. The minimum amount of insurance to be issued probably will be $I,000, and the maximum $10,000, with any amount between those sums in multiple of $500. There will be provision for payments in case of disability as well as death, according to the tentative plan. Thus will be created out of the government's emergency war insurance bureau the greatest life insurance institution in the world for peace times, with more policyholders and greater aggregate risks than a half dozen of the world's biggest private companies combined. Out of the experience gained may eventually develop expansion of government insurance to old age, industrial and other forms of insurance, in the opinion of officials who have studied the subject. Regulations for re-insuring returning soldiers and sailors are being framed by an advisory board to the ,military and naval section of the war risk bureau, consisting of Arthur Hunter, actuary of the New York Life Insurance Company; W. A. Fraser, Omaha, of the Wood-men of the World, and F. Robertson Jones, of the Work-men's Compensation Publicity Bureau, New York. Plans also are under consideration for allowing beneficiaries of men who have died or been killed in the service to choose between taking monthly payments over a period of twenty years or to commute these payments in a lump sum.

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Biological Sciences Division Addressing How Cigarettes Cause Cardiovascular Disease Antibody microarray analysis provides insight about mechanisms of lung disease Results: Although cigarette smoking has long been linked to cardiovascular disease, scientists are still on the lookout for insights into how smoking causes this disease. A team of researchers at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and the University of Utah has determined that cigarette smoking and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) can both influence oxidative modifications on specific proteins in blood plasma. Specifically, smoking and COPD can affect the levels of 3-nitrotyrosine, a biomarker associated with many pathological conditions. The results of this study demonstrated that smoking was consistently associated with a decrease in protein nitrotyrosine levels compared with non-smokers but that the presence of COPD in smokers was associated with an increase in protein nitrotyrosine levels. Why it matters: Cardiovascular disease is the primary cause of death and disease associated with either active cigarette smoking or passive exposure to side-stream smoke. For example, in the United States in 2005, it was estimated that environmental smoke exposure caused 3,000 deaths from lung cancer and 46,000 deaths from coronary artery disease. Even so, the processes by which cigarette smoke cause cardiovascular disease are not clear. A better understanding of these underlying processes may lead to interventions that reduce cardiovascular disease. Protein nitrotyrosine is a marker for inflammatory or oxidative stress processes (characteristic of COPD) and may also indicate endothelial dysfunction (systemic malfunctioning of the inner lining of blood vessels), a common cause of cardiovascular disease. These two detrimental processes would be expected to have opposite effects on nitrotyrosine levels, and therefore either increased or decreased nitrotyrosine levels should be useful for discriminating between these processes in humans. The study results are consistent with a mechanism by which smoking induces endothelial dysfunction and thereby increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. Methods: The researchers used a custom sandwich-ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) microarray platform to evaluate 23 candidate biomarkers in plasma samples from 458 people that were current or past smokers, non-smokers at high risk for exposure to side-stream smoke, or never smokers. A portion of the smokers had COPD. The platform can analyze multiple biomarkers quickly and efficiently, as demonstrated by the fact that a total of 458 plasma samples were analyzed in triplicate, with 23 ELISA analyses per sample-replicate, in a single experiment. In total, this experiment included over 30,000 ELISA analyses. Acknowledgments: This work was supported by a program project (U54016019) funded by the National Institute of Environmental Health Science's (NIEHS's) Genes, Environment Initiative (GEI) Exposure Biology Program. The research team includes Hongjun Jin, Richard Zangar, Bobbie-Jo Webb-Robertson, Elena Peterson, Ruimin Tan, Diana Bigelow, and Joel Pounds, all PNNL; and Mary Beth Scholand and John Hoidal, University of Utah Health Sciences Center. Reference: Jin H, B-J Webb-Robertson, ES Peterson, R Tan, DJ Bigelow, MB Scholand, JR Hoidal, JG Pounds, and RC Zangar. 2011. "Smoking, COPD, and 3-Nitrotyrosine Levels of Plasma Proteins." Environmental Health Perspectives 119(9):1314-1320. DOI:10.1289/ehp.1103745 Related highlights: Addressing High False-Positive Rates for Mammograms

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Tuesday, May 21, 2013 Maine took an important step to protect children by phasing out the use of plastic baby bottles and sippy cups containing the chemical bisphenol-A. The Board of Environmental Protection should go a step further this week and vote to eliminate the chemical from baby food containers as well. Lilijana Cvetkoska of Cape Elizabeth holds her infant daughter while leaving baby food on the desk of Gov. Paul LePage's receptionist on Jan. 9, as she and others show their support for a ban on BPA in baby food containers. Andy Molloy/Kennebec Journal file photo There is a strong body of evidence that BPA is harmful. The chemical, used in plastics, is unstable and leaches into liquids. A growing body of evidence links it to birth defects, learning disabilities, behavior problems, breast and prostate cancer, early puberty in girls and other health concerns. Children are the most vulnerable, and it makes sense to remove BPA from products they are likely to use. Market forces are already phasing the chemical out of many products, but families should not have to become chemists in the grocery store. The state can help prevent lifelong health problems by extending the existing ban. BPA was tested to be an estrogen replacement drug back in the 1930s. While it was not a success as a pharmaceutical product, it was proven to help plastic remain flexible, making a variety of consumer products possible. In addition to plastic baby bottles and sippy cups, BPA is used in the inner coating of cans and the plastic seal under metal jar lids. When baby food comes in those jars, the chances for exposure increase. The BEP has the power under the Kid Safe Products Act to extend the existing ban, and it should not be cowed by the usual industry arguments. Maine will not be alone. Two other states, Connecticut and Vermont, have already banned BPA in baby food packaging and others are likely to follow suit. There are already alternative packages on store shelves, so there is no chance that baby food customers will be without the products they need. Some manufacturers already use BPA-free jar lids. Extending this ban would not create an undue hardship on the companies that make and distribute baby food. Some will argue this type of legislation is better handled on the national level, and the federal government has not used its authority to ban BPA in food packaging. That is more of an indictment of the dysfunctional federal government than it is a case of overreaching on the state level. This has not been a controversial issue in Maine. Phasing out BPA has enjoyed bipartisan support here, and that should continue.

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Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública Print version ISSN 1020-4989 GROENEVELD, Iris F.; SOLOMONS, Noel W. and DOAK, Colleen M.. Nutritional status of urban schoolchildren of high and low socioeconomic status in Quetzaltenango, Guatemala. Rev Panam Salud Publica [online]. 2007, vol.22, n.3, pp. 169-177. ISSN 1020-4989. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1020-49892007000800003. OBJECTIVE: The prevalence of overweight and obesity is growing in children in many developing countries, increasing chronic disease risk. Our objective was to assess the prevalence of stunting, underweight, overweight, and obesity in schoolchildren 8 to 10 years old who were of high or low socioeconomic status (SES) in Quetzaltenango, which is the second largest city in Guatemala METHODS: Between April and June 2005 we conducted a cross-sectional survey among 583 children in private and public elementary schools, in which we measured height and weight. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 2000 height-for-age z-scores, weight-for-age z-scores, and body mass index-for-age centiles were used to define stunting, underweight, overweight, and obesity. RESULTS: Mean height, weight, and body mass index were significantly higher in the 327 children of high SES than in the 256 children of low SES, across sexes and age groups. The prevalence of stunting was significantly higher in low-SES children than in high-SES ones (27.0% vs. 7.3%, P < 0.01) , and this was also true for underweight (14.1% versus 4.6%, P < 0.01). In contrast, the prevalence of overweight (17.7% versus 10.5%, P < 0.01) was higher in high-SES children than in low-SES ones; the same was true for obesity (14.4% versus 2.3%, P < 0.01). The prevalence of stunting among children of low SES, and the prevalence of overweight and obesity among children of high SES far exceeded the CDC 2000 reference ranges. CONCLUSIONS: A high prevalence of both stunting and excess body weight was found in this urban Guatemalan population, with notable contrasts between social classes. The obesity among high-income children indicates that the city is undergoing the nutrition transition, with further implications for future risks related to chronic disease. Nutrition and health interventions are needed to reduce these risks. Keywords : Child; child nutrition disorders; anthropometry; body mass index; overweight; social class; Guatemala.

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Web edition: July 9, 2012 Women may indeed be limited to the number of eggs their ovaries contain at birth, a new study finds, directly contradicting recent research that suggests otherwise. Scientists have long thought that female mammals, including humans, are born with all the egg cells they will ever have. But a few papers, culminating with a study published earlier this year in Nature Medicine, have suggested that ovaries contain rare stem cells that can replenish egg supplies (SN: 4/7/12, p. 8). These egg-producing stem cells could lead to new treatments for fertility problems, ways to delay menopause and advancements in the basic understanding of human egg cells. Not so fast, says Kui Liu, a molecular reproductive biologist at the University of Gothenburg in Sweden. Working with mice, Liu and his colleagues used a technique to identify egg cells and their precursors in ovaries. The team found no evidence of the stem cells in ovaries that reproductive biologist Jonathan Tilly of Massachusetts General Hospital and colleagues recently described in Nature Medicine. To look for egg-making stem cells in mouse ovaries, Liu and his colleagues genetically engineered mice so that every cell glows green with a fluorescent protein, except for eggs, sperm and cells destined to become gametes. Those cells glow yellow, blue or red. The scientists found cells glowing red — purported gamete precursors — in the ovary, but those cells did not divide the way stem cells would and did not produce new eggs, leading the researchers to conclude that stem cells don’t exist in the ovary. The researchers report their work online July 9 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The new finding in no way disproves the existence of egg-making stem cells in the ovary, says Evelyn Telfer, a reproductive biologist at the University of Edinburgh. For one thing, “these cells are absolutely not the same as the ones Tilly’s got,” she says. The cells Liu found are much larger and are probably already nondividing egg cells. Liu says his point in publishing the paper is not to say that Tilly is wrong, but to urge scientists to take a hard look at the evidence for and against stem cells in the ovary. H. Zhang et al. Experimental evidence showing that no mitotically active female germline progenitors exist in postnatal mouse ovaries. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Published online July 9, 2012. [Go to] T. H. Saey. Eggs may be made throughout adulthood. Science News. Vol. 181, April 7, 2012, p. 8. Available online: [Go to] J. Travis. Scrambled Dogma: Stem cells may make new eggs in women. Science News. Vol. 165, March 13, 2004, p. 163. Available online: [Go to]

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Page 1: Rattlesnakes Page 2: Cougars Page 3: Coyote Page 4: Lizards There are about 12 species or subspecies of lizards common to the Four Corners Region. Many of these are readily visible on a typical afternoon visit to the region. There are a few species however, including the Utah Night Lizard, that remain a bit more elusive or are peculiar to a certain location. Below are a few photos of the more common lizards you might see on your visit. Most of the following information comes from Geoffrey Hammerson's detailed and informative book Amphibians and Reptiles in Colorado, Revised Edition If you have an interest in reptiles and amphibians of the Four Corners region I highly recommend this field guide. I must include an identification disclaimer- I am not a herpetologist, I have never studied lizards other than through observation in the field for fun. If you find any mistakes in my identification or descriptions, please notify me and I will remedy the situation immediately- email Gerald . Any help in properly presenting anything on this web site is always appreciated. There are two species (of eight total) of collared lizards found in the Four Corners region. The species most commonly seen and photographed is the western collared lizard, Crotaphytus collaris baileyi. It is the more colorful of the two, as seen in the photographs below. The second species is the desert collared lizard, Crotaphytus insularis. Both species range in size from about 3 to 4 1/2 inches not including tail (SVL- snout to vent length). Maximum length for each species is about 14 inches or 36 cm. Females during breeding season exhibit orange-red bars on neck and spots on side of body. Females are slightly smaller than males. Collared lizards have a non-regenerative tail. Collared lizards begin to hibernate in late August and September, emerging again in March or April. These unmistakable lizards are very fast runners, often glimpsed peripherally as they make their way across open ground, as a flash of bright color. They may be seen running on only their hind legs. Male collared lizards defend their territory, especially during breeding season. They will attack other lizards and can bite with enough force to break the skin. A beautifully colored western collared lizard (male). Another western collared lizard, showing color variation (male). Desert Spiny Lizard The desert spiny lizard, Sceloporus magister cephalaflavus, is another unmistakable species. Its robust size, coloration and prominent scales give it away. Color is a mixture of buff, yellow, and brownish scales. Look for the wedge-shaped black patch at the shoulder. As with collared lizards, sexual dimorphism is present- see photo of sunning pair below. Snout to vent length is 3 3/4 to 51/2 inches. Total length reaches about 13 inches. According to Hammerson, desert spiny lizards are commonly seen from May to September, but may be seen a month earlier or later if warm weather persists. Males defend their territory against other males aggressively, and engage in the typical lizard push-up displays for intruders, including humans. Desert spiny lizards are active tree climbers and can often be seen climbing high into trees to avoid contact. I have seen them many times in cottonwood trees throughout southeastern Utah. Desert spiny lizard- a very large one, on the bank of the San Juan River. A pair of desert spiny lizards, female on left and male on right, Cross Canyon, Utah- Colorado border. The side-blotched lizard, Uta stansburiana, can be identified, as the name might imply, by the dark spot on its side just behind the forelimb. This spot may not always be present. Snout to vent length ranges from 1 1/2 to 2 3/8 inches. Side-blotched lizards will readily lose their tails. Hammerson notes that many adults have missing or regenerating tails. Sexual dimorphism is present, with males being larger in size. Side-blotched lizards may be seen as early as March and as late as November. Both males and females perform push-up displays when confronted. A side-blotched lizard sunning, Cross Canyon, Utah- Colorado border. I am still trying to positively identify this little lizard that was very gregarious- it just crawled right onto my hand. Based on coloration and spotting, size, and the fact that it had lost its tail, I guessed it was a side-blotched, although it lacked the spot behind the front leg. According to various field guides tail loss is common in side-blotched lizards, and the spot on its side may or may not be present, based on various factors such as sex, age, and geographic location. We encountered this one right along the San Juan River living in the tamarisk as it was eating ants. It was only about 1 1/2 inches in length. Eastern Fence Lizard (Northern Plateau Lizard) There are four sub-species of eastern fence lizards (Sceloporus undulatus), also known as prairie and plateau lizards, discussed in Hammerson's volume. At least one sub-species resides in east and southeast utah, Sceloporus undulatus elongatus, also known as the northern plateau lizard. Snout to vent length ranges from about 1 5/8 inches to 3 3/4 inches. Identifying characteristics include dark bands across back (may or may not be present- variation can be caused by age and sex), blue patch on throat- usually divided at center in elongatus but may not be, and dark bands along sides (may or may not be present). There seems to be considerable variation within and across each sub-species by age, sex, and geographic location. Similar in appearance is the sagebrush lizard. According to Hammerson, females may lay two clutches of eggs, one as late as July or early August. Each clutch averages about 8 eggs. Photo of Sceloporus undulatus elongatus, or northern plateau lizard, taken near Moab, Utah. Lizard measures about 3 inches, SVL. Until it was pointed out to me that the photo below is in fact an tree lizard, or Urosaurus ornatus, I did not know that I had ever seen one. I had misidentified it as an eastern fence lizard. Looking closely at this photo and the photo above, note the smaller scales and longer tail of the tree lizard. Thanks to the Utah state biologist who pointed this out. A smaller lizard, the maximum SVL for this species is about 55 mm, with no sexual dimorphism evident. According to Hammerson and his Colorado data, they are active April through October, throughout the entire day, from 8 am to about 8 pm. They are found in canyons and other areas with steep exposures and rocks outcrops. Hammerson states they can be found perching on the base of trees ( juniper and cottonwood), and also in piles of flood-deposited wood. Again, from hammerson's Colorado data, deposition of eggs by females occurs in late-May through July, with one or two clutches produced, possibly according to the age of the lizard. Photograph above shows apparently gravid female Urosaurus ornatus, or Tree Lizard. Note protuberance just forward of back leg- eggs soon to be laid. Photo was taken 10 August 2009 along the Escalante River in Utah. Longnose Leopard Lizard This is another lizard that eluded me for a long time. Then all of a sudden it started showing itself. I am not sure if this has to do with natural cycles in the lizard's life, or me being more observant. I have seen these lizards on the San Juan River near Chinle Creek, and on the DIrty Devil River at Happy Canyon and up Poison Spring Canyon. The longnose leopard lizard, Gambelia wislizenii, according to Hammerson, exhibits a "relatively low reproductive rate and low population density". Their activity season is short, emerging in mid-May and retreating underground by early August. This is Hammerson's observation for Colorado, by he says that it is also true for Utah. Leopard lizards are active 2-6 hours after sunrise, actively hunting for food till about noon, according to Hammerson. Leopard lizards will sometimes freeze in place when confronted, or as I have found, run very fast, far away into heavier brush where they can hide. They prefer sparsely vegetated surroundings with lots of open space between brush. Hammerson notes that they seems to occur "only where soil mounded at the base of shrubs is riddled with rodent burrows" which they use for nightly refuge and hibernation. He also states that these lizards can inflict a painful bite. Sexual dimorphism is present, with females being a bit larger in size. Average male SVL is 12 cm, while average female SVL is 14.5cm. Total length can be up to 38cm. This photo shows a beautiful female longnose leopard lizard, Gambelia wislizenii . She sat still for some time and allowed me to take a bunch of photos. On all other occasions when I encountered this species, they ran far away and disappeared. Hammerson points out that they "typically flee many meters away", and do so at fast speeds. This photo shows- I believe- a male of the species. Males are typically smaller in size and lack the bright orange-red coloration that the females show during breeding season. Lizards Not Pictured Additional species that you may encounter in the Four Corners Region include both the plateau and western whiptail, sagebrush lizard, Utah night lizard, and short-horned lizard. I will post more details on these species as time allows and make it a point to photograph them whenever I get the chance. Back to Top Page 1: Rattlesnakes Page 2: Cougars Page 3: Coyote Page 4: Lizards

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More Delays for NASA's Next Space Telescope The first half of the payload fairing is moved into place around NASA's Gamma-Ray Large Area Space Telescope within the mobile service tower on Launch Pad 17-B at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station on May 27, 2008. CREDIT: NASA/Jim Grossmann NASA?s latest space telescope has faced a series of delays that pushed back its June 7 launch date to June 11 at the earliest. The Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST) is now being readied for launch on a Delta 2 rocket sometime between 11:45 a.m. and 1:40 p.m. EDT (1545-1740 GMT) on June 11 from the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida. Five separate launch delays have kept GLAST Earth-bound. The original May 16 launch date for the roughly 9,486-pound (4,303-kg) space telescope ended up being postponed because of equipment damage during installation of the Delta 2?s second stage. The launch team cancelled a June 3 launch date after a Flight Readiness Review, and similarly delayed launch plans for June 5, June 7, and June 8. The most recent postponement comes because additional time was needed to replace the Delta 2 rocket?s flight termination system battery, NASA said in a press statement. The problem first appeared on Wednesday, June 8. Scientists plan to use the $690 million GLAST to uncover more cosmic sources of high-energy gamma rays than ever before, including black holes, pulsars, and dark matter. The space telescope?s findings may expand knowledge of the current and past universe, as well as possibly challenge our current understanding of physics. - Video: GLAST Cast Part 1 - Video: GLAST Cast Part 2 - The Strangest Things in Space MORE FROM SPACE.com

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Branding is an important element in business. Without a brand, customers have to explain to the sellers in detail about the products that they want, while sellers may be confused or give the wrong products to the customers. Therefore, it can be assumed that brand acts as a sign, name or symbol for the products and services. The main aim of the brand is to identify the products or services of a seller or groups of sellers and differentiate an offering of a seller from that of its rivals (Kotler, 2003). In recent years, brand played a significant part in the market as the marketers added value to the brand to make it more preferable compared to other brands in the same market segment. This is particularly true in the fashion market. For example, when premium leather handbags are mentioned, most people will think of Louis Vuitton. When thinking of buying a scarf, most customers will think of Burberry, or when young women want to buy new cosmetics, they may think of Christian Dior. These examples are just one of the successful branding strategies. 1.1 Research Aims The above examples show that some customers prefer one brand over another even though that brand is more expensive. Price may not be the most important factor here; the psychological factor may be greater, for instance. Therefore, this research aims to achieve the following: 1. To establish if any relationship exists between branding and consumers’ purchasing decision. 2. To establish the changes in the relationship between branding and consumers’ purchasing decision when other factors such as price are introduced. 3. To identify the major aspects of branding that influence the consumers’ purchasing decision. 4. To examine the consumers tendency to recommend brands and its effect on purchasing decisions of their friends and family. 2. Literature Review 2.1 The Importance of Brand According to... [continues] Cite This Essay (2009, 01). How Branding Affects Consumer Purchasing Research Proposal. StudyMode.com. Retrieved 01, 2009, from http://www.studymode.com/essays/Branding-Affects-Consumer-Purchasing-Research-Proposal-190605.html "How Branding Affects Consumer Purchasing Research Proposal" StudyMode.com. 01 2009. 01 2009 <http://www.studymode.com/essays/Branding-Affects-Consumer-Purchasing-Research-Proposal-190605.html>. "How Branding Affects Consumer Purchasing Research Proposal." StudyMode.com. 01, 2009. Accessed 01, 2009. http://www.studymode.com/essays/Branding-Affects-Consumer-Purchasing-Research-Proposal-190605.html.

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