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While the main focus of solar energy production is on the environmental effects, as it should be, it’s also a good idea to think about the economic angle as well. So for example, a joint venture between the local council and E.On is going to have 4,000 new solar panels installed on the roofs of council properties in Stoke-on-Trent. This is going to cut carbon emissions and reduce energy bills, but it is also going to create around 100 jobs. The Green Economy If as a country, or as a planet really, we are going to avoid the worst effects of global warming, then we are going to have to run our economy with clean, renewable sources of energy like solar energy. This means that houses are going to have to have more solar panels installed, as are businesses. And in order for all of this to happen, there are going to have to be more people making and installing solar panels. There are all sorts of jobs connected with having solar panels installed. For example, there’s the installers themselves, but also electricians, roofers, scaffolders, delivery drivers, team leaders and so on. That’s not even to mention the factory workers that are going to make the solar panels. For large projects like the one in Stoke then, there are going to be job opportunities for lots of these sorts of people. And it certainly is a large job, it is going to cost £4m, and there should be in excess of 8,000 solar panels installed. The more people that are in the green sector of the economy, particularly the more solar energy companies, the more business they will be looking to generated. This should lead to more solar installations, a greater supply of solar installers and so therefore a higher supply. This should lead to lower costs, and therefore a higher demand. In this way, the green sector should grow. Will it Help the Economy? When it comes to the economy as a whole, however, it is more complicated as regards whether it is going to help to have more emphasis on solar energy. You could say, from one point of view, that it is certainly going to help to the extent that global warming could make it impossible to have an economy at all if all in the future of the dire predictions come true. If we stick to the present though, it is questionable whether it is going to help or not. When the government spends money, that is money that they take from other people, through taxes, and this stimulates certain areas. However, if people were allowed to spend the money themselves, other areas would be stimulated and it would create the same amount of economic activity. It is also not certain whether jobs created through government money are sustainable since they will go away if the government pulls the funding. On the whole then, it probably does not benefit the economy as a whole. However it is so important that we actually deal with global warming that the government investing in solar energy is still probably a good idea. Solar Energy UK If you would like a free quote for solar panels on your roof, get in touch with Solar Energy UK for today.

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Aswan High Dam on the Nile River Aswan-- On 15 January 1971, Egypt celebrated the completion of the High Dam, whose funding was the center of a Cold War dispute that led to the 1956 Suez War. Located on the Upper Nile, around 1000km downstream from Cairo, the gigantic mountain of concrete and steel is among the 20th century's most elaborate engineering work. Aswan High Dam on the Nile River is located at the north end of Lake Nasser. The construction of the High Dam began in 1960, and it was officially inaugurated ten years later, at a cost of US$1 billion, much of which was provided by the former Soviet Union. The dam stores 160 billion cubic meters of water, and the reservoir behind it, named Lake Nasser, stretches some 350km into Egypt and 150km into Sudan. It is a symbol for Egyptians patience and challenge. The Suez Crisis began on 26 July 1956 when Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal. The move was in response to a decision by the United States and Britain to withdraw finance for the Aswan High Dam - a massive project to bring water to the Nile valley and electricity to develop Egypt's industry - because of Egypt's political and military ties to the Soviet Union. The world-famous High Dam was an engineering miracle when it was built in the 1960s. Today it provides irrigation and electricity for the whole of Egypt and, together with the old Aswan Dam, 6km downriver, wonderful views for visitors. From the top of the two mile-long High Dam you can gaze across Lake Nasser, the huge reservoir created when it was built to Kalabsha temple in the south and the huge power station to the north. The story of the High Dam was a tale of a nation, hikayit sha‘b, as Abdel Halim Hafiz chanted in an iconic song from the Nasserist period. This nation lived under the yoke of British colonialism for over 70 years. After gaining independence, Egypt's revolutionary president, Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser, approached the World Bank to finance the construction of a dam on the Nile, a vital step towards economic development. The World Bank refused. In an audacious challenge to old and new imperialism, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956 to acquire funding for the project. The struggling nation heroically endured subsequent military assaults and a trade embargo. The dam was eventually built. The story of the High Dam at Aswan is indeed the tale of this nation. The stages of its history chronicle critical transformations in Egyptian history at large. During the last half century, the dam moved from being a celebrated monument to Egyptian independence to a forgotten barrage deep in the country's south. It was a state-engineered tool of anti-imperialist propaganda, whose splendor faded away with the downfall and fundamental reversion of the anti-imperial project. In other words Egypt had monopoly of the waters. On behalf of its colonial possessions - Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda - Britain, which was primarily concerned with the Suez Canal and the passage to India, signed away their most precious resource. Egypt had the right to veto any project along the Nile and full rights of inspection. In 1959, this deal was overtaken by a new agreement between Egypt and Sudan splitting the waters 75 per cent to 25 per cent and guaranteeing Cairo "full control of the river". The results of this control are nowhere more clearly seen than at Lake Nasser, a man-made reservoir 550km-long, created when Egypt completed the Aswan high dam. The country's largest engineering project took six years to build and another five years to fill. Some 55.5 billion cu m of water gush from the Aswan dam into Egypt annually. It has enabled Cairo to regulate the life-giving annual flood, to irrigate its otherwise parched landscape, and at the point it was finished supplied half the country's electricity needs. Nasser was in need of a success, a success to rival that of the Suez Canal, which is a 190 km-long man-made waterway linking the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. The French dug the Suez Canal 97 years before Nasser took the decision to nationalize it. Nasser took the decision to nationalize the Suez Canal just two years before it was supposed to revert back to Egyptian control. This was used as justification by three countries [Britain, France and Israel] to launch a tripartite strike against Egypt. The President's decision to cancel the contract just two years before its expiry date made it seem like Nasser was seeking a popular confrontation. The difference is that the Aswan High Dam is a success story, whereas the Suez Canal was a story of conflict. The High Dam is a witness of the history of Egypt's relationship with the Soviet Union, which continued throughout Nasser's rule. The Aswan High Dam is considered to be the most important construction of the Nasser regime. Abu Simbel, Egypt — In the 1960s, rising waters from a new dam threatened to submerge the temples and monuments of Nubia, the ancient home of black pharaohs in Egypt's far south. To preserve them, the antiquities were dismantled, moved and reconstructed. Today, most of the surviving monuments can be seen only from the lake created by the waters that nearly destroyed them. A short flight from Aswan is Abu Simbel and the Great Temple of Ramses II, and the gods of creation and light, Ptah, Amen and Heru-khuti is the most iconic Ancient Egyptian sight after the Pyramids. The temple has four massive statues of Ramses II and the gods Ra-Horakhty, Amun and Ptah at its entrance. Beyond lie two pillared halls and the sacred sanctuary. Every wall and ceiling is a storybook art gallery of this extraordinary pharaoh's life. (He lived to 90 and is said to have fathered more than 200 children). Know more details about Visiting Temples of Ramses II at Abu Simbel, Aswan Construction of the high dam was an enormous national project that every Egyptian contributed to. Nubians in particular sacrificed their possessions, including 45 Nubian villages lying on 300 square kilometers of land and one million palm trees. They were moved from a paradise on the banks of the Nile. These treasures are all submerged under water now. Along with the loss of the land, there was also the loss of heritage, values, memories and lifestyle, and, above all proximity to the water, the primary source of life. For More Information Visit: Aswan Tourism and Tourist Information Cruise ships on Egypt's Lake Nasser visit the ancient temples of Nubia's black pharaohs: The Aswan High Dam: A Political Witness: http://aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=2&id=19640 Memories of a high dam: http://www.almasryalyoum.com/en/news/memories-dam-high-dam%E2%80%A6 Suez Crisis: Key players: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5195582.stm Nile deal brings countries to boiling point over water: http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=10648772

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Ulcerative Colitis Screening - What It Is - Risk Factors - Living With - User Questions - Alternative Treatment - Care Guide - Questions for Your Doctor - When to Contact a Doctor - Find a Doctor - Resource Guide Screening for Ulcerative Colitis The purpose of screening is early diagnosis and treatment. Screening tests are usually administered to people without current symptoms, but who may be at high risk for certain diseases or conditions. Primary Screening Tests or Guidelines At this time, there are no screening tests or screening guidelines for inflammatory bowel disease. Secondary Screening Tests or Guidelines Because about 5% of people with ulcerative colitis develop colon cancer, screening for colon cancer is an important component of the management of inflammatory bowel disease. If you have colitis, it is recommended that you have a colonoscopy every 1-2 years to check for precancerous changes or cancer in your colon. During a colonoscopy , a thin, lighted tube is inserted through the rectum and into the colon to examine the lining of the entire colon.

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III. ANALYSIS OF THE TYPES OF MEASURES BEING USED AT THE SECTOR LEVEL INTEGRATE ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS INTO THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES The main measures currently being implemented by the minerals sector to integrate environmental considerations into the decision-making processes are: (a) the Environmental Planning Act; (b) the Environmental Contaminants Act; (c) the Water Resources Act; (d) the Dumping of Wastes at Sea Act; and (e) the Mining and Petroleum Acts. This section provides an evaluation of the effectiveness of each measure, as perceived by government officials responsible for implementation, as well as the constraints associated with applying the measures. Proposed changes for streamlining and integrating the regulatory systems into one environmental regulation framework are also discussed.

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Region: Southern Africa Population: 11,669,534 (July 2008 est.) Surface area: 752,614 sq km Currency: Zambian kwacha (ZMK) GDP per capita: Purchasing power parity US $1,300 (2007 est.) The territory of Northern Rhodesia was administered by the [British] South Africa Company from 1891 until it was taken over by the UK in 1923. During the 1920s and 1930s, advances in mining spurred development and immigration. The name was changed to Zambia upon independence in 1964. In the 1980s and 1990s, declining copper prices and a prolonged drought hurt the economy. Elections in 1991 brought an end to one-party rule, but the subsequent vote in 1996 saw blatant harassment of opposition parties. The election in 2001 was marked by administrative problems with three parties filing a legal petition challenging the election of ruling party candidate Levy Mwanawasa. The new president launched an anticorruption investigation in 2002 to probe high-level corruption during the previous administration. In 2006-07, this task force successfully prosecuted four cases, including a landmark civil case in the UK in which former President Chiluba and numerous others were found liable for USD 41 million. Mwanawasa was reelected in 2006 in an election that was deemed free and fair. Economy – Overview: Zambia's economy has experienced modest growth in recent years, with real GDP growth in 2005-07 between 5-6% per year. Privatization of government-owned copper mines in the 1990s relieved the government from covering mammoth losses generated by the industry and greatly improved the chances for copper mining to return to profitability and spur economic growth. Copper output has increased steadily since 2004, due to higher copper prices and foreign investment. In 2005, Zambia qualified for debt relief under the Highly Indebted Poor Country Initiative, consisting of approximately USD 6 billion in debt relief. Zambia experienced a bumper harvest in 2007, which helped to boost GDP and agricultural exports and contain inflation. Although poverty continues to be significant problem in Zambia, its economy has strengthened, featuring single-digit inflation, a relatively stable currency, decreasing interest rates, and increasing levels of trade. Major Export Commodities: copper/cobalt 64%, cobalt, electricity; tobacco, flowers, cotton Remittances: Not available Human Development Index 2007/2008 ranking: 165 out of 177 Official Development Assistance and Major Development Partners: Net ODA in 2006 was US $1,115.19 million. Major development partners include the IDA, Japan, the United States, and Germany. Total External Debt: US $2.598 billion (31 December 2007 est.) United Nations membership date: 1 December 1964 New York Mission: Permanent Mission of the Republic of Zambia to the United Nations 237 East 52nd Street, New York, N.Y. 10022 CIA World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. www.cia.gov World Development Indicators. World Bank www.worldbank.org Development, Recipient Aid Charts. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. www.oecd.org Human Development Report 2007/2008.United Nations Development Programme. www.undp.org Updated June 2008

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The history of the Voynich MS is described in three parts, on three pages: As this is a subdivision by topic, the three histories will overlap in time. This page addresses the first part, the origin of the manuscript. It will first address the process of creating the MS, and the time in which this probably took place, followed by analyses of the possible place where this happened, and the possible author(s). In this section I will refer to 'the author' as if it were a single person. This is not necessarily true, but it is done for convenience and readability. The question about the number of authors is discussed further below. The Voynich MS is made of parchment, but not vellum in the strict sense (1). The limp parchment cover was added at a much later date and is not part of the original MS. De Ricci (2) states that the limp vellum cover and the paper end leaves of the MS were added in the 16th Cenury. The quality of the parchment is quite good, but not top rated, i.e. not like the parchment used in expensive books made for rich clients (such as books of hours). Also the edges of the skins were used, as some folios show concave outlines which are from the edges of the skin. Folios with holes were equally used, and in some places stiches, applies during the parchment production process (stretching), are still visible. These minor deficiencies are quite common in parchment codices. Parchment was a relatively expensive material, but top rated vellum was very expensive indeed. In many places marks of the stretching of the parchment during its production are visible - mostly under the microscope, but it is easily visible to the naked eye even on some of the lower resolution images, for example folio 44r (top right corner. The MS has been analysed under the microscope in January 2009 and in October 2009, both by McCrone and Yale specialists, and they concluded that the parchment does not show any signs of scratching, such as to erase previous writing. The parchment was not previously written upon. In 2009, the University of Arizona performed a radiocarbon dating of the parchment. Four samples from different locations in the MS were individually tested, and the probability curves of their C-14 content were fully consistent with each other. The combined date of the parchment was established as ranging between 1404 and 1438 with 95% probability. At the same time, the McCrone institute analysed the inks and the pigments used for the writing and painting of the MS respectively. Detailed results from this analysis are not yet publicly available, but it was stated that there were only minor variations of the ink composition throughout the manuscript, and iron gall ink was used everywhere. The pigments were based on ground minerals of high quality, for which recipes existed since the middle ages. There was no sign of any constituent which was inconsistent with the radiocarbon dating of the parchment. The pigments were also considered to have been expensive. The above paints a picture of an origin of the MS in the 1400-1450 time frame, so the first half of the 15th century. It is not impossible, but it would have been quite unusual, for the parchment to remain unused for a long time. The writing materials would not have been affordable for most common people, but are also below the level of what would have been used for a commission by a rich client. Before this scientific dating there have been long debates deriving from an observation by the botanist Hugh O'Neill of the Catholic University, who identified one plant drawing with the American Sunflower, not seen in Europe before 1493 (3). This plant identification is by no means certain. This section analyses the sequence in which the MS may have been created. In several points it is quite speculative. Not all researchers agree on all points here, and I will try to represent alternative views fairly. Looking at the production of each single bifolio (or foldout folio), there is little or no doubt, that the illustration outline was drawn first. Secondly, the text was written, carefully avoiding the illustation. There are, however, cases, where the text interleaves with the illustration, and the size of the gap between (for example) braches of a herb exactly fits the size of the word written in between. This has been seen by some as an indication that the text is meaningless filler, but it could also mean that the page has been copied from a well-prepared draft. Whether all four drawings on a bifolio were done before all four text sections, or it was done page by page, seems impossible to say. The painting of the illustrations was done afterwards. There are places in the MS where one can observe the painting to be on top of the plant outlines, and even on top of the text (to be checked / confirmed). Some people suggest that the painting was done in several stages, by different people. Due to the very low quality of the painting, some people also suggest that it was done by a child. It is not clear whether the painting was done on individual bifolios, or only after the quires were already collated. This question can quite possibly still be answered, by a comprehensive analysis of the use of colours throughout the manuscript. This includes a complete overview of all the hues of the paints, and paint transfer between folios by contact. Until now, these aspects have only been looked at in piecemeal fashion, currently most actively by Nick Pelling (4), leading to results that are still very debatable. There is every reason to believe that the Voynich MS was basically produced bifolio per bifolio (or foldout folio), as the properties discovered by Currier (different hands and different text statistics throughout the MS) are generally consistent for each bifolio. This issue is closely related to the question of the current page order of the MS, and whether this is the same as the order intended by the author, which is discussed further below. Every folio of the Voynich MS is numbered, in the upper right corner of each folio, and in case of large foldout folios, when the folio is completely folded in. Quire numbers (Latin ordinal numbers) are written mostly in the lower right corner of the verso side of the last folio of each quire. D'Imperio already mentioned the difference in style between these two sets of numbers, and this point is further analysed by Nick Pelling (5). John Manly suggested that the style of the quire numbers belongs to the 15th Century (6). The folio numbers appear to be 16th or even early 17th Century: De Ricci (see note 2) gives the 16th Century and Manly (see note 6) the 17th (based on the handwriting style). Quire and folio numbers were definitely added by different people, in a different age. While the quire numbers could have been added already very shortly after the creation of the MS, this is certainly not the case for the folio numbers. Still, it is important to point out that the quire numbers and folio numbers are fully consistent. Both increase monotonously thoughout the manuscript. Wherever there are missing folio numbers, there is also evidence for missing folios, and the two missing quires (numbers 16 and 18) coincide with gaps in the foliation (2 missing folios each). There are several reasons to believe why the current page order in the Voynich MS is different from the original order, or the originally planned order. While some, if not most, of these arguments are quite sensible, without being able to read the text, they are difficult to prove. This is a problem for which not all evidence has been collected yet, similar to the question above of the time of the painting of the colours. These two questions are also closely related. For the time being, the evidence for modifications in the page order is summarised in a list only. As the quire numbers increase monotonously, and appear on Herbal A and Herbal B pages alike, the quire numbers must have been added to the Voynich MS after any page rearrangement took place. As the quire numbers appear in a style belonging to the 15th Century, any folio rearrangement must have taken place relatively soon after the MS was written. To compicate matters, Nick Pelling proposes that several different hands in the quire marks can be identified (11). 'Extraneous writing' is a term used here for entries which are in the Latin alphabet rather than in the Voynich script, or which are found in the margins. An overview is presented on a later page at this site, and details are provided on the folio descriptions. Here, we are mainly interested which of these could have been added by the original author and which are from later owners. Single Latin characters and the word 'rot' written inside plant drawings have been observed after the high-resolution colour images of the Voynich MS were made available by the Beinecke library. These were clearly written by the original scribe of the MS. A comparison with another 15th Century herbal: MS 362 of the 'Biblioteca Civica Bertoliana' in Vicenza (one of the so-called alchemical herbals), makes it plausbile that the mother tongue of the Voynich MS scribe was German (12). A more detailed explanation will be provided here later. The famous entry on f116v, referred to usually as 'michiton oladabas', is a mixture of apparently pseudo-Latin, Voynichese and German text. It is written in the normal text frame of the Voynich MS, so was so it was also written most probably by the original scribe. Its meaning has been debated since decades. The script appears to my untrained eyes as German, and belonging to the 1430-1450 time interval, but we need a more expert analysis of this. There is more writing in the top margin, but as for the writing on f17r, this looks more like having been added by a later owner. Another entry is on f66v, which supposedly says 'der Musdel' which is supposed to be German, but it is not at all clear whether this is from the original scribe or a later owner, and its meaning is also quite unclear. All marginalia are very difficult to read. Nick Pelling argues that most of these extraneous entries have been modified by having been written over at some later time. As Nick is a keen observer, this has to be taken seriously, but the precise consequence of this observation is not yet fully clear. How long it may have taken tha author of the Voynich MS to produce the entire MS is a question for which we have no hard evidence to help us find the answer. The radiocarbon dating of the indivual folios does not help, as it is simply not accurate enough. Furthermore, all parchment may have been acquired at once, and then used over a longer period of time. Gordon Rugg proposes that, using his method, it could have taken only a few months of continuous work, but this is by far the lowest estimate. Other people have estimated that, just to preduce the MS as we see it, may have taken the order of a year, but this does not include any preparation time, and assumes that the author had all his time available for drawing and writing. There is one famous encyclopedic manuscript, written between 1090 and 1120, which took its author 30 years to complete (13). This is not saying that this is the best estimate for the Voynich MS, but it provides a possible upper limit. Some annotations on the Voynich MS were undoubtedly made at a much later date, and should not be considered as part of the origin of the MS. These annotations, all made with a pencil, will be discussed in a later version of the history page. The illustrations in the Voynich MS are discussed in more detail on a later page. Here, I just summarise those points which give some possible indications about the place of origin of the MS. Probably the most famous and most indicative detail is the small castle which is part of the rosettes page. It has swallow-tail or ghibelline crenellations, a building style which is predominantly found in Northern Italy. While these decorations are also found in other places in Italy and central Europe, they are closely associated with the Scaligers of the region around Verona, from the 14th century onwards. Manuscripts with drawings of castles and other buildings with similar crenellations all tend to originate from N. Italy. In German manuscripts only straight or guelph crenellations are observed. It should also be noted that there are more illustrations of buildings in the Voynich MS, and a complete analysis including all of them should be made by a relevant expert. Another illustration that has received some attention is the Sagittarius in the zodiac section, which (unusually) is a man with a crossbow. The dress of this man is typically German. A similarly dressed Sagittarius is observed in the late 15th century manuscript from Konstanz. (14). Elmar Vogt has furthermore identified a picture on a grave of a German warrior in Würzburg, dressed in the same way (15). A modern historian of botany, Sergio Toresella (16), identifies the style of the herbal drawings of the Voynich MS and the style of the script with Northern Italy, around 1460. He recognises a humanist hand in the script of the MS. A similar opinion was expressed by J. Parez, archivist of the Strahov library in Prague, when I met him in 2004. He commented that the MS pages show an Italian style and that the scribe was clearly expert in writing the script of the Voynich MS. He also indicated that the last page of the MS, with its mixture of German, Latin and "Voynichese" text, looks more Central European, and is from well before 1550. With predominantly Italian and also some German influences, the best guess one can make at this time is that of an 'Alpine' origin of the MS. One region where both influences could be expected would be Tyrol, nowadays composed of the regions Tirol, Süd-Tirol and Trentino - Alto Adige, divided over Austria and Italy, but this is just a speculation. It is however of interest that this region includes the warm baths of Vetriolo, with arsenic, cuprous and ferrous minerals, which were already known in the late middle ages, and whose waters may have appeared relatively green. Would these be the baths represented in the bilogical section of the MS (17)? The following is not a complete list of proposed origins. The respective theories are described on another page. First of all, in my personal view, trying to identify the person who wrote the MS is the path least likely to lead to success. One just needs to remember how many old manuscripts exist of which the author is unknown. The chance that the author of the Voynich MS is someone who is otherwise known is simply not that great. It is however of interest to try to find an author profile. The lack of clear evidence is even greater than for the dating or the place of origin of the MS, so to some extent this section is a summary of the various possibilities that exist. It has been much debated whether the MS is the product of a single person, or of two or even more persons. In a famous presentation, Prescott Currier (see note 4) recognised two writing styles and two different text properties, and concluded that the Voynich MS must be the product of two people (perhaps even more). Both would have written part of the text of the MS. Alternatively, there is the possibility of the collaboration of an author who made a draft, and a scribe who made a fair copy. In that case, the scribe could either read and understand the text, or he could not. In this second scenario, it is possible that the so-called 'ignorant scribe' introduced so many mistakes in the text, that its meaning has become irrecoverable. This brings us to the absolute key question about the Voynich MS... This question has been debated more heavily than any other question related to the Voynich MS. The answer, if we knew it, would tell us a bit more about the possible author(s). I propose the following different options: The author(s) may therefore be a hoaxster, a scientist or someone with some sort of a mental disorder. These are not mutually exclusive. Toresella proposes (see note 16) that the author may have been someone impressed by a travelliung quack or charlaten and decided that he would be able to make an impression by owning a mysterious book. Given that the writing materials were relatively valuable (as described above), the author must have had some means, or a patron with some means. At the same time, the book was most probably not a commission by a rich client, as it has not been prepared with the typical care of such valuable documents. The text area has not been delineated and there is no ruling. The painting of the colours is of very low quality. The layout of the berbal pages is typical for some MS herbals from the 15th century and before, and some details of plant drawings as well, so the author almost certainly must have had access to, and been familiar with such manuscripts. The same consideration applies to the drawings of the zodiac pages. The author must have been familiar with the meaning of paranatellonta. This means that the author had knowledge of at least two important sciences of his time. The following is not a complete list of proposed authors. The respective theories are described on another page.

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- Category: Articles - Published on Wednesday, 01 February 2012 05:17 Sleep experts such as those at Harvard Medical School Division of Sleep Medicine tell us that having a good bedtime routine is one of the top tips for getting a good night’s sleep, and for those of us who have trouble getting off to sleep, this tip is even more important. So what makes up a good bedtime routine? A bedtime routine is what you do to prepare your body and mind for bed. It should be relaxing and get you into a tranquil mood. Over time, this ritual will become a habit and will be a flag to your body to get ready for sleep. 1. Go to bed (and wake up) at the same time every day – Choose a time when you feel tired and stick to the routine even on weekends when you feel you might like to stay up late. Don’t fight sleep – fighting it won’t help you develop good sleep habits. 2. If you feel you need a snack before bed, try a combination of carbohydrate-rich foods and dairy foods – Coffee is a stimulant and fatty foods activate digestion which can disrupt sleep so these should be avoided before bed. Instead, try Carbohydrate-rich foods together with dairy foods as combined they increase the level of sleep-inducing tryptophan in the blood. If you are in need of a snack before bed, try cereal and milk or cheese and crackers. 3. Change into nightwear that is light and breathable – Comfortable nightwear will keep you cool and comfortable during sleep. 4. Do something relaxing to get you in the mood for sleep – Avoid activating your brain before bed. Internet surfing, texting, emailing, watching TV etc all activate your brain. Take this one step further and ban any electronic devices from your bedroom. Electronic devices all emit electromagnetic waves which scientific studies have shown can disturb sleep. Instead, try listening to calming music to prepare you for sleep. 5. Calm your thoughts – Anxiety and stress can have adverse effects on sleep. Mulling over the day’s events or worrying about events in the future can make it very difficult to sleep. Try some deep breathing exercises and visualise yourself in a tranquil place. These will help to calm you mind and prepare it for sleep. 6. Turn off the bedside light – Make sure your bedside lamp is turned off to sleep. Recent scientific studies have shown that light disturbs circadian rhythms during sleep and affects the sleep hormone melatonin.

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Success for All (SFA) is a whole school improvement strategy that has been proven to increase children's outcomes. SFA originated in the US, and has been adapted to the UK context. It is now used in approximately 100 schools in the UK, supported by Success for All-UK, a UK registered charity. The reading component of SFA includes systematic phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and reading comprehension. Between 2008 and 2012 we undertook a large-scale evaluation of the SFA literacy programme, assessing its impact on the literacy skills of pupils as they moved through school. The evaluation was a matched study involving nearly 40 schools (control and intervention). Our findings when the children reached the end of Reception and Year 1 were statistically significant, and for the end of Year 2 were positive. In Summer 2012, a further period of assessment took place with the pupils when they reached the end of Year 3. The SFA study involved Louise Tracey, Bette Chambers, Robert Slavin, Nancy Madden, Pam Hanley, and Louise Elliott.

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In our studies in the Book of Matthew we have been seeing how the evangelisthas been emphasizing the authority of Jesus.1 Now, in the beginning of Matthew 9, we have an account of an event that shows that He has authority to forgive sins. In our method of studying the text we have been noticing how the dialogue in a passage is the critical element for interpreting the events. This will be very important again in this short narrative as Jesus offers a detailed explanation of the connection between healing and forgiving. We have also been noting how in studying the text we have different participants in the stories--Jesus, His followers, those He helps, and His enemies. It is important in studying the text to note to which of these the speeches of Jesus are directed, and then in turn to whom the whole event is directed. The words may be a corrective teaching or a rebuke to those who opposed Him, but they and the whole incident are intended to convince people of His authority. So when we come to making applications from the lesson, it is easy for us to think in these groups for points of reference, that is, how we should respond to Jesus and how we should not, based on the representative characters in the story. And as always we have to see these things against the backdrop of the Old Testament, for Jesus came to fulfill it. The subject matter in this passage, the forgiveness of sin, is an enormous issue in that regard, for the Old Testament made it very clear that only God could forgive sins. This will help us understand the response of the teachers of the Law, and the reason for the authenticating miracle. Jesus stepped into a boat, crossed over and came to his own town. 2 Some men brought to him a paralytic, lying on a mat. When Jesus saw their faith, he said to the paralytic, “Take heart, son; your sins are forgiven.” 3 At this, some of the teachers of the Law said to themselves, “This fellow is blaspheming!” 4 Knowing their thoughts, Jesus said, “Why do you entertain evil thoughts in your hearts? 5 Which is easier: to say, ‘Your sins are forgiven,’ or to say, ‘Get up and walk’? 6 But so that you might know that the Son of Man has authority on earth to forgive sin . . . .” Then he said to the paralytic, “Get up, take your mat and go home.” 7 And the man got up and went home. 8 When the crowd saw this, they were filled with awe, and they praised God, who had given such authority to men. The event is recorded in Mark 2:1-12. Mark tells us that when people heard that Jesus was coming into Capernaum that they packed into the house so that there was no room left, not even outside. And Jesus preached to them. Four men brought the paralytic, but since they could not get in, they went up on the roof, made an opening in the roof, and lowered the man to Jesus. When Jesus saw their faith He said to the paralytic, “Son, your sins are forgiven.” Mark has more of what the teachers were thinking as well, explaining the blaspheming in view of the belief that only God can forgive sins. Mark concludes the passage very much the way Matthew does, with Jesus’ words and then the miracle. Mark closes with the people’s amazement over this miracle, but he does not include the words of Matthew’s explanation that God had given such authority to men. They both have the same teaching of Jesus and the same point to the story. Mark focuses a good deal on the persistence of the faith of those who brought the man to Jesus; Matthew focuses primarily on the demonstration of Jesus’ authority. The story is also in Luke 5:17-26. Luke explains that not just teachers of the Law but also Pharisees had come from all over Galilee and from Judea and Jerusalem and were sitting there. Why were they there? Well, obviously to see for themselves what had been going on in Galilee. How did they hear as far away as Jerusalem? Well, if you look at a chronology of the life of Christ you will discover that what actually took place just before this was the cleansing of the leper (Matt. 8:2-4; Mark 1:40-45; and Luke 5:12-16) where Jesus instructed the healed leper according to the Law of Leviticus to go to Jerusalem and show himself clean to the priest. That would be a public announcement by Jesus that He could cleanse the leper and thus fulfill the requirements of the Law. The effect of that would have been like a personalized invitation--and so they came to check Him out. The Pharisees and the teachers of the Law usually were together in their efforts. The Pharisees were devout people. They were largely what we would call blue collar workers, ordinary people in society; but they were passionate for the faith, especially for the rules on purification, washing, sabbath observance, and tithes. They loved God, believed in miracles and angels and the resurrection, and tried to follow Scripture in their tradition. They were completely at odds with the Sadducees and much of the Temple hierarchy. But it was the teachers of the Law (some of whom would have been members of the Pharisees) who were the authorities in these matters; and so Matthew is more interested in noting that they were there. Once again the structure of the passage follows a clear pattern. There is the meeting with the paralytic, the response of the teachers, the teaching-reply of Jesus, and the completion of the miracle. In the first part Jesus speaks to the paralytic. In the second part the teachers speak to themselves. In the third part Jesus speaks to the teachers. And in the last part Jesus speaks to the paralytic. We can chart it this way: Paralytic is brought to Jesus Jesus says, Your sins are forgiven Teachers are upset by this They say, This fellow blasphemes Jesus rebukes their thinking Jesus says, Son of Man has authority Jesus heals the man Jesus says, Take up your mat If you get in the habit of charting or diagraming the flow of a story, you can see more clearly how it is put together. In this case, it is a story within a story. The main event is Jesus’ speaking to the paralytic and healing him. But in the middle of that event there is the response to the evil thinking of these opponents in order to explain the point of the miracle. Jesus used the miracle, and their accusation of blasphemy, to declare that He has authority to forgive sins. And He did this to show the primary need was forgiveness of sins, not the healing. And this, of course, is the central theme or message of the passage, that Jesus has authority to forgive sin. How do we know that? Part of the answer, and the answer given here, is that He has the power to heal. Now this will raise a fundamental theological issue that will have to be dealt with somewhere in the study, probably when Jesus is speaking to the teachers of the Law. What is the connection between healing and forgiving, or, more basically, what is the connection between sickness, disease, and death, and sin? This could become a rather involved study, but one that you need to do sometime. Good biblical theologies will provide you with basic discussions on the subject. In sum, the Bible teaches that all sickness, disease, pain, contamination, pollution, and death is the result of the presence of sin in the world. In the beginning when sin entered the world and the curse was announced as the natural result of rebellion against the living God, the world and the human race was from that point contaminated. Death and dying now reign where life was created. And all sickness and disease, physical or mental, is part of this dying. The human existence is characterized by pain, conflict, disease and death. Now that does not mean necessarily that one person who is a cripple is a bigger sinner than those who are not. No, it does not work that way, as the Book of Job demonstrated. It is a simple fact of life that we all suffer with illnesses, that we all have pain of one sort or another, some major and chronic, and that we all die eventually. None of this would have been present if sin had not ruined the race. But it has. And Jesus came into the world to solve this problem by becoming the curse for us and taking all of our sins and infirmities on Himself. This was prophesied by Isaiah in the important 53rd chapter. He would give His life an offering for sins, and in the process as the sins of us all were to be laid on Him, He also took our infirmities (Isa. 53:4). The point is that if Jesus can take care of the effects of sin--by healing a paralytic or a leper, or by raising a dead person--He can therefore also take care of the cause of the illness--by forgiving the sin. For Jesus the forgiving of sins and the healing of diseases are two sides of His mission, with the forgiveness of sins being the most important. There are different ways that the passage could be divided and outlined. I have chosen to divide it into three sections, putting the above middle story all together as one point--their accusation and Jesus’ explanation. I. Jesus forgives the sins of the paralytic (Matt. 9:1-2). Matthew begins the narrative by stating that Jesus took the boat across the lake and stepped out at his home town--Capernaum (as Mark and Luke remind us). That is all the detail Matthew gives. If you want to bring in the background of the other gospels to picture this, it was in a very crowded house. We are not told what house that would be, but since Jesus was not a homeowner, there is every good reason to believe it was Peter’s house. Jesus may well have lived with Peter when in Capernaum. But wherever it was, these houses usually had roofs made of logs and branches packed with earth. Repairing the roof was a regular task for the homeowner, as rain and wind would wash the dirt away and water would in time leak into the houses. If that is the case here, and we cannot be completely certain, but if it was it is easy to see how the men would have gone up onto the flat roof and begun to pull up branches and logs to make an opening in the roof.2 It is also easy to imagine some of this debris falling down on the assembled crowd in the room of the house before the man was lowered to Jesus. But these men were determined to get the paralytic to Jesus, believing that if they did he could be healed. Jesus marveled at their faith. But this is a point that Mark makes. Matthew simply tells us that some men brought the paralytic on a mat, and that Jesus saw their faith in bringing him to Him. Their act of belief is evident in the fact that they laid this man at Jesus’ feet. The implication is that the four men and the paralytic had the faith that Jesus could heal him. The response of Jesus to their faith is in His words: “Take heart, son; your sins are forgiven.” There are two things here that have to be probed. The first is the initial greeting: “Take heart, son,” or as the older translations had it, “Be of good cheer, son.” One might say just at the look of things that he had nothing to be of good cheer about. But more significantly, no Pharisee or teacher of the Law would have said that to a paralytic. They would have simply considered him as a “sinner” because of his malady. In their thoughts they would have concluded that had he been righteous, or a man of faith (as they were) he would not be like that. And they probably would have been very put out that these men ruined the lecture. But before we come down to hard on the teachers and Pharisees, it is worth thinking that we are so often the same as they in our thinking. We are so religious, that had we been there that day we might have responded the way they did. Even today we often see someone suffering and think in terms of their lack of faith or sin that has caused their misfortune. And “Be of good cheer” would not be the thing we would think of saying. But Jesus followed it with, “Your sins are forgiven.” What a statement! What a dramatic moment in which to make it! No one in the room would have imagined that Jesus would have said this. If it were true, then of course there was plenty of reason for the young man to take heart, or be of good cheer. But the words were designed not only to bless and encourage the paralytic, but to render all opinions about his condition void. If they thought he was a paralytic because he was a sinner--well, he was now forgiven. In the Old Testament a priest in the sanctuary could communicate God’s forgiveness when the atoning sacrifice was made. But Leviticus simply says that when the worshiper confessed the sin and made the sacrifice, the sin was forgiven (4:26). It was God who forgave (see also Psalm 32); the priest could only communicate that good word to the genuine penitent after he saw the contrition, the sacrifice, or the restoration to health. At other times a prophet would come and announce to the sinner that God had put away the sin (see 2 Sam. 12:13). But here Jesus, seeing their faith, announces that the man’s sins are forgiven--before he was healed, before he offered a sacrifice in the Temple, and before he even said anything, if we can assume that in the account he did not say anything else. The basis for the forgiveness from the paralytic’s side was faith. It was his faith that saved him; it was his faith that made him whole. He believed in Jesus and wanted to be set before Him. And yet the text says that Jesus saw “their faith”; it is possible for people to show faith as they help another man’s faith, for that is what has happened here. But we cannot miss the dramatic significance of this. At that precise moment Jesus chose to do something that everyone in the room knew only God could do--declare the forgiveness of sin. II. Jesus defends His authority to forgive sins (Matt. 9:3-5). First, we have the report of what the teachers were saying to themselves--”This fellow blasphemes.” It will be helpful for you to read up on the range of meanings for “blasphemy,” which you can do in any good word study book. The word basically means to speak or represent God in an evil or irreverent way. One way this is done, and this is what is meant here, is to appropriate or claim to appropriate the position and prerogative of God. Here Jesus was claiming to be able to forgive sins--to be divine. They thought that He was saying something easy, a word that was not capable of demonstration, a divine claim that no one could challenge, and so not true. To them this was blasphemy since only God could forgive sins. To them Jesus was claiming something that He should not have claimed, and certainly could not have done--so they thought. Second, we have Jesus’ rebuke of their thoughts and defense of His actions. His rebuke was straightforward, “Why do you entertain evil thoughts in your hearts?” That would have been sufficient to make them pause--He knew what they were thinking. It probably would not have been too hard to guess what they were thinking since He knew their teachings and the reason for their presence. But by this question, a rhetorical question meant to say that they had no reason to think evil of Him, Jesus put them off balance. And then He posed the question: “Which is easier to say, ‘Your sins are forgiven,’ or ‘Get up and walk’?” The question immediately made them realize that there was a connection between sin and suffering. Matthew (8:17) has already reminded the reader of the famous passage in Isaiah 53, that Messiah would pay for sins and infirmities by His death. But as Isaiah 53 makes so clear, the mission of the Messiah was to deal first with the cause of suffering, sin, and then secondly, the healing of disease. What Jesus was doing in healing people was not simply performing miracles, which is usually defined as violating or nullifying natural laws, but rather He was showing by these healing miracles that He was restoring a lost order. Disease and death were not natural to God’s creation, they were violations of it. The natural order was what God had created but had been ruined. Jesus was able to get behind the problem and deal with sin first, and then its effects. And as we said before, these individual miracles that He performed in His earthly ministry were signs of what He would do at the second coming when He restores the lost order of creation in full. So how should the question be answered? Well, Jesus asked many questions that were meant to reveal truth, and this is another one. In the practical and obvious sense it would be easier to say, “Your sins are forgiven.” Who would know? Almost anyone could say that, and yet nothing else would have to be done to prove that the sins were forgiven. And in the theological sense it was easier to say that as well, for it would take care of both the cause for the illness and the illness itself. But if someone said “Take up your mat and walk,” then the paralytic better do it or the one speaking would be seen to be a fraud. But on the other hand, the teachers of the Law and Pharisees would have seen the statement that the sins were forgiven as a very hard saying. They stumbled over it, for no mortal would dare say that. It would be easier for them if Jesus simply healed the man, even though it would demonstrate that He had the power of God. But Jesus was not catering to their unbelief; He was responding to the faith of the paralytic. It was easier for Jesus to say “Your sins are forgiven” because He has the authority to forgive sins--as the miracle would immediately show. III. Jesus demonstrates His authority to forgive sins (Matt. 9:6-8). Jesus said to them, “But so that you may know that the Son of Man has authority on earth to forgive sins . . .” then he said to the paralytic, “Get up, take your mat and go home.” The statement is in contrast to the question of which was easier. It was easier to say He was forgiven, but that these people might know that Jesus has this authority, He told the man to get up and take his mat and go home. It is clear that the miracle of healing was designed to show them that He has the authority to forgive sins. Interestingly, Jesus uses the title “Son of Man” to refer to Himself. Rather than deal with this later we may simply say at this point that this is a Messianic title that Jesus used for Himself (check this title out in the biblical theology books, for there is a lot of material on it). The title comes from Daniel 7:13,14. In that passage Daniel saw one like a son of man coming with the clouds of heaven. He approached the Ancient of Days, God the Father in the vision, and was given absolute authority over all creation, so that all people would worship Him. Now these details are significant in this description. He is clearly deity if the whole world is going to worship Him. And as deity He can do the works of deity, including forgive sins. But according to the vision of Daniel He is coming in the clouds, which in the Bible is evidence of divine judgment. If He is coming with judgment to establish the kingdom of righteousness, He has the authority as Judge of the whole world to pardon or to condemn. So on both counts the prophecy of the Son of Man shows that Messiah has the authority to forgive sins. Interestingly along these lines we shall see at the end of the Gospel of Matthew that the high priest put Jesus under oath to tell them whether or not He was the Messiah, the Son of God. Jesus answered, “Yes, it is as you say. But I say to all of you: In the future you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Mighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven” (Matt. 26:64). At this the high priest tore his clothes and they charged Him with blasphemy. Jesus was affirming that He was indeed the Messiah, the divine One from the prophecy of Daniel. But, taking it a step further, if we can paraphrase it, He was saying, “You may be my judge today, but when I come with the clouds I will be your judge.” All judgment has been given to the Son (John 5:22). It is the prerogative of divinity. And as Judge, He has the authority and the power to forgive sins. So Jesus healed this man to show that He, the Son of Man, has the authority to forgive sins. If He could heal the disease, He could also heal the cause of the disease, the sin. If He had simply forgiven the sin, people would not have known if the man was forgiven or not. Now they knew. And Matthew reports that the man got up and went home. At this everyone was filled with awe and praised God who had given such authority to men. They still did not know that Jesus was divine; they still thought of Him as a man, which is certainly understandable. But He clearly demonstrated that He had this authority. The man was made whole. And for that they praised God. We do not know if the teachers and Pharisees joined the praise, or left disgruntled. The latter is more characteristic of them, although some, like Nicodemus (John 3), would have pondered these things carefully. I will just repeat here the key passages that have been discussed above. The mission of the Messiah recorded in Isaiah 53 must be studied fully to see that the Messiah was to offer His life for the sins of the world--and for the infirmities as well. The death of Jesus not only paid for sin but made it possible to remove all the effects of sin from the world. He took care of the sin question at His first coming; He will take care of the curse at His second coming. Daniel 7 is also important for an understanding of the Son of Man vision. This can be connected other Messianic passages such as Daniel 9:24,25 which link the divine plan of making atonement for wickedness and bringing in everlasting righteousness with the cutting off of the Messiah, and certainly Isaiah 9 which gives the titles of the Messiah, including “Mighty God, Everlasting Father.” For New Testament connections we would also want to look at other passages that record the claims of Jesus to be divine, passages like John 10:30 (for which they tried to stone Him), and John 8:58, one of the “I Am” claims of Jesus (for which they also tried to stone Him). But one of the clearest evidences that Jesus claimed to be divine is the crucifixion itself, for the charge was blasphemy. We can also look in the New Testament for passages for forgiveness of sin in Christ Jesus to correlate them to this account. The whole New Testament is filled with passages that teach how in Christ we have forgiveness and salvation and the hope of glory. Standard places to begin would be in passages like 1 John 1:9 and Romans 3:22-26 and 1 Peter 2:22-25. And for teachings on healing we can look at passages that instruct us to pray for healing, such as James 5:13-18, and for passages that tell us how the full benefit of the atonement will be experienced in the resurrection, such as 1 Corinthians 15:35--58, 1 John 3:1-3, and Romans 8:22,23. Once the key teachings of a passage are identified, then there will be a whole string of related passages in the Bible that can be studied to fill out the doctrines that are introduced in the narrative. You can actually continue in this step of the process as long as you wish, for there is so much to study. The point of the story is clear: Jesus has the authority to forgive sins. The implication of that point is also clear: because He is the divine Son, He is God in the flesh, Immanuel. The teachers of the Law knew that is what it meant, so they knew full well what He was claiming. If they did not believe in Him, then they had to go with their judgment that He was blaspheming. But, if He is the divine Son of God, then their accusations against Him, here and later, are blasphemy. A related point that the story establishes is the relationship between sin and suffering. I have already dealt with this and so only need at this point to mention it in passing. And finally, the way to avail oneself of full healing (spiritual forgiveness and physical healing, whether now or in the life to come) is faith. These men believed in Jesus and His power to make whole. They knew if they could get the paralytic to Jesus all would be well. On the application level we would certainly have to identify with the men and the paralytic who came to Jesus by faith. The application is that for the forgiveness of sins one must come to Jesus by faith, believing that He will forgive and make things well. And, for the restoration to health and wholeness, spiritual and physical, one must also pray in the name of Jesus. He may answer our requests and heal us and our loved ones for whom we pray in this life; but the ultimate healing comes with the resurrection. Jesus did these miracles as evidence of His power and as a pledge of things to come. We who believe in Christ Jesus and have had our sins forgiven through Him know that in the age to come He will indeed restore the order of creation by removing the curse and making whole all who are in Him. That is the full effect of the atonement; that is the hope of glory. 1 The word “evangelist” is related to the word for “gospel” and so in biblical studies of the gospels is used to refer to the writers of the gospels. It means one who presents the good news, and so also is used later for the spiritual ministry of evangelism. 2 Mark simply says that they “unroofed the roof,” but Luke says that they lowered him through the “tiles.” The house may have had a more complex structure than most simple houses, unless Luke is simply using terms that his gentile audience would readily understand.

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Exploring the greatest Stone Age mystery Our knowledge about Stonehenge has changed dramatically as a result of the Stonehenge Riverside Project (2003-2009), led by Mike Parker Pearson, and included not only Stonehenge itself but also the nearby great henge enclosure of Durrington Walls. This book is about the people who built Stonehenge and its relationship to the surrounding landscape. The book explores the theory that the people of Durrington Walls built both Stonehenge and Durrington Walls, and that the choice of stone for constructing Stonehenge has a significance so far undiscovered, namely, that stone was used for monuments to the dead. Through years of thorough and extensive work at the site, Parker Pearson and his team unearthed evidence of the Neolithic inhabitants and builders which connected the settlement at Durrington Walls with the henge, and contextualised Stonehenge within the larger site complex, linked by the River Avon, as well as in terms of its relationship with the rest of the British Isles. Parker Pearson's book changes the way that we think about Stonehenge; correcting previously erroneous chronology and dating; filling in gaps in our knowledge about its people and how they lived; identifying a previously unknown type of Neolithic building; discovering Bluestonehenge, a circle of 25 blue stones from western Wales; and confirming what started as a hypothesis - that Stonehenge was a place of the dead - through more than 64 cremation burials unearthed there, which span the monument's use during the third millennium BC. In lively and engaging prose, Parker Pearson brings to life the imposing ancient monument that continues to hold a fascination for everyone. Get our latest book recommendations, author news and sweepstakes right to your inbox

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Writing is an easy way to practice in a large group setting; however, we don’t always need a pen or pencil to write! Here are some activities to mix it up. The following descriptions are from ACTFL. Visit the site for more information and examples in English. http://actflproficiencyguidelines2012.org/writing Writing » Novice Writers at the Novice level are characterized by the ability to produce lists and notes, primarily by writing words and phrases. They can provide limited formulaicformulaicConstituting or containing a verbal formula or set form of words such as “How are you?/Fine, thank you.” “Thanks very much./You’re welcome.” information on simple forms and documents. These writers can reproduce practiced material to convey the most simple messages. In addition, they can transcribe familiar words or phrases, copy letters of the alphabet or syllables of a syllabary, or reproduce basic characters with some accuracy. Writing » Intermediate Writers at the Intermediate level are characterized by the ability to meet practical writing needs, such as simple messages and letters, requests for information, and notes. In addition, they can ask and respond to simple questions in writing. These writers can create with the language and communicate simple facts and ideas in a series of loosely connected sentencesconnected sentencesA series or string of sentences or text that is topically related. Unlike paragraphs sentences are interchangeable; altering the order of the sentences does not affect the meaning of the message. on topics of personal interest and social needs. They write primarily in present time. At this level, writers use basic vocabulary and structures to express meaning that is comprehensible to those accustomed to the writing of non-natives.

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This information is included in Appendix A: Abbreviations, which includes all abbreviations and acronyms used in the Factbook, with their expansions. An acronym is an abbreviation coined from the initial letter of each successive word in a term or phrase. In general, an acronym made up solely from the first letter of the major words in the expanded form is rendered in all capital letters (NATO from North Atlantic Treaty Organization; an exception would be ASEAN for Association of Southeast Asian Nations). In general, an acronym made up of more than the first letter of the major words in the expanded form is rendered with only an initial capital letter (Comsat from Communications Satellite Corporation; an exception would be NAM from Nonaligned Movement). Hybrid forms are sometimes used to distinguish between initially identical terms (ICC for International Chamber of Commerce and ICCt for International Criminal Court). This entry generally gives the numbers, designatory terms, and first-order administrative divisions as approved by the US Board on Geographic Names (BGN). Changes that have been reported but not yet acted on by the BGN are noted. This entry provides the distribution of the population according to age. Information is included by sex and age group (0-14 years, 15-64 years, 65 years and over). The age structure of a population affects a nation's key socioeconomic issues. Countries with young populations (high percentage under age 15) need to invest more in schools, while countries with older populations (high percentage ages 65 and over) need to invest more in the health sector. The age structure can also be used to help predict potential political issues. For example, the rapid growth of a young adult population unable to find employment can lead to unrest. Agriculture - products This entry is an ordered listing of major crops and products starting with the most important. This entry gives the total number of airports or airfields recognizable from the air. The runway(s) may be paved (concrete or asphalt surfaces) or unpaved (grass, earth, sand, or gravel surfaces) and may include closed or abandoned installations. Airports or airfields that are no longer recognizable (overgrown, no facilities, etc.) are not included. Note that not all airports have accommodations for refueling, maintenance, or air traffic control. Airports - with paved runways This entry gives the total number of airports with paved runways (concrete or asphalt surfaces) by length. For airports with more than one runway, only the longest runway is included according to the following five groups - (1) over 3,047 m (over 10,000 ft), (2) 2,438 to 3,047 m (8,000 to 10,000 ft), (3) 1,524 to 2,437 m (5,000 to 8,000 ft), (4) 914 to 1,523 m (3,000 to 5,000 ft), and (5) under 914 m (under 3,000 ft). Only airports with usable runways are included in this listing. Not all airports have facilities for refueling, maintenance, or air traffic control. The type aircraft capable of operating from a runway of a given length is dependent upon a number of factors including elevation of the runway, runway gradient, average maximum daily temperature at the airport, engine types, flap settings, and take-off weight of the aircraft. Airports - with unpaved runways This entry gives the total number of airports with unpaved runways (grass, dirt, sand, or gravel surfaces) by length. For airports with more than one runway, only the longest runway is included according to the following five groups - (1) over 3,047 m (over 10,000 ft), (2) 2,438 to 3,047 m (8,000 to 10,000 ft), (3) 1,524 to 2,437 m (5,000 to 8,000 ft), (4) 914 to 1,523 m (3,000 to 5,000 ft), and (5) under 914 m (under 3,000 ft). Only airports with usable runways are included in this listing. Not all airports have facilities for refueling, maintenance, or air traffic control. The type aircraft capable of operating from a runway of a given length is dependent upon a number of factors including elevation of the runway, runway gradient, average maximum daily temperature at the airport, engine types, flap settings, and take-off weight of the aircraft. This section includes Factbook-related material by topic. This entry includes three subfields. Total area is the sum of all land and water areas delimited by international boundaries and/or coastlines. Land area is the aggregate of all surfaces delimited by international boundaries and/or coastlines, excluding inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers). Water area is the sum of the surfaces of all inland water bodies, such as lakes, reservoirs, or rivers, as delimited by international boundaries and/or coastlines. Area - comparative This entry provides an area comparison based on total area equivalents. Most entities are compared with the entire US or one of the 50 states based on area measurements (1990 revised) provided by the US Bureau of the Census. The smaller entities are compared with Washington, DC (178 sq km, 69 sq mi) or The Mall in Washington, DC (0.59 sq km, 0.23 sq mi, 146 acres). This entry usually highlights major historic events and current issues and may include a statement about one or two key future trends. This entry gives the average annual number of births during a year per 1,000 persons in the population at midyear; also known as crude birth rate. The birth rate is usually the dominant factor in determining the rate of population growth. It depends on both the level of fertility and the age structure of the population. This entry provides information on the approximate number of public and private TV and radio stations in a country, as well as basic information on the availability of satellite and cable TV services. This entry includes revenues, expenditures, and capital expenditures. These figures are calculated on an exchange rate basis, i.e., not in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms. This entry gives the name of the seat of government, its geographic coordinates, the time difference relative to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) and the time observed in Washington, DC, and, if applicable, information on daylight saving time(DST). Where appropriate, a special note has been added to highlight those countries that have multiple time zones. Central bank discount rate This entry provides the annualized interest rate a country's central bank charges commercial, depository banks for loans to meet temporary shortages of funds. This entry includes a brief description of typical weather regimes throughout the year. This entry gives the total length of the boundary between the land area (including islands) and the sea. Commercial bank prime lending rate This entry provides a simple average of annualized interest rates commercial banks charge on new loans, denominated in the national currency, to their most credit-worthy customers. This category deals with the means of exchanging information and includes the telephone, radio, television, and Internet host entries. Communications - note This entry includes miscellaneous communications information of significance not included elsewhere. This entry includes the dates of adoption, revisions, and major amendments. Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) UTC is the international atomic time scale that serves as the basis of timekeeping for most of the world. The hours, minutes, and seconds expressed by UTC represent the time of day at the Prime Meridian (0º longitude) located near Greenwich, England as reckoned from midnight. UTC is calculated by the Bureau International des Poids et Measures (BIPM) in Sevres, France. The BIPM averages data collected from more than 200 atomic time and frequency standards located at about 50 laboratories worldwide. UTC is the basis for all civil time with the Earth divided into time zones expressed as positive or negative differences from UTC. UTC is also referred to as "Zulu time." See the Standard Time Zones of the World map included with the Reference Maps. Country data codes See Data codes. Most versions of the Factbook provide a country map in color. The maps were produced from the best information available at the time of preparation. Names and/or boundaries may have changed subsequently. This entry includes all forms of the country's name approved by the US Board on Geographic Names (Italy is used as an example): conventional long form (Italian Republic), conventional short form (Italy), local long form (Repubblica Italiana), local short form (Italia), former (Kingdom of Italy), as well as the abbreviation. Also see the Terminology note. See entry for oil. Current account balance This entry records a country's net trade in goods and services, plus net earnings from rents, interest, profits, and dividends, and net transfer payments (such as pension funds and worker remittances) to and from the rest of the world during the period specified. These figures are calculated on an exchange rate basis, i.e., not in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms. In general, information available as of 1 January 2007 was used in the preparation of this edition. Daylight Saving Time (DST) This entry is included for those entities that have adopted a policy of adjusting the official local time forward, usually one hour, from Standard Time during summer months. Such policies are most common in mid-latitude regions. This entry gives the average annual number of deaths during a year per 1,000 population at midyear; also known as crude death rate. The death rate, while only a rough indicator of the mortality situation in a country, accurately indicates the current mortality impact on population growth. This indicator is significantly affected by age distribution, and most countries will eventually show a rise in the overall death rate, in spite of continued decline in mortality at all ages, as declining fertility results in an aging population. Debt - external This entry gives the total public and private debt owed to nonresidents repayable in internationally accepted currencies, goods, or services. These figures are calculated on an exchange rate basis, i.e., not in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms. This entry describes the formal relationship between a particular nonindependent entity and an independent state. This entry contains an alphabetical listing of all nonindependent entities associated in some way with a particular independent state. The US Government has diplomatic relations with 189 independent states, including 187 of the 192 UN members (excluded UN members are Bhutan, Cuba, Iran, North Korea, and the US itself). In addition, the US has diplomatic relations with 2 independent states that are not in the UN, the Holy See and Kosovo, as well as with the EU. Diplomatic representation from the US This entry includes the chief of mission, embassy address, mailing address, telephone number, FAX number, branch office locations, consulate general locations, and consulate locations. Diplomatic representation in the US This entry includes the chief of mission, chancery, telephone, FAX, consulate general locations, and consulate locations. Disputes - international This entry includes a wide variety of situations that range from traditional bilateral boundary disputes to unilateral claims of one sort or another. Information regarding disputes over international terrestrial and maritime boundaries has been reviewed by the US Department of State. References to other situations involving borders or frontiers may also be included, such as resource disputes, geopolitical questions, or irredentist issues; however, inclusion does not necessarily constitute official acceptance or recognition by the US Government. Distribution of family income - Gini index This index measures the degree of inequality in the distribution of family income in a country. The index is calculated from the Lorenz curve, in which cumulative family income is plotted against the number of families arranged from the poorest to the richest. The index is the ratio of (a) the area between a country's Lorenz curve and the 45 degree helping line to (b) the entire triangular area under the 45 degree line. The more nearly equal a country's income distribution, the closer its Lorenz curve to the 45 degree line and the lower its Gini index, e.g., a Scandinavian country with an index of 25. The more unequal a country's income distribution, the farther its Lorenz curve from the 45 degree line and the higher its Gini index, e.g., a Sub-Saharan country with an index of 50. If income were distributed with perfect equality, the Lorenz curve would coincide with the 45 degree line and the index would be zero; if income were distributed with perfect inequality, the Lorenz curve would coincide with the horizontal axis and the right vertical axis and the index would be 100. This category includes the entries dealing with the size, development, and management of productive resources, i.e., land, labor, and capital. Economy - overview This entry briefly describes the type of economy, including the degree of market orientation, the level of economic development, the most important natural resources, and the unique areas of specialization. It also characterizes major economic events and policy changes in the most recent 12 months and may include a statement about one or two key future macroeconomic trends. This entry provides the public expenditure on education as a percent of GDP. Electricity - consumption This entry consists of total electricity generated annually plus imports and minus exports, expressed in kilowatt-hours. The discrepancy between the amount of electricity generated and/or imported and the amount consumed and/or exported is accounted for as loss in transmission and distribution. Electricity - exports This entry is the total exported electricity in kilowatt-hours. Electricity - imports This entry is the total imported electricity in kilowatt-hours. Electricity - production This entry is the annual electricity generated expressed in kilowatt-hours. The discrepancy between the amount of electricity generated and/or imported and the amount consumed and/or exported is accounted for as loss in transmission and distribution. This entry includes both the highest point and the lowest point. Some of the independent states, dependencies, areas of special sovereignty, and governments included in this publication are not independent, and others are not officially recognized by the US Government. "Independent state" refers to a people politically organized into a sovereign state with a definite territory. "Dependencies" and "areas of special sovereignty" refer to a broad category of political entities that are associated in some way with an independent state. "Country" names used in the table of contents or for page headings are usually the short-form names as approved by the US Board on Geographic Names and may include independent states, dependencies, and areas of special sovereignty, or other geographic entities. There are a total of 266 separate geographic entities in The World Factbook that may be categorized as follows: INDEPENDENT STATES 194 Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Andorra, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, The Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Belize, Benin, Bhutan, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Burma, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Canada, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Chile, China, Colombia, Comoros, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Costa Rica, Cote d'Ivoire, Croatia, Cuba, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Estonia, Ethiopia, Fiji, Finland, France, Gabon, The Gambia, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Grenada, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Holy See, Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kiribati, North Korea, South Korea, Kosovo, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Latvia, Lebanon, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mexico, Federated States of Micronesia, Moldova, Monaco, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Nauru, Nepal, Netherlands, NZ, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Palau, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Russia, Rwanda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, San Marino, Sao Tome and Principe, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Serbia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Togo, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uganda, Ukraine, UAE, UK, US, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe OTHER 2 Taiwan, European Union DEPENDENCIES AND AREAS OF SPECIAL SOVEREIGNTY 6 Australia - Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island and McDonald Islands, Norfolk Island 2 China - Hong Kong, Macau 2 Denmark - Faroe Islands, Greenland 9 France - Clipperton Island, French Polynesia, French Southern and Antarctic Lands, Mayotte, New Caledonia, Saint Barthelemy, Saint Martin, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Wallis and Futuna 3 Netherlands - Aruba, Curacao, Sint Maarten 3 New Zealand - Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau 3 Norway - Bouvet Island, Jan Mayen, Svalbard 17 UK - Akrotiri, Anguilla, Bermuda, British Indian Ocean Territory, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dhekelia, Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Guernsey, Jersey, Isle of Man, Montserrat, Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands 14 US - American Samoa, Baker Island*, Guam, Howland Island*, Jarvis Island*, Johnston Atoll*, Kingman Reef*, Midway Islands*, Navassa Island, Northern Mariana Islands, Palmyra Atoll*, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, Wake Island (* consolidated in United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry) MISCELLANEOUS 6 Antarctica, Gaza Strip, Paracel Islands, Spratly Islands, West Bank, Western Sahara OTHER ENTITIES 5 oceans - Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Southern Ocean 1 World Environment - current issues This entry lists the most pressing and important environmental problems. The following terms and abbreviations are used throughout the entry: Acidification - the lowering of soil and water pH due to acid precipitation and deposition usually through precipitation; this process disrupts ecosystem nutrient flows and may kill freshwater fish and plants dependent on more neutral or alkaline conditions (see acid rain). Acid rain - characterized as containing harmful levels of sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxide; acid rain is damaging and potentially deadly to the earth's fragile ecosystems; acidity is measured using the pH scale where 7 is neutral, values greater than 7 are considered alkaline, and values below 5.6 are considered acid precipitation; note - a pH of 2.4 (the acidity of vinegar) has been measured in rainfall in New England. Aerosol - a collection of airborne particles dispersed in a gas, smoke, or fog. Afforestation - converting a bare or agricultural space by planting trees and plants; reforestation involves replanting trees on areas that have been cut or destroyed by fire. Asbestos - a naturally occurring soft fibrous mineral commonly used in fireproofing materials and considered to be highly carcinogenic in particulate form. Biodiversity - also biological diversity; the relative number of species, diverse in form and function, at the genetic, organism, community, and ecosystem level; loss of biodiversity reduces an ecosystem's ability to recover from natural or man-induced disruption. Bio-indicators - a plant or animal species whose presence, abundance, and health reveal the general condition of its habitat. Biomass - the total weight or volume of living matter in a given area or volume. Carbon cycle - the term used to describe the exchange of carbon (in various forms, e.g., as carbon dioxide) between the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial biosphere, and geological deposits. Catchments - assemblages used to capture and retain rainwater and runoff; an important water management technique in areas with limited freshwater resources, such as Gibraltar. DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane) - a colorless, odorless insecticide that has toxic effects on most animals; the use of DDT was banned in the US in 1972. Defoliants - chemicals which cause plants to lose their leaves artificially; often used in agricultural practices for weed control, and may have detrimental impacts on human and ecosystem health. Deforestation - the destruction of vast areas of forest (e.g., unsustainable forestry practices, agricultural and range land clearing, and the over exploitation of wood products for use as fuel) without planting new growth. Desertification - the spread of desert-like conditions in arid or semi-arid areas, due to overgrazing, loss of agriculturally productive soils, or climate change. Dredging - the practice of deepening an existing waterway; also, a technique used for collecting bottom-dwelling marine organisms (e.g., shellfish) or harvesting coral, often causing significant destruction of reef and ocean-floor ecosystems. Drift-net fishing - done with a net, miles in extent, that is generally anchored to a boat and left to float with the tide; often results in an over harvesting and waste of large populations of non-commercial marine species (by-catch) by its effect of "sweeping the ocean clean." Ecosystems - ecological units comprised of complex communities of organisms and their specific environments. Effluents - waste materials, such as smoke, sewage, or industrial waste which are released into the environment, subsequently polluting it. Endangered species - a species that is threatened with extinction either by direct hunting or habitat destruction. Freshwater - water with very low soluble mineral content; sources include lakes, streams, rivers, glaciers, and underground aquifers. Greenhouse gas - a gas that "traps" infrared radiation in the lower atmosphere causing surface warming; water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, hydrofluorocarbons, and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere. Groundwater - water sources found below the surface of the earth often in naturally occurring reservoirs in permeable rock strata; the source for wells and natural springs. Highlands Water Project - a series of dams constructed jointly by Lesotho and South Africa to redirect Lesotho's abundant water supply into a rapidly growing area in South Africa; while it is the largest infrastructure project in southern Africa, it is also the most costly and controversial; objections to the project include claims that it forces people from their homes, submerges farmlands, and squanders economic resources. Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC) - represents the roughly 150,000 Inuits of Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and Russia in international environmental issues; a General Assembly convenes every three years to determine the focus of the ICC; the most current concerns are long-range transport of pollutants, sustainable development, and climate change. Metallurgical plants - industries which specialize in the science, technology, and processing of metals; these plants produce highly concentrated and toxic wastes which can contribute to pollution of ground water and air when not properly disposed. Noxious substances - injurious, very harmful to living beings. Overgrazing - the grazing of animals on plant material faster than it can naturally regrow leading to the permanent loss of plant cover, a common effect of too many animals grazing limited range land. Ozone shield - a layer of the atmosphere composed of ozone gas (O3) that resides approximately 25 miles above the Earth's surface and absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation that can be harmful to living organisms. Poaching - the illegal killing of animals or fish, a great concern with respect to endangered or threatened species. Pollution - the contamination of a healthy environment by man-made waste. Potable water - water that is drinkable, safe to be consumed. Salination - the process through which fresh (drinkable) water becomes salt (undrinkable) water; hence, desalination is the reverse process; also involves the accumulation of salts in topsoil caused by evaporation of excessive irrigation water, a process that can eventually render soil incapable of supporting crops. Siltation - occurs when water channels and reservoirs become clotted with silt and mud, a side effect of deforestation and soil erosion. Slash-and-burn agriculture - a rotating cultivation technique in which trees are cut down and burned in order to clear land for temporary agriculture; the land is used until its productivity declines at which point a new plot is selected and the process repeats; this practice is sustainable while population levels are low and time is permitted for regrowth of natural vegetation; conversely, where these conditions do not exist, the practice can have disastrous consequences for the environment. Soil degradation - damage to the land's productive capacity because of poor agricultural practices such as the excessive use of pesticides or fertilizers, soil compaction from heavy equipment, or erosion of topsoil, eventually resulting in reduced ability to produce agricultural products. Soil erosion - the removal of soil by the action of water or wind, compounded by poor agricultural practices, deforestation, overgrazing, and desertification. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation - a portion of the electromagnetic energy emitted by the sun and naturally filtered in the upper atmosphere by the ozone layer; UV radiation can be harmful to living organisms and has been linked to increasing rates of skin cancer in humans. Waterborne diseases - those in which bacteria survive in, and are transmitted through, water; always a serious threat in areas with an untreated water supply. Environment - international agreements This entry separates country participation in international environmental agreements into two levels - party to and signed, but not ratified. Agreements are listed in alphabetical order by the abbreviated form of the full name. This entry provides an ordered listing of ethnic groups starting with the largest and normally includes the percent of total population. This entry provides the official value of a country's monetary unit at a given date or over a given period of time, as expressed in units of local currency per US dollar and as determined by international market forces or official fiat. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 4217 alphabetic currency code for the national medium of exchange is presented in parenthesis. This entry includes several subfields. Chief of state includes the name and title of the titular leader of the country who represents the state at official and ceremonial functions but may not be involved with the day-to-day activities of the government. Head of government includes the name and title of the top administrative leader who is designated to manage the day-to-day activities of the government. For example, in the UK, the monarch is the chief of state, and the prime minister is the head of government. In the US, the president is both the chief of state and the head of government. Cabinet includes the official name for this body of high-ranking advisers and the method for selection of members. Elections includes the nature of election process or accession to power, date of the last election, and date of the next election. Election results includes the percent of vote for each candidate in the last election. This entry provides the total US dollar amount of merchandise exports on an f.o.b. (free on board) basis. These figures are calculated on an exchange rate basis, i.e., not in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms. Exports - commodities This entry provides a listing of the highest-valued exported products; it sometimes includes the percent of total dollar value. Exports - partners This entry provides a rank ordering of trading partners starting with the most important; it sometimes includes the percent of total dollar value. This entry provides a written flag description produced from actual flags or the best information available at the time the entry was written. The flags of independent states are used by their dependencies unless there is an officially recognized local flag. Some disputed and other areas do not have flags. Most versions of the Factbook include a color flag at the beginning of the country profile. The flag graphics were produced from actual flags or the best information available at the time of preparation. The flags of independent states are used by their dependencies unless there is an officially recognized local flag. Some disputed and other areas do not have flags. This entry provides the annual quantity of water in cubic kilometers removed from available sources for use in any purpose. Water drawn-off is not necessarily entirely consumed and some portion may be returned for further use downstream. Domestic sector use refers to water supplied by public distribution systems. Note that some of this total may be used for small industrial and/or limited agricultural purposes. Industrial sector use is the quantity of water used by self-supplied industries not connected to a public distribution system. Agricultural sector use includes water used for irrigation and livestock watering, and does not account for agriculture directly dependent on rainfall. Included are figures for total annual water withdrawal and per capita water withdrawal. This entry gives the gross domestic product (GDP) or value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year. A nation's GDP at official exchange rates (OER) is the home-currency-denominated annual GDP figure divided by the bilateral average US exchange rate with that country in that year. The measure is simple to compute and gives a precise measure of the value of output. Many economists prefer this measure when gauging the economic power an economy maintains vis-à-vis its neighbors, judging that an exchange rate captures the purchasing power a nation enjoys in the international marketplace. Official exchange rates, however, can be artificially fixed and/or subject to manipulation - resulting in claims of the country having an under- or over-valued currency - and are not necessarily the equivalent of a market-determined exchange rate. Moreover, even if the official exchange rate is market-determined, market exchange rates are frequently established by a relatively small set of goods and services (the ones the country trades) and may not capture the value of the larger set of goods the country produces. Furthermore, OER-converted GDP is not well suited to comparing domestic GDP over time, since appreciation/depreciation from one year to the next will make the OER GDP value rise/fall regardless of whether home-currency-denominated GDP changed. GDP (purchasing power parity) This entry gives the gross domestic product (GDP) or value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year. A nation's GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) exchange rates is the sum value of all goods and services produced in the country valued at prices prevailing in the United States. This is the measure most economists prefer when looking at per-capita welfare and when comparing living conditions or use of resources across countries. The measure is difficult to compute, as a US dollar value has to be assigned to all goods and services in the country regardless of whether these goods and services have a direct equivalent in the United States (for example, the value of an ox-cart or non-US military equipment); as a result, PPP estimates for some countries are based on a small and sometimes different set of goods and services. In addition, many countries do not formally participate in the World Bank's PPP project that calculates these measures, so the resulting GDP estimates for these countries may lack precision. For many developing countries, PPP-based GDP measures are multiples of the official exchange rate (OER) measure. The differences between the OER- and PPP-denominated GDP values for most of the wealthy industrialized countries are generally much smaller. GDP - composition by sector This entry gives the percentage contribution of agriculture, industry, and services to total GDP. The distribution will total less than 100 percent if the data are incomplete. GDP - per capita (PPP) This entry shows GDP on a purchasing power parity basis divided by population as of 1 July for the same year. GDP - real growth rate This entry gives GDP growth on an annual basis adjusted for inflation and expressed as a percent. In the Economy category, GDP dollar estimates for countries are reported both on an official exchange rate (OER) and a purchasing power parity (PPP) basis. Both measures contain information that is useful to the reader. The PPP method involves the use of standardized international dollar price weights, which are applied to the quantities of final goods and services produced in a given economy. The data derived from the PPP method probably provide the best available starting point for comparisons of economic strength and well-being between countries. In contrast, the currency exchange rate method involves a variety of international and domestic financial forces that may not capture the value of domestic output. Whereas PPP estimates for OECD countries are quite reliable, PPP estimates for developing countries are often rough approximations. In developing countries with weak currencies, the exchange rate estimate of GDP in dollars is typically one-fourth to one-half the PPP estimate. Most of the GDP estimates for developing countries are based on extrapolation of PPP numbers published by the UN International Comparison Program (UNICP) and by Professors Robert Summers and Alan Heston of the University of Pennsylvania and their colleagues. GDP derived using the OER method should be used for the purpose of calculating the share of items such as exports, imports, military expenditures, external debt, or the current account balance, because the dollar values presented in the Factbook for these items have been converted at official exchange rates, not at PPP. One should use the OER GDP figure to calculate the proportion of, say, Chinese defense expenditures in GDP, because that share will be the same as one calculated in local currency units. Comparison of OER GDP with PPP GDP may also indicate whether a currency is over- or under-valued. If OER GDP is smaller than PPP GDP, the official exchange rate may be undervalued, and vice versa. However, there is no strong historical evidence that market exchange rates move in the direction implied by the PPP rate, at least not in the short- or medium-term. Note: the numbers for GDP and other economic data should not be chained together from successive volumes of the Factbook because of changes in the US dollar measuring rod, revisions of data by statistical agencies, use of new or different sources of information, and changes in national statistical methods and practices. This entry includes rounded latitude and longitude figures for the purpose of finding the approximate geographic center of an entity and is based on the locations provided in the Geographic Names Server (GNS), maintained by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency on behalf of the US Board on Geographic Names. This information is presented in Appendix F: Cross Reference List of Geographic Names. It includes a listing of various alternate names, former names, local names, and regional names referenced to one or more related Factbook entries. Spellings are normally, but not always, those approved by the US Board on Geographic Names (BGN). Alternate names and additional information are included in parentheses. This category includes the entries dealing with the natural environment and the effects of human activity. Geography - note This entry includes miscellaneous geographic information of significance not included elsewhere. See entry for Distribution of family income - Gini index Gross national product (GNP) is the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year, plus income earned by its citizens abroad, minus income earned by foreigners from domestic production. The Factbook, following current practice, uses GDP rather than GNP to measure national production. However, the user must realize that in certain countries net remittances from citizens working abroad may be important to national well-being. This category includes the entries dealing with the system for the adoption and administration of public policy. Government - note This entry includes miscellaneous government information of significance not included elsewhere. This entry gives the basic form of government. Definitions of the major governmental terms are as follows. (Note that for some countries more than one definition applies.): Absolute monarchy - a form of government where the monarch rules unhindered, i.e., without any laws, constitution, or legally organized opposition. Anarchy - a condition of lawlessness or political disorder brought about by the absence of governmental authority. Authoritarian - a form of government in which state authority is imposed onto many aspects of citizens' lives. Commonwealth - a nation, state, or other political entity founded on law and united by a compact of the people for the common good. Communist - a system of government in which the state plans and controls the economy and a single - often authoritarian - party holds power; state controls are imposed with the elimination of private ownership of property or capital while claiming to make progress toward a higher social order in which all goods are equally shared by the people (i.e., a classless society). Confederacy (Confederation) - a union by compact or treaty between states, provinces, or territories, that creates a central government with limited powers; the constituent entities retain supreme authority over all matters except those delegated to the central government. Constitutional - a government by or operating under an authoritative document (constitution) that sets forth the system of fundamental laws and principles that determines the nature, functions, and limits of that government. Constitutional democracy - a form of government in which the sovereign power of the people is spelled out in a governing constitution. Constitutional monarchy - a system of government in which a monarch is guided by a constitution whereby his/her rights, duties, and responsibilities are spelled out in written law or by custom. Democracy - a form of government in which the supreme power is retained by the people, but which is usually exercised indirectly through a system of representation and delegated authority periodically renewed. Democratic republic - a state in which the supreme power rests in the body of citizens entitled to vote for officers and representatives responsible to them. Dictatorship - a form of government in which a ruler or small clique wield absolute power (not restricted by a constitution or laws). Ecclesiastical - a government administrated by a church. Emirate - similar to a monarchy or sultanate, but a government in which the supreme power is in the hands of an emir (the ruler of a Muslim state); the emir may be an absolute overlord or a sovereign with constitutionally limited authority. Federal (Federation) - a form of government in which sovereign power is formally divided - usually by means of a constitution - between a central authority and a number of constituent regions (states, colonies, or provinces) so that each region retains some management of its internal affairs; differs from a confederacy in that the central government exerts influence directly upon both individuals as well as upon the regional units. Federal republic - a state in which the powers of the central government are restricted and in which the component parts (states, colonies, or provinces) retain a degree of self-government; ultimate sovereign power rests with the voters who chose their governmental representatives. Islamic republic - a particular form of government adopted by some Muslim states; although such a state is, in theory, a theocracy, it remains a republic, but its laws are required to be compatible with the laws of Islam. Maoism - the theory and practice of Marxism-Leninism developed in China by Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung), which states that a continuous revolution is necessary if the leaders of a communist state are to keep in touch with the people. Marxism - the political, economic, and social principles espoused by 19th century economist Karl Marx; he viewed the struggle of workers as a progression of historical forces that would proceed from a class struggle of the proletariat (workers) exploited by capitalists (business owners), to a socialist "dictatorship of the proletariat," to, finally, a classless society - Communism. Marxism-Leninism - an expanded form of communism developed by Lenin from doctrines of Karl Marx; Lenin saw imperialism as the final stage of capitalism and shifted the focus of workers' struggle from developed to underdeveloped countries. Monarchy - a government in which the supreme power is lodged in the hands of a monarch who reigns over a state or territory, usually for life and by hereditary right; the monarch may be either a sole absolute ruler or a sovereign - such as a king, queen, or prince - with constitutionally limited authority. Oligarchy - a government in which control is exercised by a small group of individuals whose authority generally is based on wealth or power. Parliamentary democracy - a political system in which the legislature (parliament) selects the government - a prime minister, premier, or chancellor along with the cabinet ministers - according to party strength as expressed in elections; by this system, the government acquires a dual responsibility: to the people as well as to the parliament. Parliamentary government (Cabinet-Parliamentary government) - a government in which members of an executive branch (the cabinet and its leader - a prime minister, premier, or chancellor) are nominated to their positions by a legislature or parliament, and are directly responsible to it; this type of government can be dissolved at will by the parliament (legislature) by means of a no confidence vote or the leader of the cabinet may dissolve the parliament if it can no longer function. Parliamentary monarchy - a state headed by a monarch who is not actively involved in policy formation or implementation (i.e., the exercise of sovereign powers by a monarch in a ceremonial capacity); true governmental leadership is carried out by a cabinet and its head - a prime minister, premier, or chancellor - who are drawn from a legislature (parliament). Presidential - a system of government where the executive branch exists separately from a legislature (to which it is generally not accountable). Republic - a representative democracy in which the people's elected deputies (representatives), not the people themselves, vote on legislation. Socialism - a government in which the means of planning, producing, and distributing goods is controlled by a central government that theoretically seeks a more just and equitable distribution of property and labor; in actuality, most socialist governments have ended up being no more than dictatorships over workers by a ruling elite. Sultanate - similar to a monarchy, but a government in which the supreme power is in the hands of a sultan (the head of a Muslim state); the sultan may be an absolute ruler or a sovereign with constitutionally limited authority. Theocracy - a form of government in which a Deity is recognized as the supreme civil ruler, but the Deity's laws are interpreted by ecclesiastical authorities (bishops, mullahs, etc.); a government subject to religious authority. Totalitarian - a government that seeks to subordinate the individual to the state by controlling not only all political and economic matters, but also the attitudes, values, and beliefs of its population. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) The mean solar time at the Greenwich Meridian, Greenwich, England, with the hours and days, since 1925, reckoned from midnight. GMT is now a historical term having been replaced by UTC on 1 January 1972. See Coordinated Universal Time. Gross domestic product Gross national product Gross world product This entry gives the gross world product (GWP) or aggregate value of all final goods and services produced worldwide in a given year. This entry gives the total number of heliports with hard-surface runways, helipads, or landing areas that support routine sustained helicopter operations exclusively and have support facilities including one or more of the following facilities: lighting, fuel, passenger handling, or maintenance. It includes former airports used exclusively for helicopter operations but excludes heliports limited to day operations and natural clearings that could support helicopter landings and takeoffs. HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate This entry gives an estimate of the percentage of adults (aged 15-49) living with HIV/AIDS. The adult prevalence rate is calculated by dividing the estimated number of adults living with HIV/AIDS at yearend by the total adult population at yearend. HIV/AIDS - deaths This entry gives an estimate of the number of adults and children who died of AIDS during a given calendar year. HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS This entry gives an estimate of all people (adults and children) alive at yearend with HIV infection, whether or not they have developed symptoms of AIDS. Household income or consumption by percentage share Data on household income or consumption come from household surveys, the results adjusted for household size. Nations use different standards and procedures in collecting and adjusting the data. Surveys based on income will normally show a more unequal distribution than surveys based on consumption. The quality of surveys is improving with time, yet caution is still necessary in making inter-country comparisons. This entry gives information on the five categories of illicit drugs - narcotics, stimulants, depressants (sedatives), hallucinogens, and cannabis. These categories include many drugs legally produced and prescribed by doctors as well as those illegally produced and sold outside of medical channels. Cannabis (Cannabis sativa) is the common hemp plant, which provides hallucinogens with some sedative properties, and includes marijuana (pot, Acapulco gold, grass, reefer), tetrahydrocannabinol (THC, Marinol), hashish (hash), and hashish oil (hash oil). Coca (mostly Erythroxylum coca) is a bush with leaves that contain the stimulant used to make cocaine. Coca is not to be confused with cocoa, which comes from cacao seeds and is used in making chocolate, cocoa, and cocoa butter. Cocaine is a stimulant derived from the leaves of the coca bush. Depressants (sedatives) are drugs that reduce tension and anxiety and include chloral hydrate, barbiturates (Amytal, Nembutal, Seconal, phenobarbital), benzodiazepines (Librium, Valium), methaqualone (Quaalude), glutethimide (Doriden), and others (Equanil, Placidyl, Valmid). Drugs are any chemical substances that effect a physical, mental, emotional, or behavioral change in an individual. Drug abuse is the use of any licit or illicit chemical substance that results in physical, mental, emotional, or behavioral impairment in an individual. Hallucinogens are drugs that affect sensation, thinking, self-awareness, and emotion. Hallucinogens include LSD (acid, microdot), mescaline and peyote (mexc, buttons, cactus), amphetamine variants (PMA, STP, DOB), phencyclidine (PCP, angel dust, hog), phencyclidine analogues (PCE, PCPy, TCP), and others (psilocybin, psilocyn). Hashish is the resinous exudate of the cannabis or hemp plant (Cannabis sativa). Heroin is a semisynthetic derivative of morphine. Mandrax is a trade name for methaqualone, a pharmaceutical depressant. Marijuana is the dried leaf of the cannabis or hemp plant (Cannabis sativa). Methaqualone is a pharmaceutical depressant, referred to as mandrax in Southwest Asia and Africa. Narcotics are drugs that relieve pain, often induce sleep, and refer to opium, opium derivatives, and synthetic substitutes. Natural narcotics include opium (paregoric, parepectolin), morphine (MS-Contin, Roxanol), codeine (Tylenol with codeine, Empirin with codeine, Robitussin AC), and thebaine. Semisynthetic narcotics include heroin (horse, smack), and hydromorphone (Dilaudid). Synthetic narcotics include meperidine or Pethidine (Demerol, Mepergan), methadone (Dolophine, Methadose), and others (Darvon, Lomotil). Opium is the brown, gummy exudate of the incised, unripe seedpod of the opium poppy. Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) is the source for the natural and semisynthetic narcotics. Poppy straw is the entire cut and dried opium poppy-plant material, other than the seeds. Opium is extracted from poppy straw in commercial operations that produce the drug for medical use. Qat (kat, khat) is a stimulant from the buds or leaves of Catha edulis that is chewed or drunk as tea. Quaaludes is the North American slang term for methaqualone, a pharmaceutical depressant. Stimulants are drugs that relieve mild depression, increase energy and activity, and include cocaine (coke, snow, crack), amphetamines (Desoxyn, Dexedrine), ephedrine, ecstasy (clarity, essence, doctor, Adam), phenmetrazine (Preludin), methylphenidate (Ritalin), and others (Cylert, Sanorex, Tenuate). This entry provides the total US dollar amount of merchandise imports on a c.i.f. (cost, insurance, and freight) or f.o.b. (free on board) basis. These figures are calculated on an exchange rate basis, i.e., not in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms. Imports - commodities This entry provides a listing of the highest-valued imported products; it sometimes includes the percent of total dollar value. Imports - partners This entry provides a rank ordering of trading partners starting with the most important; it sometimes includes the percent of total dollar value. For most countries, this entry gives the date that sovereignty was achieved and from which nation, empire, or trusteeship. For the other countries, the date given may not represent "independence" in the strict sense, but rather some significant nationhood event such as the traditional founding date or the date of unification, federation, confederation, establishment, fundamental change in the form of government, or state succession. For a number of countries, the establishment of statehood was a lengthy evolutionary process occurring over decades or even centuries. In such cases, several significant dates are cited. Dependent areas include the notation "none" followed by the nature of their dependency status. Also see the Terminology note. Industrial production growth rate This entry gives the annual percentage increase in industrial production (includes manufacturing, mining, and construction). This entry provides a rank ordering of industries starting with the largest by value of annual output. Infant mortality rate This entry gives the number of deaths of infants under one year old in a given year per 1,000 live births in the same year; included is the total death rate, and deaths by sex, male and female. This rate is often used as an indicator of the level of health in a country. Inflation rate (consumer prices) This entry furnishes the annual percent change in consumer prices compared with the previous year's consumer prices. see Disputes - international International organization participation This entry lists in alphabetical order by abbreviation those international organizations in which the subject country is a member or participates in some other way. This entry includes the two-letter codes maintained by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in the ISO 3166 Alpha-2 list and used by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) to establish country-coded top-level domains (ccTLDs). This entry lists the number of Internet hosts available within a country. An Internet host is a computer connected directly to the Internet; normally an Internet Service Provider's (ISP) computer is a host. Internet users may use either a hard-wired terminal, at an institution with a mainframe computer connected directly to the Internet, or may connect remotely by way of a modem via telephone line, cable, or satellite to the Internet Service Provider's host computer. The number of hosts is one indicator of the extent of Internet connectivity. This entry gives the number of users within a country that access the Internet. Statistics vary from country to country and may include users who access the Internet at least several times a week to those who access it only once within a period of several months. This category includes one entry, Background. Investment (gross fixed) This entry records total business spending on fixed assets, such as factories, machinery, equipment, dwellings, and inventories of raw materials, which provide the basis for future production. It is measured gross of the depreciation of the assets, i.e., it includes investment that merely replaces worn-out or scrapped capital. This entry gives the number of square kilometers of land area that is artificially supplied with water. This entry lists the percentage distribution of the labor force by occupation. The distribution will total less than 100 percent if the data are incomplete and may range from 99-101 percent due to rounding. This entry contains the total length of all land boundaries and the individual lengths for each of the contiguous border countries. When available, official lengths published by national statistical agencies are used. Because surveying methods may differ, country border lengths reported by contiguous countries may differ. This entry contains the percentage shares of total land area for three different types of land use: arable land - land cultivated for crops like wheat, maize, and rice that are replanted after each harvest; permanent crops - land cultivated for crops like citrus, coffee, and rubber that are not replanted after each harvest; includes land under flowering shrubs, fruit trees, nut trees, and vines, but excludes land under trees grown for wood or timber; other - any land not arable or under permanent crops; includes permanent meadows and pastures, forests and woodlands, built-on areas, roads, barren land, etc. This entry provides a rank ordering of languages starting with the largest and sometimes includes the percent of total population speaking that language. This entry provides the description of a country's legal system; it also includes information on acceptance of International Court of Justice (ICJ) jurisdiction. The legal systems of nearly all countries are generally modeled upon elements of five main types: civil law (including French law, the Napoleonic Code, Roman law, Roman-Dutch law, and Spanish law); common law (including United State law); customary law; mixed or pluralistic law; and religious law (including Islamic law). An additional type of legal system - international law, which governs the conduct of independent nations in their relationships with one another - is also addressed below. The following list describes these legal systems, the countries or world regions where these systems are enforced, and a brief statement on the origins and major features of each. Civil Law - The most widespread type of legal system in the world, applied in various forms in approximately 150 countries. Also referred to as European continental law, the civil law system is derived mainly from the Roman Corpus Juris Civilus, (Body of Civil Law), a collection of laws and legal interpretations compiled under the East Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Justinian I between A.D. 528 and 565. The major feature of civil law systems is that the laws are organized into systematic written codes. In civil law the sources recognized as authoritative are principally legislation - especially codifications in constitutions or statutes enacted by governments - and secondarily, custom. The civil law systems in some countries are based on more than one code. Common Law - A type of legal system, often synonymous with "English common law," which is the system of England and Wales in the UK, and is also in force in approximately 80 countries formerly part of or influenced by the former British Empire. English common law reflects Biblical influences as well as remnants of law systems imposed by early conquerors including the Romans, Anglo-Saxons, and Normans. Some legal scholars attribute the formation of the English common law system to King Henry II (r.1154-1189). Until the time of his reign, laws customary among England's various manorial and ecclesiastical (church) jurisdictions were administered locally. Henry II established the king's court and designated that laws were "common" to the entire English realm. The foundation of English common law is "legal precedent" - referred to as stare decisis, meaning "to stand by things decided." In the English common law system, court judges are bound in their decisions in large part by the rules and other doctrines developed - and supplemented over time - by the judges of earlier English courts. Customary Law - A type of legal system that serves as the basis of, or has influenced, the present-day laws in approximately 40 countries - mostly in Africa, but some in the Pacific islands, Europe, and the Near East. Customary law is also referred to as "primitive law," "unwritten law," "indigenous law," and "folk law." There is no single history of customary law such as that found in Roman civil law, English common law, Islamic law, or the Napoleonic Civil Code. The earliest systems of law in human society were customary, and usually developed in small agrarian and hunter-gatherer communities. As the term implies, customary law is based upon the customs of a community. Common attributes of customary legal systems are that they are seldom written down, they embody an organized set of rules regulating social relations, and they are agreed upon by members of the community. Although such law systems include sanctions for law infractions, resolution tends to be reconciliatory rather than punitive. A number of African states practiced customary law many centuries prior to colonial influences. Following colonization, such laws were written down and incorporated to varying extents into the legal systems imposed by their colonial powers. European Union Law - A sub-discipline of international law known as "supranational law" in which the rights of sovereign nations are limited in relation to one another. Also referred to as the Law of the European Union or Community Law, it is the unique and complex legal system that operates in tandem with the laws of the 27 member states of the European Union (EU). Similar to federal states, the EU legal system ensures compliance from the member states because of the Union's decentralized political nature. The European Court of Justice (ECJ), established in 1952 by the Treaty of Paris, has been largely responsible for the development of EU law. Fundamental principles of European Union law include: subsidiarity - the notion that issues be handled by the smallest, lowest, or least centralized competent authority; proportionality - the EU may only act to the extent needed to achieve its objectives; conferral - the EU is a union of member states, and all its authorities are voluntarily granted by its members; legal certainty - requires that legal rules be clear and precise; and precautionary principle - a moral and political principle stating that if an action or policy might cause severe or irreversible harm to the public or to the environment, in the absence of a scientific consensus that harm would not ensue, the burden of proof falls on those who would advocate taking the action. French Law - A type of civil law that is the legal system of France. The French system also serves as the basis for, or is mixed with, other legal systems in approximately 50 countries, notably in North Africa, the Near East, and the French territories and dependencies. French law is primarily codified or systematic written civil law. Prior to the French Revolution (1789-1799), France had no single national legal system. Laws in the northern areas of present-day France were mostly local customs based on privileges and exemptions granted by kings and feudal lords, while in the southern areas Roman law predominated. The introduction of the Napoleonic Civil Code during the reign of Napoleon I in the first decade of the 19th century brought major reforms to the French legal system, many of which remain part of France's current legal structure, though all have been extensively amended or redrafted to address a modern nation. French law distinguishes between "public law" and "private law." Public law relates to government, the French Constitution, public administration, and criminal law. Private law covers issues between private citizens or corporations. The most recent changes to the French legal system - introduced in the 1980s - were the decentralization laws, which transferred authority from centrally appointed government representatives to locally elected representatives of the people. International Law - The law of the international community, or the body of customary rules and treaty rules accepted as legally binding by states in their relations with each other. International law differs from other legal systems in that it primarily concerns sovereign political entities. There are three separate disciplines of international law: public international law, which governs the relationship between provinces and international entities and includes treaty law, law of the sea, international criminal law, and international humanitarian law; private international law, which addresses legal jurisdiction; and supranational law - a legal framework wherein countries are bound by regional agreements in which the laws of the member countries are held inapplicable when in conflict with supranational laws. At present the European Union is the only entity under a supranational legal system. The term "international law" was coined by Jeremy Bentham in 1780 in his Principles of Morals and Legislation, though laws governing relations between states have been recognized from very early times (many centuries B.C.). Modern international law developed alongside the emergence and growth of the European nation-states beginning in the early 16th century. Other factors that influenced the development of international law included the revival of legal studies, the growth of international trade, and the practice of exchanging emissaries and establishing legations. The sources of International law are set out in Article 38-1 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice within the UN Charter. Islamic Law - The most widespread type of religious law, it is the legal system enforced in over 30 countries, particularly in the Near East, but also in Central and South Asia, Africa, and Indonesia. In many countries Islamic law operates in tandem with a civil law system. Islamic law is embodied in the sharia, an Arabic word meaning "the right path." Sharia covers all aspects of public and private life and organizes them into five categories: obligatory, recommended, permitted, disliked, and forbidden. The primary sources of sharia law are the Qur'an, believed by Muslims to be the word of God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad by the angel Gabriel, and the Sunnah, the teachings of the Prophet and his works. In addition to these two primary sources, traditional Sunni Muslims recognize the consensus of Muhammad's companions and Islamic jurists on certain issues, called ijmas, and various forms of reasoning, including analogy by legal scholars, referred to as qiyas. Shia Muslims reject ijmas and qiyas as sources of sharia law. Mixed Law - Also referred to as pluralistic law, mixed law consists of elements of some or all of the other main types of legal systems - civil, common, customary, and religious. The mixed legal systems of a number of countries came about when colonial powers overlaid their own legal systems upon colonized regions but retained elements of the colonies' existing legal systems. Napoleonic Civil Code - A type of civil law, referred to as the Civil Code or Code Civil des Francais, forms part of the legal system of France, and underpins the legal systems of Bolivia, Egypt, Lebanon, Poland, and the US state of Louisiana. The Civil Code was established under Napoleon I, enacted in 1804, and officially designated the Code Napoleon in 1807. This legal system combined the Teutonic civil law tradition of the northern provinces of France with the Roman law tradition of the southern and eastern regions of the country. The Civil Code bears similarities in its arrangement to the Roman Body of Civil Law (see Civil Law above). As enacted in 1804, the Code addressed personal status, property, and the acquisition of property. Codes added over the following six years included civil procedures, commercial law, criminal law and procedures, and a penal code. Religious Law - A legal system which stems from the sacred texts of religious traditions and in most cases professes to cover all aspects of life as a seamless part of devotional obligations to a transcendent, imminent, or deep philosophical reality. Implied as the basis of religious law is the concept of unalterability, because the word of God cannot be amended or legislated against by judges or governments. However, a detailed legal system generally requires human elaboration. The main types of religious law are sharia in Islam, halakha in Judaism, and canon law in some Christian groups. Sharia is the most widespread religious legal system (see Islamic Law), and is the sole system of law for countries including Iran, the Maldives, and Saudi Arabia. No country is fully governed by halakha, but Jewish people may decide to settle disputes through Jewish courts and be bound by their rulings. Canon law is not a divine law as such because it is not found in revelation. It is viewed instead as human law inspired by the word of God and applying the demands of that revelation to the actual situation of the church. Canon law regulates the internal ordering of the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. Roman Law - A type of civil law developed in ancient Rome and practiced from the time of the city's founding (traditionally 753 B.C.) until the fall of the Western Empire in the 5th century A.D. Roman law remained the legal system of the Byzantine (Eastern Empire) until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Preserved fragments of the first legal text, known as the Law of the Twelve Tables, dating from the 5th century B.C., contained specific provisions designed to change the prevailing customary law. Early Roman law was drawn from custom and statutes; later, during the time of the empire, emperors asserted their authority as the ultimate source of law. The basis for Roman laws was the idea that the exact form - not the intention - of words or of actions produced legal consequences. It was only in the late 6th century A.D. that a comprehensive Roman code of laws was published (see Civil Law above). Roman law served as the basis of law systems developed in a number of continental European countries. Roman-Dutch Law - A type of civil law based on Roman law as applied in the Netherlands. Roman-Dutch law serves as the basis for legal systems in seven African countries, as well as Guyana, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka. This law system, which originated in the province of Holland and expanded throughout the Netherlands (to be replaced by the French Civil Code in 1809), was instituted in a number of sub-Saharan African countries during the Dutch colonial period. The Dutch jurist/philosopher Hugo Grotius was the first to attempt to reduce Roman-Dutch civil law into a system in his Jurisprudence of Holland (written 1619-20, commentary published 1621). The Dutch historian/lawyer Simon van Leeuwen coined the term "Roman-Dutch law" in 1652. Spanish Law - A type of civil law, often referred to as the Spanish Civil Code, it is the present legal system of Spain and is the basis of legal systems in 12 countries mostly in Central and South America, but also in southwestern Europe, northern and western Africa, and southeastern Asia. The Spanish Civil Code reflects a complex mixture of customary, Roman, Napoleonic, local, and modern codified law. The laws of the Visigoth invaders of Spain in the 5th to 7th centuries had the earliest major influence on Spanish legal system development. The Christian Reconquest of Spain in the 11th through 15th centuries witnessed the development of customary law, which combined canon (religious) and Roman law. During several centuries of Hapsburg and Bourbon rule, systematic recompilations of the existing national legal system were attempted, but these often conflicted with local and regional customary civil laws. Legal system development for most of the 19th century concentrated on formulating a national civil law system, which was finally enacted in 1889 as the Spanish Civil Code. Several sections of the code have been revised, the most recent of which are the penal code in 1989 and the judiciary code in 2001. The Spanish Civil Code separates public and private law. Public law includes constitutional law, administrative law, criminal law, process law, financial and tax law, and international public law. Private law includes civil law, commercial law, labor law, and international private law. United States Law - A type of common law, which is the basis of the legal system of the United States and that of its island possessions in the Caribbean and the Pacific. This legal system has several layers, more possibly than in most other countries, and is due in part to the division between federal and state law. The United States was founded not as one nation but as a union of 13 colonies, each claiming independence from the British Crown. The US Constitution, implemented in 1789, began shifting power away from the states and toward the federal government, though the states today retain substantial legal authority. US law draws its authority from four sources: constitutional law, statutory law, administrative regulations, and case law. Constitutional law is based on the US Constitution and serves as the supreme federal law. Taken together with those of the state constitutions, these documents outline the general structure of the federal and state governments and provide the rules and limits of power. US statutory law is legislation enacted by the US Congress and is codified in the United States Code. The 50 state legislatures have similar authority to enact state statutes. Administrative law is the authority delegated to federal and state executive agencies. Case law, also referred to as common law, covers areas where constitutional or statutory law is lacking. Case law is a collection of judicial decisions, customs, and general principles that began in England centuries ago, that were adopted in America at the time of the Revolution, and that continue to develop today. This entry contains information on the structure (unicameral, bicameral, tricameral), formal name, number of seats, and term of office. Elections includes the nature of the election process or accession to power, date of the last election, and date of the next election. Election results includes the percent of vote and/or number of seats held by each party in the last election. Life expectancy at birth This entry contains the average number of years to be lived by a group of people born in the same year, if mortality at each age remains constant in the future. The entry includes total population as well as the male and female components. Life expectancy at birth is also a measure of overall quality of life in a country and summarizes the mortality at all ages. It can also be thought of as indicating the potential return on investment in human capital and is necessary for the calculation of various actuarial measures. This entry includes a definition of literacy and Census Bureau percentages for the total population, males, and females. There are no universal definitions and standards of literacy. Unless otherwise specified, all rates are based on the most common definition - the ability to read and write at a specified age. Detailing the standards that individual countries use to assess the ability to read and write is beyond the scope of the Factbook. Information on literacy, while not a perfect measure of educational results, is probably the most easily available and valid for international comparisons. Low levels of literacy, and education in general, can impede the economic development of a country in the current rapidly changing, technology-driven world. This entry identifies the country's regional location, neighboring countries, and adjacent bodies of water. This entry lists major infectious diseases likely to be encountered in countries where the risk of such diseases is assessed to be very high as compared to the United States. These infectious diseases represent risks to US government personnel traveling to the specified country for a period of less than three years. The degree of risk is assessed by considering the foreign nature of these infectious diseases, their severity, and the probability of being affected by the diseases present. The diseases listed do not necessarily represent the total disease burden experienced by the local population. The risk to an individual traveler varies considerably by the specific location, visit duration, type of activities, type of accommodations, time of year, and other factors. Consultation with a travel medicine physician is needed to evaluate individual risk and recommend appropriate preventive measures such as vaccines. Diseases are organized into the following six exposure categories shown in italics and listed in typical descending order of risk. Note: The sequence of exposure categories listed in individual country entries may vary according to local conditions. food or waterborne diseases acquired through eating or drinking on the local economy: Hepatitis A - viral disease that interferes with the functioning of the liver; spread through consumption of food or water contaminated with fecal matter, principally in areas of poor sanitation; victims exhibit fever, jaundice, and diarrhea; 15% of victims will experience prolonged symptoms over 6-9 months; vaccine available. Hepatitis E - water-borne viral disease that interferes with the functioning of the liver; most commonly spread through fecal contamination of drinking water; victims exhibit jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, and dark colored urine. Typhoid fever - bacterial disease spread through contact with food or water contaminated by fecal matter or sewage; victims exhibit sustained high fevers; left untreated, mortality rates can reach 20%. vectorborne diseases acquired through the bite of an infected arthropod: Malaria - caused by single-cell parasitic protozoa Plasmodium; transmitted to humans via the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito; parasites multiply in the liver attacking red blood cells resulting in cycles of fever, chills, and sweats accompanied by anemia; death due to damage to vital organs and interruption of blood supply to the brain; endemic in 100, mostly tropical, countries with 90% of cases and the majority of 1.5-2.5 million estimated annual deaths occurring in sub-Saharan Africa. Dengue fever - mosquito-borne (Aedes aegypti) viral disease associated with urban environments; manifests as sudden onset of fever and severe headache; occasionally produces shock and hemorrhage leading to death in 5% of cases. Yellow fever - mosquito-borne viral disease; severity ranges from influenza-like symptoms to severe hepatitis and hemorrhagic fever; occurs only in tropical South America and sub-Saharan Africa, where most cases are reported; fatality rate is less than 20%. Japanese Encephalitis - mosquito-borne (Culex tritaeniorhynchus) viral disease associated with rural areas in Asia; acute encephalitis can progress to paralysis, coma, and death; fatality rates 30%. African Trypanosomiasis - caused by the parasitic protozoa Trypanosoma; transmitted to humans via the bite of bloodsucking Tsetse flies; infection leads to malaise and irregular fevers and, in advanced cases when the parasites invade the central nervous system, coma and death; endemic in 36 countries of sub-Saharan Africa; cattle and wild animals act as reservoir hosts for the parasites. Cutaneous Leishmaniasis - caused by the parasitic protozoa leishmania; transmitted to humans via the bite of sandflies; results in skin lesions that may become chronic; endemic in 88 countries; 90% of cases occur in Iran, Afghanistan, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Brazil, and Peru; wild and domesticated animals as well as humans can act as reservoirs of infection. Plague - bacterial disease transmitted by fleas normally associated with rats; person-to-person airborne transmission also possible; recent plague epidemics occurred in areas of Asia, Africa, and South America associated with rural areas or small towns and villages; manifests as fever, headache, and painfully swollen lymph nodes; disease progresses rapidly and without antibiotic treatment leads to pneumonic form with a death rate in excess of 50%. Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever - tick-borne viral disease; infection may also result from exposure to infected animal blood or tissue; geographic distribution includes Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe; sudden onset of fever, headache, and muscle aches followed by hemorrhaging in the bowels, urine, nose, and gums; mortality rate is approximately 30%. Rift Valley fever - viral disease affecting domesticated animals and humans; transmission is by mosquito and other biting insects; infection may also occur through handling of infected meat or contact with blood; geographic distribution includes eastern and southern Africa where cattle and sheep are raised; symptoms are generally mild with fever and some liver abnormalities, but the disease may progress to hemorrhagic fever, encephalitis, or ocular disease; fatality rates are low at about 1% of cases. Chikungunya - mosquito-borne (Aedes aegypti) viral disease associated with urban environments, similar to Dengue Fever; characterized by sudden onset of fever, rash, and severe joint pain usually lasting 3-7 days, some cases result in persistent arthritis. water contact diseases acquired through swimming or wading in freshwater lakes, streams, and rivers: Leptospirosis - bacterial disease that affects animals and humans; infection occurs through contact with water, food, or soil contaminated by animal urine; symptoms include high fever, severe headache, vomiting, jaundice, and diarrhea; untreated, the disease can result in kidney damage, liver failure, meningitis, or respiratory distress; fatality rates are low but left untreated recovery can take months. Schistosomiasis - caused by parasitic trematode flatworm Schistosoma; fresh water snails act as intermediate host and release larval form of parasite that penetrates the skin of people exposed to contaminated water; worms mature and reproduce in the blood vessels, liver, kidneys, and intestines releasing eggs, which become trapped in tissues triggering an immune response; may manifest as either urinary or intestinal disease resulting in decreased work or learning capacity; mortality, while generally low, may occur in advanced cases usually due to bladder cancer; endemic in 74 developing countries with 80% of infected people living in sub-Saharan Africa; humans act as the reservoir for this parasite. aerosolized dust or soil contact disease acquired through inhalation of aerosols contaminated with rodent urine: Lassa fever - viral disease carried by rats of the genus Mastomys; endemic in portions of West Africa; infection occurs through direct contact with or consumption of food contaminated by rodent urine or fecal matter containing virus particles; fatality rate can reach 50% in epidemic outbreaks. respiratory disease acquired through close contact with an infectious person: Meningococcal meningitis - bacterial disease causing an inflammation of the lining of the brain and spinal cord; one of the most important bacterial pathogens is Neisseria meningitidis because of its potential to cause epidemics; symptoms include stiff neck, high fever, headaches, and vomiting; bacteria are transmitted from person to person by respiratory droplets and facilitated by close and prolonged contact resulting from crowded living conditions, often with a seasonal distribution; death occurs in 5-15% of cases, typically within 24-48 hours of onset of symptoms; highest burden of meningococcal disease occurs in the hyperendemic region of sub-Saharan Africa known as the "Meningitis Belt" which stretches from Senegal east to Ethiopia. animal contact disease acquired through direct contact with local animals: Rabies - viral disease of mammals usually transmitted through the bite of an infected animal, most commonly dogs; virus affects the central nervous system causing brain alteration and death; symptoms initially are non-specific fever and headache progressing to neurological symptoms; death occurs within days of the onset of symptoms. Manpower available for military service This entry gives the number of males and females falling in the military age range for a country (defined as being ages 16-49) and assumes that every individual is fit to serve. Manpower fit for military service This entry gives the number of males and females falling in the military age range for a country (defined as being ages 16-49) and who are not otherwise disqualified for health reasons; accounts for the health situation in the country and provides a more realistic estimate of the actual number fit to serve. Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually This entry gives the number of males and females entering the military manpower pool (i.e., reaching age 16) in any given year and is a measure of the availability of military-age young adults. This entry includes the name of the Factbook reference map on which a country may be found. Note that boundary representations on these maps are not necessarily authoritative. The entry on Geographic coordinates may be helpful in finding some smaller countries. This entry includes the following claims, the definitions of which are excerpted from the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which alone contains the full and definitive descriptions: territorial sea - the sovereignty of a coastal state extends beyond its land territory and internal waters to an adjacent belt of sea, described as the territorial sea in the UNCLOS (Part II); this sovereignty extends to the air space over the territorial sea as well as its underlying seabed and subsoil; every state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles; the normal baseline for measuring the breadth of the territorial sea is the mean low-water line along the coast as marked on large-scale charts officially recognized by the coastal state; the UNCLOS describes specific rules for archipelagic states. contiguous zone - according to the UNCLOS (Article 33), this is a zone contiguous to a coastal state's territorial sea, over which it may exercise the control necessary to: prevent infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration, or sanitary laws and regulations within its territory or territorial sea; punish infringement of the above laws and regulations committed within its territory or territorial sea; the contiguous zone may not extend beyond 24 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured (e.g. the US has claimed a 12-nautical mile contiguous zone in addition to its 12-nautical mile territorial sea). exclusive economic zone (EEZ) - the UNCLOS (Part V) defines the EEZ as a zone beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea in which a coastal state has: sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources, whether living or non-living, of the waters superjacent to the seabed and of the seabed and its subsoil, and with regard to other activities for the economic exploitation and exploration of the zone, such as the production of energy from the water, currents, and winds; jurisdiction with regard to the establishment and use of artificial islands, installations, and structures; marine scientific research; the protection and preservation of the marine environment; the outer limit of the exclusive economic zone shall not exceed 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. continental shelf - the UNCLOS (Article 76) defines the continental shelf of a coastal state as comprising the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas that extend beyond its territorial sea throughout the natural prolongation of its land territory to the outer edge of the continental margin, or to a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured where the outer edge of the continental margin does not extend up to that distance; the continental margin comprises the submerged prolongation of the landmass of the coastal state, and consists of the seabed and subsoil of the shelf, the slope and the rise; wherever the continental margin extends beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline, coastal states may extend their claim to a distance not to exceed 350 nautical miles from the baseline or 100 nautical miles from the 2500 meter isobath; it does not include the deep ocean floor with its oceanic ridges or the subsoil thereof. exclusive fishing zone - while this term is not used in the UNCLOS, some states (e.g., the United Kingdom) have chosen not to claim an EEZ, but rather to claim jurisdiction over the living resources off their coast; in such cases, the term exclusive fishing zone is often used; the breadth of this zone is normally the same as the EEZ or 200 nautical miles. Market value of publicly traded shares This entry gives the value of shares issued by publicly traded companies at a price determined in the national stock markets on the final day of the period indicated. It is simply the latest price per share multiplied by the total number of outstanding shares, cumulated over all companies listed on the particular exchange. This entry is the age that divides a population into two numerically equal groups; that is, half the people are younger than this age and half are older. It is a single index that summarizes the age distribution of a population. Currently, the median age ranges from a low of about 15 in Uganda and Gaza Strip to 40 or more in several European countries and Japan. See the entry for "Age structure" for the importance of a young versus an older age structure and, by implication, a low versus a higher median age. Merchant marine may be defined as all ships engaged in the carriage of goods; or all commercial vessels (as opposed to all nonmilitary ships), which excludes tugs, fishing vessels, offshore oil rigs, etc. This entry contains information in four fields - total, ships by type, foreign-owned, and registered in other countries. Total includes the number of ships (1,000 GRT or over), total DWT for those ships, and total GRT for those ships. DWT or dead weight tonnage is the total weight of cargo, plus bunkers, stores, etc., that a ship can carry when immersed to the appropriate load line. GRT or gross register tonnage is a figure obtained by measuring the entire sheltered volume of a ship available for cargo and passengers and converting it to tons on the basis of 100 cubic feet per ton; there is no stable relationship between GRT and DWT. Ships by type includes a listing of barge carriers, bulk cargo ships, cargo ships, chemical tankers, combination bulk carriers, combination ore/oil carriers, container ships, liquefied gas tankers, livestock carriers, multifunctional large-load carriers, petroleum tankers, passenger ships, passenger/cargo ships, railcar carriers, refrigerated cargo ships, roll-on/roll-off cargo ships, short-sea passenger ships, specialized tankers, and vehicle carriers. Foreign-owned are ships that fly the flag of one country but belong to owners in another. Registered in other countries are ships that belong to owners in one country but fly the flag of another. This category includes the entries dealing with a country's military structure, manpower, and expenditures. Military - note This entry includes miscellaneous military information of significance not included elsewhere. This entry lists the service branches subordinate to defense ministries or the equivalent (typically ground, naval, air, and marine forces). This entry gives spending on defense programs for the most recent year available as a percent of gross domestic product (GDP); the GDP is calculated on an exchange rate basis, i.e., not in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP). Military service age and obligation This entry gives the required ages for voluntary or conscript military service and the length of service obligation. All money figures are expressed in contemporaneous US dollars unless otherwise indicated. This entry gives the primary national day of celebration - usually independence day. This entry provides the identifying terms for citizens - noun and adjective. Natural gas - consumption This entry is the total natural gas consumed in cubic meters (cu m). The discrepancy between the amount of natural gas produced and/or imported and the amount consumed and/or exported is due to the omission of stock changes and other complicating factors. Natural gas - exports This entry is the total natural gas exported in cubic meters (cu m). Natural gas - imports This entry is the total natural gas imported in cubic meters (cu m). Natural gas - production This entry is the total natural gas produced in cubic meters (cu m). The discrepancy between the amount of natural gas produced and/or imported and the amount consumed and/or exported is due to the omission of stock changes and other complicating factors. Natural gas - proved reserves This entry is the stock of proved reserves of natural gas in cubic meters (cu m). Proved reserves are those quantities of natural gas, which, by analysis of geological and engineering data, can be estimated with a high degree of confidence to be commercially recoverable from a given date forward, from known reservoirs and under current economic conditions. This entry lists potential natural disasters. This entry lists a country's mineral, petroleum, hydropower, and other resources of commercial importance. Net migration rate This entry includes the figure for the difference between the number of persons entering and leaving a country during the year per 1,000 persons (based on midyear population). An excess of persons entering the country is referred to as net immigration (e.g., 3.56 migrants/1,000 population); an excess of persons leaving the country as net emigration (e.g., -9.26 migrants/1,000 population). The net migration rate indicates the contribution of migration to the overall level of population change. The net migration rate does not distinguish between economic migrants, refugees, and other types of migrants nor does it distinguish between lawful migrants and undocumented migrants. This entry is the total oil consumed in barrels per day (bbl/day). The discrepancy between the amount of oil produced and/or imported and the amount consumed and/or exported is due to the omission of stock changes, refinery gains, and other complicating factors. Oil - exports This entry is the total oil exported in barrels per day (bbl/day), including both crude oil and oil products. Oil - imports This entry is the total oil imported in barrels per day (bbl/day), including both crude oil and oil products. Oil - production This entry is the total oil produced in barrels per day (bbl/day). The discrepancy between the amount of oil produced and/or imported and the amount consumed and/or exported is due to the omission of stock changes, refinery gains, and other complicating factors. Oil - proved reserves This entry is the stock of proved reserves of crude oil in barrels (bbl). Proved reserves are those quantities of petroleum which, by analysis of geological and engineering data, can be estimated with a high degree of confidence to be commercially recoverable from a given date forward, from known reservoirs and under current economic conditions. This category includes the entries dealing with the characteristics of the people and their society. People - note This entry includes miscellaneous demographic information of significance not included elsewhere. Personal Names - Capitalization The Factbook capitalizes the surname or family name of individuals for the convenience of our users who are faced with a world of different cultures and naming conventions. The need for capitalization, bold type, underlining, italics, or some other indicator of the individual's surname is apparent in the following examples: MAO Zedong, Fidel CASTRO Ruz, George W. BUSH, and TUNKU SALAHUDDIN Abdul Aziz Shah ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Hisammuddin Alam Shah. By knowing the surname, a short form without all capital letters can be used with confidence as in President Castro, Chairman Mao, President Bush, or Sultan Tunku Salahuddin. The same system of capitalization is extended to the names of leaders with surnames that are not commonly used such as Queen ELIZABETH II. For Vietnamese names, the given name is capitalized because officials are referred to by their given name rather than by their surname. For example, the president of Vietnam is Tran Duc LUONG. His surname is Tran, but he is referred to by his given name - President LUONG. Personal Names - Spelling The romanization of personal names in the Factbook normally follows the same transliteration system used by the US Board on Geographic Names for spelling place names. At times, however, a foreign leader expressly indicates a preference for, or the media or official documents regularly use, a romanized spelling that differs from the transliteration derived from the US Government standard. In such cases, the Factbook uses the alternative spelling. Personal Names - Titles The Factbook capitalizes any valid title (or short form of it) immediately preceding a person's name. A title standing alone is not capitalized. Examples: President PUTIN and President BUSH are chiefs of state. In Russia, the president is chief of state and the premier is the head of the government, while in the US, the president is both chief of state and head of government. See entries under Oil. See entries under Oil. This entry gives the lengths and types of pipelines for transporting products like natural gas, crude oil, or petroleum products. Piracy is defined by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea as any illegal act of violence, detention, or depredation directed against a ship, aircraft, persons, or property in a place outside the jurisdiction of any State. Such criminal acts committed in the territorial waters of a littoral state are generally considered to be armed robbery against ships. Information on piracy may be found, where applicable, in the Transportation - note. Political parties and leaders This entry includes a listing of significant political organizations and their leaders. Political pressure groups and leaders This entry includes a listing of a country's political, social, labor, or religious organizations that are involved in politics, or that exert political pressure, but whose leaders do not stand for legislative election. International movements or organizations are generally not listed. This entry gives an estimate from the US Bureau of the Census based on statistics from population censuses, vital statistics registration systems, or sample surveys pertaining to the recent past and on assumptions about future trends. The total population presents one overall measure of the potential impact of the country on the world and within its region. Note: Starting with the 1993 Factbook, demographic estimates for some countries (mostly African) have explicitly taken into account the effects of the growing impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. These countries are currently: The Bahamas, Benin, Botswana, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Burma, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Population below poverty line National estimates of the percentage of the population falling below the poverty line are based on surveys of sub-groups, with the results weighted by the number of people in each group. Definitions of poverty vary considerably among nations. For example, rich nations generally employ more generous standards of poverty than poor nations. Population growth rate The average annual percent change in the population, resulting from a surplus (or deficit) of births over deaths and the balance of migrants entering and leaving a country. The rate may be positive or negative. The growth rate is a factor in determining how great a burden would be imposed on a country by the changing needs of its people for infrastructure (e.g., schools, hospitals, housing, roads), resources (e.g., food, water, electricity), and jobs. Rapid population growth can be seen as threatening by neighboring countries. Ports and terminals This entry lists major ports and terminals primarily on the basis of the amount of cargo tonnage shipped through the facilities on an annual basis. In some instances, the number of containers handled or ship visits were also considered. This entry records the cumulative total of all government borrowings less repayments that are denominated in a country's home currency. Public debt should not be confused with external debt, which reflects the foreign currency liabilities of both the private and public sector and must be financed out of foreign exchange earnings. This entry states the total route length of the railway network and of its component parts by gauge: broad, standard, narrow, and dual. Other gauges are listed under note. This section includes world and regional maps. Refugees and internally displaced persons This entry includes those persons residing in a country as refugees or internally displaced persons (IDPs). The definition of a refugee according to a United Nations Convention is "a person who is outside his/her country of nationality or habitual residence; has a well-founded fear of persecution because of his/her race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group or political opinion; and is unable or unwilling to avail himself/herself of the protection of that country, or to return there, for fear of persecution." The UN established the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in 1950 to handle refugee matters worldwide. The UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) has a different operational definition for a Palestinian refugee: "a person whose normal place of residence was Palestine during the period 1 June 1946 to 15 May 1948 and who lost both home and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 conflict." However, UNHCR also assists some 400,000 Palestinian refugees not covered under the UNRWA definition. The term "internally displaced person" is not specifically covered in the UN Convention; it is used to describe people who have fled their homes for reasons similar to refugees, but who remain within their own national territory and are subject to the laws of that state. This entry is an ordered listing of religions by adherents starting with the largest group and sometimes includes the percent of total population. The core characteristics and beliefs of the world's major religions are described below. Baha'i - Founded by Mirza Husayn-Ali (known as Baha'u'llah) in Iran in 1852, Baha'i faith emphasizes monotheism and believes in one eternal transcendent God. Its guiding focus is to encourage the unity of all peoples on the earth so that justice and peace may be achieved on earth. Baha'i revelation contends the prophets of major world religions reflect some truth or element of the divine, believes all were manifestations of God given to specific communities in specific times, and that Baha'u'llah is an additional prophet meant to call all humankind. Bahais are an open community, located worldwide, with the greatest concentration of believers in South Asia. Buddhism - Religion or philosophy inspired by the 5th century B.C. teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (also known as Gautama Buddha "the enlightened one"). Buddhism focuses on the goal of spiritual enlightenment centered on an understanding of Gautama Buddha's Four Noble Truths on the nature of suffering, and on the Eightfold Path of spiritual and moral practice, to break the cycle of suffering of which we are a part. Buddhism ascribes to a karmic system of rebirth. Several schools and sects of Buddhism exist, differing often on the nature of the Buddha, the extent to which enlightenment can be achieved - for one or for all, and by whom - religious orders or laity. Basic Groupings Theravada Buddhism: The oldest Buddhist school, Theravada is practiced mostly in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos, Burma, and Thailand, with minority representation elsewhere in Asia and the West. Theravadans follow the Pali Canon of Buddha's teachings, and believe that one may escape the cycle of rebirth, worldly attachment, and suffering for oneself; this process may take one or several lifetimes. Mahayana Buddhism, including subsets Zen and Tibetan Buddhism: Forms of Mahayana Buddhism are common in East Asia and Tibet, and parts of the West. Mahayanas have additional scriptures beyond the Pali Canon and believe the Buddha is eternal and still teaching. Unlike Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana schools maintain the Buddha-nature is present in all beings and all will ultimately achieve enlightenment. Christianity - Descending from Judaism, Christianity's central belief maintains Jesus of Nazareth is the promised messiah of the Hebrew Scriptures, and that his life, death, and resurrection are salvific for the world. Christianity is one of the three monotheistic Abrahamic faiths, along with Islam and Judaism, which traces its spiritual lineage to Abraham of the Hebrew Scriptures. Its sacred texts include the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament (or the Christian Gospels). Catholicism (or Roman Catholicism): This is the oldest established western Christian church and the world's largest single religious body. It is supranational, and recognizes a hierarchical structure with the Pope, or Bishop of Rome, as its head, located at the Vatican. Catholics believe the Pope is the divinely ordered head of the Church from a direct spiritual legacy of Jesus' apostle Peter. Catholicism is comprised of 23 particular Churches, or Rites - one Western (Roman or Latin-Rite) and 22 Eastern. The Latin Rite is by far the largest, making up about 98% of Catholic membership. Eastern-Rite Churches, such as the Maronite Church and the Ukrainian Catholic Church, are in communion with Rome although they preserve their own worship traditions and their immediate hierarchy consists of clergy within their own rite. The Catholic Church has a comprehensive theological and moral doctrine specified for believers in its catechism, which makes it unique among most forms of Christianity. Mormonism (including the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints): Originating in 1830 in the United States under Joseph Smith, Mormonism is not characterized as a form of Protestant Christianity because it claims additional revealed Christian scriptures after the Hebrew Bible and New Testament. The Book of Mormon maintains there was an appearance of Jesus in the New World following the Christian account of his resurrection, and that the Americas are uniquely blessed continents. Mormonism believes earlier Christian traditions, such as the Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant reform faiths, are apostasies and that Joseph Smith's revelation of the Book of Mormon is a restoration of true Christianity. Mormons have a hierarchical religious leadership structure, and actively proselytize their faith; they are located primarily in the Americas and in a number of other Western countries. Orthodox Christianity: The oldest established eastern form of Christianity, the Holy Orthodox Church, has a ceremonial head in the Bishop of Constantinople (Istanbul), also known as a Patriarch, but its various regional forms (e.g., Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Serbian Orthodox, Ukrainian Orthodox) are autocephalous (independent of Constantinople's authority, and have their own Patriarchs). Orthodox churches are highly nationalist and ethnic. The Orthodox Christian faith shares many theological tenets with the Roman Catholic Church, but diverges on some key premises and does not recognize the governing authority of the Pope. Protestant Christianity: Protestant Christianity originated in the 16th century as an attempt to reform Roman Catholicism's practices, dogma, and theology. It encompasses several forms or denominations which are extremely varied in structure, beliefs, relationship to state, clergy, and governance. Many protestant theologies emphasize the primary role of scripture in their faith, advocating individual interpretation of Christian texts without the mediation of a final religious authority such as the Roman Pope. The oldest Protestant Christianities include Lutheranism, Calvinism (Presbyterians), and Anglican Christianity (Episcopalians), which have established liturgies, governing structure, and formal clergy. Other variants on Protestant Christianity, including Pentecostal movements and independent churches, may lack one or more of these elements, and their leadership and beliefs are individualized and dynamic. Hinduism - Originating in the Vedic civilization of India (second and first millennium B.C.), Hinduism is an extremely diverse set of beliefs and practices with no single founder or religious authority. Hinduism has many scriptures; the Vedas, the Upanishads, and the Bhagavad-Gita are among some of the most important. Hindus may worship one or many deities, usually with prayer rituals within their own home. The most common figures of devotion are the gods Vishnu, Shiva, and a mother goddess, Devi. Most Hindus believe the soul, or atman, is eternal, and goes through a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara) determined by one's positive or negative karma, or the consequences of one's actions. The goal of religious life is to learn to act so as to finally achieve liberation (moksha) of one's soul, escaping the rebirth cycle. Islam - The third of the monotheistic Abrahamic faiths, Islam originated with the teachings of Muhammad in the 7th century. Muslims believe Muhammad is the final of all religious prophets (beginning with Abraham) and that the Qu'ran, which is the Islamic scripture, was revealed to him by God. Islam derives from the word submission, and obedience to God is a primary theme in this religion. In order to live an Islamic life, believers must follow the five pillars, or tenets, of Islam, which are the testimony of faith (shahada), daily prayer (salah), giving alms (zakah), fasting during Ramadan (sawm), and the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj). The two primary branches of Islam are Sunni and Shia, which split from each other over a religio-political leadership dispute about the rightful successor to Muhammad. The Shia believe Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Ali, was the only divinely ordained Imam (religious leader), while the Sunni maintain the first three caliphs after Muhammad were also legitimate authorities. In modern Islam, Sunnis and Shia continue to have different views of acceptable schools of Islamic jurisprudence, and who is a proper Islamic religious authority. Islam also has an active mystical branch, Sufism, with various Sunni and Shia subsets. Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population. It recognizes the Abu Bakr as the first caliph after Muhammad. Sunni has four schools of Islamic doctrine and law - Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali - which uniquely interpret the Hadith, or recorded oral traditions of Muhammad. A Sunni Muslim may elect to follow any one of these schools, as all are considered equally valid. Shia Islam represents 10-20% of Muslims worldwide, and its distinguishing feature is its reverence for Ali as an infallible, divinely inspired leader, and as the first Imam of the Muslim community after Muhammad. A majority of Shia are known as "Twelvers," because they believe that the 11 familial successor imams after Muhammad culminate in a 12th Imam (al-Mahdi) who is hidden in the world and will reappear at its end to redeem the righteous. Variants Ismaili faith: A sect of Shia Islam, its adherents are also known as "Seveners," because they believe that the rightful seventh Imam in Islamic leadership was Isma'il, the elder son of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq. Ismaili tradition awaits the return of the seventh Imam as the Mahdi, or Islamic messianic figure. Ismailis are located in various parts of the world, particularly South Asia and the Levant. Alawi faith: Another Shia sect of Islam, the name reflects followers' devotion to the religious authority of Ali. Alawites are a closed, secretive religious group who assert they are Shia Muslims, although outside scholars speculate their beliefs may have a syncretic mix with other faiths originating in the Middle East. Alawis live mostly in Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey. Druze faith: A highly secretive tradition and a closed community that derives from the Ismaili sect of Islam; its core beliefs are thought to emphasize a combination of Gnostic principles believing that the Fatimid caliph, al-Hakin, is the one who embodies the key aspects of goodness of the universe, which are, the intellect, the word, the soul, the preceder, and the follower. The Druze have a key presence in Syria, Lebanon, and Israel. Jainism - Originating in India, Jain spiritual philosophy believes in an eternal human soul, the eternal universe, and a principle of "the own nature of things." It emphasizes compassion for all living things, seeks liberation of the human soul from reincarnation through enlightenment, and values personal responsibility due to the belief in the immediate consequences of one's behavior. Jain philosophy teaches non-violence and prescribes vegetarianism for monks and laity alike; its adherents are a highly influential religious minority in Indian society. Judaism - One of the first known monotheistic religions, likely dating to between 2000-1500 B.C., Judaism is the native faith of the Jewish people, based upon the belief in a covenant of responsibility between a sole omnipotent creator God and Abraham, the patriarch of Judaism's Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh. Divine revelation of principles and prohibitions in the Hebrew Scriptures form the basis of Jewish law, or halakhah, which is a key component of the faith. While there are extensive traditions of Jewish halakhic and theological discourse, there is no final dogmatic authority in the tradition. Local communities have their own religious leadership. Modern Judaism has three basic categories of faith: Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform/Liberal. These differ in their views and observance of Jewish law, with the Orthodox representing the most traditional practice, and Reform/Liberal communities the most accommodating of individualized interpretations of Jewish identity and faith. Shintoism - A native animist tradition of Japan, Shinto practice is based upon the premise that every being and object has its own spirit or kami. Shinto practitioners worship several particular kamis, including the kamis of nature, and families often have shrines to their ancestors' kamis. Shintoism has no fixed tradition of prayers or prescribed dogma, but is characterized by individual ritual. Respect for the kamis in nature is a key Shinto value. Prior to the end of World War II, Shinto was the state religion of Japan, and bolstered the cult of the Japanese emperor. Sikhism - Founded by the Guru Nanak (born 1469), Sikhism believes in a non-anthropomorphic, supreme, eternal, creator God; centering one's devotion to God is seen as a means of escaping the cycle of rebirth. Sikhs follow the teachings of Nanak and nine subsequent gurus. Their scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib - also known as the Adi Granth - is considered the living Guru, or final authority of Sikh faith and theology. Sikhism emphasizes equality of humankind and disavows caste, class, or gender discrimination. Taoism - Chinese philosophy or religion based upon Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching, which centers on belief in the Tao, or the way, as the flow of the universe and the nature of things. Taoism encourages a principle of non-force, or wu-wei, as the means to live harmoniously with the Tao. Taoists believe the esoteric world is made up of a perfect harmonious balance and nature, while in the manifest world - particularly in the body - balance is distorted. The Three Jewels of the Tao - compassion, simplicity, and humility - serve as the basis for Taoist ethics. Zoroastrianism - Originating from the teachings of Zoroaster in about the 9th or 10th century B.C., Zoroastrianism may be the oldest continuing creedal religion. Its key beliefs center on a transcendent creator God, Ahura Mazda, and the concept of free will. The key ethical tenets of Zoroastrianism expressed in its scripture, the Avesta, are based on a dualistic worldview where one may prevent chaos if one chooses to serve God and exercises good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. Zoroastrianism is generally a closed religion and members are almost always born to Zoroastrian parents. Prior to the spread of Islam, Zoroastrianism dominated greater Iran. Today, though a minority, Zoroastrians remain primarily in Iran, India, and Pakistan. Reserves of foreign exchange and gold This entry gives the dollar value for the stock of all financial assets that are available to the central monetary authority for use in meeting a country's balance of payments needs as of the end-date of the period specified. This category includes not only foreign currency and gold, but also a country's holdings of Special Drawing Rights in the International Monetary Fund, and its reserve position in the Fund. This entry gives the total length of the road network and includes the length of the paved and unpaved portions. School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education) School life expectancy (SLE) is the total number of years of schooling (primary to tertiary) that a child can expect to receive, assuming that the probability of his or her being enrolled in school at any particular future age is equal to the current enrollment ratio at that age. Caution must be maintained when utilizing this indicator in international comparisons. For example, a year or grade completed in one country is not necessarily the same in terms of educational content or quality as a year or grade completed in another country. SLE represents the expected number of years of schooling that will be completed, including years spent repeating one or more grades. This entry includes the number of males for each female in five age groups - at birth, under 15 years, 15-64 years, 65 years and over, and for the total population. Sex ratio at birth has recently emerged as an indicator of certain kinds of sex discrimination in some countries. For instance, high sex ratios at birth in some Asian countries are now attributed to sex-selective abortion and infanticide due to a strong preference for sons. This will affect future marriage patterns and fertility patterns. Eventually, it could cause unrest among young adult males who are unable to find partners. Stock of broad money This entry covers all of "Narrow money," plus the total quantity of time and savings deposits, credit union deposits, institutional money market funds, short-term repurchase agreements between the central bank and commercial deposit banks, and other large liquid assets held by nonbank financial institutions, state and local governments, nonfinancial public enterprises, and the private sector of the economy. National currency units have been converted to US dollars at the closing exchange rate for the date of the information. Because of exchange rate movements, changes in money stocks measured in national currency units may vary significantly from those shown in US dollars, and caution is urged when making comparisons over time in US dollars. In addition to serving as a medium of exchange, broad money includes assets that are slightly less liquid than narrow money and the assets tend to function as a "store of value" - a means of holding wealth. Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad This entry gives the cumulative US dollar value of all investments in foreign countries made directly by residents - primarily companies - of the home country, as of the end of the time period indicated. Direct investment excludes investment through purchase of shares. Stock of direct foreign investment - at home This entry gives the cumulative US dollar value of all investments in the home country made directly by residents - primarily companies - of other countries as of the end of the time period indicated. Direct investment excludes investment through purchase of shares. Stock of domestic credit This entry is the total quantity of credit, denominated in the domestic currency, provided by financial institutions to the central bank, state and local governments, public non-financial corporations, and the private sector. The national currency units have been converted to US dollars at the closing exchange rate on the date of the information. Stock of narrow money This entry, also know as "M1," comprises the total quantity of currency in circulation (notes and coins) plus demand deposits denominated in the national currency held by nonbank financial institutions, state and local governments, nonfinancial public enterprises, and the private sector of the economy, measured at a specific point in time. National currency units have been converted to US dollars at the closing exchange rate for the date of the information. Because of exchange rate movements, changes in money stocks measured in national currency units may vary significantly from those shown in US dollars, and caution is urged when making comparisons over time in US dollars. Narrow money consists of more liquid assets than broad money and the assets generally function as a "medium of exchange" for an economy. This entry gives the age at enfranchisement and whether the right to vote is universal or restricted. All telephone numbers in The World Factbook consist of the country code in brackets, the city or area code (where required) in parentheses, and the local number. The one component that is not presented is the international access code, which varies from country to country. For example, an international direct dial telephone call placed from the US to Madrid, Spain, would be as follows: 011 (1) 577-xxxx, where 011 is the international access code for station-to-station calls; 01 is for calls other than station-to-station calls, is the country code for Spain, (1) is the city code for Madrid, 577 is the local exchange, and xxxx is the local telephone number. An international direct dial telephone call placed from another country to the US would be as follows: international access code + (202) 939-xxxx, where [ 1] is the country code for the US, (202) is the area code for Washington, DC, 939 is the local exchange, and xxxx is the local telephone number. This entry includes a brief general assessment of the system with details on the domestic and international components. The following terms and abbreviations are used throughout the entry: Arabsat - Arab Satellite Communications Organization (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia). Autodin - Automatic Digital Network (US Department of Defense). CB - citizen's band mobile radio communications. Cellular telephone system - the telephones in this system are radio transceivers, with each instrument having its own private radio frequency and sufficient radiated power to reach the booster station in its area (cell), from which the telephone signal is fed to a telephone exchange. Central American Microwave System - a trunk microwave radio relay system that links the countries of Central America and Mexico with each other. Coaxial cable - a multichannel communication cable consisting of a central conducting wire, surrounded by and insulated from a cylindrical conducting shell; a large number of telephone channels can be made available within the insulated space by the use of a large number of carrier frequencies. Comsat - Communications Satellite Corporation (US). DSN - Defense Switched Network (formerly Automatic Voice Network or Autovon); basic general-purpose, switched voice network of the Defense Communications System (US Department of Defense). Eutelsat - European Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Paris). Fiber-optic cable - a multichannel communications cable using a thread of optical glass fibers as a transmission medium in which the signal (voice, video, etc.) is in the form of a coded pulse of light. GSM - a global system for mobile (cellular) communications devised by the Groupe Special Mobile of the pan-European standardization organization, Conference Europeanne des Posts et Telecommunications (CEPT) in 1982. HF - high frequency; any radio frequency in the 3,000- to 30,000-kHz range. Inmarsat - International Maritime Satellite Organization (London); provider of global mobile satellite communications for commercial, distress, and safety applications at sea, in the air, and on land. Intelsat - International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Washington, DC). Intersputnik - International Organization of Space Communications (Moscow); first established in the former Soviet Union and the East European countries, it is now marketing its services worldwide with earth stations in North America, Africa, and East Asia. Landline - communication wire or cable of any sort that is installed on poles or buried in the ground. Marecs - Maritime European Communications Satellite used in the Inmarsat system on lease from the European Space Agency. Marisat - satellites of the Comsat Corporation that participate in the Inmarsat system. Medarabtel - the Middle East Telecommunications Project of the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) providing a modern telecommunications network, primarily by microwave radio relay, linking Algeria, Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, and Yemen; it was initially started in Morocco in 1970 by the Arab Telecommunications Union (ATU) and was known at that time as the Middle East Mediterranean Telecommunications Network. Microwave radio relay - transmission of long distance telephone calls and television programs by highly directional radio microwaves that are received and sent on from one booster station to another on an optical path. NMT - Nordic Mobile Telephone; an analog cellular telephone system that was developed jointly by the national telecommunications authorities of the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden). Orbita - a Russian television service; also the trade name of a packet-switched digital telephone network. Radiotelephone communications - the two-way transmission and reception of sounds by broadcast radio on authorized frequencies using telephone handsets. PanAmSat - PanAmSat Corporation (Greenwich, CT). SAFE - South African Far East Cable Satellite communication system - a communication system consisting of two or more earth stations and at least one satellite that provide long distance transmission of voice, data, and television; the system usually serves as a trunk connection between telephone exchanges; if the earth stations are in the same country, it is a domestic system. Satellite earth station - a communications facility with a microwave radio transmitting and receiving antenna and required receiving and transmitting equipment for communicating with satellites. Satellite link - a radio connection between a satellite and an earth station permitting communication between them, either one-way (down link from satellite to earth station - television receive-only transmission) or two-way (telephone channels). SHF - super high frequency; any radio frequency in the 3,000- to 30,000-MHz range. Shortwave - radio frequencies (from 1.605 to 30 MHz) that fall above the commercial broadcast band and are used for communication over long distances. Solidaridad - geosynchronous satellites in Mexico's system of international telecommunications in the Western Hemisphere. Statsionar - Russia's geostationary system for satellite telecommunications. Submarine cable - a cable designed for service under water. TAT - Trans-Atlantic Telephone; any of a number of high-capacity submarine coaxial telephone cables linking Europe with North America. Telefax - facsimile service between subscriber stations via the public switched telephone network or the international Datel network. Telegraph - a telecommunications system designed for unmodulated electric impulse transmission. Telex - a communication service involving teletypewriters connected by wire through automatic exchanges. Tropospheric scatter - a form of microwave radio transmission in which the troposphere is used to scatter and reflect a fraction of the incident radio waves back to earth; powerful, highly directional antennas are used to transmit and receive the microwave signals; reliable over-the-horizon communications are realized for distances up to 600 miles in a single hop; additional hops can extend the range of this system for very long distances. Trunk network - a network of switching centers, connected by multichannel trunk lines. UHF - ultra high frequency; any radio frequency in the 300- to 3,000-MHz range. VHF - very high frequency; any radio frequency in the 30- to 300-MHz range. Telephones - main lines in use This entry gives the total number of main telephone lines in use. Telephones - mobile cellular This entry gives the total number of mobile cellular telephone subscribers. Due to the highly structured nature of the Factbook database, some collective generic terms have to be used. For example, the word Country in the Country name entry refers to a wide variety of dependencies, areas of special sovereignty, uninhabited islands, and other entities in addition to the traditional countries or independent states. Military is also used as an umbrella term for various civil defense, security, and defense activities in many entries. The Independence entry includes the usual colonial independence dates and former ruling states as well as other significant nationhood dates such as the traditional founding date or the date of unification, federation, confederation, establishment, or state succession that are not strictly independence dates. Dependent areas have the nature of their dependency status noted in this same entry. This entry contains a brief description of the topography. This entry is expressed in The World Factbook in two ways. First, it is stated as the difference in hours between the capital of an entity and Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) during Standard Time. Additionally, the difference in time between the capital of an entity and that observed in Washington, D.C. is also provided. Note that the time difference assumes both locations are simultaneously observing Standard Time or Daylight Saving Time. Ten countries (Australia, Brazil, Canada, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Mexico, New Zealand, Russia, Spain, and the United States) and the island of Greenland observe more than one official time depending on the number of designated time zones within their boundaries. An illustration of time zones throughout the world and within countries can be seen in the Standard Time Zones of the World map included in the Reference Maps section of The World Factbook. Total fertility rate This entry gives a figure for the average number of children that would be born per woman if all women lived to the end of their childbearing years and bore children according to a given fertility rate at each age. The total fertility rate (TFR) is a more direct measure of the level of fertility than the crude birth rate, since it refers to births per woman. This indicator shows the potential for population change in the country. A rate of two children per woman is considered the replacement rate for a population, resulting in relative stability in terms of total numbers. Rates above two children indicate populations growing in size and whose median age is declining. Higher rates may also indicate difficulties for families, in some situations, to feed and educate their children and for women to enter the labor force. Rates below two children indicate populations decreasing in size and growing older. Global fertility rates are in general decline and this trend is most pronounced in industrialized countries, especially Western Europe, where populations are projected to decline dramatically over the next 50 years. Total renewable water resources This entry provides the long-term average water availability for a country in cubic kilometers of precipitation, recharged ground water, and surface inflows from surrounding countries. The values have been adjusted to account for overlap resulting from surface flow recharge of groundwater sources. Total renewable water resources provides the water total available to a country but does not include water resource totals that have been reserved for upstream or downstream countries through international agreements. Note that these values are averages and do not accurately reflect the total available in any given year. Annual available resources can vary greatly due to short-term and long-term climatic and weather variations. Trafficking in persons Trafficking in persons is modern-day slavery, involving victims who are forced, defrauded, or coerced into labor or sexual exploitation. The International Labor Organization (ILO), the UN agency charged with addressing labor standards, employment, and social protection issues, estimates that 12.3 million people worldwide are enslaved in forced labor, bonded labor, forced child labor, sexual servitude, and involuntary servitude at any given time. Human trafficking is a multi-dimensional threat, depriving people of their human rights and freedoms, risking global health, promoting social breakdown, inhibiting development by depriving countries of their human capital, and helping fuel the growth of organized crime. In 2000, the US Congress passed the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA), reauthorized in 2003 and 2005, which provides tools for the US to combat trafficking in persons, both domestically and abroad. One of the law's key components is the creation of the US Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report, which assesses the government response (i.e., the current situation) in some 150 countries with a significant number of victims trafficked across their borders who are recruited, harbored, transported, provided, or obtained for forced labor or sexual exploitation. Countries in the annual report are rated in three tiers, based on government efforts to combat trafficking. The countries identified in this entry are those listed in the 2010 Trafficking in Persons Report as Tier 2 Watch List or Tier 3 based on the following tier rating definitions: Tier 2 Watch Listcountries do not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking but are making significant efforts to do so, and meet one of the following criteria: 1. they display high or significantly increasing number of victims, 2. they have failed to provide evidence of increasing efforts to combat trafficking in persons, or, 3. they have committed to take action over the next year. Tier 3countries neither satisfy the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking nor demonstrate a significant effort to do so. Countries in this tier are subject to potential non-humanitarian and non-trade sanctions. This category includes four entries - Disputes - international, Refugees and internally displaced persons, Trafficking in persons, and Illicit drugs - that deal with current issues going beyond national boundaries. This category includes the entries dealing with the means for movement of people and goods. Transportation - note This entry includes miscellaneous transportation information of significance not included elsewhere. This entry contains the percent of the labor force that is without jobs. Substantial underemployment might be noted. This entry provides two measures of the degree of urbanization of a population. The first, urban population, describes the percentage of the total population living in urban areas, as defined by the country. The second, rate of urbanization, describes the projected average rate of change of the size of the urban population over the given period of time. Additionally, the World entry includes a list of the ten largest urban agglomerations. An urban agglomeration is defined as comprising the city or town proper and also the suburban fringe or thickly settled territory lying outside of, but adjacent to, the boundaries of the city. This entry gives the total length of navigable rivers, canals, and other inland bodies of water. Weights and Measures This information is presented in Appendix G: Weights and Measures and includes mathematical notations (mathematical powers and names), metric interrelationships (prefix; symbol; length, weight, or capacity; area; volume), and standard conversion factors. All year references are for the calendar year (CY) unless indicated as fiscal year (FY). The calendar year is an accounting period of 12 months from 1 January to 31 December. The fiscal year is an accounting period of 12 months other than 1 January to 31 December. for the US and US dependencies was complied from material in the public domain and does not represent Intelligence Community estimates. The online Factbook is updated bi-weekly. ISSN 1553-8133 For additional information on government leaders in selected foreign countries, go to World Leaders.

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Date of this Version This preliminary study examined the cultural and logistical factors underlying the settlement of the historic town of nyoming, Nebraska. Located along the Mormon Trail, this site provides a new window for understanding the dynamics of nineteenth century u.s. emigrant trails. Utilizing a body of primary and secondary documents as well as cartographic source, the preliminary analysis revealed two integrated themes: (1) frontier logistics and expansion and (2) religious values and experiences. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, or Mormons, needed both a prosperous town to equip themselves for their journey to Salt Lake City and a smaller town relatively free from "immoral vices" such as taverns and brothels. This small Nebraska town not only fit both these criteria, but it was also free from Native American unrest and the epidemics that ravaged their former settlement at Winter Quarters near Omaha. Thus the town became the new starting point of the Mormon Trail west of the Missouri River. This study will also form the basis for the site:S nomination to the National Register of Historic Places and aid in the formulation of a data recovery plan for afuture archaeological dig on the site.

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An object to simplify the interaction of the array with the ctypes module. This attribute creates an object that makes it easier to use arrays when calling shared libraries with the ctypes module. The returned object has, among others, data, shape, and strides attributes (see Notes below) which themselves return ctypes objects that can be used as arguments to a shared library. c : Python object Below are the public attributes of this object which were documented in “Guide to NumPy” (we have omitted undocumented public attributes, as well as documented private attributes): Be careful using the ctypes attribute - especially on temporary arrays or arrays constructed on the fly. For example, calling (a+b).ctypes.data_as(ctypes.c_void_p) returns a pointer to memory that is invalid because the array created as (a+b) is deallocated before the next Python statement. You can avoid this problem using either c=a+b or ct=(a+b).ctypes. In the latter case, ct will hold a reference to the array until ct is deleted or re-assigned. If the ctypes module is not available, then the ctypes attribute of array objects still returns something useful, but ctypes objects are not returned and errors may be raised instead. In particular, the object will still have the as parameter attribute which will return an integer equal to the data attribute. >>> import ctypes >>> x array([[0, 1], [2, 3]]) >>> x.ctypes.data 30439712 >>> x.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_long)) <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x01F01300> >>> x.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_long)).contents c_long(0) >>> x.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_longlong)).contents c_longlong(4294967296L) >>> x.ctypes.shape <numpy.core._internal.c_long_Array_2 object at 0x01FFD580> >>> x.ctypes.shape_as(ctypes.c_long) <numpy.core._internal.c_long_Array_2 object at 0x01FCE620> >>> x.ctypes.strides <numpy.core._internal.c_long_Array_2 object at 0x01FCE620> >>> x.ctypes.strides_as(ctypes.c_longlong) <numpy.core._internal.c_longlong_Array_2 object at 0x01F01300>

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April 22, 2012 The search for an alternative energy source to replace fossil fuels has been well underway for many years now. However, no alternative resource has been able to provide the energy efficiency, comfort, and availability of oil. Nevertheless, the search still continues due to the environmental and economic concerns associated with fossil fuels. One such alternative that has gained much popularity in recent years has been the production of biofuels. This ideal suggests that we derive energy, either indirectly or directly, from organic material including agricultural crops and animal waste. “Biofuels can be solid, gaseous or liquid, even though the term is often used in a narrow sense to refer only to liquid biofuels for transport[ion]” (Liquid Biofuels for Transport Prospects, Risks and Opportunities). Even though this option sounds extremely intriguing, biofuels are just another pipedream because they conflict with food sources, release potent amounts of greenhouse gas, and cost American taxpayers billions of dollars. The first reason why biofuels should not be considered a feasible energy source in the future is because they raise the price of food. “In 2008, about 33.3 million hectartes were used to produce foodbased biofuels and their coproducts.” Furthermore, biofuel production from food crops is expected to increase 170% in the next decade (Going Hungry: Why Biofuels Are for People, Prosperity, and the Planet). Diverting such a large number of crops for energy purposes increases the demand for land, which as a result increases the price. From 2007-2008, the price of corn rose 50%, wheat 75%, and rice nearly 200%. This was projected to push nearly 100 million people into poverty according to the World Bank (Going Hungry: Why Biofuels Are for People, Prosperity, and the Planet). As the human population increases in the upcoming decades, this number will only increase. The sacrifice of millions of lives is simply not worth the acquisition of a slightly cleaner fuel source. In addition, biofuels generate the same or even worse greenhouse gas (GHG) issues as conventional fuels do. Unlike renewable energy sources such as hydro, geothermal or solar energy, biofuels emit a large amount of greenhouse gasses during production. According to studies conducted in 2008, the most common biodiesel source, corn ethanol, generates around 50% more GHG than conventional fuels. Although the EPA later reported that this figure may be reduced in the long term, after the land use change no longer contribute to GHG release, corn ethanol can still generate 13% more GHG in 100 years period. For other renewable sources of energy, hydroelectricity, nuclear power and solar power generate almost no direct emissions of GHG and geothermal energy can reduce GHG release by nearly 97%. In comparison, biofuels have a large effect on global warming. The biofuel industry not only highly depends on government subsidies but also creates an inefficient government spending as well as a heavy burden to taxpayers. Economically speaking, biofuels have no efficiency advantage over conventional fuels. The energy content per gallon of biodiesel is 11% lower than petroleum diesel whereas the ethanol content is increasing the mechanical complexity for vehicle motors. Therefore, biofuels are not competitive in the market and to maintain the price advantage, they demand enormous government funding. In conclusion, the risks and costs of biofuels make them an unfeasible option at the moment. We need an energy source that is both economically and environmentally beneficial. Presently, biofuels are not and therefore should not be considered as a viable alternative energy source that should be implemented on a large-scale. Anthony Radich, “Biodiesel Performance, Cost and Use”, Energy Information Administration, http://www.eia.gov/oiaf/analysispaper/biodiesel/. Croplands for Biofuels Increases Greenhouse Gases Through Emissions from Land-Use Change”, Science. EPA Lifecycle Analysis of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Renewable Fuels”, US Environmental Protection Agency, http://www.epa.gov/otaq/renewablefuels/420f09024.htm “Going Hungry: Why Biofuels Are for People, Prosperity, and the Planet.” Le Québécois Libre. Web. 20 Apr. 2012. <http://www.quebecoislibre.org/08/080515-11.htm>. “Liquid Biofuels for Transport Prospects, Risks and Opportunities.” Biofuels: 1. What Are Biofuels? Web. 20 Apr. 2012. <http://www.greenfacts.org/en/biofuels/l-2/1-definition.htm>. Hongxi Zhao and Jay Bahayani are undergraduates in the USC Dana and David Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences.

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|Met proto-oncogene (hepatocyte growth factor receptor)| Crystallographic structure of MET. PDB rendering based on 1r0p. |External IDs||ChEMBL: GeneCards:| |RNA expression pattern| c-Met (MET or MNNG HOS Transforming gene) is a proto-oncogene that encodes a protein known as hepatocyte growth factor receptor (HGFR). The hepatocyte growth factor receptor protein possesses tyrosine-kinase activity. The primary single chain precursor protein is post-translationally cleaved to produce the alpha and beta subunits, which are disulfide linked to form the mature receptor. MET is a membrane receptor that is essential for embryonic development and wound healing. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) is the only known ligand of the MET receptor. MET is normally expressed by cells of epithelial origin, while expression of HGF is restricted to cells of mesenchymal origin. Upon HGF stimulation, MET induces several biological responses that collectively give rise to a program known as invasive growth. Abnormal MET activation in cancer correlates with poor prognosis, where aberrantly active MET triggers tumor growth, formation of new blood vessels (angiogenesis) that supply the tumor with nutrients, and cancer spread to other organs (metastasis). MET is deregulated in many types of human malignancies, including cancers of kidney, liver, stomach, breast, and brain. Normally, only stem cells and progenitor cells express MET, which allows these cells to grow invasively in order to generate new tissues in an embryo or regenerate damaged tissues in an adult. However, cancer stem cells are thought to hijack the ability of normal stem cells to express MET, and thus become the cause of cancer persistence and spread to other sites in the body. MET proto-oncogene (GeneID: 4233) has a total length of 125,982 bp, and it is located in the 7q31 locus of chromosome 7. MET is transcribed into a 6,641 bp mature mRNA, which is then translated into a 1,390 amino-acid MET protein. MET is a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) that is produced as a single-chain precursor. The precursor is proteolytically cleaved at a furin site to yield a highly glycosylated extracellular α-subunit and a transmembrane β-subunit, which are linked together by a disulfide bridge. - Region of homology to semaphorins (Sema domain), which includes the full α-chain and the N-terminal part of the β-chain - Cysteine-rich MET-related sequence (MRS domain) - Glycine-proline-rich repeats (G-P repeats) - Four immunoglobulin-like structures (Ig domains), a typical protein-protein interaction region. A Juxtamembrane segment that contains: - a serine residue (Ser 985), which inhibits the receptor kinase activity upon phosphorylation - a tyrosine (Tyr 1003), which is responsible for MET polyubiquitination, endocytosis, and degradation upon interaction with the ubiquitin ligase CBL - Tyrosine kinase domain, which mediates MET biological activity. Following MET activation, transphosphorylation occurs on Tyr 1234 and Tyr 1235 - C-terminal region contains two crucial tyrosines (Tyr 1349 and Tyr 1356), which are inserted into the multisubstrate docking site, capable of recruiting downstream adapter proteins with Src homology-2 (SH2) domains. The two tyrosines of the docking site have been reported to be necessary and sufficient for the signal transduction both in vitro. MET signaling pathway MET activation by its ligand HGF induces MET kinase catalytic activity, which triggers transphosphorylation of the tyrosines Tyr 1234 and Tyr 1235. These two tyrosines engage various signal transducers, thus initiating a whole spectrum of biological activities driven by MET, collectively known as the invasive growth program. The transducers interact with the intracellular multisubstrate docking site of MET either directly, such as GRB2, SHC, SRC, and the p85 regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K), or indirectly through the scaffolding protein Gab1 Tyr 1349 and Tyr 1356 of the multisubstrate docking site are both involved in the interaction with GAB1, SRC, and SHC, while only Tyr 1356 is involved in the recruitment of GRB2, phospholipase C γ (PLC-γ), p85, and SHP2. GAB1 is a key coordinator of the cellular responses to MET and binds the MET intracellular region with high avidity, but low affinity. Upon interaction with MET, GAB1 becomes phosphorylated on several tyrosine residues which, in turn, recruit a number of signalling effectors, including PI3K, SHP2, and PLC-γ. GAB1 phosphorylation by MET results in a sustained signal that mediates most of the downstream signaling pathways. Activation of signal transduction MET engagement activates multiple signal transduction pathways: - The RAS pathway mediates HGF-induced scattering and proliferation signals, which lead to branching morphogenesis. Of note, HGF, differently from most mitogens, induces sustained RAS activation, and thus prolonged MAPK activity. - The PI3K pathway is activated in two ways: PI3K can be either downstream of RAS, or it can be recruited directly through the multifunctional docking site. Activation of the PI3K pathway is currently associated with cell motility through remodeling of adhesion to the extracellular matrix as well as localized recruitment of transducers involved in cytoskeletal reorganization, such as RAC1 and PAK. PI3K activation also triggers a survival signal due to activation of the AKT pathway. - The STAT pathway, together with the sustained MAPK activation, is necessary for the HGF-induced branching morphogenesis. MET activates the STAT3 transcription factor directly, through an SH2 domain. - The beta-catenin pathway, a key component of the Wnt signaling pathway, translocates into the nucleus following MET activation and participates in transcriptional regulation of numerous genes. Role in development During embryonic development, transformation of the flat, two-layer germinal disc into a three-dimensional body depends on transition of some cells from an epithelial phenotype to spindle-shaped cells with motile behaviour, a mesenchymal phenotype. This process is referred to as epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Later in embryonic development, MET is crucial for gastrulation, angiogenesis, myoblast migration, bone remodeling, and nerve sprouting among others. MET is essential for embryogenesis, because MET -/- mice die in utero due to severe defects in placental development. Furthermore, MET is required for such critical processes as liver regeneration and wound healing during adulthood. Tissue distribution MET is normally expressed by epithelial cells. However, MET is also found on endothelial cells, neurons, hepatocytes, hematopoietic cells, and melanocytes. HGF expression is restricted to cells of mesenchymal origin. Transcriptional control MET transcription is activated by HGF and several growth factors. MET promoter has four putative binding sites for Ets, a family of transcription factors that control several invasive growth genes. ETS1 activates MET transcription in vitro. MET transcription is activated by hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF1), which is activated by low concentration of intracellular oxygen. HIF1 can bind to one of the several hypoxia response elements (HREs) in the MET promoter. Hypoxia also activates transcription factor AP-1, which is involved in MET transcription. Role in cancer MET pathway plays an important role in the development of cancer through: - angiogenesis (sprouting of new blood vessels from pre-existing ones to supply a tumor with nutrients); - scatter (cells dissociation due to metalloprotease production), which often leads to metastasis. Coordinated down-regulation of both MET and its downstream effector extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2 (ERK2) by miR-199a* may be effective in inhibiting not only cell proliferation but also motility and invasive capabilities of tumor cells. Interaction with tumour suppressor genes PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog) is a tumor suppressor gene encoding a protein PTEN, which possesses lipid and protein phosphatase-dependent as well as phosphatase-independent activities. PTEN protein phosphatase is able to interfere with MET signaling by dephosphorylating either PIP3 generated by PI3K, or the p52 isoform of SHC. SHC dephosphorylation inhibits recruitment of the GRB2 adapter to activated MET. Cancer therapies targeting HGF/MET Since tumor invasion and metastasis are the main cause of death in cancer patients, interfering with MET signaling appears to be a promising therapeutic approach. A comprehensive list of HGF and MET targeted experimental therapeutics for oncology now in human clinical trials can be found here. MET kinase inhibitors Kinase inhibitors are low molecular weight molecules that prevent ATP binding to MET, thus inhibiting receptor transphosphorylation and recruitment of the downstream effectors. The limitations of kinase inhibitors include the facts that they only inhibit kinase-dependent MET activation, and that none of them is fully specific for MET. - K252a (Fermentek Biotechnology) is a staurosporine analogue isolated from Nocardiopsis sp. soil fungi, and it is a potent inhibitor of all receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). At nanomolar concentrations, K252a inhibits both the wild type and the mutant (M1268T) MET function. - SU11274 (SUGEN) specifically inhibits MET kinase activity and its subsequent signaling. SU11274 is also an effective inhibitor of the M1268T and H1112Y MET mutants, but not the L1213V and Y1248H mutants. SU11274 has been demonstrated to inhibit HGF-induced motility and invasion of epithelial and carcinoma cells. - PHA-665752 (Pfizer) specifically inhibits MET kinase activity, and it has been demonstrated to represses both HGF-dependent and constitutive MET phosphorylation. Furthermore, some tumors harboring MET amplifications are highly sensitive to treatment with PHA-665752. - ARQ197 (ArQule) is a promising selective inhibitor of MET, which entered a phase 2 clinical trial in 2008. - Foretinib (XL880, Exelixis) targets multiple receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) with growth-promoting and angiogenic properties. The primary targets of foretinib are MET, VEGFR2, and KDR. Foretinib has completed a phase 2 clinical trials with indications for papillary renal cell carcinoma, gastric cancer, and head and neck cancer. - SGX523 (SGX Pharmaceuticals) specifically inhibits MET at low nanomolar concentrations. - MP470 (SuperGen) is a novel inhibitor of c-KIT, MET, PDGFR, Flt3, and AXL. Phase I clinical trial of MP470 had been announced in 2007. HGF inhibitors Since HGF is the only known ligand of MET, formation of a HGF:MET complex blocks MET biological activity. For this purpose, truncated HGF, anti-HGF neutralizing antibodies, and an uncleavable form of HGF have been utilized so far. The major limitation of HGF inhibitors is that they block only HGF-dependent MET activation. - NK4 competes with HGF as it binds MET without inducing receptor activation, thus behaving as a full antagonist. NK4 is a molecule bearing the N-terminal hairpin and the four kringle domains of HGF. Moreover, NK4 is structurally similar to angiostatins, which is why it possesses anti-angiogenic activity. - Neutralizing anti-HGF antibodies were initially tested in combination, and it was shown that at least three antibodies, acting on different HGF epitopes, are necessary to prevent MET tyrosine kinase activation. More recently, it has been demonstrated that fully human monoclonal antibodies can individually bind and neutralize human HGF, leading to regression of tumors in mouse models. Two anti-HGF antibodies are currently available: the humanized AV299 (AVEO), and the fully human AMG102 (Amgen). - Uncleavable HGF is an engineered form of pro-HGF carrying a single amino-acid substitution, which prevents the maturation of the molecule. Uncleavable HGF is capable of blocking MET-induced biological responses by binding MET with high affinity and displacing mature HGF. Moreover, uncleavable HGF competes with the wild-type endogenous pro-HGF for the catalytic domain of proteases that cleave HGF precursors. Local and systemic expression of uncleavable HGF inhibits tumor growth and, more importantly, prevents metastasis. Decoy MET Decoy MET refers to a soluble truncated MET receptor. Decoys are able to inhibit MET activation mediated by both HGF-dependent and independent mechanisms, as decoys prevent both the ligand binding and the MET receptor homodimerization. CGEN241 (Compugen) is a decoy MET that is highly efficient in inhibiting tumor growth and preventing metastasis in animal models. Immunotherapy targeting MET Drugs used for immunotherapy can act either passively by enhancing the immunologic response to MET-expressing tumor cells, or actively by stimulating immune cells and altering differentiation/growth of tumor cells. Passive immunotherapy Administering monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) is a form of passive immunotherapy. MAbs facilitate destruction of tumor cells by complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) and cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC). In CDC, mAbs bind to specific antigen, leading to activation of the complement cascade, which in turn leads to formation of pores in tumor cells. In ADCC, the Fab domain of a mAb binds to a tumor antigen, and Fc domain binds to Fc receptors present on effector cells (phagocytes and NK cells), thus forming a bridge between an effector and a target cells. This induces the effector cell activation, leading to phagocytosis of the tumor cell by neutrophils and macrophages. Furthermore, NK cells release cytotoxic molecules, which lyse tumor cells. - DN30 is monoclonal anti-MET antibody that recognizes the extracellular portion of MET. DN30 induces both shedding of the MET ectodomain as well as cleavage of the intracellular domain, which is successively degraded by proteasome machinery. As a consequence, on one side MET is inactivated, and on the other side the shed portion of extracellular MET hampers activation of other MET receptors, acting as a decoy. DN30 inhibits tumour growth and prevents metastasis in animal models. - OA-5D5 is one-armed monoclonal anti-MET antibody that was demonstrated to inhibit orthotopic pancreatic and glioblastoma tumor growth and to improve survival in tumor xenograft models. OA-5D5 is produced as a recombinant protein in Escherichia coli. It is composed of murine variable domains for the heavy and light chains with human IgG1 constant domains. The antibody blocks HGF binding to MET in a competitive fashion. Active immunotherapy Active immunotherapy to MET-expressing tumors can be achieved by administering cytokines, such as interferons (IFNs) and interleukins (IL-2), which triggers non-specific stimulation of numerous immune cells. IFNs have been tested as therapies for many types of cancers and have demonstrated therapeutic benefits. 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"Hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor activates the ETS1 transcription factor by a RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK signaling pathway". Oncogene 21 (15): 2309–19. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1205297. PMID 11948414. - Comoglio PM (1993). "Structure, biosynthesis and biochemical properties of the HGF receptor in normal and malignant cells". EXS 65: 131–65. PMID 8380735. - Maulik G, Shrikhande A, Kijima T, et al. (2002). "Role of the hepatocyte growth factor receptor, c-Met, in oncogenesis and potential for therapeutic inhibition". Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 13 (1): 41–59. doi:10.1016/S1359-6101(01)00029-6. PMID 11750879. - Ma PC, Maulik G, Christensen J, Salgia R (2004). "c-Met: structure, functions and potential for therapeutic inhibition". Cancer Metastasis Rev. 22 (4): 309–25. doi:10.1023/A:1023768811842. PMID 12884908. - Knudsen BS, Edlund M (2004). "Prostate cancer and the met hepatocyte growth factor receptor". Adv. Cancer Res. Advances in Cancer Research 91: 31–67. doi:10.1016/S0065-230X(04)91002-0. ISBN 978-0-12-006691-9. PMID 15327888. - Dharmawardana PG, Giubellino A, Bottaro DP (2005). "Hereditary papillary renal carcinoma type I". Curr. Mol. Med. 4 (8): 855–68. doi:10.2174/1566524043359674. PMID 15579033. - Kemp LE, Mulloy B, Gherardi E (2006). "Signalling by HGF/SF and Met: the role of heparan sulphate co-receptors". Biochem. Soc. Trans. 34 (Pt 3): 414–7. doi:10.1042/BST0340414. PMID 16709175. - Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-met at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) - UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot entry P08581: MET_HUMAN, ExPASy (Expert Protein Analysis System) proteomics server of the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (SIB) - A table with references to significant roles of MET in cancer

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(PressMediaWire) PALO ALTO, Calif., , November 15th, 2007 -- The Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI), an instrument for NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), has been delivered to NASA’s GoddardSpacecraft Centerfor integration on SDO, which is scheduled to launch in December 2008. HMI was designed in collaboration with Professor Philip Scherrer, HMI Principal Investigator, and other scientists at Stanford University. The instrument was built at the Solar and Astrophysics Laboratory of the Lockheed Martin [NYSE: LMT] Advanced Technology Center (ATC) in "HMI combined with our partner instruments on SDO – the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly and the Extreme Ultraviolet Variability Experiment – will provide us with the data needed to first learn if predictions of solar activity are possible,” said Professor Scherrer. “Then, if we and our colleagues in the solar physics community are clever enough, we’ll actually develop forecast methods. This is an exciting time for studying the Sun and its impact on the Earth." The primary goal of the HMI investigation on SDO is to study the origin of solar variability and to characterize and understand the Sun’s interior and magnetic activity. Because of the turbulence in the convection zone near the surface, the Sun is figuratively ringing like a bell. By studying these oscillations of the visible surface of the Sun, considerable insight can be gained into the processes inside. In effect the solar turbulence is analogous to earthquakes. In manner similar to how seismologists can learn about the interior of the Earth by studying the waves generated in an earthquake. HMI’s helioseismologists will learn about the structure, temperature and flows in the solar interior. “This is a very satisfying milestone for us, as the delivery of HMI for mounting on the SDO spacecraft brings us a big step closer to having this spectacular instrument in space watching the Sun,” said solar physicist – and co-investigator on HMI – Dr. Alan Title of the ATC. “HMI will provide us with sonograms of the Sun that will show us sunspots and magnetic fields before they appear on the visible surface. We’ll even be able to see through the Sun and be aware of the birth of spots on the side facing away from us, allowing us to be ready for them as they rotate into our view. Moreover, HMI’s high spatial resolution and full-Sun coverage will give us much more time to study magnetic field evolution in detail.” HMI will produce data necessary to determine the interior sources and mechanisms of solar variability and how the physical processes inside the Sun are related to surface magnetic field and activity. Because HMI can measure the strength and direction of the magnetic field on the surface, more precise estimates of the coronal magnetic field are possible. In addition, HMI observations will clarify the relationships between internal solar dynamics and magnetic activity, providing a better understanding of solar variability and its effects. The knowledge gained will enable a major advance in the development of a reliable predictive capability for solar flares and coronal mass ejections. The prediction of these violent solar events, how they travel through the solar system and where they are likely to impact is one of the key elements of the NASA’s Living With a Star (LWS) program. It is also of critical importance to the NASA Vision for Space Exploration, and a human presence on the Moon. The goal of SDO is to understand – striving towards a predictive capability – the solar variations that influence life on Earth and humanity’s technological systems. The mission seeks to determine how the Sun’s magnetic field is generated and structured, and how this stored magnetic energy is converted and released into the heliosphere and geospace in the form of solar wind, energetic particles, and variations in the solar irradiance. The SDO spacecraft will also be a flagship in the Heliophysics Great Observatory, a series of missions designed to monitor the Sun and the heliosphere. As humans venture outward from Earth to the Moon, Mars and beyond their safety depends upon, at least in part, an ability to forecast energetic events on the Sun. Because both people and planets constantly move with respect to the Sun, it is also essential to understand how the energy released by these solar events travels through the heliosphere in order to properly access the impact on space travelers wherever they may be in the solar system. The Solar and Astrophysics Laboratory at the ATC has a 44-year-long heritage of spaceborne solar instruments including the Soft X-ray Telescope on the Japanese Yohkoh satellite, the Michelson Doppler Imager on the ESA/NASA Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, the solar telescope on NASA’s Transition Region and Coronal Explorer, the Solar X-ray Imager on the GOES-N environmental satellite, the Focal Plane Package on Hinode and an Extreme Ultraviolet Imager on each of the two spacecraft in NASA’s Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory. The laboratory also conducts basic research into understanding and predicting space weather and the behavior of the Sun including its impacts on Earth and climate. The ATC is the research and development organization of Lockheed Martin Space Systems Company (LMSSC). LMSSC, a major operating unit of Lockheed Martin Corporation, designs, develops, tests, manufactures and operates a full spectrum of advanced-technology systems for national security, civil and commercial customers. Chief products include human space flight systems; a full range of remote sensing, navigation, meteorological and communications satellites and instruments; space observatories and interplanetary spacecraft; laser radar; fleet ballistic missiles; and missile defense Headquartered in Bethesda, Md., Lockheed Martin employs about 140,000 people worldwide and is principally engaged in the research, design, development, manufacture, integration and sustainment of advanced technology systems, products and services. The corporation reported 2006 sales of $39.6 billion. Buddy Nelson, (510) 797-0349; e-mail, email@example.com For additional information about Lockheed Martin, visit our website: http://www.lockheedmartin.com For more information on NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory, visit:

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en

Some kids need to repeat a grade in school. This means that a kid who's in third grade would have to do third grade again next year, instead of moving on to fourth grade. No one wants to repeat a grade, but if this happens to you, you're not the only one. Repeating a grade can be the right thing, though, because you get another chance to complete the work and learn what you need to know to do well when you do move up to the next grade. Why Some Kids Have to Repeat Most kids need to repeat a grade because they are having trouble with the work or other stuff they need to do in that grade. Some kids might have learning disabilities. For instance, a kid might have trouble reading. Other kids might have been ill or absent for a long time, so they didn't get a chance to learn everything they needed to learn. Who decides if you should repeat a grade? It's often a team, including your parents, your teacher, counselor, and principal. Teachers and parents aren't trying to be mean when they decide a kid should repeat a grade. Everyone is trying to do the right thing so that the kid will learn what he or she needs to know before moving on. You probably know that the stuff you learn is like building blocks. First, you learn your numbers. Then you learn how to add, then subtract. Later, you'll learn how to multiply and divide. If you didn't learn your numbers, how could you do other math? Sometimes a kid might understand the schoolwork, but is having trouble with other stuff, like behaving in class and sitting still while the teacher is teaching. Sometimes, an extra year gives the kid and his or her family a chance to work through problems like that. If a kid is just refusing to do the work, that problem needs to be solved. If you have to repeat a grade, you might be thinking: "Is everyone really moving on without me?" Repeating a grade might make you sad, angry, or both. It can be stressful. You might be upset because you won't be in class with all of your friends. Try talking with your mom or dad, a teacher, or a school counselor if you're having these feelings. If you are worried about missing your friends, try to set up playdates or other times when you can play together. Ask for a parent's help with this. You might feel embarrassed or ashamed about repeating a grade. You may think that people are talking about you or making fun of you. These feelings are normal. It can really hurt if someone teases you about repeating a grade. You might want to think about what you could say to someone who teases you. Maybe you could say, "I needed to get better at some stuff. It's not a big deal." If you are teased, be sure to tell a parent, teacher, or counselor. Find a grownup who can help you figure out what to do. If Your Friend Has to Repeat Try to be kind if a friend needs to repeat a grade. Let him or her know you will still be friends. Try to get together after school, on the weekends, and during vacations. Support your friend and never tease him or her. Sticking by him or her in this tough time might make you even better friends. Can You Avoid Repeating? Sometimes, there's no way to avoid having to repeat a grade. If you have learning trouble or you missed a lot of school, there may be no way around it. But you might be able to make up work during summer school or with a tutor who comes to your house. If you're struggling with school, be sure to tell a parent. Work with your teacher and the school counselor to figure out what the problems are and how to solve them. Try to handle problems right away, instead of just hoping things will get better. It's easier to catch up if you get help quickly. School can be hard work — there's no denying it. But you can learn some strategies to help it go a little better for you. For instance, if you study a little bit each night, that can make it easier — and less scary — than having to learn everything the night before a test. With school, set a goal for yourself and keep working toward it bit by bit. Ask for help if you need it, and you'll get there!

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en

Lophophora williamsii (peyote) populations have diminished in large areas of South Texas where peyoteros harvest the cactus for ceremonial use by the Native American Church. Habitat destruction caused by urban development, rootplowing, etc., account for much of the reduction, but the regulated commercial harvest of peyote is also taking its toll. Some harvesters cut the peyote too low (it can be very hard to tell where the shoot ends and the root begin) - consequently many of the decapitated plants will not regenerate new stems and are left to die. To address this problem Martin Terry and James D. Mauseth have investigated the proper technique for harvesting peyote, and found that the cactus must be cut off at or immediately below its base, leaving the subterranean portion of the plant (including all or most of the subterranean part of the stem) in the ground to regenerate new crowns. Their harvesting technique is outlined below. Plant about to be cut transversely at the base of the crown (the photosynthetic part of the stem), i.e., at ground level. Cut has been made parallel to the ground surface, and the harvested crown (below) has been removed from the subterranean portion of the stem (above, remaining in the ground). The cut surface shows a cross section of the vascular cylinder (ring of yellow tissue near center of stem), the pith within the vascular cylinder, and the yellowish green parenchymal tissue of the cortex of the stem (between vascular ring and epidermis). The underside of the harvested crown (left) shows a very narrow (2–3 mm wide) ring of bark at the perimeter of the cut surface, indicating that the cut was barely below the base of the crown, in the uppermost portion of subterranean stem. The cut surfaces match, except that crown parenchyma (left) is slightly greener due to higher chlorophyll content, whereas the subterranean stem parenchyma (right) is more yellowish. Two young peyote crowns (“pups”) regenerating by lateral branching from the upper edge of the subterranean stem of a plant that was decapitated 7.5 months previously. This plant is the same individual shown in the 3 previous pictures. Each of the new crowns is ca. 1.5 cm in diameter. If the peyote is cut too deep no tubercles are left to sprout and continue growing after the top has been removed, i.e. the closer to soil level the plant is cut, the greater the chances are that the remaining parts of the plant will retain healthy tubercles and be able to re-grow new crowns. Terry and Mauseth base their technique on detailed studies of the anatomy of root, shoot and hypocotyl (region between shoot and root) and also give recommendations on how to distinguish shoots from roots without actually cutting the plant open. Martin Terry, James D. Mauseth (2006), “Root-shoot anatomy and post-harvest vegetative clonal development in Lophophora williamsii (Cactaceae: Cacteae): implications for conservation”, Sida, Contributions to Botany 22, 565-592 (Download the article from Sida - 19.2 MB) Sylvia Moreno, “In Deep South Texas, peyote harvest dwindling”, Seattle Times See also How to sustainably harvest Lophophora williamsii (Peyote) from Kadas Garden.

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Provided by: freebsd-manpages_7.2-1_all getuid, geteuid - get user identification Standard C Library (libc, -lc) The getuid() system call returns the real user ID of the calling process. The geteuid() system call returns the effective user ID of the calling The real user ID is that of the user who has invoked the program. As the effective user ID gives the process additional permissions during execution of “set-user-ID” mode processes, getuid() is used to determine the real-user-id of the calling process. The getuid() and geteuid() system calls are always successful, and no return value is reserved to indicate an error. getgid(2), issetugid(2), setgid(2), setreuid(2), setuid(2) The geteuid() and getuid() system calls are expected to conform to ISO/IEC 9945-1:1990 (“POSIX.1”). The getuid() and geteuid() functions appeared in Version 7 AT&T UNIX.

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en

A Reference Resource Campaigns and Elections The Campaign and Election of 1824 Although John Quincy Adams should have been the heir apparent to the presidency as James Monroe's secretary of state, the year 1824 was a political turning point in which none of the old rules applied. Four other men also wanted to be President, each with substantial regional backing. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina had served as secretary of war in the Monroe administration and had support from slave owners in the South but he needed support from outside the region to be a viable candidate. The politically ambitious and able William H. Crawford of Georgia enjoyed the support of party regulars in Congress—especially Senator Martin Van Buren of New York—as well as substantial footing in Georgia. Crawford had served as secretary of war and of the treasury in the two previous administrations. His main drawback stemmed from his explosive temper, which had alienated a number of fellow political leaders including President Monroe. The two men had almost engaged in a fistfight in a cabinet meeting before Crawford gathered his wits enough to apologize. Thereafter, the two men seldom spoke to one another. The most visible candidate was House Speaker Henry Clay. A leading War Hawk during the War of 1812, Clay had a power base in Kentucky, was a gifted public speaker, and had support for his so-called American System of protective tariffs and federally sponsored internal improvements. His high-profile advocacy of these issues made him a familiar name in much of the country. Although he was well known, his clear identification with the war and nationalism weakened his roots in the South, which was beginning to fear supporting anyone for President who was not a slave owner or a supporter of states' rights. Then there was General Andrew Jackson from Tennessee, the hero of the Battle of New Orleans. Jackson's reputation as an Indian fighter and western expansionist, owing to his military escapades in Spanish Florida (see Jackson biography, Life Before the Presidency section), gave him national standing above all other candidates. It also helped that Jackson could enter the race as an outsider, a defender of the Republic who had risked his life in service of his nation. In fact, his supporters talked about him as another George Washington. Few experienced politicians, however, expected Jackson to win if any of the opposing candidates could broker a cross-regional coalition that would unite either the West or the South with New England or the mid-Atlantic States. Such a coalition was no easy task to achieve. After all, the 1824 election occurred in a day and age when a new political electorate composed of regionally focused voters had only recently been empowered with the franchise. Since 1820, the old political caucus method by which the congressional leaders nominated presidential candidates had fallen into disrepute. This was principally because the old caucus system failed to connect with the wishes of the new voters, the tens of thousands of males who had been enfranchised by the removal of property ownership as a criterion for white male suffrage. This new climate looked to regional endorsements of candidates by state conventions or state assemblies, which meant that regional popularity, rather than congressional intrigue, would drive the nomination process. Although Adams was a centrist politician of sorts—a Jeffersonian-Federalist, to coin a new term—many Americans still identified him as a New Englander and as the son of the old Federalist leader John Adams. Additionally, many staunch Democratic-Republicans blamed Adams and his supporters for having transformed the party of Jefferson into a disguised form of Federalism under the rubric of "National Republicans." Southerners, moreover, objected to Adams because of his moral opposition to slavery. They remembered his criticism of the Missouri Compromise of 1820 as a proslavery conspiracy, and they suspiciously recalled Adams's efforts to include language opposed to the international slave trade in the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812. Four Democratic-Republican Candidates In the summer of 1824, an unofficial caucus of less than a third of the congressmen eligible to attend nominated Crawford for President. Supporters for Adams denounced the caucus bid, and the Massachusetts legislature nominated Adams as their favorite-son candidate. The Kentucky legislature did the same for Clay. Both nominations followed the pattern set by the Tennessee legislature, which had nominated Andrew Jackson in 1822. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina dropped out of the presidential race by announcing his bid for the vice presidency, a move that both Adams and Crawford endorsed. Because all four candidates were nominal Democratic-Republicans—the Federalist Party had disintegrated by this point—the election would be decided without reference to party affiliation. As the campaign progressed, Jackson emerged as the man to beat. The size of his rallies in key swing states—Pennsylvania, Illinois, Indiana, New York, and New Jersey—far surpassed or rivaled those for Clay and Adams. In this first election in American history in which the popular vote mattered—because eighteen states chose presidential electors by popular vote in 1824 (six states still left the choice up to their state legislatures) —Jackson's popularity foretold a new era in the making. When the final votes were tallied in those eighteen states, Jackson polled 152,901 popular votes to Adams's 114,023; Clay won 47,217, and Crawford won 46,979. The electoral college returns, however, gave Jackson only 99 votes, 32 fewer than he needed for a majority of the total votes cast. Adams won 84 electoral votes followed by 41 for Crawford and 37 for Clay. Jackson was the only candidate to attract significant support beyond his regional base. He carried the majority of electoral votes in eleven states: Alabama, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, New Jersey, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Tennessee. Adams won all six of the New England states plus New York. Crawford and Clay carried only three states each—Delaware, Georgia, and Virginia for Crawford and Kentucky, Missouri, and Ohio for Clay. Acting under the Twelfth Amendment of the Constitution, the House of Representatives met to select the President from among the top three candidates. Henry Clay, as the candidate with the fewest electoral votes, was eliminated from the deliberation. As Speaker of the House, however, Clay was still the most important player in determining the outcome of the election. The election in the House took place in February 1825. With each state having one vote, as determined by the wishes of the majority of each state's congressional representatives, Adams emerged as the winner with a one-vote margin of victory. Most of Clay's supporters, joined by several old Federalists, switched their votes to Adams in enough states to give him the election. Soon after his inauguration as President, Adams appointed Henry Clay as his secretary of state. A "Corrupt Bargain"? Jackson could barely contain his fury at having lost the election in what he claimed was a "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Clay to overturn the will of the people. To most Jackson supporters, it looked as if congressional leaders had conspired to revive the caucus system, whereby Congress greatly influenced—if not determined—the selection of the President. Jackson laid the blame on Clay, telling anyone who would listen that the Speaker had approached him with the offer of a deal: Clay would support Jackson in return for Jackson's appointment of Clay as secretary of state. When Jackson refused, Clay purportedly made the deal with Adams instead. In Jackson's words, Clay had sold his influence in a "corrupt bargain." Clay denied the charges, and while there certainly had been some behind-the-scenes maneuvering by Clay to push the vote to Adams, it most likely reflected Clay's genuine doubts about Jackson's qualifications for the office. In assessing the odds of successfully forwarding his own political agenda, Clay questioned Jackson's commitment to the "American System" of internal improvements. On the other hand, Clay knew that Adams had supported it consistently over the years. Also, the loss of three states that Jackson had won in the popular vote—Illinois, Maryland, and Louisiana—due to the defection of congressmen who supported Adams suggests that more was involved in the outcome than the political maneuvering of one man. Enraged, Jackson resigned his seat in the Senate and vowed to win the presidency in 1828 as an outsider to Washington politics. The Campaign and Election of 1828 Within months of Adams's inauguration in 1825, the Tennessee legislature nominated Andrew Jackson for President. Over the next three years, Jackson put together a highly disciplined grassroots campaign with one goal: to defeat John Quincy Adams in a rematch that would pit "the people" against Adams. Jackson issued so-called memorandums (a misuse of the word that endeared him to his growing western constituency) in which he outlined the erosion of representative power over the last decades at the hands of "gamesters" like Clay and Adams. In Jackson's mind, the "corrupt bargain" was just one of a number of such schemes. Jackson claimed that the Panic of 1819, a devastating economic collapse, had resulted from (1) a conspiracy of disreputable creditors and the Bank of the United States, (2) the unpaid national debt, (3) the political swindlers in office from Madison through Adams—schemers who would be turned out with a Jackson victory—and (4) the backstairs dealings of "King Caucus" to select a President in defiance of popular opinion. While Jackson issued his statements and traveled the nation rounding up support, his most brilliant lieutenant, Martin Van Buren of New York, assumed the duties of a campaign manager. Van Buren had switched allegiance from Crawford to Jackson shortly after the election of 1824. His efforts thereafter were focused on securing a victory for Jackson in the popular vote. Van Buren's strategy was to portray Jackson as the head of a disciplined and issue-oriented party that was committed to states' rights and the limited-government ideology of the old Jeffersonian Republicans. In the year before the 1828 election, Van Buren's organizational efforts began to create a new political entity that would come to fruition in the 1830s. For the 1828 election, Van Buren focused on linking the opponents of federalism in the North and South into a coalition that he envisioned as the heir to the old Jeffersonian Republican Party. In his mind, victory for this new movement would protect slavery in the South, ensure the legitimacy of majority rule based upon direct voting for candidates by the electorate, and guarantee preservation of the Union, with states' rights as the fundamental basis of American liberty. When he won the support of Vice President John C. Calhoun and powerful Virginia political leaders, Van Buren effectively laid the basis for a party system that would endure until the Civil War. (Calhoun was moving away from his postwar ideology of nationalism to a states' rights conservatism that was more reflective of his region's fear of abolitionism, costly internal improvements, and high protective tariffs.) While Jackson and Van Buren organized, Adams diligently carried out the duties of the presidency, refusing to prepare himself or his supporters for the coming contest. Adams did not remove even his loudest opponents from appointive office and hewed to the old-fashioned notion that a candidate should "stand" for office, not "run." When the election campaign officially began, Adams's supporters formally adopted the name National Republicans in contrast to Democrats, trying thereby to identify themselves accurately with the link between old-style federalism and a new nationalistic republicanism. Jacksonians, on the other hand, argued for a new revolutionary movement that rested on a firm faith in majoritarian democracy and states' rights—ideas that were not always compatible. Personal Campaign Battles Although issues clearly separated the candidates along lines more distinct than any since the election of 1800, the campaign itself was highly personal. Indeed, it was the first campaign in history to use election materials such as campaign buttons, slogans, posters, tokens, flasks, snuffboxes, medallions, thread boxes, matchboxes, mugs, and fabric images so extensively. Almost all of these campaign trinkets depicted some aspect of the candidate's popular image. Jackson's status as a war hero and frontiersman played far better with the public than Adams's stiff-looking elder statesman stance. Neither candidate personally campaigned in 1828, but their political followers organized rallies, parades, and demonstrations. In the popular press, the rhetorical attacks reached a level of cruelty and misrepresentation not seen since the election of 1800. Jackson was accused of multiple murders, of extreme personal violence, and of having lived in sin with his wife, Rachel, who herself was attacked as a bigamist. Adams, on the other hand, was attacked for his legalistic attitudes, for his foreign-born wife, and for reportedly having procured young American virgins for the Russian czar as the primary achievement of his diplomatic career. Adams's critics referred to him as "His Excellency" while Jackson came under attack as an ill-mannered, barely civilized, backwoods killer of Indians. In a masterstroke of popular politics, the Jacksonians made good use of the general's nickname, Old Hickory. He had earned the name because he was reputed to be as tough as hickory wood. To publicize his image, Jackson supporters put hickory poles all over the country, distributed hickory toothpicks and canes, and served up barbecues fired by hickory chips. The branding of Jackson's wife as an "American Jezebel" and convicted adulteress—because she had married Jackson before her divorce from an earlier marriage had been finalized—surprisingly backfired as an election strategy. It unleashed a backlash against Adams for humiliating a woman who had lived for 40 years as the devoted wife of General Jackson, for grossly violating the general's privacy and honor, and for applying narrowly legalistic pronouncements in place of common sense. To countless Americans, Jackson's duels, brawls, executions, and unauthorized ventures represented the victory of what was right and good over the application of stiff-minded and narrowly construed principles. The attacks simply enhanced Jackson's image as an authentic American hero who had drawn upon his natural nobility and powerful will to prevail against unscrupulous political foes, educated elitists, the pride of the British army, and "heathen savages"—often at the same time. The campaign turned out more than twice the number of voters who had cast ballots in 1824—approximately 57 percent of the electorate. Jackson won the election in a landslide, and by a wide margin of 95 electoral votes. Adams carried New England, Delaware, part of Maryland, New Jersey, and sixteen of New York's electoral votes—nine states in all. Jackson carried the remaining fifteen states of the South, Northwest, mid-Atlantic, and West. Incumbent Vice President John C. Calhoun won 171 electoral votes to 83 for Richard Rush of Pennsylvania, Adams's running mate.

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Contains information about a single instance of a Binding. Assembly: PresentationFramework (in PresentationFramework.dll) The Binding class is the high-level class for the declaration of a binding. The class is the underlying object that maintains the connection between the binding source and the binding target. A Binding contains all the information that can be shared across several objects. A is an instance expression that cannot be shared and that contains all the instance information about the Binding. For example, consider the following, where myDataObject is an instance of the MyData class, myBinding is the source Binding object, and MyData class is a defined class that contains a string property named MyDataProperty. This example binds the text content of mytext, which is an instance of TextBlock, to MyDataProperty. You can use the same myBinding object to create other bindings. For example, you might use the myBinding object to bind the text content of a check box to MyDataProperty. In that scenario, there will be two instances of that share the myBinding object. This example shows how to obtain the binding object from a data-bound target property. You can do the following to get the Binding object: You must specify the dependency property for the binding you want because it is possible that more than one property of the target object is using data binding. Alternatively, you can get the and then get the value of the ParentBinding property. For the complete example see Binding Validation Sample. If your binding is a MultiBinding, use BindingOperations.GetMultiBinding. If it is a PriorityBinding, use BindingOperations.GetPriorityBinding. If you are uncertain whether the target property is bound using a Binding, a MultiBinding, or a PriorityBinding, you can use BindingOperations.GetBindingBase. Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP SP2, Windows Server 2008 R2, Windows Server 2008, Windows Server 2003 The .NET Framework and .NET Compact Framework do not support all versions of every platform. For a list of the supported versions, see .NET Framework System Requirements.

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The American Physical Society, a national organization of physicists dedicated to the development and promotion of physics, named Pupin Hall, home to Columbia's physics department, a historic site. The society recognized the University's historic contributions to the advancement of the science, and singled out Isidor Isaac Rabi, the late Nobel laureate and Columbia professor, for his groundbreaking achievements in magnetic resonance. |Isidor Isaac Rabi Image credit: Columbia University Libraries During a ceremony last Thursday, David Hirsh, Columbia's executive vice president for research, accepted a plaque from Gene Sprouse, American Physical Society editor-in-chief. Also in attendance were Rabi's two daughters, Nancy Lichtenstein and Margaret Rabi Beels, Columbia physicist and Nobel laureate Tsung-Dao Lee , and author Richard Rhodes, who wrote "The Making of the Atomic Bomb." During the mid-20th century Columbia physicists led the world in the development of quantum mechanics, laser technology and nuclear fission. The first atom was split inside Pupin Hall, located on the Morningside Heights campus. "Columbia had the best physics department in the country from 1945 to 1952," said John Rigden, a spokesman for the American Physical Society. "When Columbia was mentioned [as a candidate], immediately the committee, without much discussion, said that it was a good move." The American Physical Society, currently headquartered in College Park, Md., was founded at the University in 1899, and launched its Historical Sites Initiative a few years ago to raise awareness about institutions central to the development of physics. It was only a matter of time before the society turned its sights toward Morningside Heights. In 1965, Pupin Hall was designated a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service. The physics department counts a total of 27 Nobel laureates, many of whom were recruited by Rabi and did their prize-winning work under his chairmanship in the late 1940s. Rabi gained acclaim for his work on magnetic resonance—the manipulation of an alternating electric field (in Rabi's day, a radio wave), which causes a quantum mechanical system to jump from one form of energy to another. His discovery later led to the innovation of magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI, technology commonly used in medical diagnostics. Rabi earned a Ph.D. from Columbia in 1927 before spending the next two years in Germany working with physicists Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg and Otto Stern. He joined Columbia's faculty in 1929 and completed his research on magnetic resonance in 1938. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1944 and spent the next few years contributing to the inventions of the laser and the atomic clock. He later co-founded Brookhaven National Laboratory and the European Center for Nuclear Research, served as President Harry S. Truman's science adviser and represented the U.S. on NATO's Science Committee for 22 years. In 1964, Rabi became the first University Professor at Columbia. He retired from teaching in 1967, but held the title of University Professor Emeritus and Special Lecturer until his death in 1988. "Rabi built the Columbia physics department in the 30s, then he came back after the war and gave it a second rebirth," said oral historian Chauncey Olinger Jr. (GSAS '71), who years ago joined New York designer Edwin Schlossberg to build the I.I. Rabi Memorial Room. Located in Rabi's old office space on the eighth floor in Pupin, the room serves as a shrine to the late physicist, with a detailed timeline and several large pictures adorning the walls. Today, Columbia is a leader in quantum mechanics. Last month, the University opened a state-of-the-art, temperature-sensitive laboratory, and, through its Diversity Initiative, hired Assistant Professor Tanya Zelevinsky , whose work on high-precision spectroscopy "will serve as the scientific grandchild of Rabi's work," said Andrew Millis , professor and chair of the department. Twenty years ago, the University launched the I.I. Rabi Science Scholars Program , which encourages talented Columbia science students by providing them with research opportunities throughout their undergratuate careers, as well as as summer housing and stipends. "It's wonderful that Columbia has a historical memory," said Margaret Beels, Rabi's daughter. "It's good for the students to have things like this to remind them they should study backward as well as forward."

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NIST Technologies Contribute to Top Science Stories of 2011 From NIST Tech Beat: January 10, 2012 Contact: Laura Ost The top science stories of 2011, as selected by several science magazines, include two experiments and a famous computer, that relied on technology from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Physics World's top breakthrough of the year was an experiment that "shifted the morals of quantum measurement" by doing something previously thought to be impossible—tracking the paths of single particles of light (photons) passing through two closely spaced openings. Led by a University of Toronto physicist, the experiment used a NIST-made quantum dot as the source of single photons. The Physics World story can be found at http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/48126 and the NIST contribution is described at http://www.nist.gov/pml/newsletter/quantum_dot.cfm. Science News and Physics Today highlighted experiments at the Atacama Cosmology Telescope in Chile that measured "gravitational lensing" of the cosmic microwave background and verified the existence of dark energy, believed to make up most of the universe and to drive its expansion. More than a dozen institutions collaborate on the research. The telescope camera relies on superconducting sensors based on a NIST design and superconducting amplifiers and electronics made at NIST. Gravitational lensing refers to distortions in the afterglow of the Big Bang caused by the gravitational force of matter distributed across the universe. Physics Today editors selected the research as one of seven highlights of the most important and interesting news in physics and related sciences: http://www.aip.org/pt/e-alerts/ptpicks/2011_12.html (see "The demonstration of gravitational lensing of the cosmic microwave background"). Science News included the work in its roundup of 2011 Science News of the Year, as one of 18 items in the Atom & Cosmos category: http://www.sciencenews.org/view/feature/id/336994/title/2011_Science_News_of_the_Year_Atom_%2B_Cosmos (see "Dark Check" entry). Several groups, including New Scientist, Discover magazine and National Public Radio, also cited one of the most-watched technology events of the year: the February 2011 victory of the IBM supercomputer Watson on the TV game show Jeopardy. IBM researchers have noted that Watson's roots are in the question answering (QA) systems developed by IBM for their participation in the NIST Text REtrieval Conference (TREC) QA track starting in 1999. See our story above for news on the 21st Annual Text Retrieval Conference.

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A transportation study by engineering researchers reveals that different speed limits for cars and large trucks on rural, interstate highways can compromise safety. “We found that speed variation and vehicle interactions have a direct impact on highway safety,” said Steven Johnson, professor of industrial engineering with the Mack Blackwell Transportation Center. “Data from previous studies and simple logic say that a higher number of interactions among vehicles increases the chances that accidents will occur.” Johnson reported this finding in Cost-Benefit Evaluation of Heavy Truck-Automobile Speed Differentials on Rural Interstate Highways, a study of speed limits and car-versus-large-truck speed differentials on rural, interstate highways. Sponsored by the U.S. Department of Transportation, commercial trucking companies and private fleets, the study will help regulatory agencies and trucking-company decision-makers establish policies regarding speed limits and differentials for both heavy trucks and automobiles. After examining existing literature on speed limits, Johnson and graduate student Naveen Pawar measured the speeds of heavy trucks and automobiles in five states. Speed-limit configurations ranged from a uniform 75 mph for cars and heavy trucks to 65 mph for automobiles and 55 mph for trucks. The researchers also analyzed speed, accident and maintenance data and interviewed truck drivers, safety and maintenance managers of commercial trucking companies and original equipment manufacturers of trucks, tires and engines. There is a caveat to their findings: vehicle dynamics, such as braking and maneuvering, improve on slower-moving trucks. “People argue that heavy trucks require longer braking distances for any given speed, and lower truck speeds help equalize the stopping distance,” Johnson said. “On the other hand, opponents of lower truck speed limits have suggested that the differential speeds increase speed variance and therefore have a negative impact on highway safety. Our research demonstrates that it is likely that both of these arguments are correct.” See Johnson’s report at www.mackblackwell.org/web/research/final-reports.htm.

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The John C. Phillips Memorial Medal recognizes outstanding service in international conservation and commemorates the life and work of Dr John C. Phillips, a pioneer of the conservation movement. Born in 1876, Dr Phillips specialized in Medicine and Zoology and made significant contributions to science, particularly in taxonomy and genetics. He was vitally concerned with international cooperation for the conservation of nature being closely involved with developing the early wildlife treaties. In his memory his friends established a Memorial Medal and entrusted the awarding of this recognition to IUCN. The Medal has been presented at every General Assembly and Congress since 1963. Distinguished recipients of the Award have included HRH The Prince of the Netherlands, Indira Gandhi, HM Sultan Qaboos Bin Said of Oman, Professor E. O. Wilson, Dr Luc Hoffmann (pictured on the right receiving his award from former IUCN President, Yolanda Kakabadse in 2004) and Dr José Aristeo Sarukhán Kermez, each of whom have contributed their vision, wisdom and perseverance to furthering the global conservation cause. Sir David Attenborough was honoured with the John C. Phillips Memorial Medal at the 2012 IUCN World Conservation Congress. The prize was awarded by the IUCN Council, on the recommendation of an award jury consisting of five serving members of the IUCN Constituency Committee. A British naturalist and broadcaster, Sir David has reached the masses with his captivating programmes on natural history, creating awareness of the natural world and its vulnerability, and, over the course of the last 50 years, inspiring generations to protect and conserve our planet. “IUCN is an organisation of enormous importance for all of us who care about the natural world. There is no other international organization quite like it, none which is quite so scientifically based, none whose compliments I would value more highly”, said Sir David in a video message to the IUCN Congress.

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Free Search (10891 images) Orcus Patera on Mars in 3D Rating: 5.00/5 (2 votes cast) - Title Orcus Patera on Mars in 3D - Released 29/08/2010 4:59 pm - Copyright ESA/DLR/FU Berlin (G. Neukum) Orcus Patera is an enigmatic elliptical depression located between the volcanoes of Elysium Mons and Olympus Mons. This well-defined depression extends approximately 380 km by 140 km in a NNE––SSW direction. It has a rim that rises up to 1800 m above the surrounding plains, while the floor of the depression lies 400–600 m below the surroundings. ESA’s Mars Express obtained image data of this region on 5 and 11 October 2005 using the High-Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC). The data were acquired during orbits 2216 and 2238 and with a ground resolution of approximately 30 m per pixel. Combining data from the nadir channel and one stereo channel of HRSC produced this 3D image. Stereoscopic glasses are required to see the 3D effect.

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by request, here’s the 750, more or less, words version. By Morgaine Swann The human brain evolved in 4 layers. First came the brain stem which controls breathing, metabolism, all the functions that don’t require conscious thought. Scientist Carl Sagan called the next layer the Reptilian brain, or R-complex. A reptile has only fight or flight responses. It goes forward to food, flees from an enemy or fights to the death. Its only emotion is rage. Its only function is survival. When threatened, it bites. Next is the Limbic, or mammalian, brain. It contains instinct (feeding, fighting, fleeing, fu*king) and emotion. It’s social – mammals raise their young, unlike reptiles abandoning their eggs, and they live in groups to increase their chances of survival. Paul D. MacLean, creator of the Triune Brain model, said that everything in the limbic system is either “agreeable” or “disagreeable.” It isn’t capable of higher functions like logical reasoning, it only feels and reacts. The newest part of the human brain is the Neo-Cortex. This part of the brain that has nuance – logic, creativity, speech, reading, spatial concepts, sensory perception, conscious thought. These functions create art, culture, literature and it’s the part we train with formal education. Remember that the R-Complex can override all higher brain functions. A normal human will revert to Reptilian response when threatened. There’s no logic at this level – there’s just the innate urge to survive. For the purpose of this discussion, I’m over-simplifying the complex subject of moral and ethical reasoning, defined by Lawrence Kohlberg as 6 stages of Moral and Ethical development that I’m dividing into 3 levels of 2 each. Level 1 is the Approach/Avoidance, Fight-or-Flight instinctual response of the R-Complex, found in small children and reward/punishment obsessed adults. Level 2 follows an external moral code – the bible, the law, family, cultural or social expectations – without question. This embodies the Limbic System’s ability to be social for survival. Everything here is either agreeable or disagreeable – good or bad, black or white, familiar or foreign. This level is often described as Fundamentalism, and groups at Level 2 demand conformity to the code and enforce the code with violence – spanking, hatred, excommunication/abandonment, rape, oppression/inequality, prison, hate crimes, war. At Level 3 the Neo-Corte approaches problems with logic, questions authority, uses reason. Level 3 may disagree with its social group, reach its own conclusions, can comprehend complex ideas and positions. Most Americans get to Level 2 around the age of 8 and stay there. They never explore a religion/belief system/culture beyond the one they are born into, they follow local laws, conform to their peer group. Higher functions – abstract thought, critical thinking – become possible at around age 16 but only develop in certain environments that encourage questioning moral codes. Any belief system can manifest at any level. You can be a Fundamentalist atheist as well as Christian or Muslim, or be a very religious person with an open mind who loves new ideas and other cultures. The Difference between Level 2 and Level 3 is the level of certainty. Level 2 thinks their way is the one true way and questioning their beliefs gets a violent response. It takes absolute certainty to disown a child, throw a bomb, torture or wage war. Level 3 knows logically that there is no objective right or wrong in matters of religion or culture. It allows for consensus, but leaves room for doubt. The Religious Right in America, a fundamentalist movement, despises the “moral relativity” of the Left, calling Liberals “elitist” because they associate Liberal tolerance with higher education. (Ironically, Republican leaders are the actual wealthy elites, tied to the corporate military industrial complex.) It’s not just a difference in ideology – it’s a different level of intellectual development. Level 2 doesn’t speak logic because it has no language – it only feels. When Level 2′s sense of absolute certainty is challenged they regress so the Reptilian Brain overrides the higher brain functions. Remember the only emotion at Level 1 is rage. The reptilian brain has no capacity for critical thought, so trying to reason with it just creates frustration on both sides. The challenge for Progressives is: How do you pull a majority of the population into a higher level of moral and ethical development? Level 2 doesn’t have logic and its beliefs are static and often circular. Republican elites have financial interests in keeping the status quo, and they understand limbic/reptilian response. They are extremely adept at manipulating people with good intentions but poor educations. If we want change, we have to speak their feelings and morality.

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Animal Watcher's Guide From Costa Rica Travel Guide: Vacation and Travel tips - Home > Animal Watcher's Guide A Tropical Forest Guide Hundreds of exotic bird species, jaguars, cougars, margays, tapirs, kinkajous, sloths and iguanas; the list goes on and on and on. Who wouldn’t want to get a glimpse of these exotic creatures, and all in their natural habitat? But, don’t get too frustrated if, on your first few visits to the tropical rainforest you fail to experience or observe any of these animals. Your first thought is likely to be, with all this lush vegetation, where are all the colorful exotic animals they show in the guide books. Rest assured; a great diversity of life forms do inhabit the tropical rainforest, but as you can imagine their very survival greatly depends on how successful they are in avoiding the attention of predators, which definitely includes humans. Before rushing off on a sightseeing tour through the rainforest do your homework. Study a few specialist guidebooks that explain the animals you’re hoping to observe and familiarize yourself with the characteristics that are used to identify them, such as color, shape, and behavior. Establish the best time, day or night, when they are most active and more likely to be observed. Bring along a good pair of binoculars, as they are essential for viewing wildlife that make their home high up in the canopy ceiling. If there’s a chance to charter a boat for lake or river tours, take advantage of the opportunity; they are always worth the investment. Always notify someone of your intentions: where you’ll be, arrival time and when you plan to return. It is always a good idea to carry water, insect repellent, flashlight, sunscreen, umbrella or rain poncho, and a hat. Also, consider an anti-venom snake kit, but make sure you know how to dispense it. Safety in the rainforest is always a must, so always be aware of your surroundings since here, snakes do slither (and can be quite poisonous), insects do bite, and animals may (not usually) become aggressive. Look before touching, stepping, sitting, or leaning. Check the area ahead for slippery rocks, mud, fallen trees, ants and snakes. Then move forward while you search for animals in the canopy. Constantly shift your gaze. Look ahead before just randomly pursuing a bird, as this is an easy way to get lost or inadvertently step close or on a snake. Along habitat edges next to rivers, beaches, open fields, roads, and trail heads are your best bets for wildlife viewing. During the dry season, deciduous forests drop their leaves, providing a better opportunity for canopy viewing and potential wildlife sightings and water sources are also a good bet since their frequented by thirsty animals. Search for colors, shapes, and movements that stick out and don’t appear to belong in the overall ‘flow’ of the vegetation. Always be on the lookout for certain small and easily missed signs that point to the presence of animals or birds in the forest. Slight movements, things rustling or dropping from the forest canopy and inexplicable noises can all be signs that an animal is in close proximity. Parrots, monkeys, or sloths are often the cause of leaves or seeds dropping from above. Fruits, nuts, seek husks, or leaf parts left on the trail can mean a food tree is nearby and perhaps being utilized by many animals or birds in the area. Monkeys, sloths and anteaters often appear as large, dark shapes in tree crevices. What appears as a green hanging stick or branch could actually be a snake or the tail of numerous species of lizards or iguanas. A large log on the river could really be a crocodile or cayman. Rotted trees are often home to amphibians, insects, fungi, and mosses. Holes in trees can often be found with bird’s nests in them. With a little research, as well as following a few simple tips and rules, you will quickly understand the allure of experiencing the forests of Costa Rica and all they have to offer. It could also be the difference between having just a mediocre adventure or one you’ll remember for a lifetime.

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Venice mallow is a summer annual. It was introduced from Europe where it was grown as an ornamental. Venice mallow has an upright growth habit and can reach 10- to 18-inches in height. The stems are erect, covered with hairs and branch from the base. The leaves are deeply cleft into 3 to 5 coarsely toothed lobes and form on long petioles. The lower stems and petioles can be a red to purple in color. Venice mallow has a fibrous root system with a weak taproot. The flower of Venice mallow is very showy and are a light sulfur-yellow color with a deep red to purple center. Venice mallow is nicknamed "flower-of-an-hour" because flowers will only last several hours before the petals drop. Venice mallow spreads by seed. The seeds can lay dormant for up to 50 years. Venice mallow is found throughout United States. Venice mallow can infest nurseries, orchards, gardens, roadsides, cultivated fields and open waste areas. Venice mallow tolerates drought and gravely soils. It is also noted to tolerate alkaline soils. Due to longevity of the seeds, it is crucial to mow or remove the plants prior to flowering and seed development. Following good agronomic practices such as watering and mowing will help to prevent infestations of Venice mallow. For optimum control make your post-emergence herbicide application in the late spring when Venice mallow is young and actively growing.

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Jan. 6, 1998 Today's Reading: "Bread Route" by Michael Collier, published by University of Chicago Press. Today is Epiphany or Twelfth Day, known also as Old Christmas Day. Film actor and popular silent film cowboy Tom Mix was born in Driftwood, Pennsylvania, on this day in 1880. Novelist E(dgar) L(aurence) Doctorow (RAGTIME) was born on this day in New York City in 1931. Be well, do good work, and keep in touch.®

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Latest scientific research indicates the highest form of charged particles known as 'cosmic rays', can generate from "within" our Milky Way. Prior to this latest findings, solar physicists accepted a formula that cosmic rays could only come from remote galaxies containing enormous black holes capable of consuming stars and accelerating charged particles of protons and electrons. Mayan prophecy tells us a celestial event will occur at the end of the 4th World and beginning of the 5th World. It has sometimes been characterized as an alignment of our solar system with the center of our galaxy 'Milky Way'. The event has been described as the discovery of a new element which will come upon us from the sky and will affect the Earth and humans. Mayan prophecy tells us of a "new element" which will be discovered in the time we are presently in. In my interview with Mayan elder Carlos Barrios of the Ajq'ij (Eagle Clan); he says the new element is symbolized as "Ether". I would suggest 'ether' is not a new element as related to a chemical compound, however, the scientific quantum physics definition does. The definition of 'ether' described in various dictionaries such as Webster and Cambridge say: "It is a theoretical substance which occupy all space, postulated to account for the propagation of electromagnetic radiation through the universe." Mayan prophecy speaks of 'celestial events' as mentioned in the Mayan Sacred Books of 'Chilam Balam' and 'Popol Vuh' to occur at the end of the 4th world and beginning of the 5th world. Specific to the Mayan Calendar - the "apex" of this transition will occur on December 21st 2012. Note the language speaks of an "apex". Apex defines the maximum point of a cycle. This is to say the transition has already begun, and will escalate to its apex which in this case will be Dec. 21st 2012. In other words, it is the maximum point of a bell-curve suggesting the transition as already begun, and will continue after 2012. Physicists from UCLA and Japan have discovered evidence of "natural nuclear accelerators" at work in our own Milky Way galaxy, based on an analysis of data from the world's largest cosmic ray detector. Earlier this year, physicists using the Pierre Auger Observatory in Argentina, the world's largest cosmic ray observatory, published a surprising discovery: Many of the energetic cosmic rays found in the Milky Way are not actually protons but nuclei - and the higher the energy, the greater the nuclei-to-proton ratio. UCLA professor Alexander Kusenko, professor of physics and astronomy says: "When the data came out, they were so unexpected that many people started questioning the applicability of known laws of physics at high energy. The common lore has been that all ultra-high-energy cosmic rays must come from outside the galaxy." There is another "apex" occurring during this of 2012. It is the time of "solar maximum" for Cycle 24. This will be the period when the Sun is most likely to jettison its most powerful forms of 'charged particles' in the way of solar flares and coronal mass ejections. In addition ... the Mayans tell us that in this particular time-in-space, co-existing "celestial events" will take place from our galaxy Milky Way. The suggestion is that two events (acting as one) will occur during the same apex window. As a result of aligning with a stream of cosmic rays from our Milky Way, and with the Sun reaching its maximum strength for this cycle, an enormous amount of charged particles will hit our solar system, Earth, and each of us. The outcome is unknown - but if Mayan prophecy maintains its accuracy, a significant shift will occur with both the Earth itself (in the way of earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunami's, and all forms of extreme weather), and a shift in all living things. Recent scientific discoveries are highlighting this very fact. Something is shifting in our galaxy, and it is happening in the form of "charged particles". As mentioned in my previous five-part article, two of our most advanced spacecraft, WISE and PLANCK, are delivering stunning discoveries regarding black holes, dark matter, and a full spectrum of charged particles. This spectrum identifies the smallest known particles in known as cosmic rays, larger particles known as gamma rays, and the largest particles known as solar flares, coronal mass ejections (CME's) and coronal holes. Aug. 18, 2010 PO Box 157, North Hobart Tasmania, Australia. 7002 Phone: 04 1988-2012 Phone: 03 62728957 International +614 and +613

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From the late 1920s to the early 1940s, many of America's most inventive and important artists, including Stuart Davis, Arshile Gorky, Willem de Kooning, Jackson Pollock, and Adolph Gottlieb, forged their identities, dramatically transforming conceptions of what a painting or sculpture could be. A group linked by friendship and common aspirations, many had shared experiences in the classes of influential Czech Cubist Jan Matulka at the Art Students League and in the Federal Art Project during the Great Depression. Most significantly, they were all closely associated with John Graham (1887-1961), the enigmatic Russian-born artist, connoisseur, and theorist. They, along with others such as Jackson Pollock and David Smith, all drawn together by their common commitment to modernism and their eagerness to exchange ideas, played a critical role in developing and defining American modernism. American Vanguards: Graham, Davis, Gorky, de Kooning, and Their Circle, 1927-1942, an exhibition opening on January 29th at the Neuberger Museum of Art of Purchase College, showcases more than sixty works of art from these vital years by Graham and the members of his circle, providing compelling testimony to the dialogue and cross-fertilization that existed during this period in the history of American art. The high level of the work these artists made not only points ahead to their future accomplishments, but also demonstrates that the decade of the thirties, far from being solely a period of depression and retrenchment, was a time of exciting and important innovation. The exhibition sheds new light on the New York School, abstract Expressionism and the vitality of American modernism between the two world wars, providing a long overdue examination of an important and little-studied period in American art. American Vanguards: Graham, Davis, Gorky, de Kooning, and Their Circle, 1927-1942 was organized by the Addison Gallery of American Art, Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts. The exhibition will be presented from June 9 - August 19 at the Amon Carter Museum of American Art, Fort Worth, Texas, then travel to the Addison where it will be on view from September 21-December 31, 2012. Generous support for this exhibition and publication was provided by the Henry Luce Foundation and The Dedalus Foundation, Inc., and by an indemnity from the Federal Council on the Arts and Humanities. The exhibition is accompanied by a fully illustrated catalogue, co-published by the Addison and Yale University Press, and was curated by scholars William C. Agee, Irving Sandler, and Karen Wilkin. AMERICAN VANGUARDS: BACKGROUND Graham, Gorky and Davis were together so constantly that they were known as the Three Musketeers. The young de Kooning, who met the trio not long after arriving in New York, joined them as dArtagnan did Dumas fictional heroes. De Kooning always credited the Three Musketeers with developing his understanding of modernism; I was lucky enough when I came to this country, he said, to meet the smartest guys on the scene: Gorky, Stuart Davis, and John Graham, David Smith, his wife Dorthy Dehner, Adolph Gottlieb, David Burliuk, Edgar Levy, and Matulka -- were also part of the inner circle -- a cross-section of some of the most remarkable American artists of the period. This inner sanctum of New York modernism was notably diverse. Some were European born. Others were irreducibly American, but they were all drawn together by their common commitment to modernism, their hunger for the information that Graham, who traveled frequently to Europe, could provide, and their eagerness to exchange ideas. Grahams System and Dialectics of Art, first published in 1937, seems to echo their conversations, in the form of a Socratic dialogue probing the origins of creativity, the nature of abstraction, the aims of modernism, and much more. Graham believed that the best of his American friends could hold their own with anyone and in System and Dialects of Art, he listed those he declared to be as good as their European counterparts, including Jan Matulka, David Smith, Stuart Davis, de Kooning, and Edgar Levy. Despite Grahams close links with so many key figures during the seminal years of American abstraction, little attention has been paid to these important relationships. American Vanguards assembles works by Graham and the members of his circle from the years of their association, providing compelling testimony to the dialogue and cross-fertilization, the common sources and stimuli, that existed during this vital period in the history of American art. The high level of the work these artists made during these formative years not only points ahead to their future accomplishments but also gives the lie to the persistent rumor that American art was provincial during the 1930s. It also demonstrates that the decade of the thirties, far from being solely a period of depression and retrenchment, was a time of exciting and important innovation. Graham seems an unlikely central figure in the history of twentieth century American modernism. Born in Kiev, Ukraine (then Russia), in 1887, he was an art lover, trained as a lawyer, who served in the czars army, before coming to the United States in 1920. In America, he became a serious, full time painter, as well as a connoisseur, aesthete, collector, advisor to collectors, art theorist, occasional poet, and full time mystic. Graham had a wide-ranging, idiosyncratic command of the history of art, and expertise in African sculpture. He was most informed about current advanced European art, not only as an intelligent observer, but also as a friend of many of the Parisian vanguard. Grahams frequent trips to Europe and his familiarity with European modernists made him a catalytic figure for aspiring New York painters and sculptors, most of them much younger than he. He was a source of news, gossip, and influential publications. Many of the most gifted young artists of the period were associated with Graham and affected by that contact, in an intricate web of shifting connections. Alliances were multiple and sometimes shifted. Among the Three Musketeers, Stuart Davis and Archile Gorkys once very close friendship cooled during the difficult years of the Depression, largely because Gorky did not share Daviss enthusiasm for social activism and preferred to stay in the studio. Gorkys studio relationship with de Kooning, however, intensified. Smith, Dehner, Levy, and Gottlieb were neighbors as well as colleagues, but they may have been introduced originally by Graham, who knew Gottlieb from their early years at the Art Students League. When Davis went to Paris for an extended stay, he and Graham made prints at the same atelier. Davis wrote home from Paris about attending the opening of an exhibition by the expatriate sculptor Alexander Calder, who did a portrait in wire of Graham. Everywhere we turn, we find Graham as the connecting thread among these diverse personalities. JOHN GRAHAM AND DAVID SMITH David Smiths history illustrates how important Graham could be to the artistic evolution of his young American artist friends. Smith and his wife, Dorothy Dehner, first met Graham, who was two decades older, at the Art Students League in 1930, and through him met Stuart Davis, Archile Gorky, and Willem de Kooning. In New York, Graham showed Smith magazine photos of the first welded sculptures by Pablo Picasso and Joan Gonzàlez. The images provoked Smith, who still considered himself primarily a painter, into constructing with metal, essentially changing Smiths future direction. Later, Davis saw several Gonzàlez sculptures, probably the first in the United States, that were in Grahams possession. Graham welcomed Smith and Dehner to Paris on their first European trip and introduced them to artists and writers. Dehner recalled, Matulka was the great influence on Davids painting; but John Graham was a perfectly tremendous influence on his life and philosophic attitude. He introduced David to a wider world. JOHN GRAHAM AND STUART DAVIS The friendship between John Graham and Stuart Davis solidified in 1928 when they were both on extended sojourns in Paris. The two worked in nearby studios (Davis rented his from Grahams friend Matulka), and they made prints in the same studio. Graham arranged for Fernand Léger and Davis to exchange studio visits. While the similar subject matter and robust surfaces of Grahams and Daviss Paris pictures bear witness to their friendship, the pragmatic Davis never shared Grahams interest in surrealist notions about taping the unconscious mind in creating art, just as he failed to share his friend Gorkys fascination with these ideas. Davis remained faithful to his own vernacular Cubist idiom. What was more important, all of the Musketeers had ambitions independent of existing European-inspired approaches. In 1930, Graham wrote, Stuart Davis, Gorky, and myself have formed a group and something original, purely American is coming out from under our brushes. Like John Graham, Gorky reinvented himself in the United States, hiding his identity as Vosdanig Adoian, a survivor of the persecution of Armenians in the wake of World War I. By 1930, Gorkys own artistic voice had emerged clearly, without obscuring either his earlier obsessions with European modernists or his conversation with his fellow Musketeers and the other members of Grahams circle. Gorkys study of Pablo Picasso and Joan Mirò is visible in the simple, expressive shapes, clearly bounded planes, and unexpected pastel colors of his paintings of the mid-1930s, but the work also has clear connections with Daviss Egg Beater paintings made almost a decade earlier. The argument appears to be taken up again by David Smith in the late 1930s in sculptures that transform the two-dimensional Cubist-derived structures of Gorkys paintings into three-dimensional metal lines and volumes. Davis and Gorky were particularly close in the early 1930s, as the similarities between their paintings of the period attest. In September 1931, Gorky wrote an enthusiastic appraisal of Daviss work for the magazine Creative Art. Davis returned the favor several years after Gorkys death, with an affectionate memoir written for the Magazine of Art. THE FOURTH MUSKETEER If, as Willem de Kooning teasingly claimed, John Graham, Stuart Davis, and Archile Gorky were the Athos, Porthos, and Aramis of the New York art world before World War II, he himself quickly assumed the role of dArtagnan. Each of the Musketeers was significant to the young Dutchmans evolution as an artist, but the most important was Gorky, de Koonings near-contemporary and fellow immigrant, albeit a far less recent one and a more sophisticated modernist. De Kooning always acknowledged his debt to Gorky, cryptically giving the address of Gorkys Union Square studio as the place he came from. Although there is ample evidence that the two painters shared an interest in biomorphic abstraction, the clearest evidence of their closeness can be found in their exquisitely crafted figure paintings, which both continued to make in the late 1930s and 1940s, while also investigating the possibilities of abstraction. Graham also made intermittent forays into figure painting at this time. Gorky, de Kooning, and Graham all had complicated responses to the presumed need to choose between image and abstraction. Gorky worked for years on two portraits of himself as a child with his mother, even while painting the abstract images that established his reputation. De Kooning regularly returned to figural references for the rest of his life, most notoriously, in the series of grinning Women that he began in the late 1940s. Graham abandoned abstraction after the early 1940s to make eerie, carefully rendered figures. THE EXHIBITION AT MCMILLEN INC. In January 1942, John Graham organized a surprising exhibition, American and French Paintings. It combined works by well known Europeans, a handful of Americans with reputations, and a group of young, virtually unknown Americans -- a radical mix in an era when the center of advanced art was deemed to be Paris and New York was regarded as a backwater. Grahams selection included Picasso, Henri Matisse, Georges Braque, Pierre Bonnard, Amedeo Modigliani, Georges Rouault, André Derain, Giorgio de Chirico, and André Dunoyer de Segonzac; along with the established Americans Stuart Davis, David Burliuk, and Walt Kuhn; the unknowns -- William Kooning, Lee Krasner, Jackson Pollock, and Graham himself. On the strength of this show, de Kooning always credited Graham with having discovered Pollock. Grahams own work and his views were changing at this time. He seemed to lose faith with modernism and take refuge in mysticism and the values of Old Master art. He deleted the names of the progressive American artists he once championed when he revised System and Dialectics of Art his text on art theory and, in his painting, he concentrated on carefully drawn and modeled figurative works, such as this exhibitions Poussin minstruit, for the rest of his life. Grahams meticulous figures suggest that he had paid close attention to Gorky and de Koonings portraits, but the close relationship among the Three Musketeers, Graham, Gorky, Davis, and their faithful dArtagnan, de Kooning, was over.

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Animal Diaries Archive 30 June 2006 With winter upon us now, the job of providing our koalas with suitable leaf becomes that much harder. As we all know, winter brings shorter days. This means the trees have less sun to help them grow. However, the major problem is not lack of sun, but winter frost. Frost not only damages the leaves (frost-bitten leaves are known as being burnt or blue), but also has the potential to kill the trees. Koalas are very fussy eaters and won't touch leaves which have been affected by the frost. So the already difficult job of providing our koalas with fresh leaf becomes that little bit more difficult in the winter months. But with some more rain hopefully on the way, this time of hardship will only be short-lived. While we try our best to travel far and wide to find the best and least affected leaf and maintain our extensive plantations for our Zoo koalas, their wild counterparts aren’t so lucky. The koalas in the bush are really feeling it, having had so little rain this year. Please look out for our natives this winter and call a wildlife rescue centre if someone is in need of a little specialist care. Our Amazing Koalas Koalas vary in size and colour depending on where they live in Australia. Koalas found in the southern distributions (Southern NSW and Victoria) tend to be ...more

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A tumor is an abnormal growth of cells. Normally, cells divide in a regulated manner. If cells keep dividing when new cells are not needed, a mass of tissue forms; this is called a tumor. There are two types of tumors: benign and malignant. Benign tumors stay in one place, grow to a certain size, and then generally stop. Malignant tumors do not stop growing, and pieces of them travel to other parts of the body, where they also continue to grow. Malignant tumors, called cancers, can be fatal if not treated. The ability to cure a cancer depends upon patient and tumor-related features. Patient-related features include: - Performance status - Overall health - Willingness to undergo treatment Tumor-related features include: - Type of cancer - Site of the origin of the cancer - How advanced the disease is when it is detected - Tumor’s response to therapy Copyright © Nucleus Medical Media, Inc. Types of brain tumors include: These are tumors which start in the brain or its coverings (meninges). Metastatic: These begin in an organ other than the brain, and they travel to the brain usually through the blood. They are metastatic cancers. The word "metastatic" refers to colonies of the primary tumor that have taken up residence outside their organ of origin. Meningiomas are typically benign, but because they grow inside the confined space of the meninges (the skin covering the brain tissue itself), they can cause symptoms. In this sense, they are not "benign" at all. Benign or typical meningiomas do not extend beyond the brain and, if they are found incidentally, they are generally left alone. If meningiomas are located in an area where symptoms develop, they require treatment. Less commonly, this form can be malignant, or anaplastic. These tumors can actually spread outside the brain or may grow very quickly within the brain. Malignant meningiomas almost always cause symptoms and need to be addressed with therapies. Astrocytoma is a malignant, or cancerous, type of brain tumor. This type of tumor resembles the small, star-shaped cells in the brain called astrocytes. Astrocytes are one of several types of supporting cells in the brain called glial cells. Therefore, an astrocytoma is a type of glioma. Astrocytoma is the most common form of glioma and may occur anywhere in the brain. However, it is most commonly found in the cerebrum in adults and in the cerebellum in children. Oligodendrogliomas are another type of glioma. They are often slower growing than astrocytomas. Special tumors, such as pituitary adenomas, neuromas, spinal cord tumors, and hydatid cysts, are not covered in this report. Primary brain tumors are the second most common cancer in children and young adults, second only to leukemia. They are the third most common cancer in people between the ages of 15 and 34, fourth between the ages of 35 to 54, and much less common in older adults, where metastatic tumors predominate. Gliomas are the most common group of primary brain tumors in adults.

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WEDNESDAY, Jan. 30 (HealthDay News) -- Vegetarians, take heart: A new British study finds you may have about a third less risk of hospitalization or death from cardiovascular disease than meat-eaters do. "Most of the difference in risk is probably caused by effects on cholesterol and blood pressure, and shows the important role of diet in the prevention of heart disease," lead researcher Dr. Francesca Crowe, of the cancer epidemiology unit at the University of Oxford, said in a university news release. The study included nearly 45,000 people from England and Scotland, about a third of who were vegetarians. According to the research team, having such a large proportion of vegetarians in this type of study is rare and enabled a more precise comparison of heart disease risk between vegetarians and non-vegetarians. The participants were recruited to the study throughout the 1990s, and all of them provided information about their health and lifestyle when they joined. About 20,000 of the volunteers also had their blood pressure and cholesterol levels checked, and follow-up continued until 2009. During the follow-up period, heart disease was identified in more than 1,200 people, including 169 deaths from heart disease. Crowe's team found that the vegetarians had a 32 percent lower chance of being hospitalized or dying from heart disease versus people who ate meat or fish. The vegetarians typically had lower blood pressures and cholesterol levels than non-vegetarians. Vegetarians also tended to be slimmer and there were fewer cases of diabetes, but these two factors were not found to significantly affect the study results, the researchers reported in the January issue of the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Still, the study could only show an association between a meat-free diet and better heart health, not a cause-and-effect link. And one U.S. expert said the research did have some limi All rights reserved

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I need help ASAP karab at auadec.aua.ariadne-t.gr Fri Apr 10 03:41:14 EST 1998 Hi, here you are: 1) removing the leaves of plants after transplanting helps the plant to Because you reduce leaf surface, thus you reduce water loss. When you transplant, root hairs are destroyed, so water supply isn't adequate. 2) why experts in flower arranging advise recutting the stems of flowers while holding them under water. Because when you cut the stem, due to negative pressure, air bubbles enter from the cutting and bloke the vains (you have a brake in water column inside the vains). 3) Why some florists add ordinary table sugar to the water in which cut flowers are placed and why the flowers will subsequently remain fresh for Well, I think it has something to do with oncrement in osmotic pressure of the solution where you store the cutted plants/flowers. I am mot sure . . . More information about the Plantbio

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For Immediate Release, July 15, 2010 Contact: Mollie Matteson, Center for Biological Diversity, (802) 434-2388 (office); (802) 318-1487 (cell) Forest Service Will Close Caves in Rocky Mountain Region to Protect Bats From Lethal Disease Group Advocates for Closures Across West RICHMOND, Vt.— More than six months after the Center for Biological Diversity filed a petition to close all federally managed bat caves in the lower 48 states, the U.S. Forest Service has indicated it intends to close caves on federal forests and grasslands in Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska and most of Wyoming and South Dakota. A devastating bat-killing disease known as white-nose syndrome has spread rapidly from its original epicenter in upstate New York four years ago. The Center has demanded that more proactive steps be taken to protect bats, which are dying by the millions in the eastern half of the country. The closures would limit human access to the caves in hopes of stemming the spread of the disease, which scientists believe can be transported from cave to cave on clothing, boots, caving gear and other equipment. “The regional office is to be commended for taking action to protect bats now, before this devastating epidemic shows up there,” said Mollie Matteson, conservation advocate for the Center for Biological Diversity. “Already, the white-nose syndrome fungus has leapfrogged into western Oklahoma from the Midwest. It is a hair’s breadth from Colorado. The other federal land agencies of the West need to act now, as well.” The closure order, expected within the next couple of weeks, will be in effect for 12 months, and could last longer. Caves on national forests in the South and East have been closed under similar orders since the spring of 2009. Some states have also closed state-owned caves to protect bats, and a few other federal land units, such as Great Smoky Mountains National Park, have made caves off-limits to recreational access in an attempt to stem the spread of the illness. White-nose syndrome was first documented in a cave in upstate New York in early 2006, and started killing bats in large numbers in the winter of 2007-2008. The disease radiated out from New York to Vermont, Massachusetts and other Northeast states. The fungus associated with the disease has since been found on bats in 14 states and two Canadian provinces, and bats throughout much of the affected area are now dying at extremely high rates — up to 100 percent in some infected caves. Scientists fear that several species could be completely wiped out within a few years’ time. A total of nine bat species are now affected, and surveys in the Northeast, where white-nose syndrome has been ravaging bats the longest, reveal that several species are close to being regionally extinct. Researchers believe the white-nose fungus spreads primarily via bat-to-bat transmission, and that bats can also pick it up from infected caves. Humans do not appear to be susceptible to the disease themselves but scientists believe people can spread it. “Bats are essential members of North America’s ecosystems, eating immense quantities of insects every night, and helping to keep bug populations in check,” said Matteson. “If we ignore the need to take precautionary measures to protect bats, we do so not only at their peril but also at our own.” In January the Center for Biological Diversity filed a petition to close bat caves on all federal lands in the lower 48 states due to the threat of white-nose syndrome. The Center also filed a petition to designate two white-nose-affected bat species as endangered under the Endangered Species Act. In June, the group notified the government that it intended to sue for failure to respond in time to protect the two bats, which are the eastern small-footed bat and the northern long-eared bat. The Center for Biological Diversity is a national, nonprofit conservation organization with more than 255,000 members and online activists dedicated to the protection of endangered species and wild places.

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Simply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article. Once you are finished and click submit, your modifications will be sent to our editors for review. geography of Asturias ...concentrated. Structurally, this is a longitudinal depression running between the centres of Cangas de Onis (east) and Oviedo (west). The Cantabrian Mountains rise to the south, with the glaciated Europa Peaks established as a national park. Valleys run north to south, but Leitariegos Pass is the only easily accessible pass into the neighbouring region of Castile-León. Annual... physiography of Cantabrian Mountains ...and the Cantabrian coastlands in the north, but the eastern and western limits are indistinct. The eastern foothills south of Cantabria rise abruptly into the gigantic limestone mountains of the Europa Peaks, which include Torrecerredo (8,688 feet [2,648 metres]) and the Labra Peak (6,620 feet [2,018 metres]). The main ridge continues westward, usually less than 60 miles (100 km) wide but... What made you want to look up "Europa Peaks"? Please share what surprised you most...

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Aleutian lowArticle Free Pass Aleutian low, large atmospheric low-pressure (cyclonic) centre that frequently exists over the Aleutian Islands region in winter and that shifts northward and almost disappears in summer. Although the Aleutian low is associated with smaller eastward-moving low- and high-pressure centres, the region’s average pressure is low. It is the source region of the maritime polar air masses that influence the climate of the western U.S. The low-pressure centres that persist in the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere consist of the Aleutian low and the Icelandic low. What made you want to look up "Aleutian low"? Please share what surprised you most...

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The story of the statue from Rapa Nui (Easter Island), £5.00 Explore / Online Tours Power and Taboo: sacred objects from the Pacific Wooden human figure The British Museum's unparalleled collection of art and artefacts from the eastern Pacific has continued to provide inspiration to both Polynesian and European artists and poets as well as researchers. This wooden figure was a favourite of English sculptor Henry Moore who was a frequent visitor to the Museum. The figure was described in the account of Captain Cook's third voyage (1776-80) to the region, published after Cook's death. In 1779 members of the expedition visited Hale-o-Keawe, the royal mausoleum, at Honaunau, Hawaii. They saw a figure, now believed to be this one: '... a black figure of a man resting on his fingers and toes, with his head inclined backwards; the limbs well formed and exactly proportioned, the whole beautifully polished ... and around it placed thirteen others of rude and distorted shapes ...'. Hale-o-Keawe was also visited by the crew of HMS Blonde, commanded by Captain Lord Byron. Andrew Bloxam, their naturalist, wrote that this figure was used by the kings to rest upon before making a sacrifice as part of worship. He describes the removal of artefacts in 1824, which were transported to England. This figure was among them.

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Most earthworms may be tiny, but a new study suggests their impact on the climate could be mighty. Researchers had long assumed the creepy crawlers help store carbon in soils by consuming fallen leaves and other decaying plant matter, which they deposit in soil in their cast, or droppings. But newer studies suggest the worms may actually increase soils' output of two key greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide. A new meta-analysis, published Sunday in the journal Nature Climate Change, found that the presence of earthworms appears to increase soils' output of CO2 by 33 percent and of nitrous oxide by 42 percent. A bowl of exotic European earthworms species federal scientists recently found in National Wildlife Refuge sites throughout the Upper Midwest. Credit: Lindsey Shartell/U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service "We've known for only a couple of years that they can really increase nitrous oxide emissions, but it was not really clear how much," said study co-author Jan-Willem van Groenigen of Wageningen University in the Netherlands, whose work is based on a review of 57 previously published analyses. As for claims that the worms help store carbon in soils, van Groenigen said that traditional argument has always seemed suspect to him. "It's strange to claim on the one hand that earthworms are good for soil fertility by decomposing organic matter in soil, and on the other hand that they increase organic matter in soil," he said. Van Groenigen was quick to note that the new study is not the last word on the earthworm question. Scientists, who often refer to earthworms as "ecosystem engineers" in recognition of the role they play in churning soil and improving its drainage, have been slow to understand the little organisms' role in the carbon cycle. The current crop of studies suggest that earthworms that live in the upper layer of soil eat leaves, crop residues and other plant matter. When they excrete the remains, their droppings provide a feast for soil microbes that emit nitrous oxide. Their burrowing and churning also mixes plant matter into the dirt, where it decays and produces carbon dioxide. But most of those studies were conducted over short periods of time, perhaps a few weeks, and many of them took place in laboratory conditions rather than in real-life fields and forests, van Groenigen said, which may distort the results. There are hints that over longer periods, CO2 emissions from worm-ridden soils may decrease while nitrous oxide emissions may rise. Still, experts who were not involved in the new study said it was a solid analysis — though limited by the narrow scope of existing research on earthworms' role in the carbon and nitrogen cycles. Earthworms "probably don't get enough attention," said Peter Groffman, an ecosystem ecologist at the Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies. "They play a super-important role in climate change. There's all this carbon in soil, and there's a big flux of greenhouse gases from soil to the atmosphere. And those fluxes are very fundamentally affected by things like earthworms, millipedes and mites that live in the soil." Though earthworms are a familiar and friendly presence in many gardens, fields and yards, many of the species found in the northeastern U.S., where Groffman works, are invasive foreign species. The region's native earthworms were wiped out thousands of years ago, during the last ice age, as glaciers formed, advanced and retreated in the Northeast, leaving a landscape devoid of the soil worms need to thrive. Over time, that soil returned, and so did earthworms: European species began hitching rides to North America hundreds of years ago with the first colonists. More recently, Asian species have made the journey. Groffman, who has studied invading earthworms' transformation of Northeast forests since the 1990s, said his own research bears out the new study's main conclusions. "Their point is right," he said. "Earthworms have really big effects on carbon and nitrogen cycling in soil, and potentially big effects on greenhouse gases, and the distribution of earthworms is changing." One big question, he said, is how a landscape invaded by earthworms will eventually adapt to their presence, and whether that will increase or decrease emissions of heat-trapping gases. Josef Gorres, a soil scientist at the University of Vermont, said his own long-term field studies suggest that, at least in the Northeast, native plants grow better -- and presumably store more carbon -- when earthworms haven't invaded a landscape. "There are sugar maple forests we've studied, one with this very strange Asian earthworm that has really reduced plant life on the forest floor to nothing," he said. "What the Dutch workers are saying in their paper is right on, if you look at the literature that is available."

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Allergies are an overreaction of the immune system to substances that generally do not affect other individuals. These substances, or allergens, can cause sneezing, coughing, and itching. Allergic reactions range from merely bothersome to life-threatening. Some allergies are seasonal, like hay fever. Allergies have also been associated with chronic conditions like sinusitis and asthma. Anyone may have or develop an allergy - from a baby born with an allergy to cow's milk, to a child who gets poison ivy, to a senior citizen who develops hives after taking a new medication. Allergies can generally not be prevented but allergic reactions can be. Once a person knows they are allergic to a certain substance, they can avoid contact with the allergen. Strategies for doing this include being in an air-conditioned environment during peak hay-fever season, avoiding certain foods, and eliminating dust mites and animal dander from the home. They can also control the allergy by reducing or eliminating the symptoms. Strategies include taking medication to counteract reactions or minimize symptoms and being immunized with allergy injection therapy. "Allergies" definition provided by Communication at CDC.

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Flu season. It’s that time of year when we duck for cover in Minnesota. We all know someone who has battled the flu. The flu is a serious respiratory illness, and the symptoms can be downright nasty – sudden onset of fever, cough, congestion, sore throat, achy muscles, fatigue, occasionally pneumonia, and, in extreme cases, death. Each year, an average of 20,000 kids under 5 are hospitalized because of flu-related complications, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Influenza causes more hospitalizations among young children than any other vaccine-preventable illness. “Don’t think of influenza as ‘just the flu.’ For infants and children especially, it can be a scary, very severe disease. Prevent it,” said Patsy Stinchfield, nurse practitioner and director of infectious disease at Children’s Hospitals and Clinics of Minnesota. Here are some easy reminders to keep your family and you healthy during flu season: - Get vaccinated against the flu. All people 6 months of age and over need an annual flu vaccine. While flu vaccines are not perfect (100 percent effective), not getting one provides zero protection. - Wash your hands with soap and water. At Children’s, we wash ‘em proud. You should wash your hands before and after eating, after using the restroom, after blowing your nose and sneezing. - Cover your cough and sneeze. If you’re visiting Children’s, we ask that you wear a mask if you have a cough. We ask staff and visitors to stay home if they are ill and if they have a cough to wear a mask to prevent the spread of such things as influenza and other infections to our vulnerable patients. - Sick? Please, stay home from work or school. If your child is sick, keep him/her home from school and daycare, too.

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Another dinosaur (not 'Obamadon gracilis') / AFP/Getty Images Babies and pets have been named in honor of President Obama -- and now a prehistoric lizard Researchers at Yale University have dubbed a newly discovered species of dinosaur -- a lizard -- Obamadon gracilis, citing the president's broad smile, Reuters reports. In modified Latin, Obamadon stands for "Obama's teeth," while gracilis means "slender." "The lizard has these very tall, straight teeth and Obama has these tall, straight incisors and a great smile," said Nick Longrich, a paleontologist at Yale. Also reports Reuters: "Like many other dinosaurs, the lizard died out about 65 million years ago when a giant asteroid struck earth, scientists say. "Longrich said he waited until after the recent U.S. election to name the dinosaur. "'It would look like we were kicking him when he's down if he lost and we named this extinct lizard after him,' he said in an interview. ... "Other celebrity names also have been used to name new species. A small Caribbean crustacean has been named after reggae icon Bob Marley, an Australian horsefly has been named in honor of hip-hop star Beyonce, and an endangered species of marsh rabbit has been named after Playboy magazine founder Hugh Hefner." Copyright 2013 USATODAY.com Read the original story: Newly discovered prehistoric lizard named for Obama

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Published May 1, 1997. Potatoes add softness, height, and moisture to the dough, while a quick sponge creates air pockets and chewiness. Many of the recipes we tried produced crusty, crisp bread only slightly thicker than pizza and weighed down by toppings. They were more a meal than a snack or accompaniment to Sunday dinner. We wanted a focaccia that would be neither heavy nor loaded with toppings, soft yet chewy, with a nice high rise, and filled with small to medium-sized air pockets, creating an overall impression of lightness. A couple of recipes from southern Italy added riced potato to the dough, and we found that it produced a bread with moistness, a pleasantly soft texture, and a high rise, but it needed more lift. We knew that sponges (relatively thin mixtures of yeast, water, and flour that are allowed to ferment briefly) are often used to lend flavor and create air holes in breads. So we tried a quick sponge with our working recipe, stirring the yeast, half the water, and a small portion of the flour together in a small bowl, then covering the bowl with plastic wrap and letting the sponge rest for 30 minutes before adding the remaining ingredients. The fermentation of the sponge produced wonderfully large bubbles, and the result was a bread that rose very high and had a nice, light texture.list of recipes

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WHAT IS DVI ? DVI stands for (D)igital (V)ideo (I)nterface. DVI is a popular form of video interface technology made to maximize the quality of flat panel LCD monitors and modern video graphics cards. It was a replacement for the short-lived P&D Plug & Display standard, and a step up from the digital-only DFP format for older flat panels. DVI cables are very popular with video card manufacturers, and most cards nowadays include one or two DVI output ports. In addition to being used as the standard computer interface, the DVI standard was, for a short while, the digital transfer method of choice for HDTVs and other high-end video displays for TV, movies, and DVDs. Likewise, even a few top-end DVD players have featured DVI outputs in addition to the high-quality analog Component Video. The digital market has now settled on the HDMI interface for high-definition media delivery, and DVI more exclusive to the computer market. WHAT ARE THE DVI FORMATS ? There are three types of DVI connections: DVI-Digital, DVI-Analog, and DVI-Integrated DVI-D - True Digital Video ||If you are connecting a DVI computer to a DVI monitor, this is the cable you want. DVI-D cables are used for direct digital connections between source video (namely, video cards) and LCD monitors. This provides a faster, higher-quality image than with analog, due to the nature of the digital format. All video cards initially produce a digital video signal, which is converted into analog at the VGA output. The analog signal travels to the monitor and is re-converted to a digital signal. DVI-D eliminates the analog conversion process and improves the connection between source and display. DVI-A - High-Res Analog DVI-I - The Best of Both Worlds DVI-I cables are integrated cables which are capable of transmitting either a digital-to-digital signal or an analog-to-analog signal. This makes it a more versatile cable, being usable in either digital or analog situations. see all DVI-I cables Like any other format, DVI digital and analog formats are non-interchangeable. This means that a DVI-D cable will not work on an analog system, nor a DVI-A on a digital system. To connect an analog source to a digital display, you'll need a VGA to DVI-D electronic convertor. To connect a digital output to an analog monitor, you'll need to use a DVI-D to VGA convertor (currently unavailable). WHAT ARE SINGLE AND DUAL LINKS ? The Digital formats are available in DVI-D Single-Link and Dual-Link as well as DVI-I Single-Link and Dual-Link format connectors. These DVI cables send information using a digital information format called TMDS (transition minimized differential signaling). Single link cables use one TMDS 165Mhz transmitter, while dual links use two. The dual link DVI pins effectively double the power of transmission and provide an increase of speed and signal quality; i.e. a DVI single link 60-Hz LCD can display a resolution of 1920 x 1200, while a DVI dual link can display a resolution of 2560 x 1600. HOW FAR IS THE DVI MAXIMUM LENGTH? The official DVI specification mandates that all DVI equipment must maintain a signal at 5 meters (16 feet) in length. But many manufacturers are putting out much stronger cards and bigger monitors, so the maximum length possible is never exact. Although the mandated DVI spec is 5 meters, we do carry cables up to 25 feet, and have succesfully extended them even longer than that (although results do vary depending on hardware). For guaranteed signal quality on long runs, you should consider using a powered DVI signal booster. There is a common misconception regarding digital video cables, which is the belief that an "all digital" signal is an either-or result: either the cable works, or it doesn't. In reality, while there is no signal degredation in digital video like there is with analog, cable quality and length can make a difference in When a DVI run is unstable, you may see artifacts and "sparkling" pixels on your display; further degredation tends to flicker out or shake, and the ultimate sign of loss is a blank display. In-house tests on varying equipment have produced strong signals up to 9 and 10 meters long. Tests at 12 meters generally resulted in signal noise and an unusuable image on the display, and anything longer rendered no image at all. Keep in mind that when using DVI-I cables at extensive lengths, you may not be seeing a digitally-clear image on your screen. Because analog has a much longer run, your display may auto-switch once the digital signal is too weak. For this reason, long runs are best done with VGA (for analog) or HDMI (for digital). If you have no option other than DVI, make sure you're getting the best image by using DVI-D cables and verifing that your display is set to digital input. HOW DO I KNOW WHICH CABLE TO USE? Determining which type of DVI cable to use for your products is critical in getting the right cable the first time. Check both of the female DVI plugs to determine what signals they are compatible If you still have questions, look at our DVI cable guide for an easy-to-use chart to help you find the right cable for you. - If one or both connections are DVI-D, you need a DVI-D cable. - If one or both connections are DVI-A, you need a DVI-A cable. - If one connection is DVI and the other is VGA, and the DVI is analog-compatible, you need a DVI to VGA cable or a DVI/VGA adaptor. - If both connections are DVI-I, you may use any DVI cable, but a DVI-I cable is recommended. - If one connection is analog and the other connection is digital, there is no way to connect them with a single cable. You'll have to use an electronic converter box, such as our analog VGA to digital DVI/HDMI converter. HOW TO RECOGNIZE A DVI CABLE There are two variables in every DVI connector, and each represents one characteristic. The flat pin on one side denotes whether the cable is digital or analog: The pinsets vary depending on whether the cable is single-link, dual-link, or analog: - A flat pin with four surrounding pins is either DVI-I or DVI-A - A flat pin alone denotes DVI-D - Two separated 9-pin sets (rows of 6) for a single-link cable - A solid 24-pin set (rows of 8) for a dual-link cable - A separated 8-pin and 4-pin set is for DVI-A. DVI Connector Guide |DVI-D Single Link ||DVI-I Single Link| ||Digital & Analog| |Two sets of nine pins, and a solitary flat blade ||One set of eight pins and one set of four pins, with four contacts around the blade ||Two sets of nine pins and four contacts around the blade| |DVI-D Dual Link ||DVI-I Dual Link| |Digital Only||Digital & Analog| |Three rows of eight pins and a solitary flat blade ||Three rows of eight pins and four contacts around the blade| List of DataPro DVI Cables: 1141 DVI-D Single Digital Video Cable - for simple computer/monitor setups 1142 DVI-D Dual Digital Video Cable - the most DVI cable for most applications 1149 DVI-D Dual Digital Video Extension Cable - for a longer DVI connection 1143 DVI-I Panelmount Extension Cable - for installing a DVI port on a plate or bulkhead 1145 DVI-I Analog to VGA/SVGA Video Cable -for connecting a DVI computer to a VGA monitor 1145-A DVI Analog Male to VGA Female Adaptor - for converting a DVI port into a VGA port 1145-B DVI Analog Female to VGA Male Adaptor - for converting a VGA port into a DVI port 1146 DVI-A Analog Video Cable - for analog-only signals over a DVI connector 1148 DVI-I Dual Digital & Analog - for dual digital/analog data capabilities 1140 DVI-I DIG/ANA Extension Cable (M/F) - for extending both digital and analog signals Written by Anthony van Winkle for DataPro International Inc.| Unauthorized duplication strictly prohibited. © 1986-2013 DataPro International Inc

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|Uploaded:||February 26, 2012| |Updated:||February 27, 2012| How many of you have always wanted a bird that can be taught how to talk just like a human or close to it? Well, today I will be giving you a lesson on one of my favorite bird species and it's not because they are popular. This parrot is what I call the best all around big parrot breed anyone could, and should own. Up next, I will show you "how to draw an African Grey", step by step. I know almost all of you have seen a picture of these birds before and some of you probably didn't know the species name was until now. I have been doing a little research on what types of birds or parrots are trainable to mimic the human language. To my surprise, the African Grey parrot seems to be the best bird to train to mimic human speech. This is mainly due to their high intelligence, and their capability to be great human companions. History shows that back four thousand years ago, these pretty birds have been kept as pets for Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, the English, and even Portuguese sailors enjoyed the Grey's for their pets. There are two types of African Grey parrots, there is the larger breed called the 'Congo African Grey' which grow to be about a foot or twelve inches. They have light gray feathers, black beaks, and red tails. The other is the 'Timneh Grey parrot', and these birds are smaller in size, have a maroon colored tail, charcoal colored beaks, and light colored mandibles. The one that is in this lesson is the Congo Grey, and I choose this one because it is the prettiest, or at least to me. I think I mentioned before that I love drawing birds, so yo might see a lot more of these tutorials from me in the future. For now, enjoy drawing an African Grey, and be sure to leave a rating, comment or both. I have one more lesson on the way so stay tuned in one last time to see what it is. Peace out people!

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News from the schools, June 2009 A selection of news from around the business campuses A rare tweet It may be beloved by media and the technorati. It may even be helping to drive democratic change in the world (see article). But a recent study from Harvard Business School has wondered aloud about a question quietly troubling many: exactly what is the point of Twitter? Although the world may appear enamoured with the micro social-networking site, where people can keep their “followers” informed of their every move in 140 characters or fewer, the truth, it seems, is very different. The study conducted by Bill Heil, a Harvard student, found that Twitter's usage patterns are different from other online social networks. “A typical Twitter user contributes very rarely,” says the report. “Among Twitter users, the median number of lifetime tweets per user is one. This translates into over half of Twitter users tweeting less than once every 74 days.” The study, which examined the activity of over 300,000 people who had signed up to the site, also found that the top 10% of users accounted for over 90% of tweets. Despite describing itself as “a service for friends, family, and co–workers to communicate and stay connected,” Mr Heil believes that, in reality, it has become little more than a marketing tool for companies and celebrities. Quoted on the BBC, he said: “Twitter is a broadcast medium rather than an intimate conversation with friends…The Twitter management need to decide if this is a problem, and if they decide it is, how they will tweak Twitter to become more acceptable to the average user?” Answers in 140 characters or fewer. Treading a path walked by many a Chinese enterprise before it, the China Europe International Business School (CEIBS) is heading into Africa. Last month, in Accra, Ghana, the school kicked off its two-year executive MBA, the first stage of its “Africa Programme”, announced in early 2008. The first intake has 42 students—30 Ghanaian and 12 from neighbouring Nigeria. Nine of the students are women. The programme is headed by Kwaku Atuahene-Gima, a native Ghanaian who has been a professor of marketing at CEIBS for several years. Classes will be based on CEIBS' Chinese programmes, but with African-specific case studies also featuring. Pedro Nueno, CEIBS's executive president, believes its model, which has proved pioneering in the tough Chinese environment, will prove effective in Africa, which he describes as “the last big opportunity left on the planet” for business schools, even in the context of the global recession. CEIBS is frank about the brand-extension qualities of the programme, if not the money-making ones. China has a long-standing interest in extending its influence in Africa. Ghana, on the cusp of exploiting its oil and gas wealth, as well as offering a relatively stable model of governance by African standards, is an appealing prospect for the state-backed school. Ghana's government is also supportive—the country has a decent educational tradition, but is strapped for resources. And it is possible that the programme's professed aim—to become a pan-African model for African business education and African business in general—is achievable, bearing in mind CEIBS's success in China. Best of all, African business talents will have educational possibilities that do not require them to become expatriates—a journey which, too often, has been one-way. MBA students around the world have been signing an oath to be more ethical in their business dealings (see article). Promises made by students included to “serve the greater good”, “act with the utmost integrity” and guard against “decisions and behaviour that advance my own narrow ambitions, but harm the enterprise and the societies it serves.” The oath was the brainchild of Max Anderson, an MBA student at Harvard Business School. His original goal was to persuade 100 of his HBS cohort to sign up. But, as the idea captured students' imaginations, it was embraced on business school campuses across the world. Over 1,000 students have so-far signed up, mostly from North American institutions, but also from Europe and a handful from Asia. Eight year itch Dipak Jain, the long-standing and popular dean of Northwestern University's Kellogg School of Management, is standing down. The school has announced that Professor Jain is to take a year's leave of absence, starting in September, before returning to Kellogg's ranks as a faculty member. Professor Jain joined Kellogg as an assistant professor in 1986 and has been at the school's helm for eight years, during which time it headed the Economist Intelligence Unit's ranking of MBA programmes for three consecutive years between 2002 and 2004. Sunil Chopra, currently school's senior associate dean for curriculum and teaching, has been appointed as interim dean while a search for a full-time successor is undertaken. Reims Management School, in France, is to offer an Islamic Banking and Finance course to students enrolled on its Masters in Management programme. The school reckons that the value of assets in Islamic banks now stands at close to $1 trillion, meaning that it is an area of growing importance for business schools. “Growth in the sector of Islamic finance is advancing at 15-20% per year throughout the world,” according to Professor Ghassen Bouslama, who coordinates the programme. “At a time when the conventional financial model is discredited by the crisis, the model of finance called ‘Islamic' is emerging and gaining strong interest.” Islamic finance is based on a set of principles derived from sharia law, including a prohibition on charging interest or investing in morally dubious areas. France, which is home to Europe's largest Muslim population, is well placed to tap into the increasing interest in the sector. However, it is in Britain—one of the biggest Islamic finance hubs outside of the Middle East—where the sector has so-far garnered most interest among business schools. City University's Cass Business School and Lancaster University Business School, for example, have been running similar programmes since 2008. Flying the nest The University of Maryland's Robert H Smith School of Business is on the move. It has announced plans to relocate to a bio-medical research park in the Westside district of Baltimore, putting it “at the nexus of great research and innovation,” according to G. Anand Anandalingam, the school's dean. It is currently situated in the university's school of nursing. The move will give the school more than four times the space of its current home. It expects to begin offering its part-time MBA in the new facility in 2010.

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Punctuation and the Colon Help (page 2) Both the colon and the semicolon can be used to build better, more interesting sentences. Good writers use these marks of punctuation to build memorable sentences. You know that you can use a semicolon to join two sentences to create a compound sentence when the two thoughts are closely related. On the other hand, you can use a colon when the first sentence creates an expectation in the reader that the second sentence will explain, illustrate, or fulfill the idea stated in the first sentence. We've quoted John F. Kennedy; now fast-forward to Barack Obama's one line in his speech to the Democratic Convention, August 2008. - That's the true genius of America: America can change. Our union can be perfected. What we've already achieved gives us hope for what we can and must achieve tomorrow. What does the colon accomplish in the first sentence? It clearly helps fulfill the expectation set in the first half of the sentence. What is the true genius of America? The answer follows the colon. Here is another example of building ideas with punctuation from Barack Obama's acceptance speech in Chicago: - And for the sake of our economy, our security, and the future of our planet, I will set a clear goal as President: In ten years, we will finally end our dependence on oil from the Middle East. What is the clear goal? The answer follows the colon. After all the rules you've learned about various punctuation marks, you'll find the colon has very few. However, the colon offers the writer an opportunity for variety in sentence structure; consequently, it is a valuable addition to your writing power. How to Use the Colon - Use a colon to introduce a list, as in the following sentence. - Use a colon to introduce an explanation. Assemble these ingredients for the cake: flour, sugar, baking powder, eggs, and vanilla. I have a motto about getting distasteful chores done fast: Make a list of the chores, put a limit on the time you will devote to the work, and start with the one you dislike the most. When you use the colon correctly, the information that comes before the colon should be able to stand alone as a complete thought. Otherwise, you should not use a colon. - Incorrect: I ordered: potatoes, sugar, flour, eggs, and coffee. Also, if the information that comes after the colon is a complete sentence (as in the first example for Rule 2), use a capital letter, as you would normally do in the beginning of a sentence. Look at another example: - Children will take up activities if you supply some good ideas for play: Color and paint in an art center that you create, cut up used holiday cards and paste them as stickers, choose a costume from a costume box and create a play or dance routine. NOTE: In the preceding sentence, the words before the colon could stand alone as a sentence. What would happen if you added the words which are after good ideas for play? - Children will take up activities if you supply some good ideas for play which are: color and paint in an art center that you create, cut up used holiday cards to paste as stickers, choose a costume from a costume box and create a play or dance routine. You now see a common colon error. To avoid it, do not use a verb before the colon—in this case the verb is the word are. Colon Practice and Answers Correct the colon errors in the following sentences. - Expect to do the following as a part of your job open the office at 8:30 A.M., take messages from the answering machine, and distribute the mail. - Find these files before you leave Premium Plumbers, Apex Office Furniture, and ABC Business Management. - The board members' places at the table were covered with these pages of information, an agenda for the meeting, a schedule of meetings for the year, and the bylaws. - Although we had never met before, the young man gave me much-too-much information he was asking his girlfriend to marry him, he had just received a raise, and he was going to shop for a new car. - If you go to the store, buy these, hammer, nails, and bathroom tiles. 1. …your job: Open the office… mail. 2. …you leave: Premium Plumbers… Management. 3. …information: an agenda… bylaws. 4. …much-too-much information: He was asking… new car. 5. …buy these: hammer, nails… tiles. Other Uses of the Colon Use a colon after the salutation in a business letter: - Dear Dr. Murphy: - Dear Mrs. Light: - Use a colon between numbers to show the time: - 1:45 P.M. Colon Additional Practice and Answers Correct the colon errors in the following sentences. - You should also take the following warm clothes, boots, and raincoat. - Kindergarten dismisses at 1145 A.M. - We know you'll need the following for our camping trip a tent, bug spray, a flashlight, and easily prepared foods. - Dear Professor Keene, - Dear Ms. Boxer, - Dear Mom and Dad: - Call me anytime after 900 A.M. on the weekends. - We'll meet at 12: Noon. - Take my advice on the following prepare your home for Christmas early, shop all year for small gifts, and learn to relax with your family. - We gave everyone a choice we could eat out, order in, or let everyone just choose something for themselves. I'm applying for the job you advertised in the Times Weekly. 1. …the following: warm clothes, boots, and raincoat. 2. …dismisses at 11:45 A.M. 3. …trip: a tent, bug spray, a flashlight, and easily prepared foods. 4. Dear Professor Keene: 5. Dear Ms. Boxer: 6. …Dad, 7. …after 9:00 A.M… 8. We'll meet at 12 noon. 9. …following: Prepare your home… 10. …a choice: We could eat out… Add your own comment Today on Education.com - Kindergarten Sight Words List - The Five Warning Signs of Asperger's Syndrome - What Makes a School Effective? - Child Development Theories - Why is Play Important? Social and Emotional Development, Physical Development, Creative Development - 10 Fun Activities for Children with Autism - Test Problems: Seven Reasons Why Standardized Tests Are Not Working - Bullying in Schools - A Teacher's Guide to Differentiating Instruction - Steps in the IEP Process

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Melanoma skin cancer is a much more serious form of cancer, but most of it also is diagnosed at an early stage when it is easier to treat. Dr. Pandelidis says, "Usually melanomas are not subtle. Its usually an ugly-looking mole and people just have a hunch that they should get it looked at. To recognize a mole that may be a melanoma, I always like to remember the ABCD's -- A for asymmetry, B for border irregularity, C for different colors like black and blue, and D diameter, greater than six millimeters which is about the size of a pencil eraser." (See photo below for examples of melanoma on the left vs. healthy-looking moles on the right) He emphasizes that its easy for any well-trained family physician to remove a mole and send it to a pathologist to find out what it is. "If you don't like the way something looks, you go see your doctor, you say 'I'm worried about this,' and the doctor will look it over, and if there's cause for worry, he or she should remove it." Unlike basal cell and squamous cell cancer where the problem is cumulative exposure to the sun, melanoma is more related to severe episodic exposure. "I've learned that many of my patients with melanoma, but not all of them, they have a memory of a severe, severe sunburn," Says Dr. Pandelidis. "In my mind its really very simple: don't get sunburned and whatever you can do not to get sunburned is what you need to do- wear clothing, sit under an umbrella, use sunblock and wear a hat. There's no better sunblock than clothing." And, don't forget the importance of reapplying the sunblock and remembering to put it in places like on your ears and the top of your feet which are places that everyone on occasion gets sunburned. Because, he's seen melanomas in those places. "I tell people that there is nothing wrong with a healthy suntan. What is a problem is a severe sunburn, a severe blistering sunburn you know, a peeling kind of sunburn," he says. He adds, "I find people who tan and have melanoma, I kind of say 'hey that's a strong message to you.' Its kind of like if you smoke and you get lung cancer, you probably ought to quit smoking. Ditto with melanoma and tanning or any skin cancer for that matter." Click here for a series of "Ask the Expert" videos of Dr. Pandelidis answering questions about skin cancer. He answers questions like "Are babies more at risk for skin cancer?" and "Why is melanoma on the rise?" Learn more about skin cancer and what you need to know Skin cancer, suncreen and UV safety 7 tips for keeping your baby safe in the sun Summer sun safety for cancer patients A melanoma survivor's Amazon adventure Bev Centini's melanoma story Read an Expert Journal blog about skin cancer warning signs and prevention.

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Sports play an important formative role in the lives of many middle and high school students. Science Behind Sports from Lucent Books explores the science behind key contemporary sports. Volumes present in a clear and engaging manner the scientific principles and concepts involved, the biomechanics and physiology of playing, and related health issues and medical concerns related to the sport. "By combining science and sports, the publisher has figured out a way to engage teenagers in learning about the physical and psychological needs of each sport, about the physical science concepts involved in playing each sport and about the treatment of sports-related injuries. Recommendations: All middle school and high school libraries need this series. The science teacher could organize the science curriculum around it or use it as a resource when teaching a particular lesson." --Tri State Young Adult Book Review Committee, September 2011

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A rather well known scientist named Ray Kurzweil believes the concept of nanoscopic electronic devices is feasible by 2030. These tiny devices (similar to devices referred to as “nanites” on Star Trek: The Next Generation) will enter the bloodstream and augment various bodily functions, including the possibility of transmitting information in the brain a short distance outside the body. It all sounds like science fiction, but Kurzweil believes it will be possible to “reverse engineer” the brain by 2020, and a US$1,000 investment in computing power in 2029 will provide 1,000 times the computing capacity of a human brain. I'm not sure what to say here. I believe wholeheartedly that true artificial intelligence will be achieved within my lifetime (the next 40-50 years), and I have no doubts that these kinds of devices will actually come into existence in the decades to come. I'm not sure about the timeline. 2020, 2029 … those aren't too far off. In fact, if I look back to my high school years I realize that I graduated over 15 years ago! That seems like yesterday to me. But, we aren't flying around in air-vehicles or using anti-gravitation, and the oft-promised dream of cold fusion has never reared its head. 2030? I'd have to say no. 2130? I'd have to say absolutely. Read more at EE Times. USER COMMENTS 29 comment(s) |Jeez Rick… (2:44pm EST Fri Sep 27 2002) ….I'm feeling kind of old here myself. If some of this stuff does come to pass I imagine whatever concept we have of privacy will be gone–inhale a couple of nanites in your daily dose of room dust and start transmitting your thoughts to the world. (Or for the paranoid having your thoughts controlled.) I still kind of wonder how artifical intelligence will actually appear, our ideas of instinct and emotion may appear outmoded to it, as would the concept of self, since barring something truly exotic like an organically grown computer an artificial intelligence could replicate (or delete) itself on a whim, and shut down and come back. Then again maybe it'll all just flop like the George Jetson style Jetpack……. - by Ziwiwiwiwiwiwiwiwiwi |So, if we all own an AI…. (4:22pm EST Fri Sep 27 2002) …with 1,000 the smarts of any of us, will anyone actually LISTEN to the beastie? I will gladly let it pick stocks for me as long as half of all gains are banked immediately and it has no credit – the builtin self-limiting nature of this scheme can save me from total ruin. Still, as much as I despise Congress, the idea of replacing them with, oh, say three supercomputers, each with a million of these 1,000brain A.I. somehow give me pause. - by UrGeek |Ziwi (4:29pm EST Fri Sep 27 2002) That all depends on what you define as intelligence. There's a species called the sphex (basically a type of wasp)that, upon bringing food back to its “lair”, will drop the food, check out the lair, and bring the food in once the coast is clear. Sounds like a very intelligent mechanism. However, if you move the food while the sphex is checking its home, he will come out, reposition the food, go back into its home again, and when the coast is clear get the food. See how easily an act that ould easily be considered intelligent turns into stupid repitition? What really makes something intelligent? - by SDB |One the other hand… (4:30pm EST Fri Sep 27 2002) …I would LOVE to have it proofread and autocorrect my posts. I would gladly pay a $1,000 for that. I seem to have develop some weird neural deficit in the last 10 years with pueral and singular and with my time grammar. And programming assembler killed all of my spelling skills in the 80's. I good grammar A.I., hidden tranparently in Mozilla or even in the opsys, would be cool. |Yeah, live in the now (4:34pm EST Fri Sep 27 2002) “$1000 investment in computing power in 2029 will provide 1,000 times the computing capacity of a human brain” sounds like a complete load of bollocks to me. 'Feasible' is such a vague word that it almost has no weight when talking about anything like this… - by Wee wee |Old tag line (4:37pm EST Fri Sep 27 2002) I used to use the following tag line (back in my FidoNet/BBS days): - by Rick C. Hodgin |As far as AI goes… (5:07pm EST Fri Sep 27 2002) There are many different theories of the “mind”. Physicalists (either token or type) believe that anything construed as a mental event is strictly a result of physical events in the brain (such as C-Fibre 812 firing). If this theory is correct, it should be fairly easy to deconstruct the brain. While I give no wieght to dualists or realists, I do belive Nagle brings up an excellent concept in his “What is it like to be a bat?” Even if we do create a being that passes the Turing Test, or whatever other level is perscribed to dub it as intelligent, it seems necessarily the case that these instances of AI will be totally different than people. Most of you say that this is obvious, but you're looking too closely to the surface. Paralleled with Nagle's argument, if you were to spend a day as an artificially intelligent robot, you would never be able to accurately describe it to anyone else. Now this is important because it would seem that at best a machine could be pseudointelligent and not artifically intelligent. The dichotomy splits as this: Pseudointelligent beings are able to fully communicate with a type intelligent being, while artificially intelligent beings would be intelligent but would ultimately not be able to fully communicate with any other form of intelligence other than its own. So there are a lot of questions we still need to answer. What is personal identity? What do we mean by intelligence? How do we know if something is intelligent? Anyone see the movie The Imposter? Kurzweil makes the claim that we will have the technology to do so, and he goes far enough to say that we will. What he neglects is that we must answer these questions before we know our method of creating intelligence is good. - by SDB |re: SDB (6:11pm EST Fri Sep 27 2002) You have a good point there, as I've wondered often if they do make a machine that is intelligent and coaxed to respond and behave as a human, how would it really be seeing the world? It'd be kind of like trying to explain full color vision to someone born colorblind, you really couldn't. The thing I'm concerned about is how this intelligence would view naturallly born life with none of our instincts or built in behaviors, reinforced as much by evolution as culture, what would be this thing's prime motivator? Survival? Winning at chess? And how could it really empathize with living beings (emotion) without having any basis to do so? - by Ziwiwiwiwiwiwiwiwiwi |maybe that fast (12:08am EST Sat Sep 28 2002) but the brain is not just speed but it is also self powered, generates chemicals, and regulates thousands of system indirectly! when you can get a chip to power itself regulate its own temp walk talk and think! then it will be as powerful as the human brain-as amd and mac fans know speed is not the end all be all of perfomance its also quality of coding and actual performance - by some guy |SDB (11:10am EST Sat Sep 28 2002) “What is personal identity?” The recognition of “self” as being separate and discting from other things. “What do we mean by intelligence?” Intelligence is the ability to convert into objects capable of being processed any form of input that can be received, and that objectification must be able to closely emulate, anticipate and predict events witnessed in the real world. The ability to take objects, either those converted from input or ones dredged up automously, and process them in ways that don't follow real-world examples. In short, the ability to deconstruct, process and reconstruct. “How do we know if something is intelligent?” It will be capable of understanding something it has not previously been told about. Why is this the test? Because the ability to objectify the environment/input AI is exposed to must be at a level sufficient to deal with something more than baseline instruction. In short, you can't teach a machine to be intelligent. You have to create the environment which allows AI to propagate. I've long held the belief (and argument) that true AI does not require a specific conveyance, ie it doesn't have to be a brain, or a computer or anything else. Anything capable of: 1) Objectifying its input will be intelligent. It could be a jar of semi-conducting ooze. If configured correctly, it could be intelligent. It could be a planet. If configured correctly, it could be intelligent. It could be a computer. If configured correctly, it could be intelligent. Commonly items associated with AI, such as emotion, feelings, instinct and personal identity, are not required for intelligence to exist. One would think/expect that self-awareness would naturally follow intelligence, but it doesn't have to. - by Rick C. Hodgin |AI – Artificial Intelligence (11:19am EST Sat Sep 28 2002) I finally saw the movie. I have to say I was damned impressed. It was an excellent example of what AI will be like. I think the nail was hit squarely on the head. Now, the above statement is excepting (placing to the side) the ridiculous notions there at the end where the little boy waits an eternity for something that can never happen (let alone for a day). But, the concepts conveyed on how it acted were amazingly well done. And, knowing man, the concept of a Flesh Fair, I think, was dead on. People are people, dumb, frightened animals trying to grasp that which they won't take the time to understand. - by Rick C. Hodgin |re:People are people, dumb, frightened animals (1:23am EST Sun Sep 29 2002) And we are looking to reverse-engineer these beasts AND make them 1,000 times more powerful! We must be mad… MAD you hear me MAD - by Bill T. |We're missing someone… (10:01am EST Sun Sep 29 2002) Where's GoatGuy? He posted a comment a couple of weeks ago about Star Trek fictional “science” never having an impact on real scientific endeavors. He asked someone to cite an example for a bag of donuts. Darn it! GoatGuy, if you see this article, what do you think? - by Lt Cox |Hmm (1:03pm EST Sun Sep 29 2002) Hmm, two little points to make. Firstly with regard to Nanites. The main purpose for these will probably have little todo with AI, or even what Kurzweil says. People already now are making small implants which can regulate medicinal injections into someone, so they don't have to bother taking a pill every two hours. Using such things to monitor your health, perscribe drugs, cure illnesses(even cancer? I can just imagine a horde of nanites attacking a tumour for some reason). As for monitoring your brain, that would require a far greater understanding of our synapses than we have now, and a whole load more. If “internal thought monitoring” does happen, I doubt it will even be in the same centuary as nanites first appear. As for my 2p on Artificial Intelligence, I think the characteristic that most people treasure as giving humans “intelligence” is our ability to be creative, not act like mechanical robots(despite humans being horribly predictable on the whole), but even that could be faked on a computer relatively easily. I don't think that a computer you can have an “intresting” conversation with is that far off, I actually believe we could possibly do it with the computing power we have now adays. Just a decent internet filtering device and some fancy programming, I actually doubt it would be that hard. It wouldn't be intelligent by definitions, but I wouldn't notice. Just some(rather long) thoughts :-) - by Sev |So who gets the bag of donuts? (4:43pm EST Sun Sep 29 2002) We really can thank SciFi for one major contribution: “The Names of Things”. The term 'nanite' is brilliant. SciFi's “phaser” became the root of the law-enforcement 'taser'. Virtual reality was at first driven almost exclusively by Gibson's (and other author's) vision of a near future. Submarines were envisioned by Verne well before science got around to inventing practical vessels. I just don't know where to send the donuts. - by GoatGuy |Nanites, Technological Progress, et al (5:11pm EST Sun Sep 29 2002) As well thought out and fascinating as the conjecture is, it seems to have as a central axiom the assumption that mankind will continue to progress at present pace. Just the same is it possible that mankind will fold inward on itself, grasping wildly at fading strands of knowledge like so much light torn asunder from the skies in wake of a star's collapse. To say that mankind's illogical, irrational, and irascible heritage will blithely dance to the dirge of science is to assume the dominance of thought and reason over the darker aspects of human nature. The consequence of laymen assumption is little, but they who would understand the universe must first understand themselves, lest they reach to far and knowing all yet not enough drown the world with the tears of the afflicted. - by Thanatos |Thanatos (9:19pm EST Sun Sep 29 2002) Note all men have that darker aspect to their nature. Men, in general, do. A man, in and of himself, doesn't always. Regardless of whether or not progress continues at its present pace, man's search for more will continue. Even if it's interrupted for 500 years due to some catastrophe, it will again surface. The only thing that will stop it is man himself (or something unforseeable like an alien attack). - by Rick C. Hodgin |O YA!!!!!!!!!!!! (11:02pm EST Sun Sep 29 2002) In 20 years we will be able to Shit gold also, i am working on that. Right now i have it down to i eat gold and i will shit it, but i figure in 20 years i will eat a stake and shit gold. Beat that… - by Gold |Nanites (nanoprobes) in the bloodstream (8:37am EST Mon Sep 30 2002) Oooh.. isn't that what the Borg injected into organisms bloodstream to “assimilate” them. I suspect a government ploy to turn us all into mindless drones to do their bidding. :) - by 7of9 |A few issues for Rick (1) (9:07am EST Mon Sep 30 2002) “What is personal identity?” “The recognition of “self” as being separate and discting from other things.” In philosophy there is a refutation of this known as the teletransporter argument. Basically it says that Bob walks into the teletransporter. The teletransporter scans the entire state of physics of Bob's body. I then communicates this information to another teletransporter in another room. The first teletransporter decomposes Bob's body into a bucket of atoms for later use and the second teletransporter rebuilds Bob's body from its own bucket of atoms. Unfortunately there was a glitch in the system and this time it made two identical copies at the same time. Both recognize themselves as Bob. They all have identical memories of “Bob's past” and in all other ways are exactly identical to the original Bob. |Borg (9:14am EST Mon Sep 30 2002) The Borg inject nanoprobes, not nanites. :) - by Rick C. Hodgin |SDB (9:16am EST Mon Sep 30 2002) One of the problems with such a teletransporter, where it would unbuild your body then rebuild it later, is that *neither* of the two would be Bob. Bob got destroyed earlier. The tougher question, is if your body is rebuilt from a totally different set of atoms, is it still you? - by Sev |SDB (9:24am EST Mon Sep 30 2002) This was addressed in an episode of TNG. Riker beamed up to the ship, while a kind of transporter accident duplicated Riker by beaming another one of himself down onto the planet. Where there were one, now there are two. Both were alive. Both were viable. Both had identical memories of the past (up until the point they were created as separate and distinct individuals through the transporter accident). Which one is Riker? They both are. The recognition of “self” as being separate and distinct from other things is the only criteria for personal identity. It doesn't matter if that personal identity is based on a duplication through happenstance, mechanical failures or outright wizardry. - by Rick C. Hodgin |Luquid Lung and Liver (9:41am EST Mon Sep 30 2002) I read an article somewhere talking about bloodstream machines. They had the idea of a blood born machine that could break up carbon dioxide being carried back to be breathed out back into oxygen to give the body all the oxygen it needed. So people could hold there breathe underwater for long periods of time or run long distances without fatige or work on breaking the 3 minute mile. On the more pratical side the tobacco companies could give it to their victims to restore their health and advert the big lawsuits. |(2) (10:06am EST Mon Sep 30 2002) “Intelligence is the ability to convert into objects capable of being processed any form of input that can be received, and that objectification must be able to closely emulate, anticipate and predict events witnessed in the real world. The ability to take objects, either those converted from input or ones dredged up automously, and process them in ways that don't follow real-world examples. In short, the ability to deconstruct, process and reconstruct.” Allow me to pick out a few main ideas from this. I believe some of the things you are characterizing in this definition are consciousness, knowledge, and synthesis. In this case we are using consciousness as a means to collect not just input, but as you stated “any form of input that can be received”. It must have “knowledge” (in quotes because I have yet to see a good epistemological view, and discussing current ones would be exhaustive and pointless) in order to objectify and categorize what it sees. Finally, and most importantly, is the ability to process input by synthesizing it with existing knowledge. |Personal Identity (10:21am EST Mon Sep 30 2002) “Which one is Riker? They both are. The recognition of “self” as being separate and distinct from other things is the only criteria for personal identity. It doesn't matter if that personal identity is based on a duplication through happenstance, mechanical failures or outright wizardry.” Personal Identity implies a uniqueness of person. It would be obsurd to have two identical identites. Now, I assume by your words that each Riker has a unique personal identity in the fact that each Riker views itself as seperate from all other beings, including the other Riker. Look at it this way though, both Rikers recognize their individuality in an absolutely identical fashion. If you asked either Riker what makes it seperate and sitinct from all other living things, they will both answer the same. This, as stated before, is a direct contradiction to the definition of identity. Some will argue that their identites are different because though they share identical pasts, from a certain point they are each experiencing seperate sets of input, thus when you ask them this question, their answers will vary in some way as “a fork in the road”. This is assuming too much, though. All things being equal, there is a point where the road forks and both Rikers exist at that point. Were the question to be administered at that point, the outcome would be as first stated. I would say that to have personal identity, you must recognize yourself as seperate and distinct, but the identity itself is how you arrived at that conclusion. - by SDB |(3) (10:31am EST Mon Sep 30 2002) How do we know if something is intelligent? What if someone built a block machine that emulated all the qualities you outlined in your answer? This is a common counterargument to the Turing Test. While it is not physically possible to create such a machine, it is logically possible and thus should be qualified to take on a matter of theory. |Rick (8:07am EST Tue Oct 01 2002) “The Borg inject nanoprobes, not nanites. :)” But what is the difference? |Cryogenics (11:32am EST Sun Jan 26 2003) It's only a matter of time before nanoscopic electronic devices become a reality. The only thing that could stop such invention is a complete breakdown of our society. Though that's a real possibility but I will forgo the argument in favor of the positive outlook we will at least continue on into 2200 with our current system intact. The theory of nanoscopic electronic devices has moved out of the “if' category and into the “when” category. The medical possibilities of reengineering our atomic structure our endless. But the most profound application has yet to be mentioned here. Cryogenics. The freezing process slows down molecular decay and for all intents and purposes, halts cell degradation. There is a few percentile worth of cell damage that occurs during deep freezing. Nanoscopic electronic devices could reverse this damage. One could easily remain in cryogenic stasis until the technology catches up to the level necessary for reanimation. Since it is now only a matter of when nonoscopic electronic devises are able to manipulate the subatomic universe, suddenly cryogenics has a whole new importance. - by Kameron

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Limb Saving Treatment Times Two Good Samaritan Hospital patients now have alternatives to the treatment of a painful condition known as peripheral vascular disease (PVD). This condition refers to the diseases of the blood vessels outside of the heart. This involves the narrowing of the vessels that carry blood into the legs, arms, stomach, kidneys and brain. If left untreated, PVD of the legs can ultimately lead to amputations. In fact, it is the leading cause of amputations in the U.S. Doctors at Good Samaritan Hospital use two FDA-approved equipment to remove harmful plaque build-up: The SilverHawk™ Plaque Excision System and the Diamondback 3600 Orbital Atherectomy System. The SilverHawk™ Plaque Excision System uses a tiny rotating blade the size of a grain of rice to shave away large quantities of plaque from inside the artery. As it is removed, the plaque collects in the tip of the device and is then removed from the patient. In comparison, the Diamondback 3600 Orbital Atherectomy System uses an asymmetrically mounted diamond coated crown to sand away the plaque. The process of repeated sanding and orbital action allows the healthy vessel wall to flex away from the crown reducing the potential for vessel injury. The plaque is sanded into small particles that are then carried through the bloodstream and is removed from the body through the natural elimination process in the kidneys and spleen. "Both devices are really quite a complimentary system," says Dr. Mayeda. "Sometimes we use just one and sometimes we use both devices on a patient since the SilverHawk™ is perfect for larger arteries such as those in the thigh area. The Diamondback 3600 is perfect for smaller arteries in the lower leg below the knee." Before SilverHawk™ and the Diamondback 3600, the use of blood thinners, stents, and balloon angioplasty were the only methods available to treat patients with PVD. These methods do not allow plaque to actually be removed from the artery, which means that the same problems can show up repeatedly. "With balloons and stents, you are basically pushing the plaque against the arterial wall to allow better blood flow," said Dr. Mayeda. "Stents have to remain in place permanently and the artery may close again due to scar tissue growth within the stent, while balloon angioplasty may maintain the artery open for an even shorter period of time. By actually removing the plaque we can more effectively clear the arteries without leaving materials such as a metal stent in the artery. Since it actually enables us to remove plaque from the artery, patients seem to have a lower rate of recurring symptoms." Those at risk of developing PVD include patients with high blood pressure, diabetes and high cholesterol. Other contributing factors include obesity, smoking and an inactive lifestyle. Screening for PVD is simple and painless so consult with your physician to find out if you are at risk. For a referral to a Good Samaritan Hospital interventional cardiologist please call 1-800-GS-CARES or visit www.goodsam.org"

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Mersen, Treaty of Mersen, Treaty of, 870, redivision of the Carolingian empire by the sons of Louis I, Charles the Bald (later Charles II) of the West Franks (France) and Louis the German of the East Franks (Germany), signed at Mersen (Dutch Meersen ), now in the Netherlands. The treaty superseded the tripartite division of the empire in 843 (see Verdun, Treaty of). It divided the kingdom of Lotharingia between Charles and Louis, following the death (869) of their nephew, Lothair, king of Lotharingia. France obtained the territories roughly corresponding to the modern Netherlands, Belgium, and Lorraine and Germany received Alsace and the left bank of the Lower Rhine. The borders established did not last long. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. More on Treaty of Mersen from Infoplease: See more Encyclopedia articles on: German History

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Pretend Reading: Baby Steps to Reading August 19, 2011 One of the most wonderful things about living with preschoolers is watching them develop their imaginations in new and exciting ways each day. After watching you cook, a child will pretend cook for her baby dolls. A child in the backseat will pretend he’s driving to the grocery store. Like driving and cooking, reading is one of those adult skills that children want to emulate before they have the skills to do it for “real.” One of the most joyful moments for me as a mom was watching my children gravitate towards books and pretend to read them even before they knew all their letters. To me this said that my kids loved books and wanted to become readers. Children who are read to early and often know that books are magical. They crave cuddling with a loved one and being read to. They look forward to story time in preschool. They will flip through books to explore the story told in pictures. And they will eventually pick up books on their own and pretend to read. What does it mean when your child pretends to read? Just like when a child pretends to talk on the phone, he might also pick up a familiar book and tell the story with a stuffed animal in his lap. Kids who pretend to read display many of the first skills in becoming readers. They demonstrate that they know how to hold a book and turn pages. They know that stories progress as the pages are turned and that each book has a beginning, middle and end. Most importantly, they understand that books hold stories and that stories are fun and interesting. It might not seem like much, but motivation, the desire to read, is one of the first steps in learning to read. How can you promote even more interest in reading? The best way to get young children excited about reading is to read to them. Let them see you read for pleasure. Take them to the library and check out a variety of books. Have books in the car, in the stroller, near the bed, next to the couch…you get the idea. If your child does not already pretend to read, ask him to tell you the story from a picture book. Choose a book that he already knows or that he has shown an interest in. You can model this by telling the story from the pictures instead of reading the words yourself. This shows your child that this is also a legitimate way to read. Pre-readers who are given permission to make up stories develop their imaginations and seldom will say, “But I don’t know how to read.” What do you do in your home to promote an interest in reading among your young children? © 2001-2012 LeapFrog Enterprises, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Fishing fleet working 17 times harder than 1880s to make same catch The UK trawl fishing fleet has to work 17 times harder to catch the same amount of fish today as it did when most of its boats were powered by sail, according to new research. Tthe Marine Conservation Society (MCS) and researchers from the University of York used UK Government data on the amount of fish caught and the size and number of boats involved – the fleet’s fishing power – to analyse the change in fish stocks since 1889. They found that trawl fish landings peaked in 1937, 14 times higher than today, and the availability of bottom-living fish to the fleet fell by 94 per cent. The findings are the result of a study using previously overlooked records and suggest the decline in stocks of popular fish such as cod, haddock and plaice is far more profound than previously thought. The research is published today in Nature Communications, the new online science journal from the publishers of Nature. Ruth Thurstan, lead author of the study from the University of York’s Environment Department, said: “We were astonished to discover that we landed over four times more fish into England and Wales in 1889 than we do today. “For all its technological sophistication and raw power, today’s trawl fishing fleet has far less success than its sail-powered equivalent of the late 19th century because of the sharp declines in fish abundance.” The findings suggest that the damage to fisheries is greater and has taken place over a much longer period than previously acknowledged, pre-dating developments such as the Common Fisheries Policy which are sometimes blamed for declining stocks. Simon Brockington, Head of Conservation at the Marine Conservation Society and an author of the study, said: “Over a century of intensive trawl fishing has severely depleted UK seas of bottom living fish like halibut, turbot, haddock and plaice. “It is vital that governments recognise the changes that have taken place. The reform of the Common Fisheries Policy gives an opportunity to set stock protection and recovery targets that are reflective of the historical productivity of the sea.” The study calculated ‘landings of fish per unit of fishing power’ (LPUP) from 1889 to 2007 to give an indication of changes in the amount of fish available for capture by the fishing fleet. In that time, LPUP declined 500 times for halibut, more than 100 times for haddock and more than 20 times for plaice, wolffish, hake and ling. Cod has declined by 87 per cent. Professor Callum Roberts, from the University of York’s Environment Department, said: “This research makes clear that the state of UK bottom fisheries – and by implication European fisheries, since the fishing grounds are shared – is far worse than even the most pessimistic of assessments currently in circulation. “European fish stock assessments, and the management targets based on them, go back only 20 to 40 years. These results should supply an important corrective to the short-termism inherent in fisheries management today.”

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Tabu, my Cairn Terrier, was missing. I clipped on Bruno’s leash and commanded, “Search! Find Tabu!” Bruno sniffed. His nose went to the ground. He zigzagged left, then right. He headed down the ravine, pulling me behind. Blackberry thorns tore at my clothes. My boots sank into decaying cedar. Bears, coyotes, and cougars inhabit the wilds of our area and my little Tabu was in danger. We traversed a stream rumbling with spring runoff. I trusted Bruno, my obsessive Border Collie-Lab cross, as he began an ascent. It was hot and muggy and the hike up was tough, an angle that had me close to the ground, nearly crawling. Bruno was tenacious. A tug: he had found her! Bruno lurched toward Tabu, nearly knocking her over with a nose nudge. Bruno did his job. Hot on Tabu’s scent trail, Bruno had been tracking, relying primarily on his sense of smell, possibly a thousand times more sensitive than that of humans. Dogs possess more than 220 million olfactory receptors, humans only 5 million. When a scent can’t be recognized right away, a dog will sniff a series of rapid short inhalations and exhalations. This can be startling to see for the first time. The scent isn’t washed out as the sniffing actually forces air into a pocket in the dog’s nose where the unrecognizable molecules can accumulate and be deciphered. This allows the dog to distinguish scents and follow trails. Tracking dogs are used for search and rescue in urban disaster (911) and avalanche operations, as well as for police work. Dogs and handlers involved in these operations are highly dedicated and intensely trained, and must be ready to tackle life-or-death situations 24/7 in all kinds of weather and dangerous conditions. On the lighter side, the nose is put to the test in the non-competitive sport of tracking, where dogs decipher scents along a trail in order to locate “indicate” articles and find humans. Through the Canadian and the American Kennel Clubs, dogs can earn titles such as Tracking Dog (TD) or Urban Tracking Dog (UTD). To achieve a TD, a dog must follow a stranger’s track approximately 450 meters long with two to four turns, “aged” for at least 30 minutes, and with a glove at the end. In Urban Tracking, dogs are tested on varying terrain: a grassy baseball park, non-vegetated areas, parking lots, schools, and office sites. To learn more about tracking, I traveled out to Canine Harmony Dog Training Academy in Surrey, British Columbia, just a trail away from the boundary that divides the United States and Canada. I arrive to find a gathering of trackers readying their dogs with body harnesses and long leashes. Blackberry brambles, fruit trees, and weathered barns border the training fields. The smell of burning cherry wood fills the air. Smoke billows out of a rusty barrel that provides heat to onlookers on this crisp March morning. This is where tracking comes alive, where human scent trails are made and tracking dogs lead their handlers in search of humans, squeaky toys, and favourite treats. “Every weekend the club will be out in the fields learning and practicing,” says Chanone Sanders, master dog trainer. “To get started, you need the desire to learn tracking and a dog you’d like to track with.” Sanders holds a seminar once a month to help people learn the theory and “book work” behind tracking. Today, she leads new and experienced trackers to the fields insisting everyone stay to the right of the orange cones, out of the working field. “We want a clean slate so the dogs can focus on the tracks.” She asks for a volunteer, “Who wants to go get soggy in the grass?” Monika Mallow, courageous in her sturdy boots, steps forward. Sanders tells her how to lay a track: “Stand for just a second, line up two objects with something in the distance. Walk that line, stop, turn 90 degrees, walk, and hide in the grass. Sit quietly.” Mallow lays a track for Arlo, the American Staffordshire Terrier, and hides. She has the dog’s favourite ball stuffed inside a glove. Arlo leads owner Samantha Andress as he “air scents”: testing the odours that float above the ground. “Find it!” Samantha commands. Arlo’s nose goes down. He circles and begins sweeping big arcs, “coursing” across the scent track. “There’s a strong breeze taking the scent south,” Sanders reports. Arlo’s on the “fringe” but keeps on tracking. He nears the weeds. With a sudden jump, he’s found her. Mallow cheers and tosses his ball. Next up is long-lashes Maggie, a Labrador-Golden Retriever mix. She gets a good sniff of her favourite treats. Once again, Mallow braves the soggy field taking Maggie’s treats with her. Sanders turns Maggie around and instructs owner, Marion Hewko, “We don’t want Maggie to see, we want her to use her nose. They know how to smell. We teach them the only way to do it is by scent—then the nose kicks in.” As Hewko walks Maggie to the line, Sanders continues: “Okay, bring Maggie to start then out—slow, slow, slow. Let her go ahead of you. Find it!” Maggie takes off, showing a “deep nose”— a nose close to the ground and buried in the grass. She stops. Sanders calls, “She stops, you stop. Let her pull you.” Maggie backtracks, air scenting, high nose, picks up the scent. Off she goes again. She discovers Mallow lying in the grass. Maggie jumps around, tail wagging, celebrating. Lilly the Australian Shepherd is next. It’s her first time. Owners Shawn Gerenski and Sharon Warren watch as Sanders puts a harness on Lilly. “This way she won’t hurt herself. Collars pull.” she explains. The trainer tells Gerenski, who is going to lay the track, that he should talk to Lilly before he goes out. Gerenski walks a straight line into the field. Sanders covers Lilly’s eyes. Gerenski hides. Search time. Warren commands Lilly, not with “Find it,” but instead calling: “Where’s Daddy? Find Daddy!” Lilly searches. Air scenting. Nose goes to the ground. Big sniff. Aha! Daddy’s scent. She’s off and galloping an absolutely straight line to Gerenski, who cheers and tosses Lilly’s favourite red squeaky toy. Tracking is a fun way for dogs and handlers to exercise, challenge themselves, and enjoy social time with other teams. Cindy O’Neil says it has helped her big mixedbreed dog, Brooke, to overcome her fear. “Brooke’s a rescue dog,” says O’Neil. “When we brought her home, she was very afraid. I signed her up for tracking to build confidence. It made her more outgoing.” Brooke is now one of the “diehard trackers” who just can’t get enough of the sport. “It’s an activity that bonds us with our dogs in a way that no other event can,” says Sanders. “It’s a quiet walk in a field on a misty morning with a purpose and a goal. It’s the joy of finding the goal at the end of the track and the desire to do it again. It’s a balance, a trust and a harmony that we forge together with our dogs.”

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Disk encryption can be beaten "A new hack allowing attackers to take peoples files even after encryption." Published: 31st July 2008 | Source: CNet | It has been proven that RAM can take some time spanning from seconds to minutes before losing its data. This allows the attacker to take the data from the memory or alternatively take the RAM module. Also, if the RAM module is kept cool, it will retain its data for a much longer period of time. For example, if you blow canned air onto the module, it will hold memory for a few more minutes; if you keep it in liquid nitrogen then the data could be held for days. This gives the attacker a lot more time. We also have a picture of what happens to the data on the RAM after the power has been turned off. As you can see, the data slowly fades away. The right hand side is after a loss power for 5 minutes and the left is after 5 seconds. Learn a new thing every day here at OC3D.

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05/10/2012 - Americans love economic mobility. It’s kind of a founding myth for us: We see ourselves as having broken free from rigid, aristocratic Europe to form a meritocracy that guaranteed a chance to move up in the world. Though there has been much talk lately about rising income inequality in the United States, what has worried pundits on both the left and the right has been recent reports that Americans aren’t as economically mobile as citizens in other Western nations. The Pew Economic Mobility Project has been studying this phenomenon, and is out with a new report examining which regions in America are the most and least mobile. Researchers looked at Americans ages 35 to 39 and then examined their incomes ten years later. The study covered the time period between 1978 and 2007, and tackled three different measures of income mobility: absolute mobility (as measured by inflation-adjusted income growth over time), and relative upward and downward mobility — i.e. movement up or down the socio-economic ladder. In other words, are Americans born poor becoming rich and vice-versa? Interestingly enough, geographic mobility doesn’t appear have a large effect on economic mobility. That is, it doesn’t matter if you’re born in Maryland or you move there – you’re more likely move up the economic ladder either way. According to Erin Currier, Project Manager of the Pew Economic Mobility Project, individuals who do move states do have better economic mobility, but more than two-thirds of Americans stay in their birth state for the remainder of their lives. Therefore, “Geographic mobility might help an individuals’ economic mobility, [but] it’s not really driving state-level findings as a whole.” So why are some states more economically mobile than others? This study doesn’t seek to specifically address the causes of relative mobility between states, but there are some important factors that the Economic Mobility Project has found are essential to promoting economic mobility overall, and these include things like like “educational attainment, savings and asset building, and neighborhood poverty during childhood,” according to Currier. Read the full article, Which States Have the Most Economic Mobility?, on Time's website.

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October 26, 2011 By Losang Tendrol for The Washington Post On Faith On Sept. 28, the state of Florida executed Manuel Valle after he spent 33 years on death row. On Sept. 21, the state of Georgia took Troy Davis’s life, despite a lack of evidence proving his guilt. On the same day, the white supremacist Lawrence Brewer was killed by lethal injection by the state of Texas, despite the a request by the victim’s family that the district attorney not seek the death penalty. Buddhists, along with a growing number of members of other religions, believe that the death penalty is fundamentally unethical. From the Buddhist perspective, non-violence, or not harming others, is the heart of the Buddha’s teachings. Everyone has the ability to uproot negative, self-centered thoughts and instead nourish an open engagement with others. In doing so, we find true happiness and fulfill our potential as human beings. Manuel Valle, Troy Davis, and Lawrence Brewer and the 3,200 inmates on death row will not have this opportunity. According to Buddhism, everything that happens in our lives is the result of causes and conditions. Nothing happens at random. Every action gives rise to results that we experience immediately or in the future. By not committing any of the five non-virtuous actions (killing, lying, stealing, sexual misconduct, taking intoxicants), we ensure that we ourselves are not victims of murder, theft, etc. Likewise, when we do experience such misfortunes, we recognize that they arise in our lives only because of similar actions we committed in the past. We bear full responsibility for our present and future lives, both for the positive and negative experiences. In the works of a great Tibetan scholar, the Sakya Pandita, “Howsoever anyone breaks the law, they may win for a while, but in the end, they lose.” Even though someone may appear to get away with breaking the law, in the long run, he/she will experience the results of the negative action. Karma, the law of cause and effect, is definite and not subject to the inequities and arbitrariness of any legal system. As such, the death penalty is unnecessary, because the person who violates the law by committing murder will definitely bear the horrible, irreversible karmic consequences. In the Dhammapada , we find the following verses: “Whoever harms with violence those who are gentle and innocent, to one of these ten states that person quickly descends: he would beget deprivation and fracturing of the body; or grave illness, too; trouble from the government; loss of relatives; or obstruction of property.” Both murderers and supporters of the death penalty deserve our compassion because they will experience the karmic effects of killing. It may seem strange to generate compassion towards those who harm us. Buddha taught that our actions are influenced by causes and conditions; similarly our minds are poisoned by ignorance, attachment and hatred. When our minds are overcome by hatred, at that moment, we go crazy, and we are not able to control ourselves. One of the defining scholars of Buddhism, Nagarjuna, wrote to a king: “Especially generate compassion for those whose ill deeds are horrible.” Punishment should be carried out with compassion, “not though hatred nor desire for wealth,” or for retribution, since retribution is another name for revenge; “revenge” implies the action is done with anger, and therefore would burden the executioner with hatred and its resultant poor karma. His Holiness the Dalai Lama signed Amnesty International’s pledge against the death penalty several years ago, and has spoken out against it on multiple occasions. He opposes the death penalty because it punishes the person and not the action. Buddhism does allow ending the life of another when it is done in self-defense, and the argument could be made that, sometimes, capital punishment could be viewed as a society’s attempt at self-defense. But when there are other means available to prevent a person from harming others, such as imprisonment, it would seem that the less lethal option should be favored. Countering violence with violence only results in more violence. The true enemy is our own self-cherishing and self-grasping tendencies, and the negative behavior that we engage in to defend, protect, and sustain ourselves even at others’ expense. Losang Tendrol is a nun in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition. She teaches meditation and Buddhism at the Guhyasamaja Buddhist Center in Reston. The Center was founded in 1994 and is affiliated with the Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition. The Center follows the Gelugpa tradition, the same lineage as His Holiness The Dalai Lama.

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SA Perspectives: Last Chance for the Last Planet; May 2002; Scientific American Magazine; by Staff Editor; 1 Page(s) Scientists joke that it can take longer for a space mission to escape from Washington, D.C., than to cross the solar system: the harshness of outer space is nothing compared with the rigors of securing administrative, presidential and congressional approval. Never has this been truer than for a mission to Pluto. In one form or another, a space probe to the outermost planet--the only major unvisited world in the solar system--has been traveling for more than a decade and still has yet to clear the Beltway. Unless Congress acts this summer, the mission will crash-land about five billion kilometers short of its goal. The question before Congress is whether to go along with a Bush administration decision to abort the Pluto project altogether. The president's budget for fiscal year 2003 excludes it. A similar situation arose last year, when the administration left Pluto out of the budget and Congress put it in.

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Our team of dental specialists and staff strive to improve the overall health of our patients by focusing on preventing, diagnosing and treating conditions associated with your teeth and gums. Please use our dental library to learn more about dental problems and treatments available. If you have questions or need to schedule an appointment, please do not hesitate to contact us. Certain kinds of medications can have an adverse effect on your teeth. Long ago, children exposed to tetracycline developed tooth problems, including discoloration, later in life. The medication fell out of use, however, and is not an issue today. The best precaution is to ask your family physician if any medications he or she has prescribed can have a detrimental effect on your teeth or other oral structures. A condition called dry mouth is commonly associated with certain medications, including antihistamines, diuretics, decongestants and pain killers. People with medical conditions, such as an eating disorder or diabetes, are often plagued by dry mouth. Other causes are related to aging (including rheumatoid arthritis), and compromised immune systems. Garlic and tobacco use are other known culprits. Dry mouth occurs when saliva production drops. Saliva is one of your body's natural defenses against plaque because it acts to rinse your mouth of cavity-causing bacteria and other harmful materials. Some of the less alarming results of dry mouth include bad breath. But dry mouth can lead to more serious problems, including burning tongue syndrome, a painful condition caused by lack of moisture on the tongue. If dry mouth isn't readily apparent, you may experience other conditions that dry mouth can cause, including an overly sensitive tongue, chronic thirst or even difficulty in speaking. Poor dental hygiene can cause a host of problems outside your mouth—including your heart. Medical research has uncovered a definitive link between heart disease and certain kinds of oral infections such as periodontal disease. Some have even suggested that gum disease may be as dangerous as or more dangerous than other factors such as tobacco use. A condition called chronic periodontitis, or persistent gum disease, has been linked to cardiovascular problems by medical researchers. In short, infections and harmful bacteria in your mouth can spread through the bloodstream to your liver, which produces harmful proteins that can lead to systemic cardiac problems. That’s why it’s critical to practice good oral hygiene to keep infections at bay—this includes a daily regimen of brushing, flossing and rinsing. In some cases, patients with compromised immune systems or who fear an infection from a dental procedure may take antibiotics before visiting the dentist. It is possible for bacteria from your mouth to enter your bloodstream during a dental procedure in which tissues are cut or bleeding occurs. A healthy immune system will normally fight such bacteria before they result in an infection. However, certain cardiovascular conditions in patients with weakened hearts could be at risk for an infection or heart muscle inflammation (bacterial endocarditis) resulting from a dental procedure. Patients with heart conditions (including weakened heart valves) are strongly advised to inform our office before undergoing any dental procedure. The proper antibiotic will prevent any unnecessary complications.

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Most families across the globe have been affected by cancer. Affecting millions of lives each year, cancer does not discriminate. A host of factors can determine if a person gets cancer. One of the factors that can influence if a person gets cancer is his or her exposure to carcinogens. Though many people have heard of carcinogens, those same people might be less familiar with what carcinogens actually are, and if there's anything they can do to reduce exposure to and protect themselves from these potentially deadly substances. What is a carcinogen? Substances and exposures that can lead to cancer are called carcinogens. Carcinogens do not always cause cancer, and substances considered carcinogens have varying levels of cancer-causing potential. Minimal exposure to certain carcinogens may increase one's risk of getting cancer significantly, while other carcinogens may cause cancer only after prolonged exposure at high levels. What happens when a person has cancer? Cancer is caused by changes in a cell's DNA. This change can be caused by carcinogens, though some carcinogens have no direct impact on DNA. For example, a carcinogen may cause cells to divide at a faster rate than is normal, and that accelerated division can increase the chances that DNA changes will occur. What are some examples of exposures? Outside exposures, often referred to as environmental factors, can also be considered carcinogens. The following are a few of the more common environmental factors that qualify as carcinogens. Lifestyle factors. Poor nutrition, use of tobacco and lack of physical activity are a few of the lifestyle exposures that can lead to cancer. Naturally occurring exposures. Exposure to radon gas, infectious agents and ultraviolet light are some of the naturally occurring exposures that can lead to cancer. Medical treatments: Men, women and children who were treated for certain ailments might have been exposed to certain factors that can lead to cancer. These include treatments like chemotherapy, radiation and medications that suppressed the immune system. What are some examples of substances that are known carcinogens? As previously mentioned, not all carcinogens will cause cancer. For instance, some that are known human carcinogens, including alcoholic beverages, will not necessarily cause cancer. But the following are a few of the more recognizable substances considered known human carcinogens. Coal, indoor emissions from household combustion Mineral oils, untreated or mildly treated Tobacco smoke and smokeless tobacco Are there different classifications of carcinogens? The International Agency for Research on Cancer has spent the last 30 years evaluating the cancer-causing potential of more than 900 likely substances and exposures. That research has enabled the IARC to devise a system for classifying carcinogens as follows: Group 1: Carcinogenic to humans Group 2A: Probably carcinogenic to humans Group 2B: Possibly carcinogenic to humans Group 3: Unclassifiable as to carcinogenicity in humans Group 4: Probably not carcinogenic to humans Because testing carcinogens is so difficult (it is unethical to test on humans), many of the carcinogens studied by the IARC are classified as being a probable, possible or unknown risk. Slightly more than 100 of the candidates studied by the IARC are classified as Group 1 carcinogens. It's important to note that, in addition to the IARC rating system, other agencies and groups, including the National Toxicology Program and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, have developed their own rating systems to determine the cancer-causing potential of certain substances and exposures. For more information on carcinogens, including a list of known human carcinogens, visit the American Cancer Society at www.cancer.org.

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Media Releases and Announcements Research finds why many women have folic acid deficiency during pregnancy April 11, 2012 — A research team including University of Ottawa scientists has discovered the main reason why one in five women do not have the level of folic acid needed to guard against neural tube defects in newborns. Cynthia Colapinto and Dr. Lise Dubois from Institute of Population Health and Dr. Mark Tremblay of the Department of Pediatrics examined a nation-wide study and found that many women do not take the folic acid supplement recommended. For more information about the study, read the news release by the Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario (CHEO).

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Modern researchers have not yet determined what causes depression, but the mood disorder appears to be related to elevated stress and life changes, and may be influenced by brain chemicals. Although the precise cause of depression is unknown, there are a number of theories that attempt to explain how it occurs. Proponents of psychoanalytic theory generally maintain that depression is the result of an unconscious problem, and that depressed people turn their anger and hostility inwards in order to avoid conflict with the outside world. Learning theorists suggest that depression is the result of learning to be helpless. That is, when people come to believe they have no control over their lives, socially, economically, or psychologically, they tend to give up trying and depression sets in. Psychologists who favor cognitive theories generally argue that when a person experiences self-defeating thoughts or dwells on negative thoughts for too long, low self-esteem and depression occur as a result. Biological theorists suggest that depression is influenced by the physiological mechanisms of the body, such as chemical activity in the brain. For more information about the causes of depression, consult a healthcare provider in your area.

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CORRECTED: An earlier version of this story incorrectly stated that the UNESCO WHC had agreed to consider a boundary change. In fact the boundary change itself has been approved, as described below. UNESCO's World Heritage Committee (WHC) has approved a boundary change to the Selous Reserve of Tanzania in a step towards development of the Mkuju River uranium property. The potential mine remains subject to a mining licence application by Uranium One. Tanzanian officials applied to the WHC in January 2011, asking it to consider allowing the development. The WHC committee this week discussed the request and reviewed the project's environmental impact assessment before deciding to remove the Mkuju River property and an adjacent buffer zone from the Selous Reserve. The committee said the impacts of the project would be limited and mitigated. The Mkuju River uranium project is led by Uranium One on behalf of its 51% shareholder AtomRedMetZoloto, which acquired Mkuju River when it purchased Mantra Resources in June last year. The deposits there were identified in the late 1970s and early 1980s and current studies show indicated resources of 36,000 tonnes of uranium with another 10,000 tonnes of inferred resources. An application to begin mining at Mkuju River is currently with the Tanzanian government and a revised feasibility study is due this year. The 50,000 square kilometer reserve is home to large numbers of elephants, black rhinoceroces, cheetahs, giraffes, hippopotamuses and crocodiles. Tanzania's minister of Natural Resources and Tourism, Khamis Suedi Kagasheki, welcomed the progress, noting that the area involved represented only 0.8% of the vast reserve and that development would give Tanzania "the ability and opportunity to fulfill its social and economic goals for citizens." Researched and written by World Nuclear News

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Invented in Paris in the late 1950s, the mechanical drawing toy that would eventually be marketed as "the world's first laptop" became wildly popular soon after an Ohio company introduced it under a new name: Etch A Sketch. French electrician Andre Cassagnes stumbled upon the concept for what he called the "Telecran" — or telescreen — while peeling a decal from a switch plate and noticing how his pencil marks had transferred from one surface to another. After an Ohio Art Co. executive discovered it at the 1959 Nuremberg Toy Fair, he bought the rights for $25,000 and launched it in time to become the best-selling toy of the 1960 holiday season. Cassagnes, who was also a noted kite designer, died Jan. 16 in a Paris suburb, the Toy Industry Assn. announced. A cause was not given. He was 86. Named one of the top 100 toys of the 20th century by the New York-based toy association, Etch A Sketch appears on the list with such other classics as the Duncan yo-yo, the Barbie doll, Silly Putty and Mr. Potato Head. The drawing device is fondly recalled by baby boomers and their offspring, who were captivated by the ability to doodle on the flat silver screen as if by magic. Yet the science behind his invention is relatively simple, based on the fact that an electrostatic charge could hold aluminum powder to glass. Cassagnes — pronounced "kah-sahn-YEH" — developed the toy with that in mind and designed it to look like a television set. Instead of the now-familiar knobs, he used a joystick to erase the aluminum powder from the glass screen, enabling the user to draw. Since he couldn't afford to pay for a patent, he borrowed money from an investor who sent his treasurer, Arthur Granjean, to complete the paperwork. But Granjean's name ended up on the patent, helping to obscure Cassagnes' role. When the New York-based National Toy Hall of Fame inducted Etch A Sketch in 1998, it wrongly listed Granjean as the toy's creator. An official history on Ohio Art's website gives Cassagnes credit for the invention. "Etch A Sketch has brought much success to the Ohio Art Company, and we will be eternally grateful to Andre," company President Larry Killgallon said in a statement released after Cassagnes' death. "His invention brought joy to many over such a long period of time." As of 2010 a total of 150 million units of various models of Etch A Sketch had been sold, the Toledo Blade reported that year. Working with Ohio Art's chief engineer, Cassagnes helped refine the Etch A Sketch before the first one rolled off the production line on July 12, 1960. A small bar with a point that touches the back of the screen is attached to two metal bars, one horizontal and one vertical, that are moved by nylon strings attached to knobs on the front of the toy. A small ball erases the silver dust, which is actually aluminum powder, creating a black line that can be sent zipping around the screen. The drawing apparatus reflected a fascination with geometric patterns, which was apparent in the complex kites Cassagnes later created that made him "the most famous kitemaker in France," according to a 1992 article in Kite Lines magazine. "Mentally, he was into designs involving the X and Y axis," Ohio Art Chairman Bill Killgallon told the Toledo Blade in 2010. "That's one of the reasons he was able to invent the Etch A Sketch." Born near Paris on Sept. 23, 1926, he grew up in the southern suburbs of the French capital and lived much of his life there. At 18, he took a job at his family's bakery, but a flour allergy forced him to find other work. He became an assistant electrician at a small French company that made artificial seat and picture frame coverings in a production process that included aluminum powder. Cassagnes worked at the factory, which was eventually sold to a major French chemical group, until he retired in 1987. Inspired by the sight of a kite flying at the Normandy seaside, Cassagnes bought his first kite — a long Mylar serpent — at age 50. After reading a few how-to books, he began designing elaborate kites, according to Kite Lines, that "almost never followed any existing plans." With his wife, Renee, he had three children, Sophie, Patrick and Jean Claude.

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Subfertility, a condition in which a person is less fertile than average but still capable of contributing to a pregnency, affects about one in 20 men. Up to 80 percent of subfertility could be due to sperm damage caused by oxidative stress or harmful particles produced by a person's own body. While infertility has historically been seen as a woman's problem, male infertility is present in up to half of infertile couples. Varicocele, a condition in which a man has varicose veins in the scrotum, is the most common cause of male subfertility. Other causes include hormonal disorders, problems with quantity and motility of sperm, infections, obesity, drug use and exposure to radiation and chemotherapy. Depending on the condition, male infertility and subfertility can be treated with surgery, hormone therapy and assisted reproductive technologies. While, as we've seen, some doctors dismissed the link between antioxidants and fertility, others said they were not surprised by the results because healthy nutrition and lifestyle are already recommended for couples planning to conceive. Dr. Jeanne O'Brien, associate professor of urology at University of Rochester Medical Center, is one of those doctors. O'Brien said she routinely suggests that her patients take antioxidants if they want a baby. She also recommends decreasing alcohol consumption, smoking cessation, exercising and stress reduction. "I tell them the antioxidants may help and certainly don't harm them at the recommended dosages," said O'Brien. "I believe it is the lifestyle changes and increased health awareness that accompanies antioxidant consumption that may make a difference in terms of increased fertility." O'Brien said antioxidants are never her sole recommendations. "There are always additional factors, testing, medication or alternatives offered in conjunction with them," O'Brien said. "I use antioxidants for select men with impaired semen quality and demonstration of elevated oxidative stress, which is manifest by increased levels of reactive oxygen species," said Kim. "However, I do not assess for oxidative stress if identifiable causes of male infertility are present. In clinical practice, improvements in pregnancy and live birth rates are certainly not as robust as suggested by the Cochrane review." And Kim warns that, despite the hype around antioxidant supplements, they should not be consumed without a watchful eye. For example, excessive consumption of Vitamin E, or more than 400 units per day, has been shown to have possible negative cardiac and vascular effects. "Although generally considered safe in moderation, numerous large-scale studies have indicated that many supplemental antioxidants can actually be detrimental to overall health, said Kim. "With an understanding of these caveats, an assessment of the severity of male factor infertility, and very modest expectations of possible benefit, a man could try antioxidants before attempting assisted reproduction."

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The Smithsonian Institution is home to some 137 million objects, artworks and specimens, and that number is climbing all the time [source: Smithsonian Institution]. So it's no surprise that many people affectionately refer to this mega museum complex as "the nation's attic" or "America's attic." At times, that so-called attic gets a good going-over, such as when the museum's 267 curators led an army of employees through what was cheerfully dubbed the "Great Counting" back in the early 1980s [source: Time]. That first massive inventorying endeavor highlighted just how much stuff the Smithsonian had squirreled away. The mark of successful Smithsonian curators and collections managers could very well be the soul of an avid pack rat, and as any good pack rat knows: Everything is fair game to consider keeping. The institution's eclectic collections are a case in point. Ruby slippers, shrunken heads, dinosaur poop, poison darts, barf bags, insect eggs (that have been known to hatch and start munching on beleaguered botany specimens), astronaut boots, old advertisements, tribal textiles, presidential garb -- not even gallstones are too lowly to be saved. Plus, some of the items in the Smithsonian's care aren't even American in origin, like the stuffed remains of white rats used on the Soviet side of the Space Race. What's more, the team at the Smithsonian does nothing halfheartedly. Who wants one example of an artifact when you can have 50? Or 500? And don't even think about skimping on specimens. At the time of the "Great Counting," the Smithsonian was crammed with deceased organisms of all sorts, including more than 3,000 sea slugs, 50,000 flies and close to 115,000 bird eggs. Beetles were represented by a massive 7 million specimen collection, and there were reportedly even several million samples of good old-fashioned dirt packed away. Cataloguers expected the total number of artifacts to be around 78 million but discovered they had 100 million objects instead [sources: Time, Smith]. Ready to read more about some of the stranger items somebody thought the Smithsonian needed? On the next page, we'll discuss artifacts that captured a slightly morbid slice of American history.

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Airbus Envisions Cleaner, More Efficient Aviation Airbus last week issued the latest installment of its future vision for aviation in 2050 and beyond, describing new ways of operating across all phases of flight. The company’s “Smarter Skies” vision centers on a “sustainable” aviation system that saves time, conserves fuel and reduces emissions. For the first time, the vision looks beyond smarter aircraft design to the efficiencies potentially derived from airspace optimization, or making the best use of the environment in which an aircraft operates, Airbus said. The aircraft manufacturer estimates that making the best use of the airspace through air traffic management (ATM) procedures as well as technology already installed on aircraft could shorten flights in the U.S. and Europe by an average of 13 minutes or more, assuming 30 million flights per year. The “Smarter Skies” vision suggests a radical evolution of aircraft operations and ATM procedures such as 4-D trajectories and optimized profile descents currently under development. Aircraft would launch through “assisted takeoffs using renewably powered, propelled acceleration,” climbing more steeply from airports. In flight, they would “self-organize” and select the most efficient routes, making the optimum use of prevailing weather and atmospheric conditions–an old concept, not yet realized, known as “free flight.” Newer is the Airbus idea of aircraft “flying in formation like birds” in cruise flight along high-density routes. Aircraft would fly steeper, “free glide approaches” into airports with “no need” for engine thrust or air braking, reducing emissions during the overall descent and lowering noise on approach. The concept resembles the optimized profile descents under development today, whereby an aircraft chooses the most efficient point to begin its descent to the airport and uses minimal thrust settings to maintain its descent path. On the ground, an “autonomous renewably powered taxiing carriage” would stand ready at the aircraft’s landing position to whisk it more quickly from the runway, optimizing terminal space and surface operations. Biofuels and alternative energy sources would underpin the future infrastructure, Airbus said, creating demand for “regionally sourced renewable energy close to airports.” Along with Boeing and other manufacturers, Airbus is engaged on multiple fronts to achieve future aviation system efficiencies. Airbus serves as a full member of the Single European Sky ATM Research (Sesar) joint undertaking, the public-private partnership pursuing European airspace modernization, and as an active participant in the Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) effort in the U.S.

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|In this section...| Consider the case of an array of a given component type. For each component the compiler must allocate a storage field with a certain number of bits. There may also be some gaps (that is, unused bit fields) between two consecutive components. The effect of the pragma PACK is to instruct the compiler to minimize such gaps. For example, to request a packed representation for boolean matrices, one would write: type BIT_MAP is array (1 .. 100, 1 .. 100) of BOOLEAN; ... pragma PACK(BIT_MAP); On the other hand, if the component type is itself a composite type, it may also contain internal gaps: these gaps are unaffected by the packing specification given for the array type. Minimization of such gaps could be achieved by a prior packing specification given for the component type itself. The language also provides the representation pragma OPTIMIZE, with the argument values SPACE and TIME, to inform the compiler about which of these two criteria is more important in a given part of the program. for representation_attribute use expression; where the expression specifies a value for the given representation attribute. For example, it is possible to use a length clause to specify the size to be used for objects of a given type: for cases where a user wants to optimize access time to frequently used record components of this type, without having to specify the entire record layout. type NIBBLE is range 0 .. 15; for NIBBLE'SIZE use 4; For a fixed point type, a length clause can be used to specify exactly the representation of the smallest representable value. For example: type WEIGHT is delta 0.01 range 0 .. 250; for WEIGHT'SMALL use WEIGHT'DELTA; Without the length clause, the compiler would use a value of WEIGHT'SMALL that was a power of 2 - in fact 1/128 - and this has the advantage of simplifying multiplications by other fixed point types, since rescaling reduces to shift operations. Should weights actually be obtained from a sensor for which a value of 2#0000 0000 0000 0001# corresponds to exactly a centigram, then the above length clause instructs the compiler to use this representation - even if it causes multiplications to be less efficient. For task types a length clause can be used to provide an upper bound for the storage needed by the execution of a corresponding task object; for example, if the task contains recursive procedure calls, dynamic arrays, or local access types. Note that such a clause does not dictate the actual allocation strategy used for tasks: it could be at the time of task activation or at the time of elaboration of the task declaration. The length clause only supplies information for this allocation. for LINE_TO_CHAR'STORAGE_SIZE use 200; For access types, a length clause provides the size of the storage space to be reserved for all dynamically allocated objects of the designated type (and of any types derived from it). The collection associated with an access type that has such a length specification is allocated all at once (upon elaboration of the representation clause) and is reclaimed all at once, as for an array declaration given at the place of the access type declaration. Hence it permits the use of access types with their notational and efficiency advantages (component selection is cheaper than array indexing for arrays of records) without necessarily incurring the potential costs of a more dynamic allocation strategy. (See Chapter 6 for further explanation.) To define sufficient storage space it is necessary to know the storage size required for one element. For a type T, the attribute T'SIZE can be used for this purpose. For example the size of a collection large enough to contain approximately 400 dynamically allocated PLACEs can be expressed as follows: type PLACE; type LIST is access PLACE; type PLACE is record SUCC, PRED : LIST; VALUE : INTEGER; end record; for LIST'STORAGE_SIZE use (400 * PLACE'SIZE) / SYSTEM.STORAGE_UNIT; The number of dynamically allocated records is only known as an approximation, since the storage allocator may need some extra space, and also because records with variant parts may not all be of the same size. A length clause can also be used to achieve a biased representation for an integer type. For example, if we have a type ranging from 10_000 to 10_127, any value of this type can be represented in only 8 bits (including the sign bit). Specifying a length of 8 bits for this type will result in the compiler using a biased representation. For example: type SKEWED is new INTEGER range 10_000 .. 10_127; for SKEWED'SIZE use 8; The storage unit is a configuration-dependent quantity that represents the machine's quantum of storage. Its value is given by the named number SYSTEM.STORAGE_UNIT; it is the unit of addressing implicitly used to denote the position of a component. A bit range is used to specify the position of a component inside a storage unit. The two expressions in the range represent the positions of the first and last bits respectively. This implies that the bit ordering inside a storage unit must be known to the user; such an ordering is implementation-defined. The first bit of a storage unit is always numbered 0. For example, the component clause: SYSTEM_MASK at 0 range 0 .. 7; specifies that the component SYSTEM_MASK needs 8 bits of storage, starting from the beginning of the storage unit. The storage size specified for a component must of course be large enough for the component. The compiler must check that the specified size is compatible with the minimum needed for the representation of values of the component type. Bit numbering may extend through consecutive storage units; thus the component clause: PROTECTION_KEY at 0 range 8 .. 11; may be legal, even if the storage unit has eight bits on the machine considered. The at clause specifies the position of a component by giving the position of the storage unit relative to which the bit range is counted. This position is itself relative to the first storage unit of the record, which is numbered 0. For example, TRACK at 2 range 0 .. 15 means that the component TRACK occupies 16 bits starting with bit 0 of the storage unit numbered 2. If the value of SYSTEM.STORAGE_UNIT were 8, the last bit of TRACK could actually be bit 7 in the adjacent storage unit numbered 3, depending on the implementation. Overlapping components are allowed only when they belong to distinct variants, and the compiler must actually check the absence of overlap within each variant. For example, the overlap of LINE_COUNT and CYLINDER in the following clause is legal because they belong to different variants: type DEVICE is (PRINTER, DISK, DRUM); type PERIPHERAL(UNIT : DEVICE := DISK) is record case UNIT is when PRINTER => LINE_COUNT : INTEGER range 1 .. 50; when others => CYLINDER : CYLINDER_INDEX; TRACK : TRACK_NUMBER; end case; end record; -- assuming SYSTEM.STORAGE_UNIT = 8 bits for PERIPHERAL use record at mod 4; UNIT at 0 range 0 .. 7; LINE_COUNT at 1 range 0 .. 7; CYLINDER at 1 range 0 .. 7; TRACK at 2 range 0 .. 15; end record; When the record representation clause is incomplete - that is, if it does not specify the layout for all components - the compiler is free to map the unspecified components in any way that is consistent with the logic of the record type declaration. Compilers should be able to produce listings of record mappings upon request. When it is important that the objects of a given record type be allocated on a given storage boundary, this can be specified by means of an alignment clause. The alignment is expressed as a number of storage units, and all addresses at which the objects are allocated must be exact multiples of the specified number of storage units (the address modulo the alignment expression must be zero). for PAGE_BUFFER use at mod 512; for TTY_STATUS_REGISTER use at 16#40#; This form of clause can also be used for specifying the address of the code of a subprogram, or to link an interrupt with a given entry. The address given after the reserved word at has the system-dependent type SYSTEM.ADDRESS (assumed to be an integer type in the above example). The mapping is specified using an aggregate in which the values of the type are enumerated one by one. The type of such an aggregate is a one-dimensional array whose component type is universal_integer and whose index subtype is the enumeration type itself. For example, consider a program that generates object code for a given machine and in which the operation codes for the machine are defined by an enumeration type. It is necessary to map the enumeration values into actual operation codes and this can be achieved as follows: type MIX_CODE is (ADD, SUB, MUL, LDA, STA, STZ); for MIX_CODE use (ADD => 1, SUB => 2, MUL => 3, LDA => 8, STA => 24, STZ => 33); In this example the array aggregate is of type array (MIX_CODE) of universal_integer All enumeration values must be provided with distinct universal integer codes and these codes must be known at compilation time. Moreover, in order to get an efficient implementation of order relations, the internal codes must follow the same ordering as the enumeration values. The order relations are then known through the internal codes, and there is no need for the compiler to generate tables that contain the order relation. As illustrated above, the specified internal codes need not be successive integers. We discuss the implications of this issue in the next section.

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Have gestational diabetes. In 2000, the incidence was 69.5 per 1,000 for women over 40 compared to 8.8 per 1,000 for women under 20. The average incidence was 29.3 per 1,000 women. Have pregnancy-associated hypertension. In 2000, the incidence ranged from 40 to 48 per 1,000 for women over 40. The average incidence was 38.8 per 1,000 women. Give birth to a low birth weight baby, defined as less than 2,500 grams. Much of this risk results from the frequent multiple births among older women. In 2000, 55 percent of low birth-weight babies born to women over 45 were born in multiple deliveries. If only singleton births are considered, women over 45 were substantially less likely to have a low birth-weight baby than the youngest women. In 2000, 19.4 per 1,000 women age 30 to 34 had the procedure, while 95.9 per 1,000 women age 35 to 39 opted for it. Miscarriage rates for women in their 30s increase by about 50 percent over women in their 20s and increase twofold to fourfold for women in their 40s. Almost half of all pregnancies to women over 40 may be lost to miscarriage. Have complications of labor and delivery. In 2000, placental abruption occurred in 5.1 pregnancies per 1,000 for women 25 to 29 and in 8.0 pregnancies per 1,000 for women 40 to 54. Breech births occurred in 38.2 births per 1,000 for women 25 to 29 and in 57.4 births per 1,000 for women 40 to 54. Sustain late fetal death before delivery. Stillbirth and late-term fetal death are more likely to happen to women over 40, to women with hypertension, and to babies with genetic abnormalities. Give birth to a child with Down's syndrome. This most common congenital abnormality is strongly associated with increased maternal age. In 2000, 24.8 births per 100,000 to women 20 to 24 were babies with Down's; 107.9 births per 100,000 to women 35 to 39 were babies with Down's; and 376.5 births per 100,000 to women 40 to 54 were babies with Down's. Studies conducted in Britain and the United States show that older first-time mothers are more likely to breast-feed following birth and to continue breast-feeding. Be well educated. A number of studies find that older first-time mothers tend to be highly educated and working in a profession. Have deliberately delayed child-bearing. A 1992 study of older mothers ([ital] Birth [end ital], 1992, vol. 19, no. 1) reported that each additional year of postsecondary education delayed a woman's first birth by nine months. Have younger partners. A British study of first-time mothers over 40 found that their partners were on average three years younger than the women. Have children with a high IQ. Children's intellectual development has been positively linked to raised maternal age. Researchers have suggested that this correlation is not due to increased age, per se, but is a by-product of the increased attention given to children by older first-time mothers and their tendency to encourage verbalization and independence in their children. Chart sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Older Mothers by Julia Berryman, et al. (Rivers Oram Publishing, 1999).

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Class warfare is a term used by politicians and political pundits whenever the public (rich or poor) questions the disparity of wealth in this nation. Deregulation and massive tax cuts to the richest Americans were responsible for the transfer of wealth from the poorest Americans to the richest, De La Torre writes. To raise concerns about the ever-growing economic gap is to risk being accused of fomenting social unrest or, worse, of being a socialist. When billionaire Warren Buffet pondered in a recent New York Times column why he pays a lower tax rate than his secretary, Fox News pundit Eric Bolling called him a socialist. As much as we may wish to avoid the term "class warfare," the truth remains that a class warfare is being waged by politicians protecting the super rich – and they are winning. This war began in 1980 when President Ronald Reagan, followed by President George H.W. Bush, occupied the White House. Deregulation and massive tax cuts to the richest Americans were responsible for the transfer of wealth from the poorest Americans to the richest. During the 1980s, the top 10 percent increased their family income by 16 percent and the top 5 percent increased theirs by 23 percent. The top 1 percent increased their income by 50 percent. Meanwhile, the bottom 80 percent all lost money. The bottom 10 percent lost 15 percent of their income, from $4,113 to $3,504. When President Bill Clinton was elected, the national deficit was at $300 billion. While he ended his term with a surplus (the first in decades), he still participated in the transfer of wealth, specifically in his "ending welfare as we know it." More important was his administration's role in deregulating the banking industry, a charge led by his treasury secretary, Larry Summers, and Sen. Phil Gramm (R-Texas) in the form of the 1999 Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act. The safeguards put in place to prevent another 1930s Depression were basically gutted. Not surprisingly, nine years later, our nation begins and continues to experience the Great Recession. Aggravating the situation was a greater transfer of wealth known as the Bush tax cuts of 2001. In spite of the budget surplus inherited, President George W. Bush's $1.3 trillion tax cut to the richest Americans grew the deficit by $400 billion a year. Also aggravating the situation are the two seemingly never-ending wars Bush started. By the end of Bush's term, more than half of the tax cuts solely benefited the richest 5 percent of Americans while the middle-class received about 7 percent of the benefits. According to the Congressional Budget Office, eliminating the Bush tax cuts for the wealthiest 2 percent of Americans would immediately increase revenues by about $690 billion over the next 10 years, plus $140 billion in debt services needed to maintain the tax cuts. That's an $830 billion savings. You don't need a degree in economics to realize that the greatest contributor to the present deficit and the transfer of wealth from the poorest to the richest Americans continues to be Bush's tax cuts. Bush promised in 2001 that if his tax cuts were enacted "[It would] create new jobs … generate new wealth … and … open new opportunities." The 2008 Great Recession proved it didn't. When Obama took office during the worst economic crisis since the Great Depression, he signed an $800 billion spending increase to stimulate the economy. The growth in spending needed to starve off the Great Recession and a drop in revenue due to the Bush tax cuts exploded the deficit. Obama promised hope and change. He was accused of being a socialist. I wish he were! Maybe then the inequality trajectory started in the 1980s might have been dwarfed. But instead of change, Obama proved that as the new "emperor" his main task is to protect the "empire's" benefactors. In naming the major culprits of deregulation to the nation's top economic posts (Summers, Geithner and Bernanke – the last reappointed), Obama proved it doesn't matter if Republicans or Democrats lead the country, as long as Wall Street continues to call the shots. Not much changed. The capitalism (or better yet, neo-liberalism) that developed since the 1980s has become a great threat to entrepreneurship as resources are concentrated in fewer hands. Notice how many mom-and-pop shops close once Wal-Mart moves into a neighborhood. Corporate mergers and acquisitions due to deregulation are more effectively destroying capitalism than any socialist could ever accomplish. The capitalism/neo-liberalism that developed since the 1980s has become a great threat to our democracy. One person-one vote is being replaced with one dollar-one vote. Recent Supreme Court decisions equating multinational corporations with citizens and massive political contributions (bribes?) with free speech are creating a new Golden Rule: The one with the gold makes the rules. And finally, the capitalism/neo-liberalism that developed since the 1980s is contrary to Christianity. Adam Smith's basic thesis in "Wealth of Nations" is that individuals should pursue self-interests. If everyone does this, all society benefits. But for those who are Christians, the Gospels teach us that we must put the needs and interests of others before ourselves. Hence, an internal contradiction and an irreconcilable difference exist between capitalism and Christianity. How can I put my own self-interest first while putting the interest of others first? Such a divided house cannot stand. Rather than shunning the socialist label, it might be time to fight back in this 30-year-old class warfare that has been brought to our doorstep. The failure of capitalism/neo-liberalism might mean it is time to explore other alternatives. Maybe a democratic-type socialism that encourages entrepreneurship? I can't speak for other Christians, but as for me and my house, serving the Lord demands a compassion in our economic structures that moves away from what Pope John Paul II called "savage capitalism." No doubt, some will simplistically start calling me a "socialist." Fine, I'll wear the label as a badge of honor. Miguel A. De La Torre is professor of social ethics at Iliff School of Theology in Denver.

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Many people, especially women of childbearing age, infants, and pregnant women, may not take in as much iron as they need. However, there are many good food sources of iron to choose from. If your doctor advises you to increase your iron intake, consult the chart below to determine how much you need, and read on for some suggestions to meet those needs. Your blood depends on iron to help it carry oxygen through the body. In some cases, anemia is caused by a lack of iron in the diet. Iron also helps your body to fight infection and to make collagen, which is the major protein that makes up connective tissue, cartilage, and bone. Other medical conditions may be worsened if you do not have enough iron. Iron exists in two forms—heme and nonheme. Heme iron is part of the hemoglobin and myoglobin molecules in animal tissues. It is found in meat and other animal sources. About 40% of the iron in meat is in the heme form. Nonheme iron comes from animal tissues other than hemoglobin and myoglobin and from plant tissues. It is found in meats, eggs, milk, vegetables, grains, and other plant foods. The body absorbs heme iron much more efficiently than nonheme iron. Tips For Increasing Your Iron Intake The amount of iron your body absorbs varies depending on several factors. For example, your body will absorb more iron from foods when your iron stores are low and will absorb less when stores are sufficient. In addition, certain dietary factors affect absorption: - Heme iron is absorbed more efficiently than nonheme iron. - Heme iron enhances the absorption of nonheme iron. - Vitamin C enhances the absorption of nonheme iron. Some substances decrease the absorption of nonheme iron. (Consuming heme iron and/or with nonheme can help compensate for these decreases.) - Oxalic acid, found in spinach and chocolate—However, oxalic acid is broken down with cooking. - Phytic acid, found in wheat bran and beans (legumes) - Tannins, found in tea - Polyphenols, found in coffee - Calcium carbonate supplements To increase your intake and absorption of dietary iron, try the following: - Combine heme and nonheme sources of iron. Eat foods rich in vitamin C with nonheme iron sources. Good sources of vitamin C include: - Bell peppers - Oranges and orange juice - Tomatoes and tomato juice - Spinach and collard greens - If you drink coffee or tea, do so between meals rather than with a meal. - Cook acidic foods in cast iron pots. This can increase iron content up to 30 times. - Reviewer: Brian Randall, MD - Review Date: 07/2012 - - Update Date: 07/23/2012 -

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THE LONG DENIED ARMENIAN GENOCIDE Turkey’s carefully forgotten history Turks, and their history books, still cannot accept that there was organised mass murder of Armenians between 1915-17. Perhaps that is because so many of the murderers and looters were also heroes of the founding of the modern Turkish republic. by Taner Akcam It would be naïve to suppose that France was motivated by compassion for the Armenians and their tragic past when it voted, last January, to describe the killing of the Armenians in 1915 as genocide. As the Turks say often enough, France should first recognise that it has itself been guilty of (...) This article is 2250 words.

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Korean: there are four Chinese characters used for the Yang surname, but only two are common enough to consider here; they have between them eight clans. The founding ancestor of the Ch’ŏngju Yang clan was Chinese and stayed in Korea after escorting Koryŏ, King Kongmin's future queen to Korea. The first historical ancestor of the Cheju Yang clan was a Shilla figure named Yang T'ang, but according to legend, his distant ancestor was one of three men who ascended from a cave on the north side of Cheju Island's Halla Mountain. These three men were the founders of the Yang, Pu, and Ko clans. The legendary founder of the Yang clan was named Yang Ŭl-la. Some days after their emergence, a box washed up on the shore of the island. In the box were three women, horses, cows, and agricultural seed. From these beginnings, the three established Cheju's T'amnaguk kingdom and ruled peacefully for 900 years. Later, descendants of the three men settled throughout Korea, although 40 percent of the Yang clan still live on Cheju island and in Chŏlla province.

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Depending on the subject, I use my wiki for a variety of things. But the bottom-line is, I’d be lost without it, which is a bit of a surprising statement considering 7 months ago I didn’t use it. When I first learned about wikis, I didn’t immediately see the value it offered for my teaching and my students. But it’s changed my teaching, and if you don’t currently use a wiki, I think it can change yours too. In Biology, my wiki is the one-stop information centre. About half-way through last semester, our class began creating our own on-line textbook. My students struggled with the hard copy version of their text; it had significant limitations. Sometimes the information was insufficient, other times it was confusing. Using the wiki, we are able to add text, pictures, videos, and even interactive simulations. Additionally, the wiki provides the platform for reverse instruction that I use with my students. One of the beautiful things about the on-line text is that my students took ownership of it as well. Often I would receive emails from my students with sites or videos that they found useful for their own learning and recommended that I add them to wiki. Also, since we were engaged in a fair amount of group collaborative learning that involved the use of Google Docs, links for the docs were included, so that students could access the notes and work created by each group. Another element that we’ve added is photos of slides. My students are able to take beautiful pictures of microscope slides with the cameras on their phones. We then upload these to the wiki. These pictures are incredibly helpful to students who have missed the lab, or for those who need help while doing the lab write-up. In my English classes, I use the wiki differently. Last semester, my students created an on-line study guide as we studied The Secret Life of Bees. Each student was responsible to discuss and analyze the different themes & motifs found in each chapter. My students not only achieved this, but many went beyond the assignment to include pictures of the prominent themes. It was interesting to see my student’s visual interpretations of what they were studying. One of the great things about a wiki is that I can offer my students authoring privileges, and when the assignment or semester is finished, I can delete them from the account. How do you prevent irresponsible authoring? The wiki records each change made to it and who makes it, and I have my account set so that I’m notified by email every time a change is made. My students are fully aware of this, and I’ve never had a problem. In ELA 20, my student’s participated in the TED-X classroom project. The instructions for the project have their own separate tab, which also includes the link to their blog. Currently, in the technology class I teach this semester, the wiki houses all of their technology “needs”, from tools they need to sign up for, to blog post topics, to additional resources, and, of course, their actual assignments. In no other class do I have the diversity in ability that I have in this class. I have some students who own Adobe, and are tech aficionados. At the other end of the spectrum, I have students who just learned to email at the start of the school year, but who love the things they learn in this class. Consequently, I have students who complete the assignments quickly, while others take the entire time that is allotted. The wiki allows both sets of students to be working at all times. When quicker students are almost finished their assignment, I post the next one on the wiki. I plan to use the wiki the same way for my chemistry classes next year, those students who are stronger can work ahead, which will allow me to spend more time working with students who are having trouble grasping the basics. I may actually have students learn the optional curriculum sections for the first time. I depend on my wiki because my classes are paperless. Without a wiki, this would be almost impossible. When I have new students, I, literally, train them to use it. Most students are used to the teacher being the purveyor of all information; instead, I prefer my students to rely on me as little as possible. If students are absent, they know where to find the information. Additionally, at the beginning of the semester, I send parents an email with information about the wiki. Parents, at any time, can see what their child is working on, or what they have for homework. In the beginning, it’s a shift for students and parents to rely on the wiki for information, but in the end, it’s well worth the effort. photo courtesy of flickr cc: cfbloke

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The Pop-up Solar Cooker Book is a clever invention created by middle school student Jared Mann from Christenburg, VA, USA. The project was submitted to the National Museum of Education's Bubble Wrap Competition for Young Inventors in 2008, and placed in the top fifteen finalists from 2,200 entrants. The design is patterned after children's pop-up books that have displays which spring open when pages are turned. The first page opens a solar panel cooker, which Jared describes is better for heating liquids, and the second page opens a solar box cooker. The cooker book uses bubble wrap to create the enclosure for the panel cooker, and as a glazing cover for the box cooker. The panel cooker has reached temeratures of 66°C(150°F). As with good pop-up book design, the Pop-up Solar Cooker Book folds flat for easy transport. Audio and videoEdit Articles in the mediaEdit - December 2008: Young inventor turns bubble wrap into solar cooker - The Roanoke Times

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Technology in the Classroom Assistive Word Processing Assistive technology to support writing includes special software as well as inexpensive word processors. Using a Pen Scanner Pen scanners, handheld scanner and Iris Pens Effective Use of Switches Augmentative or Alternative Communication Augmentative or Alternative Communication or AAC. Picture symbol systems, symbol boards, voice output etc. Word Q - Predictive Software Application This application makes Dyslexic students want to write! Find out what all the excitement is when language delayed or impaired students use Word Q. An extensive search database for those people looking for information on assistive products for people with disabilities. Assistive Technology Solutions This site offers a list of solutions and devices that make accessing the computer easier for students with disabilities. Assisitive Technology Tools A great site dedicated to enhancing the lives of children and adults with disabilities using the latest assistive technology. Communicating with Technology Find out about synthetic speech systems, speech to text and screen readers. Great for the visually or hearing impaired student. A Language Arts Lesson Plan on Summarizing Text A lesson plan for teachers to use technology and students' interest in texting to reinforce summarizing skills and to increase reading comprehension. This lesson plan is aimed toward high school students. Tips for Using a Smart Board in the Special Education Classroom Smart Boards are fun tools for children with disabilities, working like giant touch screens. IEPgoals.net Is a New Site Offering Support for Goal Writing IEPgoals.net, a new website, provides goal writing guidance, especially useful for early intervention and children on the autistic spectrum disorder.

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(BPT) - Protecting your skin from the sun is a 365 day-a-year job. Summer is officially over, but all the sun exposure from sunny days at a beach, playing outdoor sports or soaking up the rays may have damaged your skin, forming dark brown spots that make your skin look dull and lackluster. Even sun exposure during the winter months can harm your skin. UVA rays, called the rays of aging, are everywhere and can penetrate even on cloudy days and through glass windows in your home or car. These rays are responsible for damage like wrinkles, brown spots and skin cancer. Sun damage is cumulative and begins in childhood, so protecting from the early ages – babies too - with sun protection or clothing is an important step. If you don’t routinely use sunscreen, your skin is at risk for premature aging, and also for developing skin cancer, especially melanoma, the deadliest form. The other consequences that may not be life threatening include wrinkles, an uneven complexion and discoloration and dark spots on the face, chest and hands. Be kind to your skin “Using adequate sunscreen is vital daily component for all skin types to guard against deadly skin cancer and the ravaging effects of UVA/UVB exposure on your skin,” says Washington D.C. dermatologist Cheryl Burgess. “Everyone is susceptible to sunburn and skin cancer, even skin of color. There is no such thing as a safe tan – unless it comes out of a bottle or tube of self-tanner.” She recommends that you apply broad-spectrum sunscreen SPF 30 that protects against UVA and UVB rays every two hours, and reapply after swimming or sweating. Make this step part of your daily morning regimen year round by applying your sunscreen under makeup. Reversing the damage Even if you religiously protect your skin now, past damage can rear its ugly head in the form of mottled hyperpigmentation like sunspots and brown patches. Remember that the groundwork for this discoloration was laid years ago by sun exposure and environmental factors. Invasive procedures like lasers or light based treatments and deep peels can reduce the appearance of these spots, but these treatments are expensive and often require some downtime. Skin brightening regimens available through dermatologists or plastic surgeons can often be the first line of treatment help to reduce the appearance of dull, damaged and pigmented skin. Traditionally, the active ingredient in skin lighteners has been hydroquinone, which can cause a whole host of unwanted effects such as photosensitivity and dark blue or black-pigmented lesions. Fortunately, new formulations exist that are effective alternatives to invasive procedures and do not contain hydroquinone. “One of the newest options is the elure Advanced Brightening System from Syneron Medical,” says Greg Nikolaidis, a dermatologist at Westlake Dermatology in Austin, Texas. “These products are clinically proven to break up discoloration in the skin. They contain a powerful ingredient called Melanozyme, a natural enzyme derived from a tree mushroom that reduces unsightly discoloration found on the surface of the skin, without irritation. Another benefit of elure is that it is safe for all skin types, without the risk of side effects that can be caused by other topical products traditionally used to treat sun damaged skin.” The elure system includes a gentle facial cleanser that neutralizes the pH to prep the skin, a two pump, easy-to-use lotion and a rich moisturizing night cream. In several clinical studies, elure produced a brighter and more even skin tone for most subjects in as little as 28 days. Dermatologists advise their patients to always use an SPF30 during the day in addition to elure. “Protect your skin now to avoid unwanted dark spots on your skin later. But if you do develop areas of discoloration, elure may be an ideal therapy for you,” Burgess says. For more information, visit www.elureskin.com.

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Advocacy Activities: Public health advocates help influence the way the public and policymakers think and act on public health issues. Take Action! Send a message to your members of Congress on a variety of current public health issues. Your voice will make a difference in the policymaking process. Get involved and help shape the national debate on public health issues! Learn about current public health legislation and APHA's position on various issues. Meeting with and contacting your members of Congress: Meeting with your members of Congress, either in Washington, DC or in your state, is an effective way to share your support for public health programs. APHA has prepared sample email meeting requests, materials to bring to your meeting, Frequently Asked Questions, and more! PHACT Campaign: APHA's summer campaign to mobilize its members, affiliates, and other advocates to educate their members of Congress on important public health issues that build healthy communities. Coalitions: APHA coordinates two coalitions that advocate for fully funding public health programs and services at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA). More about Advocacy Activities

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One solar day on a planet is the length of time from noon to noon. A solar day lasts 24 hours on planet Earth. On Mercury a solar day is about 176 Earth days long. And during its first Mercury solar day the MESSENGER spacecraft has imaged nearly the entire surface of the to generate a global monochrome map at 250 meters per pixel resolution and a 1 kilometer per pixel resolution color map. Examples of the maps, mosaics constructed from thousands of images made under uniform lighting conditions, are shown (monochrome at left), both centered along the planet's 75 degrees East longitude The MESSENGER spacecraft's second Mercury solar day will likely include more high resolution of the planet's surface features. (Editor's note: Due to Mercury's 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, a Mercury solar day is 2 Mercury years long.)

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The lunar cycle has been observed for ages. The moon, from a Sanskrit term for measure, is the primary means by which the majority of the people in the world (even in this 20th century!) measure time and their own lives. This article takes a look at what astrologers (and ordinary people) have come to understand about the lunation cycle -- the phases of the Moon. In particular, we will contrast methods of using the lunar cycle in the East and West. Eastern and Western astrologies use the lunar cycle in the same and different ways. In the West, the lunar cycle is seen as a key to the personality and the birth chart. Although books like Rudhyar's The Lunation Cycle, Yeat's A Vision, and many others describe the cycle as a dynamic process that unfolds each month, their focus is more with individual snapshots (the various lunar types) taken from the overall process. The emphasis in the West has been individual birth charts that represent the various lunar phase types. In contrast, the East seldom mentions the individual birth chart. Their primary interest is in the dynamics of the lunation cycle itself which they divide and analyze in great detail in order to make use of the opportunities it offers for day-to-day decision-making. In other words, in the East the lunar cycle is used as a means to determine the kind of activity appropriate for each successive lunar day. This amounts to a form of electional astrology. In the West, electional astrology is thought of as a means to pick an appropriate time in the future for a particular ceremony or happening. Eastern astrology does the same thing, but it also uses electional astrology as a guide to day-to-day personal living and practice. In India and Tibet, it is the lunation cycle rather than the yearly sun or solar cycle that is the primary indicator used for planning activities and for personal guidance. In other words, in the East they live by and follow the cycle of the Moon. A very clear illustration of this idea is the fact that, in most Eastern countries, birthdays are observed according to the particular day of the moon cycle (lunar phase angle) during which a person was born, rather according to the solar return as here in the West. Moreover, due to the fact that lunar months do not fit nicely within the solar year, a birthday in the East for any given individual can be up to a month away (during some years) from the solar return -- our Western birthday . This simple fact makes it clear how important the moon and the lunar cycle are in these countries. A study of the existing literature on the meaning and use of the moon in astrology (East and West) shows much similarity but also considerable difference. There is general agreement (East and West) about the nature of the lunation cycle, in that it somehow proceeds from some sort of seed time at the new moon to a fruition at the full and so on. This is the archetype of a cycle and can be compared to any other cycle such as the circle of the astrological houses or the zodiac itself. If this is done, then the new moon is made equivalent to Capricorn (and the 10th house), while the full moon is similar in cycle phase to Cancer (4th house). The Moon receives more attention in Eastern astrology. And it is not just a matter of increased emphasis; there are major qualitative differences in approach. The emphasis is seldom on the type of individual that typifies a given lunar phase. Instead, it is on analyzing the entire lunar cycle in order to take advantage of its ongoing opportunities -- using the moon cycle for living. This Eastern approach is very practical. What interests Eastern astrologers are the opportunities available to them in the monthly lunar cycle. They use the lunar cycle as a way to gauge and measure their life. They have learned how to take advantage of opportunities they have discovered within the lunation cycle. This is an important concept to grasp. These lunar opportunities are sometimes referred to as gaps or openings in the otherwise continuous stream of our lives -- windows. They conceive of these gaps as articulation points, much like an elbow is where the arm is articulated. They are natural joints or gaps in time/space upon which time and space turn and through which it is sometimes possible to gain access to information about the larger, dynamic life process that already encapsulates us. From a reading of the Eastern literature on this subject, one gets the sense that life is perceived as (on the average) being filled with the noise of our problems (obscurations), making clear insight often difficult. These obscurations can be many and their accumulation amounts to the sum total of our ignorance -- that which we ignore. Therefore, in Eastern astrology, these articulation points or windows in time/space are very much to be valued. In fact, Eastern astrologers analyze the lunar cycle, in minute detail, in order to isolate these moments (gaps in time/space) where insight into our larger situation can be gained. Much of so-called Eastern religion amounts to a scheduling of precise times for personal practice or activity built around the natural series of gaps that can be found in the continuous lunar cycle. In its own way, it is a very scientific approach. In the East, they have been astute observers for many centuries. In India and Tibet, the 29.5-day lunar synodic cycle is divided into 30 parts, called tithis. A tithi or lunar day is the time it takes for the aspect between the sun and Moon (elongation, angular separation) to reach a multiple of 12 degrees. Thus each tithi is 12 degrees of solunar angular separation. It might interest readers to know that each tithi is further subdivided into two parts, called karanas, and that this additional subdivision finds wide use in India, Tibet, and other Eastern countries. However, for the purposes of this article, the division of the lunar cycle into 30 parts or lunar days will suffice. The way tithis are measured is as follows. The moment of the new moon (0º angular solunar separation) marks the end of the 30th lunar day and the start of the first. The first lunar day, or tithi ends at 12º of solunar separation, and the 2nd lunar day begins. And so it goes, on and around. The only part of this that might be confusing is that the 30th lunar day (348º to 360º) is considered the new moon day, and the 15th lunar day (168º to 180º) is considered the full moon day; however, these days are celebrated the following day. Just as in the West, much is made of the new and full moon days. In fact, in many countries they don't have Saturday and Sunday off. Instead, new and full moon days are considered holy days (holidays), and normal routines are suspended at these times. It seems that, although East and West agree on the importance of new and full moons, there is less congruence when it comes to the quarter moons. Here in the West, the lunar quarters are next in importance after the new and full moon times. However, in the East there are other days that are considered of greater importance, such as the 10th and 25th lunar days. In both traditions, there is agreement that the 2 or 3 days preceding the moment of the new moon are difficult ones, which require special observation. In the West these days have been called the dark of the Moon, or devil's days, days when the darker forces have power. Both traditions affirm that we sort of survive these final days each month. Check it out for yourself. The three days before new moon can be a hard time. The East is in total agreement on this point, and the days prior to new moon are set aside for invoking the fierce dharma protectors, those energies that ward off harm and protect us during the worst of times. In particular, the 29th day (the day before new moon) is called dharma protector day. It is a time given over to purification and preparation for the moment of new moon. Ritual fasting, confession of errors, and the like are common practices. In a similar vein, the days just prior to the full moon (the 13th and 14th) are also days of purification, days in which the various guardian and protector deities are again invoked, but in a somewhat more restrained way. For example, the 14th day is often given over to fire puja -- a ritual purification. In summary, during days prior to full and new moon, there is some attempt at purification, both physical and mental, in preparation for those auspicious events. It is clear from the literature that the times of the new and full moon are considered of great importance. These days are set aside for special rituals and worship. As pointed out, full and new moon (full more than new) are times of collective worship and public confession. In many traditions, the monks and priests assemble for a day of special observance. In the East, the full moon celebration and the entire waxing lunar fortnight are oriented to the masculine element in consciousness, what are called the father-line deities. The new moon and the waning fortnight are given over to the mother-line deities and the feminine element. The full moon completes the masculine, or active, waxing phase of the cycle, and the new moon completes the feminine, waning phase of the month. To my knowledge, this kind of analysis does not exist in the West. Aside from the new and full moon, the two most auspicious lunar days in the East are the 10th and the 25th. The 10th day (108º to 120º), called Daka Day, is considered auspicious for invoking the father-line deities -- the masculine. The 25th day (288º to 300º), called Dakini Day, is given over to the feminine principle and the mother line deities, in general. These two days, the 10th and the 25th, are formal feast days, days of observation when extra offerings are made and increased attention given to what is happening. There is some sense of celebration at these points in the month. In many respects, these two days even rival the new and full moon days in importance. The fact is that these four days (new, full, 10th, 25th) are the primary auspicious days as practiced in many Eastern rituals. There are many other days of lesser importance, which might also interest Western astrologers. Health and healing are important in Eastern ritual, and the 8th and 23rd days of the lunar month are auspicious for this purpose. It is these days that straddle the first and last lunar quarters. The 8th day (84º to 96º) is often called Medicine Buddha Day. Again this occurs in the male, or father-line, half of the month. The 23rd day (264º to 276º), occurring in the feminine half of the month, is dedicated to Tara practice. Tara is the female deity connected to health, long life, and healing in general. Earlier we mentioned the days given over to purification, most prominently the 13th and the 29th. In addition, on a lesser scale, the 9th and the 19th days are also noted as days when the protector deities should be invoked and kept in mind. These, too, are days of purification. And there are more, still finer subdivisions that are made. In this brief article, these major observance days are enough to give us the idea of how Eastern astrologers approach the lunar cycle. It should be kept in mind that, in the East, astrology is practiced by the general public. So it is not just astrologers who are using the lunar days; everyone observes these days. Next, we might ask ourselves how this Eastern approach to the lunation cycle might be of value in the West? As mentioned earlier, a major fact is that the lunar cycle is perceived as having a variety of gaps, joints, or points of articulation that can be used. They can be seen as chinks in the armor of our particular obscurations. Many Western mystery traditions also observe the times of the full (and sometimes the new) moon. full moon meditations are common. The quarter moons are given less attention, and few Western rituals exist (to my knowledge) for these events. It is an intuitive fact that moments of clarity and insight (gaps) do come in the course of living. We all benefit from this kind of insight. What Eastern astrology seems to suggest to us is that many of these gaps are not just random events that occur in our life, haphazardly. They are regular opportunities, joints in the nick of time, when insights are somehow more possible than at other times. Therefore, it is common practice to set aside some portion of these special days for observance, for meditation. It is unfortunate that the concept of meditation entertained by the public here in the West amounts to some kind of relaxation therapy -- a quiet time. This is very far from the truth of what is considered meditation in India, Japan, Tibet, and other Eastern countries. In fact, meditation is a form of observation. It is observation of what is, and of what is happening in one's mind and environment. When the Eastern mind meditates on special lunar days, it sets aside a time to observe with great care the nature of that particular day. Meditation as taught in Tibet and Japan is a technique that increases our abilities to observe. The meditator is not lost in deep inner space; that is our Western take on the concept of meditation. In the East, the meditator is right here, now, observing the mind and life. This is why it is said that these special days are days set aside for observation. Here in the West, we are beginning to learn these techniques of observation. By setting aside a time on these special lunar days for observation, we can be open and aware to the possibilities of insight. This kind of awareness appears to be what is required to pick up on these natural events. If we have an insight at one of these time, we might be more willing to give it credence, knowing that it is happening on such-and-such a lunar day. And so on. It is quite clear from the Eastern teachings that the moments of full and new moon are times when the various channels in the psychophysical body are somehow aligned. This is not to say the new or full moon days are days of peace and quiet. It is taught in the East that, although a new or full moon day may tend to be wild or hectic. Any patience or forbearance we can muster at that time will be much rewarded. In other words, there can be deep insights available to us at these times. According to these same teachings, an eclipse at the full or new moon is even more auspicious. In the teachings it is said that, during these very special events, both male and female energies (channels) are in simultaneous alignment -- the ultimate opportunity. The lunar cycle and its effects and opportunities have been analyzed in great detail in the Eastern teaching. In summary, the major difference between Eastern and Western astrology as related to the lunation cycle is that in the East any lunar theory is put to the test. It exists as a guide to practice. In other words, they practice what they preach. Here in the West, it would appear that we are somewhat more theoretical. We read about and discuss ideas on the lunar cycle, but very few astrologers that I have met make use of the lunar-phase cycle as a guide to day-to-day practice. As a society, we don't even observe the full or new moon, much less the quarters or any of the other possible lunar days. It is true that most astrologers are aware of the zodiac sign the Moon is in, but here we are not examining that part of the tradition; we are looking at the cycle of the lunar phases. Or, here in the West we may know that it is new or full moon, but we do nothing out of the ordinary in response to that information. And, of course, the general public seldom even takes note of lunar events. The Eastern approach to the lunar cycle is quite ancient and very detailed. East or West, I assume that both astrological traditions have been engaged in recording something rather than nothing all of these centuries. In other words, I assume that the existing lunar tradition, East and West, is a reflection of reality rather than something we have made up. After all, that is what astrology is all about and why we practice it. Here we have concentrated on the synodic cycle of the sun, moon, and earth -- the lunation cycle. We have ignored the use by astrologers of the Moon in the signs and houses, something practiced both here and in the East. On a personal note, my study of the lunation cycle has led me from Western to Eastern texts in an attempt to obtain more practical information for day-to-day living. When I ran out of new texts to study, I sought out some of the living Eastern meditators who observe the lunar cycle on a regular basis. For example, we have had a wide variety of Eastern astrologers living and working at our center in recent years. In addition, one individual skilled in Sanskrit and Tibetan astrology spent almost two years here, translating various Buddhist texts on the subject. From my experience with these sources, the primary piece of information that stays with me is that reading about or listening to someone with experience in this area is, by definition, preliminary. Both text and teachers (however fine they may be) can but point beyond themselves to the lunar cycle itself. Through any differences that exist, all sources seem united in this one maxim: go and see for yourself. Check it out. The purpose of the teachings is the experience itself that waits to be known. They are telling us: Observe these days. Call it meditation or observation (whatever), but observe with care and attention if these insight gaps are there. N.P. Subramania Iyer, Kalaprakasika, Ranjan Publications, 1982 Ven. Khenpo Karthar, Rinpoche. From a teaching on Buddhist Festivals, given Big Rapids, MI in 198? D. Bahadur L.D. Swamikannuu Pillai, Panchang and Horoscope, Asian Educational Services, 1985. D. Bahadur L.D. Swamikannuu Pillai, Indian Chronology, Asian Educational Services, 1982. Swami Prakashananda, personal communication. Shyam Sundar Das, personal communication. Sange Wangchug, personal communication and translation of Tibetan texts.

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Last year, I had, maybe, 10 tomato plants that did very well. So well and so close to one another, I ended up letting more than a few tomatoes hit the ground. This spring I tilled the land and planted in some areas and was going to plant in other areas later. Well, the land I was hoping to use later had a lot of wild tomato plants pop up. I would say about 100. Good for me as that would save me money on seed. My problem is this; I wanted the plants in different areas. When I replant them they, almost immediately, go limp. Some are just plain dead. Others I propped up, hoping they'd rejuvenate. I'll know more tomorrow. I do water them lightly right after I plant them. Am I doing something wrong here? Why do they go limp so quickly? I try to do it in the morning before it gets too hot. Is there a better time to do it? Any help is appreciated. OK. I, mostly, have resolved the issue. I've found that if I replant the plants close to dusk they have a much better chance of surviving. The cooler the weather the better. The ones I replanted in 90 degree weather never stood a chance. The cooler the weather the better. Even then, they seem to struggle for the first week before they look good. It's odd because I only move them a few feet in some cases. I take as much dirt around the plant as possible. I don't have the same problem if I plant seedlings. I'm not even sure what kind of tomato plants they are. The big area where they were is where I planted some corn. In a 20 foot wide area there were, easily, 100 tomato plants growing. Only a couple of the corn plants came up. So, I just thinned out the area and will let tomatoes grow there. You are so right -- planting when it's overcast helps your tomatoes survive transplant shock! It's hard enough for them to move, but when they have to deal with hot, direct sun, it's too much stress. In addition to planting at dusk, you can also provide shade for your plant during the first few days -- by leaning a folding chair over it, for example. Here's a page with more planting and transplanting information: Planting tomatoes: top tips to help your new crop succeed

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The Hamilton-Norwood scale is a way of measuring male pattern baldness. It was introduced by Dr. James Hamilton in the 1950s and later revised and updated by Dr. O'Tar Norwood in the 1970s. There are 2 main types of balding, anterior (front) and vertex (back), as this alternate view of the Norwood scale shows a bit more clearly. Stages on the scale are often abbreviated to nw1, nw2, nw3a etc. Another slight variation on the scale is shown below. Baldness in women takes a different pattern, and is measured on the Ludwig Scale. I intend to give each of my postings a rating on the Norwood scale, but remember that this is only personal opinion and sometimes I may get it wrong. The Norwood scale is a less than perfect way of measuring baldness, but it is the best and most widely recognised way we have. An alternative look at the Norwood Scale can be found at shortandbald.net 3 years ago

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Excerpt from:The Pyramids of Montauk Preston Nichols and Peter Moon "The Khabs is in the Khu, not the Khu is in the Khabs." The most important aspect concerning the discoveries made in the previous chapter is that they explain key aspects of our ancient heritage. As was already said, The Book of the Law leads us into the Great Pyramid with a line drawn at a 26' angle. We are also led to the Sphinx when the anagram of Bast appears in the book. This leaves us in the middle of two ancient wonders and right next to Cairo, the city of Mars. It has already been demonstrated that Egypt as well as many other aspects of our civilization have fashioned themselves to serve as a tribute to the planet Mars, but there was another heavenly body that was held in even higher regard: the star Sirius. Shining as the brightest star in our heavens, the Egyptians based their entire calendar on the movement of this sacred star. It was already indicated that the Great Pyramid was built to synchronize with Sirius so that the star would shine through the hole to the Queen's Chamber at a precise moment. Esoteric writings indicate that the light shining through the shaft was meant to impart the starlight of Sirius to an initiate during a ritual. If Egypt was so fascinated with Sirius, it stands to reason that the ancient civilization of Mars had a similar reverence for the star. In fact, the geometric shapes on the planet Mars have been said to be built in tribute to Sirius. According to one legend, the face on Mars was in honor of the god or solar logos known as Sukon. The Sirians settled Mars through his permission. He has also been identified as Set or Seth. The reason the Sirians settled Mars was because it was at that time in the cradle orbit of life. Taking 720 days to get around the sun would have resulted in the most preferable weather that was conducive to civilization at that particular time period. The Montauk Project, it was the Sirians who provided the Montauk chair used for the time experiments. It was a Mr. X who had approached me and told me that he had been involved in negotiations to obtain the chair. This man also told me of Crowley's ability to manipulate time and was the first to suggest that Experiment and Montauk Project were both resulting effects of All of this is very ironic when one looks yet deeper into Crowley's secret connections. Crowley was not only involved in the OTO but was also a member of an arcane secret society known as the A:.A:. (Argenteum Astrum) or the Order of the Silver Star. The "silver star" referred to is Sirius itself, the most prominent in the heavens and positioned as the chief star in the ancient constellation "Phoenix". The ancient Assyrians and derive their name from this legacy. Crowley identified the Order of the Silver Star as the Illuminati itself. As he was considered to be the head of the Illuminati, the correspondences continue to run even deeper. The heart of his magical current was inspired from Sirius and there was much tradition to back this up. In occult tradition, Sirius is the Hidden God or "the sun behind the sun". As the moon reflects the sun, so does the sun reflect Sirius. This concept was expressed in of the Law when Crowley wrote "The Khabs is in the Khu, not the Khu is in the Khabs." The word Khab means star while Khu refers to light. What is being taught here is that collective "wisdom" often assumes that the stars emanate light. The truth of the matter is that the stars are in the light and are merely reflecting it. It was in this sense that Crowley and the ancients who worshipped Sirius were worshipping the light of creation. Sirius was the brightest star, therefore it reflected the most light and was the most the ancient Egyptians, there was a special occult link between Sirius and the Earth when they were at their closest distance. In other words, more universal light was being reflected from Sirius than at any other time of the year. This link was found to be most powerful during the Dog Days of August (Sirius is known as the Dog Star) which run from July 23 rd to August 23rd. Some consider them to peak out as late as September 8th. This aspect of Sirius is very synchronistic if you remember the theory referred to in The Montauk Project that the biorhythms of the Earth run every twenty years on August 12th. This date is not only the anniversary of Crowley's wedding, the Philadelphia Experiment and the culmination of the Montauk Project; it is right in the center of the Dog Days. Of course, the Montauk chair was supposed to be supplied by the Sirians. Obviously, if this whole incredible Montauk scenario is true, it stands to reason that the Sirians might have an idea or two about how to make a chair that resonates with the consciousness According to information from the Montauk story, the Sirians were technical creatures and were not very political. According to Al Bielek, the Sirians look very human in some respects. They are muscular but have vertical slit eyes, like a cat's eyes. They wear a covering over their hair, and it is suspected that they are bald. Sometimes they have strange things on their ears which could be communicating devices. They are approximately six feet in height and can pass for humans in the proper attire. At Montauk, they were generally affable and did their job. Not too much else has been said about them, nor do I have anything more to add from that quarter. What is important is that they seem to have a rather strong correspondence in the information that is A book entitled The Twelfth Planet very well that Earth has been visited by extraterrestrial critters since time immemorial. This work traces the activity back to which is exactly where the Sirians settled. All of this not only places the Sirians at the focal point of our planetary theology, it makes them a center of all sorts of alien activity. Crowley studied this time line at its source when he examined the ceremonial rites of the Sirians or ancient Sumerians, whatever you want to call them. In history, these beings were known as the shepherd kings and they were called the Yezidi. Their prophet was Yezid and Crowley discovered that he was a reincarnation of him. As Crowley studied these ancient Sumerians and their rites, he learned they were sexual in the extreme and orgiastic. The ceremonies were all done in synchronization with the stellar revolutions. Many eventually found-their way into the Roman and Greek mystery schools. These ancients looked at the primitive urges in a much different way that "civilized" society does today. Not unlike animals in mating season, they recognized instinctually that revolutions of the universe coincided with sexual urges that enabled one to gain access to invisible worlds or other dimensions. Hindu tantric arts which is known as the yoga of love, these urges would be better defined as kalas which are units of time or vaginal vibrations. If one reduces space and time to its male and female aspects, it is easy to grasp that Mother Nature is going to have undulations that correspond to the vagina. Earlier in this book, the vesica pisces was illustrated. This was an eye shaped glyph that resulted as the second act of creation unfolded. It is not only the shape of an eye, it is known as the Eye of Horus or as the Eye of Set (Sirius). When this "eye" is in a vertical position, it is symbolic of the vagina. As the geometry of space and time unfolds in the evolutionary process (which is known as Mother Nature), there are processes and repetitions that mimic or harmonize with what we know as the sexual process. These very energies are incredibly powerful as they make creation a reality. Of course, the morphogenetic grid is the blueprint that becomes reality. It is in this manner that the ancient Sumerians or Sirians did orgiastic rites. They were honoring the undulations and unfoldments of geometric evolution by linking their consciousness through the sexual process. We all know that we go into a different state of consciousness during the sexual act. As it is a creation process, it is not hard to relate that we can then have an effect on creation when in this form of consciousness. When we engage in sex, we are tapping into the blueprint that made the whole universe possible. As Crowley studied this information, he saw that the ancients understood what they were doing in their orgiastic rites. Of course, if you were to walk in on an orgy today, you might find that the procedure has degenerated into an unholy mess. On the other hand, magical energies would definitely be present. All of this brings us back to Bast, the goddess of witchcraft and sexual magick in the Egyptian pantheon. If you ever had the urge to do anything of a bizarre sexual nature, you were entering the realm of Bast. Who exactly was she? Often identified as the Egyptian cat goddess, Bast is one of the most ancient forms of Babalon, the Mother goddess. Bast is portrayed as both a cat and lion. As the goddess of sexual magick, she ruled over lust and sexual heat. It was her job to see The Sacred Cat B.C.; Late Period, Dynasty 26; Bronze; height 26.4 cm potentialities manifested and had their day in the sun. Bast is readily identified as the Beast because she "presided" over the vast sexual experiments of Atlantis (and later Egypt) which gave rise to mermaids, minotaurs, centaurs, Pegasus and the like. Bast's legacy gives us at least two words in our modem lexicon. The word "bastard" was derived from the Pandora's Box that opened with the unrestricted breeding practices that were common during her reign. During the reign of the goddess, paternity was not an issue. Marriage came into being in large part due to the need to preserve a patriarchal structure for inheritance and succession purposes. When the father god took over, he made parentage an issue and punished women who bore children outside of the established tradition of wedlock. This is not so much a moral issue as a power issue. Amazon cultures were known to be able to breed without the use of a male. Because the human body is primarily androgynous, a separation of the sexes is not theoretically necessary for procreation. This contention about the Amazons is backed up by the fact that the zona pellucida (the reproductive body in the female which contains a sack) can be penetrated by a latent male protein within the inherited genetic structure of the female that the body thinks and treats like a sperm. This results in a virgin birth. It could be argued that the Amazons were unbalanced in the direction of the female energies. Whether or not that is true is not the point. Their culture and the general goddess culture of that time period was supplanted by a patriarchal culture that has attempted to subjugate women to the most unbearable of conditions. The male forces established control. Morality was then generated by the power elite of that particular civilization. On a very primal level, the purpose of the female energies is to regenerate through the sexual organs. This is the gateway to immortality for the beast or animal form of the species. Only through the female genitalia can the beast project its image into a future circumstance and thus obtain perpetual life for his/her kind. Bast symbolized this and also the idea of uninhibited breeding practices which is sometimes known as "catting". This is the derivation of the word "cunt", common slang for the vagina but almost always used in a derogative sense. This word is so taboo that it has earned its way onto the "list of seven dirty words" that cannot be used on television or radio. As you can see, Bast's influence has no small part in our culture. One can easily see that the rancor and enmity that generally accompanies the words "bastard" and "cunt" derives from the ancient criticism of the culture that was prevalent during the time of Bast. Crowley's concept of the Scarlet Woman or is another name for the goddess Bast. Scarlet is chosen because it is the color of blood (also the color chosen for the cover of The Book of the Law). As stated earlier, blood represents the passage of the moon and the menstrual period. The lunar calendar is therefore the calendar of Bast and represents the true time line. This is in direct opposition to the Gregorian calendar that was given to us by the decree of Gregory, the same pope who authorized the inquisition. In regard to her lunar aspect, Bast's offspring were known as children of the moon, hence the name moon child. In the previous chapter, Crowley was identified as the incarnation of the Priest Ankh-af-an-Khonsu which equates to the Priest of Mentu. As Khonsu also refers specifically to the moon, Bast can be identified as Priestess of Mentu with regard to her lunar aspect. It is in this respect that Bast could be considered to have presided over the sexual and genetic experiments that are said to have occurred at In what is an amusing correspondence, there are usually various cats that roam the picnic area near the lighthouse parking lot at Montauk. They have no apparent home but are always well fed by the tourists who sometimes take one home for a pet. These cats are known as the "Montauk Cats". I was once told that if you follow the cats before a rainstorm, they will lead you to the underground. Although Bast's correspondence with Montauk is a bit obscure, Bast was glorified in ancient Egypt as the Sphinx. She had the loins of a lion, symbolized by the constellation Leo and the top half of a virgin woman, symbolized by the constellation Virgo. The Sphinx had breasts at one point, but these were defaced as the patriarchal culture established its foothold. The face was also altered at one point to look more like a chimpanzee. This desecration of the Sphinx prompts an important question: why did we get a chimp? The answer lies in our genetics. Human evolution on this planet has been primarily restricted to the biology of the ape. It was said previously in this book that Rh positive blood refers to the monkey genetics being present in the human system. Rh negative implies an alien blood type. One can also see a resemblance to apes in human beings. If you don't believe me, just go to the gorilla exhibit at the zoo. The word "monkey" itself gives us an interesting play on words. "Mon" refers to Montu, Montauk or the earlier definitions provided for that phoneme while "key" refers to the "key to Montauk". Although there is some contention about it amongst scholars, "Monkey" derives from the Dutch word monnekijn which traces back to the Roman word monne, the origin of which is uncertain. The handwriting is on the wall. Manikan means little man or an imitation of man. Monne is intimately related to the root words already The word "ape" is said to be borrowed from a Teutonic word yet there is argument and some say it is really from the Celts. It all becomes clear when we consult the derivation of the word " apex". This means several interesting things. It is the highest culminating point of time and also refers to the vertex of a triangle or the conical top of a pyramid. Apex strongly suggests the concept of the Tower of Babalon or the mountain aspect of Montauk. The word itself derives from tip, specifically referring to the tip of a flamen's cap. (A flamen was a priest or magician in ancient Rome, the word deriving from the Sanskrit word brahman.) Orangutan derives from oran which means man and utati which equates to forest. The word oran is Malaysian word which is suspiciously close to Orion. Chimpanzee derives from "pan" which means all embracing. It also refers to Pan, the god of the forest and fields. He was quite sexually active and Crowley wrote a lot of poetry about Gorilla was coined as a word by the real life Doc Savage based upon a West African word for a race of hairy women. It is a direct reference to a genetic specimen that we don't see or hear too much about today. You can read the book Mother was a Lovely Beast by Philip Jose Farmer for more information along this line. The point of all this is very clear and the phrase "to monkey around with" takes on a whole new meaning. Somebody monkeyed with our genetics in quite a literal sense. In the time of Bast, all types of genetic samplings were embraced. The conquering influence chose to propagate a similitude with the apes through the morphogenetic grid Bast established that human consciousness could become a lower form it if chose to or that the lower forms could obtain the equivalent of human consciousness. This is a sacrilegious teaching to many, but it was highly regarded as the truth in times past. The city of Bubastis was found by archeologists to contain a multitude of mummified cats who stood as guardians of the temple. The reverence to Bast was intense. The Book of the Law teaches us that the propagation of life is completely unrestrictive in its nature. All potentialities are real and this is accomplished through the evolving geometries that lie beneath the blue print of evolution. The goddess Bast champions the unrestricted potential of all creation. Our limitations in evolution are influenced by those who dominate the morphogenetic grid but are essentially determined by our own free will and choice in the

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Brookhaven National Laboratory has posted on its Web site a report by expert physicists who recently reviewed speculative disaster scenarios at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider. The report summarizes technical discussions that conclude there is no danger of a "disaster" at RHIC. In July 1999, Brookhaven Lab Director John Marburger convened a committee of distinguished physicists to write a comprehensive report on the arguments that address the safety of each of the speculative disaster scenarios at RHIC. The scenarios are: "We conclude that there are no credible mechanisms for catastrophic scenarios at RHIC," said committee chair Robert Jaffe, Professor of Physics and Director, Center for Theoretical Physics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. "Accordingly, we see no reason to delay RHIC operation." Added Brookhaven Director Marburger, "Nature has been creating collisions of energies comparable to those at RHIC for billions of years, and there is no evidence of any kind of disaster related to those collisions. RHIC does not take us beyond the limits of natural phenomena. It brings a rare phenomenon into the view of our instruments so we can puzzle out its inner workings." On October 4, Brookhaven Lab celebrated the commissioning of RHIC, the world's newest and biggest particle accelerator for nuclear physics research. All together, close to 1,000 scientists from 90 research institutions representing 19 countries will be working on RHIC experiments. The committee report can be viewed at http://www.bnl.gov/rhic/docs/rhicreport.pdf NOTE: This is a PDF file. You must have the Adobe Acrobat reader installed in order to open it. The Acrobat reader is available here for free. If you have trouble opening the file, please see this page for a list of common solutions. Mona S. Rowe Media and Communications Office Brookhaven National Laboratory PH: 516 344-5056

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Body Mass Index Body Mass Index (BMI) is a number calculated from a person's weight and height. BMI provides a reliable indicator of body fatness for most people and is used to screen for weight categories that may lead to health problems. Other BMI Calculators - Adult Body Mass Index Calculator WidgetAdd this widget to your Web site to let anyone calculate their BMI. BMI provides a reliable indicator of body fatness for most people and is used to screen for weight categories that may lead to health problems. This calculator provides BMI and the corresponding weight category. Use this calculator for adults, 20 years old and older. - The Children's BMI Tool for Schools This Excel spreadsheet can be used by school, child care, and other professionals who want to compute Body Mass Index (BMI)-for-age for a group of up to 2000 children, such as for a school class room or grade. We also have information on the following: - About BMI for Adults: Information about BMI and interpreting this number for adults - About BMI for Children and Teens: Information about BMI and interpreting the BMI percentile for children and teens Note that the information about children and teens is written primarily for parents, but it may also be of interest to others, such as healthcare providers and the general public.

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GENITOURINARY / KIDNEY :: Overview of Male Anatomy What is an inguinal hernia? A hernia occurs when a section of intestine protrudes through a weakness in the abdominal muscles. A soft bulge is seen underneath the skin where the hernia has occurred. A hernia that occurs in the groin area is called an inguinal hernia. What causes an inguinal hernia? A hernia can develop in the first few months after the baby is born because of a weakness in the muscles of the abdomen. As a male fetus grows and matures during pregnancy, the testicles develop in the abdomen and then move down into the scrotum through an area called the inguinal canal. Shortly after the baby is born, the inguinal canal closes, preventing the testicles from moving back into the abdomen. If this area does not close off completely, a loop of intestine can move into the inguinal canal through the weakened area of the lower abdominal wall and cause a hernia. Although girls do not have testicles, they do have an inguinal canal, so they can develop hernias in this area as well. Who is at risk for developing a hernia? Hernias occur more often in children who have one or more of the following risk factors: Who is affected by inguinal hernias? Inguinal hernias occur: Occasionally, the loop of intestine that protrudes through a hernia may become stuck, and is no longer reducible. This means that the intestinal loop cannot be gently pushed back into the abdominal cavity. When this happens, that section of intestine may lose its blood supply. A good blood supply is necessary for the intestine to be healthy and function properly. What are the symptoms of an inguinal hernia? Hernias usually occur in newborns, but may not be noticeable for several weeks or months after birth. Straining and crying do not cause hernias; however, the increased pressure in the abdomen can make a hernia more noticeable. Inguinal hernias appear as a bulge or swelling in the groin or scrotum. The swelling may be more noticeable when the baby cries, and may get smaller or go away when the baby relaxes. If your physician pushes gently on this bulge when the child is calm and lying down, it will usually get smaller or go back into the abdomen. If the hernia is not reducible, then the loop of intestine may be caught in the weakened area of abdominal muscle. The following are the most common symptoms that indicate this has occurred. However, each child may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include: The symptoms of an inguinal hernia may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your child's physician for a diagnosis. How is an inguinal hernia diagnosed? Hernias can be diagnosed by a physical examination by your child's physician. Your child will be examined to determine if the hernia is reducible (can be pushed back into the abdominal cavity) or not. Treatment for inguinal hernias: Specific treatment for an inguinal hernia will be determined by your child's physician based on: An operation is necessary to treat an inguinal hernia. It will be surgically repaired fairly soon after it is discovered, since the intestine can become stuck in the inguinal canal. When this happens, the blood supply to the intestine can be cut off, and the intestine can become damaged. Inguinal hernia surgery is usually performed before this damage can occur. During a hernia operation, your child will be placed under anesthesia. A small incision is made in the area of the hernia. The loop of intestine is placed back into the abdominal cavity. The muscles are then stitched together. Sometimes, a piece of meshed material is used to help strengthen the area where the muscles are repaired. Long-term outlook for inguinal hernia: Once the hernia is closed, either spontaneously or by surgery, it is unlikely that it will reoccur. Reoccurrence of the hernia happens slightly more frequently if the intestine was damaged. Click here to view the It is important to remember the health information found on this website is for reference only not intended to replace the advice and guidance of your healthcare provider. Always seek the advice of your physician with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. If you think you may have a medical emergency, call your physician or 911 immediately. © Children's Hospital of Orange County

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In the summer of 2007, shoppers at some food co-ops in the upper Midwest encountered a new label on their produce: “Local Fair Trade.” Seasonal staples such as cucumbers, squash, and broccoli were the first to don the label, a large, hard-to-miss sticker symbolizing the union of two approaches to sustainable food: eating food grown locally, and purchasing food traded fairly. We’ve gotten used to a variety of labels on our food. There’s “organic,” which used to connote ideas like “pure” and “natural” but these days technically means food certified as organic by the USDA (if domestically produced) or by the food’s country of origin. “Local” usually means food grown or produced within a few hundred miles of its selling location. And “fair trade” is seen most commonly on popular imports such as coffee and chocolate; the label means that the food’s growers or producers were paid a decent wage. So what does “local fair trade” mean? According to Erik Esse, the director of the Minneapolis-based Local Fair Trade Network, the label is an attempt to answer a question: “How can the principles of fair trade, which have effectively moved many farmers and workers in the developing world out of poverty and towards self-sufficiency, work here in the U.S., where our farmworkers are having some of the same problems?” At the heart of the local or “domestic fair trade” label is the idea of fair and equitable relationships. The label can be applied to food grown in the U.S. under a set of guidelines, including a living wage and an emphasis on fair and healthy living conditions. The product of nearly a decade of careful planning, the domestic fair-trade label is an effort to incorporate social-justice awareness into our burgeoning efforts to eat foods that have been cleanly and sustainably produced. As the fair-trade movement (both international and domestic) wants everyone to understand, the local people behind the food we eat deserve sustainability, too. The USDA’s national organic standards guarantee that organically certified food is not genetically modified and is grown without petroleum-based fertilizers or synthetic chemicals. But the standards have nothing to say about the people who produce the food. This fact appalls those who work closely with farmworkers, including Richard Mandelbaum of El Comité de Apoyo a los Trabajadores Agrícolas (CATA), a migrant-farmworker organization based in New Jersey. “Organic standards include all sorts of rules about how livestock needs to be treated, but absolutely none for the human beings that are on the farm,” says Mandelbaum. The Local Fair Trade Network’s Esse isn’t sure that enough consumers are paying attention to those human beings, either. “The way stores like to put up pictures of happy farmers these days — that’s in some ways great, in that it’s identifying that there’s a person growing their food,” he says. “But in some ways, those smiles mask the fact of how little money they get paid and how hard their lives are.” Although some organic farms in the U.S. opt to pay their workers a living wage, as well as provide vacation days and access to health care, many do none of those things. Small-scale organic farmers, who often live hand-to-mouth themselves, rarely have the budget to do so. And most large, industrial-sized organic farms rely on hundreds if not thousands of underpaid migrant workers, in much the same way that conventional farms and food processors do. According to a 2005 survey report from the University of California, Davis, the majority of the 188 California organic farms surveyed did not pay a living wage or provide medical or retirement plans. And despite the nationwide boom in organic food — the industry was worth more than $17 billion by the end of 2006 — the wealth has not trickled down. While the absence of synthetic pesticides (and the health impacts that accompany them) can be a draw to some workers, most employees on organic farms earn no more than those on conventional ones. Across the country, three to five million people labor every year on farms and in factories, planting, cultivating, harvesting, and processing fresh produce and other agricultural products. Their lives are anything but easy. According to the National Agricultural Workers Survey, 61 percent of farmworkers live in poverty. In recent years, their median income has not kept up with inflation: for individual farmworkers, the median annual income is now $7,500, while for farmworker households, the median annual income is less than $10,000. (The overall U.S. median household income, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, is more than $48,000.) It is also estimated that between 72 and 78 percent of farmworker households have no health insurance. Today’s domestic fair-trade movement dates back as far as 1999, when CATA, along with Rural Advancement Foundation International-USA (RAFI-USA) and several other partners, argued for an inclusion of labor issues in the federal organic standards. “When it became clear that the issues of social justice and fairness would not be incorporated into the federal [organic standards],” says RAFI’s Michael Sligh, “that really triggered our work to look at opportunities to make that additional claim to the marketplace.” The result was something called the Agricultural Justice Project (AJP), a group that set to work devising a separate set of standards that would cover both equity for the small-scale farmer as well as fair working conditions for farmworker. But not everyone was convinced. “When we first started out, it wasn’t uncommon to get a shrug from those in the organic/sustainable community, with responses like, ‘I’m not sure why you’re focused on this,’” says CATA’s Mandelbaum. “But in the last two years, we’ve seen that consumers are increasingly dissatisfied with anonymous products, and really want to know how their food is made — environmentally of course, but also increasingly socially.” In 2005, the Agricultural Justice Project, along with the international fair-trade organization Equal Exchange and several domestic farmer cooperatives, held the first meeting of the Domestic Fair Trade Working Group (now renamed the Domestic Fair Trade Association). By 2006, it became clear that the best place to pilot a domestic fair-trade label was the Minnesota/Wisconsin area. According to Erik Esse, whose Local Fair Trade Network is the Minneapolis-based arm of the movement, there are around 40 food co-ops in Minnesota and more than 25 in Wisconsin. “The fact that consumer cooperatives are so key to the area,” he says, “as opposed to the corporate natural-food-store model, means we have a background that lends to embracing fair trade. [The customers] already believe in democracy and in consumer activism.” By early 2007, four small farms in the upper Midwest had been chosen to participate in the Domestic Fair Trade Working Group’s pilot project, along with two food co-ops in the Minneapolis area. All the farms involved were closely audited, including their business practices and employee policies. And they pledged to, among other things, “1) Respect workers’ freedom of association and right to collective bargaining, 2) Provide adequate health and safety protections, including access to adequate medical care, information on potential hazards, and using the least toxic methods available, and 3) Pay a living wage.” Esse points out that although small-scale farmers and farmworkers are often in similar financial situations, there is still some tension between the two groups. “Farmers don’t always want to stir the pot,” he says. “We often hear, ‘Things are going fine; why would I want to bring this up?’” Rufus Hauke, of Keewaydin Farms in Viola, Wisconsin, does want to stir the pot. He’s a produce farmer participating in the pilot project who, along with his brother, decided to remake the family farm according to a vision for what he calls “the next evolution of food.” Although he has only a few employees, Hauke was excited to offer them the paperwork and training necessary to help get the first Keewaydin Fair Trade growing season off the ground. Culinate’s features address the practical challenges and joys of food. Want more? Comb the archives. Flatbreads from around the continent Beyond a supporting role The great Sicilian-Neapolitan kitchen rivalry Five ideas each month for eating better

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Subscribe Free! to the DigiFreq Pro Audio and Music Technology Newsletter Numerous studies, including one released last month by University of Louisville researchers, indicate that learning to play the piano as a preschooler sets a child up for later academic success. And now "Piano For Preschoolers" has introduced a new way for parents to teach their children the piano - complete with a Casio(R) keyboard. Developed by Angie Crellin, a mother of two who has studied the piano for over 30 years, "Piano For Preschoolers" uses color-coded notes printed on a traditional musical staff to teach songs preschoolers already love, like "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star." A corresponding color strip sits behind the piano's keys and guides the child to the correct key for each note. Crellin came up with the "Piano For Preschoolers" concept when her son, a preschooler at the time, expressed interest in playing the piano. Crellin's daughter had done the same several years before, but she had quickly lost interest once Crellin introduced popular beginning piano books to the lessons. Not wanting the same thing to happen with her son, Crellin decided to create a program that was fun for children and easy for parents to teach. Hundreds of hours of research later, she had "Piano For Preschoolers." "The results were amazing," said Crellin. "My son loved playing real songs he recognized and couldn't wait to learn more. But the truly remarkable thing was that my preschool son started helping my second-grade daughter with her math homework." Crellin's results correspond to those obtained by Dr. Frances Rauscher of the University of Wisconsin and Dr. Gordon Shaw of the University of California. The researchers, who have long studied the connection between math and music, compared the effects of musical and nonmusical training on preschoolers' intellectual development. They found that preschoolers who received piano or keyboard training performed 34% higher on tests measuring spatial-temporal ability than did other preschoolers. Those who received piano or keyboard training could think in pictures and see the pictures moving or changing shape over time - a crucial skill for later success in mathematics, science and engineering. But the pint-sized students of "Piano For Preschoolers" don't care about all that. Most are just having fun playing for rapt audiences of parents and grandparents. "The 'Piano For Preschoolers' program really seems to be boosting children's self-confidence," said Crellin. "Customers report their preschoolers are practicing the piano with no prompting from the parents. And that's really the key. No four-year-old will stay motivated to learn if she isn't having fun." The entire "Piano For Preschoolers" system is $129.95 plus shipping. It includes: a music book of 17 familiar songs written in color-coded notes; the durable color strip to set behind the piano keys; a parent/teacher guide with step-by-step instructions for each lesson; and a free Casio(R) SA-75 electronic keyboard. For more information: www.pianoforpreschoolers.com

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|Winter Paralympic Games| |The Paralympic flame in Vancouver during the 2010 Winter Paralympics| 1980 • 1984 • 1988 • 1992 • 1994 • 1998 • 2002 2006 • 2010 • 2014 • 2018 • 2022 |Alpine skiing • Biathlon • Cross‑country skiing • Ice sledge hockey • The Winter Paralympic Games is an international multi-sport event where athletes with physical disabilities compete. This includes athletes with mobility disabilities, amputations, blindness, and cerebral palsy. The Winter Paralympic Games are held every four years directly following the Winter Olympic Games. The Winter Paralympics are also hosted by the city that hosted the Winter Olympics. The International Paralympic Committee (IPC) oversees the Winter Paralympics. Medals are awarded in each event: with gold medals for first place, silver for second and bronze for third, following the tradition that the Olympic Games started in 1904. The Winter Paralympics began in 1976 in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden. Those Games were the first Paralympics (Summer or Winter) that featured athletes other than wheelchair athletes. The Games have expanded and grown to be (along with the Summer Games) part of the largest international sporting event after the Olympic Games. Given their expansion the need for a very specific classification system has arisen. This system has also given rise to controversy and opened the door for cheating. Winter Paralympians have also been convicted of steroid use and other forms of cheating unique to Paralympic athletes, which has tainted the integrity of the Games. The origins of the Winter Paralympics are similar to the Summer Paralympics. Injured soldiers returning from World War II sought sports as an avenue to healing. Organized by Dr. Ludwig Guttmann, sports competitions between British convalescent hospitals began in 1948 and continued until 1960 when a parallel Olympics was held in Rome after the 1960 Summer Olympics. Over 400 wheelchair athletes competed at the 1960 Paralympic Games, which became known as the first Paralympics. Sepp Zwicknagl, a pioneer of snow sports for disabled athletes, was a double-leg amputee Austrian skier who experimented skiing using prosthetics. His work helped pioneer technological advances for people with disabilities who wished to participate in winter sports. Advances were slow and it was not until 1974 that the first official world ski competition for physically impaired athletes, featuring downhill and a cross-country skiing, was held. The first Winter Paralympics were held in 1976 at Örnsköldsvik, Sweden from February 21–28. Alpine and Nordic skiing for amputees and visually impaired athletes where the main events but ice sledge racing was included as a demonstration event. There were 198 participating athletes from 16 countries, and it was the first time athletes with impairments other than wheelchair athletes were permitted to compete. Starting in 1988 the Summer Paralympics were held in the same host city as the Summer Olympic Games. This was due to an agreement reached between the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Paralympic Committee (IPC). The 1992 Winter Paralympics were the first Winter Games to use the same facilities as the Winter Olympics. Athletes have cheated by over-representing impairment to have a competitive advantage, and the use of performance enhancing drugs. German skier Thomas Oelsner became the first Winter Paralympian to test positive for steroids in 2002. He had won two gold medals in the alpine events but was stripped of his medals. One concern now facing Paralympic officials is the technique of boosting blood pressure, known as autonomic dysreflexia. The increase in blood pressure can improve performance by 15% and is most effective in the endurance sports such as cross-country skiing. To increase blood pressure athletes will deliberately cause trauma to limbs below a spinal injury. This trauma can include breaking bones, strapping extremities in too tightly, and using high-pressured compression stockings. The injury is painless to the athlete but affects the body and impacts the athlete's blood pressure. Disability categories The IPC has established six disability categories applying to both the Summer and Winter Paralympics. Athletes with one of these physical disabilities are able to compete in the Paralympics though not every sport can allow for every disability category. - Amputee: Athletes with a partial or total loss of at least one limb. - Cerebral Palsy: Athletes with non-progressive brain damage, for example cerebral palsy, traumatic brain injury, stroke or similar disabilities affecting muscle control, balance or coordination. - Intellectual Disability: Athletes with a significant impairment in intellectual functioning and associated limitations in adaptive behavior. - Wheelchair: Athletes with spinal cord injuries and other disabilities which require them to compete in a wheelchair. - Visually Impaired: Athletes with vision impairment ranging from partial vision, sufficient to be judged legally blind, to total blindness. - Les Autres: Athletes with a physical disability that does not fall strictly under one of the other five categories, such as dwarfism, multiple sclerosis or congenital deformities of the limbs such as that caused by thalidomide (the name for this category is French for "the others"). Within the six disability categories the athletes still need to be divided according to their level of impairment. The classification systems differ from sport to sport. The systems are designed to open up Paralympic sports to as many athletes as possible, who can participate in fair competitions against athletes with similar levels of ability. The closest equivalents in able-bodied competitions are age classifications in junior sports, and weight divisions in wrestling, boxing, and weightlifting. Classifications vary in accordance with the different skills required to perform the sport. The biggest challenge in the classification system is how to account for the wide variety and severity of disabilities. As a result there will always be a range of impairment within a classification. What follows is a list of the Winter Paralympic sports and a general description of how they are classified. Alpine skiing: There are two events in alpine skiing: slalom and giant slalom. Alpine skiing accommodates athletes with the following physical limitations: spinal injury, Cerebral Palsy, amputation, Les Autres and blindness/visual impairment. There are eleven classifications, seven for standing athletes, three for sitting athletes, and three for visually impaired athletes. The divisions are defined by the degree of the athletes' function and the need for assistive equipment (prosthesis, ski poles, etc.). Biathlon: Biathlon is a combination of cross-country skiing with target shooting. It requires physical stamina and accurate shooting. The events are open to athletes with physical disabilities and visual impairments. There are fifteen classes in which athletes will be placed depending on their level of function. Twelve divisions are for athletes with a physical impairment and three divisions are for athletes with a visual impairment. The athletes compete together and their finishing times are entered into a formula with their disability class to determine the athletes' over all finish order. Visually impaired athletes are able to compete through the use of acoustic signals. The signal intensity varies depending upon whether or not the athlete is on target. Cross-country skiing: Cross-country skiing, also known as Nordic skiing is open to athletes with Cerebral Palsy, amputations, the need for a wheelchair, visual impairment and intellectual impairment. There are fifteen classifications, three for visually impaired athletes, nine for standing athletes and three for seated athletes. The divisions are determined in a similar fashion to alpine skiing with attention given to the athletes' level of function and need for assistive devices. Ice Sledge Hockey: Ice sledge hockey is open only to male competitors with a physical disability in the lower part of their body. The game is played using international hockey rules with some modifications. Athletes sit on sledges with two blades that allows the puck to go beneath the sledge. They also have two sticks, one with a spike end for pushing and the other with a blade end used to hit the puck. The athletes are classified into three groups: group 1 is for athletes with no sitting balance or with major impairment in both upper and lower limbs, group 2 is for athletes with some sitting balance and moderate impairment in their extremities and athletes in group 3 have good balance and mild impairment in their upper and lower limbs. Wheelchair curling: Wheelchair curling is a coed team event for athletes with permanent lower limb disabilities that require them to use a wheelchair in their daily lives. Athletes with Cerebral Palsy or Multiple Sclerosis can also play if they use a wheelchair. Delivery of the stone can be by hand release or the use of a pole. There are no classifications in this event except the requirement that all athletes participating must have need for a wheelchair for daily mobility. Para-Snowboarding: On 2 May 2012, the International Paralympic Committee officially sanctioned para-snowboarding (also known as adaptive snowboarding) as a medal event in the 2014 Winter Paralympic Games. There will be men's and women's standing snowboard-cross competitions. For the sport's debut, the races will be run in a time trial format (one rider on course at a time) and results calculated without factors that adjust scores based on disability classification. Winter Games |1976 Winter Paralympics||I||Örnsköldsvik||Sweden| |1980 Winter Paralympics||II||Geilo||Norway| |1984 Winter Paralympics||III||Innsbruck||Austria| |1988 Winter Paralympics||IV||Innsbruck||Austria| |1992 Winter Paralympics||V||Tignes – Albertville||France| |1994 Winter Paralympics||VI||Lillehammer||Norway| |1998 Winter Paralympics||VII||Nagano||Japan| |2002 Winter Paralympics||VIII||Salt Lake City||United States| |2006 Winter Paralympics||IX||Turin||Italy| |2010 Winter Paralympics||X||Vancouver||Canada| |2014 Winter Paralympics||XI||Sochi||Russia| |2018 Winter Paralympics||XII||Pyeongchang||South Korea| - "History of the Paralympics". BBC Sport. 2008-09-04. Retrieved 2010-04-21. - "Örnsköldsvik 1976". International Paralympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-04-14. - "Results search". International Paralympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-04-14. - "History of the Paralympic Games". The Government of Canada. Retrieved 2010-04-14. - Slot, Owen (2001-02-03). "Cheating shame of Paralympics". The Daily Telegraph (London: Telegraph Media Group). Retrieved 2010-04-07. - Grey-Thompson, Tanni (2008-09-11). "Cheating does happen in the Paralympics". The Daily Telegraph (London: Telegraph Media Group). Retrieved 2010-04-07. - Maffly, Bryan (2002-03-13). "Skier Fails Drug Test". Salt Lake 2002 Paralympics. Retrieved 2010-04-07. - France-Presse, Agence (2010-03-18). "Cheating probed at paralympic games". The Ottawa Citizen (Canwest Publishing Inc.). Retrieved 2010-04-14.[dead link] - "Making sense of the categories". BBC Sport. 2000-10-06. Retrieved 2010-04-07. - "Athlete Classification". Australian Paralympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-06-01. - "Alpine Skiing". Australian Paralympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-06-01. - "Biathlon". Australian Paralympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-06-01. - "Classification information sheet Nordic Skiing". Australian Paralympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-06-01. - "Ice Sledge Hockey". Australian Paralympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-06-01. - "Wheelchair curling". Australian Paralympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-06-01. - "Para-Snowboard Included in Sochi 2014 Paralympic Winter Games | IPC". Paralympic.org. 2012-05-28. Retrieved 2013-01-31. - "Past Games". International Paralympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-04-07. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Winter Paralympics| - Paralympic Link Directory - Official IPC Website - Paralympics History By Susana Correia in Accessible Portugal Online Magazine A portion of the proceeds from advertising on Digplanet goes to supporting Wikipedia.

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On 31 October 2006, orphan designation (EU/3/06/408) was granted by the European Commission to Biotest Pharma GmbH, Germany, for human cytomegalovirus immunoglobulin for the prevention of congenital cytomegalovirus infection following primary cytomegalovirus infection in pregnant women. - What is congenital cytomegalovirus infection following primary cytomegalovirus infection? Cytomegalovirus is a virus that infects many people worldwide. In the majority of cases the virus is latent (inactive) and causes neither disease nor any symptoms of any kind in man. Usually, the virus is only activated in patients who, for some reason, have a weaker immune system. Cytomegalovirus disease can affect several organs in the body, such as the eyes, liver, lungs and the gastrointestinal tract (the stomach and intestines) and cause organ failure. If a woman is infected (primary infection) with cytomegalovirus while pregnant, the virus can pass to the unborn baby who does not yet have a very strong immune system. When congenital (in-born), the disease can also cause growth retardation and brain damage. Congenital cytomegalovirus disease is chronically debilitating and life-threatening. - What is the estimated number of patients at risk of developing the condition? At the time of designation cytomegalovirus infection affected approximately 1.4 in 10,000 people in the European Union (EU) *. This is based on the information provided by the sponsor and knowledge of the Committee for Orphan Medicinal Products (COMP). This is below the threshold for orphan designation which is 5 in 10,000. This is equivalent to a total of around 65,000 people. *Disclaimer: For the purpose of the designation, the number of patients affected by the condition is estimated and assessed based on data from the European Union (EU 25), Norway, Iceland and Lichtenstein. This represents a population of 459,700,000 (Eurostat 2004). - What methods of prevention are available? There were no medicinal products authorised for the prevention of congenital cytomegalovirus infection following primary cytomegalovirus infection in pregnant women in the Community at the time of submission of application for orphan drug designation. - How is this medicine expected to work? Human cytomegalovirus immunoglobulin is a mix of antibodies (proteins of the immune system that can bind to a specific molecular structure) directed at cytomegalovirus particles. Antibodies can neutralise infectious agents or start processes that lead to their destruction by cells of the immune system. According to the sponsor, human cytomegalovirus immunoglobulin will thus reduce the amount of cytomegalovirus in the pregnant woman’s blood and reduce the risk of the unborn baby becoming infected. - What is the stage of development of this medicine? The effects of human cytomegalovirus immunoglobulin were evaluated in experimental models. At the time of submission of the application for orphan designation, clinical trials in pregnant women with primary cytomegalovirus infection were ongoing. The medicinal product was not designated as orphan medicinal product anywhere worldwide, at the time of submission. According to Regulation (EC) No 141/2000 of 16 December 1999, the Committee for Orphan Medicinal Products (COMP) adopted on 6 September 2006 a positive opinion recommending the grant of the above-mentioned designation. - Opinions on orphan medicinal product designations are based on the following three criteria - the seriousness of the condition; - the existence of alternative methods of diagnosis, prevention or treatment; - and either the rarity of the condition (affecting not more than five in 10,000 people in the Community) or the insufficient returns on investment. Designated orphan medicinal products are products that are still under investigation and are considered for orphan designation on the basis of potential activity. An orphan designation is not a marketing authorisation. As a consequence, demonstration of the quality, safety and efficacy is necessary before a product can be granted a marketing authorisation. |Name||Language||First published||Last updated| |EU/3/06/408: Public summary of positive opinion for orphan designation of human cytomegalovirus immunoglobulin for the prevention of congenital cytomegalovirus infection following primary cytomegalovirus infection||(English only)||15/05/2009| |Active substance||Human cytomegalovirus immunoglobulin| |Disease/condition||Prevention of congenital cytomegalovirus infection following primary cytomegalovirus infection| |Date of decision||30/10/2006| |Orphan decision number||EU/3/06/408| Review of designation Sponsor’s contact details: Biotest Pharma GmbH Telephone: + 49 6103 801 588 Telefax: + 49 6103 801 180 Patients’ association contact point:

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Big Leap Forward in Understanding Genetics Underlying Prevalent Diseases The Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium (WTCCC), a collaboration of 24 leading human geneticists analyzing thousands of DNA samples from patients suffering prevalent human diseases, have announced breakthrough research findings. Hailed as a "...new chapter in medical science...", genetic variants have been found for: - Crohn's disease - coronary heart disease - rheumatoid arthritis - Type I and Type II diabetes Some of the fascinating findings: - Type I Diabetes and Crohn's disease share a common gene, suggesting similar biological pathways! - An obesity gene as well as three new genes linked to Type II Diabetes - The WTCCC used gene chip technology, which is not unlike microchip technology, enabling scientists to scan hundreds of thousands of DNA markers at once. Thank you jurvetson for use of photo Playing with DNA featuring James Watson! Recent Blog Posts

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From the DNR Water levels on a number of Minnesota lakes and rivers are expected to remain high during the Fourth of July holiday week, so the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR) is urging boaters to slow down and use caution. “People should always wear their lifejackets while boating, but especially during times like this,” said Tim Smalley, DNR boating safety specialist. “The waters are higher and moving faster than people are accustomed to, and that can create dangerous situations.” Recreational boaters should also be aware that there are high water conditions on the Mississippi, Minnesota and Lower St. Croix rivers resulting in hazardous debris in the water. “River and lake debris could include trees as well as man-made items. Debris will often float just at or below the surface, so a boat traveling at high speed may not be able avoid it in time. Hitting a deadhead or snag at high speed could result in anything from a broken propeller to a ruined lower unit -- or worse, serious injuries to boat occupants.” Smalley said that during periods of high water on lakes and rivers, boaters also need to slow down and make sure their wakes are small. Boat owners are legally responsible for their wakes, under both federal and state law. “During high water on a river, boat waves are not dissipated by the gentle slope of a beach but instead slam directly into the steep face of the bank,” explained Scot Johnson, Mississippi River hydrologist for the DNR. “Much of the energy contained in the wave is conveyed to the bank. This contributes to an accelerated rate of bank erosion.” A 1992 Mississippi River study by the DNR near Red Wing showed that during high water, a large wake (25 inches high) from a cruiser or houseboat can be 30 times more destructive then a smaller 5-inch wake. The Corps of Engineers recently mapped and surveyed eroding river banks on the Upper Mississippi River between Red Wing and St. Louis. The corps found 240 miles of river bank to be eroding, with a large proportion of the total number of eroding banks in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Accelerated erosion can result in an increase in suspended sediment as well as a loss of trees and other vegetation into the river. It also can create safety concerns, damage to boats and other property from deadheads and snags, shoreline property loss, reduction in water quality and damage to fish and wildlife habitat. Boaters can reduce wave impacts by: • Limiting boating activity on rivers until water levels return to normal summer conditions. • Maintaining slow no-wake speeds (less than 5 mph) during high water. • Staying close to the center line of the river. This will allow some wave energy to be dissipated as it travels through the water. • If speeds greater than 5 mph are absolutely necessary, accelerate to planing speed as quickly as possible and stay on plane until reaching destination. • If houseboat or cabin cruiser does not have a planing hull design or adequate horsepower, maintain slow no-wake speeds until water levels return to normal summer conditions. For more information, boaters can request a free copy of the brochure “Mississippi River Bank Erosion and Boating” from the DNR by calling (651) 296-6157 or toll-free at 888-646-6367. Computer users also can send an email to email@example.com to ask for the brochure. Watertown firearms training coming up Registration for Watertown firearms training will be Saturday, July 28 from 10 a.m. to noon at the Watertown Rod and Gun Club. Class dates are Aug. 3, 6, 7, 9, and 10 from 6 to 9 p.m., with a field day Saturday, Aug. 11 at 8 a.m. For additional information, contact Cory at (612) 218-3228 or WatertownFST@yahoo.com Ruffed grouse counts decline From the DNR Minnesota’s ruffed grouse spring drumming counts were lower than last year across most of the bird’s range, according to a survey conducted by the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Compared with drumming counts conducted in 2011, 2012 survey results showed an average decline of 24 to 60 percent, to 1.1 drums per stop, in the northeast survey region, which is the core and bulk of grouse range in Minnesota. Drumming counts in the northwest declined 33 to 73 percent to 0.9 drums per stop. Drumming counts did not change significantly in the central hardwoods or southeast, which had averages of 0.6 and 0.7 drums per stop, respectively. “The grouse population is in the declining phase of its 10-year cycle,” said Mike Larson, DNR wildlife research group leader and grouse biologist. “The most recent peak in drum counts was during 2009, but hunter harvests remained relatively high through at least 2010.” Ruffed grouse populations, which tend to rise and fall on a 10-year cycle, are surveyed by counting the number of male ruffed grouse heard drumming on established routes throughout the state’s forested regions. This year observers recorded 1.0 drums per stop statewide. The averages during 2010 and 2011 were 1.5 and 1.7 drums per stop, respectively. Counts vary from about 0.8 drums per stop during years of low grouse abundance to about 1.9 during years of high abundance. Drumming counts are an indicator of the ruffed grouse breeding population. The number of birds present during the fall hunting season also depends upon nesting success and chick survival during the spring and summer. Minnesota frequently is the nation’s top ruffed grouse producer. On average, 115,000 hunters harvest 545,000 ruffed grouse in Minnesota each year, also making it the state’s most popular game bird. During the peak years of 1971 and 1989, hunters harvested more than 1 million ruffed grouse. Michigan and Wisconsin, which frequently field more hunters than Minnesota, round out the top three states in ruffed grouse harvest. One reason for the Minnesota’s status as a top grouse producer is an abundance of aspen and other ruffed grouse habitat, much of it located on county, state and national forests, where public hunting is allowed. An estimated 11.5 million of the state’s 16.3 million acres of forest are grouse habitat. For the past 63 years, DNR biologists have monitored ruffed grouse populations. This year, DNR staff and cooperators from 15 organizations surveyed 126 routes across the state. Sharp-tailed grouse counts decrease slightly Sharp-tailed grouse counts in the northwest survey region decreased approximately 18 percent between 2011 and 2012, Larson said. Counts in the east-central region declined approximately 33 percent. Observers look for male sharptails displaying on traditional mating areas, called leks or dancing grounds. Despite three years of declines, this year’s statewide average of 9.2 grouse counted per dancing ground was similar to the long-term average since 1980. The 2009 average of 13.6 was as high as during any year since 1980. During the last 25 years, the sharp-tailed grouse index has been as low as seven birds counted per dancing ground. Overall, sharptail populations appear to have declined over the long term as a result of habitat deterioration. In recent years, the DNR has increased prescribed burning and shearing that keep trees from overtaking the open brush lands that sharp-tailed grouse need to thrive. The DNR’s 2012 grouse survey report, which contains information on ruffed grouse and sharp-tailed grouse, will be available soon online at www.mndnr.gov/hunting/grouse. DNR releases long-term management plan for ruffed grouse From the DNR A long-range ruffed grouse habitat and population management plan is now available on the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources’ (DNR) website at www.mndnr.gov/grouse. “The plan reinforces the state’s commitment to ensure the viability of ruffed grouse and their forest habitat, manage grouse as an integral part of Minnesota’s forested landscapes, and encourage and promote hunting and observation of ruffed grouse in their natural habitat,” said Bob Welsh, DNR wildlife habitat program manager. An average annual harvest of more than 500,000 birds over the past 25 years places Minnesota as one of the nation’s top three ruffed grouse states. Grouse hunter numbers have traditionally followed cyclic changes in drumming survey indices, but when drumming surveys trended upward recently, hunter numbers did not follow as they had in the past. The plan includes strategies to reverse that trend by offering improved habitat and access, as well as programs to help new hunters. The DNR’s ruffed grouse management plan was approved earlier this year after public comments on the draft plan were reviewed and considered. “Now that the plan has been approved, we can continue to implement and accelerate our strategies to maintain great hunting opportunities,” said Ted Dick, DNR grouse coordinator. “Those strategies include improved access to hunting land, better information for hunters and education for new hunters, and focused input to the timber planning process that will ensure that grouse habitat needs are well-presented and considered in all forest planning processes.” Minnesota leads the nation in aspen-birch forest type, the preferred habitat of ruffed grouse, and offers more than 11 million acres of federal, state and county land open to public hunting. Persons interested in learning more about grouse, hunting opportunities and available online tools are encouraged to visit the DNR website at www.mndnr.gov/grouse. More information, including podcasts, more detailed mapping and hunter education class announcements will be posted there as they are developed. DNR accepting applications for 2012 Camp Ripley archery hunts From the DNR The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR) will begin accepting applications on July 1 for the 2012 regular archery deer hunts at Camp Ripley near Little Falls. Hunters may pick from only one of two hunting seasons, Oct. 18-19 (Thursday-Friday; code 668) or Oct. 27-28 (Saturday-Sunday; code 669). A total of 5,000 permits 2,500 per two-day hunt will be available. Successful applicants must purchase a valid archery license at least two days before their hunt to participate. The bag limit for this year’s hunt is two, and bonus permits may be used to take antlerless deer. Hunters may choose from four options to apply for the Camp Ripley archery hunts: • Through the DNR’s computerized Electronic Licensing System (ELS) at any one of 1,500 ELS agents located throughout Minnesota. • By telephone at 888-665-4236. • Through DNR’s Internet licensing link at www.dnr.state.mn.us/licenses/index.html. • At the DNR License Center, 500 Lafayette Road, St. Paul. The application fee for the hunt is $8 per applicant. The application deadline is Aug. 17. Those who apply by phone or Internet will be charged an additional convenience fee of 3 percent ($0.24) per transaction. To apply, resident hunters 21 and older must provide a valid state driver’s license or public safety identification number. Residents under 21 may also provide a DNR firearms safety training number to apply. Nonresident hunters must apply using a valid driver’s license number, public safety identification number, or DNR customer number from a recent Minnesota hunting or fishing license. All applicants must be at least 10 years old prior to the hunt for which they are applying. In addition, anyone born on or after Jan. 1, 1980, must have a firearms safety certificate or other evidence of successfully completing a hunter safety course to obtain a license to hunt or trap in Minnesota. Hunters may apply as individuals, or as a group of up to four individuals. Group members may only apply for the same two-day season. The first group applicant must specify “Create New Group” when asked, and will receive a group number. Subsequent group applicants must specify they want to “Join an Existing Group” and must use the same group number supplied to the first group applicant. The archery hunt at Camp Ripley is an annual event. The DNR coordinates the hunt with the Department of Military Affairs, which manages the 53,000-acre military reservation. Rules for the Camp Ripley hunt are available at www.dnr.state.mn.us/hunting/deer/index.html. Question of the week From the DNR Q: The emerald ash borer, an invasive species, is now in Minnesota. How will this insect impact Minnesota trees? A: Unlike the gypsy moth, which defoliates trees but does not necessarily kill them, the emerald ash borer is capable of killing healthy ash trees all by themselves. That makes them potentially much more damaging than the gypsy moth. The emerald ash borer is capable of killing all species of ash within three to four years of attack. The insect can also affect ash down to one inch in diameter within any Minnesota forest type. Ash trees were planted in abundance throughout the state after Dutch elm disease took out so many mature elm trees. Those trees are now at risk of attack, and local communities face a potential crisis in tree protection, removal and replacement. Public funds are inadequate to address the issue. However, people can help by buying local or certified firewood when camping; burning it all before leaving their camp site; and checking with firewood suppliers when buying wood for use at home to make sure the wood is certified as pest free. To report any suspected invasive pest, take a picture, note the location where it was found, and contact the local DNR, Department of Agriculture or University of Minnesota Extension agent office.

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While it is relatively easy to grow a vegetable garden just about anywhere, people wishing to grow fruit trees in an urban environment face challenges. Fortunately, there are solutions. "Grow what you eat, eat what you grow" has become the mantra for a younger, health-conscious generation. There's nothing more tasty than homegrown food. For homeowners looking to downsize and move closer to the urban core, smaller lots usually mean some larger plants can't make the transition - typically fruit trees. Nurseries now carry smaller versions of trees - dwarf and miniature varieties. These fruit trees produce regular-sized fruit on scaled-down versions of familiar trees. "The smaller varieties of fruit trees save a tremendous amount of space," says Anna Saunders, principal landscape designer at the Blenkinsop Gardenworks store. "Some can be even be grown in containers on the balcony of a condominium." She says growing fruit is possible as long as the property gets enough sunlight. That means fruit production would be unlikely for people in north-facing properties. "Any fruiting plant needs sun." People with small properties can also espalier their tree. This horticultural practice has been around for centuries. The gardener prunes the tree so it grows in a single plane - often flat against a wall. The formal pattern is also decorative. Setting the tree against a south-facing wall ensures the heat and sun it needs. "They are not the highest producers," says Saunders, "But they solve the space problem and, when done properly, add [visual] interest to a garden." People shopping for trees will likely encounter dwarf or miniature varieties. It's important to remember the miniature trees are smaller than the dwarf verities. The tag that comes with the tree will usually give buyers information as to the expected maximum height when fully mature. Miniature trees are ideal for container gardening. Saunders says there is no need to turn a tree in a heavy container constantly so that all sides get even amount of sunlight. "Trees planted in the soil don't turn, so why should you?" she says. Container plantings taken to the extreme can result in another wellknown horticultural specialty - bonsai fruit trees that can grow on a coffee table inside a house. Apple trees are the most popular fruit tree sold. They are followed by peaches, cherries and plums, according to Jacques Ponchet, founder of Le Coteau Farms. The popular nursery, which dates back to 1956, sells a number of fruit trees. His current catalogue lists 15 very dwarf trees (six to seven feet), 45 dwarf (eight to 12 feet) and 24 semi-dwarf (12 to 15 feet) varieties of apple trees as well as a number of crabapple, pear, plum, peach, cherry, quince and nectarine trees. He also sells shrubs such as raspberries and blueberries. Choosing a variety of tree based on personal preference is one thing. But homeowners should also be aware of the unique blend of climate, location (which includes hours of sunshine) and soil in the spot where they want to plant. He points out that different trees and shrubs require different types of soil and light conditions. Planted in the wrong conditions, a tree will not grow or produce to its potential. The idea is to choose the right tree for the location. "Be aware of competition for light from neighbouring trees and hedges," advises Ponchet, 82. "It is especially critical in an urban environment, where houses are closer together." In that regard, pears are more desirable in the city as they tolerate shade better than apples do. Sometimes gardeners need to augment the soil for best results. Victoria typically has a lot of clay in the soil. It needs regular treatments with sand and organic material, such as compost. In many areas the soil tends to be acidic, and needs periodic applications of lime to sweeten it. A hot south wall on a house with an overhang would be the perfect place for peaches. The plant loves the heat but doesn't like to get its leaves wet. Peach leaf curl is a serious fungal affliction and affects every variety - although there are some new varieties that are more resistant. Ponchet suggests applying a copper spray and to cover the plant with a clear sheet between April and May. He says there aren't any plants that people need to give up when downsizing, even to a condominium. But he has a caveat: "You will get the best results if you spend time looking after the tree," he says. "If you ignore it, don't expect too much." Fruits that grow on bushes and vines also work for compact home gardens. Raspberry canes can be surprisingly prolific. And grapes have a particular advantage - a properly trained vine provides the homeowner with two benefits. Obviously it gives fruit, but it also offers shade from the sun in the summer.

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Poverty statistics in ACS products adhere to the standards specified by the Office of Management and Budget in Statistical Policy Directive 14. The Census Bureau uses a set of dollar value thresholds that vary by family size and composition to determine who is in poverty. Further, poverty thresholds for people living alone or with nonrelatives (unrelated individuals) vary by age (under 65 years or 65 years and older). The poverty thresholds for two-person families also vary by the age of the householder. If a family's total income is less than the dollar value of the appropriate threshold, then that family and every individual in it are considered to be in poverty. Similarly, if an unrelated individual's total income is less than the appropriate threshold, then that individual is considered to be in poverty. How the Census Bureau Determines Poverty Status Poverty status is determined by comparing annual income to a set of dollar values called poverty thresholds that vary by family size, number of children and age of householder. If a family's before tax money income is less than the dollar value of their threshold, then that family and every individual in it are considered to be in poverty. For people not living in families, poverty status is determined by comparing the individual's income to his or her poverty threshold. The poverty thresholds are updated annually to allow for changes in the cost of living using the Consumer Price Index (CPI-U). They do not vary geographically. The ACS is a continuous survey and people respond throughout the year. Since income is reported for the previous 12 months, the appropriate poverty threshold for each family is determined by multiplying the base-year poverty threshold (1982) by the average of monthly CPI values for the 12 months preceding the survey month. Scope and Methodology: These data are collected in the American Community Survey (ACS). The data are estimates and are subject to sampling variability. The data for each geographic area are presented together with margins of error at factfinder2.census.gov. The data are period estimates, that is, they represent the characteristics of the population over a specific 60-month data collection period. Since answers to income questions are frequently based on memory and not on records, many people tended to forget minor or sporadic sources of income and, therefore, underreport their income. Underreporting tends to be more pronounced for income sources that are not derived from earnings, such as public assistance, interest, dividends, and net rental income. About this application: This application provides summary profiles showing frequently requested data items from various US Census Bureau programs. Profiles are available for the nation, states, and counties.

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Download Model question papers & previous years question papers Posted Date: 27 Dec 2007 Posted By:: ashish Member Level: Gold Points: 5 (Rs. 1) 2007 Mangalore University B.C.A Computer Application Object oriented programming C++ Question paper MODEL QUESTION PAPER Credit Based Third Semester B.C.A Degree Examination Object oriented programming C++ Part A: Answer any 10 questions a) What are the different ways of writing comment lines in C++? b) What are manipulators? Give two examples? c) What are symbols needed to specify insertion and extraction operators? d) What are inline functions? Mention any two advantages? e) What is enumerated data type? Give an example? f) Differentiate between break and continue? g) What are default arguments? Explain? h) Define the following B) Data hiding i). State true or false A) Multiple initialization is possible in a for loop B) Multiple inheritances has two derived class and one base class j). Define a class? Mention its members? k). List out the operators that cannot be overloaded? l). What is operator overloading? How many arguments are required in the definition of an overloaded unary operator? a) Mention the different types of type conversions? Explain each (5 marks) b) List out different types of operators in C++? Explain any two (5 marks) c) What is pre processor directive? Explain its usage in C++ (5 marks) a) Differentiate with syntax and example nested if and switch (5 marks) b) Explain the characteristics of object oriented programming? (5 marks) c). Explain different types of variables used in C++ with an example? (5 marks) a). Explain any two looping statement with example? (6 marks) b) Write a C++ program to reverse the number and find the sum of digits (5 marks) c). What is function overloading? Explain with examples (4 marks) a). Explain storage classes supported by C++ (5 marks) b) Program to check whether a number is Prime or not? (5 marks) c). Explain nested structure with example? (5 marks) a) what are the characteristics of constructors (5 marks) b) How do we create class and objects explain with example (5 marks) c) Define array. How do you pass array to function? Explain with example (5 marks) a). Create a structure template to store the employee details such as name, employee no, basic pay. Create array of structures in main(). Store and display the details in neat format. (5 marks) b). Explain how you can access multi word string and multiline string through keyboard? c) With proper example explain how you can pass and return an object to/from a function? a) With proper example explain how you can overload binary arithmetic operators? b) What are the different types of inheritance? Explain multilevel inheritance? (5 marks) c) What is an abstract base class explain with example (5 marks) a). Explain with code example, the concept of conversion between basic type to object type? (5 marks) b) Explain the following access specifiers? iii) Protected (6 marks) c) Explain the concept of containership with example (4 marks) Return to question paper search Related Question Papers: Submit Previous Years University Question Papers and make money from adsense revenue sharing program Are you preparing for a university examination? Download model question papers and practise before you write the exam.

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Posted: Jun 27, 2012 5:50 PM by John Reger Updated: Jun 27, 2012 10:26 PM If you live in San Luis Obispo, you've probably heard sirens being tested once a year for about five minutes, or a 10-second test done every three months. They're the early warning system for a major emergency. Darcy Ryan from Nipomo asked this question: Why doesn't Nipomo have any sirens? When the emergency sirens go off in San Luis Obispo County, you should immediately turn on a radio or TV to see if you should evacuate or shelter in place. "If a siren had to be activated for any reason, that would be done by the county," said Emergency Services Director Ron Alsop about the county Early Warning System. "So the county operates it, has control of it, but PG&E owns it and maintains it." PG&E installed the sirens when it built the Diablo Canyon Power Plant. Federal law requires an early warning system that radiates out 10 miles from any nuclear facility: that's about from Morro Bay to Shell Beach, and inland to Los Osos Valley Road in San Luis Obispo. However, the county siren coverage goes farther, extending from Cayucos in the north down to upper Nipomo, ending north of Willow Road. "They're only located in the Diablo Canyon Emergency Planning Zone," said Alsop. "They're not located anywhere else in the county, not only not in Nipomo but not in Atascadero, Paso Robles, up in Cambria, there are no early warning sirens either." The 131 sirens sit atop telephone poles and are activated by a radio signal hitting a antennae. Along with an emergency at Diablo Canyon, the county can use the system in a levee failure, tsunami, or hazardous materials spill. The sirens don't cover all of the county, but it's one of the few early warning systems in the country. Send your Good Question to firstname.lastname@example.org or facebook.com/JohnRegerKsbyNews. PLEASE HELP US MODERATE COMMENTS Offensive or inappropriate comments are subject to removal. To report a comment, please e-mail us at email@example.com, and include the name of the story and information on the comment. Thank you! KSBY.com Get deals up to 80% off here! Find the lowest gas prices in your area Submit your photos to KSBY Check out our calendar of events Watch Daybreak Web Videos in full Save with Hot Deals across our counties! Events across the Central Coast Follow The CW5 on Facebook. The KSBY online public file. What do you think? Leave us your feedback. KSBY is your official CA Lottery station for San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara Counties

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