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The world is going to end? Dear, God! It was on the news recently, yes — about how the Apocalypse was coming (thankfully, a complete and total fallacy). But, Christ have mercy, we’re talking about how vegetables can be harmful? To kids? Really? The world would have to end if that was the case – Don’t worry, the world’s not going to end, but be surprised — there are situations when vegetables can be harmful to eat. Contact all the class action attorneys in Los Angeles while you can. Keep these possibilities in mind, because the next piece of broccoli your child eats might be his or her last (not really!) Wash your vegetables before you prepare or eat them. This is especially true if you’re worried about pesticides. They can be harmful. Many use water to wash their veggies, but do you know there are products out there that are designed to literally eliminate contaminants as well as clean the skins? Open your eyes. Some people even use soap and water to wash their veggies. That’s smarts. There couldn’t be anything fresher than growing your own produce — but, again, be careful. A wealth of poisons exist and can be detrimental to the health of your children if they contaminate the veggies in your garden. So whenever your kids are out there helping with the produce, make sure they’re not pulling the hollies or yuccas out as well. Who would’ve thought veggies would be harmful? It’s not their fault, though. Don’t worry — with a little vigilance, your kids can enjoy those Brussels sprouts with ease.

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en

1. The American Wild West took place in the Western United States, just about anywhere west of the Mississippi River. It occurred in the early part of the 19th century and lasted until the end of the Mexican Revolution in 1920. 2. Many conflicts were occurring as people moved further onto the lands occupied by Native American tribes. The people moving onto to these lands claimed the land as their land. The Native American didn't believe that anyone could own land. They believed the land was there for everyone to use and enjoy. 3. In 1877, Congress passed the Desert Land Act which permitted settlers to purchase up to 640 acres of public land at 25 cents an acre. This occurred in areas where the climate required large-scale farming. Settlers were required to properly irrigate the land they purchased. Thousands of people moved west to take advantage of this opportunity. Wagon trains moved many settlers. 4. The American west had all sorts of people including pioneers, business people, scouts, lawmen, outlaws, gangs, gunslingers, and cowboys. Most of these people had one thing in common... they were looking for an opportunity and they weren't afraid of adventure. 5. No one has any way of actually knowing how many Native American people inhabited North America before exploration on the continent began, but some estimates go as high as 100 million people. There were 240 Native American tribes which spoke 300 different languages. 6. Many legends have come out of the Old West, but none as big as the outlaws. Some of the most famous outlaws were: Billy the Kid, Belle Starr, Bill Doolin, Black Bart, Dalton Brothers, Jesse James, Frank James, Curly Bill, Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. Some of the famous lawmen were: Bat Masterson, Wyatt Earp, Pat Garrett, Wild Bill Hickok, and Bill Tilghman. 7. In 1867, the first cattle drive from Texas up the Chisholm Trail arrived at the rail yards of Abilene, Kansas. 8. Another big part of the Old West was the Wild West Show. Buffalo Bill created a wild west show that included a rodeo and sharpshooting. One of his most famous sharpshooter was a woman. Her name was Annie Oakley. 9. The Pony Express officially began on April 3, 1860. The Pony Express consisted of relays of men riding horses carrying saddlebags of mail across a 2000-mile trail from St. Joseph, Missouri to Sacramento, California. The first westbound trip was made in 9 days and 23 hours and the eastbound journey in 11 days and 12 hours. The pony riders covered 250 miles in a 24-hour day. The Pony Express lasted only 19 months and ended on October 24, 1861, when the Pacific Telegraph was completed. Before it ended, the Pony Express had more than 100 stations, 80 riders, and between 400 and 500 horses. The express route was extremely hazardous, but only one mail delivery was ever lost. 10. In 1874, Joseph Glidden received a patent for his invention of barbed wire. The fencing changed farming and ranching in the Wild West.

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Though library books are an everyday source of information and stories, today the facts and fictions of reptiles will be brought to life through two “Snakes Alive” sessions at Scotland Memorial Library. At 10:30 a.m. and 12:30 p.m., herpetologist Ron Cromer will conduct sessions designed to give children a crash course in the lives, habits, and characteristics of reptiles, particularly snakes. Though there is a lecture portion to “Snakes Alive,” the sessions will include over 20 live reptiles, including specially tamed snakes for petting. “Snakes Alive” has been held at the library annually for over 15 years, and is popular with children of all ages as well as adults. “Ron is so good because he stresses safety and respect, not fear,” said Scotland Memorial Library youth services director Denise Dunn. “Everybody gets a big kick out of it and we have people that return year after year.” The program also includes a giant Southeast Asian python named Rosie that groups of participants can take turns holding. Children’s programming will continue throughout the summer, with morning story time every Tuesday at 10:30 a.m. through the end of July. Morning story time will not be held on June 25 or July 2. On Tuesday, the Asheville-based Bright Star Touring Theatre will put on two plays at the library, one at 10:30 a.m. entitled “Grease Lightning,” exploring myths and legends, and another with an anti-bullying message at 2 p.m. “They’re cute and they’re very interactive with the audience,” Dunn said. Younger children aged four to 11 can also get in touch with their artistic side during “Learn to Draw” sessions at 3 p.m. every Tuesday through Aug. 13. “They’re going to start out with shapes and see how many things you can make with shapes,” said Dunn. “We had our first lesson and we had grandmothers in there drawing with the kids.” Eco Crafts classes are held year-round every Thursday at 4 p.m. except July 4. During each class, children will learn to make a new craft out of household materials like paper towel rolls and Styrofoam in order to find a use for non-recyclable materials. In a program for children aged 10-13, CSI Detective Victor Torres of the Laurinburg Police Department will present a crime scene program at 2 p.m. on July 17. “He will train the ‘tweens’ on crime scene techniques and then allow them the opportunity to use this newly acquired information,” said Dunn. “We are calling it ‘The Case of the Overdue Book.’” All library programs are free of charge and no pre-registration is needed.

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Most students are faced with many new challenges once they have entered college and begin to embark on their academic journey without their parents to take care of all their needs. Along with the excitement of being able to stay up all hours of the night, come and go as they please, eat as much Fruit Loops as they wish for dinner, the responsibility of attending to their own finances is a daunting challenge that needs to be taken seriously. Here are some budgeting tips for college students. Credit score is plays an essential part in an individualís life, it allows you to buy a car or house, get a loan for remodels or unexpected circumstances that arise; building and maintaining individual credit scores is an absolutely necessary task for all individuals, especially college students. All college students should look into joining a local credit union; this will help them build their credit and most credit unions offer free checking and/or savings accounts, in addition to special services and assistance to college students. Seek a professional identity protection service that for a small fee will notify the student if their social security number is used to perform a credit check, this allows you the ability to screen all potential credit score hits that could happen due to identity theft which could ruin a studentís credit. Once a student has set up a credit union account and identity theft protection, the next step would be to evaluate the studentís monthly income and set up a reasonable budget. A budget should always include basic monthly expenses including room and board, food, vehicle maintenance, a percentage for savings and a percentage for leisure activities such as movies, coffee with friends at a cafť with a live band or karaoke. Allowing for leisure activities each month is necessary to avoid feeling as if a student only works and hits the books without ever taking a break to enjoy time with friends or relax. A savings percentage each month will allow students to save for big ticket items, perhaps a vacation to visit friends and family over semester breaks or for their future endeavors. Saving receipts and tracking spending habits each month will assist students in better establishing a budget or even modifying a budget if needed to accommodate for unexpected fluctuations in spending. Visually seeing each month how much a student spends on any one area of expenses in life allows them to determine with more ease if they are living within their means. A few things to avoid include obtaining a credit card or petty non-academic debt. If a student cannot purchase an item with cash due to a lack of funds, it is time to re-evaluate the savings percentage of a studentís monthly budget and adjust accordingly to the desire. Always save for items, rather than splurging, this will allow the student time to ensure that the item is truly needed or wanted and worth the cost, plus most item retail cost reduces in the time a student spends to save for it.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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en

Definition of Psychology Psychology: The study of the mind and mental processes, especially in relation to behavior. There are a number of fields of psychology. Clinical psychology is concerned with diagnosing and treating disorders of the brain, emotional disturbances, and behavior problems. Child psychology is the study of the mental and emotional development of children and is part of developmental psychology, the study of changes in behavior that occur through the life span. Cognitive psychology deals with how the human mind receives and interprets impressions and ideas. Social psychology looks at how the actions of others influence the behavior of an individual. Last Editorial Review: 6/14/2012 Back to MedTerms online medical dictionary A-Z List Need help identifying pills and medications? Get the latest health and medical information delivered direct to your inbox FREE!

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en

On-air challenge: Given three three-letter words, give a three-letter word that can follow each to complete a familiar six-letter word. None of the words in a set will be related in meaning. For example, given "dam," "man" and "sew," the answer would be "age," which results in "damage," "manage" and "sewage." Last week's challenge from Sam Loyd: This challenge appeared in a puzzle column in the Woman's Home Companion in January 1913. Draw a square that is four boxes by four boxes per side, containing altogether 16 small boxes and 18 lines (across, down and diagonal). There are 10 ways to have four boxes in a line — four horizontal rows, four vertical columns, plus the two long diagonals. There are also eight other shorter diagonals of two or three squares each. The object is to place markers in 10 of the boxes so that as many of the lines as possible have either two or four markers. What is the maximum number of lines that can have either two or four markers, and how do you do it? Answer: It is possible for 16 lines to have either two or four markers. Sam Loyd's arrangement includes the first and third boxes of the top row, the seventh and eighth boxes of the second row, all four boxes of the third row, and the 14th and 15th boxes of the bottom row. Any rotation of this answer also works. Winner: Rob Hardy of Columbus, Miss. Next week's challenge: Think of two familiar, unhyphenated, eight-letter words that contain the letters A, B, C, D, E and F, plus two others, in any order. What words are these? If you know the answer to next week's challenge, submit it here. Listeners who submit correct answers win a chance to play the on-air puzzle. Important: Include a phone number where we can reach you Thursday at 3 p.m. Eastern.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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en

Pizzas And Things Count groups of two to 6 Use equipment to model and add sets of twos. Devise and use problem solving strategies (draw a picture, use equipment, guess and check, be systematic). This is a simple problem about doubling and halving. These are important basic skills as they can be used to estimate numbers of objects and some students use them as the basis for their own non-standard number algorithms. Doubling is the first step towards finding any multiple of a number and halving is the beginning of work with fractions. At this stage it is useful to use the two things together as they are inverse operations. This means that one operation will cancel out the other. If students can operate comfortably with inverses then they have a really good understanding of the process involved. Hence it is useful, where possible, to develop the operation and it’s inverse, side by side. Other examples of inverse operations are multiplying by four and finding quarters. A lot of mathematics is based around inverse operations. They are important, for instance, in solving equations. One side of an equation can be simplified by using an inverse operation to cancel out the operation on that side. In a simple example, if four times something equals 12, then we can undo the ‘four times’ by applying its inverse – ‘taking a quarter’. So a quarter of four times something is the something itself. And a quarter of 12 is 3. The something then, is 3. This application of inverses occurs at every level including calculus at Levels 7 and 8 (the inverse of differentiation is integration) and things called matrices at university level. Our local Pizza Place has only two tables but they are quite big. If each table holds 7 people, how many people can be seated altogether? The Chicken N Chips next door to the Pizza Place also has two identical tables. The Chicken N Chips can seat 16 people. How many people can sit at each table? - Introduce the lesson with some guessing games, for example, I am a number which is half of 10 what number am I? I am a number which 4 more than 3 what number am I? I am a number which is 5 less than 10 what number am I? - Read the problem to the class. - Brainstorm for ways to solve the problem. - As the students work on the problem ask questions that focus on the number strategies that they are using. Tell me how you got your answer? Can you think of a way to check that you are correct? - Share solutions. This problem can be done in the context of animals (how many legs have two dogs?), people in two cars, or even just guessing games (half the number I’m thinking of is 6, what am I thinking of?). Extension to the Problem You could try using more than one table. Perhaps the students will do this by using blocks to represent the people. Putting down 7 blocks for each table gives 14 blocks altogether. Therefore the Pizza Place can hold 14 people. Now put 16 blocks down. Share them out equally into two piles. Each pile holds 8 blocks. So the tables at The Chicken N Chips can seat 8 people.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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Why Windows 8 on ARM Matters If Windows 8 works successfully on ARM-processor-equipped systems, expect to see thin, light, and innovative devices coming our way. Such devices would include ultrathin laptops with impressive battery life, and superlight, large-screen tablets. ARM-based 32-bit processors are relatively simple in design compared with Intel's chips. This simplicity means that they consume less power, which makes them perfect for use in devices designed to maximize battery life--such as phones, tablets, and, soon, laptops. The core of the processor can be licensed by chipmakers, who, in turn, can package it into a system-on-chip processor that puts all of the components into a single, integrated-circuit chip. The ARM core isn't new, but it has traditionally been used with embedded systems or with portable devices that don't run Microsoft Windows. That's about to change--and when it does, it could change the face of computing, as evidenced by the ARM prototypes demonstrated at BUILD. The beauty of these system-on-chip architectures is that they can be placed in very tight spaces. This obviously impacts case designs--I saw one impressive, not-publicly-shown tablet prototype at this week's BUILD conference that was superthin and supersturdy and that weighed less than a pound and had a 9-inch screen. Saving space is just one of the benefits of ARM. Another benefit is low power consumption. "We're seeing no restriction on form factor for the ARM devices," says Steve Horton, director of software and product management for Qualcomm. "Power is going to give you multiple differentiators--multiple days of use, or the ability to do a device that's superthin, or superlight." The potential power savings of ARM is why chip makers say there is even talk of putting ARM chips into clamshell designs that mimic laptops. ARM is clearly destined for more than just phones and tablets, areas in which ARM already dominates in the form of Qualcomm and Nvidia chips. But if Windows 8 works on ARM-processor-equipped systems, consumers could see clamshell-style "laptops" with up to 15 hours of battery life. Of course, once clamshell tablets come out, their keyboards will make them harder to distinguish from ultraportable laptops. Some will run on x86 chips, like those from Intel and AMD, and some ARM-based systems will run Windows 8--but those may not handle your existing software. We're not sure yet how that will be handled, as Microsoft didn't offer much information at this week's event. If you're wondering whether you'll be able to use existing Windows apps on ARM systems, I did ask--but all of the manufacturers I spoke with glossed over the issue. "We have thought about it. We're not super concerned," says Qualcomm's Horton. "We think there's a lot of good things coming. The end goal is for the experience to be the same, fundamentally, from a Windows OS standpoint--and it should be the same thing." Microsoft was also vague about support for legacy apps on ARM, but the company has already demonstrated a version of Office that runs in the new Metro-style Windows interface, as opposed to the traditional desktop. Windows on ARM: What It Takes I asked about how the process of adapting ARM for Windows is going, and the Nvidia, Qualcomm, and Texas Instruments execs I spoke with indicated that things are going smoothly. All noted that they needed to add support for DirectX graphics (if they didn't already support it), but beyond that, the process of preparing ARM for Windows is largely about optimizing code for working with the system-on-chip architecture. "The work has been going on for more than a year now," says Deepu Talla, general manager of mobile computing and wireless at Texas Instruments. "The only thing I would say we needed to work on was our graphics speeds. We've needed to make changes to our graphics engine to support DirectX. Silicon-wise that's the only difference. And we've made other optimizations in software." Many of the capabilities of ARM, a chip that dominates smartphones and tablets today, will allow Windows 8 to gain smartphone-like functionality. For example, Horton points to the "Connected On" demo at BUILD this week. Connected On is a new power state that sends a system into a powered-down state without hibernating, so you can come out of it immediately. In this state, apps are suspended, but can still refresh content in the background without requiring much power. This state of suspension will even work with Qualcomm's 4G technology, a boon considering how 4G can guzzle battery life. There is one design catch that will have a clear impact on the shape of the devices we see: Microsoft is asking hardware manufacturers to stick with a 16:9 aspect ratio, because that's what the Metro interface (two-apps-on-screen) is optimized for. In the end, TI's Talla notes that the company's focus is mobile computing. "It's about developing this all-day computing experience," he says. The other ARM chipmakers agree with Talla--all have a goal of 12- to 15-hour battery life on a system, whether it's a clamshell or a tablet design. If they manage this, we'll all be able to while away our days at the local cafe, nursing a latte from sunup to sundown--and maybe even beyond. Not bad.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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One in eight to ten thousand children are born with a condition called Microtia. This literally means 'little ear'and it can be unilateral (one ear) or bilateral (both ears) almost always resulting in the loss of hearing in one or both sides. Unilateral Hearing loss is not about 'being a little bit deaf', it is a real and debilitating condition which causes all sorts of problems. Directional hearing, inability to locate sound, difficulty in social situations, having to concentrate more than you can... A Bone Anchored Hearing Aid (BAHA) is a device that would give these children the chance to have 'normal' hearing, but there is huge disparity in PCTs about who is 'allowed' to have one. My daughter and I both have Microtia. I have struggled all my life and don't want her to struggle to for the sake of a simple procedure. She has friends with unilateral microtia who have the BAHA - their hospitals will fund this. How do we explain to a 6 year old that our hospital will not? We must have a clear and consistent policy across the country - we want all children to have hearing. Single Sided Deafness is not just losing a bit of hearing, it is losing a lot of the good stuff in life, because you haven't quite caught the end of that conversation and you really daren't ask again, it's looking 'silly', it's being frightened in a crowd, it's missing out on your education... It could ulimately be the difference between crossing the road safely and not hearing the car... Please sign this for our deaf children. This is what I received from my MP: From the Office of Julian Huppert Member of Parliament for Cambridge House of Commons, London SW1A 0AA Telephone 01223 304421 Email email@example.com 11 June 2012 Thank you for contacting me to let me know that Molly’s case will need to go before NHS Cambridgeshire Exceptional Cases Appeal Panel to be considered. I appreciate this is a severe disappointment to you and Molly. I have received a holding response from NHS Cambridgeshire, copy attached. I will send you a copy of the full response from NHS Cambridgeshire on receiving this. It would be helpful to know what you understand the next process of the process to be and what assistance you want me to be able to give you. My case worker has spoken to the House of Commons Library Health Specialist who has confirmed that you unfortunately cannot be asked to be referred to another hospital. I hope this is helpful. Julian Huppert Member of Parliament for Cambridge

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Helium mass spectrometer leak detectors are designed to measure the partial pressure of trace amounts of helium passing through small leaks and then display the measurement as a function of leak rate. To ensure the accuracy of the measurement, it is necessary to tune and calibrate the leak detector on a regular basis by introducing a precise flow of helium into the leak detector and comparing the output measurement with the actual flow. This regulated flow, or leakage of tracer gas, is achieved through the use of a calibrated helium leak standard. Many of today's leak detectors have integrated or built-in calibrated leak standards. Older models of leak detectors, and current models of leak detectors that do not provide automatic calibration, may require an external calibrated leak standard to do the tune and calibration function. Two common types of commercially available calibrated leak standards are glass permeation and capillary leaks. Glass permeation calibrated leak standards consist of a permeable glass membrane encapsulated in a sealed reservoir that is charged with helium. The helium in the reservoir diffuses through the glass membrane out of the leak and into the leak detector vacuum system. An important factor to consider when using glass permeation style leaks is the temperature's affect on accuracy. Permeation style leaks have a leakage temperature coefficient of 3 or more percent per degree Celsius. As the operating temperature of the calibrated leak increases, its leakage rate also increases by its temperature coefficient. The temperature at which the leak standard was originally calibrated is typically marked on the side of the leak. This allows the user to compare the ambient temperature at the time the leak is used with the original calibration temperature and to compensate for the difference as required. Glass permeation leaks are fragile and should be handled with care. If the glass membrane breaks from impact, the helium supply will immediately deplete from the reservoir and the leak will be unreparable. Capillary-type leak standards are made up of a thin metal or glass capillary tube constructed into a pressurized metal envelope such that the gas from the envelope flows through the capillary tube out of the leak and into the vacuum system of the leak detector. One advantage of capillary type leaks over permeation leaks is that they are less sensitive to temperature changes. The leakage temperature coefficient of a capillary leak is approximately 0.2 percent per degree Celsius. Although capillary leaks are not as fragile as permeation leaks, they do have a capacity to become plugged by solids or vapor condensation. The accuracy of calibrated leaks incorporating an integral gas supply depends on age. Gas-filled leaks will decrease in value over time as the source of helium leaks out. This applies to both permeation and capillary type leaks. The depletion rate of a calibrated leak depends on its specified leakage rate. A 10-7 or 10-8 standard cubic centimeters per second (sccs) range leak will lose approximately 2% to 3% of its initial leak rate value per year. The depletion rate of a calibrated leak does not change when the leak is stored with its valve in the closed position. In fact, storing a gas-charged calibrated leak with its valve closed will result in helium buildup within the mechanism of the valve, causing the leak to become inaccurate. A gas-charged leak should always be stored with its valve in the open position. Aged calibrated leaks can be recertified on a regular basis to keep up with internal or external quality standards. Recertifi-cation involves measuring the leak on a calibrated system and re-labeling it with the new leakage rate, calibration temperature and date of calibration. A typical re-calibration cycle is one year. Regardless of whether the leak detector calibration is done automatically or manually, or whether it is done with an internal or external leak, the process is the same, in general. The first step in calibration involves tuning the leak detector so that the output signal is optimized for a constant in-flow of helium. This is generally performed by introducing a steady flow of helium into the leak detector vacuum system and then adjusting voltages within the analyzer cell and monitoring the output signal of the leak detector. The voltage values that result in the greatest signal output are set as the standard operating voltages until the calibration routine is re-initiated. Attempting to tune to a leak that is less than 1.0E-9 sccs may result in a "no signal" or "low signal" error message. This is an indication that the available helium flow is too low for the leak detector to do a successful tune adjustment. After tuning is complete, the calibration routine is run. Calibration involves comparing the tuned output signal with the calibrated leak value and applying a multiplier or gain factor to make the leak detector output or display equal the calibrated leak value. It should be noted that adding additional gain to calibrate a leak detector may also amplify noise and background. Higher gain settings could potentially make the leak detector unstable in the higher sensitivity ranges. The typical gain factor of a leak detector that is isolated from all external systems depends on the inherent sensitivity of the leak detector. This is a function of the design of the vacuum system and the analyzer cell components. A gain factor that is equal to or near 1.0 is the most appropriate because it indicates that the leak detector design provides enough inherent sensitivity to read a calibrated leak accurately without additional amplification of the tuned signal. A significant change in the typical gain factor of a leak detector may indicate a problem. Monitoring the gain factor on a regular basis is a good way to ensure that the leak detector is clean and working correctly. It is possible for the gain value to vary as a result of a change in the test configuration. If the leak detector is connected to an external vacuum system during the calibration routine, the pumping action of the external system could divert helium from the calibrated leak away from the leak detector. This is referred to as a split-flow condition. In this situation, a greater gain value would be required to bring the measured value up to the fixed value of the calibrated leak. This is not an indication of a problem with the leak detector; it is the result of the application. Calibration of modern leak detectors is relatively easy and fast. Many of today's leak detectors have an integrated calibrated leak standard and an automatic calibration feature. Calibrating a leak detector with an integrated leak often involves the push of a single button and a 3 to 5 minute wait period. It is important to warm up the leak detector for at least 30 minutes prior to performing a calibration routine. The frequency of calibrating a leak detector can depend on the application or be mandated by quality control requirements. More frequent calibrations are recommended for applications that involve accurate and quantitative testing to a specific pass/fail value. Less frequent calibrations are required for qualitative or go/no go testing. A well-designed leak detector will hold its calibration within the tolerances of go/no go test requirements for more than a few weeks. In addition to scheduled calibrations, it is appropriate to perform a calibration after the leak detector has experienced an unexpected shock, such as a power outage, power surge or inadvertent venting of the test port while in high sensitivity mode. • A regulated flow is achieved through the use of a calibrated helium leak standard. • Many of today's leak detectors have built-in calibrated leak standards. Older models may require an external calibrated leak standard. • Two common types of commercially available calibrated leak standards are glass permeation and capillary leaks.

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Last Updated: 04/12/2013* Joint Polar Satellite System Supports NOAA’s Weather-Ready Nation NOAA weather satellites are the backbone of life-saving weather forecasts and advance hazardous outlooks and its Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) represents the next great leap in weather forecasting accuracy. Raytheon provides the technology, from space to ground, to support NOAA's important weather mission of creating a Weather-Ready Nation. Without polar-orbiting satellites and the capability to process and translate data records, online resources and local forecasters would have little-to-no information to report for forecasts beyond 48 hours. Where do weather forecasts come from? While the public relies on weather forecasts to make personal and business decisions daily, the average American does not know how weather data is collected and transformed into an extended forecast. Polar-orbiting satellites provide 93 percent of the data used in the 2- to 10-day National Weather Service (NWS) forecast models. Supported by Raytheon technology in space and on the ground, JPSS provides accurate information to predict weather patterns with high confidence three days and beyond. VIIRS Releases First Complete Global Image from the NPP Satellite From 512 miles above the Earth and traveling at 16,640 miles per hour, the Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on the NPOESS Preparatory Project (NPP) satellite recently released its first complete global image, as well as several other images. VIIRS will provide advanced imaging and radiometric capabilities aboard the NPP spacecraft and future next-generation weather satellites. NPP is a bridge mission between the current polar weather satellite system and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Joint Polar Satellite System. In order to capture the daily global images, VIIRS rises from the south and set in the north on the daylight side of Earth in a sun-synchronous orbit – allowing for consistent image angles, lighting and data. Successive orbits overlap one another throughout the day to acquire swaths measuring 1,900 miles across. The processed result is a complete image of the globe. Collected data will study the Earth's surface including fires, ice, ocean color, vegetation, clouds, and land and sea surface temperatures. By providing more accurate and timely weather forecasting, VIIRS will help save lives and reduce costs associated with severe storm events in the United States and around the world. AWIPS II Raytheon Upgrades the Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System The Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (AWIPS) is central to a forecaster's ability to make weather predictions that can save lives and safeguard property. Developed by the National Weather Service (NWS), AWIPS gives forecasters access to data and imagery from an array of weather sensors and satellites through interactive workstations. The system provides complex analysis and data integration, enabling forecasters at more than 130 weather forecast centers across the nation to predict weather and issue time-sensitive warnings. Since 2005, Raytheon has partnered with NWS for the operations, maintenance and evolution of AWIPS, and has provided the integrated mission services required to sustain and enhance system performance. As the architect of the AWIPS evolution, Raytheon designed, developed and is currently testing AWIPS II, the system's next-generation software. * The content on this page is classified as historical content. See this important information regarding such content.

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2011 Report on International Religious Freedom - Senegal |Publisher||United States Department of State| |Publication Date||30 July 2012| |Cite as||United States Department of State, 2011 Report on International Religious Freedom - Senegal, 30 July 2012, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/5021058ac.html [accessed 19 June 2013]| |Disclaimer||This is not a UNHCR publication. UNHCR is not responsible for, nor does it necessarily endorse, its content. Any views expressed are solely those of the author or publisher and do not necessarily reflect those of UNHCR, the United Nations or its Member States.| Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor July 30, 2012 [Covers calendar year from 1 January 2011 to 31 December 2011] The constitution and other laws and policies protect religious freedom and, in practice, the government generally respected religious freedom. The government did not demonstrate a trend toward either improvement or deterioration in respect for and protection of the right to religious freedom. Although the country is generally known for its culture of religious tolerance and peaceful coexistence among various faiths, there were reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, or practice. The U.S. government discussed religious freedom with the government as part of its overall policy to promote human rights and engaged with the country's religious brotherhoods as a regular part of its work in the country. Through public affairs activities, the embassy promoted religious pluralism and dialogue between religious groups. Section I. Religious Demography Islam is the predominant religion; approximately 94 percent of the population practices Islam. Most citizens belong to one of several Sufi brotherhoods, each of which incorporates unique practices that reflect Islam's thousand-year history in the country. Some citizens affiliate with Sunni or Shia reform movements, which arose in the last century due to migrations from and travel to the Middle East. There is also an active Christian community, constituting 4 percent of the population, which includes Roman Catholics, Protestant denominations, and groups that practice syncretic Christian and indigenous beliefs. The remaining 2 percent practice exclusively indigenous religious beliefs and values, other minority religions, or no religion. The country is ethnically and religiously diverse. Although there is significant integration of all groups, Muslims are concentrated in the north, Christians largely in the west and south, and groups who practice indigenous religious beliefs mainly in the east and south. Section II. Status of Government Respect for Religious Freedom The constitution and other laws and policies protect religious freedom. The constitution specifically defines the country as a secular state and provides for the free practice of religious beliefs, provided that public order is maintained. Muslims may choose to have disputes covered by the family code, including marriage and inheritance disputes, adjudicated by civil court judges using Islamic law. Civil court judges preside over civil and customary law cases, but many disputes among Muslims are settled informally by the decision of religious leaders, particularly in rural areas. The government provides direct financial and material assistance to religious organizations, primarily to maintain or rehabilitate places of worship or to underwrite special events. All religious groups have access to these funds, and there is often competition among religious groups to obtain them. The government encourages and assists Muslim participation in the annual Hajj, providing hundreds of free airplane tickets for the pilgrimage to imams for distribution among citizens. The government provides similar assistance for an annual Catholic pilgrimage to the Vatican and the Holy Land. Religious organizations are independent of the government and administer their affairs without government interference. The civil and commercial codes require any group, religious or otherwise, to register with the Ministry of Interior to acquire legal status as an association. Registration enables an association to conduct business, own property, establish a bank account, and receive financial contributions from private sources. Registered religious groups and nonprofit organizations are exempt from many forms of taxation. The government generally approves applications for registration, and the Ministry of Interior must have a legal basis for denying applications. Religious nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) must obtain authorization to operate from the Ministry of Women, Family, and Social Development. The government monitors foreign religious NGOs to ensure that their activities adhere to their stated objectives. The government allows up to four hours of voluntary religious education per week in public elementary schools. Parents may choose either the Christian or Muslim curriculum. An estimated 700,000 students participated in religious education through the public elementary school system during the year. Private schools may also provide religious education. The Ministry of Education provides partial funding to schools operated by religious institutions that meet national education standards. Long-established Christian schools with strong academic reputations receive the largest share of this government funding. The majority of students attending Christian schools are Muslim. In addition to the national curriculum, Christian schools offer religious education to Christian students and moral education to non-Christians. Non-Christian students were not required to take Christian religious courses. The government observes the following religious holidays as national holidays: Tabaski (Abraham's sacrifice), Tamkharit (Muslim New Year), the Birth of the Prophet Muhammad, Korite (end of Ramadan), Easter Monday, Ascension, Pentecost, Feast of the Assumption, All Saints' Day, and Christmas. There were no reports of abuses of religious freedom. The government provided facilities to ease access and parking at the Saint-Lazarre cemetery in Dakar, resolving concerns expressed in 2008 about its plan to expropriate part of the cemetery to erect office buildings. In addition to secular public schools, the government also funded Islamic schools, which are growing; in 2011, an estimated 60,000 students attended Islamic schools. By the end of the year, the government opened 200 of the 600 planned Islamic schools. All of these schools are bilingual, teaching in French and Arabic. This program removed thousands of children from street begging and exploitation under the guise of some private Qur'anic schools in the country. Section III. Status of Societal Respect for Religious Freedom Although the country is generally known for its culture of religious tolerance and peaceful coexistence amongst various faiths, there were reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, or practice. Many of these abuses targeted evangelical churches, which are rapidly increasing in membership, mostly due to conversion of members from long-established religious groups. Evangelicals in churches originally transplanted from other African countries or in which many members were refugees also sometimes faced discrimination. On June 26 rioting youth attacked a Dakar church during demonstrations against the worsening electricity outages in the country. The church was holding worship service at the time of the attack, and nearly 40 people were injured in the incident. On the following day, violent youth attacked seven additional evangelical churches. One church, the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God in Dakar, was burned down. The other six churches suffered less damage. While some of the church attacks may have been an inadvertent result of the churches' proximity to violent protests, the attack on the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God appeared deliberate. Several days after the attacks, the government issued a strongly-worded statement condemning the incidents, and police were posted around the damaged buildings while congregants attempted to clean up. Section IV. U.S. Government Policy The U.S. government encouraged the promotion and protection of the rights and freedoms enshrined in the country's constitution, including freedom of thought, conscience, and religion. Through active engagement with religious leaders, communities of faith, government, and civil society, the U.S. government promoted and facilitated freedom of religion and societal respect for religious freedom within the context of its broader human rights agenda. Some of the embassy's public affairs activities focused on religious topics. To celebrate Ramadan, the ambassador hosted an iftar (evening meal during Ramadan) that included senior Muslim, Catholic, and evangelical leaders. The embassy brought a U.S. speaker to the country who spoke to a variety of Islamic institutions on gender and Islam. Through the embassy's speakers program, International Visitor Leadership Program, U.S. government program alumni association, and other public outreach tools and events, the embassy promoted religious pluralism and dialogue among religious groups. Embassy officials met with religious leaders to promote tolerance and mutual understanding as well as enlisted their support for development and human rights goals.

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Pets do an awful lot for kids: they teach them about unconditional love, responsibility, death and, of course, pooper scoopers. But does a dog or cat also keep a child from developing allergies? Despite decades of research, the short answer is still a frustrating "maybe." The idea that pets might provide an immune benefit stems from a controversial theory born in 1989 called the hygiene hypothesis. It postulates that the sharp rise in allergic diseases this century can be explained, at least in part, by our higher cleanliness standards. Microorganisms like bacteria and parasites are thought to "prime" our immune systems to fight the important fights—dangerous infections—while smartly ignoring the frivolous ones. Allergies, then, occur because naive immune systems unnecessarily attack harmless environmental triggers, such as pet dander. Today, most researchers believe that only certain microorganisms, such as parasitic worms and lactobacilli, play a role in prepping the immune system. The question is whether pets provide some of them. Studies designed to address this question, however, have been anything but conclusive. "Welcome to a complex field," says Thomas Platts-Mills, head of the allergy and clinical immunology division at the University of Virginia. For one thing, because cat and dog allergens like dander and saliva travel easily on clothing and in the air, most children are exposed to them—so it's not a black-and-white issue of exposure versus nonexposure. "The question is really, what happens at much higher exposure, that is, when there is a cat in the home?" says Matthew Perzanowski, an environmental health scientist at Columbia University's Mailman School of Public Health. According to Perzanowski, pet ownership appears to be associated with a decreased risk of developing allergies in some, but not all, communities. For example, in countries with lots of cats, like the suburban U.S. and Australia, a pet cat appears to provide a protective effect. But in countries with few cats, he says, ownership actually increases the risk for allergic sensitization, the immune reaction that often precedes allergy symptoms. And don't even try to understand countries with moderate cat ownership—studies have been inconclusive. As for why these differences exist, no one really knows. There's stronger evidence for protection from dogs, says Augusto Litonjua, an associate physician at Brigham's and Women's Hospital in Boston, but he admits that there could be a number of reasons for this. For instance, he says, how can you distinguish between the direct effect of owning a dog and the lifestyle choices that accompany it, such as going outside more, being more physically active, and absorbing more sun and vitamin D? It may not be the dog per se that's having an effect, he says. But there is some molecular evidence for dog-specific protection. Dogs are known to carry lots of bacterial compounds called endotoxins in their fur, Litonjua says. His lab's studies have shown that when cells from children who have grown up in homes with higher endotoxin levels are directly exposed to allergens in the laboratory, they release fewer cytokines, chemicals associated with allergic responses. Endotoxin exposure might also explain the well-supported finding that children raised on farms experience fewer allergy symptoms than other kids. Farms are chock-full of microorganisms and animals, and these might confer a protective effect; but again, farm children lead very different lives than kids raised elsewhere, so it's difficult to tease out exactly what is protecting them, Litonjua says. Indeed, some scientists urge caution when it comes to interpreting the majority of pet allergy studies out there. In many, researchers questioned groups of people about their pet ownership patterns and compared this with their allergy profiles. Such studies don't prove causation, says Carl-Gustaf Bornehag, a public health scientist at Karlstad University in Sweden. Often, people who are allergic to pets—or, because allergies are at least partially hereditary, people who are at risk of becoming allergic because someone in their family is—simply aren't going to own them, he says.

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One of the casualties of mapping a three-dimensional planet on two-dimensional paper is the part of the world that is split between the edges of the paper. Usually, this is the Pacific. As Sarah Palin made famous in the 2008 presidential campaign, as an Alaskan, she can see Russia from her house. While I admit that for Palin, this is an exaggeration, but for the residents of St. Lawrence Island, this view is a reality. In fact, they are as likely (if not more) to speak Russian than English and have the capability of kayaking to Russia if so desired. But your average world map makes that distance look infinite. What if we conventionally centered maps around the Pacific instead of Europe? A Google image search of “world map” took until the bottom of page 4 to find something that didn’t cut the Pacific in half. Even then, the map included extra bits; it wasn’t centered on the Pacific. It would be a very different view. We tend to forget about what falls at the edges if it’s not visually connected and this can have very real consequences. For instance, the nuclear fallout from Fukushima was often referred to as ‘lucky’ because the primary plume extended over the empty Pacific. As was pointed out in a New York Times OpEd, the Pacific isn’t empty space. There are nations there in addition to many important marine resources, not to mention charismatic fauna that capture worldwide imagination. The citizens of those nations never really get a fair cartographic representation. Some would go so far as to say that this is a form of elitism and ethnocentrism, placing the Europe in the center of the world as it stood in the minds of historic cartographers that first mapped the world. It might be time to revisit and re-center.

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Who is qualified to be president of the United States? Do qualifications matter? As we celebrate Presidents’ Day, it’s worth pondering what kind of background makes a president successful. The Constitution stipulates only that a candidate be a natural born citizen who is at least 35 years old and has lived in the country for 14 years. The assumption for all political offices is that we want qualified candidates, and the more qualified, the better. The main qualification we value is experience. Again, the conventional wisdom is that more experience is an asset. Interestingly, some of America’s most qualified presidents performed the worst, and perhaps our greatest president, Abraham Lincoln, was among the least qualified. For example, John Quincy Adams had been a professor at Harvard, a senator from Massachusetts, and a minister (we didn’t use the title “ambassador” at the time) to the Netherlands, Prussia, Britain, and Russia. He helped negotiate the Treaty of Ghent that ended the War of 1812. Fluent in French, he formulated the Monroe Doctrine while serving as secretary of state. He has been described as the most learned president between Jefferson and Wilson. Of course his father, John Adams, was a founding father and also served as president. If ever a man had the right pedigree to be president, it was John Quincy Adams. Alas, he is not considered a successful president. He lost his bid for reelection in 1828 to a less educated, less traveled, less experienced man named Andrew Jackson. Jackson’s legacy and impact are so great that his likeness still adorns American currency today. Another well-qualified president was James Buchanan. Elected as a state legislator at age 23, he later represented Pennsylvania as a congressman for 10 years. After a stint as envoy to Russia, he served 10 years as a U.S. senator. He resigned to become James K. Polk’s secretary of state and was Franklin Pierce’s minister to England. With that kind of experience — congressman, senator, cabinet member, and ambassador — James Buchanan seemed like a can’t-miss prospect when he became the 15th president in 1857. Instead, historians consistently rank him as one of the worst presidents ever. His presidency ended with Southern states seceding from the Union to begin the Civil War. Not many people can name the 15th president, but most schoolchildren can name the 16th — Abraham Lincoln. All he did was save the United States of America and help end slavery. He’s also on our currency. What were Lincoln’s qualifications? He had never traveled overseas, had little formal schooling, and served a grand total of one term in the U.S. House of Representatives in the 1840s before returning to practice law in Illinois. In fact, Lincoln appointed to the cabinet a more politically seasoned “team of rivals,” each of them initially convinced of his superiority to the inexperienced Lincoln. Who is qualified to be president of the United States? Do qualifications matter? We often say we want the most qualified person to be in office. When arguing for our preference, we like to claim the upper hand when our candidate has the most political experience. Looking back on history, an impressive political pedigree is not always the best indicator of presidential greatness. Character and judgment count more. Those qualities made men like Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln (and my favorite, Harry Truman) an unqualified success. William “Brother” Rogers lives in Starkville and works with the Stennis Center for Public Service. Contact him at firstname.lastname@example.org .

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“I am” is a family- and classroom-friendly video series of storytelling to celebrate, honor and commemorate the lives and experiences of local people, their cultural and their history. The videos are two to eight minutes long. Appropriate for all ages, these videos can be used as bedtime stories, storytelling programs or part of classroom lessons. The series: Monday, storyteller Akosua Valerie Woods; Tuesday, illustrator London Ladd; Wednesday, poet Omanii Abdullah; Thursday, actor Noa Ford; and Friday, songwriter Jacque Kofi Thomas to celebrate Black History Month. History is important. Every step from our past leads to what will become our history. And, black history is important. Black History Month is a reminder that the African Diaspora needs to be written in and the untruths need to be written out of the history. There is cultural, spiritual, creative and intellectual richness in the black people, families and communities in Central New York. Maybe you would like to be part of this series or you know someone. Are you a storyteller? Have you written children’s stories or songs? Ask yourself, “How am I making history? What stories do I have to share? Do I know someone who has an interesting story?” Ellen M. Blalock | email@example.com

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Using a weather balloon purchased online, two 17-year old Canadian students launched a lego man on a dramatic mission 80,000 feet into the stratosphere. By affixing multimedia recording equipment to the payload and a parachute linked to GPS so it could be recovered (it was), the resourceful teens captured spectacular imagery of the journey. The Toronto Star tells the full story of how Mathew Ho and Asad Muhammad accomplished this impressive feat, in their spare time no less. “The project cost $400 and took four months of free Saturdays. It wasn’t a school assignment. They just thought it would be cool,” the Toronto Star reported. Keep reading to view the stunning video. Posted by Mathew Ho, one of the flight engineers to YouTube: “After endless hours of hard work, we managed to capture stunning views of our atmosphere and put a ‘Lego’ man into near space!” It’s been quite the week for the lego man. Just last Friday, a Washington, D.C. lego man had to be rescued after getting stranded at a towering snow pile... Related: Lego Man in Space Facebook page

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Nuclear Waste Management Nuclear Waste Management - What You Need To Know One of WEC’s key messages is the need to keep all energy options open. The WEC 2005 – 2007 Business Plan identified the need to focus on key energy advocacy initiatives that are supported with balanced and factual information. Nuclear waste management is an issue at the forefront of the debate concerning the safety and security of the nuclear value chain. Like all industries, the thermal generation of electricity produces wastes. Whatever fuel is used, these wastes must be managed in ways that safeguard quality of life and minimise their impact on the environment. Nuclear power is the only energy industry that, thanks to direct regulation, takes full responsibility for all its wastes, and factors this into the final product (electricity) price. WEC aims to increase public awareness by providing clear and non-biased information on the state of nuclear waste management, particularly the new technologies present today that were not available during the construction phase of the majority of the current global nuclear power plants.

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While the little community at Bannack were snugly housed for the winter, anxiously awaiting the return of warm weather to favor a resumption of labor in the gulch, numerous companies were in progress of organization in the States, intending to avail themselves of the same seasonable change to start upon the long and adventurous journey to Salmon river. The fame of Bannack and Deer Lodge had not yet reached them. In the summer of 1862 an expedition under the direction of the Government was planned in Minnesota for the ostensible purpose of opening a wagon road between St. Paul and Fort Benton, to connect at the latter point with the military road opened a few years before by Captain John Mullen [Mullan] from Fort Benton to Walla Walla. This route of nearly two thousand miles lay for most of the distance through a partially explored region, filled with numerous bands of the hostile Sioux and Blackfeet. Government had grudgingly appropriated the meagre sum of five thousand dollars in aid of the enterprise, which was not sufficient to pay a competent guard for the protection of the company. The quasi-governmental character of the expedition, however, with the inducement superadded that it would visit the Salmon river mines, soon caused a large number of emigrants to join it. The Northern Overland Expedition, as it was called, left St. Paul on the 16th of June, 1862. It was confided to the leadership of Captain James L. Fisk, whose previous frontier experience and unquestioned personal courage admirably fitted him for the command of an expedition which owed so much of its final success, as well as its safety during a hazardous journey through a region occupied by hostile Indians, to the vigilance and discipline of its commanding officer. His first assistant was E.H. Burritt, and second assistant, the writer; Samuel R. Bond, secretary, David Charlton, engineer, Dr. W.D. Dibb, surgeon, and Robert C. Knox, wagon master. About forty men were selected from the company, who agreed, for their subsistence, to serve as guards during the journey. One hundred and twenty-five emigrants accompanied the expedition to Prickly Pear valley. This band was thoroughly organized, and ready at all times for instant service while passing through Indian country. Fort Abercrombie, Devil's Lake, Fort Union, and Milk river were designated points of the route, and it was generally understood that the company should pursue as nearly as possible the trail of the exploring expedition under command of Governor Isaac I. Stevens in 1853. All the streams not fordable on the entire route were bridged by the company and many formidable obstacles removed. The company arrived without accident, after a tedious but not uninteresting trip, in Prickly Pear valley on the 21st day of September. It was the largest single party that went to the Northern mines in 1862. About one-half of the number remained in Prickly Pear valley, locating upon the creek where Montana City now stands. The remainder accompanied Captain Fisk to Walla Walla. All who were officially connected with the expedition, except Mr. Knox and the writer, returned by way of the Pacific ocean and the Isthmus to Washington. Gold had been found on Prickly Pear creek a short time before the arrival of our company. "Tom Gold Digger," or "Gold Tom," had pitched his lodge at the mouth of the canyon above our location and was "panning out" small quantities of gold. The placer was very difficult of development and the yield small. Winter was near at hand. Many of the party who had left home for Salmon river, where they had been assured profitable employment could be readily obtained, now found themselves five hundred miles from their destination with cattle too much exhausted to attempt the journey, in the midst of a wilderness, nearly destitute of provisions, and with no chance of obtaining any, nearer than Salt Lake City, four hundred miles away, from which they were separated by a region of mountainous country, rendered impassable by deep snows and beset for the entire distance by hostile Indians. Starvation seemingly stared them in the face. Disheartening as the prospect was, all felt that it would not do to give way to discouragement. A few traders had followed the tide of emigration from Colorado with a limited supply of the bare necessaries of life, risking the dangers of Indian attack by the way, to obtain large profits and prompt pay as a rightful reward for their temerity. Regarding their little stock as their only resource, the company set to work at once, each man for himself, to obtain means to buy with. Prices were enormous. The placer was still unpromising. Frost and snow had actually come. With a small pack supplied from the remains of their almost exhausted larders, the men started out, some on foot, and some astride their worn-out animals, into the bleak mountain wilderness in pursuit of gold. With the certainty of death in its most horrid form if they fell into the clutches of a band of prowling Blackfeet, and the thought uppermost in their minds that they could scarcely escape freezing, surely the hope which sustained this little band of wanderers lacked none of those grand elements which sustained the early settlers of our country in their days of disaster and suffering. Men who cavil with Providence, and attribute the escape of a company of half-starved, destitute men from massacre, starvation, and freezing, under circumstances like these, to luck or chance or accident, are either destitute of gratitude or have never been overtaken by calamity. Yet these men all survived to tell the tale of their bitter experience. My recollection of those gloomy days, all the more vivid, perhaps, because I was among the indigent ones, was emphasized by a little incident I can never recall without a devout feeling of thankfulness. Intelligence was brought us that a company of miners was working the bottom of a creek in Pike's Peak Gulch, a distance of sixty miles from the Prickly Pear camp over the Rocky Mountain range. Cornelius Bray, Patrick Dougherty, and I started immediately on a horseback trip to the new camp in search of employment for the winter. One pack-horse served to transport our blankets and provisions. Our intention was to cross the main range on the first day and camp at the head of Summit creek, where there was good grass and water. In following the Mullen [Mullan] road through the canyon, when about two miles from the ridge, Bray's horse gave out and resisted all our efforts to urge him farther. There was no alternative but to camp. The spot was unpromising enough. There was no feed for our horses, and our camp by the roadside could not escape the notice of any band of Indians that might chance to be crossing the range. It was the custom in this Indian country for packers and others to seek some secluded spot half a mile or more from the trail for camping purposes; but here we were cooped up in a canyon not ten rods wide, and the only practicable pass over the range running directly through it. Of course we all mentally hoped that no Indians would appear. I had, while at Fort Benton, held frequent conversations with Mr. Dawson, the factor at that post, who had spent many years in the country, and was perfectly familiar with the manners and tactics of the Indians. He warned me against just such exposure as that to which we were now liable, and when night came, knowing that the country was full of roving bands of Bloods and Piegans, I felt no little solicitude for a happy issue out of danger. Evening was just setting in, when the snow began to fall in damp, heavy flakes, giving promise of a most uncomfortable night. Our only shelter was a clump of bushes on the summit of a knoll, where we spread our blankets, first carefully picketing the four horses with long lariats to a single pin, so that in case of difficulty they could all be controlled by one person. Dougherty proposed to stand guard until midnight, when I was to relieve him and remain until we resumed our trip at early dawn. Bray and I crept into our blankets, they and the bushes being our only protection against a very heavy mountain snowstorm. Strange as it may seem to those unfamiliar with border life, we soon fell asleep and slept until I was aroused by Dougherty to take my turn at the watch. I crawled from under the blankets, which were covered to the depth of five inches with "the beautiful snow," and Dougherty fairly burrowed into the warm place I had left. About three o'clock in the morning the horses became uneasy for want of food. Preparatory to an early departure I gathered in a large heap a number of small, fallen pines and soon had an immense fire. It lighted up the canyon with a lurid gloom and mantled the snow-covered trees with a ghastly radiance. The black smoke of the burning pitch rolled in clouds through the atmosphere, which seemed to be choked with the myriad snowflakes. So dense was the storm I could scarcely discern the horses, which stood but a few rods distant. Wading through the snow to the spot where my companions slept, I roused them from their slumbers. I could liken them to nothing but spectres as they burst through their snowy covering and stood half-revealed in the bushes by the light of the blazing pines. Despite the gloomy forebodings which had filled my mind, at this scene I burst into a fit of loud and irrepressible laughter. It was but for a moment, for, as if in answer to it, the counterfeited neigh of a horse a few rods below and of another just above me, warned me that the danger I had feared was already upon us. It was the signal and reply of the Indians. Bray and Dougherty grasped their guns, while I rushed to the picket pin, and, seizing the four lariats, pulled in the horses. A moment afterwards, and from behind the thicket of willows just above our camp, there dashed down the canyon in full gallop forty or more of the dreaded Blackeet. In the light of that dismal fire their appearance was horribly picturesque. Their faces hideous with war paint, their long ebon hair floating to the wind, their heads adorned with bald-eagle's feathers, and their knees and elbows daintily tricked out with strips of antelope skin and white feathery skunks' tails, they seemed like a troop of demons which had just sprung out of the earth, rather than beings of flesh and blood. Each man held a gun in his right hand, guiding his horse with the left. Well-filled quivers and bows were fastened to their shoulders, and close behind the main troop, driven by five or six outriders, followed a herd of fifty or more horses they had just stolen from a company of miners on their way back to the Bannack mines, and who had encamped for the night at Deer Lodge. These animals were driven hurriedly by our camp, down the canyon, the main troop, meanwhile, forming into a line on the other side of them so as to present an unbroken front of horsemen after they had passed, drawn up for attack. This critical moment we improved by rapidly looping the lariats into the mouths of our horses and bringing our guns to an aim from behind them over their fore-shoulders. As we stood thus, not twenty yards asunder, confronting each other, the chief, evidently surprised that the onslaught lingered, rode hurriedly along the front of his men and with violent gesticulations and much vehement jargon urged them to an instant assault. They strongly expostulated, and by numerous antics and utterances, which I afterward ascertained meant that their guns were wet and their caps useless, finally persuaded him to resort to the bows and arrows. The chief was very angry, and from the violence of his gestures and threatening manner I expected to see several of the Indians knocked off their horses. When the Indians, in obedience to his command, hung their guns on the pommels of their saddles, and drew their bows, the attack seemed inevitable. Our guns were dry, and we knew that they were good for twenty-four shots and the revolvers in our belts for as many more. Satisfied that an open attack would eventuate in death of some of their number, nearly one-half of the Indians left the ranks and passed from our sight down the canyon, but soon reappeared, emerging from the thicket on the opposite side of our camp. We wheeled our four horses into a hollow square, and, standing in the centre, presented our guns at each assaulting party. As our horses were the booty they most wished to obtain, they were now restrained lest they should kill them instead of us. A few moments of painful suspense -moments into which days of anxiety were crowded -supervened. A brief consultation followed, and the chief gave orders for them to withdraw. They all wheeled into rapid line, and with the military precision of a troop of cavalry dashed down the canyon and we saw them no more. Thankful for an escape attributable to the snow which had unfitted their guns for use, and to the successful raid they had made upon our neighbors, we saddled our horses and hurried over the mountain range with all possible speed. While crossing, we found two horses which, jaded with travel, had been abandoned by the Indians. We took them with us, and on our arrival at Grasshopper some days after, restored one to Dr. Glick, its rightful owner. "I have had seven horses stolen from me by these prowlers," said he, "but this is the first one that was ever returned." The little gulch at Pike's Peak was fully occupied when we arrived, and after remaining a few days we mounted our horses and made a tedious but unadventurous journey to Bannack, then, and for nearly a year afterwards, the most important gold placer east of the Rocky Mountains. The fame of this locality had reached Salmon river late in the fall of 1862, and many of the people left the Florence mines for the east side. Among them came the first irruption of robbers, gamblers, and horsethieves, and the settlement was filled with gambling houses and saloons, where bad men and worse women held constant vigil and initiated that reign of infamy which nothing but the strong hand could extirpate.

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423 - 02: African-American Lit 1845-Present – WR Meeting Times: TTH 4:00-5:15 This introductory survey of African American literature is intended to 1) introduce key themes and concerns in African American literature (such as literacy, humanity, and civic participation; moral suasion and social advocacy--often when addressing a skeptical or hostile audience; the search for cultural roots); and 2) describe key aesthetic features of this literature (including allusions to oral traditions; the influence of music; call and response, or other forms of audience participation; allusions to prior texts). In addition, we will relate this literature to its historical and social contexts (for instance, abolitionism and the Civil War; Reconstruction; the Post-Reconstruction era and the rise of Jim Crow laws; urban and northern migration; the Civil Rights movement) and important artistic movements (the Harlem Renaissance and the Black Arts We will also relate this literature to broader literary modes in American literature (realism, naturalism; modernism; postmodernism) and literary studies (the formation of literary canons; the study of minority literatures within a broader national literary tradition). Finally, the course will help students become more familiar with literary traditions and practices, as well as American cultural history, and help them improve their writing and interpretive skills. English 102 or 105; English 310. English 102 or 105; English 300 or 310. See other sections of this course

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1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ambarvalia |←Amazon-stone||1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 1 |See also Ambarvalia on Wikipedia, and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.| AMBARVALIA, an annual festival of the ancient Romans, occurring in May, usually on the 29th, the object of which was to secure the growing crops against harm of all kinds. The priests were the Arval Brothers (q.v.), who conducted the victims—ox, sheep and pig (suovetaurilia)—in procession with prayer to Ceres round the boundaries of the ager Romanus. As the extent of Roman land increased, this could no longer be done, and in the Acta of the Fratres, which date from Augustus, we do not find this procession mentioned (Henzen, Acta Fratrum Arvalium, 1874); but there is a good description of this or a similar rite in Virgil, Georg. i. 338 ff., and in Cato's work de Re Rustica (141) we have full details and the text of the prayers used by the Latin farmer in thus “lustrating” his own land. In this last case the god invoked is Mars. The Christian festival which seems to have taken the place of these ceremonies is the Rogation or Gang week of the Roman Church. The perambulation or beating of bounds is probably a survival of the same type of rite. See W. W. Fowler, Roman Festivals (1899), p. 124 ff. (W. W. F.*)

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Vanilla is a product of Lussumo:Documentation and Support. 161 to 180 of 223 Researchers believe that the rocks containing these fossils, found in southern Anhui Provence, date between 635 million and 580 million years ago. The new types of organisms discovered in them include two that are fan-shaped, as long as 2 inches (5 centimeters), and resemble seaweed, as well as three other new types of organisms that are difficult to classify as animal or plant. Until now, scientists had thought the oldest collection of fossils of large, complex life forms was the Avalon assemblage, dating back to about 579 million to 565 million years ago. It contained equally strange and unclassifiable organisms called rangeomorphs. Baculoviruses infect invertebrates, with each species of virus typically infecting only one species of host. Caterpillars are a particularly favorite target; the insects swallow baculoviruses sprinkled on the leaves they munch. (“How did the viruses get there?” you may ask. Very good question–which we’ll get to in good time.)Once inside the caterpillar, a baculovirus infects a host cell. The cell produces huge numbers of new baculoviruses. They come in two forms. Some of the viruses can slip out of the host cell on their own to infect new cells. Others stay in the cell, which makes huge quantities of a viral protein called polyhedrin. The viruses become embedded in massive polyhedrin blocks, like fruits in a fruitcake. A caterpillar may produce 10 million viruses from swallowing a single viral fruitcake. It even becomes visibly swollen with all its new viruses.Soon the virus-packed host gets an uncontrollable urge to creep its way to the tops of plants, where it clamps on tight, hanging down as shown in the picture above. In fact, scientists noticed these strange death throes long before they knew that baculoviruses that caused it. They dubbed it tree-top disease.After an infected caterpillar takes its position at the top of a plant, the virus releases an enzyme that literally makes the animal dissolve. The tough viral fruitcakes come tumbling out, landing on leaves below where they can infect a new host.Hearing about tree-top disease gave me a deep sense of deja vu. A number of very different parasites have evolved the same strategy for getting to new hosts. Just a couple weeks ago, for example, I blogged about a fungus that sends its ant hosts to the undersides of leaves, whereupon the fungus sprouts branches out of the ant’s head and showers spores down on new victims. Lancet flukes send their hosts up to the tips of grass blades so that they can be eaten by grazing cows and sheep. It’s fascinating that even a virus–with just a few genes–can trigger this behavior as well. ...Vitargent combined the green fluorescent protein gene from jellyfish and spliced it into the genome of the fish directly next to a gene that detects oestrogen. Chemicals that have oestrogen-like activity cause the 1mm long fish larvae to express the modified gene, making them glow. The higher the concentration of oestrogen, the brighter the glow.

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Is It Possible to Get Too Much Sleep? Why do I feel so tired if I get more than 11 hours of sleep? My mom says I slept too much. Is this true? Most teens need between 8½ to more than 9 hours of sleep a night. If you get much more or less, you may wake up feeling tired and unrefreshed. People who sleep too long may also have trouble falling asleep, and they may wake up a lot during the night. Some people who still feel tired after getting an adequate amount of sleep have sleep problems and don't realize it. Conditions such as sleep apnea, restless legs, or even depression can make it hard to get a good night's rest. Caffeine and some medications can also disrupt sleep patterns. If you don't wake up feeling rested on most mornings, or think you might be depressed, it's a good idea to talk to your doctor. Reviewed by: Mary L. Gavin, MD Date reviewed: February 2011 * Names have been changed to protect user privacy. Share this page using: Note: All information on TeensHealth® is for educational purposes only. For specific medical advice, diagnoses, and treatment, consult your doctor. © 1995- The Nemours Foundation. All rights reserved.

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Unit 7: Agriculture // Section 5: Combating Pests and Disease As agriculture became increasingly dependent on technological inputs throughout the 20th century, it also underwent a structural shift, particularly in developed countries. Instead of raising a diverse mix of crops, farmers increasingly planted large holdings of one or a few crop varieties that had been developed for high yields. Monoculture makes it easier to cultivate large acreages more efficiently, especially using mechanized equipment and chemical inputs. However, these artificial ecosystems are vulnerable to outbreaks of pests and pathogens because they do not have natural protection from genetic diversity and they are typically nutrient-rich, thanks to abundant fertilizer use. Moreover, many pest species have adapted to spread rapidly in ecosystems where recent disturbances, such as plowing, have eliminated natural predators (for background, see Unit 4, "Ecosystems"). Agricultural pests include insects, mammals such as mice and rats, unwanted plants (weeds), fungi, and microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses. Humans have controlled pests with naturally-occurring substances such as salt, sulfur, and arsenic for centuries, but synthetic pesticides, first developed during World War II, are generally more effective. Many of the first pesticides that were widely used for agriculture were organochlorines such as DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane), aldrin, dieldrin, and heptachlor. These substances are effective against a range of insects and household pests, but in the 1950s and 1960s they were shown to cause human health effects including dizziness, seizures, respiratory illness, and immune system dysfunction. Most organochlorines have been banned in the United States and other developed countries but remain in use in developing countries. In her 1962 book Silent Spring, biologist and author Rachel Carson drew wide-scale public attention to the environmental effects of pesticides. Carson described how actions such as spraying elm trees with broad-spectrum pesticides to prevent Dutch elm disease severely affected many other parts of local ecosystems (Box 1). The trees are sprayed in the spring (usually at the rate of 2 to 5 pounds of DDT per 50-foot tree, which may be the equivalent of as much as 23 pounds per acre where elms are numerous) and often again in July, at about half this concentration. Powerful sprayers direct a stream of poison to all parts of the tallest trees, killing directly not only the target organism, the bark beetle, but other insects, including pollinating species and predatory spiders and beetles. The poison forms a tenacious film over the leaves and bark. Rains do not wash it away. In the autumn the leaves fall to the ground, accumulate in sodden layers, and begin the slow process of becoming one with the soil. In this they are aided by the toil of the earthworms, who feed in the leaf litter, for elm leaves are among their favorite foods. In feeding on the leaves the worms also swallow the insecticide, accumulating and concentrating it in their bodies . . . . Undoubtedly some of the earthworms themselves succumb, but others survive to become ‘biological magnifiers’ of the poison. In the spring the robins return to provide another link in the cycle. As few as 11 large earthworms can transfer a lethal dose of DDT to a robin. And 11 worms form a small part of a day’s rations to a bird that eats 10 to 12 earthworms in as many minutes. Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), pp. 107–108 (emphasis in original). Bioaccumulation of DDT and other organochlorines drastically reduced populations of bald eagles and other large predatory birds that fed at the top of the food chain. The pesticides disrupted birds' reproductive systems and caused them to lay eggs with very thin shells that broke before young birds hatched (Fig. 8). Figure 8. DDT accumulation in the food chain See larger image Source: © United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Organochlorines were replaced in the 1970s with other pesticides that were less toxic and more narrowly targeted to specific pests. However, many of these newer options still killed off pests' natural enemies, and when the insecticides were used repeatedly over time, pests became resistant to them through natural selection (many types of insects can develop through entire generations in days or weeks). Today hundreds of species of insects and weeds are resistant to major pesticides and herbicides. In response some farmers have turned to methods such as releasing natural insect predators or breeding resistance into crops. For example, U.S. farmers can buy corn seeds that have been engineered to resist rootworms, corn borers, or both pests, depending on which are present locally, as well as corn that has been developed to tolerate herbicides. Others practice integrated pest management (IPM), an approach under which farmers consider each crop and pest problem as a whole and design a targeted program drawing on multiple control technologies, including pesticides, natural predators, and other methods. In one notable case, Indonesia launched an IPM program in 1986 to control the brown planthopper, a notorious pest that lays its eggs inside rice plant stalks, out of range of pesticides. Outreach agents trained farmers to monitor their fields for planthoppers and their natural predators, and to treat outbreaks using minimal pesticide applications or alternative methods such as biological controls (Fig. 9). Over the following decade rice production increased by 15 percent while pesticide use fell by 60 percent. Yields on IPM lands rose from 6 to almost 7.5 tons of rice per hectare (footnote 7). Figure 9. Gathering insects for identification during IPM training, Indonesia See larger image Source: © J.M. Micaud, Food and Agriculture Organization. Plowing originally developed as a way to control pests (weeds), but created new issues in the process. Bare lands that have been plowed but have not yet developed crop cover are highly susceptible to erosion. The Dust Bowl that occurred in the United States in the 1930s was caused partly by poor agricultural practices. With support from the federal government, farmers plowed land that was too dry for farming across the Great Plains, destroying prairie grasses that held topsoil in place. When repeated droughts and windstorms struck the central and western states, hundreds of millions of tons of topsoil blew away. Today a similar process is taking place in northern China, where over-plowing and overgrazing are expanding the Gobi Desert and generating huge dust storms that scour Beijing and other large cities to the east. Excessive plowing can also depress crop production by altering soil microbial communities and contributing to the breakdown of organic matter. To conserve soil carbon and reduce erosion, some farmers have turned to alternative practices such as no-till or direct-drill agriculture, in which crops are sown without cultivating the soil in advance. Direct drilling has been widely adopted in Australia, and some 17.5 percent of U.S. croplands were planted using no-till techniques as of the year 2000 (footnote 8). No-till agriculture enhances soil development and fertility. It is usually practiced in combination with methods that leave crop residues on the field, which helps to preserve moisture, prevent erosion, and increase soil carbon pools. However, no-till requires an alternative strategy for weed control and thus frequently involves substantial use of herbicides and chemical means to control other pests.

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A Wendigo is most commonly known as a mythical creature appearing in the mythology of the Algonquin people, who inhabited what is now present day Quebec. A Wendigo is a cannibalistic spirit that could possess humans, or into which humans could transform. Origin: The mythological Wendigo originated from the Algonquian speaking tribes of the United States. The creature in their stories was a spirit that could possess humans and turn them into cannibals. According to their myths, the Wendigoes were “embodiments of gluttony, greed, and excess; never satisfied after killing and consuming one person, they were constantly searching for new victims.” It is said that in some traditions, greedy humans could be turned into Wendigoes. That myth was used to create cooperation and moderation in the people. Appearance: The Wendigo is described as an extremely gaunt person with skin the colour of death, and with eyes pushed back into their sockets. The lips of the Wendigo were always tattered and bloody. Because of the uncleanness in which they lived, the Wendigo gave off a of an odor of decay. Influence On The Modern Day: Lately, in today’s culture, Wendigoes have become a large part of the horror world. Wendigoes appear in numerous computer games, such as Final Fantasy, and Dungeons and Dragons. In these popular games, there is actually very little in common with the mythological Wendigo. In today’s culture, the Wendigo is portrayed as a huge hairy beast, similar to the werewolf. In the myths, a Wendigo is a person who has turned cannibal. Wikipedia.org: Wendigo FFOnline.com: Monster: Wendigo Wikipedia.org: Dungeons and Dragons ©

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This is an invitation to help build a movement--to take one day day and use it to stop the climate crisis. On October 24, we will stand together as one planet and call for a fair global climate treaty. United by a common call to action, we'll make it clear: the world needs an international plan that meets the latest science and gets us back to safety. This movement has just begun, and it needs your help. Here's the plan: we're asking you, and people in every country on earth, to organize an action in their community on October 24. There are no limits here--imagine bike rides, rallies, concerts, hikes, festivals, tree-plantings, protests, and more. Imagine your action linking up with thousands of others around the globe. Imagine the world waking up. If we can pull it off, we'll send a powerful message on October 24: the world needs the climate solutions that science and justice demand. It's often said that the only thing preventing us from tackling the climate crisis quickly and equitably is a lack of political will. Well, the only thing that can create that political will is a unified global movement--and no one is going to build that movement for us. It's up to regular people all over the world. That's you. So register an event in your community for October 24, and then enlist the help of your friends. Get together with your co-workers or your local environmental group or human rights campaign, your church or synagogue or mosque or temple; enlist bike riders and local farmers and young people. All over the planet we'll start to organize ourselves. With your help, there will be an event at every iconic place on the planet on October 24—from America's Great Lakes to Australia's Great Barrier Reef--and also in all the places that matter to you in your daily lives: a beach or park or village green or town hall. If there was ever a time for you to get involved, it's right now. There are two reasons this year is so crucial. The first reason is that the science of climate change is getting darker by the day. The Arctic is melting away with astonishing speed, decades ahead of schedule. Everything on the planet seems to be melting or burning, rising or parched. And we now now have a number to express our peril: 350. NASA's James Hansen and a team of other scientists recently published a series of papers showing that we need to cut the amount of carbon in the atmosphere from its current 387 parts per million to 350 or less if we wish to "maintain a planet similar to that on which civilization developed." No one knew that number a year ago—but now it's clear that 350 might well be the most important number for the future of the planet, a north star to guide our efforts as we remake the world. If we can swiftly get the planet on track to get to 350, we can still avert the worst effects of climate change. The second reason 2009 is so important is that the political opportunity to influence our governments has never been greater. The world's leaders will meet in Copenhagen this December to craft a new global treaty on cutting carbon emissions. If that meeting were held now, it would produce a treaty that would be woefully inadequate. In fact, it would lock us into a future where we'd never get back to 350 parts per million—where the rise of the sea would accelerate, where rainfall patterns would start to shift and deserts to grow. A future where first the poorest people, and then all of us, and then all the people that come after us, would find the only planet we have damaged and degraded. October 24 comes six weeks before those crucial UN meetings in Copenhagen. If we all do our job, every nation will know the question they'll be asked when they put forth a plan: will this get the planet back on the path to 350? This will only work with the help of a global movement—and it's starting to bubble up everywhere. Farmers in Cameroon, students in China, even World Cup skiers have already helped spread the word about 350. Churches have rung their bells 350 times; Buddhist monks have formed a huge 350 with their bodies against the backdrop of Himalayas. 350 translates across every boundary of language and culture. It's clear and direct, cutting through the static and it lays down a firm scientific line. On October 24, we'll all stand behind 350--a universal symbol of climate safety and of the world we need to create. And at the end of the day, we'll all upload photos from our events to the 350.org website and send these pictures around the world. This cascade of images will drive climate change into the public debate--and hold our leaders accountable to a unified global citizenry. We need your help—the world is a big place and our team is small. Our crew at 350.org will do everything we can to support you, providing templates for banners and press releases, resources to spread the word, and tools to help you build a strong local climate action group. And our core team is always just a phone call or e-mail away if you need some support. This is like a final exam for human beings. Can we muster the courage, the commitment, and the creativity to set this earth on a steady course before it's too late? October 24 will be the joyful, powerful day when we prove it's possible. Please join us and register your local event today. Bill McKibben - Author and Activist- USA Vandana Shiva - Physicist, Activist, Author - India David Suzuki - Scientist, Author, Activist - Canada Bianca Jagger - Chair of the World Future Council - UK Tim Flannery - Scientist, Author, Explorer -Australia Bittu Sahgal - Co-convener, Climate Challenge India - India Andrew Simmons - Environmental Advocate, St. Vincent & The Grenadines Christine Loh - Environmental Advocate and Legislator - Hong Kong

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Yesterday Oceana and its supporters braved foul weather to protest a truly foul idea. Armed with airhorns and megaphones they gave the Department of the Interior (DOI) a tiny preview of what is in store for the ocean’s inhabitants should the Department allow seismic airgun testing to go forward in the Atlantic Ocean. The DOI is currently reviewing a proposal to use seismic airguns to search for pockets of oil and gas in a huge expanse of ocean from Delaware to Florida. The effects of these round-the-clock tests, which will run for days on end with dynamite-like blasts firing at 10 second intervals, will be devastating to marine mammals and fish alike. As Oceana marine scientist Matthew Huelsenbeck said at the event: “There is only one word that I can use that sums up this proposal: unacceptable. The levels of impacts to protected dolphins and whales, including critically endangered species like the North Atlantic right whale are simply unacceptable.” According to the Department of the Interior’s own assessment (which is likely an underestimate) opening the vast area to seismic airgun testing would injure 138,500 dolphins and whales, including nine critically endangered North Atlantic right whales. There are fewer than 400 North Atlantic right whales left on Earth. The testing would also cause 13.5 million disruptions to marine mammals during such vital behaviors as feeding, calving and breeding. It could also disrupt loggerhead sea turtles as they travel to nesting beaches. Among the injuries to marine mammals from this kind of testing are temporary and permanent hearing loss. Earlier this year about 900 long-beaked common dolphins and black porpoises washed up dead following an episode of seismic testing off of Peru. Necropsies of the dolphins showed blood coming from their ears and fractures in their periotic ear bones, which could have been caused by the testing. For animals that rely so critically on sound to navigate their habitat, find food and communicate, going deaf is, for all intents and purposes, a death sentence. All of this just to find out if there is any offshore oil and gas to exploit. In carrying out the seismic airgun testing we would be disrupting an already established fishing industry in the same area that supports 200,000 jobs and is valued at almost $12 billion. The threats to the fisheries are real. Fisheries of cod and haddock saw their catches drop 40 to 80 percent after the use of just a single airgun array and fishermen in Norway have requested compensation for their loss in catch after the use of seismic airguns. This sort of testing will help no one except for the oil and gas industry, and at great expense to the animals that call this vast expanse of the ocean home, not to mention the men and women who make a living on it. Tell Secretary Salazar of the Department of the Interior that seismic airgun testing in the Atlantic is unacceptable. - Victory! Delaware Becomes Seventh State in U.S. to Ban Shark Fin Trade! Posted Thu, May 16, 2013 - It's Endangered Species Day! Posted Fri, May 17, 2013 - Stocks Show Signs of Recovery, But Still Work to Do Posted Fri, May 17, 2013 - What Do Historic CO2 Levels Mean for the Oceans? Posted Tue, May 14, 2013 - U.S. Coast Guard Captures Illegal Fishermen in Texas Posted Tue, May 14, 2013

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July 23, 2010 A happy number is defined by the following process. Starting with any positive integer, replace the number by the sum of the squares of its digits, and repeat the process until the number equals 1 (where it will stay), or it loops endlessly in a cycle which does not include 1. Those numbers for which this process ends in 1 are happy numbers, while those that do not end in 1 are unhappy numbers (or sad numbers). For example, 7 is a happy number, as 72=49, 42+92=16+81=97, 92+72=81+49=130, 12+32+02=1+9+0=10, and 12+02=1+0=1. But 17 is not a happy number, as 12+72=1+49=50, 52+02=25+0=25, 22+52=4+25=29, 22+92=4+81=85, 82+52=64+25=89, 82+92=64+81=145, 12+42+52=1+16+25=42, 42+22=16+4=20, 22+02=4+0=4, 42=16, 12+62=1+36=37, 32+72=9+49=58, and 52+82=25+64=89, which forms a loop. Your task is to write a function to identify the happy numbers less than a given limit; you should work at the level of a programming interview, taking no more than about fifteen minutes, and giving a short explanation of your work to the interviewer. When you are finished, you are welcome to read or run a suggested solution, or to post your own solution or discuss the exercise in the comments below. Pages: 1 2

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Lestari, Jetti Puji (2008) A Comparison of the social contexts in which self-referring terms of "King" and "I" are used in Anna and the King movie. Bachelor thesis, Petra Christian University.Full text not available from this repository. This study is aimed to reveal the social contexts in which self-referring terms such as "I" and "King" used by King Mongkut in Anna and the King movie. The data were taken from the self-referring terms used by King Mongkut in the movie which was launched in 1999. King Mongkut often refers to himself with two different self-referring terms which are "King" and "I". When he refers to himself as "I" it is quite clear that he refer to himself but when he uses "King' as the self-referring term, he is talking as if about third person in fact he is referring to himself. For example, "King?s commitment to noble families must not be compromised", in this line, King Mongkut refers to himself as "King" thus it sound as if he is talking about someone else. There are some theories used in this study which are SPEAKING model by Hymes, speech function by Holmes and Coulmas? reference term. Furthermore, the method used in this study was quantitative descriptive. This study shows that the use of "King" and "I" self-referring terms are patterned. "King" is mostly used when he is talking to Anna Leonowens, inside the palace setting, directive purpose, dealing with state affairs and slavery affairs and uncomfortable tone. Meanwhile, "I" self-referring term is used contradictory, when he is outside the palace setting, expressive purpose, dealing with daily life and family and comfortable tone. |Item Type:||Thesis (Bachelor)| |Uncontrolled Keywords:||self referring terms, social contexts, sociolinguistics| |Date Deposited:||23 Mar 2011 18:48| |Last Modified:||31 Mar 2011 20:30| Actions (login required)

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The impression many people seem to have of egg tempera is that it is a fussy medium that can only be used in one specific style. I think that comes from early 20th century proponents of tempera painting such as Daniel V. Thompson. While his books are an excellent resource, his insistence that tempera should be used just as it was in 14th century Italy gives the impression that the medium is limited to very slow work using small brushes to make laborious hatching strokes. That’s one way to paint in tempera, and one that every tempera painter should probably familiarize themselves with. But there are really only three constraints on tempera painting: - You need to paint on a rigid support, preferrably on traditional gesso. - You need to get the right ratio of pigment to egg yolk binder when painting (you can then thin it as much as you want with water). - You can’t paint with thick blobs of impasto. That’s it. You can use thick bristle brushes if you want. You can use a well-loaded brush, drybrush, or even tilt the panel horizontal and paint with loose washes. Wet paint can be blended. You can apply layer after layer of glazing. You can scrape the paint back, apply it with sponges, paint with your fingers, or rub partially dry paint to create textural effects. Tempera is not fussy.

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Off-campus UMass Amherst users: To download dissertations, please use the following link to log into our proxy server with your UMass Amherst user name and password. Non-UMass Amherst users, please click the view more button below to purchase a copy of this dissertation from Proquest. (Some titles may also be available free of charge in our Open Access Dissertation Collection, so please check there first.) The acquisition of adverbs This dissertation is a comparative study of the acquisition of three types of adverbs by English-speaking children and Spanish-speaking children. The three classes of adverbs studied are: the adverb almost and its Spanish equivalent casi; manner adverbs like upside down or cabeza abajo; and manner adverbs. The goal of this dissertation is to determine how children interpret sentences with these adverbs and to study the syntactic and semantic principles and strategies they use. ^ For each of the three classes of adverbs studied, two hypotheses were tested: one concerning the position these adverbs occupy in the syntactic structure and the other related to the interpretation that children give to sentences containing these adverbs. It was hypothesized that children will try to attach the adverb as high as possible in the syntactic structure but at the same time they will obey principles of Universal Grammar. It was hypothesized that children's interpretations will not be the same as adults. In sentences with the adverbs almost/casi they will favor the event-failure interpretation. In sentences with true manner adverbs the hypothesis is that they will interpret them as such independently of their position in the sentence. Finally, in sentences with the adverbs upside down and cabeza abajo they will obey barriers and therefore they will not allow certain interpretations. ^ A series of three experiments was designed to test the hypotheses. Two of the experiments were designed as truth-value judgment tasks, and the third was designed as an act-out task. These experiments were presented to children from 3 to 6 years of age who spoke either English or Spanish. ^ The data have shown that children obey barriers when trying to extract adverbs out of complex NPs and that syntactic position plays a role in children's interpretation of sentences with adverbs. It was also shown that children try to avoid movement at LF so they try to make syntax mirror LF. No substantial differences were found between English-speaking children and Spanish-speaking children. The few differences found were explained in terms of the specific features of one of the adverbs. ^ Language, Linguistics|Language, Modern "The acquisition of adverbs" (January 1, 1999). Electronic Doctoral Dissertations for UMass Amherst.

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HSWRI researcher Michael Shane led the charge on the hands-on project, showing students how to monitor water quality in the sophisticated classroom aquaculture system, observe and understand various life stages, utilize technology employed in culturing the white sea bass, and tag and scan the fish for monitoring prior to their release in the wild. “They are part of a larger program called the Ocean Resources Enhancement Hatchery Program, and we’ve released nearly two million fish through that program up and down the coast of Southern California,” said Shane. “These fish will become part of that larger overall program, and these students are helping to replenish stocks of white sea bass, which have declined since the early 1950s.” By the time the fish were ready for release on Jan. 24 in Crown Point Park, students had learned the intricacies of sustainable fishing, the importance of aquaculture systems and how to monitor water quality and calculate waterflow-turnover rates during their lessons throughout the semester. “They can actually compare with other schools that are participating and see how fast their fish are growing,” said Shane. “Certainly the important message is our responsibility for the environment and sustainability of seafood and aquaculture.” By the end of the hands-on project, 22 of the sea bass survived, following casualties from euthanization due to physical damage. Four of the fish were turned over to the California Department of Fish and Wildlife for health evaluations to look at growth abnormalities and parasites. A total of18 fish were cleared for release on Jan. 24. The average total length of the fish increased from 174 millimeters to 215 millimeters. The average weight increased from nearly 53 grams to more than 92 grams.

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Educators Tap into Science Education K-12 science educators across the U.S. and Canada can access numerous resources when they participate in the 2001 National Science Teachers Associations (NSTA) Teacher Award Programs (TAP). The 14 programs, administered by NSTA and funded by various corporations and organizations, award more than half a million dollars to instructors who are committed to making a difference in science teaching and learning. The TAPs recognize science teachers, principals and others who demonstrate their passion for science education in many different ways. Many of the awards recognize teachers for their development and implementation of unique science programs and curricula, while others honor individuals who show outstanding leadership and dedication to the profession. National Science Teachers Association, Arlington, VA, (703) 312-9371, www.nsta.org. This article originally appeared in the 10/01/2000 issue of THE Journal.

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Science Fair Project Encyclopedia Natural language generation Some people view NLG as the opposite of natural language understanding. The difference can be put this way: whereas in natural language understanding the system needs to disambiguate the input sentence to produce the machine representation language, in NLG the system needs to take decisions about how to put a concept into words. The process to generate text can be as simple as keeping a list of canned text that is copied and pasted, possibly linked with some glue text. The results may be satisfactory in simple domains such as horoscope machines or generators of personalised business letters. However, a sophisticated NLG system needs to include stages of planning and merging of information to enable the generation of text that looks natural and does not become repetitive. Typical stages are: Content determination: Determination of the salient features that are worth being said. Methods used in this stage are related to data mining. Discourse planning: Overall organisation of the information to convey. Sentence aggregation: Merging of similar sentences to improve readability and naturalness. For example, the sentences "The next train is the Caledonian Express" and "The next train leaves Aberdeen at 10am" can be aggregated to form "The next train, which leaves at 10am, is the Caledonian express". Lexicalisation: Putting words to the concepts. Orthographic realisation: Matters like casing, punctuation, and formatting are resolved. - SIGGEN - ACL Special Interest Group on Generation The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

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- Historic Sites History As A Cure December 1956 | Volume 8, Issue 1 Not long ago two teen-age boys in New York City got into trouble with the law. The police laid hands on them as juvenile delinquents, and in due course the boys appeared in court. Judge J. Randall Creel, of Magistrates’ Court, faced the tough problem that confronts jurists in such cases: should he send the boys off to jail forthwith, or should he see whether they might not be able to straighten themselves out? He decided on the latter course, and in looking for a means of rehabilitation he selected an unusual instrument: American history. He gave these high school youngsters a historical research job to do. They should forthwith (he told them) make a study of the Battle of Long Island—an important struggle in the Revolutionary War, in which General Washington’s army narrowly escaped destruction when the British commander, General Howe, landed an overpowering force on Long Island late in August of 1776. They would find, he suggested, that utter disaster for the American cause was averted because of a valiant rear-guard action fought by a regiment of the Maryland line. Let them, therefore, go to the sources and find out all they could about this action; having done this, each boy must submit a paper, describing what had happened, citing his sources, and bringing out what the gallant stand of the embattled Marylanders meant to future generations of Americans. By the jobs they did he would determine whether or not they had reinstated themselves as reliable junior members of their community. The boys went to work, and eventually they presented their papers. They had done a good deal of hard work. They had traced the movements of the different troops engaged. They had run down the historic markers which (largely ignored by present-day citizens) show where the actions took place. They had found out all they could about the gallant old Maryland battalion, and they had gone to the trouble of listing the names and ranks of all the Marylanders who were killed or captured in the fight. And it seems that this excursion into American history had been a powerful medicine for good. These boys learned something—about their own home city (for they live in Brooklyn, and the battle they investigated had been fought along what are now the familiar streets and squares and parks of their own neighborhood), about the price a former generation had to pay for American freedom and happiness, and about the way in which boys of their own age, long ago, met a profound challenge. Specifically: in their research into the history of the Battle of Long Island, these boys learned that a spirited rear-guard action by a regiment of Maryland soldiers—the 5th Maryland Infantry, under Colonel William Smallwood—had kept the American defeat from becoming a complete, irremediable disaster. The Marylanders fought a delaying action which enabled the bulk of Washington’s army to get away. Four or five hundred of them charged a British strong point, losing more than half of their numbers and going down at last to bloody defeat, but gaining the important fragments of time that enabled the beaten Continental army to get away clean and live to fight another day. They found out that the Maryland soldiers who saved the day were simply boys like themselves. They dug out the old muster rolls, which gave each man’s name and age. Down the long columns, in faded archaic script, were the scanty records of boys who dared everything and gave everything more than a century and a half ago—and most of them turned out to be lads of eighteen or nineteen. This probably meant that they were even younger than that; boys usually add a year or two to their ages when they enlist in wartime. The Marylanders, in other words, were early teen-agers, who faced up to something big before they had got out of adolescence simply because youth wants nothing in all the world so much as the chance to respond to a real challenge. Life was good to them; it gave them the challenge, they met it—and today, as a direct result, we have an American nation. One of the two boys, writing about the battle, expressed himself like this: “If the youth of today is not conscious of the historical background of Long Island, the battle I will now unfold will make him so. I will, therefore, endeavor to show you what today’s youth could and should be capable of as compared to those who fought to preserve their rights as individuals. … It was merely lads of seventeen and eighteen who fought and died making this supreme sacrifice in defense of the preservation of the American Army and their fight for independence.” The other boy, carried away by the story of the fight, found himself writing in the best vein of the military historian: ”…Thrice again these brave young Marylanders charged upon the house, once driving the gunners from their pieces within its shadow; but numbers overwhelmed them, and for twenty minutes the fight was terrible. Washington, Putnam and other General Officers who witnessed it … saw the overwhelming force with which their brave compatriots were contending, and held their breath in suspense and fear.… Washington wrung his hands, in the intensity of his emotion, and exclaimed: ‘Good God, what brave fellows I must this day lose!’”

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- What is Atheism - Law & Politics - Press Information - Christians Take Over Interfaith Army Chapel in Combat Zone - Press Kit - 9/11: 'Never Forget' Must Include All Victims - Atheists Advocate Separation of Church and State at DNC - Congressman Pete Stark to Speak at 2013 National Convention - American Atheists Announces 50th Anniversary Logo Design Contest - American Atheists Announces Harassment Policy for Conventions and Conferences - American Atheists Jubilant Over Latest Religion Report - American Atheists Removes Religious Billboards from Charlotte - Former Pastor Now American Atheists Public Relations Director - Former Pastor Teresa MacBain New Public Relations Director - ITALIAN JUDGE LUIGI TOSTI ACQUITTED! - American Atheists to Protest Bradford County, FL Decalogue on May 19 Supporting Civil Rights for Atheists and the Separation of Church and State What is atheism? What Is Atheism? No one asks this question enough. The reason no one asks this question a lot is because most people have preconceived ideas and notions about what an Atheist is and is not. Where these preconceived ideas come from varies, but they tend to evolve from theistic influences or other sources. Atheism is usually defined incorrectly as a belief system. Atheism is not a disbelief in gods or a denial of gods; it is a lack of belief in gods. Older dictionaries define atheism as "a belief that there is no God." Some dictionaries even go so far as to define Atheism as "wickedness," "sinfulness," and other derogatory adjectives. Clearly, theistic influence taints dictionaries. People cannot trust these dictionaries to define atheism. The fact that dictionaries define Atheism as "there is no God" betrays the (mono)theistic influence. Without the (mono)theistic influence, the definition would at least read "there are no gods." Why should atheists allow theists to define who atheists are? Do other minorities allow the majority to define their character, views, and opinions? No, they do not. So why does everyone expect atheists to lie down and accept the definition placed upon them by the world’s theists? Atheists will define themselves. Atheism is not a belief system nor is it a religion. While there are some religions that are atheistic (certain sects of Buddhism, for example), that does not mean that atheism is a religion. Two commonly used funny retorts to the nonsense that atheism is a religion are: 1) If atheism is a religion then bald is a hair color, and 2) If atheism is a religion then health is a disease. A new one introduced in 2012 by Bill Maher is, "If atheism is a religion, then abstinence is a sexual position." The only common thread that ties all atheists together is a lack of belief in gods and supernatural beings. Some of the best debates we have ever had have been with fellow atheists. This is because atheists do not have a common belief system, sacred scripture or atheist Pope. This means atheists often disagree on many issues and ideas. Atheists come in a variety of shapes, colors, beliefs, convictions, and backgrounds. We are as unique as our fingerprints. For additional reading, check out other pages and blog entries on our page. If you have a question, don't hesitate to Contact Us!

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MARTEL DE BROUAGUE, FRANÇOIS, commandant of the Labrador coast, merchant, shipowner; b. 30 April 1692 in Quebec, son of Pierre Gratien Martel de Brouague and Marie-Charlotte Charest; d. probably in 1761. Thanks to his family background it was quite likely that François Martel de Brouague would succeed in a business career. Upon their arrival in the colony his father and his uncle Raymond Martel* had rapidly acquired good contacts. His father had become associated with the Charests and the Bissots, with whom he had business interests in Labrador; he even married the daughter of one of his partners, Étienne Charest. For his part, Raymond went into partnership with Augustin Le Gardeur* de Courtemanche, with whom he had interests in the Labrador trade and with whom he bought the seigneury of Lachenaie. After the death of his father François’s mother married Courtemanche. In 1702 Courtemanche obtained from Governor Callière* and Intendant François de Beauharnois a land grant in Labrador for a period of ten years, and in 1714 the king granted him the Baie de Phélypeaux (Brador Bay) and appointed him commandant of the Labrador coast. Courtemanche, whom François Martel de Brouague had been helping for some years, died in 1717, and François took his place as commandant in January 1718. At the same time he took on the management of the post at Baie de Phélypeaux in the name of his mother and half-sisters. The exploitation of this grant was the only compensation he received for his obligations as commandant: the representative of royal authority on the north coast, he had to dispense justice and defend the post of Baie de Phélypeaux and all the temporary settlements of French fishermen on the coast against raids by the Eskimos, whom he attempted, more or less successfully, to pacify [see Acoutsina*]. In 1725 François Martel de Brouague went to France to see to business matters; there, on 25 Dec. 1725, he obtained from the king a commission which granted him for his lifetime his mother’s rights to the Baie de Phélypeaux. On 21 Feb. 1726, at Versailles, Martel de Brouague married Anne-Marie Favry Du Ponceau, and the following day another royal commission ensured him and his new wife of the succession to the rights of Mme de Courtemanche and her daughters to the post in Labrador. From this first marriage Mattel de Brouague had a daughter, who lived in France with her maternal uncles until her death in 1740 at 14 years of age. His wife died around 1730 in Labrador, and on 15 Sept. 1732 Martel de Brouague married Louise, daughter of François Mariauchau* d’Esgly, who had been king’s lieutenant at Trois-Rivières, and sister of Louis-Philippe*, the future bishop of Quebec. Their marriage contract, concluded a few days earlier in Quebec, was signed by Governor Charles de Beauharnois, Intendant Gilles Hocquart*, and several members of the military and social élite of the colony. Martel de Brouague enjoyed a certain prestige as commandant of Labrador, but he did not have the financial means to develop fully his grant on the Baie de Phélypeaux. For that reason he entered into partnership with his first cousin, Pierre Trottier Desauniers, a Quebec merchant, for exploitation of the Labrador fishery in a more profitable manner. An initial agreement, signed in 1732 before the notary Henry Hiché, gave Desauniers the exclusive rights for supplying Martel de Brouague’s post and made him responsible for marketing the products of the fishery, in return for a commission of five per cent. The deed mentions in addition that Martel de Brouague owned a ship plying between Quebec and Labrador. Three years later the two partners formed a company: Desauniers put up 100,000 livres in merchandise, and Martel de Brouague brought his land grant as well as 38,000 livres he had already invested. Profits and losses would be shared equally. In five years the agreement brought Martel de Brouague nearly 28,000 livres in profits, which he sent to France. The partnership was less profitable to Desauniers than to his cousin. At the time of the dissolution of the company in 1746 Martel de Brouague took back his initial investment of 38,000 livres, as well as 93,999 livres 7 sols for his share of the profits, an equal amount going to Desauniers. During his long term in command of Labrador, Martel de Brouague concerned himself perhaps more with business than with military affairs. In 1739, in fact, the minister of Marine, Maurepas, asked Governor Beauharnois and Intendant Hocquart to warn Martel de Brouague to stop neglecting his post; if he were “the object of new complaints, the king would attend to the matter.” In addition to his exploitation of the Labrador fishery, Martel de Brouague acquired pieces of land, including the fief of Argentenay, which he first owned jointly with Desauniers. When the latter was preparing to retire to France in 1746, Martel de Brouague became sole owner of the fief, for which he had to render fealty and homage three years later. François Martel de Brouague had with the years arrived at a comfortable situation. Although all his sons died in infancy, his daughters made good matches, one of them, Louise, marrying Gaspard-Joseph Chaussegros* de Léry. According to Pierre-Georges Roy*, Martel de Brouague died at Quebec on 15 March 1761. Three years before his death there had been some talk of relieving him of his command in Labrador on the pretext that he was “old and infirm,” but he was spared this indignity. AD, Yvelines (Versailles), État civil, Versailles, 21 févr. 1726. AJQ, Registre d’état civil, Notre-Dame de Québec, 30 avril 1692, 15 sept. 1732. AN, Col., B, 49, f.687v; 65, f.45v; 68, ff.282–83; 109, f.344; C11A, 41, ff.57–63v; 43, ff.149–61v, 314–17v; 44, ff.168–69; 51, ff.29–31; 54, f.185; 65, ff.33–34; 71, ff.7–8v; 74, f.58; 109, ff.9–32, 49–59, 64–65, 65–122v, 171–84v, 200, 261, 272–309; D2C, 222, f.161; E, 177 (dossier Brouague), ff.1–9. ANQ, Greffe de Jacques Barbel, 29 déc. 1735; Greffe de Gilbert Boucault de Godefus, 20, 23 mai 1741, 7, 9 nov. 1746; Greffe d’Henry Hiché, 6 sept. 1732; AP, François Martel de Brouague; NF, Registres du Cons. sup., 1735–1736, ff.67–71; 1738–1739, ff.31–32v. PAC, MG 8, A2, 36, ff.158–59; 37, ff.54–55, 157, 167v–69; 39, ff.5–7, 109v–10, 172–73, 177v, 178v–79; B3; B6, Greffe de J.-C. Panet, 12 mars, 16 mai 1749. “François Martel de Berhouage, Brouague ou Brouage, commandant au Labrador,” APQ Rapport, 1922–23, 356–406. [In presenting these documents the author made an error concerning Martel de Brouague’s first daughter. j.i.] Inv. de pièces du Labrador (P.-G. Roy), I, 16–17, 31–32, 37–38, 42–44, 124, 125, 153–55, 239–41; II, 68–87, 187–88, 192–93, 196. “Les ‘papiers’ La Pause,” APQ Rapport, 1933–34, 218. “Recensement de Québec, 1744” (APQ Rapport), 104. Le Jeune, Dictionnaire. Répertoire des mariages de l’Hôpital Général de Québec (paroisse Notre-Dame-des-Anges) (1693–1961), Benoît Pontbriand, compil. (Société canadienne de généalogie, 2, Québec, 1962). Répertoire des mariages de Notre-Dame de Québec, Benoît Pontbriand, compil. (6v., Sillery, Qué., n.d.), II, 180. P.-G. Roy, Inv. contrats de mariage, IV, 224; Inv. jug. et délib., 1717–1760, III, 114, 116, 126, 129, 250; V, 10, 51, 87, 122, 123, 165, 169, 223, 282; VI, 20, 24, 25. Tanguay, Dictionnaire. La Morandière, Hist. de la pêche française de la morue, II, 669, 714–30. P.-G. Roy, Fils de Québec, I, 136–39; “La famille Margane de Lavaltrie,” BRH, XXIII (1917), 48–52; “La famille Martel de Brouage,” BRH, XL (1934), 513–49.

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The story of pre-history in the oral history of the Roman Catholic Church, goes something like this: - Before the Earth was made, there was only God and angels. The most glorious angel became envious of God and asked to be made like him. God said no. The angel took his case to the other angels and, having won one third of them to his side, tried to change God's mind. When that didn't work a war ensued and the third were cut off from God as punishment. This story has many details that aren't relevant here, but note the classical description of Hell not as a place of torment, but as being cut off from communion. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Account of the Pre-Mortal Existence according to the beliefs of members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints: Before this mortal life, the spirits of all mankind lived with God, as his children. The first-born of God's children was Jesus. Lucifer and every human were also children of God and were present during a council where God taught the Plan of Salvation to allow all his spirit children to progress and learn. An essential part of man's eternal progression is the gaining of a mortal body and the learning and growth that comes by exercising our agency (a.k.a. free will) to choose between good and evil. Earth-life also gave mankind the opportunity to develop talents, self-control and, faith; to test our character; and develop other attributes needed to become more like God. Each child of God had agency, and some were more righteous or "valiant" than others. It is unknown whether or not there was other sin in the pre-mortal life aside from pride, anger and rebellion against God, as shown by Lucifer and others. In addition, since mortal mankind would inevitably sin, becoming unclean and unworthy to live in the Celestial Kingdom as exalted beings, a path of repentance and atonement was set forth. To this end was Jesus Christ appointed to atone for the sins of mankind, and to conquer physical and spiritual death, both to be brought on by the Fall of Adam. Lucifer, for some un-revealed reason, did not sustain the plan and refused to follow it, Jesus and God. He sought to destroy the agency of mankind, to become the "Savior and redeemer" of mankind and to usurp authority from God. Most Latter-day Saints believe that this counter-plan promised that all of God's spirit children would return to dwell with God by the use of force (i.e. denial of agency). Lucifer's "plan" was in opposition to God's, and a War in Heaven occurred in which Lucifer led away "a third part" of God's children. Michael the archangel lead the children of God in the battle and Lucifer was expelled from the presence of God. When Lucifer was cast out of God's presence, he became known as Satan or the Devil. The spirits who followed him were also cast out of God's presence and became Lucifer's angels. God's spirit children who accepted the plan of salvation, accepted the Atonement, and covenanted to follow Christ would receive a mortal body and have the opportunity to move forward in their eternal progression, having kept their "first estate." Latter-day Saints often refer to earth life as the "second estate." All mankind who received the Melchizedek priesthood and the office of High Priest and Apostle were fore-ordained to receive that priesthood and office during this council "on account of their exceeding faith and good works" (Alma 12:27-13:12, Abraham 3:22-28). Generally, Latter-day Saints believe that most leadership callings were fore-ordained within this council, and that most of the details of human life and individual life experience was presented in this council. Whether or not Satan had a full understanding of the Fall and other specifics of the plan of salvation is a source of speculation within the Church.

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The legend dies hard of "the Middle Ages" as the golden age of the Christian faith, the time when popes gave the law to a lovingly acquiescent Christendom. This is to neglect such facts as that in one year out of two, of the two hundred years that followed the accession of Gregory VII--the High Middle Ages as the convention goes--the divine papal authority was fighting for its life with the Catholic princes. As many as four times in eighty years, during this period, the Holy See lay vacant for two and three years at a time, and the popes were nowhere less safe than in Rome, as the witness of their tombs in half a dozen Italian cities testifies to the tourist, in Viterbo, Orvieto, Arezzo, Perugia, and the rest. Never were there wanting, to threaten their freedom, not only warriors of the type of Barbarossa, but such stark and dangerous political princes as Barbarossa's son, the emperor Henry VI (1190-97), and the hard-faced brother of St. Louis IX, Charles of Anjou, King of Sicily (1265-85) In such contests with ruthlessness itself, it behoved the ecclesiastic to look constantly to what Monsieur Maritain has called "the purification of the means." Patriotism, so to speak, was not enough and the one hundred per cent righteousness of the cause. Woe to the pope who slipped! He inevitably contracted something of the enemy's coldheartedness. Such champions of the freedom of religion as Pope Innocent IV and Pope Boniface VIII were by no means bon papa all the twenty-four hours of every day. And the thirteenth, "greatest of centuries" in so many respects, ran out in the furious contest between the last-named pope and the most dangerous of all the medieval kings, the grim Philip IV of France (1285-1314), Philippe le Bel to his contemporaries, and the great mystery man of the Middle Ages still to the historians--a contest that culminated in a long blackmail of Boniface VIII's successor, the unfortunate, cancer-ridden French pope, Clement V. This the setting of the fifteenth General Council, the Council of Vienne. There is no council about whose history there is more obscurity than this Council of Vienne, summoned by Clement V under pressure from the King of France, in order to bring about the destruction of a great religious order. This is a pretty dreadful indictment--presuming that the order was not guilty of the crimes with which it was charged; and it seems generally agreed that it was innocent. And the story is the more horrible if it be true that, to wring from the pope a consent to the destruction of the Knights Templars, the King of France blackmailed him, holding over the pope the threat to start a campaign for the posthumous trial, for various alleged crimes, of his predecessor Boniface VIII. One of the crimes alleged was the manoeuvring by which Boniface became pope--or as the king would say, pseudo-pope. If Boniface had never been pope, what of the lawfulness of Clement's own election? And why was the King of France so set on the condemnation of the dead Boniface? It was partly a question of the royal prestige--the king, as might be said nowadays, must not lose face--and partly a question of the binding force of various declarations of Boniface about certain public acts of the king. These were declarations of principle that condemned, in effect, the principles on which the king was reorganising the government of France. Were the condemnations valid? If so they still bound the king, i.e., in the eyes of those Catholics for whom the pope's sentences mattered, these acts of the king had no force. Of the various causes of friction which, from before the election of Boniface VIII (1294-1303), had disturbed the relations of the king and the Holy See, two may be mentioned: disputes between royal officials and bishops over the frontier between their jurisdictions, and the claim of the king to tax the property of the Church as he chose. These troubles began around the years 1289-90. Boniface was elected in the last days of 1294. England and France being at war, both kings, desperate for money, plundered the Church revenues. There came a strong, general prohibition from Boniface to the clergy, in 1296, to pay these taxes, and soon retaliation from Philip IV, in the shape of protest at Rome, and intrigues with the discontented factions there--the Colonna cardinals, the little group of Franciscans known as the "Spirituals," and all the Apocalyptic-minded generally who were daily expecting the end of the world and their own triumphant reign over their fellow men, Catholic fanatics for whom Boniface was no pope, but rather Antichrist. The French were successful in bringing the pope to his knees, for a time. Then, about the year 1300, weary of being "an obliging agent for the schemes of Philip the Fair," the pope in Boniface triumphed over the politician. The king's recent violation of all law in the arrest and trial of one of the French bishops, without any reference to the pope, moved him to renew his stand against the movement to make religion subservient to the state. In a series of private letters he seriously warned the king that what he was doing was mortally sinful, and that to continue was to risk the salvation of his soul. The pope asked that the bishop should be released, and sent to Rome, and he suspended all the privileges granted to the king allowing him to tax the Church. Moreover he summoned a council of all the bishops of France, to meet in Rome in November 1302, The king's reply was to organise the nation against the pope by a great propaganda campaign. This culminated in a national council--a parliament of an unprecedented kind--of clergy, nobles, and plebeians at Notre Dame, Paris, in April 1302. The king's case was put, and strong speeches made by his ministers about the pope's tyranny and usurpations, and how (thanks to the pope) true religion was in danger. Finally it was decided to send a national protest to the cardinals, setting down all the charges against the pope; "he who at this moment occupies the seat of government in the Church" is how they described him; and the word Antichrist was used. Three months packed with drama followed. When the delegates from Paris presented to Boniface the letters from the clergy, in which they begged him to cancel the council, and spoke of the king's anger and the national feeling, the pope warned them that Philip was the most hated man in Europe, and that he was facing disaster. The king was, at this moment, at war with the communes of Flanders. Only thirteen days after that audience the French were unexpectedly routed, with great slaughter, at the Battle of the Golden Spurs, and the three counsellors of the king whom the pope had denounced by name were among the slain. Whereupon a great change on Philip's part, permissions to the bishops to go to Rome for the council and an embassy to represent himself. There was not, at the council, any "trial" of Philip the Fair, nor sentence against him. All that happened, publicly, was the issue of a reasoned declaration about the pope's authority to correct what is morally wrong in a ruler's conduct as ruler. This is the famous bull called Unam Sanctam (1302). Privately, the pope again warned the king, and sent him some kind of ultimatum to mend his ways. In reply the king planned to arrest the pope and bring him before a council; and to prepare public opinion for this he organised a nation-wide propaganda, depicting Boniface as a heretic, an idolater, a man who worshipped the devil, and a man of evil life, whom the cardinals and bishops ought to bring to trial. There were, once again, great public meetings in Paris, where all estates were represented. The assembly adjured the king to bring about a council which should try this great criminal. And the king solemnly accepted this duty. Only one of the twenty-six bishops present refused to set his seal to the act. From Paris royal commissioners toured the country, organising like demonstrations everywhere. As the news came in of what was afoot in France the pope began to prepare the bull excommunicating the king and threatening his deposition. But the king's chief executive advisor, William de Nogaret, with an armed troop broke into the papal palace at Anagni, on the eve of the day appointed for publication of the bull. They found the old man seated on his throne robed, holding his crucifix. They demanded he should withdraw his sentence and submit himself to judgment. He replied that he would rather die. One of the Colonna offered to kill him, but was restrained. He then hit the pope in the face. And now the townsfolk broke into the palace and drove out the French. From this shock the pope never recovered. Three weeks later he was dead (October 11, 1303). There was only one way in which Philip the Fair could clear himself of a general reprobation that would last as long as life itself--have it proved in legal form that all the things charged against Boniface were true. And when he had succeeded in that, he would have brought low, not the dead man's memory only, but every shred of prestige that clung to his successors in the office. Such was the man and the mind whose political needs brought on the fifteenth General Council, which met just eight years after the death of Pope Boniface. The truly saintly Dominican next elected pope, Benedict XI, reigned for eight months only. The conclave that followed lasted for all but a year, and it then elected, from outside the college of cardinals, a French subject of the English king, the Archbishop of Bordeaux. He called himself Clement V (June 5, 1305). This is the pope who summoned and presided at the Council of Vienne. Nothing would have more surprised him, as the news was brought to him from Italy, than to learn that he was destined never to see Italy as pope, and that his successors for the next seventy years and more would rule the universal church from France. For the so-called Avignon captivity of the papacy, it is now known, was not the outcome of any willed policy of this pope, but rather of a series of accidents. In the critical years of Boniface VIII, Clement had been one of the minority loyal to that pope, and he had taken part in the Roman council whence came the Unam Sanctam. He was an accomplished canonist and a man of long practical experience in church administration. But he was something of a ditherer by nature, vacillating to put it more formally, and in no way a match for the arts of Philip the Fair. When the king and the pope met, at the pope's coronation at Lyons, it was suggested to Clement that he remain in France until a great scandal--now revealed to the pope for the first time--was investigated and dealt with. The scandal was the alleged condition of the military order of the Knights Templars. These knights of the military orders, of which there were several, were religious in the full technical sense of the word, i.e., professed with the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, bound to a strict monastic round of prayer and penance, and to protect pilgrims and defend the Christian possessions in the Holy Land. Their monasteries were fortresses, and down to the time of the capture of St. Jean d'Acre, when the master-general of the Templars fell sword in hand (1291), they had been, along with the contemporary order of the Knights Hospitallers, the main defence, for 150 years, of what had been won from the Mohammedans. Since the disaster of 1291 there had been no Christian forces at all in the East. The Templars, what remained of them, were lodged in their commanderies, in the various countries of western Europe. Their principal occupation had been finance. Their European castles had, for many years, been the places where princes, merchants, and the wealthy generally, could be certain their money was safe. And from being guardians of these deposits this international order had developed into something like an international bank, saving this nascent commercial world of the Middle Ages the dangerous necessity of transmitting boxes of coin from one country to another. The profits the Templars made were, it was alleged, enormous. It seems agreed that what really moved the King of France, at this moment, was the prospect of laying his hands on vast landed properties and a fortune in ready cash. The pope was told that it was being said everywhere that the Templars were utterly corrupt. They had long lost the faith, for they worshipped in their monasteries an idol, and this with obscene rites, formally denying Christ at their professions and spitting on the crucifix. In their masses the priest-members of the order--the knights' chaplains--always left out the words of consecration, and (the reader will be expecting this) unnatural vice was systematised as a kind of ritual. The pope was in no way impressed by this horrendous tale-- no more than the King of Aragon had been impressed when it was told to him. The French king set himself to "find" evidence which should bring the pope to order the suppression of the knights, and the confiscation of their property. This "evidence," from Templars already imprisoned for various offences, still left Clement V unmoved, but the menace of the campaign provoked the Grand Master of the order to beg the pope to order an enquiry (August, 1307) . Seven weeks later the king regained the initiative when, on a single day, October 13, every Templar in France was arrested by his orders and there began that systematic torturing to wring from them confessions of guilt that is still so sickening to read about, after six hundred years and more. The royal formula was simple--pardon and liberty for those who, self-confessed, were guilty of crime; death for all who maintained they were innocent. From the French Revolution until recently, evidence obtained by torture was what no man would consider seriously. But, just as universally, in the days of Clement V, torture was thought a reasonable and legitimate way of obtaining reliable evidence. The pope was so impressed that he took the whole business into his own hands, and set up special courts throughout the church for the investigation: a court in each diocese where there was a house of the order, with the final authority to judge the knights left to the provincial council of the bishops; and a papal commission to consider what to do with the order itself; finally, the whole affair would be brought before a specially summoned General Council, which would meet at Vienne on October 1, 1310-- two years and a half hence. One feature was common to all these trials: whenever, in France, the knights, free of the king's jurisdiction, appeared before the bishops they immediately revoked their confessions. Describing the tortures they had endured they declared they would have sworn to anything, and that if the horrors were renewed they would again admit whatever their tormentors demanded. This revocation, of course, could be dangerous--among the charges was heresy, the worship of an idol. The punishment for heresy could be death, and for the heretics who, once self-convicted, retracted their confessions, death was certain. And so, in May 1310, fifty-four Templars were burnt in a single execution at Paris, on the sentence of the bishops of the Provincial Council. And, by a violent personal act of the king, the Grand Master himself was burnt, only a few hours after the ecclesiastical court had sentenced him to life imprisonment, because in his relief at the thought that his life was safe he solemnly retracted all his confessions, and vouched for the innocence of the order as such. Outside France the Templars were everywhere acquitted, in Aragon, Castile, England, Scotland, the Empire. In Provence, Sicily, and the States of the Church, there were a number of condemnations but not many. As the date fixed for the meeting of the council drew near the order might, legitimately, have felt hopeful. What, meanwhile, of the French king's other line of attack, his determination to blast the good name of his dead adversary Boniface VIII? He had first showed what he had in mind in one of his interviews with Clement V at Poitiers in the spring of 1307, eighteen months or so after the pope's coronation. Boniface VIII must be tried for his "crimes." All attempts to still the threats failed. The king demanded that the body of Boniface should be dug up and burned as that of a heretic, and that Celestine V--his alleged victim--should be canonised. In the end the pope pledged himself that the trial should take place, and fixed a provisional date two years hence, February 1309. Clement V, like his namesake who had to deal with King Henry VIII two centuries later, had not the strength to say no to these requests to co- operate in a crime. He assented outwardly, and hoped the day would never come when he had to keep his promise. It was not until March 1310 that the misery began anew for him, when there appeared at Avignon to represent the king a team of lawyers headed by Nogaret, the hero of Anagni. All through that summer the lawyers fought, with the pope in person presiding and using every expedient possible to adjourn the court, finally deciding that both the "prosecutors" and the defence should state their case in writing and that the oral proceedings should cease. He also called politics to his aid, and the news that there was in contemplation the creation of a new kingdom on the eastern frontier of France--all the lands east of the Rhone, from the Mediterranean up to Besancon--now halted the French king. In February 1311, seven months before the General Council was due to meet, he agreed to call off his team. The order of Knights Templars, it was understood, would definitely be destroyed at the Council, and Philip the Fair would drop the case against Boniface VIII. On April 27, Clement V issued a series of bulls. Philip the Fair was cleared of any complicity in the Anagni incident, and praised for his good intentions. All the papal acts directed against him from November 1, 1300, to the end of the reign of Benedict XI were cancelled. Nogaret, too, was absolved, with the penance that he must go on pilgrimage to the Holy Land at the next crusade, and spend the rest of his days there, unless dispensed by the Holy See. Even so, Clement V was to hear yet more of the case against his predecessor. The General Council of Vienne was opened on October 16, 1311. The original convocation had been for 1310, but by a bull of April 4 of that year the pope postponed the opening. This second bull of convocation did something else. It made the singular innovation that not every bishop was summoned to the council, but only a chosen 231. And from these, 66 names were struck out by the French king. In the end there assembled 20 cardinals, 122 bishops, 38 abbots, with proxies, representatives of chapters and others that brought the number "assisting" at the council to around 300. The bishops had had ample time to prepare, as the pope following the precedent of 1274 had asked, reports on matters that called for reform. They found a new conciliar procedure awaiting them. For each of the main problems before the council a commission was named, representative of all ranks, and charged to find a solution. The solution then came before the pope and cardinals in consistory and, if they accepted it, it was presented to the council as a whole in the shape of a papal bull to be accepted and signed. There were to be no general debates in which the whole council took part. The commission on the matter of the Templars reported in December. The knights should be heard before the council, it decided, and by a large majority. The pope, for the moment, set this embarrassing act aside. The bishops occupied themselves with schemes for the crusade and for various reforms, while the pope gave no sign of holding the next public session. Philip's representatives had only one comment to make, in all these discussions, "It must wait until our master arrives." The new year 1312 brought the king to. Lyons--a mere twenty miles away, where the States- General of the realm were meeting (January to March). And from Lyons he played upon the unhappy pope with threats to revive the campaign against Boniface VIII. Towards the end of March he came in person to the council, and brought it about that the Templars commission revoked their recommendation, and voted, by 4 to 1, that the order should be suppressed (March 22, 1312). Two weeks went by, while Clement struggled with the king about the order's vast properties. Then, on April 3, the second public session of the council was held. It began with yet another procedural novelty--the pope forbade any member of the council to speak, under pain of excommunication. There was then read his bull, Vox in excelso, suppressing the order. The pope gave no judgment about the crimes alleged--the question, Guilty or innocent? was ignored. The bull explained that Clement V was acting not as judge at a trial, but as an administrator in the fullness of his apostolic authority. On May 3 the decision about the Templars' property was announced. The pope had found the courage to resist the king. The vast fortune was to go to the order of the Knights Hospitallers, except in Spain where the beneficiaries were the three Spanish military orders. Three days later, May 6, the council came to an end with its third public session. There is in the corpus of Canon Law a mass of legislation attributed to this council, laws headed Clement V at the Council of Vienne. It is by no means certain that all of this was there enacted, nor do we know at what stage of the council what was certainly its work was actually enacted. Of the official records of the council, we have hardly a trace. And these laws of Clement V were not promulgated until the reign of his successor, John XXII, in 1317. We can be certain of three decrees about the faith, definitions of dogma. In one of these it is defined that the rational or intellectual soul is per se and essentially the form of the human body. A second condemns as heresy the statement that usury is not a sin. Thirdly, there is a decree listing various heresies of the people known, if men, as Beghards, and, if women, as Beguines; theories about what spiritual perfection is, and the obligations of those who are perfect. Man can attain to such perfection in this life that it is not possible for him to commit sin. Once he has achieved this a man is not bound to fast or to pray, his body being so spiritualised that he can freely grant it whatever he chooses. The perfect are not bound to obey any other human being, nor to keep the commandments of the Church, for--so they argue--where the spirit of the Lord is, there is freedom. Man can attain, in this life, to that perfection of happiness that he will enjoy in the life of the blessed. To kiss a woman, unless our nature prompts the act, is a mortal sin. But carnal acts are not sins, if done from the movements of our nature, and especially if done under temptation. No special act of reverence should be made at the elevation of the body of Jesus Christ [i.e., at mass], for it would be an imperfection in a man if he so descended from the pure heights of his contemplation to attend to the sacrament of the Eucharist or the passion of Christ's humanity. All these odd ideas are specimens of that false, self-taught mysticism that is ageless, and in every generation lurks in comers here and there. With these wandering, unauthorised, semi-religious people the propagation of such notions could become a real social plague. The severe prohibitions of General Councils to would-be founders of new religious orders are not unrelated to the fear that they would prove a breeding ground for cranks and fanatics. The disciplinary decrees of the Council of Vienne take up, I suppose, a good thirty pages of the text of Fr. Schroeder's book. From the twenty-one certain decrees, and the eighteen less certain, I select for notice the famous decree Exivi de Paradiso, by which the council hoped to put an end to the disputes that were tearing the order of Franciscans apart, disputes as to the meaning of St. Francis' teaching about poverty. But the bulk of the decrees are what we have already met, rules about the duties of bishops, about the layman's usurpation of church jurisdiction and attempts to make church property his own, principles to settle disputes about rights of presentation to benefices and the like. The historical interest of these lengthy (and tedious) repetitions is that they are the outcome of the reports, brought in by the bishops and the religious orders from all over, on the state of the Church. As we read these decrees there is scarcely one of the disorders that troubled the generation upon which the Reformation came, two hundred years later, that is not to be seen already mischievously active. The remedies provided in the decrees are all admirable, if only they had been generally obeyed, and if, in those centuries of such miserable communications, there had been some way of enforcing obedience. What the decrees chiefly lack is any sense that the ills of the time call for new methods and new institutions. To read, in canon 15, the thirty complaints of the religious against episcopal oppression, or, in canon 16, the seven complaints of bishops and prelates against the religious, is to become aware of chronic weaknesses bound to drain away vitality like a running sore. There is a story that as the Grand Master, Jacques de Molay, was fastened to the stake on that island in the Seine where he was done to death, he lifted up his voice and by name summoned his three oppressors to the judgment seat of God. Certainly they died within the year, the pope, the king, and William de Nogaret. Philip the Fair left three sons, young men, healthy, vigorous, well married. But not one of them had a son, and within fourteen years of his death the direct line of descent was extinct. NOTES 1. This bull, Clericis Laicos, is printed in translation by Barry, no. 80A. 2. Un executeur complaisant des calculs de Philippe le Bel--Digard's phrase, Philippe le Bel et le. Saint-Siege (1936), I, 345. 3. Outside the city of Courtrai. 4. Denzinger, nos. 468-69, prints the defining clauses of this bull, Barry, no. 80B the whole, in translation. 5. Seventy miles or so southeast of Rome, the centre of the countryside whence Boniface (Benedict Gaetani) came. 6. There were, it is thought, about 2,000, of all ranks, knights, sergeants, chaplains. 7. An effect of the revival of Roman Law doctrines and procedures, not an invention of the Church. 8. Of this "understanding" there is no proof, nor is it (in the nature of things) provable. The Abbe Mollat professor of History at the University of Strasbourg, says, "Bien que la condition n'eut pas ete explicitement exprimee dans les lettres royales, il fut convenu que le sort des Templiers serait regle au Concile de Vienne," p. 260. But, surely, the pope had already arranged this in the bulls regulating the enquiries in 1308? The work quoted is Mollat's indispensable, Les Papes d'Avignon, 5me edition, 1924. Pages 229-56 of this book, Le Proces des Templiers, is the best of all short documented accounts, and it is the one generally followed in this chapter. 9. Denzinger, no. 481. 10. Ibid., no. 479. 11. Ibid., nos. 471-78. 12. I.e., popularly regarded as a kind of monk or nun. 13. See Cohn, Norman, The Quest of the Millennium, 1957. 14. All the 39 passed into the Canon Law. 15. For a translation of this (slightly abbreviated) see Schroeder, 407-13.

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Providing quality preschool education is hard work In July of 2012, the Cortez area preschools were selected to participate in the Colorado School Readiness Program. This project provides services that help the early learning facilities attain quality programs that promote academic success and social and emotional wellbeing. The preschools in Cortez recognize that the early years of a child's life are very important. The first five years of development is a very critical period. Providing a quality environment is of utmost importance in a child's growth; at least 85 percent of a person's emotional and intellectual abilities are formed by the age of five. Children who receive high-quality care demonstrate greater social skills in school and in later life, excel in reading and math, have better attendance records in school, enjoy school more, and are more motivated to learn. Youth who receive quality care in their early years have a higher graduation rate and are more likely to pursue schooling after high school and earn higher income throughout life. Research shows that investing in early learning programs results in significant short, mid and long term benefits. Participation in the Colorado School Readiness Program shows a commitment to providing quality care for children and paves the way for achievement in school as well as success in later life. The state of Colorado provides school readiness participants coaching and a detailed quality performance profile that identifies strengths and areas for improvement in the overall programs of preschools. Any program that boasts a Qualistar banner outside of their building, or displays a 1, 2, 3 or 4-star certificate on their wall, has worked very hard to achieve the rating and is dedicated to providing the best learning environment for your child. The rating process is intensive and examines all aspects at work in a learning environment. The schools work to achieve the highest standards adopted by specialists in the field of early childhood. The components within the rating scales support best practices for early childhood learning. Teachers attend workshops that enhance their teaching, practice interactions that promote positive self-esteem in young children, prepare their classroom and structure their day so that each child experiences success in the classroom. After months of preparation, a Qualistar Rater comes to the school; information about the learning environment is collected and assessed by these trained observers. The rater spends several hours in each classroom collecting information and evaluating four components of the program. Many environmental factors are examined, ranging from the health and safety of the program to the teacher and child interactions. Other pieces that make up the rating include family partnerships, training and education, group sizes, and adult/child ratios. The process of providing outstanding care for our children is continuous; every day with every child is important in their overall development. Every year that a facility participates in the program enhances the overall quality of the program. Nine schools in Cortez have signed up to participate in the school readiness program, and school readiness sites are evaluated once a year in a six year cycle. A school may earn provisional status or a score that gives them 1, 2, 3 or 4 stars. When choosing a place to care for your child, a Qualistar rating gives assurance that the school is committed to working towards obtaining or maintaining an environment that will promote your child's physical, academic and social growth. When you walk your child through the door of a facility that participates in the Qualistar rating process, you know that the director and teachers at the school are committed to your child and his or her future, and they deserve praise for the hard work and commitment that have gone towards earning their rating. Patricia Nelson is the School Readiness Coordinator and Quality Improvement Specialist with the Montelores Early Childhood Council, working with 33 early childhood classrooms in the Cortez area.

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Mention of "root canal" evokes images of severe pain so commonly that people often complain about other pains by saying, "I'd sooner have root canal." In truth, however, root canal is maligned unfairly. Advances in technology, and the experience of our professional stuff have made root canal far less painful than its reputation suggests. Ironically, root canal is designed to minimize the pain from an infected tooth, it does not produce the pain. Root canal treatment becomes necessary when the pulp inside your tooth gets infected. The pulp is the soft tissue inside your tooth, Home to connective tissues, blood vessels and nerves. The pulp goes from the crown of your tooth to the tip of the root in your jawbone. Normally, the tooth itself protects the pulp, but if the tooth is damaged by a very deep cavity, or a crack, or trauma from repeated repairs, bacteria can reach the pulp. Then the bacteria grow from the crown towards the root, pus accumulates at the root tips, and the mouth becomes painful and sensitive to hot and cold. Not all pulp infections bring pain; sometimes they spread so slowly that the patient feels nothing. Root canal treatment occurs in three stages: First comes the diagnosis. Next comes the root canal itself, in which a dentist or an endodentist (a dentist who specializes in treating the inside of the tooth) removes the pulp (and thereby also the infection), and cleans the inside of the tooth preparatory to filling it, sometimes applying antibiotics to thwart further infection. A temporary filling is placed at the crown opening. Finally, in a subsequent appointment, a crown is installed to seal the tooth and protect it from further damage or infection. Excellent oral hygiene after your root canal can help ensure success and prevent reinfection. Keeping your original teeth should always be your main objective. An untreated infection inside a tooth will only worsen over time; the pulp cannot heal itself. Without treatment, you may eventually lose the tooth, and require a bridge or other costly restoration. Protect your teeth by getting treatment as soon as learn that you need it. |(C) Copyright 2001-2011 - Meza Dental Care. San Jose, Costa Rica Toll Free Number From US and Canada: 1- 877 - 337 - MEZA

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Fraction manipulatives help all students to understand the concepts of whole and parts! by Evan Maletsky, Winner of the 2009 NCTM Lifetime Achievement Award CLASSROOM SET SAVINGS OF 20%! Fractions are among the most difficult mathematical ideas for students to master. Comfort with fractions is crucial for students to succeed as they move on to algebra. Interlocking Fraction Circles provide students with a model they can manipulate as they discover the parts of a whole, the relationships between fractions, equivalency, and much more. Classroom-tested by a leading math educator, the program includes comprehensive teaching resources with lesson plans, demonstration materials, and student activities. Fraction activities include: - Reading Fractions - Changing Fractions - Parts of a Whole - Mixed Numbers - Adding Like Fractions - Adding Unlike Fractions Classroom Set Includes: 24 Student Sets, and 80 pages Teacher's Guide. Teacher's Guide includes: - 12 full-color overhead transparencies featuring lesson plans and activities - 12 overhead transparencies featuring additional activities for full-class and small group work - Reproducible student activity pages - Teacher's notes with complete answers and extension activities

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Keep the Legs You Stand On by Dr. Mark Hinkes There are multiple causes for development of diabetic foot ulcers related to biomechanical problems. These include bone, soft tissue, and nail deformities associated with faulty biomechanics, mechanical instability, connective tissue disease, muscle atrophy, fat pad loss, and calluses. Other reasons a person with diabetes might develop a foot ulcer is having a previous ulceration or amputation. Elevated blood glucose levels lead to the damage of connective tissue. This results in limited joint mobility, high peak pressures during gait, and loss of the normal heel and forefoot cushioning that can lead to the formation of ulcers. Ankle equinus, which causes a person to have a limited amount of heel contact, moves more pressure to the front of the foot. In an attempt to correct this kind of a problem, an Achilles-tendon lengthening surgical procedure can be done. This procedure reduces the amount of pressure across the mid-foot during walking. This procedure significantly reduces forefoot pressure as well and therefore reduces the risk for ulceration. The shortening of the calf muscle (gastroc-soleus equinus) causes an inability to move the toes upward, which is essential in the gait cycle of normal gait. Bone deformities in the toes and feet can rub against your shoe and cause abnormal pressure. Ill-fitting footwear can also contribute to ulcer formation. When there is abnormal pressure against an underlying bony structure, your body tries to protect itself by forming a thickened skin or a natural protective pad commonly called a corn (located on the toes) or a callus (located on the bottom of the foot under the metatarsal bones). Patients with diabetes and sensory neuropathy may not feel the pressure caused by the thickened skin pushing against the bone. If that thick skin is not removed, you may develop an abscess under the corn or callus. The abscess can lead to an infection of the soft tissues called cellulitis. If the cellulitis is not treated promptly, it can cause a bone infection called osteomyelitis. The next factor affecting the start of an ulcer is peripheral sensory neuropathy. PAD and PVD complicate ulcer healing but are not responsible for the creation of ulcers. Patients with diabetes having this condition or the loss of protective sensation in their feet from a variety of other reasons, such as cancer, medications, back problems and exposure to heavy metals may not feel pain when they injure themselves. Cuts, scratches, or lacerations that might go unnoticed in most patients can cause a catastrophe for the patient with diabetes or the at-risk patient. These wounds should sound big alarms because when things go wrong for patients with diabetes, they can go very wrong seemingly in the blink of an eye. A variant of sensory neuropathy is the Charcot foot deformity. This problem is caused from increased blood flow with loss of bone (mineral) density and a propensity for micro fractures and destruction of the joints across the mid foot. With the bones in abnormal positions combined with faulty biomechanical function, ulcers are commonly seen on the bottom of the mid foot. Chicken Papadoris Anise Biscotti Spice Cupcake Marinated Spanish Olives Cheesy Grits and Sausage Tropical Fruit & Yogurt Cones Self-Rising Biscuits Pork and Pepper Salad with Balsamic Vinaigrette Green Beans with Shiitake Mushrooms Kasha with Zucchini and Onions Because today's going to be a bit busy to be doing actual art (and because I just saw STAR TREK: Into Darkness yesterday), I'm going to take the Diabetes Blog Week wildcard: "Tell us what your fantasy diabetes device would be? Think of your dream blood glucose checker, delivery system for insulin or other meds, magic carb counter, etc etc etc. The sky is the limit — what...

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High-level consultation calls for better information on women's role in agriculture In developing countries, agricultural policies generally neglect the social and economic value of women's farm labour. But without measuring women's contributions and reflecting them in agricultural planning, it will be impossible to ensure domestic food security and promote sustainable and equitable rural development. This message came through loud and clear at the High-level Consultation on Rural Women and Information, held at FAO headquarters in Rome, 4 to 6 October. It was attended by more than 350 participants, including 50 government ministers. One of the issues addressed during the Consultation was how the lack of information about gender roles in agriculture affects the use of resources. Speaking at a press conference on the last day of the Consultation, Ms Sissel Ekaas, Director of FAO's Women and Population Division, described a pesticide training programme that had been put on for men farmers in Zambia after several crops had been ruined through excessive use of pesticides. After the training, the crops continued to fail because those responsible for the training were not aware that applying pesticides was the responsibility of women, who had been left out of the training. Participants at the Consultation also expressed the hope that more accurate information about the role rural women play in agricultural production, processing and marketing will help pave the way to a greater realization of their political and legal rights. In many countries, both tradition and law prevent rural women from making decisions, owning land and borrowing money. A better appreciation on the part of the public, policy-makers and the media of the contributions women farmers make to sustaining rural communities can help bring about institutional reforms that will both improve food security and promote greater social justice. At the Consultation's press conference, Ms Angela King, UN Assistant-Secretary General and Special Advisor on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women, said she was encouraged to see that rural women are no longer being treated as "just passive beings, but active participants in shaping developing policies." Ms King added that she had been impressed not just by the high level of participation at the Consultation but by the thoughtfulness of the panel discussions and the related documents. She said the Consultation could serve as " a beacon for addressing issues relating to all forms of inequality." During the Consultation, the participants reviewed a Strategy for Action, a framework that will assist decision-makers and planners obtain more detailed information about the economic and social contributions made by men and women farmers to agricultural production and rural development. The Consultation was part of FAO's preparation for the mid-term evaluation of the Platform of Action of the World Conference on Women (Beijing +5) in 2000, and its outcome should help to ensure that the situation of rural women gets the attention it deserves in that review. 13 October 1999

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A POTENTIALLY deadly and virulent bug that attacks the gut may soon be treated with the most stomach-churning of remedies. A study published on Thursday in The New England Journal of Medicine has found transplanting human faeces into people with the superbug Clostridium difficile provided an almost universal cure for the condition - far outperforming traditional antibiotic treatment. Faecal microbiota transplantation is thought to work by replacing the healthy bacteria in the gut that have been wiped out by antibiotics. For the past 20 years an Australian, Thomas Borody, has pioneered the treatment, although its use has been traced back thousands of years. ''This study is monumental,'' Professor Borody said. The research found nearly 94 per cent of patients given the transplantation one or two times recovered, compared to only 30 per cent of the group given the antibiotic vancomycin. The study was then stopped early by an ethics committee on the ground that it would be unethical not to offer all patients the transplants. Professor Borody said C. difficile, which has ravaged the US, killing 30,000 people each year, was spreading to Australia, although no one could be sure how common it was as health departments did not routinely test for it. ''In Sydney we have had about 15 deaths that we know of … in the past year and a half,'' he said. Just as people now donate blood, in future donors may be called on to give stools. At present the faeces is inserted into the recipient using colonoscopy or nasal tube but researchers are developing a less off-putting method. ''The future of this FMT is filtered bacteria, washed, frozen and put in a capsule, which we lovingly call a 'crapsule','' said Professor Borody, from the Centre for Digestive Diseases and the University of Technology, Sydney. The clinical associate dean at the St George Hospital clinical school at the University of NSW, Michael Grimm, said trying to find appropriate donors could be difficult. ''We are just starting now to grapple with the bacteria in the gut; it's an impossible soup to analyse,'' Professor Grimm said. ''What potential pathogens are in there that might not have been pathogenic to the host but could become pathogenic to the recipient, are really unknown.''

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During the Gold Rush boom, in San Francisco's early years, the city suffered six major fires. Because these fires destroyed 25 to 50% of the town, they were called Great Fires. As San Francisco quickly rebuilt herself rising from the ashes of those fires, the Phoenix became the symbol of the city. On April 18, 1906, because the Richter magnitude of the earthquake was over 8.0, it is classified as a Great earthquake. In 1906, when half the city was lost, the earthquake caused 20% of the damage and the fire caused the other 80%.

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About the Global Initiative for Healthcare Worker Safety The Global Initiative for Healthcare Worker Safety seeks to set a global standard for the protection of all healthcare workers from life-threatening bloodborne pathogens. Devices with engineered sharps injury protection are highly effective in reducing the risk of needlesticks and sharps injuries. We know that the combination of safer devices, hepatitis B vaccine and basic barrier garments can save lives. The challenge before us is to get protective devices and products into the hands of healthcare workers who need them most--in every corner of the globe. So much as been accomplished, yet there is so much more to do. We believe our mission is vital--and realistic. Healthcare workers in every corner of the globe can be provided with the basic measures to protect them from life-threatening pathogens. We invite you to work with us in our common quest. To find out how to become a supporting partner in the Global Initiative for Healthcare Worker Safety, please contact Janine Jagger, Director, or Jane Perry, Associate Director, International Healthcare Worker Safety Center, at 434-924-5159, or e-mail email@example.com. To make a gift to the Center, click here. More about the Center: More about the Center: The historical contributions of the International Healthcare Worker Safety Center to the public health goal of reducing healthcare workers' occupational risk of infection from bloodborne pathogens include the following: • 1988 Published a landmark study in the New England Journal of Medicine that established the crucial role of product design in the causation of needlestick injuries. The study introduced the first product design criteria for reducing needlestick risk. These criteria were adopted by the FDA in 1992, establishing the standard definition of safety-engineered devices. • 1992 Successfully petitioned the FDA to issue its first safety alert on needlestick risk, which advised against the use of hypodermic needles to connect or access I.V. ports. The alert triggered a rapid nation-wide transition to needle-free I.V. systems. • 1992-93 Designed and launched the Exposure Prevention Information Network (EPINet), a sharps injury and blood exposure surveillance system that quickly became the most widely used such program in the U.S. The EPINet Multi-Hospital Blood Exposure Database, established by the Center in 1993, made blood exposure and device-specific sharps injury data available on a large scale for the first time. • 1999 Successfully petitioned the FDA to issue a safety advisory on injury risks from glass capillary tubes. The advisory resulted in the elimination of glass microhematocrit tubes from the U.S. market within two years. • 2000 Provided epidemiologic data to support passage of the U.S. Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act of 2000, the first national law in the world mandating safety-engineered sharps for the protection of healthcare workers. (Dr. Jagger was also present at the signing of the bill at the White House). • 1993-2008 Worked with colleagues around the world to facilitate the international adoption of EPINet-- now used in 55 countries and setting a global standard for blood exposure surveillance. EPINet allows countries to compare data; drives national policy initiatives; and creates demand for effective prevention measures (including safety-engineered devices) in all regions of the world. • 1999-2003 Conducted the multi-year U.S.-Japan Collaborative Program in Occupational Exposure Prevention. With support from the medical device industry, the Center trained a cadre of 20 Japanese healthcare professionals to establish a national EPINet surveillance network and set national policy for healthcare worker protection. By 2003, Japan was second only to the U.S. in availability of safety-engineered devices. By 2008 the Japan/EPINet surveillance network had grown to more than 1,000 hospitals. Our work has been recognized in numerous ways--including financial support from more than two dozen medical device and pharmaceutical companies and GPOs. In 2000, Dr. Jagger was named a "MedTech Hero" by the medical device trade association, AdvaMed, for contributions to the medical device industry as a whole. In 2002, Dr. Jagger received a MacArthur Foundation fellowship for creativity in applying injury control methods and product design innovations to the prevention of an infectious disease risk.

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Our material body is our visible, physical identity in the material world. It is made of material elements—solids, liquids, gases, etc.—and exists for a limited time. It is born, grows to maturity, and produces offspring; it then gradually dwindles, ceases to function, and ultimately vanishes. What we call a "living body" is a combination of two kinds of energy—material and spiritual. Material energy supplies the gross materials of which the body is made, and spiritual energy animates the body and enables it to work. Without the presence of a spiritual spark—the self or atma—no material process can give life to the body. We tend to identify ourselves as our material body. If our material body is male, female, old, young, black, or white, we think we are male, female, old, young, black, or white. This misconception, called false ego, is at the root of most of our anxiety. Because of false ego, we believe "death" means the end of our existence, when it's actually just the end of the material body's existence. We're not the material body. We're spiritual.

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Atreus was murdered by his nephew, Aegisthus, who took possession of the throne of Mycenae and ruled jointly with his father Thyestes. During this period Menelaus and his brother, Agamemnon took refuge with Tyndareus, king of Sparta, whose daughters Helen and Clytemnestra they respectively married. Helen and Menelaus had one daughter, Hermione. Menelaus succeeded Tyndareus (whose only sons, Castor and Polydeuces became gods), and Agamemnon, with his brother's assistance, drove out Aegisthus and Thyestes, and recovered his father's kingdom. He extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince in Greece. When it was time for Helen, Tyndareus's daughter, to marry, many Greek kings and princes came to seek her hand or sent emissaries to do so on their behalf. Among the contenders were Odysseus, Menestheus, Ajax the great, Patroclus and Idomeneus, but Menelaus was the favorite though, according to some sources, he did not come in person but was represented by his brother Agamemnon. All but Odysseus brought many and rich gifts with them. Tyndareus would accept none of the gifts, nor would he send any of the suitors away for fear of offending them and giving grounds for a quarrel. Odysseus promised to solve the problem in a satisfactory manner if Tyndareus would support him in his courting of Penelope, the daughter of Icarius. Tyndareus readily agreed and Odysseus proposed that, before the decision was made, all the suitors should swear a most solemn oath to defend the chosen husband against whoever should quarrel with the chosen one. This stratagem succeeded and Helen and Menelaus were married. Following Tyndareus's death, Menelaus became king of Sparta because the only male heirs, Castor and Polydeuces had died and ascended to Mount Olympus. Some years later, Paris, a Trojan prince came to Sparta to marry Helen, whom he had been promised by Aphrodite. Helen fell in love with him and left willingly, leaving behind Menelaus and Hermione, their nine-year-old daughter. Menelaus called upon all the other suitors to fulfill their oaths, thus beginning the Trojan War. Virtually all of Greece took part, either attacking Troy with Menelaus or defending it from them. In the Iliad Menelaus fights bravely and well, even when wounded, and distinguishes himself particularly by recovering the body of Patroclus after the latter is killed by Hector. Although he is depicted as a reasonably wise and just leader, he has a tendency to rattle off fatuous bromides in the most inappropriate circumstances. During the war, Menelaus' weapon-carrier was Eteoneus. (Odyssey IV, 22, 31.) After the Greeks won the Trojan War, Helen returned to Sparta with Menelaus (though she had married Paris' brother, Deiphobus, after Paris' death, Menelaus killed Deiphobus). According to some versions, Menelaus stayed in the court of King Polybus of Thebes for a time after the war. According to the Odyssey, Menelaus' homebound fleet was blown by storms to Crete and Egypt where they were unable to sail away because the wind was calm. Menelaus had to catch Proteus, a shape-shifting sea god to find out what sacrifices to which gods he would have to make to guarantee safe passage. Proteus also told Menelaus that he was destined for Elysium (Heaven) after his death. Menelaus returned to Sparta with Helen. After Menelaus' death, his illegitimate son Megapenthes sent Helen into exile. Here is what Homer's Menelaus had to say about the war and its aftermath after the fact (Odyssey IV): Menelaus overheard [Telemachus] and said, "No one, my sons, can hold his own with Jove, for his house and everything about him is immortal; but among mortal men – well, there may be another who has as much wealth as I have, or there may not; but at all events I have travelled much and have undergone much hardship, for it was nearly eight years before I could get home with my fleet. I went to Cyprus, Phoenicia and the Egyptians; I went also to the Ethiopians, the Sidonians, and the Erembians, and to Libya where the lambs have horns as soon as they are born, and the sheep lamb down three times a year. Every one in that country, whether master or man, has plenty of cheese, meat, and good milk, for the ewes yield all the year round. But while I was travelling and getting great riches among these people, my brother was secretly and shockingly murdered through the perfidy of his wicked wife, so that I have no pleasure in being lord of all this wealth. Whoever your parents may be they must have told you about all this, and of my heavy loss in the ruin of a stately mansion fully and magnificently furnished. Would that I had only a third of what I now have so that I had stayed at home, and all those were living who perished on the plain of Troy, far from Argos. I often grieve, as I sit here in my house, for one and all of them." Detail of Menelaus from the Pompeii painting based on the work of Timanthes Menelaus and Patroclus A little beyond the city is a spring, and by the spring grows a large and beautiful plane tree. They call it Menelais, saying that the plane was planted by the spring by Menelaus, who came to the spot when he was collecting his army against Troy. To-day they give the name Menelais to the spring as well as to the plane. If I am to base my calculations on the accounts of the Greeks in fixing the relative ages of such trees as are still preserved and flourish, the oldest of them is the withy growing in the Samian sanctuary of Hera, after which come the oak in Dodona, the olive on the Acropolis and the olive in Delos. The third place in respect of age the Syrians would assign to the bay-tree they have in their country. Of the others this plane-tree is the oldest. Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org"

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2. Physical Activity Twenty-four RCT articles were reviewed for the effect of physical activity on weight loss, abdominal fat (measured by waist circumference), and changes in cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2 max). Thirteen articles were deemed acceptable (346, 363, 365, 369, 375, 401, 404, 406, 432, 434, 445-447). Only one of these RCTs compared different intensities and format with a control group, although the goal was to increase physical activity and not specifically to produce weight loss (401). Results from this trial were subsequently reported after 2 years, but these no longer included the control group (447). One additional study did not have a no-treatment control group but compared three active treatment groups with each other: diet only, exercise only, and combination exercise plus diet (448). Most RCTs described the type of physical activity as cardiovascular endurance activities in the form of aerobic exercise such as aerobic dancing, brisk walking, jogging, running, riding a stationary bicycle, swimming, and skiing, preceded and followed by a short session of warmup and cool-down exercises. Some physical activity programs also included unspecified dynamic calisthenic exercises (363, 369, 406, 446). The intensity of the physical activity was adapted to each individual and varied from 60 to 85 percent of the individual's estimated maximum heart rate, or was adjusted to correspond to approximately 70 percent of maximum aerobic capacity (VO2 max). The measure of physical fitness included VO2 max. The frequency of physical activity varied from three to seven sessions a week and the length of the physical activity session ranged from 30 to 60 minutes. Some physical activity programs were supervised, and some were home-based. Adherence to the prescribed physical activity program was recorded and reported in some studies and not mentioned in others. Most studies did not estimate the caloric expenditure from the physical activity or report calorie intake. The duration of the intervention varied from 16 weeks to 1 year; six articles reported on trials that lasted at least 1 year (346, 363, 375, 401, 406, 432). Rationale: Twelve RCT articles examined the effects of physical activity, consisting primarily of aerobic exercise, on weight loss compared to controls (346, 363, 365, 369, 375, 401, 404, 406, 432, 434, 445, 446). Ten of the 12 RCT articles reported a mean weight loss of 2.4 kg (5.3 lb) (or 2.4 percent of weight) (363, 369, 375, 406, 419, 432, 434) or a mean reduction in BMI of 0.7 kg/m2 (2.7 percent reduction) (346, 365, 401) in the exercise group compared to the control group. In three of these ten studies, the weight loss was < 2 percent of body weight (< 2 kg) (4.4 lb) (369, 375, 434). In contrast, two RCTs showed no benefit on weight from exercise, reporting weight gain in the exercise group compared to the control group (445, 446). In one of these studies, the control group received only diet advice but nevertheless lost 9 kg (19.8 lb), whereas the exercise group lost only 7 kg (15.4 lb) (445). In the second study, there was a total of only 10 participants, all having noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, and the control group lost 3 kg (6.6 lb) whereas the exercise group lost only 2 kg (4.4 lb) (446). A meta-analysis of 28 publications of the effect on weight loss of exercise compared to diet or control groups showed that aerobic exercise alone produces a modest weight loss of 3 kg (6.6 lb) in men and 1.4 kg (3.1 lb) in women compared to controls (449). Ten articles reported on RCTs that had a diet-only group in addition to an exercise-only group (346, 363, 365, 369, 375, 406, 432, 434, 445, 448). In every case except one (365),the exercise-only group did not experience as much weight loss as the diet-only group. The diet-only group produced approximately 3 percent, or 3 kg (6.6 lb), greater weight loss than the exercise-only group. No single study examined the length of the intervention in relation to the weight loss outcome. Only one study compared the effect on maximum oxygen uptake of different intensities and formats of physical activity over a 1-year follow-up (401) and 2-year follow-up period (447). Better adherence over 1 year was found if the exercise was performed at home rather than in a group setting, regardless of the intensity level. Subsequently, the different exercise groups were compared with each other over the longer term (2 years), and better long-term adherence was found in the higher intensity home-based exercise group compared to the lower intensity home-based or higher intensity group-based exercise groups (447). The question of whether physical activity enhances long-term maintenance of weight loss has not been formally examined in RCTs. Examination of long-term weight loss maintenance produced by physical activity interventions compared with diet-only interventions cannot easily be compared between RCTs because of numerous differences between studies with respect to design, sample size, intervention content and delivery, and characteristics of the study population samples. However, a number of analyses of observational and post hoc analyses of intervention studies have examined whether physical activity has a beneficial effect on weight. Cross-sectional studies have generally shown that physical activity is inversely related to body weight (450-454) and rate of weight gain with age (455). Longitudinal studies with 2 to 10 years of follow-up results have observed that physical activity is related to less weight gain over time (456-459), less weight gain after smoking cessation in women (460), and weight loss over 2 years (461). In addition, post hoc analyses of several weight loss intervention studies reported that physical activity was a predictor of successful weight loss (454, 462, 463). The results of these RCTs showed that physical activity produces only modest weight loss and observational analyses from other studies suggest that physical activity may play a role in long-term weight control and/or maintenance of weight loss. Rationale: Only three RCTs testing the effect of physical activity on weight loss also had measures of abdominal fat as assessed by waist circumference (365, 369, 375). One study demonstrated that physical activity reduced waist circumference compared with the control group (365), and another study showed a small effect on waist circumference (0.9 cm) in men but not women (375). One study in men showed a small increase in waist circumference (369). Weight loss was modest in all of these studies. These studies were not designed to test the effects of physical activity on abdominal fat independent of weight loss. However, large studies in Europe (464), Canada (453), and the United States (465-468) reported that physical activity has a favorable effect on body fat distribution. These studies showed an inverse association between energy expenditure through physical activity and several indicators of abdominal obesity, such as waist circumference and waist-to-hip and waist-to-thigh circumference ratios. Rationale: Eleven RCT articles testing the effect of physical activity alone on weight loss in men and women also included measures of cardiorespiratory fitness, as measured by maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) (346, 363, 369, 375, 401, 404, 406, 432, 434, 445, 446). All 11 showed that physical activity increased maximum oxygen uptake in men and women in the exercise groups by an average of 14 percent (ml/kg body weight) to 18 percent (L/min). Even in studies with modest weight loss (< 2 percent), physical activity increased VO2 max by an average of 12 percent (L/min) to 16 percent (ml/kg) (369, 375, 434). One study that compared different formats and intensities of physical activity on VO2 max reported that improvement in VO2 max was related to adherence to the physical activity regime. In that study, the lower intensity program was equally effective on VO2 max as a higher intensity program, largely as a result of different levels of adherence (401). The results of the RCTs strongly demonstrate that physical activity increases cardiorespiratory fitness in overweight and obese individuals.

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FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE Wednesday, Oct. 13, 2010 Two studies appearing in the October 14, 2010 New England Journal of Medicine and funded by the National Institutes of Health helped influence the World Health Organization (WHO) to change its guidelines this year for the treatment of HIV infection in certain women and children. The recently updated guidelines affect HIV-infected women who receive a single dose of the antiretroviral drug nevirapine to prevent HIV transmission to their babies, and infants who receive a single dose of nevirapine to prevent acquiring the virus from their HIV-infected mothers but nevertheless become infected. The studies demonstrated that in both cases, the single dose of nevirapine used to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV can hamper the drug’s effectiveness if it is also used later as part of a regimen to treat these same individuals. An interim review of the first study, known as OCTANE or ACTG 5208, found that exposing HIV-infected women to a single dose of nevirapine to prevent mother-to-child HIV transmission without subsequently administering a short course of other antiretroviral drugs may lead these women to develop nevirapine-resistant HIV. The development of drug resistance compromises the effectiveness of HIV treatment regimens that include nevirapine as well as other drugs in the same class (known as non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, or NNRTIs). However, the negative effect of exposure to single-dose nevirapine appears to decrease over time. The 2010 WHO guidelines now advise that HIV-infected women who take single-dose nevirapine to prevent mother-to-child transmission should not be treated for their own infection with a drug regimen that includes an NNRTI if treatment begins fewer than 12 months later and if the women were not given other antiretroviral drugs to prevent the development of nevirapine-resistant HIV. An interim review of the second study, known as P1060, found that HIV-infected infants who received single-dose nevirapine but nevertheless acquired HIV from their infected mothers control the virus better if their HIV treatment regimen includes the antiretroviral drug ritonavir-boosted lopinavir rather than the more commonly used nevirapine. (Lopinavir is in a different class of drugs than nevirapine.) The 2010 WHO guidelines now strongly advise that HIV-infected infants who received single-dose nevirapine in an attempt to prevent mother-to-child transmission of the virus be treated with ritonavir-boosted lopinavir plus two other antiretroviral drugs. Previously, WHO had recommended treatment with nevirapine plus two other antiretroviral drugs. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), part of NIH, announced the interim findings from the first study in 2008 and from the second study in 2009. These findings, along with the results of a number of other studies, led WHO to revise its guidelines for treating HIV-infected women and infants previously exposed to single-dose nevirapine. The Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group is conducting OCTANE/ACTG 5208 with funding from NIAID. The International Maternal Pediatric Adolescent AIDS Clinical Trials Group is conducting P1060 with funding from NIAID and the NIH Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. OCTANE/ACTG 5208 is expected to conclude in 2011; the component of P1060 with nevirapine-exposed infants is expected to conclude this month. S Lockman et al. Antiretroviral therapies in women after single-dose nevirapine exposure. New England Journal of Medicine DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa09-06626 (2010). P Palumbo et al. Antiretroviral treatment for children with peripartum nevirapine exposure. New England Journal of Medicine DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa10-00931 (2010). WHO. Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in adults and adolescents: recommendations for a public health approach—2010 revision (2010). WHO. Antiretroviral therapy of HIV infection in infants and children: towards universal access: recommendations for a public health approach—2010 revision (2010). Ed Handelsman, M.D., and Beverly Alston-Smith, M.D., of NIAID and Lynne Mofenson, M.D., of NICHD are available to comment. To schedule interviews with Drs. Handelsman and Alston-Smith, please contact Laura Sivitz Leifman, 301-402-1663, firstname.lastname@example.org. To schedule interviews with Dr. Mofenson, please contact Robert Bock or Marianne Glass-Miller at 301-496-5133, email@example.com. NIAID conducts and supports research—at NIH, throughout the United States, and worldwide—to study the causes of infectious and immune-mediated diseases, and to develop better means of preventing, diagnosing and treating these illnesses. News releases, fact sheets and other NIAID-related materials are available on the NIAID Web site at http://www.niaid.nih.gov. The NICHD sponsors research on development, before and after birth; maternal, child, and family health; reproductive biology and population issues; and medical rehabilitation. For more information, visit the Institute’s Web site at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/. The National Institutes of Health (NIH)—The Nation's Medical Research Agency—includes 27 Institutes and Centers and is a component of the U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. It is the primary federal agency for conducting and supporting basic, clinical and translational medical research, and it investigates the causes, treatments and cures for both common and rare diseases. For more information about NIH and its programs, visit http://www.nih.gov. back to top Last Updated October 13, 2010 Last Reviewed October 12, 2010

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The 12 years of Republican reign seem, looking back, like a constant political war over taxes, a war that will almost certainly continue next year after Bill Clinton becomes President. Year after year, ignoring the counsel of economists and business executives that the wisest tax code is a stable and predictable one, the laws were changed in important ways. It happened in 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1986, 1988, 1989 and 1990, more frequent and detailed changes in taxes than ever before in American history, and another new law would have been adopted this year if President Bush had not cast a veto. Change and More Change Income tax rates were slashed, cut again and then increased slightly. Tax breaks to encourage business investment and personal savings were widened, then repealed. A surtax on the elderly to pay the cost of catastrophic illnesses was approved in 1987 and retracted in 1988. Social Security, Medicare and gasoline taxes went up. Corporate taxes fell. Hundreds of billions of dollars of tax liability was shifted around among individuals and companies. Over these years, tax policy was a pervasive issue in every Presidential election. Except for the very rich and the very poor, the overall tax burden of Americans is about the same as it was a dozen years ago. A family of three at the center of the income spectrum paid 19.8 percent of its earnings in Federal taxes in 1980, the year before Ronald Reagan became President. Next year, according to calculations by the Congressional Budget Office, such a family (with an income between about $29,000 and $42,000) will owe, on average, 19.5 percent. Put another way, as a fraction of the economy, the amount of Federal, state and local taxes collected has remained almost constant. It was 27.8 percent of gross domestic product in 1980 and 28 percent last year. But the fact that overall tax burdens remained rather stable masks the extent to which constant changes in the law forced people and companies to alter the way they saved and spent and invested their money. First, for instance, people were induced to invest in commercial real estate; then that carrot was withdrawn. One year savings accounts were tax free; the next year they were not. Deductions for medical expenses and sales taxes went by the boards. Affecting Daily Life Tax policy, in short, became not only a driving force in the nation's politics, but in the way people ran their lives day to day. And despite all the turmoil, politicians seem to feel just as strongly today that the tax system needs to be revamped as they did in 1980. In this year's election, President Bush stressed the Republican dogma that Americans in general and rich people in particular are taxed too much for the good of the economy. President-elect Clinton campaigned on the familiar Democratic theme that the tax system is unfair -- too generous to the wealthy and too burdensome to the middle class. Since Mr. Clinton won and since his Democratic allies in Congress seem disposed to give him the tax-policy changes he wants, in general if not in every particular, shots of Gucci Gulch -- the corridors of Capitol Hill so known because that is where the tax lobbyists lurk in their tasseled loafers -- will doubtless be staples on television news programs once again. Mr. Clinton says he wants to raise income taxes on the wealthy, revive tax breaks for businesses to induce them to invest in machinery and equipment, crack down on tax avoidance by foreign companies doing business in the United States and give a modest tax cut to middle-class taxpayers.

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Snow, Sleet, Hail, & Freezing Rain Facts When I was young, I loved snow for many reasons. Perhaps the biggest reason I loved snow was that it created the potential for getting a day off of school. Of course, sledding, building snow men, snowball fights, and just watching the snow fall were great pastimes, especially if done while enjoying a day off school. Unfortunately, where I grew up in Annapolis, Maryland, there was never enough snow for my liking. I recall vividly laying in bed on a school morning listening to the AM radio hoping to hear a report of a school closing. Usually, it would be raining at my house while the announcer would report that kids at schools in the northern and western counties would be off for the day. Only my parents were happy about that.| Later in life, I still enjoy the snow, but after living for years in Vermont and upstate New York, my definition of great snow is mostly that which I can see on the distant mountain tops while my driveway is clear. The days of having a four-month-long layer of packed snow on my driveway and road in front of the house is past. I sure would have loved it forty years ago, though. |How Much Snow is Made With 1" of Rain?| |Average Snow: 10" (25 cm)| |Heavy, Wet Snow: 4 to 5 (10-13 cm)| |Dry, Powdery Snow: 15 (38 cm)| |Sleet: Precipitation of small, partially melted grains of ice. Sleet occurs only during the winter, while hail, a different form of icy precipitation, may fall at any time of the year.| Freezing Rain: Precipitation that begins as snow falling from a cloud towards earth. It melts completely on its way down through a layer of warm (above freezing) air and then supercools in a small layer of cold air just before it impacts the surface. Due to being supercooled the water freezes again upon impact. Hail: Precipitation composed of chunks or lumps of ice formed in strong updrafts in cumulonimbus clouds. Individual lumps are called hailstones. Most hailstones are spherical or oblong, some are conical, and some are bumpy and irregular. Snowflake: Formed when water vapor turns to ice crystals either in the clouds or on the way down to Earth. Winter Storm Watch: Issued under changing weather conditions, when the specific timing, location, and path of an approaching or forming storm are undetermined. Winter Storm Warning: Issued when more than 6 inches of snow, a significant ice accumulations, or a dangerous wind chill (or any combination of the three) is expected within 24 hours. Blizzard Warning: Issued when sustained winds of 35 miles per hour or greater, in combination with considerable snowfall and poor visibility is expected for three hours or more. Northeaster (aka Nor'easter): A storm that typically produces heavy snow and rain and generates large waves in the Atlantic costal regions, often causing beach erosion and structural damage to buildings. Wind gusts can exceed hurricane speeds. The best place for getting snow, IMHO, is on the front range of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. We lived both in Colorado Springs and in Loveland (just south of Ft. Collins), and the nice thing about snow there is that a foot of it will fall one day, and it will all be gone three days later. Due to the arid environment and high altitude (a mile+) the melting snow would evaporate immediately and not generate the muddy mess that you get in the northeast. Additionally, the thin air creates the right condition for sublimation whereby the snow passes directly from the frozen state to the gaseous state without passing through the liquid state. Again, no muddy mess. |Hail Classifications | |H0||Pea size, causes no damage| |H1||Leaves and flower petals punctured and torn| |H2||Leaves stripped form trees and plants| |H3||Panes of glass broken, auto bodies dented| |H4||Some house windows broken, small tree branches broken, birds killed| |H5||Many house windows broken, small animals injured, large tree branches broken| |H6||Roof shingles destroyed, metal roofs dented, wood window frames broken away| |H7||Roofs shattered, autos seriously damaged| |H8||Roofs totally destroyed, small tree trunks split, people seriously injured| |H9||Concrete roofs breeched, large tree trunks split/knocked down, people at risk of fatal injuries| |H10||Brick structures damaged, people killed|

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Nov. 8, 2010 According to research on fatty acids conducted at the universities of Helsinki and Tampere, the consumption of canola-type rapeseed oil decreases the level of fibrinogen detrimental to health in the body. The increased fibrinogen level, caused by an imbalance in essential fats in one's diet, decreases when saturated fatty acids are replaced with rapeseed oil. The research results were published in the journal Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids. A complex state of balance, the haemostatic balance, prevails in the bloodstream. One player in this balancing act is fibrinogen, the single most important blood coagulation factor. A high level of fibrinogen promotes the creation of thrombosis and maintains inflammation within the body. An increase in the fibrinogen level is closely linked with, for example, cardiovascular disease, strokes, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease and dementia. The new research demonstrates for the first time that an increase in the fibrinogen level of the blood is largely caused by the lack of omega-3-alpha-linolenic acid in the diet. When there is too little of this beneficial fatty acid found in one's diet, an imbalance between fatty acids in the body is created. When the omega-3-alpha-linolenic acid level is too low, the body starts to manufacture more harmful omega-6-arachidonic acid out of the omega-6-linoleic acid, creating hormone-like compounds that cause thrombosis and inflammation. According to the researchers, the fat composition of rapeseed oil is optimal with regard to fatty acids essential to the body and consequently is well-suited to reduce the fibrinogen levels in the blood. Levels of fibrinogen and cholesterol reduced In all 42 research subjects, many of whom with high levels of fibrinogen and cholesterol, participated in the research. The study subjects replaced one-fourth of the food fat (margarine, cheese, butter) they used to rapeseed oil. The oil used was canola-quality spring turnip rape oil. They took about a tablespoon of oil a day, for example, mixed with a salad. The rapeseed oil dose doubled the intake of omega-3-alpha-linolenic acid during the experiment period of six weeks. Due to the regime, all higher-than-average fibrinogen levels decreased by approximately 30 per cent. The research shows that controlling fibrinogen and cholesterol by changing the fat consumed is a point of departure in the prevention of diseases as well as from the perspective of successful individual medical treatment. According to Into Laakso, Ph.D. from the Faculty of Pharmacy at the University of Helsinki, harmful effects of fats in, for example, elderly people could be easily rectified by switching one-fourth of fats to rapeseed oil. Laakso also recommends that, in addition to cholesterol, healthcare centres should measure patients' fibrinogen levels. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: - T. Seppänen-Laakso, I. Laakso, T. Lehtimäki, R. Rontu, E. Moilanen, T. Solakivi, L. Seppo, H. Vanhanen, K. Kiviranta, R. Hiltunen. Elevated plasma fibrinogen caused by inadequate α-linolenic acid intake can be reduced by replacing fat with canola-type rapeseed oil. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids, 2010; 83 (1): 45 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2010.02.001 Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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Dozens of common household cleaning products contain hidden toxic chemicals linked to fertility disorders in lab animals, according to data gathered by a women's research group. A type of glycol ether is frequently found in popular cleaning products such as Windex Aerosol, Formula 409, Lemon Fresh Pine-Sol and Simple Green All Purpose Cleaner, says the report released today by Women's Voices for the Earth, a Montana-based nonprofit working to eliminate or reduce toxic chemicals in the home. The chemical, called ethylene glycol butyl ether or EGBE, is on California's list of toxic air contaminants. Some animal studies indicate that it produces reproductive problems, such as testicular damage, reduced fertility, death of embryos and birth defects. People exposed to high levels of EGBE for several hours have reported nose and eye irritation, headaches, vomiting and a metallic taste in their mouths, studies show. It's difficult for consumers to know whether their favorite cleaner contains the chemical because manufacturers aren't required to list it on the label. Neither the state nor the federal government regulates indoor air pollution, for instance how the cleaners might degrade air inside a home. "These are products that women are using in their households on a daily basis, and they use them around their children," said Alexandra Gorman, the group's director of science and research and an author of the report. The group wants to help people become aware of chemicals they might want to avoid. Scientists say most people spend about 90 percent of their time indoors. Babies, elderly people and sick people spend almost all of their time inside. The women's research group pored through federally mandated Material Safety Data Sheets pertaining to household cleaning products. The data sheets, which are prepared by the manufacturers and are widely available online, contain information on chemicals used in products. The group found that EGBE, also known as 2-butoxyethanol, was a common ingredient. It's a colorless, biodegradable chemical with a fruity odor that acts as a degreaser. The researchers found about 50 products containing varied amounts of the chemical. Some manufacturers, like Sunshine Makers Inc., which makes the Simple Green brand, didn't report how much of the chemical is used in its products. Sunshine Makers, based in Huntington Harbour (Orange County), advertises its Simply Green brand as nontoxic and environmentally friendly. In its response to the research group's study, the company said it didn't detail all the chemicals in its products to "protect its formula from piracy." "At the same time, we back up all of our safety, health and environmental claims with independent laboratory test data, which is available to the public for the asking," the statement said. "There is no need to play 'Fear Factor' here. This ingredient usage in cleaning products is not known to be of concern for consumers who use these products as directed," Sansoni said. Members of his group include Clorox Co. and S.C. Johnson, which manufacture Formula 409, Pine-Sol and Windex Aerosol -- the only Windex formulation to contain EGBE, according to the data. The federal government removed EGBE from its list of hazardous air pollutants a few years ago, Sansoni noted. Andrew Jacques, a spokesman for the American Chemistry Council, which represents the manufacturers of the chemical, said his group believes the several recent EPA reviews of EGBE "indicate its low toxicity to humans and the environment." The EPA maintains a safety guideline for chronic inhalation exposure. The guideline is just that, not a regulatory limit but a guide for health officials. Jacques also said EGBE is a key ingredient in many cleaners and helps cut the amount of volatile organic compounds in a cleaning product. Such organic compounds can cause other types of air pollution, including smog. Some academicians and government scientists believe that there should be a reduction in toxic chemicals used in the home. William Nazaroff, a professor of environmental engineering and chairman of the Energy and Resources Group at UC Berkeley, said the EPA erred when it removed the chemical from the hazardous air pollutants list. Nazaroff conducted a study for the California Air Resources Board in 2006 on the indoor air chemistry of cleaning agents and toxic air contaminants. He found that people using some common products containing EGBE could be exposed to levels 12 times greater than California's one-hour exposure guideline. "None of these are (legally enforceable) standards for ordinary indoor environments. We have a blind spot in our regulatory structure for toxic air pollutants," Nazaroff said. "It defies logic to think that it's unsafe to be exposed outdoors but it would be safe to be exposed at that level indoors," he said. Generally, some of the people who have the most exposure to the chemicals are janitors and maids. Some of those workers are represented by the Service Employees International Union. Ahmad Abozayd, vice president of SEIU's Local 87 in San Francisco, said there have been oral agreements with companies to use nontoxic products. In the Bay Area, about 30 million square feet of office space is cleaned with products deemed "environmentally preferable," said Angela Gustafson, senior vice president for OneSource Building Services Inc., a national cleaning company. The bulk of the chemicals have been certified by an independent group called Green Seal, she said. "It's absolutely a trend. It's not just for the cleaners of the buildings but for the people who work in the buildings." In the old days, "people thought it was a good thing to see blue water in the toilet and smell the bleach smell. But if there's so much chemical and caustic in the bathroom, that's harmful." State officials are also looking at the chemicals. The state Department of Toxic Substances Control has launched a Green Chemistry Initiative to get away from old-style toxic products. The initiative's purpose is to protect public health and the environment through the design of less-toxic products. Read the report: California Green Chemistry Initiative: Clean with safer products Check labels and pick cleaners that contain green alcohol instead of other solvents. Choose fragrance-free items and don't pick antibacterial soaps that unnecessarily rely on chemicals. Pick detergents based on plant oils rather than petroleum, and plant-oil disinfectants such as eucalyptus, rosemary or sage. Mix your own cleaners using items such as plain soap, water, baking soda, vinegar or lemon juice. For more tips, go to links.sfgate.com/ZLX Source: The Green Guide The household products list Cleaning products reported to contain 2-butoxyethanol America's Home Value AllPurpose Cleaner Aroma Clean by Simple Green Clean Swipe Spray Cleaner Crystal Simple Green Cleaner/ Degreaser Formula 409 All Purpose Cleaner Grease & Grime Formula 409 All Purpose Cleaner Lemon Fresh Formula 409 All Purpose Cleaner Lemon Fresh Antibacterial Formula 409 All Purpose Cleaner Degreaser (trigger spray) Formula 409 Spray All Purpose Cleaner Formula 409 Daily Kitchen Cleaner Lemon Fresh Pine-Sol Cleaner & Antibacterial Spray Pro Formula 409 Degreaser Savogran Dirtex Spray Cleaner Simple Green All Purpose Cleaner Lemon Scented Simple Green All Purpose Cleaner Foam Simple Green BBQ Grill Microwave Cleaner Simple Green Concentrated Cleaner, Degreaser, Deodorizer Simple Green Extreme Clean Simple Green Multi-Purpose Cleaner SOS All Purpose Cleaner Lemon Scent Whistle All Purpose Cleaner America's Home Value Bathroom Cleaner Aqua Mix Heavy Duty Tile and Grout Cleaner Magic American Marble & Granite Magic Tile & Grout Magic Cleaner Aroma Clean by Simple Green Carpet, Fabric and Upholstery Cleaner Carpet Stain Remover It's Magic Carpet Cleaner Simple Green Carpet Cleaner Spot Shot Instant Carpet Stain Remover, aerosol and trigger sprays Spot Shot Large Area Multi-Purpose Cleaner Fresh Scent Pine-Sol Spray & Mop Floor Cleaner Lemon Fresh Pine-Sol Quick Floor Cleaner Aroma Clean by Simple Green Floor Cleaner Break Up Floor Stripper America's Home Value Glass Cleaner Easy Off Glass Cleaner Lemonized with Ammonia Formula 409 Glass & Surface Cleaner Glass Plus Mirror & Glass Cleaner Sparkle Glass Cleaner Windex Aerosol Wipes Aroma Clean by Simple Green All Purpose Cleaner Wipes Formula 409 Cleaning Wipes Simple Green All Purpose Towelettes Simple Green Lemon Scented All Purpose Wipes Simple Green Safety Towels Source: Manufacturers and Women's Voices for the Earth

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Shock is a life-threatening condition that occurs when the body is not getting enough blood flow. This can damage multiple organs. Shock requires immediate medical treatment and can get worse very rapidly. Check the person's airway, breathing, and circulation. If necessary, begin rescue breathing and CPR. Even if the person is able to breathe on his or her own, continue to check rate of breathing at least every 5 minutes until help arrives. If the person is conscious and does NOT have an injury to the head, leg, neck, or spine, place the person in the shock position. Lay the person on the back and elevate the legs about 12 inches. Do NOT elevate the head. If raising the legs will cause pain or potential harm, leave the person lying flat. Give appropriate first aid for any wounds, injuries, or illnesses. Keep the person warm and comfortable. Loosen tight clothing. IF THE PERSON VOMITS OR DROOLS Turn the head to one side so he or she will not choke. Do this as long as there is no suspicion of spinal injury. If a spinal injury is suspected, "log roll" him or her instead. Keep the person's head, neck, and back in line, and roll him or her as a unit. Do NOT give the person anything by mouth, including anything to eat or drink. Do NOT wait for milder shock symptoms to worsen before calling for emergency medical help. Call immediately for emergency medical assistance if Call 911 any time a person has symptoms of shock. Stay with the person and follow the first aid steps until medical help arrives. Learn ways to prevent heart disease, falls, injuries, dehydration, and other causes of shock. If you have a known allergy (for example, to insect bites or stings), carry an epinephrine pen. Your doctor will teach you how and when to use it. Once someone is already in shock, the sooner shock is treated, the less damage there may be to the person's vital organs (such as the kidney, liver, and brain). Early first aid and emergency medical help can save a life. Parrillo JE. Approach to the patient with shock. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007:chap 107. Maier RV. Approach to the patient with shock. In: Fauci AS, Harrison TR, eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 17th ed. New York, NY: McGraw Hill; 2008:chap 264. Jacob L. Heller, MD, MHA, Emergency Medicine, Virginia Mason Medical Center, Seattle, Washington. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc.

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Grid Tie Solar Systems Solar energy power is a great way to get free energy. Not only will it help preserve the environment but it will help you save on your electric and utility bill. We are constantly hearing about the energy crisis and how renewable energy can help us to replenish the many resources that have been used up in recent years like coal or gasoline. Renewable energy like sun and wind is always there so we’ll never worry about running out of these energy sources. There are many benefits to using renewable energy and it’s actually cheaper than one might think to install solar systems. While the initial cost may be high, depending on whether you purchase solar panels or make your own, it’s almost maintenance free and will last many years. Grid tie solar systems will help generate energy and send it back to the power grid of your local utility company. Depending on the amount of sun and wind you get by your home, you may have a small amount of solar energy or you may have a surplus. When you have a surplus, you can send it to your electric company and they’ll pay you for the energy. Imagine having your utility company paying you for producing energy for them instead of the other way around or watching your utility meter run in the negative! Check out this Grid Tie Solar Systems Video: Grid tie solar systems consist of the following components: - Solar panels- These are the main part of the system are needed to store the solar energy and convert it to DC power. Your geographic location and the type and number of solar panels you have will determine your production of energy. - Combiner box- This is where all the solar panel connections are stored. - DC Breaker box- This is what provides you with a way to shut the system down for inspections and safe repair or maintenance. - Inverter- This is what grabs the DC (Direct Current) power and converts it to AC power for your home. - Grid Disconnect- This lets you stop the flow of electricity between your electrical system and your solar power system as well as providing safety measures for maintaining the systems. The increasing cost of energy is probably the largest reason why more and more people are turning to solar power and grid tie solar systems for their homes and businesses. These systems will provide make it easy to receive all the power supplement you need from the sun. Many homeowners state that their energy bills have decreased 50% just by using the solar systems as a supplement to their energy consumption. Another advantage to using grid tie solar systems is that you’ll never have to worry about being without power in the case of an outage. While all the homes around your neighborhood are black, you can continue with your daily routine from the solar energy that you’ve already produced. Whether you want to use solar energy as a supplement or your main energy source, you’ll be amazed at the money you’ll save in a year as well as the help you’ll be providing to your environment. With the right system set up for your home and the right weather conditions ( lots of sun and adequate wind speeds), you can produce a steady supply of energy sources with your grid tie solar systems and have the excess routed directly back to your utility company.

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|American Civil War||Spanish Civil War||the Vietnam War| Mary Ann Ball was born in Know County, Ohio, on 19th July, 1817. A farmers daughter, she married Robert Bickerdyke in 1847. Bickerdyke had three children before her husband died in 1859. On the outbreak of the American Civil War Bickerdyke joined a field hospital at Fort Donelson and worked on the first hospital boat that collected wounded soldiers from Cairo, St. Louis and Louisville. Bickerdyke later became chief of nursing under the command of General Ulysses S. Grant. Bickerdyke served at Vicksburg and at the request of General William T. Sherman, accompanied the Union Army throughout the Atlanta Campaign. After the war Bickerdyke worked with the Salvation Army in San Francisco in a project to help civil war veterans. Mary Ann Bickerdyke, who received a special pension from Congress in 1886, retired to Bunker Hill, Kansas, where she died on 8th November, 1901. (1) In her book, My Story of the War, Mary Livermore described the work of Mary Ann Bickerdyke on the hospital boat After the battle of Donelson, Mother Bickerdyke went from Cairo in the first hospital boat, and assisted in the removal of the wounded to Cairo, St. Louis and Louisville, and in nursing those too badly wounded to be moved. On the way to the battlefield, she systematized matters perfectly. The beds were ready for the occupants, tea, coffee, soup and gruel, milk punch, and ice water were prepared in large quantities, under her supervision, and sometimes her own hand. When the wounded were brought on board, mangled almost out of human shape; the frozen ground from which they had been cut adhering to them; chilled with the intense cold in which some had lain for twenty-four hours; faint with loss of blood, physical agony, and lack of nourishment; racked with a terrible five-mile ride over frozen roads, in ambulances, in common Tennessee farm wagons, without springs; burning with fever; raving in delirium, or in the faintness of death, Mother Bickerdyke's boat was in readiness for them. (2) After the war a surgeon working with Mary Ann Bickerdyke wrote about her achievements working on the Union Army hospital ship. I never saw anybody like her. There was really nothing for us surgeons to do but dress wounds and administer medicines. She drew out clean shirts or drawers from some corner, whenever they were needed. Nourishment was ready for every man as soon as he was brought on board. Everyone was sponged from blood and frozen mire of the battlefield, as far as his condition allowed. His blood-stiffened, and sometimes horribly filthy uniform, was exchanged for soft and clean hospital garments. Incessant cries of "Mother! Mother! Mother!" rang through the boat, in every note of beseeching and anguish. And to every man she turned with a heavenly tenderness, as if he were indeed her son. (3) Mary Livermore, My Story of the War (1887) At last it was believed that all the wounded had been removed from the field, and the relief parties discontinued their work. Looking from his tent at midnight, "Blind Jack" Logan, then a colonel, observed a faint light flitting hither and thither on the abandoned battlefield, and, and after puzzling over it for some time, decided it was someone robbing the dead. He sent his orderly to bring the rascal in. It was Mother Bickerdyke, with a lantern, groping among the dead. Stopping down, and turning their cold faces toward her, she scrutinized them searchingly, uneasy lest some might be left to die uncared for. She couldn't rest while she thought any were overlooked who were yet living.

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Source: The Pennsylvania Center for the Book Date: Summer 2010 Byline: Jim Byrne The Philadelphia Lazaretto: A Most Unloved Institution In mid-July 1800, the U.S.S. Ganges, on the U.S. Navy’s earliest warships, encountered two American schooners, the Phebe and the Prudent, while navigating the Straits of Florida. These schooners held neither sugar cane nor corn but rather human cargo, 134 chained captives from West Africa to be exact, doomed for delivery to a notorious slave trader in Havana, Cuba. Commissioned with enforcing the newly-passed Federal Slave Trade Act that prohibited the transport of slaves by U.S. ships, Ganges Captain John Mullowny seized the Phebe and the Prudent, assigned prize crews to man both ships, and commanded them to sail north for Philadelphia. After a 1,500 mile, month long trip up the eastern coast of the United States, the crews arrived at the confluence of the Schuylkill and Delaware rivers with their recently confiscated cargo. Emaciated, exposed, and, surely disoriented, the scores of African survivors disembarked on Province Island, home to the Marine Hospital, a.k.a. the Philadelphia Lazaretto. “The Ganges Africans” — the name bestowed upon them after many were given the surname Ganges — were part of one of the first slave trade violation cases confronted by the newly-established Federal judicial system. Their story exemplifies the ideological clashes that were occurring in the young nation and that would eventually boil over into the Civil War. Interestingly enough, at least two of the Ganges Africans would have extended stays in the Philadelphia area. One of them would become an indentured servant to Thomas Egger, the last quarantine master of the “old” Lazaretto on Province Island and the first one of the “new” Lazaretto in Tinicum Township, Delaware County. A second of the slaves was indentured to farmer Thomas Smith who had sold the property for the new facility to the Philadelphia Board of Health. Moreover, their story reflects in miniature the history of the Philadelphia Lazaretto itself: integral to our nation’s demographic and political landscape and yet often overlooked. Stories like those of the Ganges Africans and the thousands of others who remain little-known or whose tales are untold are the reasons University of Pennsylvania historian David Barnes calls the Philadelphia Lazaretto a place “even rarer and more precious than New York’s [Ellis Island].” Lazaretto seems an unusual name for a hospital in the American colonies. As it turns out, however, the word would become a common English term for isolation facilities and quarantine hospitals, ceasing to be a proper noun at all. As one might think, the term derives from the Italian, but its exact provenance is not completely clear. One theory holds that in 16th century Venice, the name of a local hospital, the Nazaretto, was combined with the name of Lazarus the Beggar from the New Testament. Professor Barnes notes that this theory is less plausible than the simpler, and generally accepted, thought isolation wards and quarantines came to be named for Lazarus the Beggar, patron saint of lepers. Regardless of its origin, it started to be applied to the “old” facility on Province Island built in 1743, though it was still referred to the Marine Hospital. The “new” Lazaretto, however, would never be called anything else. At the end of the 18th century, politicians and doctors throughout the United States were passionately debating public health and quarantine issues, much as members of those same two professions debate health care policy today. Thousands were falling victim to the effects of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and yellow fever. The issue came to a head in 1793 after futile attempts to quarantine all ships arriving at the port of Philadelphia failed. A yellow fever epidemic of calamitous proportions broke out throughout the city. Within two months, the nation’s largest city and political and economic capital, lost more than a quarter of its population. Approximately 10% perished from yellow fever and another 17% fled the city. After the 1793 epidemic, the city created a Board of Health to oversee conditions in the city. It found, among other things, that the old quarantine facility had failed terribly in preventing the propagation of yellow fever and other infectious diseases. Many authorities blamed this failure on its location only a few miles from the most densely populated parts of the city and thu, facilitating the interaction between infected patients and residents. Determined to prevent another calamity, The Board of Health constructed a new lazaretto ten miles south of Philadelphia in the isolated, uninhabited marshlands of Tinicum Township, Delaware County. Construction of the Philadelphia Lazaretto finished in 1801, almost a century before the building of New York’s Ellis Island and San Francisco’s Angel Island. Upon completion, the Lazaretto was the first of its kind. It was a complex — both stately and state of the art — that, as The Philadelphia Public Ledger said in 1879, “might be mistaken for [the grounds of a] wealthy country gentleman....were it not for the yellow Quarantine flag.” The central figure of the ten acre campus was the main hospital, an august Georgian, double-brick building that could house upwards of 200 patients at a given time. The campus also included the following: the Dutch hospital which was added in 1805 and was primarily used to house German immigrants afflicted with smallpox; the dead-house which was used for incinerating infected patients’ belongings; the barge houses which served as the waiting and sleeping quarters of the bargemen on duty during quarantine season; the residences of the chief physician and the quarantine master; and the government warehouse which stored the goods and merchandise of the quarantined vessels. These facilities and the sheer size of the campus made the Philadelphia Lazaretto a state-of-the-art hospital in comparison to its contemporaries. Remarkably, more than two centuries after their construction, the main hospital building and several other buildings remain intact and are rather well preserved. During its years of operation from 1801 to 1893, the Philadelphia Lazaretto was certainly neither revered nor loved. As a matter of fact, sailors, merchants, and newly arriving immigrants dreaded and abhorred the sight of its flag — a yellow banner. It was, as University of Pennsylvania professor and the Philadelphia Lazaretto’s de facto historian David Barnes calls it, a most unloved institution. During the hospital’s near century of operation, the Philadelphia Lazaretto’s staff inspected and quarantined hundreds of thousands of merchant ships, much to the chagrin of businessmen and sailors. The hours, days, or even months at the Lazaretto meant the spoiling or confiscation of cargo and, in turn, the loss of significant capital. In addition to the loss of the merchants’ cargo, the Philadelphia Lazaretto was also the site at which sailors and immigrants perished. Many immigrants, much like the “Ganges Africans,” took their first steps on American soil. According to various estimates, a thirst of all Americans have an ancestor whose first contact with the New World was at the Lazaretto. After closing its doors as a quarantine station in 1893, the site and the buildings went through several transformations. The Philadelphia Athletic Club purchased the site and renamed it the Orchard Club. The Orchard Club was a summer get-away for wealthy Philadelphians who used its prime waterfront location for leisure and recreation. There were several athletic clubs whos sponsored baseball teams during this era, and some even played their games on the grounds of the Lazaretto. These were not, however, the forerunners of the American League’s Philadelphia Athletics. After the closing of the Orchard Club, Colonel Robert Edward Glendinning — a substantial contributor to wartime aviation in the First World War — and George C. Thomas opened the Essington School of Flying in 1913. It was the state’s first water flying school and one of the first in the world. Sadly, today the Philadelphia Lazaretto lies, mostly forgotten, in the same marshlands of Tinicum Township, Delaware County. Were it not for the tireless lobbying of a group of hard-working activists, the site may well have been destroyed. Though a township firestation was recently build on the northern half of the Lazaretto site, there is still much worthy of preservation. Similar projects, like New York’s restored Ellis Island and San Francisco’s Angel Island (in process), have given voice to the thousands and hundreds of thousands who came to these shores. The Friends of the Lazaretto and others are working hard to ensure that the rest of the site will stand as testament to the immigrants who landed in Philadelphia.

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Stopping Cancer in its Tracks Cancer researcher Kevin Dalby says he thinks scientists are on track to find a cure for cancer one day. Make that cures for cancers. There are so many ways for cells to go bad and become cancerous that anti-cancer therapies will need to include customized agents to modify various cancer-causing targets. Dalby, a professor in the College of Pharmacy at The University of Texas at Austin, and his laboratory are working to identify and create some of these agents. Specifically, they are working toward creating inhibitors of pathways that go awry in cancer cells. Dalby’s research is in the field of protein kinases, which modify other proteins and regulate communication pathways in cells. When cell signals go where they’re supposed to, the cell functions properly. When the signals go off track, changes multiply down the line and cause disease. “In cancer, many protein kinases have been found to be disregulated through mutations in the genome of a cancer cell,” he says. “So, their activity is not regulated in the way they would be in a normal, healthy cell.” Dalby is researching how these proteins work in normal cells and how they don’t work properly in diseased cells. He hopes that “by working with the proteins we can establish routes to identify inhibitors of their abnormal activity.” Down the road, specific genes involved with each individual’s cancer could be identified through genetic testing, Dalby says. He hopes that these advances in diagnoses will couple with the advances in therapeutics to allow a more tailored approach to cancer care. “We’d say we need to inhibit the product of this gene, this gene and this gene,” he says. “And we would take inhibitors off the shelf that correspond to those targets. This is what you’ve heard called personalized medicine.” M. Lynn Crismon, dean of the College of Pharmacy, said Dalby’s research is in a critical area. “Dr. Dalby’s research exploring these mechanisms as well as developing inhibitors of protein kinases not only provides us with greater understanding regarding the mechanisms involved in the proliferation of cancer cells, it will hopefully produce new more effective medications for the treatment of cancer,” he says. Dalby says he has been interested in the “why” of chemical reactions since he was a university student in his native England. As a chemistry student, he struggled with lectures in which chemical reactions were thrown up on the blackboard without explanations as to why they happened. ”They taught us things without really making us understand,” he says. “So I got interested in understanding why things went the way they did – understanding mechanisms.” This curiosity led Dalby to wonder about the complex processes of cell signaling and ultimately to cancer research. “My training brought me to a place where I could unite together the things I had learned in a number of disciplines and apply them at a practical level in a way that I hadn’t anticipated possible before,” he says. In the Dalby laboratory, work in basic chemistry, biochemistry and cell biology are incorporated with a healthy appreciation for the opportunities being opened up by advances in technology. “In the last 15 years technology has changed,” he says. “Enabling the development of practical applications in drug discovery is going to be a very obtainable endeavor. He collaborates with researchers at the university as well as those at medical institutions, such as the University of Texas’ MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston, and in the past two years has received nearly $5 million in research grants from the Cancer Prevention and Research Institute of Texas (CPRIT) and the National Institutes of Health. He is the principal investigator on a $2.3 million CPRIT grant for a program that gives scientists in Texas access to resources for drug discovery research. Using large collections of molecules that are usually available only to researchers in large pharmaceutical companies, academic scientists can now screen for potential drug therapies and test the efficacy of candidates. A library of these molecules is housed at the university’s Texas Institute for Drug and Diagnostic Development (TI3D). With the CPRIT grant, Dalby says, researchers can efficiently study these molecules as potential drug therapies against almost any specific cellular target. The project is part of a CPRIT-sponsored $12.6 million Throughput Screening Program. “Such an unprecedented level of research coordination across the state of Texas is an innovation in itself, one that will lead to a very fertile foundation for many breakthroughs in our fight against cancer,” says Brent Iverson, chairman of the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and director of TI3D. Advances in technology have enabled researchers to do more, do it faster and do it less expensively than they could before. “We can measure the activity of a target, such as a kinase in the laboratory, and we can add a small molecule to the assay to see whether it influences the potential target,” he says. “That gives us an idea of where to go next.” Of course, there’s still a long way to go until cancer is controlled. Dalby is quietly confident that day is coming, though. “Before, cancer was trapped in a black box,” he says. “Now one gets the sense that we’re lifting the lid and letting some light through. We do see successes.” By Tim Green Office of the Vice President for Research Published: Oct. 4

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Mount Desert Rock About 20 miles southeast of Mount Desert Island, this is one of the most remote and lonely lights. Even mild storms scour the island, denuding it of anything not firmly secured, and frequently submerge it entirely. Yet each spring keepers transported soil from the mainland, tucking it into crevices on this otherwise barren rock in hopes of cultivating flowers and vegetables. For a few months in summer and early fall, the rock became a colorful garden in the middle of the sea. But late fall and winter storms always washed it all away. It's a challenge to see this lighthouse, even from a boat, but whale-watching cruises from Bar Harbor sometimes pass by. Mount Desert Rock Lighthouse was built in 1830.

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The water cycle Click on image for full size Copyright University Corporation for Atmospheric Research Earth's Water Cycle Water is always on the move. Rain falling where you live may have been water in the ocean just days before. And the water you see in a river or stream may have been snow on a high mountaintop. Water can be in the atmosphere, on the land, in the ocean, and even underground. It is recycled over and over through the water cycle. In the cycle, water changes state between liquid, solid (ice), and gas (water vapor). Most water vapor gets into the atmosphere by a process called evaporation. This process turns the water that is at the top of the ocean, rivers, and lakes into water vapor in the atmosphere using energy from the Sun. Water vapor can also form from snow and ice through the process of sublimation and can evaporate from plants by a process called transpiration. The water vapor rises in the atmosphere and cools, forming tiny water droplets by a process called condensation. Those water droplets make up clouds. If those tiny water droplets combine with each other they grow larger and eventually become too heavy to stay in the air. Then they fall to the ground as rain, snow, and other types of precipitation. Most of the precipitation that falls becomes a part of the ocean or part of rivers, lakes, and streams that eventually lead to the ocean. Some of the snow and ice that falls as precipitation stays at the Earth surface in glaciers and other types of ice. Some of the precipitation seeps into the ground and becomes a part of the groundwater. Water stays in certain places longer than others. A drop of water may spend over 3,000 years in the ocean before moving on to another part of the water cycle while a drop of water spends an average of just eight days in the atmosphere before falling back to Earth. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store! We have beautiful specimens of banded iron formation in our online store from Nature's Own, along with many other mineral You might also be interested in: Rain is precipitation that falls to the Earth in drops of 5mm or more in diameter according to the US National Weather Service. Virga is rain that evaporates before reaching the ground. Raindrops form...more A snowman, glass of water and steam might look very different but they are made of the same stuff! Just like any substance, water can exist in three different forms, called states: solid, liquid and gas....more One process which transfers water from the ground back to the atmosphere is evaporation. Evaporation is when water passes from a liquid phase to a gas phase. Rates of evaporation of water depend on things...more Condensation is the process by which water changes its state from a vapor or gas to a liquid. Condensation is responsible for the formation of clouds. Common examples of condensation are: dew forming on...more Rivers are very important to Earth because they are major forces that shape the landscape. Also, they provide transportation and water for drinking, washing and farming. Rivers can flow on land or underground...more Frozen water is found in many different places on Earth. Snow blankets the ground at mid and high latitudes during winter. Sea ice and icebergs float in the chilly waters of polar oceans. Ice shelves fringe...more For a glacier to develop, the amount of snow that falls must be more than the amount of snow that melts each year. This means that glaciers are only found in places where a large amount of snow falls each...more

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The Case of the Separated Date – Part 2 About a month ago (on August 3, 2007 to be exact), we discussed a way to prevent a string of words from being separated onto different lines by MS Word when it wraps text. At that time, the suggestion of Shift + Enter was offered. It’s a solution that works and if you’re not going to need to edit the file much, you’d probably never notice any hiccups with it. But, on the other hand, if you’re using it in a file that will undergo a lot of editing, you may find some limitations with this method. You may find that editing could cause some very short lines in the middle of a paragraph if you don’t go in and delete the Shift + Enter. So, if that wasn’t a solution that worked well for you, you’re probably wondering about other options. At the time, I just couldn’t come up with another choice, but fortunately, a reader wrote in and added a very helpful trick to our ever growing list of ways to make Word behave. Now, I know you’re interested in the extra information too, so let’s get to work! In order to invisibly connect two words, all you need to know is Ctrl + Shift + Space. Yep, it’s that easy! Instead of placing a regular space between two words, use Ctrl + Shift + Space and the program will not separate the words onto two separate lines. The good part about this method is that when editing, you’ll find that Word only makes unusual adjustments to spacing when it is required to keep the words together. With the other method, the new line created by the Shift + Enter stays as a new line no matter how short the line above it is. Thank you, Sue for sending in your solution for all of us to enjoy!

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CNY - 中國元，人民幣 最常用 CNY 交叉匯率 為什麼您對 CNY 感興趣？ Early Currency in China With a history of over 3000 years, Chinese currency existed in both Ancient and Imperial China. In 1914, the Silver Dollar was established as the official currency of the Republic of China, with copper, fen, and nickel coins being added in the 1930s. During this time silver appreciated in value, and China could no longer retain the silver standard. In 1935, a new currency known as Fǎbì, was issued. Introduction of the Gold Yuan and Chinese Yuan Renminbi The Gold Yuan replaced the Fǎbì in 1948 at a rate of 1 Gold Yuan to 3 million Yuan Fǎbì. That same year, the Yuan Renminbi (often called RMB) was introduced as a way to help stabilize the Communist held areas of mainland China. In 1955, a re-evaluation took place and a new Yuan Renminbi was introduced at a rate of 1 new Yuan to 10,000 old Yuan. The Renminbi in Foreign Exchange During the command economy, the Chinese Yuan Renminbi was set to unrealistic exchange values and as a result, severe currency guidelines were put in place. When China's economy opened in 1978, the Yuan Renminbi was only used domestically and foreigners used exchange certificates; this led to a powerful black market. From 1997 to 2005, the Chinese government pegged the Chinese Yuan Renminbi to the US Dollar at approximately 8.3 CNY to 1 USD. In 2005, a flexible mechanism of exchange rates was phased in, with the RMB being re-evaluated to 8.1 Renminbi per US dollar. The Chinese government launched a pilot program in 2009, allowing some businesses in Guangdong and Shanghai to execute business and trade transactions with counterparties in Hong Kong, Macau, and select nations. The program has since expanded to all areas of China and all international counterparties. China has also made agreements with Australia, Japan, Thailand, Russia, and Vietnam to allow for direct currency trade, instead of converting to the US Dollar. As a managed float, the Renminbi's value is determined by a basket of foreign currencies. - AP chief says phone probe makes news sources reluctant to talk - UPDATE 2-UAE economy grows at fastest rate since 2006 - UK lawmakers consider probe into transparency of mining firms - Corporate debt abuse claims prompt Israeli review - Glance-REFILE-PRESS DIGEST - Sunday British business - May 19 - German minister calls EU move on China solar 'grave mistake'

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There is unrest in the forest, There is trouble with the trees, For the maples want more sunlight And the oaks ignore their pleas. The trouble with the maples, (And they're quite convinced they're right) They say the oaks are just too lofty And they grab up all the light. But the oaks can't help their feelings If they like the way they're made. And they wonder why the maples Can't be happy in their shade. There is trouble in the forest, And the creatures all have fled, As the maples scream "Oppression!" And the oaks just shake their heads So the maples formed a union And demanded equal rights. "The oaks are just too greedy; We will make them give us light." Now there's no more oak oppression, For they passed a noble law, And the trees are all kept equal By hatchet, axe, and saw.

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Protractors - Innovation While only one patent model for a protractor survives in the Smithsonian collections—from an inventor with a colorful personal history—several of the other objects also provide examples of technical innovation. For instance, some are manufactured versions of patented inventions. Others were named for the person with whom they were associated, even if that engineer or craftsman laid no claim to designing that protractor. "Protractors - Innovation" showing 1 items. - This brass semicircular protractor is divided by single degrees and marked by tens from 10° to 90° to 10°. It is attached with metal screws to a set of brass parallel rules. Brass S-shaped hinges connect the rules to each other. The bottom left screw on the parallel rules does not attach to the bottom piece. A rectangular brass arm is screwed to the center of the protractor. A thin brass piece screwed to the arm is marked with a small arrow for pointing to the angle markings. The protractor is stored in a wooden case, which also contains a pair of metal dividers (5-1/4" long). - The base of the protractor is signed: L. Dod, Newark. Lebbeus Dod (1739–1816) manufactured mathematical instruments in New Jersey and is credited with inventing the "parallel rule protractor." He served as a captain of artillery during the Revolutionary War, mainly by making muskets. His three sons, Stephen (1770–1855), Abner (1772–1847), and Daniel (1778–1823), were also noted instrument and clock makers. The family was most associated with Mendham, N.J. (where a historic marker on N.J. Route 24 indicates Dod's house), but Dod is known to have also lived at various times in Newark. - ID number MA*310890 is a similar protractor and parallel rule. - References: Bethuel Lewis Dodd and John Robertson Burnet, "Biographical Sketch of Lebbeus Dod," in Genealogies of the Male Descendants of Daniel Dod . . . 1646–1863 (Newark, N.J., 1864), 144–147; Alexander Farnham, "More Information About New Jersey Toolmakers," The Tool Shed, no. 120 (February 2002), http://www.craftsofnj.org/Newjerseytools/Alex%20Farnham%20more%20Jeraey%20Tools/Alex%20Farnham.htm; Deborah J. Warner, “Surveyor's Compass,” National Museum of American History Physical Sciences Collection: Surveying and Geodesy, http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/surveying/object.cfm?recordnumber=747113; Peggy A. Kidwell, "American Parallel Rules: Invention on the Fringes of Industry," Rittenhouse 10, no. 39 (1996): 90–96. - date made - late 1700s - Dod, Lebbeus - ID Number - accession number - catalog number - Data Source - National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

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Philippa Ryan, Scientist, British Museum Archaeobotany is the study of ancient plant remains, and I joined the field team at Amara West in Sudan earlier this year to collect samples for archaeobotanical analysis. Charred plant materials were retrieved on-site from sediments through dry-sieving and flotation. These samples were subsequently brought back to the British Museum for further sorting and identification. At the moment I am analysing the charred seeds and fruits with Caroline Cartwright, who is also analysing the wood charcoal. The macroscopic plant remains are analysed using both a stereo microscope and a SEM (scanning electron microscope). Charred remains found so far include cereal grains (wheat and barley) and crop-processing waste, fruits such as figs and a wide range of wild plants. I am also processing sediment samples to extract phytoliths (microscopic plant remains), which are formed when soluble silica taken up in groundwater by plants is deposited within and between certain plant cells. These silicified cells are found within many different plant families such as grasses (which include cereals), sedges and palms. Phytoliths are difficult to identify, but have the advantage of surviving in both charred and non-charred contexts, so we can learn about the presence and use of plants in areas where seeds and grains don’t survive. At the moment, I am processing sediments to extract phytoliths, which includes the removal of carbonates, clays, organics, other remaining non-siliceous material through heavy liquid flotation, and finally mounting dried phytoliths onto slides. Phytoliths are then identified and counted using an optical (light) microscope. Analysis of these different types of plant remains helps us learn about the past uses of plants at Amara West in day-to-day life, such as for food, fuel and animal fodder. I am also looking at the distributions of seeds and phytoliths across the site to examine locations of plant based activities such as food processing, as well as whether there are any differences in diet between poorer and richer households, or across the history of the site. Plant remains can also help to provide information about the nearby vegetation, for instance the types of grasses, wetland plants and trees that grew near the ancient town.

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This month’s picturing science image, from University Research Fellow Dr Hugh Tuffen, is just four millimeters across. It shows the remarkable microscopic textures within obsidian, or volcanic glass, formed in an Icelandic eruption twenty-five thousand years ago. Obsidian forms from cooling of magma with a high silica content, which makes it very viscous. This high viscosity also means that crystal growth is sluggish and the few crystals that do form include rounded masses called spherulites that are rich in the mineral cristobalite, a mineral hazardous to human health. Some of these enigmatic crystals are captured in the image, along with dark bands picked out by micron-scale crystals. These bands record how the magma flowed and folded around a perfectly circular bubble of trapped gas. Dr Tuffen is a volcanologist who investigates the processes that control hazardous eruptions. He is currently using a combination of field studies on active volcanoes and experimental approaches in the lab to address how gases escape from magma and how crystals such as spherulites grow. He was one of the lucky few to witness an obsidian lava flow when he visited Puyehue-Cordon Caulle volcano in Chile and the second image here shows the setting sun lighting up the plume as Puyehue-Cordon Caulle erupts. During his 10 day trip in January 2012 he collected samples, videos and images, providing a rich resource for future research. If being there to witness the eruption wasn’t exciting enough, he also shot a film of the expedition that was featured in the BBC Volcano Live series. The clip can be found here and is definitely worth a watch.

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Salmon, King – BC (Sake, Ikura) Chinook Salmon, also known as King Salmon, are the largest of the Pacific Salmon species, reaching weights of approximately 132 pounds and becoming sexually mature around four years of age. Found throughout the North Pacific, Chinook Salmon complete large migrations of up to 1000 miles to return to their birth river, where they spawn and subsequently die. In British Columbia, Chinook Salmon have a low abundance overall but managers have a strong framework in place that allows them to monitor abundances both during and after the fishing season. Chinook Salmon are caught by trolls, purse seines and gillnets, fishing methods which cause little or no damage to the seafloor but seabirds and porpoises can be high in gillnets as bycatch.

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A restored connection to the environment is child’s playFACILITIES, Operations Tuesday, April 1st, 2008 Become a better steward by incorporating playgrounds into the natural world. By Rachel Beach Many of us first began to grasp the idea of a world much larger than ourselves as youngsters. We wandered in the woods, stuck our noses into rose blossoms, and gazed at the stars in wonderment. Hundreds of studies have shown that discovering the beauty of nature is necessary for a child’s healthy development. Spending time outdoors often means taking risks such as climbing trees or walking near a cliff, and in turn encourages children to practice good judgment and be alert to their surroundings. According to the Consumer Product Safety Commission guidelines for playground safety, “A risk is a challenge we are willing to do.” Unstructured play helps develop a child’s cognitive thinking skills, the ability to learn, and stimulate one’s imagination. Unfortunately, statistics show that outdoor play has decreased by 75 percent since 1900. But now, some childcare specialists have called upon churches and faith-based organizations to “reclaim nature as a part of the spiritual development of children.” Reconnecting children with the outdoors leads to them becoming good stewards of the environment. A parable example Consider the parable of the talents. We have a responsibility to improve the world that was given to us and to pass it on in better condition to our children, who will grow up to be the next generation of stewards. Some responsibility lies on the church’s shoulders to communicate appreciation for and protection of the beautiful world God has given us. As an engaged part of any community, churches can find ways to restore the connection between today’s children and nature — for their benefit, their communities and the creation they live in. First, a church can start by creating outdoor play environments on church grounds for Sunday school classes as well as surrounding neighborhoods to use. Second, they could consider creating or restoring green play spaces within the community as part of its ministries. Children spend a majority of their structured time in the classroom and their free time in front of a computer or a television. More children today lack daily contact with natural environments than ever before. In light of this, churches have a great opportunity to give children a safe place and time to play outside while the family attends services. Churches could create play environments incorporating trees, sandboxes and playgrounds. Churches can also include birdhouses to observe wildlife, or perhaps paths and bridges to explore a nearby creek. It’s important for children to receive adult encouragement to explore the outdoors without structured programs. Many adults who have an appreciation for the outdoors or have chosen environmental careers developed their attachment at an early age, usually accompanied and influenced by adults with an infectious love for the outdoors. Moving beyond the church population, creating green spaces and playgrounds in local neighborhoods or city lots can be a great way for churches to engage the community and practice their commitment to the well-being of its individuals. The Boston Project is a faith-based ministry that works with Trust for Public Land to renovate vacant lots, turning them into safe play areas in urban neighborhoods. They plant trees, design and install (traditional and non-traditional) playground equipment and recruit volunteers to cut the grass or pick up trash. Urban blights such as crime and depression are linked closely with inaccessibility of parks and green spaces. “In some American cities, only one-third of all children live within walking distance of a public park or other open spaces,” says Will Rogers, president of the Trust for Public Land. Dave Queeley, with Parks for People New England, says he “envisions churches being partners in neighborhoods advocating for public land allocation, programming at the playgrounds, or energizing young people to get involved in the planning process.” This would involve churches recruiting youth from their church body or neighborhoods adjacent to the play areas. Children could help protect and create their own outdoor green spaces: designing playground areas, planting trees and keeping play areas clean. This would give children and teenagers a sense of pride and ownership in their neighborhoods, and a safe place to play and socialize. By incorporating natural elements into play spaces — grassy areas or landscaping with trees and flowers — nature becomes an everyday part of a child’s life. “Any outdoor area where children play needs shade, so why not use natural elements such as trees instead of an artificial shade shelter?,” suggests Vicki Stoecklin, of White Hutchinson Leisure & Learning Group. Areas with more trees provide a greater sense of security, more creative play, engaged adult supervision and higher levels of social interaction among community members. There are many ways a church can begin creating outdoor play areas: organizing a church clean-up day for a trash-littered vacant lot, a full-scale collaboration of parks departments, businesses, neighborhood families and churches collaborating to develop community play spaces. Examine your own church body. You probably will discover gardeners who would love to share plants and suggestions. You might find willing landscape architects, day-care providers, teachers and many other individuals who will act as resources and volunteers. Next, look outside the church walls for assistance. Often park departments are willing to provide maintenance of donated green spaces or playground areas. Garden clubs are usually eager to offer time and expertise on landscaping. Organizations such as the Trust for Public Land continually collaborate with other private organizations to fund acquisition of public-access green spaces in urban and suburban neighborhoods and communities around the United States. Research and plan Find out what play components are available from the start. “Sales representatives from playground manufacturers, if involved in the process early on, can give planners a good idea of what play items are available so they can be incorporated into designs and budgets,” says Rebecca Beach, CFO of Play Mart. Often a planning team will spend months gathering ideas, and then go to a playground manufacturer with a highly customized design and realize they cannot find the items they dreamed up. Sometimes it means starting over or expecting a manufacturer to completely customize systems when there are numerous play components on the market that would function just as well or better. They key is to find organic, stimulating environments for children to explore. “Create environments that blend the manufactured equipment and the natural world such as bush mazes, boulders, or logs for building,” says Stoeklin. “The church paradigm has been to buy a steel playground and plop it in the ground. But they forget the importance of incorporating nature. Only in the last three years have I begun to see a shift in that paradigm — churches realizing the religious value of incorporating the natural world into children’s play.” Consider creating green outdoor play environments a priority for your church. In the process you will be building healthier, well-balanced kids by giving them a chance to discover the wonders of nature. You will also be leading your members towards practicing stewardship of God’s creation and engaging the community in a meaningful way. Rachel Beach is sustainability specialist for Play Mart Inc., Somerset, KY [playmart.com]

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|This article does not cite any references or sources. (December 2009)| Social Patriotism is an openly patriotic standpoint which combines patriotism with socialism. It was first identified at the outset of the First World War when a majority of Social Democrats opted to support the war efforts of their respective governments and abandoned socialist internationalism and worker solidarity. At the International Socialist Conference at Zimmerwald the social patriots were identified as "the openly patriotic majority of the formerly Social-Democratic leaders" in Germany, as well as the group around Kautsky. In France and Austria the majority belonged, while in Britain and Russia a some, such as (Henry Hyndman, the Fabians, the Trade-Unionists, Georgi Plekhanov, Ilia Rubanovich and the Nasha Zarya group belonged. See also |This political science article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.|

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Whether it's the study of coral growth, research on loggerhead sea turtles or the long term monitoring of fish populations, science conducted in Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary is intended to help make informed management decisions to ensure adequate protection of sanctuary resources. The science staff of Gray's Reef actively encourages scientists and students to engage in research and monitoring efforts to aid in our understanding of this unique marine ecosystem. Work here can be challenging due to sea conditions and visibility, however the rewards are worth the time spent interacting with this incredibly diverse environment. Budget constraints, rarely allow Gray's Reef to directly fund research efforts but we do offer facilitated research opportunities which often includes diving and boat support. Much of the science conducted in the sanctuary will require a permit and consultation with the Science Coordinator. If you are interested in science conducted in Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary, you are encouraged to learn more about the researchers who have worked here and the publications that have been produced. Because of the volume of work resulting from science conducted in and around the sanctuary, Gray's Reef has been dubbed the "most intensively studied patch of "live-bottom" reef anywhere in the South Atlantic Bight" (the area between Cape Lookout, NC and Cape Canaveral, FL) yet many mysteries remain. Since the flora and fauna of this area were first described in the early 1960's by the sanctuary's namesake, Milton "Sam" Gray, researchers have been attracted to this unique and diverse environment. The reefs of the sanctuary are located at a crossroads of convergent currents which, depending on the season, bathe the area with a varying supply of marine larvae. Gulf Stream filaments bring sub-tropical species to our waters from farther south and some species find their way via the colder Western Boundary Undercurrent from farther north. The larvae which ultimately settle onto the carbonate-cemented sandstone reefs and sand expanses will endure challenging environmental conditions throughout their lifetimes; survival of the organisms is largely dependent on their physical tolerance of ocean temperatures which range from 55-86 degrees Fahrenheit and violent undersea "sandstorms" associated with high wind and seas which scour the ledges every winter. These constantly changing conditions contribute to an incredible diversity of marine life which can be found nowhere else than the reefs of the South Atlantic Bight .

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Thursday, March 22, 2012 1940 Census is Coming! Learn More April 7 On April 2, the National Archives and Records Administration releases the long awaited 1940 census. Due to the personal information on the census schedules, federal law requires that they be locked from public view for 72 years. The census is a key resource for family historians and often provides clues to other records. The 1940 census marks the first time census records will be offered free online. In addition to information about all members of the household including age, sex, ethnicity, citizenship status and occupation, the 1940 census provides important information not offered on previous census schedules: •Persons absent from household •Person providing information •More detailed employment data, including income and public relief •Residence in 1935 The 1940 census comes with a giant caveat. Initially, it will not contain a surname index. All searches will require a geographic approach by street address or enumeration district. The Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton County, one of the few libraries in the nation that owns copies of all available U.S. census records dating back to 1790 and a nationally ranked genealogy department, is ready to assist. The Genealogy and Local History Department has acquired 1940 directories for over 3,000 U.S. cities, large and small, to assist with the search for street addresses. The librarians have undergone special 1940 census training and have developed tools to assist with the online search, including specialized maps and expertise with websites to identify enumeration districts. As an added bonus, the Library will place orders for 1940 census records on April 2 for 1940 Ohio census records on microfilm, courtesy of the Friends of the Public Library and the Library Foundation. These records will provide important archival backup and are easier to browse than loading individual pages on many websites. Presentation, April 7 Five days after the release on April 7, the Genealogy and Local History Department kicks off the census with a special program by Department Manager Patricia Van Skaik, 1940 Census Is Here: Techniques for Achieving Top Search Results. This program will provide strategies for accessing the wealth of new information available in the 1940 census. Cincinnatians will have the opportunity to attend this program one week in advance of its presentation in Cleveland at the Ohio Genealogical Society Conference. About the presenter: Patricia Van Skaik is an expert in census research. Out of town librarians have come to Cincinnati to consult with her on 1940 census preparedness. Ms. Van Skaik also conferred with database providers in February for information about how online access to the 1940 census would function. Ms. Van Skaik is a recipient of the RootsTech Distinguished Speaker Award and lectures widely on the intersection of history, technology and librarianship. 1940 Census Online Providers National Archives and Records Administration, http://www.archives.gov/research/census/1940/ Find My Past Volunteer to Help Create a Surname Index For more information and Countdowns Video on the 1940 census: Go to the National Archives website, http://www.archives.gov/research/census/1940/ or follow on Twitter http://www.twitter.com/archivesnews or Facebook http://www.facebook.com/usnationalarchives Watch Twitter @cincylibrary or contact the Genealogy and Local History Department at 513-369-6905 or “Ask a Librarian” through the Library’s website, www.cincinnatilibrary.org. From Press Release - submitted by Liz Stratton

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Some hold with the theory that the development of an embryo shows the stages of evolution. In other words, what first develops is fishlike, and then like a small mammal, and then like a lemur or ape, and then something we would recognize as human. Very early embryos have what look like little gill slits in the beginning of their development. At about four weeks, embryos have a little tail. At around six to twelve weeks, the white blood cells dissolve the tail, and the fetus develops into an average, tail-less baby... most of the time, at least. Every now and again, we get a little extra bit of baby, in the form of a vestigial tail. Not all things that look like tails - protrusions from the tailbone - actually are what doctors consider "true" tails. There are a number of growths or cysts that can form right on the tip of the tailbone. Some of the more unpleasant options are large tumors, elongation of the existing vertebrae, and even parasitic twin tissue. (A parasitic twin is not a fully-formed twin, but the product of another fertilized egg that somehow became fused with the embryo and never developed into a full human being.) True tails form when the white blood cells, for whatever reason, don't absorb all the tissue that formed during embryonic development. These babies carry the marks of humans earliest ancestors. Because there are only between 20 and 30 cases of "true" vestigial tails since the late 1800s, there is some controversy about what such a tail contains. Some early accounts say that there are sometimes extra vertebrae in such tails. No modern tails have been found to have any bone tissue. They're mostly skin with fat, connective tissue, nerves, and muscle tissue. They can be just a stub, but some babies can be born with tails 13 centimeters long. The tails aren't strictly useless inert structures. Because they have muscle tissue inside, they can actually be twitched back and forth, or even contracted into curves. These days babies don't have their tails long enough to gain a lot of muscle control over them. Removing them is a simple operation, usually done not long after birth. What remains are questions of why these tails grow in the first place. They're rare enough that researchers aren't left with many clues. Researchers have, for the most part, ruled out family history - which throws the science of the X-Files episode I got the top image from right out the window. The tails are associated with spina bifida, a dangerous condition in which the canals of the spinal cord don't entire close before birth, but they are often present without the disorder. And for some reason they're twice in common in males as they are in females. In the end, no one knows why some babies just develop tails. (Besides, gills are much more practical.) Image: Popular Science Monthly

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January 2, 2013 Who Owns Outer Space? Rand Simberg looks at the basic issues: Despite the progress in technology, and the appeal of valuable resources, space settlement has been hampered by the lack of a clearly defined legal regime for recognizing property rights in space under current U.S. and international law. There is in fact some slight internationally recognized legal precedent for retaining ownership of resources mined in space, as lunar samples returned to Earth on both U.S. and Soviet missions (the latter robotically) have been exchanged for other tokens of value. But actually owning the portion of the celestial body from which the resources are harvested — as in a traditional mining claim — is more problematic. Without legally recognized rights to buy, own, and sell titled property, it is difficult if not impossible to raise capital to develop land or extract the resources it holds. Property rights have long been considered one of the pillars of prosperity in the modern world, and their absence in space — due to the contingencies of the history of international law during the early space age — partly explains why we have not yet developed that final frontier. (HT: Andrew Sullivan) January 2, 2013 | Permalink TrackBack URL for this entry: Listed below are links to weblogs that reference Who Owns Outer Space?:

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The passing of intestinal gas is a normal process, but it can become unpleasant, uncomfortable, or embarrassing. Intestinal gas has two primary sources: bacteria in the intestines and air swallowed by mouth (aerophagia). Certain foods greatly increase the production of gas in the intestines by providing nutrients to gas-producing bacteria. Common gas-increasing foods include beans, beer, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, fructose, onions, prunes, red wine, and sorbitol. In general, high-fiber foods cause more gas than low-fiber ones, and, for this reason, people who switch to a whole foods diet frequently experience more gas. Certain medical conditions can also increase gas-related symptoms, including celiac sprue, colon cancer, Crohn’s disease , fat malabsorption, irritable bowel syndrome , lactose intolerance , and ulcerative colitis . Finally, some people may experience significant gas discomfort without actually producing more gas than other people. Treatment of excess gas begins with treating the underlying disease, if there is one. Beyond that, general steps include avoiding gas-producing foods and minimizing habits that cause aerophagia (such as gulping of beverages). Medications such as simethicone, metoclopramide, and antibiotics may also help, although the supporting evidence to indicate that they are effective remains incomplete. Proposed Natural Treatments There has been little meaningful scientific investigation of natural treatments to reduce gas in people who are otherwise healthy. However, some evidence supports the use of natural treatments for reducing gas production among those with irritable bowel syndrome (a cluster of nonspecific intestinal complaints) or dyspepsia (a cluster of nonspecific stomach-related complaints). It is likely, although not guaranteed, that the benefits seen in these studies would carry over to people without these conditions. Certain herbs called carminatives are traditionally believed to aid the movement of gas. These include anise, caraway , cardamom, chamomile , coriander, cumin, dill, fennel , garlic , ginger , parsley , and spearmint. In addition, numerous alternative therapies are said to help improve digestion and reduce gas, including Chinese herbal medicine , intestinal cleansing , and food allergen identification and avoidance. However, there is little supporting evidence for these approaches. - Reviewer: EBSCO CAM Review Board - Review Date: 07/2012 - - Update Date: 07/25/2012 -

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The elephants are paraded during festivals (Photo: Kiran Janayugam) The southern state of Kerala is home to the largest captive elephant population in India. But many question the way the animals are treated. The BBC's Soutik Biswas reports. "Where in the world is the elephant worst treated? The honest and straight answer is Kerala," says one of the state's best-known writers, Paul Zacharia. Mr Zacharia is alluding to the plight of the state's 700 captive elephants, the largest "domesticated" elephant population in India. These elephants are owned by some 250 people and a number of temples. They are mainly rented out during the more than 10,000 festivals every year for parades and processions. The state's most venerated Hindu temple, Guruvayur, alone owns 66 captive elephants, aged from 14 to 70. They live on seven acres of land outside the temple, and are looked after by some 200 keepers or mahouts. The elephants are also hired by political parties for campaign processions, and by companies for promoting their goods in trade fairs. At one temple festival, the animals are made to run a ritual one kilometre race every year. Renting out elephants is big business in a society where owning the animal is a feudal status symbol - last year, one elephant fetched the Guruvayur temple nearly $5,000 for a single day's appearance at a festival in Palakkad district. The animals have to endure long and noisy parades where fire crackers are set off, they must stand close to flames, travel long distances in ramshackle open vehicles and walk on tarred roads in the scorching sun for hours. They also have to endure drunk, often brutal mahouts. One survey found that half of the keepers had a drinking problem. The upshot is a unusual and rising man-animal conflict in crowded cities and towns where the elephants go to work. "Not a day passes without the news of an elephant meeting its death in an accident or getting grievously injured or killing the mahout in sheer desperation or running amok because it simply has had enough," says Mr Zacharia. Elephants have gone on the run at temple festivals and killed devotees in recent years. Wildlife authorities say 18 people, mainly mahouts, have been killed by captive elephants in the past five years - 12 of them in the past two years alone. 'Not enough rest' Kerala's Elephant Lovers' Association, a group which has been campaigning to have "performances" by captive elephants banned, says officials are under-reporting the problem. According to figures compiled by the group from media reports and wildlife authorities, captive elephants have killed 212 people - the majority of them mahouts - in the past 12 years in Kerala. The group also reckons more than 1,000 elephants have died "due to torture" during the same period. There is no way to confirm these high numbers - inquiries with the wildlife department met with no response. Experts believe the truth is somewhere in between. But all of them - apart from the elephant owners - agree that Kerala's captive elephants are the most overworked in the country. "Some of the elephants are paraded at three or four places during the day for 12 or more hours. A lot of these festivals happen at night. The animals don't get enough rest, and misbehave mainly because of overwork," says senior wildlife officer KP Ouseph. Some 250 people own elephants in Kerala Wildlife authorities have warned that "fatal mishaps in public places at an alarming [rate have] become a threat to public life". Two years ago, the Kerala high court acknowledged the need to enforce rules and regulations in the context of the "increased number of incidents of violence by and to elephants" in the state. They include avoiding bursting crackers close to the animals, transporting them in covered vehicles and keeping them at a distance from the crowds of devotees. But most experts say that these regulations are flouted with impunity. Elephant owners like P Sashikumar say that the allegations about the overwork and torture of elephants are "vastly exaggerated". Mr Sashikumar, who is a member of a group of 230 owners which lobbies the government to make the trade in elephants easier, says they keep and rent out their animals not for money, "but for love". "Who says renting out elephants is a profitable business? You hardly recover your costs of maintaining an animal. "It's more of a matter of prestige for us and a family tradition," he says, while readying one of his elephants for a temple festival. The caparisoned elephants may be the flavour of Kerala's festival season - it runs from December to April - but their treatment is leaving the wildlife authorities and lovers deeply worried. "Kerala has a reputation of being an elephant-loving society. Its a big lie," says Mr Zacharia.

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Many of us are inclined not to talk about things that upset us. We try to put a lid on our feelings and hope that saying nothing will be for the best. But not talking about something doesnt mean we arent communicating. Children are great observers. They read messages on our faces and in the way we walk or hold our hands. We express ourselves by what we do, by what we say, and by what we do not say. When we avoid talking about something that is obviously upsetting, children often hesitate to bring up the subject or ask questions about it. To a child, avoidance can be a message - If Mummy and Daddy cant talk about it, it really must be bad, so I better not talk about it either. In effect, instead of protecting our children by avoiding talk, we sometimes cause them more worry and also keep them from telling us how they feel. On the other hand, it also isnt wise to confront children with information that they may not yet understand or want to know. As with any sensitive subject, we must seek a delicate balance that encourages children to communicate - a balance that lies somewhere between avoidance and confrontation, a balance that isnt easy to achieve. It involves: - trying to be sensitive to their desire to communicate when theyre ready - trying not to put up barriers that may inhibit their attempts to communicate - offering them honest explanations when we are obviously upset - listening to and accepting their feelings - not putting off their questions by telling them they are too young - trying to find brief and simple answers that are appropriate to their questions; answers that they can understand and that do not overwhelm them with too many words. Perhaps most difficult of all, it involves examining our own feelings and beliefs so that we can talk to them as naturally as possible when the opportunities arise. Not Having All the Answers When talking with children, many of us feel uncomfortable if we dont have all the answers. Young children, in particular, seem to expect parents to be all knowing - even about death. But death, the one certainty in all life, if lifes greatest uncertainty. Coming to terms with death can be a lifelong process. We may find different answers at different stages of our lives, or we may always feel a sense of uncertainty and fear. If we have unresolved fears and questions, we may wonder how to provide comforting answers for our children. While not all our answers may be comforting, we can share what we truly believe. Where we have doubts, an honest, I just dont know the answer to that one, may be more comforting than an explanation which we dont quite believe. Children usually sense our doubts. White lies, no matter how well intended, can create uneasiness and distrust. Besides, sooner, or later, our children will learn that we are not all knowing, and maybe we can make that discovery easier for them if we calmly and matter-of-factly tell them we dont have all the answers. Our non-defensive and accepting attitude may help them feel better about not knowing everything also. It may help to tell our children that different people believe different things and that not everyone believes as we do, e.g., some people believe in an afterlife; some do not. By indicating our acceptance and respect for others beliefs, we may make it easier for our children to choose beliefs different from our own but more comforting to them. Last reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 26 Aug 2010 Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved. Nobody can make you feel inferior without your consent. -- Eleanor Roosevelt

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You say puh-tay-tow, I say puh-tah-tow, but how did our ancestors use language millennia ago? Typically you’d ask a linguist, but manually reconstructing protolanguages — hypothetical early languages from which extant ones evolved — can be a lengthy, arduous process. What if you could get reasonably close in a fraction of the time by using a computer? Researchers in Canada and California have done exactly that by designing software that can take rules about how language-related sounds change over time to essentially reverse-engineer the process and recreate the rudiments of lost root languages — a sort of linguistic time machine-meets-Rosetta stone. The idea that language changes over time is obvious enough on contemporary time-scales — just look at dialects. Today some people say “axed” (phonetically) instead of “asked” while others say “howdy” instead of “hello.” When I lived in Denton, Texas, folks said “y’all” instead of “you all,” and the colloquialism “ain’t” (instead of “am not” or “is not”) — the bane of English language formalists everywhere — was widespread by the 18th century. (Conversely, the historian J.M. Roberts writes in The History of the World that a word like “alcohol” survives more or less in its original form from Sumerian, a language spoken in southern Mesopotamia since the 4th millennium B.C.; so, says Roberts, does the world’s first recipe for beer.) But tracing back the origins of dialect changes is kid’s stuff compared to constructing entire progenitor languages that existed prior to the earliest extant ones. All we have are the descendant languages and ideas about how sounds change over time: kind of like playing Clue with half the game board and only some of the cards. Compare the features of two or more languages with common ancestors — a process known as the comparative method — and scholars would argue you can get close, but it can be a painstaking process. Imagine instead taking over 600 existing languages spoken in Asia and the Pacific — precisely what these researchers did — and feeding them to a computer that quickly and accurately reconstructed likely protolanguages from which the modern cognates evolved. In this case, the computer program scanned a database of over 140,000 words, from which it managed to construct a protolanguage the researchers believe may have been spoken around 7,000 years ago. How accurate are we talking? According to the researchers: “Over 85% of the system’s reconstructions are within one character of the manual reconstruction provided by a linguist specializing in Austronesian languages.” That’s kind of remarkable, even if Alex Bouchard-Côté — one of the researchers and co-author of the related paper “Automated reconstruction of ancient languages using probabilistic models of sound change” published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Science – admits the algorithm is still “doing a basic job right now” (via TechNewsDaily). Outside geeky academic circles and obscure scholarly journals populated with articles no one generally reads, what’s the practical purpose of reconstituting a dead language? For starters, knowing how languages changed over time can help us better organize history, say the order in which key events happened. According to Bouchard-Côté, for instance, we might be able to refine our understanding of how Europe was settled: “If you can figure out if the language of the settling population had a word for wheel, then you can get some idea of the order in which things occurred, because you would have some records that show you when the wheel was invented.” “It’s very time consuming for humans to look at all the data,” says fellow researcher and paper author Dan Klein (via BBC). “There are thousands of languages in the world, with thousands of words each, not to mention all of those languages’ ancestors. It would take hundreds of lifetimes to pore over all those languages, cross-referencing all the different changes that happened across such an expanse of space – and of time. But this is where computers shine.” But okay, ask the question we’re all burning to know: What happens if you take Vulcans and Romulans — two Star Trek races with their own constructed languages and common ancestry — and feed this program that?

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WebMD Medical News Brenda Goodman, MA Laura J. Martin, MD Oct. 3, 2011 -- Children who are overweight compared to their peers are nearly three times more likely to have high blood pressure, a new study shows. The study, published in the journal Hypertension, followed 1,111 school-aged children in Indiana for an average of four years. Twice each year, researchers visited schools to take blood pressure measurements and record the kids’ heights and weights. About 40% of the children in the study were above the 85th percentile on growth charts for their height and weight. When children are above the 85th percentile, doctors consider them to be overweight. Among the overweight kids, 14% had blood pressure that was higher than normal, while only 5% of normal-weight kids had elevated blood pressure. The study also found that extra pounds are especially dangerous for kids who are already big. "For an overweight and obese child, if you increase your BMI [body mass index] percentile a little bit, that would increase your blood pressure strongly,"says researcher Wanzhu Tu, PhD. Tu is a research scientist at Regenstrief Institute and professor of biostatistics at Indiana University School of Medicine, both in Indianapolis. "In the same way," Tu says, for just a little bit of weight loss "you could benefit greatly in terms of blood pressure." The risks of overweight were the same, regardless of the child’s sex or race. About 42% of the kids in the study were black. Pediatricians say the study is wake-up call. "We’ve tended to look at the overweight category as a lower-risk category," says Stephen R. Daniels, MD, PhD, chairman of the department of pediatrics at the University of Colorado School of Medicine in Denver. He was not involved in the research. "This suggests to me that we really need to worry about kids who are in that overweight category," says Daniels, who is also pediatrician-in-chief at Colorado Children’s Hospital. Other experts say the findings are concerning because having high blood pressure has been shown to set kids up for health complications. Not only are children with high blood pressure much more likely to turn into adults who have high blood pressure, but newer studies have shown that kids can get the same kinds of organ damage -- to the heart, blood vessels, and kidneys -- that doctors once thought was only a problem for adults with the condition. One study even found that kids with high blood pressure have subtle changes in the brain area that controls attention, problem solving, and working memory. "For physicians, we have to take much more seriously this concept of the childhood origins of adult diseases and look beyond the weight and beyond the blood pressure level because we’re finding more evidence, subtle evidence, of injury," says Bonita Falkner, MD, professor of medicine and pediatrics at Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia. "So it’s not going to be a risk that’s going to be in the future. It’s a risk that’s now," says Falkner, who wrote an editorial on the study, but was not involved in the research. "It jacks up the concern about preventing childhood obesity and also not waiting until they are obese," she tells WebMD. "Even overweight can be problematic for children." SOURCES:Tu, W. Hypertension, November 2011.Falkner, B. Hypertension, November 2011.Wanzhu Tu, PhD, research scientist, Regenstrief Institute; professor of biostatistics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis.Stephen R. Daniels, MD, PhD, chairman, department of pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine; pediatrician-in-chief, Colorado Children’s Hospital, Denver.Bonita Falkner, MD, professor of medicine and pediatrics, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia. Here are the most recent story comments.View All The views expressed here do not necessarily represent those of abc24 News The Health News section does not provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. See additional information.

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AccessMyLibrary provides FREE access to millions of articles from top publications available through your library. Emotions are internal events that coordinate many psychological subsystems including physiological responses, cognitions, and conscious awareness. Emotions typically arise in response to a person's changing relationships. When a person's relationship to a memory, to his family, or to all of humanity changes, that person's emotions will change as well. For example, a person who recalls a happy childhood memory may find that the world appears brighter and more joyous (e.g., Bower, 1981). Because emotions track relationships in this sense, they convey meaning about relationships (Schwarz & Clore, 1983). Emotional intelligence refers to an ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and their relationships, and to reason and problem-solve on the basis of them. Emotional intelligence is involved in the capacity to perceive emotions, assimilate emotion-related feelings, understand the information of those emotions, and manage them (Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Emotional intelligence can be assessed most directly by asking a person to solve emotional problems, such as identifying the emotion in a story or painting, and then evaluating the person's answer against criteria of accuracy (Mayer, DiPaolo, & Salovey, 1990; Mayer & Geher, 1996). It is worth noting, however, that emotional intelligence, as an ability, is often measured in other ways. Some approaches have asked people their personal, self-reported beliefs about their emotional intelligence. Test items such as, "I'm in touch with my emotions," or "I am a sensitive person," assess such self-understanding (e.g., Mayer & Stevens, 1994; Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai, 1995). Self-reports of ability and actual ability, however, are only minimally correlated in the realm of intelligence research (e.g., r = 0.20; Paulhus, Lysy, & Yik, 1998) and that appears to hold in the area of emotional intelligence as well (Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998).(1) Self-concept is important, of course, because people often act on their beliefs about their abilities as opposed to their actual abilities (Bandura, 1977). Emotional intelligence as a domain of human performance, however, is best studied with ability measures. Emotional intelligence has often been conceptualized (particularly in popular literature) as involving much more than ability at perceiving, assimilating, understanding, and managing emotions. These alternative conceptions include not only emotion and intelligence per se, but also motivation, non-ability dispositions and traits, and global personal and social functioning (e.g., Bar-On, 1997; Goleman, 1995). Such broadening seems to undercut the utility of the terms under consideration. We call these mixed conceptions because they combine together so many diverse ideas. For example, the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (E[Q.sub.i]) includes 15 self-report scales that measure a person's self-regard, independence, problem solving, reality-testing, and other attributes (Bar-On, 1997). Such qualities as problem solving and reality testing seem more closely related to ego strength or social competence than to emotional intelligence. Mixed models must be analyzed carefully so as to distinguish the concepts that are a part of emotional intelligence from the concepts that are mixed in, or confounded, with it. General intelligence serves as an umbrella concept that includes dozens of related groups of mental abilities. Most of the smaller subskills studied in this century are related to verbal, spatial, and related logical information processing (see Carroll, 1993, for an authoritative review). Such processing is sometimes referred to as "cold" to denote that its ego- or self-involvement is minimal (Abelson, 1963; Mayer & Mitchell, 1998; Zajonc, 1980). Information processing, however, also deals with "hot," self-related, emotional processing. Emotional intelligence is a hot intelligence. It can be thought of as one member of an emerging group of potential hot intelligences that include social intelligence (Sternberg & Smith, 1985; Thorndike, 1920), practical intelligence (Sternberg & Caruso, 1985; Wagner & Sternberg, 1985), personal intelligence (Gardner, 1993), non-verbal perception skills (Buck, 1984; Rosenthal, Hall, DiMatteo, Rogers, & Archer, 1979), and emotional creativity (Averill & Nunley, 1992). Each of these forgoing concepts forms coherent domains that partly overlap with emotional intelligence, but that divide human abilities in somewhat different ways. The ability conception of emotional intelligence was developed in a series of articles in the early 1990s (Mayer et al., 1990; Mayer & Salovey, 1993; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). For example, the first empirical study in the area demonstrated that people's abilities to identify emotion in three types of stimuli: colors, faces, and designs, could be accounted for by a single ability factor--which we supposed was emotional intelligence (Mayer et al., 1990). Another study examined the understanding of emotion in stories (Mayer & Geher, 1996); this latter study provided further indications that the underlying factor "looked like" an intelligence. Simultaneous with this empirical work, we have honed our definition of emotional intelligence and the abilities involved (e.g., Mayer & Salovey, 1997). The present article represents a culmination of this work, testing our most highly developed conception of emotional intelligence by operationalizing it according to 12 ability tests of emotional intelligence. The present study can help answer important questions about emotional intelligence, among them: whether emotional intelligence is a single ability or many, and how it relates to traditional measures of general intelligence and other criteria. STANDARD CRITERIA FOR AN INTELLIGENCE Three Criteria for an Intelligence An intelligence such as emotional intelligence must meet stringent criteria in order to be judged as a true intelligence. For the purposes here, these criteria can be divided into three fairly distinct groups: conceptual, correlational, and developmental. The first, conceptual criteria, includes that intelligence must reflect mental performance rather than simply preferred ways of behaving, or a person's self-esteem, or non-intellectual attainments (Carroll, 1993; Mayer & Salovey, 1993; Scarr, 1989); moreover, mental performance should plainly measure the concept in question, i.e., emotion-related abilities. The second, correlational criteria, describe empirical standards: specifically, that an intelligence should describe a set of closely related abilities that are similar to, but distinct from, mental abilities described by already-established intelligences (Carroll, 1993; Neisser et al., 1996).(2) The third, developmental criterion, states that intelligence develops with age and experience, and is based on the groundbreaking work by Binet and Simon at the beginning of century (as reviewed in Fancher, 1985, p. 71; see also, Brown, 1997). These three criteria will be next examined in greater detail. Conceptual Criteria for an Intelligence We have argued elsewhere that emotional intelligence does indeed describe actual abilities rather than preferred courses of behavior. These four broad classes of abilities can be arranged from lower, more molecular, skills to higher, more molar, skills, as is done in Fig. 1 (Mayer & Salovey, 1993, 1997). The lowest level skills involve the perception and appraisal of emotion, e.g., in a facial expression or artwork. The next level up involves assimilating basic emotional experiences into mental life, including weighing emotions against one another and against other sensations and thoughts, and allowing emotions to direct attention. An example includes holding an emotional state in consciousness long enough to compare its correspondences to similar sensations in sound, color, and taste. The third level involves understanding and reasoning about emotions. Each emotion-happiness, anger, fear, and the like--follows its own specific rules. Anger rises when justice is denied; fear often changes to relief; sadness separates us from others. Each emotion moves according to its own characteristic rules, like the different pieces on a chessboard. Emotional intelligence involves the ability to see the pieces, know how they move, and reason about emotions accordingly. The fourth, highest level, involves the management and regulation of emotion, such as knowing how to calm down after feeling angry or being able to alleviate the anxiety of another person. Tasks defining these four levels or branches are described in greater detail in the section concerning scale development below. [Figure 1 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] In considering tasks for an emotional intelligence test, how are we to discriminate right from wrong answers? One common approach drawn from emotions research has been to look for group consensus as to the emotional content of stimuli (e.g., Mayer et al., 1990; Wagner, MacDonald, & Manstead, 1986). If the group agrees that a face is happy, say, then that becomes the correct answer. A second possibility is to use expert criteria for emotional meanings. An expert could bring a history of philosophy and empirical psychology to bear on judgments about emotional meanings (e.g., Darwin, 1872/1965; Ortony, Clore, & Collins, 1988; Plutchik, 1984; Spinoza, 1675/1984), and this might provide answers similar to, or different from, a consensus criterion. On the other hand, it has been argued that experts simply provide estimates of group consensus, and those estimates are fallible (Legree, 1995). Finally, a target criterion is applicable in selected circumstances in which a target individual's emotions or emotional creations are being judged. In such cases, the target can report the emotion he or she was feeling or expressing at the time. The group's consensus, the expert, and the target criteria, represent somewhat different perspectives, and it is therefore unlikely that they would be in complete agreement. For example, target individuals sometimes report pleasant feelings, perhaps to be socially conforming, when in fact they are perceived by a group as experiencing less pleasant feelings (Mayer & Geher, 1996). Such differences in perspective do not necessarily rule out a general convergence toward a criterion. Such a rough convergence would substantiate the view that emotions convey information, and that emotional intelligence is, in fact, an intelligence. Correlational Criteria for an Intelligence The Logic of Correlational Criteria for Intelligence Emotional intelligence should define a set of abilities that are moderately intercorrelated with one another. There are many excellent overviews of mental abilities and the criteria for defining their class (e.g., Carroll, 1993; Flanagan, Genshaft, & Harrison, 1997). This logic can be illustrated with an example drawn from the clinical assessment of intelligence. The original Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales (i.e., WAIS, WAIS-R, WAIS-III; Wechsler, 1958; see Anastasi & Urbina, 1997, for a review of later tests) contained a set of verbal intelligence scales. These consisted of many related mental tests including identifying similarities among concepts, recognizing word meanings (vocabulary), general information, comprehension, and arithmetic. The abilities measured, e.g., vocabulary and information, are moderately intercorrelated--they rise and fall across people at about the r = 0.40 level. The tasks can be summarized by a verbal IQ, where the IQ is based on a person's overall performance on those tasks compared to the performance of other people their age (because ability levels change with age). The Wechsler tests from mid-century to 1998 typically paired verbal intelligence with performance intelligence. Performance abilities, such as assembling puzzles, identifying missing elements in visual depictions, and ordering picture sequences, also correlate highly with each other. These can be summarized by a performance IQ, similarly based on the person's overall performance on the tasks. The verbal and performance tasks correlate less highly with each other; i.e., the verbal and performance tasks are related to each other, but not quite as closely as skills within each group.(3) They are also related, however, and can be combined to form an overall IQ, which represents the individual's average performance on a broader range of mental tasks. The Establishment of New Intelligences The possibility that there exists one or more additional classes of intelligence, beyond verbal and performance intelligence, has long intrigued researchers. The identification of a new class of intelligence would broaden our contemporary concepts of intelligences. Moreover, adding missing intelligences to an omnibus IQ test can increase the test's fairness by more accurately representing individuals whose abilities were higher on unknowingly omitted tests than on the tests that were present. The identification of a class of intelligence, such as verbal or performance, however, does not occur all at once. Usually, there proceeds a painstaking process of developing candidate tasks for the intelligence, finding a rationale for correct answers (if not obvious), and then examining their intercorrelations with existing measures of intelligences. For example, social intelligence was proposed as a third member of the verbal/performance grouping earlier in the century; it was defined as "the ability to understand men and women, boys and girls, to act wisely in human relations" (Thorndike, 1920). Measures of verbal intelligence, however, already incorporate much social thinking; in fact, normal verbal communication is so social that it is difficult to come up with vocabulary ("What is democracy?") or general knowledge questions ("Who was John F. Kennedy?") that do not contain social information. In part, for such reasons, Cronbach (1960) concluded that social intelligence could not be distinguished from verbal intelligence. The search for a third broad intelligence abated for the next several decades, although a number of alternative intelligences have been discussed as possible candidates. Research on social intelligence has continued, with important work by Sternberg and Smith (1985), Cantor and Kihlstrom (1987) Legree (1995) and others. Much of that work represented important conceptual development of social intelligence; little of that work, however, concerned itself with actual ability measurement in relation to other intelligences (some exceptions are Legree, 1995; Wagner & Sternberg, 1985). In addition, other intelligences have been proposed, e.g., the multiple intelligences of Gardner (1993) which included personal, musical, and other intelligences. Here, too, research on individual differences and their relations to already-existing intelligences was de-emphasized (Sternberg, 1994). Emotional intelligence represents an alternative grouping of tasks to social intelligence. On one hand, emotional intelligence is broader than social intelligence, including not only reasoning about the emotions in social relationships, but also reasoning about internal emotions that are important for personal (as opposed to social) growth. On the other hand, emotional intelligence is more focused than social intelligence in that it pertains primarily to the emotional (but not necessarily verbal) problems embedded in personal and social problems. For example, reasoning about a sequence of internal feelings, or about the feelings in a relationship, can be readily distinguished from general questions about democracy, or John F. Kennedy, as described above. This increased focus means that emotional intelligence may be more distinct from traditional verbal intelligence than is social intelligence. The Developmental Criterion for an Intelligence There remains a third criterion an intelligence must meet: that it develops with age and experience, from childhood to adulthood. That third criterion will be discussed at the outset of Study 2, which is focused on studying developmental issues in emotional intelligence. INTRODUCTION TO THE PRESENT STUDIES Widely accepted intelligences share certain features in common: they are abilities, they manifest specific correlational patterns among themselves and in relation to other intelligences, and they develop with age and experience. The two studies described here operationalize …

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Big School Seminar An informative seminar that focuses on how parents can prepare their four-year-old children for Kindergarten. Parents as Teachers This seminar aims to provide parents with some key teaching ideas to support their children’s learning in grades K-2 and their educational routine both at school and at home. A workshop programme aimed at familiarising Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 students with the NAPLAN exam layout, literacy and numeracy skills. There is also a focus on frequently asked questions, common mistakes and time management. Complete the Puzzle Seminar An informative seminar that helps year 10 students select the right subjects for their senior years. School Certificate Exam Workshop The Year 10 School Certificate Workshop addresses Years 9 and 10 English, Mathematics and Science Key Learning Areas. Two More Years Seminar A seminar for Year 10 students highlighting what to expect in Year 11 and Year 12. Students learn how to prepare for the last two years of their schooling. Final Year of School Seminar A seminar to be held at the end of Year 11 that prepares students for the last year of their schooling. Year 11 Preliminary Exams Workshop This workshop is designed by our most experienced teachers to assist students in achieving their full potential during their preliminary exams. HSC (Half Yearly Exams) Workshop HSC students can enter their half yearly exams with confidence after covering important topics in this interactive workshop. HSC (Trial Exams) Workshop In this workshop students are prepared for the most ‘trialing’ times in their senior education – The HSC Trial Exam. This workshop ensures students are ready for exam success. Essay and Creative Writing These exclusive writing workshops demonstrate to senior students how to confidently express themselves in their Preliminary and HSC English exams. MOTIVATIONAL SEMINARS AND WORKSHOPS Effective time management is a key component to achieving optimum results. Students will learn the skills required to achieve effective time management, set foundations for planning, and prioritise tasks. Goal setting is an essential life skill that assists students in the management of all aspects of their lives. Students will learn the foundations of goal setting, in addition to gaining the necessary tools to implement this skill in all aspects of life. Students will learn a number of exercises and skills they can utilise to enhance their memory; this is particularly helpful when students are working towards examination and assessment tasks. Students will develop a healthy attitude towards their studies, and gain the skills to establish effective management of stress levels by working towards finding real solutions to the challenges they face when completing their studies. Students will gain the skills they need to develop into confident, proactive and motivated individuals ready to take control of their own lives, as well as contribute to their school community and the society at large. We believe that through the development of leadership skills, students can attain excellence in all aspects of their lives.

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| Risk Factors Orbital cellulitis is a serious infection of the bony cavity in which the eyeball sits, which is called the orbit. It is surrounded by sinuses. The sinuses are the hollow areas of the skull around the nose. Orbital cellulitis affects not only the eye, but the eyelids, eyebrows, and cheeks. It causes the eyeball to have a swollen appearance. If the infection is not treated, it can lead to blindness. Eyeball in Orbit Copyright © Nucleus Medical Media, Inc. There are several common causes of orbital cellulitis: Infections that spread from areas around the eye including: - Sinuses—this is the most common reason - Mouth and teeth - Infections that spread from the bloodstream - Injury or surgery in the area on the eyelid - Bug bite or sting to the eyelid Children are at high risk of severe infections from orbital cellulitis that could result in blindness. For this reason, they should be given medical attention right away. In young children, the infection is often caused by a sinus infection due to a organism called Factors that increase your risk of getting orbital cellulitis include: Symptoms of orbital cellulitis include: - Bulging eye - Painful eye movements - Tender or warm tissues around the eye - Swollen eyelids - Difficulty seeing when eyelid is swollen - Not feeling well - Runny nose - Double vision - Blurry vision Doctors can often recognize orbital cellulitis by examining your eyes, teeth, and mouth. Your medical and family history will be taken. You may also have the following tests done: Your bodily fluids may be tested. This can be done with: - Blood tests - Testing samples from the lining of your eye, nose, and throat A spinal tap in very sick children Images may be taken of your bodily structures. This can be done with: Orbital cellulitis can worsen quickly. Often it requires hospitalization. Treatment for orbital cellulitis includes: - Antibiotics are given to treat the infection. They will be started right away, even before results from the laboratory have come back. Antibiotics are generally given by mouth for three weeks. If the infection is serious, antibiotics may be given through an IV for at least several days. - Nasal decongestants will help sinus drainage if you have sinusitis. - Diuretics or eye drops are given to help decrease pressure within the eyeball. - Surgery may be performed to drain a pus collection from an infected sinus or orbit. If you are diagnosed with orbital cellulitis, follow your doctor's Treating sinus or dental infections right away may prevent them from spreading to the eyes. In addition, children should be protected with the Hib B vaccine, which will prevent most of the

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When it comes to wind energy, the Irish know their stuff By Ed Forry, October 2, 2012 By Judy Enright Special to the BIR The Irish are a wind-loving lot – and why not when they are so often buffeted by the gales that swirl around the greenest island in the Atlantic? While some here complain that wind turbines block their vistas, the Irish have long embraced the concept of harnessing the wind’s energy and all its resulting benefits and you can see turbines atop many hills in the country. At last count, there were 31 on-shore wind energy projects operating in the Republic with the Airtricity Wind Farm, at Kingsmountain, Tubbercurry, Co. Sligo, producing the most energy – enough to power more than 15,000 homes, they claim. But wind turbines are modern technology; before they came on the scene, windmill blades (or sails) captured the gusts and transmitted that energy down to the millstones to grind grain. So making use of the prevailing breeze is nothing new for Ireland. Historians say the first windmills were built in Iran around 600 A.D. and that Ireland once boasted about 500 of them, primarily on the Eastern seaboard where water often ran short in the summer. The first record of an Irish windmill was noted in 1281, in Kilscanlon, Co. Wexford. Windmills were somewhat more rare in the Midlands, although at one time there were eight in operation within a few miles of Roscommon Town. There are a number of windmills in Ireland today, including several in Skerries, Co. Dublin; in Blennerville in Tralee, Co. Kerry; in Elphin in Co. Roscommon, and in Ballycopeland in Co. Down. Primarily, they are tourist attractions as better and faster methods for grinding grain have been discovered over the years. Tralee, Co. Kerry, has long been a tourist mecca, thanks, in part, to the Blennerville Windmill that was built in 1800 by Sir Roland Blennerhasset. Visitors can take a guided tour of the beautifully restored five-story windmill and hear about the various stages of grain milling, and later stop by the excellent restaurant and craft shop on site. Blennerville was the main port of emigration from Co. Kerry during Famine years and the visitor center at the windmill also has an extensive exhibit that includes models of the so-called “coffin ships.” The windmill is open April through October from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. daily and is well worth a visit. In addition to the windmill, there is now a 4.5-million Euro Tralee Bay Wetlands visitor park nearby that features many spots – including a viewing tower – from which you can quietly watch wildlife in the protected Tralee Bay Nature Reserve. The Park - in the planning stages for more than a decade - is said to be a leading example of “soft tourism,” with multilingual wildlife boat rides through the habitats, light water sports, and walking and cycling trails. The park is expected to draw some 70,000 visitors a year. Up the road in Co. Roscommon, is the Elphin Windmill that was restored and opened to the public in 1996, thanks to the efforts of a committee of dedicated and focused local residents. Elphin is an interesting place and a hotbed of Irish history. The poet and playwright Oliver Goldsmith was born in Smithhill, Elphin, in 1728, and Percy French, a songwriter, poet and artist, was born in Clooneyquinn, Elphin, in 1854. And, they say that the famous 12th Century Cross of Cong was most probably made in Elphin, which was a noted center for fine metalwork from the time of St. Patrick, who founded an ecclesiastical site there in 433 A.D. The Elphin Windmill is on a small road about half a mile northwest of the town and those planning to rebuild the windmill had only a derelict tower and a notation on an 1837 Ordnance Survey map to go by. The map said “ruins of windmill,” which indicated that the structure had been derelict for a very long time. Planners suspect that the original windmill was probably built in the mid-1700s by the local landowner, Edward Synge, who was Bishop of Elphin from 1740 to his death in 1762. He farmed extensively and, historians think, built the windmill primarily to grind oats for porridge and oatcakes as well as animal feed. Most windmills were eventually abandoned in favor of more reliable watermills and by the 1830s, most had ceased operation. If you’re near Elphin in your Irish travels, be sure to stop by the windmill and adjacent visitor center and see the work done by this group of committed residents to restore and share their history. Spooky time is here again and that’s great news for all resident ghosts and goblins. • Dromoland Castle, just around the corner from Shannon Airport, is offering a Halloween value package from Oct. 30 to Nov. 2 that includes Scary Movie Nights for Little Wizards and Witches, pumpkin carving, castle ghosts, Haunting Horse and Cart Trips, a bonfire, Halloween games, and traditional dining fare. Children under 12, sharing with their parents (maximum two adults and two children), are included in the package at no additional cost. Also included is a full Irish breakfast daily and children’s high tea. Contact Dromoland for more information. Dromoland is in Newmarket-on-Fergus, Co. Clare, 1-800-346-7007, on the web at dromoland.ie or contact Preferred Hotels and Resorts at 1-800-323-7500 (preferredhotels.com.) • In Co. Roscommon, enjoy the Samhain Celtic Fire Festival from Oct. 26-31. Details at rathcrogan.ie • There will be A Haunting in the People’s Park Limerick on Oct. 29, created by Gothicise in collaboration with Limerick City Council. The concept follows the spectral theme of A Haunting; in this case, the haunting quality will come from the past of the Park itself. For more details: culturefox.ie/festival/a-haunting/ • Ballina, Co. Mayo, will host its third Samhain Abhainn festival from Oct. 27-31 to mark Halloween and the end of summer. The festival offers something for all from the very young to the not so young and includes art workshops, traditional activities, horrible history walking tours, an historical journey with the Jackie Clarke Museum, treasure hunts, murder mystery, and spooky strolls through Belleek Woods. The festival celebrates the unique Irish historical context of Halloween that was originally a pagan festival that started back in 100 A.D. when the Celts marked the season of Halloween or Samhain, an Irish word meaning the “end of Summer.” See northmayo.ie/festivals.html for more details. • The always fun Westport House in Westport, Co. Mayo, offers a Halloween Fest from Oct. 27 to Nov. 4 with a Fireworks Extravaganza on Oct. 28. See westporthouse.ie for more. • The 2012 Achill Sheep Show will take place on Oct. 14. For more information, visit achillsheepshow.com. And, if you’re on Achill Island, be sure to take in the events in the Storytelling Festival with drama workshops and other activities from Oct. 27 to Nov. 4. Contact achilltourism.com or visitachill.com for details. • When you are in Mayo, be sure to stop by the Mayo Peace Park in Castlebar that was designed to commemorate the men and women from Mayo who served and died on foreign battlefields in the major world wars and on UN peacekeeping missions during the last century. The park is opposite the Harlequin Hotel on Lannagh Road. For more, see mayomemorialpeacepark.org Enjoy your trip to Ireland whenever you go and be sure to look online for more happenings and for deals on airfare and land travel. We’re getting into the shoulder season when fares and other prices are generally cheaper.

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Inbreeding is breeding between closely related individuals in a population. In humans, close inbreeding is referred to as incest. Breeding closely related animals allows a breeder to select desired traits and create a population where every individual has those traits. However, sometimes deleterious traits also "hitchhike" along with the desired traits as a result of inbreeding. This can lead to inbreeding depression. As an example, Pugs are a dog breed which has been bred for thousands of years, but genetic disorders relating to the eyes are common in the breed. Manx cats, known for having short tails, arose naturally due to genetic drift, but problems such as spina bifida are very common. One way to overcome inbreeding depression is by periodically introducing new genetic variation in a process known as outcrossing, where members of the breed are mated with individuals from outside the breed. This decreases the "purity" of the line, but can reduce the prevalence of genetic disorders. In population genetics, the coefficient of inbreeding F is the probability that two alleles at a randomly chosen locus in an individual are identical by descent, meaning they are identical as a result of having come from a common ancestor. This number is normalized relative to a "base population" in which no alleles are assumed to be related. F is generally larger when more inbreeding occurs, such as in structured populations or small populations. In this way, inbreeding is related to genetic drift. Because inbreeding increases the homozygosity in a population, it can lead to the expression of recessive mutations; since vastly more mutations are deleterious (harmful) than beneficial, this usually manifests as a genetic disorder, reducing the fitness of individuals. For example, if an organism has a recessive, deleterious mutation and gives rise to many offspring, some of whom also carry this mutation, and some of those offspring mate, it is likely that they will produce some children who are homozygous for this recessive, deleterious allele. Inbreeding can thus cause homozygosity for deleterious alleles to become prevalent in a population, which reduces the overall population fitness. On the other hand, if there are no deleterious alleles and the mutation rate is low, inbreeding is not necessarily harmful to the population. For example, creationists argue that, since Adam and Eve were created perfect and mutation rates were lower before the Flood, marriage and breeding between Adam and Eve's descendants was not harmful or immoral in the way it is today. In 1912, University of Genoa anthropologist Giuseppe Shirazi determined that the minimum number of unrelated individuals necessary for a non-degenerative population is approximately 36 with some variation based on genetic differentiation within the group. Shirazi determined that the optimal sex balance is a 1:1 male to female ratio because the genetic entropy would be maximized with such a ratio, and the chances of inbreeding depression would thus be minimized. Indeed, such a finding comports with the cultural and moral dictate of maintaining monogamous relationships. Shirazi's model assumes that each individual is sexually mature and fertile.

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Fire protection is serious business. Fire, smoke, and toxic fumes take a terrible toll in lives and property every year. Every major building code is meant to reduce the threat of fire. Fire protection encompasses three broad areas: prevention, containment, and suppression. The distinction between containment and suppression is that between passive and active protection systems. Passive systems protect by virtue of their inherent properties, while active systems rely on external energy sources such as electricity, water pressure, or human intervention. Firestops are an integral part of any fully implemented containment system. Containment is the principal strategy embodied in all building codes. In building codes, safety and environmental issues have been handled as overlays or amendments, while fire safety is the fabric that binds the code requirements together. Important sections of the codes deal with safe and acceptable methods of using energy sources or handling and storing dangerous materials. These sections focus on preventing fire through misuse of resources. For example, electrical codes specify the size of conductor, type of insulation, method of installation, location of disconnecting means, and overcurrent protection for various applications, in order to eliminate unsafe wiring practices that may result in fire. Other sections of building codes deal with furnaces, fireplaces, ducts, flues, kitchens, etc. The codes also recognize that accidental and arson fires cannot be entirely prevented. Fire-rated walls, floors, partitions, shafts, columns, drop-ceilings, and related assemblies are required to limit the size and spread of fires. Some areas require sprinklers or other active systems to extinguish fires. Fire-rated barriers provide the basic, passive protection necessary for fire safety. By definition, passive protection is independent of any outside agency or energy source. Active systems, such as sprinklers, CO2 extinguishers, or gas suppression systems, rely at the very least on the availability of a water, CO2, or gas supply, and often also require electricity for pumps, valves, and detectors. Active systems frequently control or suppress fires before human firefighters can respond, but failure of the supporting utilities can make an active system inoperative. That’s why an active system can never be considered as an alternative to the passive fire barriers required by the codes. Firestops are an integral part of every passive protection system. Passive fire barriers create isolated compartments, which effectively contain a fire, preventing it from spreading to adjacent areas. Openings in fire-rated barriers permit access to the area and admit utilities: electricity, water, heat, etc. Provision must be made to preserve the integrity of the barriers when openings are required. Fire-rated doors and windows must be installed to protect the normal access openings, while fire-rated penetration seals (“firestops”) are required to seal openings for building utilities. A firestop must satisfy a number of requirements. First, it must be able to meet the same fire resistance rating as the barrier in which it will be used. Second, it must accommodate the penetrating items, including any requirements for motion, thermal expansion, or other functions. Third, it should function as a smoke barrier. Fourth, it must be reasonably easy to penetrate again to accommodate building service modifications. Finally, it must be reasonably inexpensive. F-ratings and T-ratings Current test standards for firestop systems, ASTME814, UL1479, and CAN4-S115M, generate multiple ratings for each system design. The test specimen is subjected to a standard fire exposure, followed by a standard hose stream test. During the fire exposure, thermocouples measure temperatures on the test wall or floor, on the field of the firestop material, and on the penetrating item 1 inch away from the surface of the firestop. Based on evaluation of test data and observations, the laboratory assigns ratings as follows: * An F (for fire exposure) rating, in full hours, indicates that the test assembly withstood the standard fire exposure without penetration of flame of spontaneous ignition on the unexposed side, for the indicated period. And, except in Canada, it also indicates that there was no passage of water to the unexposed side during the hose stream test. * An H (for hose stream) rating, in Canada only, indicates separately that the assembly passed the hose stream test. * A T (for temperature) rating, in full or fractional hours, indicates that no temperature on the unexposed side increased over ambient by more than 325 degrees F (180 degrees C) for the indicated period. Measurements include the penetrating item as well as the firestop seal itself. The T-rating can be rated as “0,” but can never exceed the F-rating. The F (and H) ratings demonstrate the effective ability of the seal to prevent the spread of fire by breaching the rated barrier. F-ratings should always equal or exceed the required rating for the barrier being penetrated. The T-rating was incorporated into the test procedure to aid in hazard assessment. Low T-ratings are nearly always associated with massive or thermally conductive penetrating items able to carry heat from the exposed to the unexposed side. Under some conditions, high temperatures on the unexposed side could presumably result in self-ignition of adjacent combustible materials. This is clearly a function of the penetrating item rather than the seal design, and where such a hazard might exist, the engineer can recommend provisions to prevent close proximity of combustibles. The obligation to specify and/or install “Qualified” firestops may not be your only concern. Did you specify the innerduct and cable jackets to be installed (by type and manufacturer)? If so, your responsibility may not end when you “light-off” a system and leave the premises. Authority Having Jurisdiction. The term used in model building codes to refer to the specific individual, agency, or department responsible for local code enforcement. In practical terms, this is the building inspector. Classification. The method used by UL to rate application-oriented products like firestop materials, where the final configuration is different in each installation. Firestop materials are “UL Classified,” never “listed” or “approved.” Assembly. A wall, floor, or other partition, with or without such things as receptacles, outlet boxes, recessed lighting fixtures, or penetrations. The details of the assembly must be spelled out in any approval. System. The assembly, the penetrating item(s), and the firestop materials together all constitute the system. The system is the only basis for classification. Penetrating Items. The specific cables, conduit, pipe, ductwork, etc. that pass through the opening in the assembly, and that are to be protected by the firestop. Intumescence. The formation of a high-volume, insulating char upon exposure to fire or elevated temperatures, the key property of an important class of firestop materials. To be useful, the expansion should be at least 30 percent, with most commercial materials running 100 percent or more. The resulting char should be strong enough to resist the turbulence of a severe fire, and insulate well enough to protect the underlying surface. O’CONNOR is product manager at Nelson Firestop Products, Tulsa, Okla. He can be reached at (800) 331-7325.

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Dating Old Photographs Halvor Moorshead introduces Family Chronicle's guide to the way our ancestors looked. There are probably few family historians who do not possess a number of unidentified and undated photographs. For most of us, pictures taken within the last 30 years are not hard to date. We will probably know the subject but, even if we don’t, there will be plenty of clues: hair length on young men, hem length on young women, general hair styles and so on. The earliest known photograph taken in North America was taken in October or November 1839. It is a common mistake to assume that trends in fashion are something fairly new. This is only because we are far less familiar with fashions of previous periods; at a quick glance they all seem much the same. Anyone who has spent time examining old newspapers can’t have failed to notice the advertisements promoting the “latest fashions.” Just as hairstyles for both men and women now change every few years, so they did in our great-grandparents’ time. An additional clue which helps us date old photographs are the poses and props. While professional portraits are still taken at schools, department stores or even “photomats”, most photographs today are casual types. Until the early decades of this century, casual photos were not common. The visit to your photographer was an event for which you made an appointment and dressed in your best. We do not deal with the technical processes here: the daguerrotypes, the ambrotypes etc. This is an interesting subject but there are several excellent books covering this aspect of dating. We have ignored this here since many early pictures will be second generation prints, that is, photos of photos. For this reason, judgments made on the process alone can be misleading. For example the daguerrotype process could only be reproduced by photographing the original, it was quite unlike later systems which used a negative. The photographs included come from a number of sources. We asked readers to send copies or upload images over the Internet. Almost all those from 1860s and onwards have been submitted by Family Chronicle readers. Photos prior to 1860 are very rare and only a few were submitted. Nearly all the photos from the 1840s and the 1850s are from the Library of Congress collection and are credited as (LoC). We would like to thank those readers who helped compile this supplement. We were not able to use all the photos submitted but we are grateful for all submissions. Many of you told us that you had masses of photos but no dates. Writing the date on the photographs was not common and people often derived the date from an event (e.g. wedding) or because a young child, whose age could be accurately guessed, was in the photo. Several of the pictures were taken in other countries but the similarities are more striking than the differences. The ladies in this photograph demonstrate fashions from 1810 to 1870. E. Whitman. (Nora Hockin) As far as we have been able to ascertain, this type of collection has never been published before. We claim no originality for the subject as there are a number of books on dating photographs but all those which we have seen cover the technical side or are mainly descriptive with few examples. We hope that by comparing your unknown photographs with those reproduced here, you can find a close enough match to help you at least find the decade. Even if you have no photographs of your ancestors from the early periods, this collection should help you visualize how your ancestors might have dressed and carried themselves. 1840s Photos | 1850s Photos | 1860s Photos | 1870s Photos | 1880s Photos | 1890s Photos |

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"We're on our way, Frank!" Lovell shouted. As the launch vehicle boosted the spacecraft skyward, the booster rolled toward its programmed launch azimuth of 83.6 degrees. With only minor deviations in its powered phase, Gemini VII slid smoothly into its planned 160-kilometer keyhole.45 Shortly after the spacecraft cut loose from its booster only a little over six minutes from liftoff, Borman wheeled Gemini VII around to find the launch vehicle. Two seconds of thrust had been enough for the separation maneuver and now he fired for five seconds to get into position for stationkeeping. The afternoon Sun glared through the windows but in less than 30 seconds he saw the booster. Fuel spewed from a broken line, first forming globules and then crystallizing into cascades of flakes. The Titan II bounced and jumped about the sky. Occasionally eclipsing the view of the Sun, the venting fuel created a brilliant and beautiful contrast. For 15 minutes, the crew took turns at formation flying and picture taking. Stationkeeping was easy, but chasing the tumbling second stage was costing more fuel than Borman liked. And at 15 meters, he was too close to such unpredictable motion, anyway. He fired the spacecraft thrusters to move away.46 Half an hour into the flight, experiments began. Cardiovascular conditioning cuffs were snapped on Lovell's legs, where they started pulsing. The booster was still in sight, its lights flashing and billions of particles around it. Borman and Lovell saw some unidentifiable objects in orbit five to six kilometers away. About 7:00 p.m., they turned from sightseeing to housekeeping, and at 9:30 they ate their first meal in space. Intermittently, air-to-ground communications dealt with an irksome fuel cell warning light, which blinked on and off. As night fell below, noise from the ground became less frequent, giving the crew a chance to catnap. Borman's suit was warmer than he had expected; he had to turn the control knob to the coldest setting. After breakfast, at 9:06 a.m., CapCom See told the crew it was time to go to work. Systems reports were run through, their physical well-being was discussed, and the day's experiment load was assigned. See passed on Mission Control's analysis of the fuel cell warning light and news of more mundane events: the theme song of the men aboard the aircraft carrier Wasp ("I'll Be Home for Christmas"), football scores, and a collision between two airliners over New York. Borman retorted, "It looks like it's safer up here than down there." "We're not down yet, buddy!" Lovell reminded him.47 Some 45 hours into the flight, Lovell began doing his suit, a simple action that took more than an hour in such crowded quarters. At that point, both astronauts had stuffy noses and burning eyes. Borman complained that he was too warm. After Lovell had removed his suit, however, the general cabin environment improved.48 A debate about suits on or suits off during flight that had started before the launch of Gemini VII continued for nearly six days into the mission. Both astronauts had planned to remove their suits after a two-day check of the environmental system. That changed when Mueller got wind of it. He objected strongly and so did Seamans, who agreed that one crewman should be suited at all times. Either pilot could take his suit off for up to 24 hours, but during launch, rendezvous, and reentry, both were to be suited.49 Borman made frequent comments about Lovell's comfort and his own distress. As the hours passed, the rationale of one suit off and one on became ever less persuasive. Even sitting with his suit completely unzipped and his gloves off, Borman sweated while Lovell remained dry. Lovell's first 24 hours unsuited passed, and he elected to sleep suitless a second night. Borman agreed, despite his own discomfort, because Lovell, the larger of the two men, had more trouble getting the suit off and on in the confines of the cabin than he did. Lovell did don some special lightweight flight coveralls but took them off after 15 minutes - it was just too hot. One hundred hours into the flight, Borman asked the flight controller on the Coastal Sentry Quebec to talk to Kraft about taking off his suit. Because he knew of Mueller's opposition, he cautioned CapCom Eugene A. Cernan, on the next pass over Houston, to discuss his request with Slayton first and not to present it to Kraft as an emergency. Cernan agreed. Meanwhile, the controllers tried to get Lovell to put his suit on and Borman to take his off, so the surgeons could check the effects on both pilots of the suited and suitless conditions. The crewmen wanted to wait until the rendezvous with Gemini VI-A had been completed, but Kraft insisted. After 146 hours of flight, Borman finally agreed. Two hours later, it was his turn to sit in suitless comfort as Lovell sweltered.50 The suit question was also working its way up the NASA chain of command, as the daily mission evaluation reports became tinged with concern about how alert the crew would be for the coming rendezvous. When Borman made his request through Cernan, Mission Director Schneider relayed it to George Mueller in Washington. Mueller asked MSC Medical Director Charles Berry (who was also chief flight surgeon during the missions) for a comparative analysis of the two astronauts. Already aware that Gilruth favored suits off, Mueller asked for a poll of the other members of the Gemini Design Certification Board. Kennedy Director Kurt H. Debus, Marshall Director Wernher von Braun, and SSD Commander Ben Funk all agreed that the reasons for being unsuited outweighed those for being suited. Berry reported that the blood pressure and, pulse rates were closer to normal with suits off. The pilots got their wish, and debate ended.51 Despite Frank Borman's discomfort, spacecraft operations proceeded efficiently. The crew conducted experiments, evaluated spacecraft systems, and worked, slept, ate, exercised, and rested. Good humor and good spirits prevailed, bolstered by family reports, the daily See-Haney newscasts, and the preparations for sending Gemini VII some visitors - the VI-A crew. Borman expressed some concern about the fuel needed to get into position for the meeting, but four orbital adjustment maneuvers worked well.52 In a nearly circular orbit of 300 kilometers, the spacecraft's orbital lifetime was now theoretically over 100 days.53 The friendly target was ready. 44 Loyd S. Swenson, Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Alexander, This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury, NASA SP-4201 (Washington, 1966), pp. 402-407; "Launch Vehicle No. 7 Flight Evaluation," Martin Engineering Report No. 13227-7 and Supplemental Report No. 2 to "Gemini VII Mission Report," January 1966, pp. vii-viii; "Gemini VII Technical Debriefing," 23 Dec. 1965, pp. 1-3. 45 "Gemini VII Voice Communications (Air-to-Ground, Ground-to-Air, and On-Board Transcription)," McDonnell Control No. 115308, Vol. 1, n.d., pp. 1-3; C. E. Agajanian, "Launch Vehicle Flight Evaluation Report, NASA Mission Gemini/Titan, GT-7,"Aerospace TOR-6696(6126-42)-10 and Supplemental Report No. 1 to "Gemini VII Mission Report," February 1966, p. 4-1; "Gemini VII Technical Debriefing," p. 4; TWX, Kenneth S. Kleinknecht to NASA Hq., Attn: Webb, and MSC, Attn: Gilruth, "Launch Summary Report, Gemini Mission VII," GT-11118, 4 Dec. 1965. 46 "Gemini VII Voice," I, pp. 5-19; "Gemini VII Debriefing," pp. 12-19; "Gemini VII Mission Report," pp. 7-2, -3; Borman and Lovell interviews. 47 "Gemini VII Voice," I, pp. 24, 29, 33 36, 42, 44, 48, 58, 59, 62, 66, 68, 73, 74; TWX, Kleinknecht to NASA Hq., Attn: Webb, and MSC, Attn: Gilruth, "Daily Report Number 1 - Gemini Mission VII," GT-11119, n.d. [5 Dec. 1965], pp. 6, 8-10, 12. 48 "Gemini VII Voice," I, pp. 125, 126, 133; "Gemini VII Debriefing," p. 27; TWX, Kleinknecht to NASA Hq., Attn: Webb, and MSC, Attn: Gilruth, "Daily Report No.2," GT11120, 6 Dec. 1965, pp. 6- 7. 49 Borman and Lovell interviews; letter, Gilruth to NASA Hq., Attn: Mueller, "Use of G-5C suits on Gemini VII," 29 Nov.1965; letter, Mueller to Gilruth, 3 Dec. 1965; letter, Mathews to NASA Hq., Attn: Mueller, "Removal of space suits during Gemini VII," GS-64097, 4 Dec. 1965, with enclosures, Gilruth letter, 29 Nov. 1965, and "Suit Procedures," n.d.; memo, Low for record, "Gemini 7 suit configuration," 7 Dec. 1965. 50 Borman interview; "Gemini VII Voice," I, pp. 134, 140, 173, 174, 179, 183, 216-18, 235-36, 296, 299, 303, 319, 323-24, 329-30, Vol. II, 341, 343, 441, 444-47, 453; TWX, Mathews to McDonnell, Attn: Burke, "Contract NAS 9-170, Gemini, Personalized Equipment for Spacecraft 7 Crew Members," GS-10038, 8 July 1965; TWX, Kleinknecht to NASA Hq., Attn: Webb, and MSC, Attn: Gilruth, "Daily Report No. 5," GT-11123, 9 Dec. 1965, p. 9. 51 TWX, Kleinknecht to NASA Hq., Attn: Webb, and MSC, Attn: Gilruth, "Daily Report No. 7," GT-11125, 11 Dec. 1965, pp. 8-9; memo, Day to Mueller, "Gemini VII Suit Configuration," 9 Dec. 1965; TWX, Mueller to MSC, Attn: Schneider, "Suit Operation for Gemini VII," M-468, 10 Dec. 1965; memo, Mueller to Gilruth, "G-5C Operational Test Procedure," 12 Dec. 1965; "Gemini VII Voice," II, p. 580; "Gemini VII Debriefing," p. 30. 52 "Gemini VII Debriefing," p. 175; "Gemini VII Mission Report," pp. 7-50, -51. 53 Kleinknecht, "Daily Report[s] No. 1," pp. 4, 6, 8, 9, "No. 3," GT-11121, 7 Dec., pp. 4-5, 6-7, "No. 5," pp. 4-5, 7, "No. 9," GT-11128, 14 Dec. 1965, p. 5; "Gemini VII Voice," II, pp. 359, 365; TWX, Mathews to McDonnell, Attn: Burke, GV-52652, 28 Dec. 1964.

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What is a Strategic Highway Safety Plan (SHSP)?An SHSP is a statewide-coordinated safety plan that provides a comprehensive framework for reducing highway fatalities and serious injuries on all public roads. The SHSP strategically establishes statewide goals, objectives and key emphasis areas developed in consultation with federal, state, local and private sector safety stakeholders. The SHSP plan process is a requirement of the Federal Highway Administration's Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP). In general, the federal HSIP requires that state transportation departments develop an SHSP that: - Includes consultation from a variety of stakeholders during the development process. - Analyzes and makes effective use of crash data. - Addresses the 4Es plus management and operations. (The 4Es are engineering, enforcement, education and emergency services.) - Considers the safety needs of all public roads. - Describes a program of projects or strategies to reduce or eliminate safety hazards. - Is implemented and evaluated. When will Iowa’s SHSP be revised?Over the next few months, the Iowa DOT, along with many highway safety interests, will discuss and then develop an updated Strategic Highway Safety Plan. Why now?The Iowa Comprehensive Highway Safety Plan was developed in 2006 and a peer review was conducted in 2011. It is time for an update. How is the Iowa SHSP developed?This effort is led by the Office of Traffic and Safety and will be similar to the 2006 Iowa Comprehensive Highway Safety Plan. The process will include collaboration to analyze Iowa safety data, and identify safety improvement strategies and opportunities. For more information, contact: SHSP program manager

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(NEW YORK) -- Young children exposed to a specific chemical, commonly present in plastic containers and metal cans used to hold food, may be at higher risk of developing asthma, according to a new study. The report, published in the Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, found a link between exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) and increased rates of asthma among children, according to HealthDay. BPA has previously been linked to respiratory problems, obesity, increased blood sugar levels, and behavioral issues. Dr. Kathleen Donohue, an assistant professor of medicine at Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, explained to HealthDay that the link between BPA and asthma is only an association, and not necessarily a cause. Investigators studied the levels of a form of BPA that is found in urine after exposure to the chemical in 568 women and their children. The measurements were first taken during the third trimester, and then when the children were 3, 5 and 7 years old. During each measurement, about 90 percent of the children had some BPA in their bodies. Interestingly, the researchers found that the children exposed to BPA after birth had increased rates of wheezing and asthma. The report found no connection between exposure to BPA during the third trimester and asthma rates. While some experts remain unconvinced, Dr. Len Horovitz, a pulmonary specialist at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York City, told HealthDay, "It is unclear what the mechanism is, but it seems clear there really is a mechanism." Horovitz recommended avoiding BPA as much as possible to HealthDay, saying that people should "stop using number 3 and number 7 plastics, use more glass containers, more metal containers." Copyright 2013 ABC News Radio

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The most effective why to learn vocabulary seems to be learning it in context – i.e. by reading and listening to lots of material in the language you’re learning and by doing your best to learn the new words you encounter, and also by trying to work out the meaning of unfamiliar words from the context. Maybe the first time you read or hear particular words they will mean nothing to you, but if you hear them again several times in different contexts you might be able to guess their meaning. If you can guess the meanings of words you’re likely to remember them better than if you use a dictionary. One useful exercise is to take a particular text or recording and to study it in detail. You could make sure that you know the meaning of all the words, that you understand the grammar and word order, and that you can pronounce everything. With recordings it might help to make a transcription, and with written texts it might help to have a native speaker record it for you, if possible, or to at least read them aloud to check your pronunciation. Once you have a in-depth understand of the material, you could take individual words from it and find related ones – synonyms (words with a similar meaning), homonyms (words with a similar sound but a different meaning), antonyms (words with the opposite meaning, e.g. up / down, in / out, etc), and words with related meanings (e.g. car, bus, train, etc). This will help build your vocabulary in a fairly systematic way, and is something you can dip into when the urge takes you rather than trying to do it all at once.

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the part of a plant or tree that grows under the ground and gets water from the soil: These plants produce a number of thin roots. the main cause of a problem cause of a problem be/lie at the root of something (=be the cause of something) Allergies are at the root of a lot of health problems. The love of money is the root of all evil. A competent mechanic should be able to get to the root of the problem (=find out the cause of a problem). the root causes of crime the origin or main part of something such as a custom, law, activity etc, from which other things have developed a legal system with roots in English common law Jazz has its roots in the folk songs of the southern states of the US. be/lie at the root of something the liberal economic policies which lie at the root of American power your relation to a place because you were born there, or your family used to live there: immigrants keeping in touch with their cultural roots Alex Haley's story about his search for his roots became a bestseller. if you put down roots somewhere, you start to feel that a place is your home and to have relationships with the people there: Because of her husband's job, they'd moved too often to put down roots anywhere. the part of a tooth, hair etc that connects it to the rest of your body: She'd pulled some of Kelly's hair out by the roots. if an idea, method, activity etc takes root, people begin to accept or believe it, or it begins to have an effect: Economists believe that economic recovery will begin to take root next year. if a plant takes root, it starts to grow where you have planted it 8 British English informal to search for something by moving other things around the basic part of a word which shows its main meaning, to which other parts can be added. For example, the word 'coldness' is formed from the root 'cold' and the suffix 'ness' [↪ stem] a number that, when multiplied by itself a certain number of times, equals the number that you have: 2 is the fourth root of 16. if you destroy or change something root and branch, you get rid of it or change it completely and permanently because it is bad: a root and branch reform of the electoral system

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Nickname: Fighting Tigers The Nickname: "Fighting Tigers" Way back in the fall of 1896, coach A.W. Jeardeau's LSU football team posted a perfect 6-0-0 record, and it was in that pigskin campaign that LSU first adopted its nickname, Tigers. 'Tigers' seemed a logical choice since most collegiate teams in that year bore the names of ferocious animals, but the underlying reason why LSU chose 'Tigers' dates back to the Civil War. According to Arthur W. Bergeron, Jr., PhD. and the "Guide to Louisiana Confederate Military Units, 1861-1865" (LSU Press, 1989), the name Louisiana Tigers evolved from a volunteer company nicknamed the Tiger Rifles, which was organized in New Orleans. This company became a part of a battalion commanded by Major Chatham Roberdeau Wheat and was the only company of that battalion to wear the colorful Zouave uniform. In time, Wheat's entire battalion was called the Tigers. That nickname in time was applied to all of the Louisiana troops of Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. The tiger symbol came from the famous Washington Artillery of New Orleans. A militia unit that traces its history back to the 1830s, the Washington Artillery had a logo that featured a snarling tiger's head. These two units first gained fame at the Battle of First Manassas on July 21, 1861. Major David French Boyd, first president of LSU after the war, had fought with the Louisiana troops in Virginia and knew the reputation of both the Tiger Rifles and Washington Artillery. Thus when LSU football teams entered the gridiron battlefields in their fourth year of intercollegiate competition, they tagged themselves as the 'Tigers'. It was the 1955 LSU 'fourth-quarter ball club' that helped the moniker 'Tigers' grow into the nickname, 'Fighting Tigers'. Thanks to Arthur W. Bergeron, Jr., PhD., a historian at the Pamplin Historical Park, for contributing to the above information. Colors: Purple and Gold There is some discrepancy in the origin of Royal Purple and Old Gold as LSU's official colors. It is believed that those colors were worn for the first time by an LSU team in the spring of 1893 when the LSU baseball squad beat Tulane in the first intercollegiate contest played in any sport by Louisiana State University. Team captain E.B. Young reportedly hand-picked those colors for the LSU squad. Later that year, the first football game was played. On November 25, 1893, football coach/chemistry professor Dr. Charles Coates and some of his players went into town to purchase ribbon to adorn their gray jerseys as they prepared to play the first LSU gridiron game. Stores were stocking ribbons in the colors of Mardi Gras -- purple, gold and green. -- for the coming Carnival season. However, none of the green had yet arrived at Reymond's Store at the corner of Third and Main streets. Coates and quarterback Ruffin Pleasant bought up all of the purple and gold stock and made it into rosettes and badges. Songs of LSU LSU Alma Mater Where stately oaks and broad magnolias shade inspiring halls, There stands our dear Old Alma Mater who to us recalls Fond memories that waken in our hearts a tender glow, And make us happy for the love that we have learned to know. All hail to thee our Alma Mater, molder of mankind, May greater glory, love unending be forever thine. Our worth in life will be thy worth we pray to keep it true, And may thy spirit live in us, forever L-S-U. "Fight For LSU" Like Knights of old, Let's fight to hold The glory of the Purple Gold. Let's carry through, Let's die or do To win the game for dear old LSU. Keep trying for that high score; Come on and fight, We want some more, some more. Come on you Tigers, Fight! Fight! Fight! for dear old L-S-U. "Hey Fighting Tiger" (Adapted from the original composition 'Hey, Look Me Over' from the Broadway production 'Wildcat'.) Hey, Fightin' Tigers, Fight all the way Play, Fightin' Tigers, win the game today. You've got the know how, you're doing fine, Hang on to the ball as you hit the wall And smash right through the line You've got to go for a touchdown Run up the score. Make Mike the Tiger stand right up and roar. Give it all of your might as you fight tonight and keep the goal in view. Victory for L-S-U! "Tiger Rag" (Hold that Tiger) Long ago, way down in the jungle Someone got an inspiration for a tune, And that jingle brought from the jungle Became famous mighty soon. Thrills and chills it sends thru you! Hot! so hot, it burns you too! Tho' it's just the growl of the tiger It was written in a syncopated way, More and more they howl for the 'Tiger' Ev'ry where you go today Where's that Tiger! Where's that Tiger! Where's that Tiger! Where's that Tiger! Hold that Tiger! Hold that Tiger! Hold that Tiger! "Touchdown for LSU" (Pregame) Tigers! Tigers! They've come to town, They fight! They fight! Call a first down, Just look them over, and how they can go, Smashing the line with runs and passes high and low. Touchdown! Touchdown! It's Tigers' score. Give them hell and a little bit more. Come on you Tigers, Fight them, you Tigers, Touchdown for LSU. Rah! U. Rah!

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Viator,Vol. 37 (2006) In 772, shortly after annexing his brother’s share of the Frankish kingdom, Charlemagne launched his first campaign against the Saxons. “No war taken up by the Frankish people was ever longer, harder or more dreadful,” wrote Einhard almost half a century later. For more than three decades (from 772 until 804) Charlemagne and his army were occupied with a bloody and protracted attempt to pacify and subdue the Saxons. A standard textbook narrative of the Saxon wars would go roughly like this: Charlemagne’s successful raid into Saxony in 772 opened the first phase of the Saxon wars. The reasons behind it are not at all clear. The so-called Annales regni Francorum, that is, the supposedly official court-based Frankish history, simply state that from Worms, where Charlemagne had held an assembly, he marched into Saxony. No Saxon rebellion or any other Saxon aggression are mentioned in connection with the Frankish attack, and it seems that once Charlemagne had managed to pacify Aquitaine, he decided to finish the job his father had already started in Saxony. Following the capture of Eresburg, Charlemagne and his army continued northwards, destroying on their way the enigmatic Irminsul. Charlemagne would have liked to continue his campaign in Saxony, but a desperate call for help from the pope forced him to leave Saxony and head southwards. The Saxon reaction was not late in coming. When Charlemagne and the Frankish army were busy in Italy, the Saxons invaded Hesse, plundering and destroying everything on their way.

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Table of Contents Image Captions 1. "Minnehaha Falls"| Floral home; or, First years of Minnesota. Early sketches, later settlements, and further developments, by Harriet E. Bishop (New York, 1857). Bibliographic Information | Page Image Viewer (Viewer linked to image 152) 2. "Chief Little Crow" 3. "Henry Belland, Voyageur" 4. "Fort Mackinac in 1905: Photograph from pasture southwest of the fort, between the village and the Grand Hotel" 5. "Jefferson's Plan, 1784"| Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Volume 11 (1888): 452-61. Bibliographic Information | Page Image Viewer (Viewer linked to image 470) 6. "This drawing by John T. McCutcheon appeared when Battle Creek was booming wheat flakes and cereal stocks. W. K. Kellogg liked the cartoon so much that he reproduced it later in a cornflake advertisement. The building in the background was the Sanitas food factory." 7. "Men of the Red Underground" 8. "The morning milk lunch for under-nourished school children, in an elementary school kitchen. Movement started in 1916" The History of the Upper Midwest: An Overview

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Fracking is short for ‘hydraulic fracturing,’ a term used to describe the process of pumping millions of gallons of pressurized water, sand and chemicals down a newly drilled well to blast out the surrounding shale rock and gas. It’s a relatively new technique that‘s made shale gas more popular in recent years. For a long time, shale gas — a natural gas that’s embedded in ancient rocks known as shale — was deemed as being not worth the trouble by drilling companies because it was so difficult to recover. The gas is embedded in rocks and the best way to get it out is to drill in sideways, which only became possible in the 1980s and 1990s as the gas industry improved its directional drilling technology. Later, technological advances that let drillers use more water pressure made fracking into an economically viable option for obtaining shale gas from the rocks. Read more about 'fracking' Shale is scattered throughout the United States. The two hottest shale sites in America right now are the Barnett Shale in Texas and the Marcellus shale, which is buried beneath seven states and part of Lake Erie. Other large shale deposits are located in Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Wyoming. Despite its potential, though, a movement has welled up lately to block the shale gas boom. Some critics say embracing natural gas so heartily will slow the rise of renewable energy, but the biggest beef with shale isn't as much about its gas — it's about how we get it out of the ground. Shale gas would likely still be a novelty fuel without modern advances in hydraulic fracturing, yet the need for fracking is also starting to seem like it could be shale's fatal flaw. The practice has sparked major environmental and public heath concerns near U.S. gas fields, from diesel fuel and unidentified chemicals in groundwater to methane seeping out of sink faucets and even blowing up houses.

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Does God Hear Our Prayers? Traditional Judaism answers with an emphatic The following article looks at the traditional ways in which Judaism explains the communication of Jews with God through prayer. At the end, the author raises some questions that many modern Jews have asked about prayer and God's answer to it. Reprinted with permission from The Way Into Jewish Prayer (Jewish Lights). The traditional view of prayer is relatively straightforward. The Bible, for instance, takes it for granted that people have conversations with God the same way they do with each other. To take but one example, Moses pleads with God to pardon Israel's sins, and God duly responds, "I have pardoned, just as you say" (Numbers 14:20). Sometimes God initiates the conversation; sometimes human beings do. But either way, God appears here as an all-knowing and all-powerful being who welcomes our praise and, if we are deserving, acts positively on our requests. By the second half of the second century B.C.E., the leaders whom we call the Rabbis were coming into being. So influential were they for all the rest of Jewish history that Jews today are universally rabbinic through and through. Jewish tradition is the Hebrew scriptures that Jews call the Bible plus the voluminous writings of the Rabbis of antiquity and the subsequent, equally monumental work of other Jewish leaders, also called rabbis, from the Middle Ages up to and including our own day. We customarily differentiate the Rabbis who laid the foundation for rabbinic Judaism until roughly the middle of the sixth century C.E. from the rabbis who are their spiritual descendants by capitalizing the first term but using lowercase for the second. By the year 200 C.E., the Rabbis had recorded their views on prayer (as on everything else) in a compendium called the Mishnah. By 400 C.E., further generations of Rabbis in the Land of Israel had composed a larger work called the Palestinian Talmud. And somewhere around 550 C.E., Rabbis in Babylonia (present-day Iraq) compiled a monumental work (some 16,000 pages in the standard English translation) called the Babylonian Talmud, or sometimes just the Talmud because of its size and influence. From all of these works, we see that the Rabbis viewed God more or less as their biblical forbears. They knew that unlike the prophets, however, they themselves never heard God speak, so they concluded that actual prophecy had ceased. Apparently God didn't initiate conversations any more. But the Rabbis were equally certain that God still hears our prayers, and sometimes even answers them by granting the things we pray for. They were sure, in fact, that God wants us to pray--and not just as the mood strikes us, but regularly, and in community, not alone.

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Behaviorism is an approach within psychology based on the proposition that behavior, human as well as animal, can be researched scientifically and understood without recourse to inner mental states. Three major figures led to the development of this approach: Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner. Their research produced theories of learning based entirely on reactions, or "responses," by the organism (human or animal), directly to stimuli in the environment through processes of conditioning. This was a significant turning point in psychology as a scientific discipline, and led to extensive research in comparative psychology and experimental psychology, providing valuable data on how both animals and humans learn appropriate responses to their external environment. While such theories are no longer considered adequate to explain all forms of learning and behavior, nonetheless, methodologies developed through such studies continue to be utilized in numerous research programs that have greatly expanded understanding of human nature. Behaviorism was developed with the mandate that only observations that satisfied the criteria of the scientific method, namely that they must be repeatable at different times and by independent observers, were to be admissible as evidence. This effectively dismissed introspection, the main technique of psychologists following Wilhelm Wundt's experimental psychology, the dominant paradigm in psychology in the early twentieth century. Thus, behaviorism can be seen as a form of materialism, denying any independent significance to processes of the mind. A similar approach may be found in political science, known as "Behavioralism." The behaviorist school of thought ran concurrent with psychoanalytic movement, originated by the work of Sigmund Freud, who was also a proponent of a mechanistic view of human nature, but regarded the mind, particularly the unconscious, as the arena in which uniquely human activities occurred. One of the assumptions many behaviorists hold is that free will is an illusion. As a result, behaviorism dictates that all behavior is determined by a combination of genetic factors and the environment, either through classical or operant conditioning. Its main instigators were Ivan Pavlov, who investigated classical conditioning, John B. Watson who coined the term "behaviorism," and sought to restrict psychology to experimental methods, and B.F. Skinner who sought to give grounding to behaviorism, conducting research on operant conditioning. - Learning: A change in behavior attributed to the result of experience. - Parsimony: The principle that states in the philosophy of science, a person should always opt for the simplest explanation. - Stimulus: Anything that may affect the environment and thereby affect an individual's behavior. - Response: Any reaction to a stimulus. For behaviorists, the response is limited to any measurable behavior. - Reflex: An unlearned response that is triggered by certain stimuli. - Voluntary Response: A response that the individual has control over. - Classical Conditioning: The study of learning that focuses on reflex responses. - Operant Conditioning: The study of learning that focuses on the changes in voluntary responses as a result of their consequences. - Radical Behaviorism: A position adopted by Watson and Skinner, which stated that the study of internal processes are impossible to study objectively and are irrelevant to understanding a person's behavior. - Behavior Modification: Applying conditioning principles to alter a person's behavior. - Equipotentiality: The idea that the principles of condition should apply to all behaviors and all species. - Ethology: The study of the behavior of animals in their natural habitat. - Species-specific Behavior: Sometimes referred to as instincts, these are behaviors that are characteristic of a specific species. The founders of behaviorism Early in the twentieth century, Watson argued, in his book Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist, for a psychology which concerned itself solely with the objective observation of behavior. At the time, this was a substantial break from the predominant structuralist psychology, which used the method of introspection and considered the study of behavior obsolete. Watson, unlike many of his colleagues, studied the adjustment of organisms to their environment. More specifically, he was interested in determining the particular stimuli that led organisms to make their responses. Watson's approach was much influenced by the work of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered the phenomenon of classical conditioning in his famous study of dogs' digestive systems. Watson adopted Pavlov's model, emphasizing physiological responses and the role of stimuli in producing conditioned responses. For this reason, Watson may be described as a "stimulus-response" (S-R) psychologist. Watson's theory persuaded most academic researchers of the importance of behavioral study. In the field of comparative psychology in particular, it was consistent with the warning note that had been struck by Lloyd Morgan's canon, against some of the more anthropomorphic work, such as that of George Romanes, in which mental states had been freely attributed to animals. Watson's approach was eagerly seized on by researchers such as Edward L. Thorndike who had been studying cats' abilities to escape from puzzle boxes. However, most psychologists took up a position that is now called "methodological behaviorism:" They acknowledged that behavior was either the only, or the most effective, method of objective observation in psychology. Among well-known twentieth century behaviorists taking this position were Clark L. Hull, who described his position as "neo-behaviorism," and Edward C. Tolman, who developed much of what would later become the cognitivist program. Tolman (1948) argued that rats constructed "cognitive maps" of the mazes they learned to run, even in the absence of reward, and that the connection between stimulus and response (S->R) was mediated by a third component—the organism (S->O->R). Methodological behaviorism has remained the position of most experimental psychologists. With the rise of interest in animal cognition since the 1980s, and more unorthodox views, such as Donald Griffin's (1976) argument that animals have conscious minds like those of humans, mentalistic language increasingly came to be used even in discussions of animal psychology, in both comparative psychology and ethology. However, even discussion of consciousness is in no way inconsistent with the position of methodological behaviorism. B.F. Skinner, who carried out experimental work in the field of comparative psychology from the 1930s to the 1950s, remained behaviorism's best known theorist and exponent until his death in 1990. Skinner developed a distinct kind of behaviorist philosophy, which came to be called "radical behaviorism." He is credited with having founded a new version of psychological science, called behavioral analysis, or the "Experimental Analysis of Behavior," (EAB) after variations on the subtitle to his 1938 work, The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis Of Behavior. While EAB differs from other approaches of behavioral research on numerous methodological and theoretical points, radical behaviorism departs from methodological behaviorism most notably in its acceptance of the treatment of feelings, states of mind, and introspection as existent and scientifically treatable. However, radical behaviorism stops short of identifying feelings as causes of behavior. Among other points of difference was a rejection of the reflex as a model of all behavior, and the defense of a science of behavior complementary to, but independent of, physiology. This philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books The Behavior of Organisms (1938) and Schedules of Reinforcement (1957, with C. B. Ferster). Of particular importance was his discovery of the "operant response," which is famously remembered through what became known as "Skinner Box." An operant response contrasts with a reflex response in that it consists of a class of structurally distinct, but functionally equivalent, responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw, its right paw, or even its tail, all of these different responses operate on the world in the same way and achieve a common outcome, namely, the depression of the lever. Thus, operants may be thought of as a series of responses that achieve similar ends or consequences. Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research of trial-and-error learning by researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie. Skinner also observed the effects of different schedules of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by the animals. He achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities within behavior. These findings lent some credibility to his radical conceptual analysis. Relation to language As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language. His book, Verbal Behavior (1957) laid out a theory for the functional analysis of verbal behavior. The book was strongly criticized by the linguist Noam Chomsky (1959). Skinner did not respond in detail; but later he claimed that "[Chomsky] doesn’t know what I am talking about and for some reason is unable to understand it" (Skinner 1972). What was important for a behaviorist analysis of human behavior was not language acquisition, so much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. In an essay republished in his 1969 book, Contingencies of Reinforcement, Skinner took the view that human beings could construct linguistic stimuli, which would then acquire control over their behavior in the same way that external stimuli could. The possibility of such "instructional control" over behavior meant that contingencies of reinforcement would not always produce the same effects on human behavior with the same reliability as they did in the various animals that had been studied. Behaviorism in philosophy In many ways, behaviorism is both a psychological and a philosophical movement. The basic premise of radical behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be an empirical science, such as chemistry or physics. Behaviorists sought to create a discipline that forsook all hypothetical and subjective internal states of the organisms they studied. There are approaches within analytic philosophy that have named themselves, or have been coined by others, as behaviorist. In logical behaviorism (as held, for example, by Rudolf Carnap and Carl Hempel), the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which consist of performed overt behavior. Quine made use of a type of behaviorism, influenced by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language. Gilbert Ryle defended a distinct strain of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his book The Concept of Mind, in which his central claim was that instances of dualism frequently represented "category mistakes," and hence that they were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. Daniel Dennett likewise has acknowledged himself to be a type of behaviorist (Bennett 1993). It has sometimes been argued that Ludwig Wittgenstein defended a behaviorist position, and there are important areas of overlap between his philosophy, logical behaviorism, and radical behaviorism. (For example, the "beetle in a box" argument in which Wittgenstein referred to the concept wherein someone imagines that everyone has a box with a beetle inside. No one can look inside anther's box, and each claims to know what a beetle is only by examining their own. Wittgenstein suggested that in such a situation, the word "beetle" could not be the name of a thing, since everyone may perceive the beetle differently; the beetle "drops out of consideration as irrelevant.") However, Wittgenstein was not a behaviorist, and his style of writing is sufficiently elliptical to allow for a range of interpretations. Mathematician Alan Turing has also sometimes been considered a behaviorist, but did not make this identification himself. Criticisms of behaviorism Behaviorism can be critiqued as an overly deterministic view of human behavior—by ignoring the internal psychological and mental processes, behaviorism oversimplifies the complexity of human behavior. Some would even argue that the strict nature of radical behaviorism essentially defines human beings as mechanisms without free will. The behaviorist approach has also been criticized for its inability to account for learning or changes in behavior that occur in the absence of environmental input; such occurrences signal the presence of an internal psychological or mental process. Finally, research by ethologists has shown that the principles of conditioning are not universal, countering the behaviorist claim of equipotentiality across conditioning principles. Behaviorism was developed as a counter to the introspective approach that relied primarily, if not entirely, on internal, self-reflection on conscious, mental activity. While radical behaviorism may be quite limited in its explanatory power, nonetheless, it served an important role in allowing psychology to develop a scientific pursuit of knowledge about human nature and behavior. Nevertheless, the link between stimulus and response is not just a simple, direct, cause and effect relationship. Factors beyond the stimulus are involved in determining the response. Actions occur based on purpose, and purpose is determined by the mind of the subject. Thus, a more complete understanding of human behavior would need to include both the external actions of the body and the inner life of the mind. Despite such criticisms of behaviorism, the study of operant and classical conditioning has greatly contributed to the understanding of human behavior in psychology. Even though no longer an authoritative voice, behaviorism was the dominant force in North American psychology for a considerable period of the twentieth century. A natural outgrowth of behaviorism is behavior therapy, a technique of altering an individual's maladaptive reactions to particular stimuli. It involves the most basic of methods to alter human behavior, such as reward and punishment, reinforcement, and even biofeedback, using conditioning techniques. The cultivation of life skills is often a central focus. While founded in behaviorism, such forms of behavior modification are used by psychotherapists, parents, and caretakers of the disabled, generally without any underlying behaviorist philosophy. Behaviorism developed as a reaction to the introspective approach, which was unsuccessful in explaining mental processes. In many ways, behaviorism paved the way for a new, scientifically based psychology, which greatly advanced understanding of human behavior. - Baum, W.M. 2005. Understanding Behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution. Blackwell. - Bennett, Daniel C. 1993. The Message Is: There is No Medium. Philosophy & Phenomenological Research. 53(4): 889-931. - Chomsky, Noam. 1959. "A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior." Language. 35 (1): 26-58. - Ferster, C. B., and B. F. Skinner. 1957. Schedules of Reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. - Griffin, Donald R. 1976. Question of Animal Awareness. ISBN 0865760020. - Lattal, K.A., and P.N. Chase. 2003. Behavior Theory and Philosophy. Plenum. - Mills, John A. 2000. Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology. New York University Press. - Plotnik, Rod. 2005. Introduction to Psychology. Thomson-Wadsworth. ISBN 0534634079. - Rachlin, H. 1991. Introduction to Modern Behaviorism, 3rd edition. New York: Freeman. - Skinner, B.F. 1938. The Behavior of Organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. - Skinner, B.F. 1945. "The operational analysis of psychological terms" Psychological Review. 52: 270-277, 290-294. - Skinner, B.F. 1953. Science and Human Behavior. ISBN 0029290406. - Skinner, B.F. 1957. Verbal Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. - Skinner, B.F. 1969. Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. - Skinner, B.F. 1972. "I Have Been Misunderstood…." In Center Magazine. March-April pages 63. - Skinner, B. F. 1981. "Selection by consequences." In Science 213: 501-514. - Skinner, B.F. 2002. Beyond Freedom & Dignity. Hackett Publishing. - Staddon, J. 2001. The New Behaviorism: Mind, Mechanism, and Society. Philadelphia: Psychology Press. - Tolman, E.C. 1948. "Cognitive maps in rats and men." Psychological Review. 55: 189-208. - Watson, J.B. 1913. Psychology as the behaviorist views it. In Psychological Review. 20: 158-177. - Watson, J.B. 1919. Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist. - Watson, J.B. 1924. Behaviorism. - Zuriff, G.E. 1985. Behaviorism: A Conceptual Reconstruction. Columbia University Press. All links retrieved January 15, 2013. - Books and Journal Articles On Behaviorism. - Operant Conditioning and Behaviorism - a historical outline. - B.F. Skinner Foundation. - The Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies. - Classics in the History of Psychology. - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry. - Association for Behavior Analysis International. - Behavior Analysis Division 25 of the American Psychological Association. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

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January 5, 2012 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS The Herpevac Trial for Women Updated January 5, 2012 The Herpevac trial for women is a clinical study investigating a vaccine to protect women against genital herpes disease. The trial, which began in 2002 and concluded in 2010, was conducted at 50 sites in the United States and Canada and was sponsored by GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) Biologicals in cooperation with the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), part of the NIH. The study chair is Robert Belshe, M.D., director of the Center for Vaccine Development at the Saint Louis University School of Medicine in Missouri. The Herpevac Trial for Women involved 8,323 women ages 18-30. At the time of their enrollment, the study participants were free of the two common types of herpes simplex viruses (HSV): HSV-1, the primary cause of cold sores and an increasing cause of genital herpes, and HSV-2, the common cause of genital herpes. Approximately 31,000 women were screened in order to identify eligible participants. The study was a randomized, double-blind, controlled Phase III clinical trial. Participants were randomly assigned to receive either the investigational herpes vaccine or a version of Havrix, an FDA-approved, licensed vaccine to protect against hepatitis A. This was done to give all participants an opportunity to be protected against either genital herpes or hepatitis A. GSK developed the candidate herpes vaccine and is also the manufacturer of Havrix. The investigational herpes vaccine is a subunit vaccine containing a glycoprotein from HSV along with an adjuvant to boost immune response. The Havrix vaccine administered to study participants was provided at a lower dose and smaller volume than it is routinely provided in medical practice. This was done to ensure that the vaccine could be administered in the same number of doses as the candidate herpes vaccine. Each volunteer was vaccinated at the beginning of the study and again after one month and six months following the first injection. The participants were followed for 20 months after the initial injection and evaluated for HSV infection and genital herpes disease. Throughout the study, participants were regularly counseled on how to reduce their risk of acquiring HSV. The trial was successfully conducted according to protocol and met statistical targets in terms of enrollment and participant follow up. The vaccine proved to be well-tolerated and its safety profile was similar to that observed in previous trials. According to the initial data analysis publicly announced in September 2010, the trial produced a point estimate of overall vaccine effectiveness of 20 percent with a confidence interval that included zero. In other words, the vaccine was not effective at preventing genital herpes disease among the study population of women. At that time, study collaborators stated that evaluation of the trial data would continue and that a more detailed analysis would be provided at a later time. A subsequent, more detailed analysis published in the New England Journal of Medicine on Jan. 5, 2012, found that the investigational vaccine provided some protection against HSV-1, although it did not protect against HSV-2. Specifically, there were 58 percent fewer cases of genital herpes caused by HSV-1 and 35 percent fewer HSV-1 infections among women who received the investigational vaccine, compared to those who received the control vaccine. The recent analysis also found that among women enrolled in the control group, HSV-1 caused more cases of genital herpes than HSV-2. RB Belshe et al. Efficacy results of a trial of a herpes simplex vaccine. New England Journal of Medicine 366(1):26-35 (2012). The Herpevac Trial for Women produced important scientific information to guide future research toward a vaccine to prevent genital herpes. It also provided emerging data about genital herpes and the changing role of HSV-1 in infection. An estimated one in four women in the United States has genital herpes, making it one of the most common infectious diseases. HSV, the cause of genital herpes disease, may be transmitted through sexual or other skin-to-skin contact, and can be spread even when the infected individual shows no symptoms. Once in the body, HSV migrates to nerve cells and remains there permanently where it can reactivate to cause painful outbreaks in the infected individual. HSV can cause severe illness in infants born to HSV-infected women, and the virus has been identified as a risk factor for HIV transmission in adults. There is no cure for herpes infection, and there is no vaccine to prevent it. When the investigational vaccine was tested in two earlier studies involving fewer men and women who did not have genital herpes but whose sexual partners were known to be infected, the candidate vaccine prevented genital herpes disease in more than 70 percent of the female volunteers but had no clear effect in men. Further, the candidate vaccine reduced by roughly 40 percent the risk of developing antibodies to herpes, which are used as an indicator that a person has been infected with HSV. These studies formed the basis for conducting the larger Herpevac study. Results of these two earlier studies were published in November 2002 in the New England Journal of Medicine. Reference: LR Stanberry et al. Glycoprotein-D-adjuvant vaccine to prevent genital herpes. New England Journal of Medicine 347(21):1652-1661 (2002). Though it failed to reach its primary goal, the Herpevac Trial for Women produced important scientific information to guide future research toward a vaccine to prevent genital herpes. The researchers suspect that the differences between the 2002 studies and the Herpevac Trial were due to immunologic and behavioral differences in the populations studied, which may have affected participants’ protection from HSV-1 and HSV-2. The trial results also provided emerging data about genital herpes and the changing role of HSV-1 in infection. Although HSV-1 is typically associated with cold sores and HSV-2 with genital lesions, HSV-1 has become a growing cause of genital disease, an observation echoed in this analysis. Among women enrolled in the control group of the Herpevac trial, HSV-1 was found to cause more cases of genital herpes than HSV-2. Participant safety was closely monitored throughout the trial, both by the study investigators and by a data and safety monitoring board (DSMB). The DSMB is an independent committee composed of clinical research experts, herpes virus experts, and statisticians that provides additional oversight of a clinical study. The DSMB regularly reviews data while a clinical trial is in progress to ensure the safety of participants and that any benefits shown in the study are quickly made available to all participants. The investigational herpes vaccine used in the trial had been previously tested in more than 7,000 volunteers; results from these studies suggested that it was well-tolerated and safe. No. The herpes vaccine formulation used in the study did not contain live virus and was incapable of infecting participants with herpes virus. The candidate vaccine contained only a specific fragment of a herpes virus protein to stimulate immune responses. Yes. Researchers will continue to examine serum samples from the Herpevac study to better understand why the vaccine protected women from genital disease caused by HSV-1, but not HSV-2. For more information about the Herpevac study, see Study Finds Genital Herpes Vaccine Ineffective in Women. For additional information about genital herpes, visit NIAID's Genital Herpes website. NIAID conducts and supports research—at NIH, throughout the United States, and worldwide—to study the causes of infectious and immune-mediated diseases, and to develop better means of preventing, diagnosing and treating these illnesses. News releases, fact sheets and other NIAID-related materials are available on the NIAID Web site at www.niaid.nih.gov. About the National Institutes of Health (NIH): NIH, the nation's medical research agency, includes 27 Institutes and Centers and is a component of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIH is the primary federal agency conducting and supporting basic, clinical, and translational medical research, and is investigating the causes, treatments, and cures for both common and rare diseases. For more information about NIH and its programs, visit www.nih.gov. NIH...Turning Discovery Into Health ® back to top Last Updated January 05, 2012 Last Reviewed September 29, 2010

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freeMem:170,474,336 totMem:461,963,264 reqNum:1093447 openSessions:0 generationTime:2013/05/22 16:25:18 979 Topics - 5229 Related Knowledge - 11257 Members - 47 Editors Navigate the Atlas: Text-only Printer-friendly version In fisheries and aquaculture, precaution is an indispensable and vital attitude. Many activities involved with fishing and farming fish involve a very high degree of risk. Anticipating threats and trying to avoid damage to equipment and installations, to protect farmed stock, or to prevent harm to owner or the consumers' health is in the interest of fishers and fish farmers. While fishers and fish farmers are used to deal with highly variable environmental and climatic conditions, it is also known however that in many cases of climatic or environmental emergencies, which have affected fisheries, significant damage and economic loss could have been prevented by forethought, preparation and vigilance. Being informed and prepared reduces the impact of surprise. Precautionary action, to be effective in emergencies, requires assessment of risks, including identification of uncertainties, definition of priorities (including priority resources, priorities for protection), and clear response strategies, i.e. setting priorities of action, and their timing and location, which may involve aspects of organization and management, communication, equipment and manpower, training and exercises, public awareness campaigns, etc. In fisheries, generally, there is scope for developing and improving emergency preparedness and contingency planning. Not only fisheries, but many sectors deal with emergencies, risks and uncertainties, and approaches of risk management and contingency planning have been developed, for example, in the realms of natural disaster planning and mitigation, food safety and public health assurance, environmental hazard assessment and management, insurance business, etc. Fisheries stakeholders can learn from such approaches and experiences made by others. In general, major risks confronting fishers and fish farmers can be divided into following general categories: asset risks, production and management risks, and market risks and personal and health risks. Asset risks include loss of or damage to fishing vessels, equipment, and gear and aquaculture installations, as a result of natural or man-made disasters. Production and management risks involve the loss of catch, production failure and fish disease. Market risks relate to changes in the prices of outputs and inputs, as well as increases in interest rates. Personal and health risks include accidents at sea and death and job-related illnesses. Of significance can be changes in consumer behaviour, especially if fish and fishery products are being associated with potential harm to human health, social well-being and environmental integrity. There is increasing experience with developing and implementing fisheries insurance schemes. However, overall, there is still significant scope for further promoting such schemes, particularly in developing countries. In view of the high level of risk and the many types of risks associated with fisheries and aquaculture, private insurance companies are still reluctant to get involved in this sector, particularly, in traditional small-scale fisheries and fish-farming activities, and especially those in developing countries. However, fisheries insurance should be viewed from the perspective of the small-scale fishers and fish farmers, which comprise the majority of the fishers population in developing countries. Such fishers need protection against losses caused by natural and humanmade disasters. Fisheries insurance schemes are therefore indispensable and government support is necessary for their establishment. The advantages and benefits provided by fisheries insurance vary from scheme to scheme. However, in general, the principal benefits of fisheries insurance are: - protecting fishers and fish farmers against accidents and natural hazards beyond their control; - providing basic compensation for the loss of or damage to fishing vessels, gear and catch (or harvest), thus contributing to stabilization of incomes within the fisheries sector; - reducing the risk to financial institutions, which provide credit to fishers and fish farmers, in relation to fisheries credit; - reducing the risk for fishers and fish farmers in investing their own resources in the adoption of new technologies and acquiring improved equipment; - fostering mutual assistance and cooperation among fishers, fish farmers and their organizations; - reducing the unpredictable burden on government of providing emergency assistance in the wake of natural disasters; - promoting stability in fishery enterprises and contributing to the general welfare of fisheries communities; and, - stabilizing the contribution of the fisheries sector to national economy. Difficulties and problems that arise with respect to the introduction of fisheries insurance schemes include the following: - limited financial resources; - inadequate benchmark data on the extent of damage to vessels, gear, catches and production, ponds, cages and other aquaculture installations; - a wide variety of diverse fishing and aquaculture practices, - little apparent demand for insurance; - exclusion of small-scale fishers and fish farmers from insurance; - lack of well-established village institutions, such as co-operatives, to act as insurance agents; - lack of legal framework for fisheries insurance; - lack of related government policy; - difficulty in promoting insurance policies, designing sustainable insurance programmes and coordinating the work of the agencies concerned; - difficulty of covering credit projects under insurance schemes; - high cost of premiums and providing appropriate levels of benefits; - speed and transparency of claims settlement; - lack of trained personnel; - lack of understanding of the value of insurance; and - lack of reliable actuarial data for establishing premium rates. Examples of contingency planning and emergency response measures Measures to mitigate the impact of hurricanes and cyclones on fisheries may include: - assessment of risk and vulnerability to, and the economic implications of, storm damage to fisheries, highlighting weaknesses and strengths in existing practices and successful attempts to protect boats, fishing gear and infrastructure; - development and dissemination of simple methods of improving land protection, minimizing erosion, introduction of more storm-resistant agricultural crops and planting of forestry windbreaks or shelterbelts; - development and dissemination of improved measures and techniques such as infrastructure construction (e.g. storm shelters, fishing jetties and mooring buoys); installation of storm warning systems including radio relay stations, shore-to-boat and boat-to-boat communication networks; supply of life-saving appliances; boat modification and motorization programmes; establishment of local sea and storm safety committees and an effective search and rescue capability, and provision of training and technical advice on sea safety; demonstration and training programmes, including national and sub-regional workshops on hurricane/cyclone impact mitigation, and production of training programmes and materials for farmers, forestry staff, fishers and extensionists. In case of oil spills affecting or threatening fisheries and aquaculture operations, response options may include application of protection and clean up techniques, e.g. using booms and other physical barriers, sorbent materials, and dispersants at safe distance from fish stock. Fishery closures can be imposed after an oil spill in order to prevent or minimise fishing gear contamination and to protect or reassure seafood consumers. Fishers can agree to a voluntary suspension of fishing activity as a precautionary measure during a period when oil is drifting in their normal fishing area, and thereby avoid repeatedly contaminating fishing gear. Aquaculture-specific options may include moving floating facilities out of the path of slicks, sinking of specially designed cages to allow oil to pass, transfer of stock to areas unlikely to be affected, reduction or suspension of feeding, temporarily suspending the replenishment of seawater, in the case of land-based installations. In some cases aquaculture operators may face the risk of ultimately losing all the stock due to oil spill damage. Harvesting before the stock becomes oiled might be possible, albeit selling the products at a lower price, and thereby salvaging some of its value. Conversely, normal harvesting could be delayed to allow contaminated stock to depurate and become taint-free. In an oil spill, it is vital to communicate information to the media and the public in an effective manner on the likelihood of adverse consequences for fishery resources. Inaccurate public information about tainting and contamination may limit the range of management strategies available, causing unnecessary fishing and harvesting restrictions and/or loss of consumer confidence in the market. Risk communication is an ongoing process that must be addressed in both spill response planning as well as during the spill event. Information about risk can be communicated through a variety of channels, from media reports to public meetings. In the case of harmful algal blooms affecting aquaculture operations countermeasures at farm level may ideally include: (i) provision of multiple water intakes (e.g. pumping of plankton-free water from various depths); (ii) vertical movement of cultured organisms (e.g. sinking of cages); (iii) relocating of culture units to unaffected areas which requires detachable moorings and towable structures; (iv) pre-emptive harvesting; (v) reduction of food supply and stress to lower metabolism of cultured stock; (vi) on-site shielding of stock (e.g. bubble curtains, injection of clear water, non-porous barriers); (vii) cortisone treatment to reduce gill-swelling. These are options that realistically would require significant investment, which in many cases is rather unlikely given the socio-economic living conditions of many fish farmers. Examples of contingency planning in aquatic animal health management are described in Emergencies in aquaculture - disease outbreaks. Governments may have a role to play in the promotion of aquaculture production and fishing activities in unpolluted waters and low risk areas that should be combined with hazard assessment and regular monitoring of environmental conditions. In general, systematic collection of information on apparent pollution events or other patterns of environmental deterioration may prove very useful for various purposes such as early detection/early warning schemes (e.g., on oil spills, phytoplankton blooms); improved demarcation of pollution-exposed areas (e.g., changing patterns of distribution/expansion of contamination); and record-keeping of chronology/history of events (frequency, duration, time of year, etc.). The FAO Fisheries Department is committed, in its medium-term programme 2000-2005, to provide member countries with information and indicators to better forecast emergencies and disasters in fisheries and aquaculture. In particular, the activities will aim at the Promotion of ecosystem/environmental information and management by developing, testing, documenting and disseminating approaches, methodologies, models and procedures for effectively utilizing information on environmental variation and biological community composition in its applications to fishery management and industrial and small-scale fisheries. The work would also include advice on ecological and environmental applications to members' countries, and regional fishery bodies.

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