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Threatened and Endangered Species - Recovery Plans Date Published: August 1996 Number of Pages: 72 Author(s): Scott Richardson North America's largest buteo, the ferruginous hawk, exists in low numbers in shrub-steppe and grassland regions of several eastern Washington counties. The state population, numbering between 50 and 60 nesting pairs occurs at the northwest edge of the species' breeding range. The hawk was listed as State Threatened by Department of Game Policy in 1983. In 1990, the Washington Wildlife Commission maintained the ferruginous hawk on the state list of Threatened species, a subcategory of protected status. The size of the historic population cannot be determined. In 1997, a statewide population estimate of 20 pairs was published after nest searches in specific area. A few years later, an estimate of 40 pairs was presented after a survey effort concentrating on known territories. Recently, more comprehensive surveys suggest a population of 50 to 60 pairs. The proportion of occupied territories with at least one nestling was 72% in 1992, 82% in 1993, and 87% in 1994. At least 88, 87 and 82 chicks hatched in 1992, 1993 and 1994, respectively. Ferruginous hawks generally arrive on their Washington breeding grounds during February or March. They nest on isolated trees, rock outcrops, and other platforms that provide unobstructed views. Nests are built of branches and bark shreds from nearby shrubs and often contain dried dung. Two to six eggs are laid, with a usual clutch size of three or four. Adults share duties during an incubation period that lasts about 32 days. Young fledge about 41 days after hatching, generally from late May to late July. Post-fledging dispersal is gradual, with young remaining near the nesting territory for a few weeks before migration. Washington's ferruginous hawks probably migrate to the southwestern and southcentral United States or Mexico for the winter. The diet of Washington ferruginous hawks consist primarily of small to medium-sized mammals, such as pocket gophers, mice, and ground squirrels, but often includes birds, reptiles, and insects. Nesting territories may be situated for exploitation of a particular prey species upon which the hawks are largely dependent. The fate of nesting attempts can be affected by fluctuations in prey abundance. Some hawks may leave an area in response to low prey densities, leading to a lifestyle sometimes described as nomadic. Persecution by early settlers reduced the numbers of ferruginous hawks in Washington and the United States. Recent pressures are frequently related to land-use practices. Conversion of shrub-steppe for agriculture or grazing has broadened the influence of human activity, reduced nesting opportunities, and lowered the diversity and abundance of prey species. Human populations in the traditional ferruginous hawk range encroach upon nesting areas and may limit breeding success or reoccupancy of territories. To recover and maintain Washington's population of ferruginous hawks, sufficient shrub-steppe and native grassland must be preserved and disturbance to nesting areas must be reduced or eliminated. The ferruginous hawk will be considered for downlisting from State Threatened status when Washington supports a 5-year average of 60 breeding pairs distributed to reflect probable historic conditions. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 1996. Washington state recovery plan for the ferruginous hawk. Olympia, Wash. 63 pp.

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Sorry, no definitions found. “Aztec icons like goddess Chalchiuhtlicue, whose jade skirts represented her protection of lakes and streams, and river god, Tlaloc, share space with a map that depicts our current state of dwindling local water sources.” “Observances aimed at garnering the favor of Chalchiuhtlicue and Tlaloc, the chief rain gods, included displaying rows of rubber-spotted Banners draped over wooden poles outside the temple.” “Chalchiuhtlicue - Lady of the jade skirt; goddess of ground waters” “Finally she asked Chalchiuhtlicue, Goddess of Water, to cast out all evil from the body of the child, to set it aside and take it with her.” ““Feel the freshness and greenness of Chalchiuhtlicue,” she said, “who is always alive and awake, who never sleeps or dozes, may she be with you and embrace you and keep you in her arms so that you will be awake and resolute on this earth.”” These user-created lists contain the word ‘Chalchiuhtlicue’. Words associated with beauty, love, and a happy feeling! "Spanish náhuatl, from Nahuatl, that which pleases the ear, from nahua-, audible, intelligent, clear." - etymology from The American Heritage Dictionary Looking for tweets for Chalchiuhtlicue.

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Volume 15, Number 2—February 2009 Reemergence of Human and Animal Brucellosis, Bulgaria Bulgaria had been free from brucellosis since 1958, but during 2005–2007, a reemergence of human and animal disease was recorded. The reemergence of this zoonosis in the country highlights the importance of maintaining an active surveillance system for infectious diseases that will require full cooperation between public health and veterinary authorities. According to the World Health Organization (1), brucellosis is one of the most common zoonoses worldwide and is considered a reemerging infectious disease in many areas of the world. An estimated 500,000 new human cases occur annually worldwide (2). In Europe, 1,033 human brucellosis cases were reported in 2006 (3); data from a passive surveillance system were based on clinical findings, supported by epidemiologic criteria, and confirmed by serologic tests. Here we report the results of a survey performed in Bulgaria during 2005–2007, which has been considered free from Brucellosis melitensis and B. abortus disease since 1958 (4). In Bulgaria, until 1998 serologic screening was mandatory for all cattle, sheep, and goats >12 months of age. Afterward, based on risk assessment, animal surveillance activities covered 100% of heads reared in municipalities along the borders with countries endemic for brucellosis such as Turkey, Greece, and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia; 50% of the animals reared in other municipalities of the regions bordering the aforementioned countries; and 25% of animals reared in the inner Bulgarian regions. Currently, an active surveillance system is in place for dairy factory employees and persons considered at risk after outbreaks in ruminants. During 2005–2007 (Figure 1), a total of 105 human cases of brucellosis were diagnosed among 2,054 persons who were tested on the basis of clinical suspicion or risky exposure. A human case of brucellosis was considered confirmed if results of serologic tests, such as ELISA or complement fixation test, were positive, in accordance with the World Health Organization case definition (5). Bacteria isolation and characterization had not been performed routinely. The alert started in 2005 (Figure 1, panel A), when a case of brucellosis occurred in a Bulgarian migrant animal keeper working in Greece. Active surveillance of persons at risk was implemented, enabling detection of a total of 34 human cases of brucellosis. All cases were classified as imported cases; therefore, no supplemental active surveillance on animals was implemented. Additionally, during routine screening for at-risk workers, 3 other persons employed in a dairy factory were found to be seropositive. Due to the lack of traceability of the raw material used in the factory, it was not possible to trace the origin of the infection. At that time, there was no evidence of animal cases of brucellosis. During 2006 (Figure 1, panel B), a total of 10 cases of human brucellosis were reported from different regions of the country. According to anamnestic information, these case-patients had different sources of infection: 3 of the 10 were considered imported infections; 1 case-patient was diagnosed during hospitalization in Sicily (Italy), where the patient reported having eaten ricotta cheese, and 2 occurred in Bulgarian migrant animal keepers working in Greece. Concerning the origin of infection, epidemiologic data suggest that 5 of the 10 cases were related to occupational risk and the remaining to consumption of raw milk and milk derivates. Surveillance activities enabled detection of 10 animals (7 small ruminants and 3 cows) with positive serologic results; these animals were then killed and destroyed. During 2007 (Figure 1, panel C), a total of 58 human cases were identified. Of 58 cases, 54 were classified as autochthonous (i.e., acquired by imported animals found to be infected during regular veterinary surveillance). These cases were identified in a Bulgarian region bordering Greece and Turkey (Haskovo region). Two other cases, which were also classified as autochthonous, were diagnosed in patients who stated they had consumed a risky product (i.e., raw milk handled without adherence to hygienic standards). The remaining 2 cases were classified as imported because they involved Bulgarian migrant animal keepers working in Greece. Active surveillance in place for animals found a total of 625 heads (618 small ruminants, 7 cows) with positive serologic results; all were killed and destroyed. Analagous with what we observed in humans, most of the infected animals were found in the Haskovo region. All animals found to be infected during surveillance activity were bred at the family farm, and their milk and dairy products were prepared and eaten without adherence to proper hygienic standards. Our data show that brucellosis is reemerging in Bulgaria (Figure 2). On the basis of information provided in this report, we can make several hypotheses regarding the causes of the resurgence of a previously controlled infection in a transitional, rapidly changing country. Overall, 105 human cases of human brucellosis were identified over a 3-year period. Of them, 84 cases (80%) were identified in persons at occupational risk. This finding suggests that when brucellosis is introduced into naive territories (i.e., those territories that were considered officially free of brucellosis), the primary source of infection for humans is direct contact with infected animals (i.e., exposure to abortion/delivery products) or domestic consumption of products produced on family farms (milk, raw cheese). However, environmental exposure can also occur, especially in infants and children, who are considered at lower risk for direct contact with potentially infected animals, as recently observed (6). This hypothesis appears to be consistent with the context of a naive setting, where preventive measures are not routinely implemented. Continuous health education and other strategies may contribute to reduce the circulation of human brucellosis in endemic areas (7). The reemergence of brucellosis is not limited to Bulgaria but involves several countries in the Balkan region and even in the Caucasian region (P. Pasquali, unpub. data). This trend or reemergence has several explanations. First, due to socioeconomic changes, many countries in these regions are experiencing a dramatic increase of animal trade, animal movement, and occupational migration, which in turn may increase the risk for introduction and spread of infectious diseases, such as brucellosis, from other disease-endemic countries like Greece or Turkey (2). Second, the process that has characterized the change of the social and administrative organization since the collapse of the Soviet Union is far from being completed; the public health systems are still flawed in many countries. Finally, part of the increase may simply be that brucellosis is a complex disease, which has different cycles of expansion and regression. Before drawing conclusions, we should mention 2 possible limitations of the study. First, samples from patients with positive serologic results were used for bacterial culture for brucellosis only if sample collection was properly timed; no culture positive case is available. Second, we cannot exclude the possibility that part of the increase in cases of brucellosis could be due to improved surveillance; in particular, temporal trends and geographic comparison might be, to some extent, affected by the intensity of screening activities. However, this increased surveillance is unlikely to bias the observed shift from imported to locally acquired cases. In conclusion, this report shows how a disease such as brucellosis may increase its public health impact, particularly in transitional countries such as Bulgaria. Our findings emphasize the importance of the combination of health education and active surveillance systems for controlling infectious diseases and highlight the need for cooperation between public health officials and veterinary officers. Creating and improving capacity building are necessary to properly address issues that pose public health hazards. Dr Russo is a physician at Sapienza University in Rome. His research interests are infectious diseases in resource-limited countries in the context of natural disasters. The authors thank Massimo Amicosante and Luca Avellis for logistic support. This work was conducted as part of a cooperative effort between Italy and Bulgaria, supported by the European Union. - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Organisation for Animal Health, and World Health Organization. Brucellosis in human and animals. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2006. WHO/CDS/EPR/2006.7 [cited 2009 Jan 7]. Available from http://www.who.int/entity/csr/resources/publications/Brucellosis.pdf - Pappas G, Papadimitriou P, Akritidis N, Christou L, Tsianos EV. The new global map of human brucellosis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2006;6:91–9. - European Food Safety Authority–European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. The community summary report on trends and sources of zoonoses, zoonotic agents, antimicrobial resistance and foodborne outbreaks in the European Union in 2006. EFSA Journal. 2007;2007:130 [cited 2009 Jan 5]. Available from http://www.efsa.europa.eu/cs/BlobServer/DocumentSet/Zoon_report_2006_en,0.pdf?ssbinary=true - Corbel MJ. Brucellosis: an overview. 1st international conference on emerging zoonoses (Jerusalem, Israel). Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3:213–21. - Robinson A. Guidelines for coordinated human and animal brucellosis surveillance. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2003. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 156. - Makis AC, Pappas G, Galanakis E, Haliasos N, Siamopoulou A. Brucellosis in infant after familial outbreak. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008;14:1319–20. - Jelastopulu E, Bikas C, Petropoulos C, Leotsinidis M. Incidence of human brucellosis in a rural area in western Greece after the implementation of a vaccination programme against animal brucellosis. BMC Public Health. 2008;8:241. Suggested citation for this article: Russo G, Pasquali P, Nenova R, Alexandrov T, Ralchev S, Vullo V, et al. Reemergence of human and animal brucellosis, Bulgaria. Emerg Infect Dis [serial on the Internet]. 2009 Feb [date cited]. Available from http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/15/2/08-1025.htm

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Biologists from Kyoto University in Japan have turned a crab's shell transparent. More than just a neat party trick, the research into see-through structures could help the construction of flat panel displays, solar cells and bendy screens. Muhammad Iftekhar Shams and his team at Kyoto University took an entire (dead) crab, and treated its body to a brew of acids and chemicals. Hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide and ethanol stripped the body of minerals, proteins, lipids, fats and pigments. This left a crab shell made entirely of translucent chitin. Chitin is a long-chain polymer that is the main component of crustacean exoskeletons. Finally, the shell was immersed in an acrylic resin monomer. Polymerisation kicked in (monomer molecules react together to form polymer chains), and the team ended up with a perfect, ghostly recreation of a crab, only now completely see-through. Buoyed by their success, Shams and colleagues crushed up chitin from crab shells and spread the powdered material into a nanocomposite sheet. Then, much like the crab body, the paper-like sheet was given the acrylic resin monomer treatment, leading to an optically transparent panel. The material is exciting because it doesn't expand or lose its stability when heated—in fact, it's ten times as resistant to heat as traditional materials such as glass-fiber epoxies. This makes it a potential material for building bendable screens or solar cells that are moulded into shapes. It has a high light transmittance too. "This class of materials is an interesting candidate for transparent substrates in next-generation electronic devices such as flexible displays and solar cells," the team writes in the paper's abstract—published by the Royal Society of Chemistry. Better still is that chitin—the secret ingredient—is abundant in nature. Not only is it found in the shells of crabs, lobsters and shrimps, this adaptable natural material also shows up in the cell walls of fungi, the exoskeletons of arthropods and insects, the tongue-like radulas of mollusks, and the beaks of cephalopods.

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Charles Heywood kept his cannon firing even as his ship sank. Born in Waterville on Oct. 3, 1839, Heywood was commissioned a second lieutenant in the United States Marine Corps at New York City on April 5, 1858. Thirty-five months later he reported aboard the USS Cumberland, a 24-gun sloop of war then assigned to the Gosport Navy Yard in Portsmouth, Va. Fearing the shipyard’s capture by Confederate militia, senior Navy officers ordered Gosport abandoned on April 20, 1861. After mining key installations with barrels of gunpowder, Heywood and his Marines lit the fuses and hastened aboard the USS Cumberland, already slipping seaward on the ebbing Elizabeth River. The resulting explosions and fires caused significant damage, but Confederate engineers quickly repaired crucial machinery. They also raised the burned and scuttled USS Merrimac. Upon its hull arose an ironclad, the CSS Virginia. Measuring 263 feet in length and weighing 3,200 tons, the steam-engine ironclad mounted 10 massive cannons. The skipper was Capt. Franklin Buchanan. He intended to sail into Hampton Roads and sink the Yankee warships stationed there. By the time Buchanan ordered his ship to sail on March 8, 1862, Heywood was a captain commanding the USS Cumberland’s Marine contingent. Brilliant late-winter sunshine and warm air engulfed Hampton Roads as the CSS Virginia stood downriver that Saturday. Buchanan had already selected his first target. “I am going to ram the Cumberland,” which was equipped with “the new rifled guns, the only ones in their whole fleet we have cause to fear,” he told Chief Engineer H. Ashton Ramsay. “The moment we are out in the Roads, I’m going to make right for her and ram her.” That morning, the USS Cumberland lay moored some 300 yards off Newport News on the north shore of Hampton Roads. Aboard the Cumberland, Cmdr. William Radford had gone ashore, leaving Lt. George Morris, the executive officer, in command. At noon, sailors on watch aboard the Cumberland “discovered three vessels under steam, standing down the Elizabeth River toward Sewell’s Point,” Morris wrote on March 9. One ship belched black smoke; Morris, Heywood, and other USS Cumberland officers could see the smoke without using their spyglasses. Buchanan’s underpowered ironclad steamed ponderously into Hampton Roads. After the CSS Virginia cleared Sewell’s Point about 1:30 p.m., Buchanan steered west to attack the USS Cumberland. Aboard that ship, crewmen had already “double breeched the guns on the main deck, and cleared [the] ship for action,” Morris reported. He ordered the sloop pivoted on her anchor so that her starboard broadside would face the ironclad. Assigned to his ship’s after gun division, Heywood stood with his gun crews and watched as the Virginia approached. At 2 p.m. aboard the ironclad, Lt. Charles Simms fired the bow pivot gun, a 7-inch Brooke rifle. According to William C. Davis writing in “Duel Between the First Ironclads,” Simms’ cannon ball “screamed across the Roads and hit” the USS Cumberland “squarely, passing through the starboard-quarter rail” and hurling wood splinters into nearby Marines. After a Cumberland gun crew fired their ship’s forward 10-inch pivot gun and missed, Simms’ second shot exploded amidst that gun crew and killed all but two men. “Our firing became at once very rapid from the few guns we could bring to bear” as the ironclad “approached slowly,” recalled Master Moses Stuyvesant, who commanded the sloop’s after gun division. Simms’ pivot gun pounded the Cumberland; as shell fragments and wood splinters struck down sailors and Marines alike, Heywood’s crews fired their cannons through the dense smoke. At approximately 2:30 p.m., Cumberland pilot A.B. Smith thought the approaching ironclad resembled “a huge half-submerged crocodile” with its “iron ram projecting, straight forward.” Steaming at 6 knots, the Virginia “stood on and struck us under the starboard fore channels” near the Cumberland’s bow, Morris reported. “She delivered her fire at the same time; the destruction was great. We returned the fire with solid shot with alacrity.” The ironclad’s ram opened a hole about 7 feet across. Flooding with seawater, the USS Cumberland listed to starboard — and the ship’s weight bore the Virginia downward. The ironclad was already reversing its engines as the tide pivoted the trapped Virginia alongside the sinking Cumberland. Then the ram broke off, freeing the ironclad from a potential watery grave. Buchanan backed his ship until it lay parallel to the Cumberland and only 20 feet away. Cannons flashed and boomed for some 30 minutes as Heywood and his comrades heroically fought the Virginia amidst “a scene of carnage and destruction never to be recalled without horror,” Stuyvesant remembered. Blood and gore splattered across the main deck as Heywood shouted at sailors and Marines to drag wounded comrades to the ship’s port side. Now the sea lapped at the Cumberland’s main deck as the bowsprit disappeared into Hampton Roads. Gun crews kept firing until their cannons submerged. Stationed near the stern, Heywood worked his guns even as another cannon broke loose and lurched across the deck to crush a sailor. “At 3:35 [p.m.] the water had risen to the main hatchway, and the ship canted to port, and we delivered a parting fire, each man trying to save himself by jumping overboard,” Morris recalled. Acknowledging that severely wounded men taken below decks could only be left to drown, he credited specific officers for their coolness under fire. “I can only say in conclusion that all did their duty and we sunk with the American flag at the [mast] peak,” Morris closed his report. Even as the Cumberland’s deck sharply canted, Heywood remained with the aft guns. “The water began to swash over the upper deck, and still every unencumbered gun was hurling defiance at the foe,” wrote John S.C. Abbott in “The History of the Civil War in America, Vol. 1,” published in 1863. “The ship careened upon one side. The last gunner [Heywood], knee-deep in water, pulled the trigger of the last gun,” Abbott wrote. Then “the majestic frigate, with all her dead and all her wounded, sank like lead.” And Charles Heywood went overboard into Marine Corps lore. His heroism went noticed. “I omitted to mention to you the gallant conduct of Lieutenant Charles Heywood … whose bravery upon the occasion of the fight with the Merrimack won my highest applause,” Morris wrote Navy Secretary Gideon Welles on April 12. Heywood received a brevet promotion to major after the battle. Of the 46 Marines aboard the USS Cumberland, 14 died. Another 107 sailors were killed aboard the sloop on March 8. The next day, the Monitor fought the Virginia in Hampton Roads in history’s first ironclad-to-ironclad sea battle. Most history books still call the Virginia the “Merrimac.” Heywood would fight during another famous Civil War battle; he was commanding two gun crews aboard the USS Hartford at Mobile Bay, Ala. as Adm. David Farragut roared, “Damn the torpedoes! Full speed ahead!” on Aug. 5, 1864. Within an hour, Heywood and Farragut traded shot and shell with another Confederate ironclad, the CSS Tennessee — commanded by Adm. Franklin Buchanan. This time Buchanan lost and Heywood won. Named the ninth Marine Corps commandant on Jan. 30, 1891, Charles Heywood instituted important changes to the corps’ mission and strength. Promoted to major general a year before his 1903 retirement, he died at Washington, D.C., on Feb. 26, 1915. His wife, Caroline Bacon, outlived him by 12 years. Heywood lies buried in Section 2, Lot 1115 at Arlington National Cemetery. Brian Swartz is the BDN special sections editor. An avid Civil War buff, he has extensively explored and photographed Civil War battlefields throughout the South. Swartz may be reached at email@example.com or visit his blog at http://maineatwar.bangordailynews.com.

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"One death is a tragedy. A million deaths is a statistic." -Joseph Stalin When figuring out how people will respond to a foreign tragedy, it comes down to three things: location, location, location. And TV cameras too.The September 11, 2001 homicide attacks killed about 3,000 people yet it's had more impact on American politics and foreign policy than anything since World War II. And to the great extent that American foreign policy impacts the rest of the world, it had a huge impact on international affairs as well. While 3,000 is pretty big death toll for a single incident, there have been other wars and attacks with greater loss of life that had a relatively miniscule influence on American or international affairs. Why? Because those attacks didn't occur in the heart of New York City. The international response would've been significantly less if the attack had been launched in Kathmandu, Bogota or Algiers (in countries with homegrown terrorist problems).The Asian tsunami of 2004 had a devastating effect and cost an estimated 283,000 lives and over a million displaced. It generated an international response that was probably unprecedented in scale. As someone who regularly reads articles on underfunded international crisis appeals, I was heartened by the response to the tsunami. That it hit easily accessible coastal regions, including many tourist areas, made it easier to TV crews to get images. That Europeans and Americans were amongst the victims, if a tiny fraction, ensured that it got coverage in the western media. But if I told you there was a conflict that has cost almost 15 times as many lives as the tsunami, could you name that crisis? If I told you there was a crisis that, in mortality terms, was the equivalent of a three 9/11s every week for the last 7 years , would you know which one I'm talking about? I bet few westerners could, even though it's by far the deadiest conflict of the last 60 years. The war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire) is killing an estimated 38,000 people each month, according to the British medical journal The Lancet . And if not for the involvement of humanitarian non-governmental organizations and UN relief agencies, the toll would be much higher.Most of the deaths are not caused by violence but by malnutrition and preventable diseases after the collapse of health services, the study said , notes the BBC. Since the war began in 1998, some 4m people have died, making it the world's most deadly war since 1945, it said. A peace deal has ended most of the fighting but armed gangs continue to roam the east, killing and looting. The political process in the DRC is slowly inching in the right direction. Voters in the country recently approved a new constitution , to replace the one imposed on it by the outgoing Belgian colonialists. EU officials praised the referendum as free and fair, probably the first truly open poll in the country's history. Elections are scheduled for June of this year. However, instability reigns in much of the country, particularly the east. And central government throughout the entireity of the country has never been strong in this gigantic country. There are 17,000 UN peacekeepers doing the best they can but the country's the size of Western Europe. (By contrast the Americans and British have ten times as many troops in Iraq, a country that's less than 1/5 the size of the DRC. And we know how many problems they're having there) And this shows why war should ALWAYS be a last resort. Most of the deaths have not been directly caused by war (bullet wounds, landmines, etc). Most of the deaths have been caused by factors provoked by war's instability and destruction. The destruction of all infrastructure like roads and medical clinics. The inability to get to sources of clean water. The fear of leaving the house to tend the fields or go to the market. 38,000 people a month. If you get pissed off at Howard Dean or Pat Robertson, spare a little outrage for this. And maybe a few bucks. WANNA HELP? TAKE YOUR PICK -Doctors Without Borders -World Food Program -Catholic Relief Services

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The Portait is a detailed examination into the area of photography what is commonly referred to as portrait photography. Portraits have been created for thousands of years to convey to others the person captured by image whether through painting or photography. The portrait is about the subject. It is well established in the introduction, the portrait is not about you, your camera, or your lenses. In The Portait: Understanding Portrait Photography, the author's goal is to help you understand that the creation of a portrait is a conscious act. It is the process of the photographer, through a series of choices of setting, lighting, pose and more, trying to communicate a specific result and thus conveys something important or unique about that individual. While some full body poses are used, the main focus of this book is the facial portrait. The Portait is 200 pages in length and divided into 14 chapters. Chapter One, "A Very Brief History of Photographic Portraiture," begins with a short history of portraits in general and more specifically the photographic portrait. Chapter Two, "Light Dynamics and the Portrait," provides a fundamental concept that is used throughout the book, that of Light Dynamics (LD). It is through this concept that the authors build an understanding of the primary tool of all photography, that of light and how it affects your scene. In this chapter you get a very good look at how light can be used in its rawest form. Chapter Three, "Lighting Sources and Equipment," examines the different kinds of light that is available for you to work with. This includes continuous light, creating light, ambient light, window light, and strobe lighting. Chapter Four, "Light Modification," takes your light source and now looks at how you can manipulate this source to get different effects. This includes the use of reflectors, domes, soft light modifiers, hard light modifiers, and modifying intensity Chapter Five, "Exposure and Metering," describes ways to control the light. Here you will look at basic exposure, unmetered exposure, using light meters, substitution metering, tonal placement, and testing for exposure. Chapter Six, "Lighting Ratios," relates to human perception and how we interpret a scene without it feeling staged. Here you will see how to get the right levels. Chapter Seven, "Lighting Patterns on the Human Face," examines the five primary surfaces, or planes of the human face. This is important to understand if you are going to get the correct illumination. Chapter Eight, "Lighting Setups," takes you through the major setups for lighting. These are the one, two, three, and four light setups as well as looking at some specific techniques for certain types of effects.

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Date of this Version Despite two centuries of research into the life and music of J.S. Bach, there is little that can be said with certainty about his organ registration practices. Aside from two short passages (quoted below) that merely assert Bach's understanding of and skill at registration, there is only J.F. Agricola's report that Bach liked reed stops. Up until now, it has not been possible to identify sources, either from Bach himself or from his immediate circle, that offer precise instructions on organ registration. The source described and translated here provides such information. The source is an article found in Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg's Historisch-Kritische Beytriige zur Aufnahme der Musik (Historical and Critical Contributions to the Reception of Music), Volume 3, Part 6 (Berlin: Gottlieb August Lange, 1758), pages 486 to 518. Marpurg-an author, theorist, and critic closely associated with the circle of Bach's students in Berlin-published the Historisch Kritische Beytriige as a periodical from 1754 to 1762 and again in 1778; it includes book reviews, biographies of musicians, discussions of problems in music theory, and reports on musical inventions. The article under consideration falls into the first of these categories. Ostensibly it is a review of a new collection of organ stoplists, the Sammlung einiger Nachrichten, published in 1757. In fact, only a small portion of the article is devoted to the new publication. That portion, however, begins the article, and this may be one reason why the significant information on registration found later in the article has escaped previous notice.

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The Boy Who Drew Birds is free 20-page download from Homeschool Share – another one of their very nicely pulled together resources. Using the picture book biography The Boy Who Drew Birds: A Story of John James Audubon by Jacqueline Davies as a spine for the study, the unit covers history, geography, science, language arts, art and math. Among the topics you will cover include Napoleon, France, Pennsylvania, caves, seasons, idioms, and, of course, birds. Activities include map work, copywork, writing a letter, keeping a backyard bird lapbook, making a bird feeder, creating a mixed-media picture and keeping a nature journal. A bibliography provides more options for further research.

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|Classification and external resources| Clinical appearance of Crouzon Syndrome. Crouzon syndrome is a genetic disorder known as a branchial arch syndrome. Specifically, this syndrome affects the first branchial (or pharyngeal) arch, which is the precursor of the maxilla and mandible. Since the branchial arches are important developmental features in a growing embryo, disturbances in their development create lasting and widespread effects. This syndrome is named after Octave Crouzon, a French physician who first described this disorder. He noted the affected patients were a mother and her daughter, implying a genetic basis. First called "craniofacial dysostosis", the disorder was characterized by a number of clinical features. This syndrome is caused by a mutation in the fibroblast growth factor receptor II, located on chromosome 10. Now known as Crouzon syndrome, the disease can be described by the rudimentary meanings of its former name. What occurs in the disease is that an infant's skull and facial bones, while in development, fuse early or are unable to expand. Thus, normal bone growth cannot occur. Fusion of different sutures leads to different patterns of growth of the skull. Examples include: trigonocephaly (fusion of the metopic suture), brachycephaly (fusion of the coronal suture), dolichocephaly (fusion of the sagittal suture), plagiocephaly (unilateral premature closure of lambdoid and coronal sutures), oxycephaly (fusion of coronal and lambdoidal sutures), Kleeblattschaedel (premature closure of all sutures). Crouzon syndrome is autosomal dominant; children of a patient have a 50% chance of being affected. As a result of the changes to the developing embryo, the symptoms are very pronounced features, especially in the face. Low-set ears are a typical characteristic, as in all of the disorders which are called branchial arch syndromes. The reason for this abnormality is that ears on a fetus are much lower than those on an adult. During normal development, the ears "travel" upward on the head; however, in Crouzon patients, this pattern of development is disrupted. Ear canal malformations are extremely common, generally resulting in some hearing loss. In particularly severe cases, Ménière's disease may occur. The most notable characteristic of Crouzon syndrome is cranial synostosis, as described above, but it usually presents as brachycephaly, which results in the appearance of a short and broad head. Exophthalmos (bulging eyes due to shallow eye sockets after early fusion of surrounding bones), hypertelorism (greater than normal distance between the eyes), and psittichorhina (beak-like nose) are also symptoms. Additionally, a common occurrence is external strabismus, which can be thought of as opposite from the eye position found in Down syndrome. Lastly, hypoplastic maxilla (insufficient growth of the midface) results in relative mandibular prognathism (chin appears to protrude despite normal growth of mandible) and gives the effect of the patient having a concave face. Crouzon syndrome is also associated with PDA( patent ductus arteriosus) and aortic coarctation. For reasons that are not entirely clear, most Crouzon patients also have noticeably shorter humerus and femur bones relative to the rest of their bodies than members of the general population. A small percentage of Crouzon patients also have what is called "Type II" Crouzon syndrome, distinguished by partial syndactyly. Diagnosis of Crouzon syndrome usually can occur at birth by assessing the signs and symptoms of the baby. Further analysis, including radiographs, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, genetic testing, X-rays and CT scans can be used to confirm the diagnosis of Crouzon syndrome. Incidence of Crouzon syndrome is currently estimated to occur in 1 out of every 25,000 people out of the general population. There is a greater frequency in families with a history of the disorder, but that doesn't mean that everyone in the family is affected (as referred to above). Surgery is typically used to prevent the closure of sutures of the skull from damaging the brain's development. Without surgery, blindness and mental retardation are typical outcomes. Craniofacial surgery is a discipline of plastic surgery. To move the orbits forward, craniofacial surgeons expose the skull and orbits and reshape the bone. To treat the midface deficiency, craniofacial surgeons can move the lower orbit and midface bones forward. For jaw surgery, either plastic surgeons or oral and maxillofacial (OMFS) surgeons can perform these operations. Crouzon patients tend to have multiple sutures involved, most specifically bilateral coronal craniosynostoses, and either open vault surgery or strip craniectomy (if child is under 6 months) can be performed. In the later scenario, a helmet is worn for several months following surgery. Once treated for the cranial vault symptoms, Crouzon patients generally go on to live a normal lifespan. Dental significance For dentists, this disorder is important to understand since many of the physical abnormalities are present in the head, and particularly the oral cavity. Common features are a narrow/high-arched palate, posterior bilateral crossbite, hypodontia (missing some teeth), and crowding of teeth. Due to maxillary hypoplasia, Crouzon patients generally have a considerable permanent underbite and subsequently cannot chew using their incisors. For this reason, Crouzon patients sometimes eat in an unusual way--eating fried chicken with a fork, for example, or breaking off pieces of a sandwich rather than taking a bite into it. See also - synd/1383 at Who Named It? - L. E. O. Crouzon. Dysostose cranio-faciale héréditaire. Bulletin de la Société des Médecins des Hôpitaux de Paris, 1912, 33: 545-555. - Reardon W, Winter RM, Rutland P, Pulleyn LJ, Jones BM, Malcolm S (September 1994). "Mutations in the fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 gene cause Crouzon syndrome". Nat. Genet. 8 (1): 98–103. doi:10.1038/ng0994-98. PMID 7987400. - Meyers GA, Orlow SJ, Munro IR, Przylepa KA, Jabs EW (December 1995). "Fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) transmembrane mutation in Crouzon syndrome with acanthosis nigricans". Nat. Genet. 11 (4): 462–4. doi:10.1038/ng1295-462. PMID 7493034. - James, William; Berger, Timothy; Elston, Dirk (2005). Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology. (10th ed.). Saunders. ISBN 0-7216-2921-0. - Vajo Z, Francomano CA, Wilkin DJ. (February 2000). "The molecular and genetic basis of fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 disorders: the achondroplasia family of skeletal dysplasias, Muenke craniosynostosis, and Crouzon syndrome with acanthosis nigricans". Endocrine Reviews 21 (1): 23–39. doi:10.1210/er.21.1.23. PMID 10696568. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Category:Crouzon syndrome| - GeneReviews/NIH/NCBI/UW entry on FGFR-Related Craniosynostosis Syndromes - Crouzon Syndrome - About.com - Crouzon Syndrome - Seattle Children's Hospital Craniofacial Center - cleftAdvocate - Non-profit support organization for all craniofacial conditions; on-line and in-person family support, insurance and advocacy assistance, and more. - General Information at hopkinsmedicine.org

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University of Missouri Home | People | Locations | Program index | Calendar | News | Publications Continuing education Seminars home > news > display story MU news media Milly CarterAdministrative Associate, West Central RegionUniversity of Missouri Extension Phone: 816-252-7717Email: firstname.lastname@example.org Photo available for this release: Canning and drying are just two ways to preserve the bounty of the summer garden. Credit: MU Extension Published: Tuesday, May 3, 2011 Marlin Bates, 816-270-2141 BLUE SPRINGS, Mo. – Instead of tending to a garden that will only provide fruits and vegetables during the season, consider growing enough to preserve, suggests a University of Missouri Extension horticulture specialist. “By planning now to preserve the harvest of the garden, you will be able to enjoy the fruits and vegetables from the garden far beyond the growing season,” says Marlin Bates. MU Extension’s Vegetable Planting Calendar (http://bit.ly/MUExtG6201) provides a quick guide for gardeners to decide how much to grow for fresh and processed consumption. “For instance, a gardener who is interested in growing tomatoes strictly for fresh consumption might consider growing three to five plants per person,” Bates said. “But if the gardener were also interested in preserving tomatoes, the guide recommends growing five to 10 plants per person, depending on the extent to which they intend to preserve.” Because actual consumption and year-to-year production levels can vary greatly, planting on the higher end of the recommendation is a good way to ensure a sufficient harvest. You can give any excess produce to friends and family or donate it to the local food bank. Today’s gardener has many options for preserving food. “From canning salsas, pasta sauces and whole tomatoes to pickling cucumbers and peppers and making jams and jellies, the possibilities of preservation seem limitless,” he said. More than just canning Food preservation is more than just canning. It also includes freezing and drying. Many fruits are commonly frozen for easy access far beyond the productive period of the plant. Many herbs are easily dried for later use. MU Extension has a series of publications (http://bit.ly/MUExtFoodPreserve) that introduce and explain these preservation methods for various crops. Additionally, MU Extension nutrition specialists conduct food preservation workshops throughout the harvest season. These hands-on demonstration workshops have been increasingly in demand over the past few years and fill up quickly. For information about upcoming food preservation workshops, contact your local MU Extension center. MU Extension’s Vegetable Planting Calendar (G6201) is available for free download at http://bit.ly/MUExtG6201 (http://extension.missouri.edu/publications/DisplayPub.aspx?P=G6201). Many MU Extension publications on food preservation are available at http://bit.ly/MUExtFoodPreserve (http://extension.missouri.edu/main/DisplayCategory.aspx?C=194#publications). Feature articles on food safety and preservation are available at http://missourifamilies.org/features/foodsafetyarticles/index.htm. About | Jobs | Extension councils | For faculty and staff | Giving | Ask an expert | Contact to 2013 Curators of the University of Missouri, all rights reserved, DMCA and other copyright information University of Missouri Extension is an equal opportunity/ADA institution. University of Missouri Extension to 2013 Curators of the University of Missouri, all rights reserved

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Monday, February 27, 2012 ............................The Earth and the Great Pyramid b = 0.23192867km h = 0.1476505019km Equator of the Earth = 40,077.27418km 1º of the equatorial longitude = 111.3257616km = 0.49998686º 111.3257616/2 = 55.6628808km 55.6628808 : 0.23192867 = 240 40,077.27418 : 0.23192867 = 172,800 = 2 x 86,400 Earth’s equatorial diameter = 12,757.00336 12,757.00336 : 0.1476505019 = 86400 Number Pi = 3.14159 Circle = 360º 3.14159 : 30 = 0.008726638 = tangent of 0.49998686º Tuesday, August 9, 2011 Socket: casing-stone in average corner-socket (The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh by W. M. Flinders Petrie, Pl. XI) Architectural dimension of the Gr. Pyramid's socket sides: 9131.5 inches F. Petrie: Socket Sides: (The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh by W. M. Flinders Petrie, page 38) 0.25 inches = 0.635 cm = 6.35 mm Thursday, February 17, 2011 The Great Pyramid at Giza Egypt is the largest stone building ever constructed on Earth. The Great Pyramid is located at the center of the land mass of Earth. The architect(s) had advanced science and geography data and knew the size and shape of the continents on a global scale. The basic dimensions of the Pyramid also include measurements of the size and shape of the Earth. In the period 3000 - 2500 BC man did not have the tools or knowledge necessary to build the pyramids. Who built the pyramids? Aliens or men? The best answer is: aliens (angels) and men. Quartz occurs abundantly in many rocks, including granite. On a hardness scale (Moh's relative scale) of 1 to 10 (talc at 1, a penny at 3, a knife at 5.5, glass at 6, and a diamond at 10) most granite is rated between 6 and 7. Because of the hardness of minerals that make up granite, it requires diamonds along with water to cut and polish granite. Has it ever been demonstrated that copper or bronze can cut granite? Because that is impossible! Granite in the King's Chamber The Kings Chamber (and the Coffer) is constructed of large blocks of granite. More granite-casing stones on the East face of Menkaure's Pyramid showing an area of finished stones: Friday, August 20, 2010 Sacred Cubit = 25 inches = 63.5cm "It may be of interest, albeit of no halakhic import, to note that, based upon Josephus’ description of the circumference of the pillars of the Temple, the renowned physicist Sir Isaac Newton postulated the length of the “sacred” cubit to be between 24.90 and 25.02 inches as distinct from the “profane” cubit of 20.63 inches that he believed was the measurement employed by the Egyptians in construction of the Great Pyramid. Newton’s calculations are the subject of his “De magnitudine cubiti sacri.” An English translation of that essay titled “A Dissertation Upon the Sacred Cubit of the Jews and the Cubit of Several Nations: in which, from the Dimensions of the Greatest Pyramid, as taken by Mr. John Greaves, the ancient Cubit of Memphis is determined” was published in the Miscellaneous Works of John Greaves, Professor of Astronomy in the University of Oxford, ed. Thomas Birch, II (London, 1737), 405-433." "18. For a comprehensive survey of the bases and ramifications of those opinions see R. Jacob Gershon Weiss, Midot u-Mishkalot shel Torah (Jerusalem, 5745), pp. 198-264. 19. R. Abraham Chaim Noe, Shi’urei Torah (Jerusalem, 5707), p. 249, calculates the amah, or cubit, as 48 centimeters (18.897 inches). The identical calculation was earlier advanced by R. Shalom Mordecai Schwadron, Da’at Torah 35:116, and Darkei Teshuvah 19:27. Accordingly, the mil, which equals 2,000 cubits, is equal to a distance of 960 meters (3,149.60 feet). Rabbi Noe gives alternative calculations of the amah as equal to 47 centimeters (18.5 inches) or 49 centimeters (19.29 inches). The mil would then be the equivalent of 940 (3,083.98 feet) or 980 meters (3,215.22 feet). 20. Hazon Ish, Kuntres ha-Shi’urin, Orah Hayyim: Mo’ed 39:5-6, and 39:9, calculates the amah as 58 centimeters (22.83 inches) and, accordingly, a mil would equal 1,160 meters (3,805.77 feet). Hazon Ish also cites a report to the effect that R. Shmu’el Salant accepted calculations that would render the amah 60 centimeters or 23.62 inches and the mil 1200 meters or 3937.01 feet. Nevertheless, for purposes of stringency, R. Shmu’el Salant is reported to have accepted calculation that would yield 48 centimeters or 18.90 inches for the amah and 960 meters or 3149.61 feet for the mil. Cf., R. Ya’akov Kanievsky, Shi’urin shel Torah (Bnei Brak, 5729), who, in a note on p. 63, calculates the amah as 57 2/3 centimeters (22.70 inches) and possibly, according to Rashba, as 59.66 centimeters (23.49 inches). The mil would then be the equivalent of either a bit more than 1,153.2 meters (3,783.46 feet) or a bit more than 1,193.2 meters (3,914.6 feet). Actually, according to Rabbi Kanievsky’s own premises, the calculation of the amah as 57 2/3 centimeters is somewhat imprecise. Rabbi Kanievsky reports that “according to that which has been received by us from gedolei hora’ah, that the amah equals 13 vershak . . .” The vershak is a Russian measuring length equal to 1.75 inches or 4.445 centimeters. If so an amah is the equivalent of 57.78 centimeters (22.73 inches) and thus a mil is equal to 1,155.7 meters (3,791.66 feet). See Encylopedia Britannica, 15th ed. (Chicago, 1995), XIX, 735 (where the term is transliterated as verchok). A table compiled by Moshe, Rosa and Shimon Bodenheimmer, Shi’urin u-Middot Hazal (Jerusalem, 5725), gives the measurement of the amah as 57.6 centimeters (22.67 inches). Cf., the table published by Y. Avi-Zevi, Shanah be-Shanah, 5730, p. 125, that gives the measurement of the amah as 56 centimeters and that of the mil as 1120.37 meters. Those measurements presumably reflect the view of R. Chaim Jacob Sheftel, Erekh Milin (Berditchev, 5667), erekh ezba, according to whom the amah measures approximately 56 centimeters. See Encyclopedia Talmudit, II (Jerusalem, 5760), 29, note 56. Other less frequently cited opinions with regard to the length of an amah include those of Meshiv Davar, I, no. 24; Arukh ha-Shulhan, Yoreh De’ah 201:3; Teshuvot Hatam Sofer, Orah Hayyim, no. 181; and the earlier noted view of Erekh Milin, erekh ezba. Meshiv Davar rejects what he terms “the customarily accepted calculations” according to which the length of the amah would equal 60 centimeters and advances considerations that would yield the measurement of an amah as 48 centimeters. Nevertheless, in his concluding remarks he retracts that view and advances a calculation that would result in an amah measured “in excess of” 48 centimeters and endorses the practice of Frankfurt am Main according to which the length of the amah is calculated as 57 centimeters or 22.44 inches. Arukh ha-Shulhan states that the length of an amah is 12 “veierskes,” which is apparently the Yiddish term for the Russian vershak. Thus, according to Arukh ha-Shulhan, the length of an amah equals 53.34 centimeters or 21.0 inches. Cf., Encylopedia Talmudit, II, 29, where the length of an amah is given as 54 centimeters according to Arukh ha-Shulhan. Teshuvot Hatam Sofer states that the length of a fingerwidth is a “zoll.” Since a biblical amah is equal to 24 fingerwidths, the length of an amah according to Hatam Sofer equals 24 zoll. Da’at Torah, Yoreh De’ah, Kuntres Aharon 35:116 states that the zoll is equal to 2.6 centimeters. That calculation is apparently also assumed by Darkei Teshuvah and Encyclopedia Talmudit. [Cf., however, Encyclopedia Britannica, loc. cit., which describes the zoll as a Swiss unit of measure equal to 3 centimeters.] Encyclopedia Talmudit, ad locum, indicates that, according to Hatam Sofer, the length of an amah is 62.4 centimeters or 24.567 inches. Thus a mil, according to Hatam Sofer, would equal 1248.0 meters or 4094.49 feet. Darkei Teshuvah 19:27 notes that the amah was marginally enlarged by rabbinic decree and, accordingly, should be calculated as 241/2 zoll. Darkei Teshuvah endorses the position of Hatam Sofer and states that the length of an amah according to Hatam Sofer is 63.8 centimeters. Thus, according to Darkei Teshuvah, an amah equals 25.12 inches and, accordingly, a mil equals 1276 meters or 4186.35 feet. Hatam Sofer’s calculations are thus significantly greater than those of the earlier-cited authorities. Darkei Teshuvot also cites a certain “Rabbi of Yasi” who calculated the amah as “no more than” 52 or 53 centimeters and an anonymous scholar who differed and calculated the amah as approximately 581/2 centimeters. Darkei Teshuvah also quotes She’erit Yisra’el, Parashat Mezora, who calculates the amah as 211/6 zoll or 56 centimeters and further opines that one who calculates the amah as 221/8 zoll or 57 centimeters is to be commended. Darkei Teshuvah cites an additional source for the latter calculation as well. Da’at Torah, Yoreh De’ah, Kuntres Aharon 35:116, cites authorities who variously posit the length of an amah as 47 centimeters, 55.25 centimeters, a bit more than 57 centimeters and 58.5 centimeters, as well as one authority who asserts that according to Rashi the amah equals 43.8 centimeters, according to Shakh 45.02 centimeters, according to Taz 47.34 centimeters and according to Rambam 50 centimeters. See also the measurements ascribed to earlier authorities by Rabbi Weiss, Midot u- Mishkalot shel Torah, pp. 198-264 as well as the table presented ibid., introduction, p. 8. See also R. Moshe Shimshon Bacharach, Hut ha- Shani, no. 97. For a table correlating many of these measurements of the amah with the volume of the liquid revi’it see Midot u-Mishkalot shel Torah, introd., p. 8. Rabbi Kanievsky, Shi’urin shel Torah, p. 51, cites a discussion in the Palestinian Talmud, Terumot 10:7, that is understood by some authorities, including Riva, Commentary on the Pentateuch, Parashat Mishpatim; Ma’adanei Yom Tov, Berakhot 3:30; and Tosafot Yom Tov, Pe’ah 6:6, as indicating that a revi’it equals 240 grams. If so, an amah would appear to equal 73.368 centimeters or 28.885 inches. Rabbi Kanievsky categorizes that calculation of the revi’it as “extremely large” and as “not imagined by earlyday authorities.” Amah = Sacred Cubit Amah = Hamah = one of the three words for the Sun Radius of the Sun (R) = 695,691.4306 km Tangent β = 0.00465041 Length A-C = 1 sacred cubit = 63.5cm Earth's equator (length) = 40,077.27418 km Equator = circle= 360 degrees = 21,600 minutes 40,077.27418 : 21,600 = 1.85542936 km 1 degree (Equator) = 1.85542936 km 1 : 100.000 = 1 cm on the particular drawing = 100.000 cm in the realty A-C = 1 sacred cubit = 25 inches = 63.5 cm Circle Z (circumference) = 1.85542936 cm Diameter of the circle Z = 0.590602007 cm Radius (R) of the circle Z = 0.295301004 cm 0.295301004 : 2 = 0.147650502 cm = 1/100,000 of the G. Pyramid's height 0.295301004 : 63.5 = 0.00465041 = tangent β Sacred Cubit was created from the Earth's and the Sun's measurements.

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Ever wonder what it would be like to get shot in the head, or have your face smash into a car's windshield? Well, you can stop wondering, because you'll never know — even if it does happen to you. There are at least two major reasons why, if you die in a sudden and violent fashion, you'll literally never know what hit you. First, our brains process information too slowly. Second, there's the issue of the integrity of the cognitive functions that are responsible for conscious experience. Let's take those one by one. Living in the past You might think you're observing the present moment, but science tells us otherwise. To get a better sense of why this happens, we contacted neuroscientist David Eagleman, author of The Secret Lives of the Brain. Eagleman says that it takes time for signals to move through the brain's grey matter that's situated around the cortex. These signals travel at a rate of one meter per second — a speed that Eagleman says is "insanely slow," when compared to electricity. "It takes a while for the brain to know what's happening," he says, "so we're always living in the past." In fact, Eagleman points out that our autonomous motor systems actually react faster to external stimuli than conscious awareness. To get an appreciation of the slowness of human perception, Eagleman says it's helpful to compare it to the speed of mechanical devices. Take the anatomy of a car accident for example. It takes as long as 150 to 300 milliseconds (ms) to be aware of a collision after it happens. Other neuroscientists think it can take as much as 500 ms. Now this might not sound like a lot of time, but think of what happens during a car accident. At the 1 ms mark, the car's pressure sensor detects a collision, and at 8.5 ms the airbag system fires. At the 15 ms mark, the car starts to absorb the impact to a significant degree. It's not until the 17 ms mark that the occupant starts to make contact with the airbag, with the maximum force of the collision reaching its apex at the 30 ms point. At the 50 ms mark, the safety cell begins to rebound, and after 70 ms the passenger moves back towards the middle of car — the point at which crash-test engineers declare the event as "complete." And then, around the 150 to 300 ms mark, the occupant finally becomes aware of the collision. That's assuming of course that an airbag was deployed or that the occupant was wearing a seatbelt. Otherwise, the person wouldn't have known that they were even in a car accident. Which, if the accident was fatal, is not necessarily a bad thing. No brain, no mind If the parts of your brain that give rise to consciousness are severely impaired, then all awareness comes to a grinding halt. These all-important areas include the frontal cortex (attention and short-term memory), thalamus (regulation of consciousness and alertness), temporal gyrus (perception and comprehension), and the hippocampus (memory and spatial awareness). According to Eagleman, damage to the cortex and thalamus will often induce a comatose state. But not all brain trauma is catastrophic in this way. Eagleman notes that conscious awareness can remain intact when the cerebellum (the "mini brain") is damaged. Moreover, it's not yet known how consciousness gets built from pieces of these parts. "The whole system does seem to be involved in conscious awareness," says Eagleman, "but as more parts of the brain gets damaged, consciousness gets degraded." Consciousness is a fragile thing that appears to be dependent on consistent electrical signals traveling around the brain. Subsequently, hard blows to the head will cause the system to "reboot". When experiencing a massive head trauma, like a head hitting a dashboard, the brain is smashed around the inside of the skull, often causing fatal results - results that could never really be perceived. Bullets in the brain Interestingly, bullets can cause different problems than blunt brain trauma. As Rachel Swaby noted in her article, "What Happens When You Get Shot in the Head," a victim may have no chance of responding to what's happening. A bullet travels through the brain faster than the speed at which tissues tear. They push tissues out of the way, stretching them beyond their breaking points — and that's when the problems start: The ability to process information and solve problems? All gone when the bullet shoves its way through your prefrontal cortex. Your ability to index memories? Gone with your hippocampus. In the bullet's wake, a long temporary cavity is left. When the tearing finally does happen, your tissues will snap back toward the initial opening and overshoot their original position. You know that back and forth thing that happens when you kick one of those springy door stops? Well that's what your tissues do when the shock waves kick them. Now that said, it's well documented that some people can survive being shot in the head. In fact, one-third of patients with a gunshot wound to the head survive, though 50% of them don't survive longer than 30 days. And those that do survive tend to have to deal with severe cognitive impairments. In most of these cases, the bullet did not cross through the midline, which is almost always fatal. Eagleman says that many people survive shots to the head because bullets are relatively small and travel at high velocity. When shot just right, a bullet can quickly enter and exit the skull without inflicting too much damage. Perhaps the best example of someone surviving a gunshot wound is the remarkable story of former Arizona Congresswoman Gabrielle Giffords. In her case, the bullet entered at the back of her skull and exited through the front, travelling through the left side of her brain. For Giffords, the areas affected included her speech centers and other non-life threatening functions. Moreover, surgeons did not have to remove much dead brain tissue and they were able to subdue swelling. They also didn't have to deal with any dangerous infections. Giffords is clearly very lucky to be alive. But as for those brain injuries that can quickly turn the insides of your skull into mush, I wouldn't worry too much about it. You'll be going from zero to oblivion faster than you can finish reading this sentence. Image via Shutterstock.com / Frank Wasserfuehrer.

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U.S. Water Policy: Water Security is Human Security “It’s not every day you find an issue where effective diplomacy and development will allow you to save millions of lives, feed the hungry, empower women, advance our national security interests, protect the environment, and demonstrate to billions of people that the United States cares, cares about you and your welfare. Water is that issue.” - Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton Why Water? Why Now? Water scarcity is one of the greatest challenges of our time. Growing populations, expanding economies, and climate change are putting water resources under increasing pressure. Consider this: right now, 1.5 million people die every year for lack of clean water and sanitation. In just 20 years, the world’s demand for freshwater is expected to outstrip supply by 40 percent. Meeting the Challenge U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton established water as a top U.S. foreign policy priority on World Water Day 2010. The U.S. Government believes that investments in water and sanitation will translate into improved health, greater economic sustainability and a safe living environment for everyone, and everything, on the planet. Increasing Diplomatic Efforts The United States is coordinating with donor countries and international organizations to raise the priority given to water and sanitation issues, increase the exchange of information, and to encourage and strengthen regional cooperation. Building Capacity through New Partnerships Public-private partnerships are key to bolstering government efforts to address global water challenges. The Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) are collaborating with entities such as the World Health Organization, CARE, UNICEF, private sector foundations and foreign governments. For instance, MCC will contribute $275 million through the Jordan Compact to work with countries in the Middle East on water and sanitation projects. And through the Water and Development Alliance, USAID’s partnership with Coca-Cola has mobilized more than $28 million since 2006 and provided improved water access to 500,000 people in 20 developing countries. Sharing Science and Technology Solutions Technology can provide critical information and lead to innovative solutions to the world’s water challenges. The United States shares information gathered from satellites with other nations to predict floods and famine, while using existing low-tech solutions such as clay filters, solar disinfection, and household water purification to make water potable. Through a new agreement with the World Bank, the U.S. Government will mobilize its knowledge resources to assist the world’s most vulnerable populations. Leveraging New Resources Through the Senator Paul Simon Water for the Poor Act (2005), the U.S. Government has provided $3.4 billion for the water sector and sanitation programs in developing countries around the globe. U.S. financial institutions such as the Export-Import Bank of the United States (Ex-Im Bank), USAID’s Development Credit Office and the U.S. Trade and Development Agency (USTDA) are working to leverage and mobilize additional private capital for the water sector.

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CHAMPAIGN, Ill. -- With the goal of improving the natural biological control of flies, scientists have scoured Illinois feedlots. After three years of study, they say that two parasitic wasps known as Spalangia endius and Spalangia nigoraenea are especially important in the Midwest and actually could emerge as weapons. Such is the finding of a study of parasites that feed on stable and house flies in Illinois. Both types of flies are well-known pests. Stable flies feed on the blood of cattle, annoy other livestock and adversely affect production, and, like house flies, are a public health problem among humans. Researchers from the University of Illinois collected fly pupae from manure, spilled feed, along fence lines, near water sources and waste piles of straw and hay at feedlots. The scientists then looked for the presence of either emerging flies or the parasites that kill them. The predominant parasites that kill flies are tiny wasps. As in the movie "Alien," the wasps lay their eggs inside a host, in this case within a fly pupa, killing the host from within. The egg hatches and the parasite larva feeds on the dead fly's pupa before emerging as an adult about a month later. Spalangia endius wasps, although rare or absent in similar studies in Kansas and Nebraska, were common in southern Illinois. Because these wasps already are reared and sold as a biological control, mostly for use in California and Northeast dairies, they may be worth a closer look as a biological control in Illinois, said U. of I. agricultural entomologist Richard Weinzierl. The findings were published in the April issue of Environmental Entomology. Working with Weinzierl on the project, which was funded by the USDA and the U. of I., was Carl J. Jones, a U. of I. veterinary pathobiologist. "In general, endius had been written off as ineffective and unimportant in the Midwest, where we have harsh summers and Contact: Jim Barlow University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

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You press a button and wait for your elevator. How long before you get impatient and agitated? Theresa Christy says 20 seconds. As a mathematician steeped in the theories of vertical transportation at Otis Elevator Co., Ms. Christy, 55, has spent a quarter-century developing systems that make elevators run as perfectly as possible—which means getting most riders into a car in less than 20 seconds. "Traditionally, the wait time is the most important factor," she says. "The thing people hate the most is waiting." Developed in the 19th century, elevators transformed urban living, real estate markets and skylines around the world. As an Otis research fellow, Ms. Christy gets to work on the toughest problems and on signature projects like the 1,483-foot-high Petronas Towers in Malaysia, for a time the world's tallest building. During the recent $550 million upgrade of the Empire State Building, Ms. Christy was asked whether she could help get more people up to the observation deck. She said she couldn't get more people into a car but could move them up more quickly. So she increased the elevators' speed by 20%, to 20 feet per second. Now the cars can rise 80 floors in about 48 seconds, 10 seconds faster than before. Ms. Christy strikes down one common myth—that "door close" buttons don't work. Sometimes they do, sometimes they don't, she says. It depends on the building's owner. The challenges she deals with depend on the place. At a hotel in the holy city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia, she has to make sure that the elevators can clear a building quickly enough to get most people out five times a day for prayer. In Japan, riders immediately want to know which car will serve them—indicated by a light and the sound of a gong—even if the elevator won't arrive for 30 seconds. That way, people can line up in front of the correct elevator. Japan also boasts, in Ms. Christy's opinion, the smoothest, best-riding elevators. "When you get into an elevator there, you sometimes think you are 'stuck' in the elevator because the motion is so smooth and quiet," she says. But that service comes with extra costs and slower speeds. Another problem: How many people fit in an elevator? In Asia, more people will board a car than in Europe or New York, Ms. Christy says; Westerners prefer more personal space. When she programs an elevator system she uses different weights for the average person by region. The average American is 22 pounds heavier than the average Chinese. At their core, elevators are a mode of transportation. Serving passengers well is constrained by the number of elevators, their speed, how fast their doors open and close, and how many people can fit in a car. In the U.S., these factors come together 18 billion times a year, each time a passenger rides an elevator. That experience is at the heart of what Ms. Christy does. From her sparse second-floor office in a leafy office park in Farmington, Conn., she writes strings of code that allow elevators to do essentially the greatest good for the most people—including the building's owner, who has to allocate considerable space for the concrete shafts that house the cars. Her work often involves watching computer simulation programs that replay elevator decision-making. "I feel like I get paid to play videogames. I watch the simulation, and I see what happens, and I try to improve the score I am getting," she says. Here is a typical problem: A passenger on the sixth floor wants to descend. The closest car is on the seventh floor, but it already has three riders and has made two stops. Is it the right choice to make that car stop again? That would be the best result for the sixth-floor passenger, but it would make the other people's rides longer. For Ms. Christy, these are mathematical problems with no one optimum solution. In the real world, there are so many parameters and combinations that everything changes as soon as the next rider presses a button. In a building with six elevators and 10 people trying to move between floors, there are over 60 million possible combinations—too many, she says, for the elevator's computer to process in split seconds. "We are constantly seeking the magic balance," says the Wellesley math major. "Sometimes what is good for the individual person isn't good for the rest." A named inventor on 14 patents, Ms. Christy has a few more pending. She refers to the latest of them as the "surfboard feature." The idea came from a joke with colleagues when they were leaving one night after a dinner out. They sheepishly worried whether someday elevators might display a rider's weight. (Elevators already calculate the total weight in the car.) The joke got Ms. Christy thinking of a feature that would allow people with a bulky or heavy item to have a car to themselves. So she and her colleagues created a system that can be programmed to allocate an empty car to a user. The feature would give users like hotel bellhops a numeric code that is punched in before entering the elevator. (A hotel in Hawaii considered using it to prevent surfers from disturbing other guests with their surfboards—hence its name.) The feature is generally used now by staff in hotels and office buildings. One part of Ms. Christy's career didn't go as planned. With aspirations of getting into management, Ms. Christy got her M.B.A. from Babson College, but the role didn't suit her. "I thought I wanted to be a manager," she said. "But I really like solving the puzzles myself. I didn't like assigning them to other people. I was a little jealous." Write to Kate Linebaugh at email@example.com

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The smokybrown cockroach, Periplaneta fuliginosa, is a fairly large roach, and one of my personal favorites. It is closely related to the american cockroach P. americana, however is easily distinguishable from it. It has a uniformly dark brown mahogany colour. Its thorax is dark and shiny, unlike the light rimmed pattern of the American cockroach. This is one of the most popular cockroaches, and one of the most loathed. It is very common in Japan and the sub-tropical southern US as an introduced peridomestic species. In some localities it may account for almost 80% of cockroaches captured near homes. This roach can be found in Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, and other moist gulf coastal states, and along the southern Mississippi River. It prefers warmer climates and is not cold tolerant, however, it may be able to survive indoors in colder climates. It does well in moist conditions and it seems to be most commonly concentrated in moist concealed areas. It often lives around the perimeter of buildings, and it is common species outdoors. It can feed off a wide array of organic (including decaying) matter; like most cockroaches, it is a scavenger. It tends to lose more moisture than its relatives and requires water every 2-3 days. It may come indoors to look for food, and even to live, however, in warm weather it may move outdoors and enter buildings looking for food. More on the Periplaneta species: - There are over 50 species in the genus Periplaneta, from P. aboriginea of Australia to P. vosseleri of Tanzania. - None of the Periplaneta species are endemic to the Americas; despite the name, P. americana was introduced to the United States from Africa as early as 1625. They are now common in tropical climates because human activity has extended the insect’s range of habitation, and global shipping has transported the insects all around the world. - Periplaneta is nocturnal, negatively phototactic, and prefers dark warm, moist habitats. It is acutely sensitive to vibrations and is one of the world’s fastest running insects. - Periplaneta americana is one of several cockroaches found near (peridomestic) or in (domiciliary) human habitations. Such insects are referred to as synanthropic (= with man). - Cockroach population density is controlled naturally by several species of parasitic wasps including Evania and Aprostocetus that attack cockroach oothecae (egg cases). - Periplaneta, nor any other type of cockroaches, are actual biological vectors for human disease, although they can serve as mechanical vectors simply by harboring infectious organisms such as Ascaris eggs, bacteria, or protozoan cysts on their body surfaces. The American cockroach is the host for the cystacanth stage of the rat intestinal acanthocephalan, Moniliformis moniliformis. - Periplaneta is available at modest cost, alive or preserved, from biological supply companies. They are useful laboratory specimens.

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An audio pioneer who has worked with the likes of Stevie Wonder, Bon Jovi and Pink Floyd, Stephen Ambrose is on a quest to perfect sound quality. His most recent innovation is a modification for ear buds, hearing aids and other in-ear devices that alleviates pressure and its subsequent "listener fatigue"—the discomfort and even pain some people experience with devices that seal the ear canal. To better understand what led to this discovery, we must look back to Ambrose's musical career, which led to his founding of Asius Technologies. As a musician, Ambrose wanted an alternative to temperamental stage monitors, which required very particular volume controls to function properly, and gave distracting feedback. His solution was to invent the Micro Monitor, the first in-ear sound monitor. Each Micro Monitor was custom-fit for each ear. The device helped to prevent feedback and ultimately replaced bulky sound equipment. A circuit in the Micro Monitors allowed each monitor to adapt to a musician's given environment. "This circuit was an acoustic path that allowed the reverse pressures created in the back of the speaker to mitigate the harmful pressures caused in the ear canal," said Ambrose. Ambrose also developed Micro Mics—microphones that could be mounted on instruments, replacing mics that picked up superfluous sounds. Not only were the Micro Monitors and Mics efficient, they made costly stage equipment and transport unnecessary. They quickly gained popularity as well as high-profile users such as Diana Ross and Guns N' Roses. "Very few concert goers realize that deafening sound volumes commonly experienced on stage sound horrible compared to performing the same music in a recording studio," said Ambrose. "My Micro Monitors brought studio fidelity to live performances." But Ambrose came to realize that in-ear monitors caused discomfort after prolonged use. He purchased sound equipment to remove the audio fatigue and over-excursion caused by the devices, only to learn that these issues could not be engineered out of the sound mix, because their root was physiological. In a paper presented at the Audio Engineering Society Convention in May 2011, Ambrose and his colleagues addressed the adverse effects of in-ear listening devices. They said that in-ear devices affect the natural acoustics of an open ear system: "Audio speakers, when inserted and sealed in the human ear, can produce large oscillations in pressure within the ear canal, even when the speakers are operated at what would normally be considered modest input power. These pressures differ from the acoustical sound pressures as they normally exist in open air or in larger confined volumes." The oscillating static pressures in the confined space of the ear canal cause an increase in sound pressure, which in turn activates a defense mechanism called the stapedius reflex (also known as the acoustic reflex). Ironically, the reflex dampens the incoming loud sound, which in turn causes the listener to turn the volume even higher, thus further increasing pressure in the ear. The oscillating static pressures also strain the tympanic membrane (the ear drum). To make matters worse, there is an occlusion effect that causes a person's voice to boom in his or her own head. If you want to know what that might feel like, cover both of your ears and talk. Now, multiply that many times over and you have what musicians and hearing-aid users experience. Ear strain solution Ambrose's proposed solution is a synthetic membrane placed over a vent. The membrane is made of expanded polytetrafluoroethylene, Ambrose said, a material popularized as Teflon and Gore-Tex. The membrane is designed to circumvent the pressure in the closed ear canal. It is made of flexible material that can change formation to help relieve the pressure. When the researchers tested the membrane within an ear bud, they observed decreased levels of static pressure oscillations, which in turn reduced sound pressure, therefore helping to avoid the activation of the acoustic reflex. Over-excursions of the ear drum were also reduced. Building on this idea, Ambrose and his colleagues created a separate corrective device, the Ambrose Diaphonic Ear Lens. The ear lens is a seal that is inflated using the Asius Diaphonic Pump, another innovation by Ambrose and his colleagues. The inflatable seal expands to fit any ear and helps alleviate pressure on the ear canal. The pump harnesses power from the motion of the in-ear device itself, whether an iPod or a hearing aid. A second paper presented by Ambrose and his colleagues at the meeting, explains how the diaphonic pump manipulates a small orifice known as a synthetic jet. A normal synthetic jet moves fluid, such as air, to exert force and is normally an open system. The fluids traveling between an energy source and a standard synthetic jet are not isolated, preventing the static pressure buildup necessary to power the pump. To counter this, the researchers created a closed system. It encloses the opening from which the jet pumps its fluid, in this case air. "This closed system contains fluid pumped by the device and also contains the static pressure which the device generates," the paper said. The resulting sequence is as follows: Music turns on, pressure from sound volume stimulates the pump, fluid is pumped through the synthetic jet and the seal inflates comfortably in the ear. There is no risk of over-inflation, or the pump being thrown off by quick volume adjustments. The ear lens and the pump work together to provide a more comfortable feel than many standard hearing aids provide. The original devices Ambrose invented, which are still in use, seal both ears, decrease space and increase the amount of pressure in the ear canal. However, the pressure in the ear canal constricts the ear drum's movement, while the speaker increases strain on the ear drum, activates the acoustic reflex and encourages the occlusion effect. The Ambrose Diaphonic Ear Lens, which functions with the aid of the Diaphonic Pump, removes these negatives as well as the original problem, listener fatigue. For Ambrose, this innovation has been a long time coming. He gives a lot of credit to Stevie Wonder for helping guide development of the initial innovation, and the influence Wonder has had on Ambrose so many years later in the quest for the perfect sound. "His perception, music-wise and fidelity-wise, guided me for the first five years. He's the guy that made this happen," said Ambrose. Explore further: Student-built innovations to help improve and save lives

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There isn't a huge difference in the way residential homes are built in Japan compared to in the U.S., although the Japanese are more likely to invest in special earthquake engineering, particularly in commercial and higher-end residential buildings. Home builders in both Japan and the U.S. use a lot of wood-frame construction, which is flexible and tends to ride out a quake fairly well, said Heidi Faison, outreach director at the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center in Berkeley, Calif. But wood frame structures do have potential vulnerabilities in two key areas: the foundation and the wall that supports a crawl space, which is called a cripple wall. She recommends home buyers hire an engineer to make sure the wood frame is bolted to the foundation. If a house has a crawl space underneath it or you need to climb a few steps to get up to the first floor, it likely is supported by a cripple wall, which can buckle in an earthquake. If you're in an earthquake-prone location, that space needs to be filled in with a solid material. Gary Ehrlick, a structural engineer and program manager for Structural Codes & Standards at the National Association of Home Builders, outlines some other house features to consider: • Look at the garage, if the house has one. A large garage door opening or a lot of big windows on the first floor, that can create a soft story -- an open space without enough support to withstand violent shaking. • Brick veneer can present a major hazard if it's not attached well. Brick was a problem in the 6.3 magnitude temblor that struck New Zealand last month. "It doesn't create as much of a hazard inside, but outside it can injure or kill,'' he said. • Houses built on a slope are often an issue. They need to be tied back well with footings. Also make sure the slope is stable. Liquefaction -- where saturated soil becomes liquid -- can be a problem and can occur when a building is located near a lake or river. In an earthquake, liquefaction can cause the ground to behave like quicksand, as seen in New Zealand and in the 1989 earthquake in Loma Prieta in the mountains of Santa Cruz, Calif. In Japan, most of the damage was actually inflicted by the subsequent tsunami, just as most of the destruction in the San Francisco quake of 1906 was caused by fires that ripped through the city after gas lines were ruptured. A disaster's chain of events makes the preparation scenario a bit more complicated. There is a growing interest in designing homes better able to survive a tsunami. The basic idea in tsunami design, as in flood-resistant construction is to get some of your structure up above the expected level of water, said Gary Ehrlick. "In commercial structures they talk about vertical evacuation zones.'' Under this theory, the first floor, built out of concrete or steel, is strong enough to withstand the pressure of the water. The "zone of refuge'' occupies the upper floors. Another concept that came out of the earthquake/tsunami that leveled Banda Aceh, Indonesia, on Check out our gallery of Day in 2004 is a house where the first floor allows the wave to wash through it, destroying the walls but preserving the foundation. This would be a concrete frame with columns or wall segments in each corner of the house. The walls are panels made out of something light, like bamboo or wood. After a disaster, such panels would be easy to replace. Check out our photo gallery of a tsunami-resistant home designed by Kazunori Fujimoto Architect & Associates: Gallery: See Photos of Earthquake Proof Home More on AOL Real Estate: Find out how to calculate mortgage payments. Find homes for sale in your area. Find foreclosures in your area. Get property tax help from our experts.

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LOBOTOMY (from the Greek lobos, meaning lobes of the brain, and tomos, meaning cut) is a psychosurgical procedure in which the connections the prefrontal cortex and underlying structures are severed, or the frontal cortical tissue is destroyed, the theory being that this leads to the uncoupling of the brain’s emotional centres and the seat of intellect (in the subcortical structures and the frontal cortex, respectively). The lobotomy was first performed on humans in the 1890s. About half a century later, it was being touted by some as a miracle cure for mental illness, and its use became widespread; during its heyday in the 1940s and ’50s, the lobotomy was performed on some 40,000 patients in the United States, and on around 10,000 in Western Europe. The procedure became popular because there was no alternative, and because it was seen to alleviate several social crises: overcrowding in psychiatric institutions, and the increasing cost of caring for mentally ill patients. Although psychosurgery has been performed since the dawn of civilization, the origins of the modern lobotomy are found in animal experiments carried out towards the end of the nineteenth century. The German physiologist Friedrich Goltz (1834-1902) performed ablations of the neocortex in dogs, and observed the changes in behaviour that occurred as a result: I have mentioned that dogs with a large lesion in the anterior part of the brain generally show a change in character in the sense that they become excited and quite apt to become irate. Dogs with large lesions of the occipital lobe on the other hand become sweet and harmless, even when they were quite nasty before. These findings inspired the physician Gottlieb Burkhardt (1836- ?), the director of a small asylum in Prefargier, Switzerland, to use ablations of the cortex to try and cure his mentally ill patients. In 1890, Burkhardt removed parts of the frontal cortex from 6 of his schizophrenic patients. One of these patients later committed suicide, and another died within one week of his surgery. Thus, although Burkhardt believed that his method had been somewhat successful, he faced strong opposition, and stopped experimenting with brain surgery. It was not until the 1930s that lobotomy was again performed on humans. The modern procedure was pioneered at that time by the Portugese neuropsychiatrist Antonio Egas Moniz, a professor at the University of Lisbon Medical School. While attending a frontal lobe symposium in London, Moniz learned of the work of Carlyle Jacobsen and John Fulton, both of whom were experimental neurologists at Yale University. Jacobsen and Fulton reported that frontal and prefrontal cortical damage in chimpanzees led to a massive reduction in aggression, while complete removal of the frontal cortex led to the inability to induce experimental neuroses in the chimps. Here, they describe the post-operational behaviour of a chimp named “Becky”, who had previously got extremely distressed after making mistakes during the task she had learnt: The chimpanzee…went to the experimental cage. The usual procedure of baiting the cup and lowering the opaque screen was followed…If the animal made a mistake, it showed no evidence of emotional disturbance but quietly awaited the loading of the cups for the next trial. It was as if the animal had joined the “happiness cult of the Elder Micheaux,” and had placed its burdens on the Lord! On hearing the presentation by Jacobsen and Fulton, Moniz asked if the surgical procedure would be beneficial for people with otherwise untreatable psychoses. Although the Yale researchers were shocked by the question, Moniz, together with his colleague Almeida Lima, operated on his first patient some three months later. On November, 12th, 1935, Moniz and Lima performed for the first time what they called a prefrontal leucotomy (“white matter cutting”). The operation was carried out on a female manic depressive patient, and lasted about 30 minutes. The patient was first anaesthetized, and her skull was trepanned on both sides (that is, holes were drilled through the bone). Then, absolute alcohol was injected through the holes in the skull, into the white matter beneath the prefrontal area. In this way, two of the bundles of nerve fibres connecting the frontal cortex and the thalamus were severed. (The thalamus is a subcortical structure that relays sensory information to the neocortex, and the thalamo-cortical projections are called the corona radiata.) Moniz reported that the patient seemed less anxious and paranoid afterwards, and pronounced the operation a success. Subsequently, he and Lima used a knife, which, when inserted through the holes in skull and moved back and forth within the brain substance would sever the thalamo-cortical connections. They later developed a special wire knife called a leucotome, which had an open steel loop at its end; when closed, the loop severed the nerve tracts within it. These procedures were “blind” – the exact path of the leucotome could not be determined, so the operations produced mixed results. In some cases, there were improvements in behaviour; in others, there was no noticable difference; and in yet others, the symptoms being treated became markedly worse. In all, Moniz and Lima operated on approximately 50 patients. The best results were obtained in patients with mood disorders, while the treatment was least effective in schizophrenics. In 1936, Moniz published his findings in medical journals, and travelled to London, where he presented his work to others in the medical community. In 1949, he was shot four times by one of his patients (not one who had been lobotomized); one of the bullets entered his spine and remained lodged there until his death some years later. In the same year as the shooting, Moniz was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine, for his innovations in neurosurgery. The American clinical neurologist Walter Freeman (1895-1972) had been following the work of Moniz closely, and had also attended the symposium on the frontal lobe. It was Freeman who introduced the lobotomoy to the United States, and who would later become the biggest advocate of the technique. With neurosurgeon James Watts, Freeman refined the technique developed by Moniz. They changed the name of the technique to “lobotomy”, to emphasize that it was white and grey matter that was being destroyed. The Freeman-Watts Standard Procedure was used for the first time in September 1936. Also known as “the precision method”, this involved inserting a blunt spatula through holes in both sides of the skull; the instrument was moved up and down to sever the thalamo-cortical fibers (above). However, Freeman was unhappy with the new procedure. He considered it to be both time-consuming and messy, and so developed a quicker method, the so-called “ice-pick”lobotomy, which he performed for the first time on January 17th, 1945. With the patient rendered unconscious by electroshock, an instrument was inserted above the eyeball through the orbit using a hammer. Once inside the brain, the instrument was moved back and forth; this was then repeated on the other side. (The ice-pick lobotomy, named as such because the instrument used resembled the tool with which ice is broken, is therefore also known as the transorbital lobotomy. The photograph at the top shows Freeman performing the procedure on an unidentified patient.) Freeman’s new technique could be performed in about 10 minutes. Because it did not require anaesthesia, it could be performed outside of the clinical setting, and lobotomized patients did not need hospital internment afterwards. Thus, Freeman often performed lobotomies in his Washington D.C. office, much to the horror of Watts, who would later dissociate himself from his former colleague and the procedure. Freeman happily performed ice-pick lobotomies on anyone who was referred to him. During his career, he would perform almost 3,500 operations. Like the leucotomies performed by Moniz and Lima, those performed by Freeman were blind, and also gave mixed results. Some of his patients could return to work, while others were left in something like a vegetative state. Most famously, Freeman lobotomized President John F. Kennedy’s sister Rosemary, who was incapacitated by the operation, which was performed on her when she was 23 years of age. And, on December 16th, 1960, Freeman notoriosly performed an ice-pick lobotomy on a 12-year-old boy named Howard Dully, at the behest of Dully’s stepmother, who had grown tired of his defiant behaviour. My stepmother hated me. I never understood why, but it was clear she’d do anything to get rid of me…If you saw me you’d never know I’d had a lobotomy. The only thing you’d notice is that I’m very tall and weigh about 350 pounds. But I’ve always felt different – wondered if something’s missing from my soul. I have no memory of the operation, and never had the courage to ask my family about it. So [recently] I set out on a journey to learn everything I could about my lobotomy…It took me years to get my life together. Through it all I’ve been haunted by questions: ‘Did I do something to deserve this?, Can I ever be normal?’, and, most of all, ‘Why did my dad let this happen?’ Howard Dully during his ice-pick lobotomy, Dec. 16th, 1960. (George Washington University Gelman Library) Dully’s mother had died when he was 5 years old, and his father subsequently remarried a woman named Lou. Freeman’s notes later revealed that Lou Dully feared her stepson, and described him as “defiant and savage-looking”. According to the notes: He doesn’t react to either love or punishment. He objects to going to to bed but then sleeps well. He does a good deal of daydreaming and when asked about it says ‘I don’t know.’ He turns the room’s lights on when there is broad daylight outside. Freeman recorded the events leading up to Dully’s lobotomy: [Nov. 30, 1960] Mrs. Dully came in for a talk about Howard. Things have gotten much worse and she can barely endure it. I explained to Mrs. Dully that the family should consider the possibility of changing Howard’s personality by means of transorbital lobotomy. Mrs. Dully said it was up to her husband, that I would have to talk with him and make it stick. [Dec. 3, 1960] Mr. and Mrs. Dully have apparently decided to have Howard operated on. I suggested [they] not tell Howard anything about it. Following the operation, the notebook reads: I told Howard what I’d done to him…and he took it without a quiver. He sits quietly, grinning most of the time and offering nothing. Now in his late fifties, Dully works as a bus driver in California. About 40 years after his lobotomy, he discussed the operation with his father for the first time. He discovered that it was his stepmother who had found Dr. Freeman, after being told by other doctors that there was nothing wrong, and that his father had been manipulated by his second wife and Freeman into allowing the operation to be performed. It was largely because of Freeman that the lobotomy became so popular during the 1940s and ’50s. He travelled across the U. S., teaching his technique to groups of psychiatrists who were not qualified to perform surgery. Freeman was very much a showman; he often deliberately tried to shock observers by performing two-handed lobotomies, or by performing the operation in a production line manner. (He once lobotomized 25 women in a single day.) Journalists were often present on his “tours” of hospitals, so that his appearance would end up on the front page of the local newspaper; he was also featured in highly popular publications such as Time and Life. Often, these news stories exaggerated the success of lobotomy in alleviating the symptoms of mental illness. Consequently, the use of lobotomies became widespread. As well as being used to treat the criminally insane, lobotomies were also used to “cure” political dissidents. It was alleged that the procedure was used routinely on prisoners against their will, and the use of lobotomies was strongly criticised on the grounds that it infringed the civil liberties of the patients. An excellent account of the effects of lobotomy, and of the ethical implications of the use of the procedure, can be found in Ken Kesey’s book One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest. (This was made into a film in 1975, by Milos Forman, who received the Academy Award for Best Director. Jack Nicholson won the award for Best Actor in a Lead Role.) The use of lobotomies began to decline in the mid- to late-1950s, for several reasons. Firstly, although there had always been critics of the technique, opposition to its use became very fierce. Secondly, and most importantly, phenothiazine-based neuroleptic (anti-psychotic) drugs, such as chlorpromazine, became widely available. These had much the same effect as psychosurgery gone wrong; thus, the surgical method was quickly superseded by the chemical lobotomy.

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SMART Document Camera Turn real objects into digital content with the SMART Document Camera. It’s a great way to demonstrate, explore and understand– even when concepts are abstract or complex. - Sharp, detailed imagesNow you can view images and videos in greater detail, thanks to the 5 megapixel (MP) camera, 80x zoom and 1080 video resolution. - Record Audio & VideoThe built in microphone enables easy video and audio recording to create multimedia content for lessons and student presentations. - Share images across distanceUse the document camera with video conferencing software like Bridgit conferencing software to share images with students outside your classroom. - Explore in 3DUse the document camera's Mixed Reality Tools and a digital marker to view objects in 3D. It's a hands-on experience that offers new perspectives. - Take learning anywhere The new SMART Document Camera is ready when you are. Just fold up the flexible arm and go. Capture images and create multimedia lessons Create more engaging lesson content by easily capturing images, video and audio with the SMART Document Camera. It's all easy – access the document camera from your SMART Notebook lesson with just one touch. You can even take a video of a science experiment with the document camera, save it on USB and use it in your next class and students can record their demonstrations during presentations for later review. The SMART Document Camera is a perfect fit with other SMART products because you can control it right from your SMART Notebook lesson – with just one touch. It's easy to show images on your SMART interactive display, LightRaise interactive projector or SMART Table interactive learning center. Inspire students as they learn When you can take an object – a leaf, for example – and display it for all to see, it's easier for students to understand higher-level concepts like photosynthesis. You have a visual, kinesthetic way to teach and learn. Mixed Reality Tools included The SMART Document Camera allows objects to be viewed in 3D through Mixed Reality Tools. This provides students with a hands-on experience that engages students of all learning styles and helps them understand complex, abstract and conceptual content.

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Lean manufacturing refers to the manufacturing system which is based on the principle of minimizing waste and maximizing value in the manufacturing process. A widely held view of lean manufacturing or lean production is that it is just a means for scheduling production that results in minimal levels of inventory. But in the truest sense, the system represents a philosophy that includes every aspect of manufacturing, from designing to after the sale of a product. The philosophy is to pursue a system that performs well with low levels of inventory, minimal waste, minimal space, and minimal transaction- laterally, a ‘lean’ system. As a result, the system is not prone to interruptions and is flexible in terms of product variety and range of volume that it can handle.

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It is from here that we find the famous quote inscribed on the Liberty Bell, “Proclaim liberty throughout the land, to all the inhabitants.” (Leviticus 25:10) The verse is in the middle of a section of laws describing The Jubilee. Every person receives his or her possessions back. Every slave or indentured servant is allowed to return to his family. The earth is given an extra year in which to regain its vitality. Imagine if we lived in such a balanced world today. When you purchased something, you knew that it was really only yours on a temporary basis. It would return to the original owner when the jubilee year came. Imagine if all the slaves in the 1800s were allowed to return to their families when the jubilee year arrived. Would that have been the end of slavery in the South? The jubilee year exists to remind us that each of us is equal. No matter what we have at a given time — no matter how rich or how poor, what we can buy or what we need to sell — we are all equal human beings and there will be a time when that equality must be restored. The question is, do we need to wait that long to help reach a world where we treat everyone as equals? (This column is a service of the Greater Pittsburgh Rabbinical Association.)

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An Analysis of Texas Waterways For assistance with accessibility on any TPWD documents, please contact email@example.com A Report on the Physical Characteristics of Rivers, Streams, and Bayous in Texas Major Waterways of West Texas This section contains maps and an analysis of the more popular and scenic sections of rivers in West Texas. It has been found that West Texas waterways are characterized by fluctuating water levels, an arid desert environment, many excellent rapids and outstanding scenic qualities. Rising in northwest Sutton County, the Devils River flows south through Val Verde County to join the Rio Grande near Del Rio. The total length of the river is approximately 100 miles. Because of the arid nature of the region through which it flows, the Devils River is intermittent for much of its length. In some stretches, the river goes completely underground then rises again downstream. Many springs add water to the river throughout its course. Also, most of the creeks that flow into the river are spring-fed. Therefore, the normal volume of water in the river progressively increases downstream. The water-quality of the Devils River is excellent, and many consider it to be the cleanest naturally flowing stream remaining in Texas. The water is filtered through sand and gravel deposits and is so clear that the bottom can seen even in deep pools. Water levels are subject to extreme fluctuations, from flash floods to a trickle; therefore, the river's potential for recreational use is seasonal, except in the far downstream sections. The overall scenic beauty, water quality, remoteness, and white-water recreational experiences found on the Devils River mark it as one of the few rivers in Texas retaining truly "wild" characteristics. Farm-to-Market 189 to Baker's Crossing The upper reaches of the Devils River, from FM 189 to the southernmost crossing of State Highway 163 is intermittent. In some stretches, the river flows completely underground, but eventually rises again downstream. Many springs feed the river, and the volume of water in the river progressively increases as the river moves downstream. Water levels are subject to extreme fluctuations, from flash floods to a trickle. Therefore, the potential for recreational use of this upper section is restricted to seasonal use. The water quality is exceptional since it flows over sand and gravel. Numerous rapids exist. State Highway 163 to Rough Canyon Recreation Area This 44-mile section of the Devils River is one of the finest wilderness waterways in Texas. Recreational use is possible below the southernmost SH 163 crossing at the low water bridge. The property around the bridge is private. Although the water levels may fluctuate, there is usually enough water for recreational use on a year-round basis. The river flows through a narrow valley which becomes almost canyon-like at times. In many places the riverbed is solid rock which has been channeled and fluted by water action. Numerous rapids exist, and in some cases it is necessary to portage hazardous areas. Dolan Falls is located approximately 14 miles downstream from the SH 163 crossing, just below the Dolan Creek junction. This is a magnificent falls, and is one of the largest falls in Texas which spans the width of a major watercourse. A portage is necessary at this point. Below Dolan Falls the Devils River begins to widen and deepen gradually, and there is an abundance of rapids. This area is largely uninhabited and stream bank activities are mostly restricted to ranching. Just downstream from where the Dry Devils River intersects the main stream, the Devils River begins to widen out and take on the characteristics of an arm of Amistad Reservoir. The last 20 miles of this section consist of still water and low canyon walls. The open lake is hazardous during storm and wind conditions. Rough Canyon Recreation Area, which is administered by the National Park Service (8 miles west of US 277/377), is a potential access point. Waterway features and distance between each are as follows: SH 163 crossing (Baker's Crossing) - 20 miles north of Comstock. A private camp is located just above the crossing. Camping facilities are available for a fee. Dolan Creek - enters on the left. (14 miles) Dolan Falls - a major waterfall is located just below Dolan Creek. In this area, the river drops approximately 25 feet. Dry Devils River - enters on the left. (8 miles) Dead Man's Canyon - enters on the right. (5 miles) Big Satan Creek - enters on the left. (7 miles) Rough Canyon Recreation Area - on Amistad Reservoir, 12 miles northwest of Del Rio. An area for primitive camping is available. (10 miles) The Pecos River has its beginnings in Mora County, New Mexico, then flows southeast for approximately 500 miles where it joins the Rio Grande. Of its total length, approximately 350 miles are located in Texas. Red Bluff Reservoir, a small lake established for hydroelectric power, is located in Loving and Reeves Counties near the Texas-New Mexico border. The river flows through flat, semi-arid lands along the upper section, where the shoreline varies from no trees and few bushes to dense saltcedar thickets. In the lower regions, particularly below Pandale, the river flows through picturesque canyons and rugged desert terrain. Red Bluff Lake Dam to Farm-to-Market 11 The Pecos River rises in Mora County, New Mexico and flows southeast into Texas where it joins the Rio Grande. Red Bluff Reservoir is located in Loving and Reeves Counties near the Texas-New Mexico border. Below Red Bluff Reservoir, the Pecos contains only a very limited flow of water. Here, the river passes through an arid region of West Texas where rainfall is sporadic and minimal. The water level remains relatively low until the Pecos reaches the vicinity of Reeves and Ward Counties. Except for periods when heavy rainfall occurs, the upper reaches of the Pecos contain insufficient water for most types of recreational use. Farm-to-Market 11 to US Highways 67 and 385 This 39-mile section of the Pecos River forms the partial boundary between Crane and Pecos Counties. The river flows through semi-arid to arid ranching and farming country, and the flow of water is minimal. The river is narrow and lined with saltcedar thickets. Agricultural and oil field pollutants have reportedly caused deterioration of the water quality along this stretch. The Pecos River is the life-blood of this arid region. That is, virtually all activities in this area depend upon the Pecos for their existence. However, the river is isolated and little or no development is found along the banks. The narrow width of the stream and minimum water flow do not always provide good conditions for recreational use. However, a reasonable amount of recreational activity is possible during periods of adequate rainfall. During these periods, flash floods are a potential hazard. Waterway features and distance between each are as follows: FM 11 crossing - 6 miles north of Imperial. FM 1053 crossing - 6 miles northeast of Imperial. (8 miles) County road crossing - off FM 11, 6 miles east of Imperial. (6 miles) Landreth Draw - enters on the left. (12 miles) Comanche Creek - enters on the right. (9 miles) US 67 & 385 crossing - 21 miles south of Crane. (4 miles) US Highway 67 to Farm-to-Market 1980 Forming the partial boundary of Pecos, Crane, and Crockett Counties, this 30-mile section of the Pecos River flows through open ranching country and except for scattered ranching activities, relatively little development is present. This is semi-arid to arid country and desert plants like sagebrush, cacti, and yucca are the common vegetative species. The Pecos is a narrow stream at this point and has a relatively low flow of water at most times of the year. During periods of rainy weather, this section has sufficient water for recreational use; however, caution is called for during these periods as flash floods are a potential hazard. Water quality is rather poor because of agricultural and oil field pollutants. The land along the river is relatively flat and the river flows slowly between narrow banks. An occasional rapid or area of fast water exists. Waterway features and distance between each are as follows: US 67 & 385 crossing - 30 miles northwest of FM 1901 crossing - 22 miles northwest of Iraan. (10 miles) Five-Mile Creek - enters on the left. (5 miles) FM 305 crossing - 14 miles northwest of Iraan. (2 miles) Simson Creek - enters on the left. (5 miles) SH 349 crossing - 6 miles north of Iraan. (1 mile) FM 1980 crossing - 1 mile east of Iraan. (7 miles) Farm-to-Market 1980 to US Highway 290 This is a 33-mile section of the Pecos River forming the partial boundary between Pecos and Crockett Counties. The river begins to enter increasingly rugged country and numerous side canyons and creeks intersect at various points. The large bluffs and mesas located away from the river create a canyon effect. The climate is semi-arid to arid, and the water level is relatively shallow during most periods of the year. However, during rainy periods the water level is excellent for recreational use. Flash floods are not uncommon on the Pecos and extreme caution needs to be exercised during periods of heavy rains. The riverbed itself is relatively narrow as it flows through the wide flood plain. Some very good rapids exist along this stretch, particularly at the junction of side canyons where boulders have been washed into the river by creeks. Long quiet pools exist between these rapids. Several road crossings divide this section into convenient segments for recreational use. Waterway features and distance between each are as follows: FM 1980 - 2 miles east of Iraan. County road crossing - off SH 349, 2 miles south of Iraan. (3 miles) Riffle Canyon - enters on the right. (5 miles) County road crossing - off SH 349, 6 miles south of Iraan. (2 miles) County road crossing - off SH 349, 12 miles south of Iraan. (9 miles) Six Mile Draw - enters on the right. (2 miles) Dear Canyon - enters on the left. (1 mile) Four Mile Draw - enters on the right. (3 miles) Musk Hog Canyon - enters on the left. (4 miles) US 290 crossing - 4 miles east of Sheffield. (4 miles) US Highway 290 to Pandale Crossing This section of the Pecos River is located in Pecos, Terrell, Crockett, and Val Verde Counties. This isolated stretch is approximately 64 miles in length following through some very wild and rugged country with the land on both sides being semi-arid to arid ranchland. No development other than ranching activities exist. The Pecos River and its tributary creeks cut through this rolling terrain and form deep canyons. The water level during normal periods is rather shallow for the first half of this section. However, from the point where Independence Creek joins the Pecos, there is usually adequate water for recreational use. During periods of heavy rainfall, flash floods frequent both the side canyons and the Pecos Canyon itself. Many rapids are found along this section, particularly at the mouths of side canyons where boulder outwashes are present. Waterway features and distance between each are as follows: US 290 crossing - 4 miles east of Sheffield. First Canyon - enters on the left. (10 miles) Second Canyon - enters on the left. (2 miles) County road crossing - off US 290, 14 miles southeast of Sheffield. (1 mile) Third Canyon - enters on the left. (1 mile) Reagan Canyon - enters on the right. (1 mile) Independence Creek - enters on the right. (9 miles) Private Camp - A guest ranch is located at the mouth of Independence Creek, and access to the river is available at this point for a fee. Facilities for camping are available. Six Shooter Canyon - enters on the left. (6 miles) Indian Canyon - enters on the left. (1 mile) Richland Canyon - enters on the right. A private camp is located in this vicinity. (2 miles) Liveoak Canyon - enters on the left. A private camp is located in this vicinity. (2 miles) Geddes Canyon - enters on the right. (8 miles) Big Hackberry Canyon - enters on the right. (7 miles) Private Camp - on the left. (9 miles) Pandale Crossing - FM 2083 crossing, 4 miles south of Pandale. (3 miles) Two additional private camps are located on this section. Exact locations are not available. Pandale Crossing to US Highway 90 This isolated 55-mile section of the Pecos River in Val Verde County is the best section of the entire river for recreational use. The Pecos River and its tributary creeks have worn away at the Chihuahuan Desert to form a spectacular network of canyons. These canyons progressively increase in depth downstream from the Pandale Crossing to eventually rise several hundred feet above the river in the vicinity of the US 90 high bridge. Many rapids exist along this section, particularly at the mouths of the side canyons where outwashes of boulders and rocks have been deposited in the river by flash floods. Some of the rapids are tricky but all are negotiable. The water level during most periods of the year is shallow but sufficient water is available for recreational use at all times. During and shortly after rainy periods, this section of the Pecos has excellent water levels for recreational purposes. Flash flooding is common during heavy rains and extreme care needs to be exercised during periods when this hazard exists. A few miles upstream from the US 90 high bridge, the backwaters of Amistad Reservoir are found. The sheerest and tallest canyon walls on the Pecos are located at this point. Waterway features and distance between each are as follows: Pandale Crossing - FM 2083 crossing, 4 miles south of Pandale. Spring Canyon - enters on the left. (4 miles) Oppenheimer Canyon - enters on the left. (3 miles) Cedar Canyon - enters on the left. (3 miles) Evert Canyon - enters on the left. (4 miles) Goat Canyon - enters on the right. (0.5 mile) Ford Canyon - enters on the left. (2 miles) Zixta Canyon - enters on the left. (1 mile) Harkell Canyon - enters on the right. (6 miles) Still Canyon - enters on the left. (7 miles) Cold Water Canyon - enters on the left. A major rapid is located at the mouth of the canyon. (5 miles) Weir - a dam is located on the river, and a portage is required. Dead Man's Canyon - enters on the left. (15 miles) High Bridge - Southern Pacific Railroad bridge is 321 feet above normal river level. (1 mile) US 90 crossing - 10 miles west of Del Rio. (4 miles). The old highway crossing goes down to the river. This is the last road crossing above Amistad Reservoir. Top of Page | Table of Contents

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Allow a laboratory mouse to run as much as it likes, and its brainpower improves. Force it to run harder than it otherwise might, and its thinking improves even more. This is the finding of an experiment led by researchers at National Cheng Kung University in Taiwan and placed online in May. In the study, scientists had two groups of mice swim a water maze and in a separate trial had them endure an unpleasant stimulus to see how quickly they would learn to move away from it. For the next four weeks they allowed one group of mice to run inside their rodent wheels, an activity most mice enjoy, while requiring the other group to push harder on minitreadmills at a speed and duration controlled by the scientists. They then tested both groups again to track their learning skills and memory. Both groups of mice performed admirably in the water maze, bettering their performances from the earlier trial. But only the treadmill runners were better in the avoidance task, a skill that, according to brain scientists, demands a more complicated cognitive response. The mice who raced on the treadmills showed evidence of molecular changes in several portions of their brains when viewed under a microscope, while the voluntary wheel-runners had changes in only one area. “Our results support the notion that different forms of exercise induce neuroplasticity changes in different brain regions,” Chauying J. Jen, a professor of physiology and an author of the study, says. For some time, researchers have known that exercise changes the structure of the brain and affects thinking. Ten years ago scientists at the Salk Institute in California published the groundbreaking finding that exercise stimulates the creation of new brain cells. But fundamental questions remain, like whether exercise must be strenuous to be beneficial. Should it be aerobic? What about weight lifting? And are the cognitive improvements permanent or fleeting? Other recent studies provide some preliminary answers. In an experiment published in the journal of the American College of Sports Medicine, 21 students at the University of Illinois were asked to memorize a string of letters and then pick them out from a list flashed at them. Then they were asked to do one of three things for 30 minutes — sit quietly, run on a treadmill or lift weights — before performing the letter test again. After an additional 30-minute cool down, they were tested once more. On subsequent days, the students returned to try the other two options. The students were noticeably quicker and more accurate on the retest after they ran compared with the other two options, and they continued to perform better when tested after the cool down. “There seems to be something different about aerobic exercise,” Charles Hillman, an associate professor in the department of kinesiology at the University of Illinois and an author of the study, says. Similarly, in other work by scientists at the University of Illinois, elderly people were assigned a six-month program of either stretching exercises or brisk walking. The stretchers increased their flexibility but did not improve on tests of cognition. The brisk walkers did. Why should exercise need to be aerobic to affect the brain? “It appears that various growth factors must be carried from the periphery of the body into the brain to start a molecular cascade there,” creating new neurons and brain connections, says Henriette van Praag, an investigator in the Laboratory of Neurosciences at the National Institute on Aging. For that to happen, “you need a fairly dramatic change in blood flow,” like the one that occurs when you run or cycle or swim. Weight lifting, on the other hand, stimulates the production of “growth factors in the muscles that stay in the muscles and aren’t transported to the brain,” van Praag says. What then of the Taiwanese mice, all of which ran? According to the investigators, mice on a running wheel “usually show little improvements in the conventionally defined” measurements of fitness, like elevated muscle strength and improved aerobic capacity. They enjoy themselves; they don’t strain. Those on the treadmill, meanwhile, are forced to pant and puff. Jen says researchers suspect that treadmill running is more intense and leads to improvements in “muscle aerobic capacity,” and this increased aerobic capacity, in turn, affects the brain more than the wheel jogging. Does this mean we should relinquish control of our workouts to a demanding coach? Jen cautions against assuming human bodies work exactly like those of rats. But there are lessons from his work. “It would be fair to say that any form of regular exercise,” he says, if it is aerobic, “should be able to maintain or even increase our brain functions.”

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Like several other automakers, the history of BMW starts with a product meant to move vehicles in the air, not on land. In 1913, Karl Rapp was in the business of making and selling airplane engines. Due to rather unfortunate flaws in his own design, the engines he produced had vibration problems, and he was forced to resort to producing Austro-Daimler airplane engines under a special license. As luck would have it, though, Gustav Otto had just set up shop near Rapp to build aircrafts. More on the BMW M6 BMW M6 Origins In 1916, Otto and Rapp created a partnership, and their company soon began to manufacture its first aircraft engine. The company was then known as the Bavarian Motor Works, and BMW was born. In 1920, the company moved from airplane engines to making motorcycles. It's just the first step in moving to creating the fine cars the world has come to expect from this company. Around 1930, BMW added to its expertise in designing airplane, motorcycle, and boat engines with the addition of the company's first sports car, the Wartburg. BMW dabbled in car production throughout the next 40 years until building sports sedans and eventually a greater number of truly world-class sports cars. Since then, the BMW name has been linked with some of the finest engines in the world and putting them in capable cars. The company produces cutting-edge cars and motorcycles for a worldwide market today. Among the most famous of the company's offerings is the M6.About the BMW M6 The M6 produced by BMW has a unique history, being one of the few cars produced in nonconsecutive model years. The first BMW M6 debuted in 1983 and was produced with gradual upgrades until 1989.At that point, BMW chose to discontinue the car series until the 2005 model year. During the first generation's production run, the M6 was known for its unique body style and sports car-like performance. It was designed to be a sports car for the sophisticated driving palate. The second generation of M6 was no less impressive when BMW decided to highlight the new 2005 body style and its performance packages. The concept car was first presented to the world at the 2005 Geneva Motor Show. Almost from the beginning, industry leaders were excited by the changes and looked forward to experiencing the improved design and engineering. The M6 was well and alive during its stint the second time around.BMW M6 Features There is no doubt that the introduction of the 2013 BMW M6 has attracted a lot of attention. Much like all of BMW's cars, a lot of the excitement is coming from the goodies under the hood. While BMW representatives are asking consumers and industry leaders to see the new M6 as more than just a sports car, there is no denying that it certainly behaves like one in many ways. It would be hard to be anything else with a twin turbo 4.4-liter V-8 engine. The engine is capable of nearly 560 horsepower and offers 500 pound-feet of torque. In addition to the powerhouse engine, the 2013 M6 also is equipped with a smooth suspension system and quick-shifting seven-speed dual-clutch transmission. While the BMW M6 for the 2013 model year is designed to master the roadways, it also has a pretty face to show the world. The low frame and rounded, yet modern front end is attractive and showy all at the same time. This model looks like the precision machine it is and is available in a variety of paint colors and options for the discerning consumer to customize the M6 of their dreams.BMW M6 Evolution The past versions of the BMW M6 are as impressive as the newest model. These cars are ideal for those looking for a well-made, impressive car that can hold up to the practical needs of daily driving. BMW enthusiasts feel M cars holds up to those functions. In the M6, BMW has combined its famously smooth, powerful engines with design innovation and good looks.The second generation of the M6 is the most familiar to most people and marks BMW's attempt at offering a sport coupe. These cars are also available in the convertible option as well. While not strictly considered a sports car, the M6 is equipped with all of the luxury, comfort, and style that can be expected from a car of this caliber. BMW has a long history of creating some of the best engines in the world. The company didn't hold back when it came to the M6. Each model year was equipped with a state of the art, high precision engine that is capable of handling day to day driving as well as taking on the rigors of high-performance. The handling and comfortable driving abilities of these cars are among its most popular features.

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The following terms are general to the understanding of biofuels. Acid: a solution that has an excess of hydrogen ions (H+) Alcohol: an alcohol is an organic compound with a carbon bound to a hydroxyl group, such as methanol (CH3OH) and ethanol (CH3CH2OH). Aromatic: a chemical which has a benzene ring in its molecular structure, such as benzene, toluene and xylene, which have strong characteristic odors. B20: a mixture of 20% biodiesel and 80% of petroleum diesel, based upon volume. Base: a solution which has an excess of hydroxide ions (OH-) in aqueous solution. a fuel comprised of mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils, animal fats or used cooking oils, meeting the requirements of ASTM D 6751. B100 or any percentage blend with petroleum diesel may be used in compression ignition engines without engine modification. Biofuels: biomass converted to liquid or gaseous fuels such as methanol, ethanol, methane, biodiesel and Carbon Dioxide: (CO2) a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas produced by respiration and combustion of carbon-based fuels. Carbon Monoxide: (CO) a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas produced by incomplete combustion of fuels. a substance which increases the rate of a chemical reaction, without being consumed or produced by the reaction. Sodium Hydroxide and Potassium Hydroxide are catalysts for the production of biodiesel. Combustion: a chemical reaction between a fuel and oxygen which produces heat. Ester: an ester is a compound formed from the reaction between and acid and an alcohol. In esters of carboxylic acids, the –COOH group of the acid and the –OH group of the alcohol lose water and become a –COO- linkage. Ethanol: (CH3CH2OH) a colorless, flammable liquid produced by fermentation of sugars which is used as a fuel oxygenate. a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid, an acid with a –COOH group, with long hydrocarbon side chains. Glycerin: (C3H8O3) a liquid by-product of biodiesel production which is used in the production of dynamite, cosmetics, liquid soaps, inks and lubricants. Hydrocarbon: (HC) an organic compound which contains only hydrogen and carbon. In vehicle emissions, these are usually vapors created from incomplete combustion or from vaporization of liquids such as gasoline. Nitrogen Oxides: (NOx) a product of photochemical reactions of nitric oxide in ambient air which is the major component of photochemical smog. Non-Renewable Resource: a non-renewable energy resource is one which cannot be replaced as it is used such as coal, oil and their refined derivatives. Organic Compound: an organic compound contains carbon chemically bound to hydrogen. Oxygenate: an oxygenate is a compound which contains oxygen in its molecular structure. Ethanol, methanol and biodiesel act as oxygenates when blended with conventional petroleum-based fuels. Oxygenated fuel improves combustion efficiency and reduces tailpipe emissions. Particulate Matter: a fine liquid or solid particle such as smoke, dust, mist, or fumes found in air or engine emissions as a result of incomplete burning of fuels. Reaction: a chemical reaction is a dissociation, recombination or rearrangement of Toxics: as defined by the Clear Air Act of 1990, as amended, toxics include benzene, 1,3 butadiene, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and polycyclic organic Transesterification: a chemical process which reacts an alcohol with the triglycerides contained in vegetable oils and animal fats to produce biodiesel and ester of glycerol and three fatty acids. Most animal fats are composed primarily of triglycerides.

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Report: Chance of a Catastrophic Solar Storm Is 1 in 8; Would Take Down Power Grid, Food Transportation, Water Utilities, Financial SystemsMarch 8, 2012 By Mac Slavo According to a recent study published by Space Weather: The International Journal of Research and Applications, we have roughly a 12% chance of getting hit with a solar storm so powerful that it could take down the national power grid and yield catastrophic consequences for the general population. Pete Riley, a senior scientist at Predictive Science in San Diego, is the author of the study which looks at the probability of the occurrence of extreme weather events: - Probability of a Carrington event occurring over next decade is ~12% - Space physics datasets often display a power-law distribution - Power-law distribution can be exploited to predict extreme events By virtue of their rarity, extreme space weather events, such as the Carrington event of 1859, are difficult to study, their rates of occurrence are difficult to estimate, and prediction of a specific future event is virtually impossible. Additionally, events may be extreme relative to one parameter but normal relative to others. In this study, we analyze several measures of the severity of space weather events (flare intensity, coronal mass ejection speeds)… By showing that the frequency of occurrence scales as an inverse power of the severity of the event, and assuming that this relationship holds at higher magnitudes, we are able to estimate the probability that an event larger than some criteria will occur within a certain interval of time in the future. For example, the probability of another Carrington event occurring within the next decade is ∼12%. The 1859 Carrington Event, as described by Wired Science, may have been a marvel to observers and caused some setbacks in the developing telegraph infrastructure at the time, but a similar occurrence today could be a global game changer: At the time of the Carrington Event, telegraph stations caught on fire, their networks experienced major outages and magnetic observatories recorded disturbances in the Earth’s field that were literally off the scale. In today’s electrically dependent modern world, a similar scale solar storm could have catastrophic consequences. Auroras damage electrical power grids and may contribute to the erosion of oil and gas pipelines. They can disrupt GPS satellites and disturb or even completely black out radio communication on Earth. During a geomagnetic storm in 1989, for instance, Canada’s Hydro-Quebec power grid collapsed within 90 seconds, leaving millions without power for up to nine hours. The potential collateral damage in the U.S. of a Carrington-type solar storm might be between $1 trillion and $2 trillion in the first year alone, with full recovery taking an estimated four to 10 years, according to a 2008 report from the National Research Council. The post-storm effects of such an event are underestimated by the majority of the world’s population, including our political leadership. Like an electro magentic pulse attack, according to the National Research Council a massive enough solar storm could have long term effects that ”would likely include, for example, disruption of the transportation, communication, banking, and finance systems, and government services; the breakdown of the distribution of potable water owing to pump failure; and the loss of perishable foods and medications because of lack of refrigeration.” The worst case scenario has been outlined by the Center for Security Policy, which suggests that an EMP, or a solar storm that results in similar magnetic discharge across the United States, could potentially leave 90% of Americans dead within the first year: “Within a year of that attack, nine out of 10 Americans would be dead, because we can’t support a population of the present size in urban centers and the like without electricity,” said Frank Gaffney, president of the Center for Security Policy. “And that is exactly what I believe the Iranians are working towards.” In the documentary Urban Danger, Congressman Roscoe Bartlett warns of the threat posed by a downed power grid and urges his fellow citizens to take action to protect themselves for the inevitable results that would follow: We could have events in the future where the power grid will go down and it’s not, in any reasonable time, coming back up. For instance, if when the power grid went down some of our large transformers were destroyed, damaged beyond use, we don’t make any of those in this country. They’re made overseas and you order one and 18 months to two years later they will deliver it. Our power grid is very vulnerable. It’s very much on edge. Our military knows that. There are a number of events that could create a situation in the cities where civil unrest would be a very high probability. And, I think that those who can, and those who understand, need to take advantage of the opportunity when these winds of strife are not blowing to move their families out of the city. For many, a 1 in 8 chance of a catastrophic event occurring in a decade’s time may be nothing to worry about. For the emergency, disaster and preparedness minded individual, however, a massive solar storm with the potential to take out our modern day power grid and utility infrastructure is just one in a variety of potentially catastrophic natural and man-made scenarios that could lead to the collapse of life in America as we know it today. Though any given event on its own may have a low probability of occurrence, when combined with other potentialities like economic collapse, currency collapse, global or regional military conflict, Super EMP, political destabilization, massive earthquakes (such as on the New Madrid fault), Tsunamis, asteroids, pandemic, and cyber attacks the odds of a game changing paradigm shift in our lifetime’s rise significantly.

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Consisting of approx 45,000 words and supported by some 28 images the content is broken into chapters thus facilitating the reader who likes to pick up a book and leave it down again after a short read. The rear cover of Mighty Oaks - The Story of a Celtic Kingdom informs as per the following.... Julius Caesar’s Roman Legions defeated the Celtic tribes of France and England a generation before the birth of Christ. The remaining pockets of Celtic culture that survived in Ireland held steadfastly to their traditions until the Gaelic Order was closed by Lord Mountjoy in 1601. Mythology and historical records facilitate the tracking and development of that Celtic tradition and the Hy-Tuirtre Kingdom until the conquest of Ulster. By following the progress of the Hy-Tuirtre Kingdom over the course of their millennia, enables the reader to gain an understanding of Celtic and Gaelic practice in ancient Ireland. The Hy-Tuirtre although not alone in the Oirghiallian Federation (Oriel) experienced many changes to their country and Kingdom throughout the period of their existence in the Ulster heartland. Insurmountable force and change had a lasting impact on the traditions of the Hy-Tuirtre people. This occurred when the Hy-Tuirtre found their Kingdom at a point in time at the front line of the Anglo Norman expansion in East Ulster. That expansion hampered and prevented them from executing their traditional Celtic survival strategy. Patrick J Flynn observing the landscape, the semi mythical and politics of early Ireland over some three millennia sets the stage for the establishment and development of the Hy-Tuirtre Kingdom. He assembles and follows the real story of that early Kingdom from Conn of the Hundred Battles in A.D. 123 to the final collapse of the Kingdom, and the death of Thomas O'Flynn the last King of Hy-Tuirtre in 1365.

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Tomorrow, in Philadelphia, Queen's University professor Arthur B. McDonald is scheduled to receive a half-share of the Benjamin Franklin Institute's annual physics prize. It is the latest in a long series of honours for Prof. McDonald, who was the director of the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO). As one of the oldest internationally recognized honours for research achievements, the Franklin Medal puts him on an altogether new plane, amidst what the French call les nobelisables. The scientific prestige surrounding the SNO, which ceased collecting data in November of last year, is still growing. As an experiment, it performed exactly as promised, and in an environment of institutional cost-cutting, it did so at a cost (about $70-million) much lower than that required by other particle-physics projects around the world. For every plaudit the SNO receives, there are hundreds, perhaps thousands of Canadians eligible for a share of reflected glory. They ranged from the dozens of physicists who worked on the data-crunching, to the federal bureaucrats who recognized SNO's value and steered clear of it with their budget axes, to the executives at Inco who arranged to set aside space for the project a mile and a half down in the company's Creighton Mine. And let's not forget the miners, who went down into the pit with physicists every day, and during a 1997 strike allowed them to cross a picket line in order to continue their work. All this was done in the name of hunting the elusive neutrino, a subatomic particle that has no electrical charge and that passes through almost all matter without being stopped or deflected. The existence of neutrinos had been predicted in 1930, and they were first detected in nature as early as 1956, but 40 more years of research had left scientists uncertain whether they possessed any mass. Meanwhile, the sun's interior, a naturally occurring fusion reactor, seemed to be producing only about one-half to one-third as many neutrinos as the so-called Standard Model of particle physics predicted. The "solar neutrino" problem was a big one. It seemed that scientists would either be required to revise their existing inferential images of the sun's interior, or to do away with the Standard Model itself. For a while it seemed possible that the sun was a lot cooler on the inside than anyone had thought, a discovery that would have had consequences for the ultimate fate of the solar system. Fortunately, when physicists began looking for ways the Standard Model could be modified to allow for the mysteriously low rate of solar neutrino emissions, they realized that if neutrinos did have mass, they were capable of flipping freely in space between three different "flavours" --only one of which earlier neutrino observatories had been capable of observing. On June 18, 2001, the SNO -- basically a giant tank of heavy water surrounded by cameras that could detect the "flash" created by a single neutrino penetrating to the Earth's core -- solved all of these problems with the release of just one batch of results. It turned out that neutrinos do have mass, that Earth is receiving all three types of neutrinos from the sun and that the total number agrees with established models. Nobel laureate John Bahcall described the discovery in 2004 as "epochal", "revolutionary" and the "fingerprints on the smoking gun" of the solar-neutrino problem. In the future, the discoveries that the SNO made possible may be placed on a par with Ben Franklin's own research into electricity. Already "neutrino astronomy" is an important field; detectors like SNO will give astronomers early warning of the next supernova in our galactic neighbourhood. As the SNO's "smoking gun" showed, neutrino detection is like having an extra sense to work with when it comes to understanding the solar core. And futurists are spinning wild ideas for neutrinobased imaging and telecommunications -- ideas that now seem as far-fetched, but just as tempting, as alternating current would have been to Franklin.

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There are many myths associated with poisonings. Some of these myths go back to the time when poisonings were not well understood and antidotes were not available. Today, toxicology is a well-studied science and the Poison Control Center would like to replace some of the old tales with established scientific facts. Fiction: Milk is the universal antidote. Fact: Milk has no special properties that make it the magic antidote. Water is just as effective as milk for diluting poisons. Fiction: Milk should be used to rinse out the eyes after an eye exposure. Fact: Water is the preferred initial treatment for all eye and skin exposures. Fiction: In a case of an accidental ingestion milk should be given to the patient to induce vomiting. Fact: Milk does not cause vomiting (unless the patient suffers from lactose intolerance). Fiction: Lead pencils can cause lead poisoning. Fact: Lead pencils are made of graphite, not lead. Lead has been found in small amounts in the varnish on the pencil, but not in sufficient quantities to cause toxicity. Fiction: Poinsettia is a highly toxic plant. Fact: Poinsettia is a non-toxic. But ingestion of significant quantities cause irritation of the gastrointestinal tract. Call our 24-hour toll-free emergency hotline

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Teacher's Guide for Cobblestone: Robert E. Lee EDITOR'S NOTE (page 2) 1. When and where did Confederate general Robert E. Lee surrender his forces? LEE TIME LINE (page 4) 2. Into what social class was Lee born? 3. By what were the experiences of his life characterized? 4. What did his conduct earn for him? 5. Even in defeat, how did Lee conduct himself? 6. At Appomattox Court House, Virginia, what did he immediately secure for his starving troops? What promise did he obtain from the Union? 1. At what family mansion was Lee born? FALLEN FAMILY: LEE'S EARLY YEARS (page 6) 2. Why did the Lee family move to Alexandria, Virginia, in 1811? 3. On what date did Lee graduate from West Point? 4. With what men did Lee serve in the Mexican War? 5. In what two 1847 Mexican War battles did Lee play an important part? What Mexican general fled? What did he leave behind? 6. When did Lee assume command of naval and military forces in Virginia? 7. What happened on July 21, 1861? 8. When was the Battle of Chancellorsville fought? 9. When was the Battle of Gettysburg fought? 10. When did Vicksburg surrender? 11. What two battles were fought in September and November of 1863? 12. What kept Grant at bay at Cold Harbor in 1864? 13. When did Lee accept the presidency of Washington College? 14. How old was Lee when he died? 1. Why didn't Ann Hill Carter's parents want her to marry Henry "Light-Horse Harry" Lee? Of what war was he a hero? A FAMILY PORTRAIT (page 10) 2. When was Robert Edward Lee born? For whom was he named? When Robert was born, how many children did Ann and Harry Lee already have? 3. When Robert was two years old, what happened to his father? 4. In what year did Harry Lee travel to Baltimore to help a journalist friend who opposed the new war? What happened to him and his friend? 5. Where and when did Harry Lee go into exile? 6. What activities did Robert participate in and enjoy when he was a child? In what subjects did he excel? 7. To what academy did Robert apply in 1824? When he graduated, what was his standing in his class? 1. After the Civil War, what advice did Lee give to former soldiers? SOLDIER OF HONOR: LEE'S EARLY MILITARY CAREER (page 13) 2. What did Ulysses S. Grant threaten to do if treason charges against Lee were not dropped? 3. When did Lee sign a loyalty oath? When was his citizenship restored? What do some scholars believe about the disappearance of his citizenship papers? 4. What were the names of Lee's two sons who became generals during the Civil War? Which one became a career soldier? 5. Why was Lee physically exhausted after taking a sightseeing trip? 6. Whom did Lee marry? How many children did they have? 7. Describe the family concerns and grief of Lee's personal life. 1. How many men began their education with Lee at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point? Of those men, how many graduated with him? CONTEST: DEAR MR. PRESIDENT (page 18) 2. What distinction was Lee the first to achieve at West Point? 3. Why was Lee appointed to the elite U.S. Army Corps of Engineers? 4. What was his first assignment? Why did Lee have most of the project's responsibilities? What did Lee learn because of this duty? 5. What was Lee assigned to survey in 1835? What task was he given the following year? 6. What did Lee design that stopped the formation of sandbars? What was the result of his success? 7. In what year did the United States annex Texas? 8. Under what general's command did Lee serve in 1846? After Lee reported for duty in Texas, what three tasks did engineers execute under his direction? 9. What led to Lee's becoming a scout? How did he ensure General Zachary Taylor's success at Buena Vista? 10. What general requested that Lee join his command? What did he say about Lee? 11. What did Lee make it possible for the American troops to do at Cerro Gordo? 12. Lee was promoted to brevet colonel for his services in what battle? 13. What were four improvements he made as superintendent of West Point? 14. Why did Lee leave his assignment in Texas in 1857? What was his rank? 15. What did Lee do in October 1859 as commander of a force of U.S. Marines? 16. Who was John Brown? What did he do at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, in 1859? 17. What was Lee offered in 1861? What was he forced to decide? What did the letters Lee wrote reveal about his character and personality? THE CIVIL WAR YEARS (page 20) 1. When and where did the Civil War start? TRAVELLER (page 27) 2. What made John Bell Hood a successful fighter? What did he do after the war? 3. Who was the great strategist who engineered the First Battle of Bull Run? When he was severely wounded in the Battle of Fair Oaks, who replaced him? 4. Who was the Confederate president? 5. Although he possessed a great military mind, who had trouble handling troops in the field? What did he do after the war? 6. What was Lee's first military assignment as a Confederate? What was he unable to prevent? 7. Lee's critics called him by what two nicknames? 8. Who had faith in him and made him his military advisor? 9. Describe the crisis Lee faced when he took command of the Confederate forces. Whom did Lee summon to join him? 10. What was the result of the Seven Days Battles? 11. Where was Bull Run? Which army won the second battle there? 12. Why did Lee march his troops into Maryland in September 1862? 13. How many men were killed at the Battle of Antietam? What was Lee forced to do as a result of this battle? What did Lee's defeat encourage Abraham Lincoln to do? 14. What battle took place on December 13, 1862? Which army was defeated? What were the Confederates able to do? 15. What did Lee's strategy produce at the Battle of Chancellorsville? 16. To whom did Lee give "Stonewall" Jackson's Second Corps? For what did he receive the blame? 17. Describe the personality of Thomas Jonathan "Stonewall" Jackson. How and where did he earn his nickname? What battle strategy did he use? What happened to him at Chancellorsville? 18. When Lee went on the offensive in July 1863, what did he do? 19. In what state is Gettysburg located? At the Battle of Gettysburg, what were the Confederate troops unable to win from the Union army? What attack was the most controversial decision of Lee's career? What were the results of the attack? If Union troops had pursued him, what would have happened? 20. As commander of one of Lee's infantry corps, who was accused of excessive caution at Gettysburg? 21. Who marched against Richmond in 1864? List three battles where Lee kept this man at bay. 22. What three things made Lee realize that his army would not be able to survive? 23. As commander of all Confederate armies, what did he convince his government to allow him to do? Although the plan was not put into action, why does the article say "this proposal was not his finest moment"? 24. What was Lee finally forced to do in 1865? 25. What happened when Lee made an attempt to link up with Confederate forces in North Carolina? How many men were left in Lee's army? 26. When the Civil War ended, how old was Lee? How did the war age him? 27. List five battle strategies that made Lee one of America's great military leaders. 1. When and where did Lee purchase Traveller? What two names did the horse previously have? DIGNITY IN DEFEAT (page 30) 2. How many other horses did Lee have in his entourage? 3. Briefly describe Traveller. 4. To what place did Lee ride Traveller on April 9, 1865? 5. What was Traveller's final act of service? 1. Who recorded the terms of surrender? What did Lee say to him? What reply did Lee receive? A NATIONAL CEMETERY: THE FATE OF LEE'S ARLINGTON PLANTATION (page 36) 2. What did Lee propose that Ulysses S. Grant refused? Instead, what did Grant insist? 3. Whose home in the town of Appomattox Court House, Virginia, was chosen for the surrender ceremony? 4. Describe the contrast in appearance between Lee and Grant at Appomattox. How did they greet each other? Where did they sit? 5. For what did Lee thank Grant? 6. What did Grant say about Lee's composure? 7. When was the only time Lee betrayed his emotions? 8. As Lee slowly rode back to camp, what did his men do? 1. Why was Union quartermaster general Montgomery Meigs angry at Lee? As time passed and thousands of Union soldiers died, what did he want? A SCHOOL FOR GENTLEMEN (page 40) 2. In the war's fourth year, what was Meigs told to do? What site did he pick? 3. When Lee came home in 1857, in what condition did he find his home? Describe his efforts to restore the Virginia plantation. 4. To whom was the house built as a monument? 5. Describe the location of Arlington. 6. When did Lee leave Arlington? What did the Union army do? 7. What did the government build at Arlington in 1863? What was it called? 8. When was the first Union soldier buried on the property? How many men were buried there by the end of the year? 9. When the war ended in 1865, why didn't Lee try to reclaim Arlington? 10. After how many years did Freedmen's Village close? As the years passed, what happened to Arlington? 11. How many people are buried at Arlington today? Where is Montgomery Meigs buried? 12. What are the Tombs of the Unknowns? 13. What two brothers have memorials at Arlington? 1. What oath did Lee take in October 1865? FROM THE ARCHIVES 2. Briefly describe Washington College when Lee became its president. 3. What did Lee believe students should learn? 4. What wealthy native of Lexington, Virginia, donated money to the college? 5. What influence did the veterans have on other students? What weekly reports did Lee receive? 6. What did Lee say about rules? 7. Who selected the design of the new college chapel? Who supervised its construction? 8. In honor of Lee, to what was the name of the college changed? Be sure to check "From the Archives" on page 45 for related title suggestions. You also may want to check the following issues: Abraham Lincoln (May 1994), Famous Dates (January 1995).

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In one giant leap, mankind traveled to the Moon. With one small step, an American astronaut made history. Neil Armstrong and his Apollo 11 crew mate, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin became the first men to walk on the Moon in July 1969. Some mementos of that historic landmark remain, though few are displayed to the public, said Chris Orwoll, Cosmosphere president and CEO. Four such artifacts, Armstrong and Aldrin's space gloves, are on exhibit in the Apollo Gallery of the Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center's Hall of Space Museum. But not for long, said Meredith Miller, the museum's Collections Manager. The gloves, on loan from the National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, will be returned to the Smithsonian when the loan expires at the end of the year. The gloves will likely go off display Dec. 10. "Not only were the gloves worn by two of the most well-known astronauts in history," said Jim Remar, Cosmosphere senior vice president, "the astronauts wore them while making man's first steps on the surface of the Moon." The pressure gloves, made of neoprene rubber, were made from casts of Armstrong and Aldrin's hands, allowing for a perfect fit, Miller said. They are also marked with the astronauts' names. "The gloves literally fit 'like a glove,'" Miller said. "Their purpose was to maximize movement of the wrist and enhance grip control while also protecting the pressurization of the space suit." Though important to the astronauts' safety, the gloves were also fragile. A small tear in either pressure glove could result in decompression of the suit and possibly death. Work gloves were worn over the pressure gloves for protection. Because neoprene rubber disintegrates at a faster rate than most materials found in space artifacts, the gloves will be preserved in the Smithsonian's vaults once returned. The Cosmosphere earned the right to display the gloves when named the first affiliate of the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum in December 1998. The gloves have been on display since June 1999.

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1 The color value (hue), which is represented by a color wheel. Ranges from 0 to 360 which both times is red. 120 is green, 240 is blue – so yellow is at 60, cyan at 180 and magenta at 300. 2 The saturation of the color. Ranges from 0% to 100% where 0% is the fully desaturated color thus 50% grey. 100% represents the fully saturated color. 3 The lightness of the color. Also ranges from 0% to 100%. Only 50% represents the “real” color value set at 1. More than 50% is a lighter tint, less is a darker tint. So in contrast to Photoshop 100% is not the “real” color value but pure white. 0% is black here and there however. The given example would be 100% in Photoshop. 4 The alpha value. 0 stands for fully transparent and 1 for opaque (solid). The zero before the comma can be omitted. x The live view can be examined using an element inspector like Firefox’s Firebug. Many browsers already have such an inspector build in. In each case right click on the example and then select “Inspect element”. Now an area in your browser opens where you see the HTML code of the example on the left side and the CSS on the right side for further investigation.

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Tourette syndrome (TS) affects 1 in 200 children. Though long viewed as a movement disorder characterized by involuntary sounds and movements, clinicians and researchers have come to realize that it is much more complicated than that. TS patients have physical, sensory, or psychic sensations that precede the tic, which some individuals describe as a discomfort or tension that is relieved only by making the tic. Additionally, half of the individuals with TS have attention deficits and two-thirds have obsessive-compulsive behaviors, with half of those meeting the full criteria for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Along with an improved clinical understanding of the disorder, researchers have started to develop insight into what has gone awry in the brains of patients with TS. Unlike some neurological disorders that disrupt the function of a single cell type in the brain, “TS is one that affects a whole brain circuit,” says Neal Swerdlow, professor of psychiatry at the University of California, San Diego, and chair of the scientific advisory board for the Tourette Syndrome Association, an advocacy and research organization. The first image that comes to mind for many people when they hear the phrase “Tourette syndrome” is that of a person spouting obscenities. In fact, fewer than 10 percent of patients with TS ever develop that particular tic. Tics range from simple, relatively nondisruptive movements, such as eye blinking or shoulder shrugging, to more complex ones that can even become damaging, including a head snapping motion. Additionally, for a diagnosis of TS, a person must have at least one vocal tic that has lasted more than a year, as well as more than one movement tic. Vocal tics can take the form of a hum, like an “mmmm” inserted within sentences or words; grunts; throat clearing; innocuous words or phrases; or, in rare cases, cursing. The typical age of onset for TS is 7, and the symptoms are frequently the worst between ages 10 and 12. By the age of 20, nearly one-third of people who had TS as children no longer have tics, 46 percent continue to have symptoms but the symptoms are relatively mild, and 22 percent have moderate to severe tics, according to work by Michael Bloch and James Leckman of the Yale University School of Medicine. Numerous studies over the years have suggested that TS results from dysregulation or malfunction in the basal ganglia, a region of the brain that is thought to facilitate desired actions while inhibiting undesired or inappropriate ones. Several new studies add credence to that theory. The basal ganglia encompass several interconnected regions of the brain, including the caudate and putamen in the striatum, a specialized portion of the ventral striatum called the nucleus accumbens, the globus pallidus, and the subthalamic nucleus. Recently, Leckman and colleagues used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to look at different brain regions in patients with TS and controls to determine if there were any anatomical differences. They verified previous reports that the size of the basal ganglia is reduced in patients, with a 5 percent decrease in volume in the caudate nucleus. Although the change in size is relatively small, it is statistically significant. Given that only some patients continue to have symptoms throughout life, researchers want to know if any of the anatomical differences they see can predict who is likely to remain symptomatic. To address this question, Bloch, Leckman, and Bradley Peterson of Columbia University used MRI to measure the size of different brain regions of patients with TS when they were 8 to 14 years old and then again seven to nine years later. “The first thing you have to do before you can solve any major disorder is understand what it is.” When they compared this anatomical data to the patients’ clinical progress, the team found that a reduced size of the caudate and the subgenual nucleus accounts for approximately 30 percent of the variation in TS outcome. “The caudate information begins to give us a clue as to which children will have persistent problems,” says Leckman, though it is clear that the size of these regions does not account for all of the variation. In a related study, Flora Vaccarino, also of the Yale University School of Medicine, studied postmortem tissue of patients who had TS and found that the distribution of different neural types was altered in patients versus controls. Specifically, there were excess neurons in the globus pallidus and fewer in the caudate nucleus, which likely disrupts the output of the basal ganglia system as a whole. Vaccarino hypothesizes that during brain development, which continues until the early 20s, there is a miscue of some sort that tells neurons to move or form in one place rather than another. This chart shows subregions of the brain’s basal ganglia, which researchers believe play a role in Tourette syndrome. Anatomical differences may help predict who will continue to experience symptoms throughout their lives. Additionally, when Roger Albin’s group at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor used positron emission tomography (PET) to look at the abundance and location of neurotransmitters in the brains of 19 patients, all of whom were over 18 years of age and had persistent tics, they saw an increased number of dopaminergic terminals in the ventral striatum, relative to healthy controls. “It doesn’t say that this is the only potential abnormality in the brain of Tourette’s patients, but it does suggest that this one particular very important brain system is abnormal in TS subjects,” Albin says. Combining these findings with previous data, Jonathan Mink of the University of Rochester in New York has developed a model of what he thinks is going wrong in TS. “Imagine that you have an itch on the back of your neck but are holding a cup of hot coffee in your hand,” Mink says. “It would be very undesirable to scratch your neck.” It is the job of the basal ganglia to block inappropriate movements, such as scratching your neck, and to facilitate a desired motion, such as setting down the coffee cup. But the basal ganglia also are part of the reward pathway in the brain, and researchers think that one of the problems that patients with TS face is an inability to distinguish between important or salient stimuli and ones that should be disregarded as background noise. To model what is happening, Mink divides the basal ganglia into three layers. The middle layer, the globus pallidus, blocks unwanted actions such as tics by inhibiting activity in the thalamus and the cortex, which form the layer that is the target of the system. However, sometimes the globus pallidus itself is deactivated, allowing a tic to proceed unchecked. The globus pallidus receives input from two structures that compete for its attention, the striatum and the subthalamic nucleus. The striatum receives information, such as “you have a cup of coffee in your hand,” from the higher processing and sensory centers of the brain, including the cortex, and passes that information to the globus pallidus, telling it not to activate. At the same time, however, the subthalamic nucleus tries to do just the opposite: activate the globus pallidus neurons. Normally the two inputs work together. Signals from the subthalamic nucleus block unwanted movements and those from the striatum allow desired movement to proceed. When the balance is disrupted, as in TS, involuntary movements can occur. That map, combined with the fact that repetitive stereotyped motions can be induced when researchers place a stimulatory electrode into the striatum in monkeys, leads Mink to suggest that the primary defect in the basal ganglia circuit in patients with TS occurs in the striatum. He thinks that if the inhibitory signals coming out of the striatum are exaggerated or constitutively turned on regardless of outside stimuli, then a particular movement or behavior would occur regularly. The patient would have an undesired movement or behavior—in other words, a tic. Although the model is complex and perhaps seems esoteric, it provides researchers with a necessary place to start. It gives them specific predictions that they can begin to test, and perhaps also a basis from which to start looking for specific TS treatments that are currently unavailable. “The first thing you have to do before you can solve any major disorder is understand what it is,” says Swerdlow. “In the last 10 to 15 years the most important thing we’ve done is begin to understand what Tourette syndrome is.”

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What to Do, Say, and Wear at Funerals Going to funerals or memorial services can be uncomfortable for some people because of the emotions involved. Knowing what to do and say at funerals — and what to wear — can ease the discomfort. When in doubt about going, do try to attend the service. Generally, the more difficult the situation, the more the family will appreciate your presence and your words of support. Your willingness to go out of your way to say a word or two of comfort will be very much appreciated. These services provide a sense of completion, a process for mourning, and comfort for the living. The outpouring of grief and support for the family enables them to eventually go on with their own lives. Attending a funeral or memorial service In many cultures, the first event that follows a death is a visitation, calling, or wake — a courtesy call at the funeral home prior to the funeral. The casket is present (open or closed), with flowers on display, and the family receives visitors who come to greet them and offer words of comfort and support. A funeral or memorial service may be a very public event, attended by family, friends, colleagues, neighbors, and even acquaintances. A eulogy, prayers, or other funeral customs are observed. Because the immediate family may be overwhelmed, you need only to greet the mourners and briefly offer condolences. Most important for the family is the knowledge of your presence. (If the service is private, those attending will be notified personally, usually by telephone.) Burials usually follow funerals. Some cultures consider it a sign of respect to deposit a ceremonial shovel of earth into the grave. This ceremony is initiated by a member of the family and followed by others. If you were close to the deceased, you may take your turn. In almost all cultures, taking a meal in the company of close friends and family is a symbol of the continuation of life and a moment of separation from the intense details of the death, funeral, and burial. Recalling fond memories of the deceased may inspire smiles and even laughter at this gathering — this behavior is perfectly acceptable. Expressing condolences at a funeral Most people are at a loss for words when it comes to comforting someone who is grieving. If you don't know what to say, start with these thoughts: You're so sorry to hear this sad news. The deceased will be sorely missed by friends and colleagues. How much you loved this person and how bereaved you feel. You know how much the deceased loved and cared for the people who are left behind. The grief you feel for the person who is left behind. What a wonderful person the deceased was. Recounting anecdotes, warm remembrances, and stories about the deceased is a kind thing to do. Remembering the person's accomplishments and all that person meant to you and did for you, and sharing that with the family, is very important and much appreciated. The etiquette of consoling a dear one is the etiquette of genuine affection. Do what you can to comfort and assist the survivors, and be alert for an indication that your attentions have been gratefully received and are no longer necessary. Sometimes people need to work things out for themselves. What to wear to a funeral In Western society, black has long been the traditional color for mourning. However, wearing black isn't required any longer. Wearing a color other than black isn't a sign of disrespect, as long as the color isn't bright or wildly patterned. In many cultures, red is a color for festivals and would be inappropriate for a funeral. Generally, play it safe with any dark or subdued color. Hats may be worn by women, and at Orthodox Jewish services, yarmulkes are worn by the men. Dark suits and ties for men and dresses or suits for women are always appropriate. Some religions impose strict standards of modesty on women. When in doubt, ask someone or do an Internet search. If you don't know whom to ask, make sure that the only skin you display at a funeral is from the neck up and the knees down.

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All power tends to corrupt But power without status corrupts absolutely DURING the second world war a new term of abuse entered the English language. To call someone “a little Hitler” meant he was a menial functionary who employed what power he had in order to annoy and frustrate others for his own gratification. From nightclub bouncers to the squaddies at Abu Ghraib prison who tormented their prisoners for fun, little Hitlers plague the world. The phenomenon has not, though, hitherto been subject to scientific investigation. Nathanael Fast of the University of Southern California has changed that. He observed that lots of psychological experiments have been done on the effects of status and lots on the effects of power. But few, if any, have been done on both combined. He and his colleagues Nir Halevy of Stanford University and Adam Galinsky of Northwestern University, in Chicago, set out to correct this. In particular they wanted to see if it is circumstances that create little Hitlers or, rather, whether people of that type simply gravitate into jobs which allow them to behave badly. Their results have just been published in the Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. Dr Fast's experiment randomly assigned each of 213 participants to one of four situations that manipulated their status and power. All participants were informed that they were taking part in a study on virtual organisations and would be interacting with, but not meeting, a fellow student who worked in the same fictional consulting firm. Participants were then assigned either the role of “idea producer”, a job that entailed generating and working with important ideas, or of “worker”, a job that involved menial tasks like checking for typos. A post-experiment questionnaire demonstrated that participants did, as might be expected, look upon the role of idea producer with respect and admiration. Equally unsurprisingly, they looked down on the role of worker. To manipulate their power, participants were told there would be a draw for a $50 bonus prize at the end of the study and that, regardless of their role, each participant would be able to dictate which activities his partner must engage in to qualify to enter the draw. Participants that Dr Fast wanted to imbue with a sense of power were informed that one other element of their role involved dictating which “hoops” their partners would have to jump through in order to qualify for the draw, and that they controlled the amount of effort the partner had to exert in order to win the $50. They were also told that the partner did not have any such control over them. In contrast, low-power participants were informed that while they had the ability to determine the hoops their partner had to jump through, that partner ultimately had more control because he could remove the low-power participant's name from the raffle if he did not like the hoops selected. Participants were then presented with a list of ten hoops and told to select as many as they liked (but a minimum of one) for their partner to jump through. Unknown to the participants, Dr Halevy and Dr Galinsky had conducted an independent test, using 58 people not involved in the main study, to rate how demeaning, humiliating, degrading, embarrassing and uncomfortable each of the ten possible activities actually was. Five of the ten were rated as deeply demeaning. These included things like: “say ‘I am filthy' five times” and “bark like a dog three times”. The other five were not considered particularly demeaning. They included: “tell the experimenter a funny joke” and “clap your hands 50 times”. Participants who had both status and power did not greatly demean their partners. They chose an average of 0.67 demeaning activities for those partners to perform. Low-power/low-status and low-power/high-status participants behaved similarly. They chose, on average, 0.67 and 0.85 demeaning activities. However, participants who were low in status but high in power—the classic “little Hitler” combination—chose an average of 1.12 deeply demeaning tasks for their partners to engage in. That was a highly statistically significant distinction. Of course, not everybody in the high-power/low-status quadrant of the experiment behaved badly. Underlying personality may still have a role. But as with previous experiments in which random members of the public have been asked to play prison guard or interrogator, Dr Fast's result suggests that many quite ordinary people will succumb to bad behaviour if the circumstances are right. From the print edition: Science and technology

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Jordan is a nation of six-and-a-half million people in the Middle East, northwest of Saudi Arabia, between Israel (to the west) and Iraq (to the east). It has a strategic location at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba and as the Arab country that shares the longest border with Israel and the occupied West Bank. Its major environmental issues include: - limited natural freshwater resources; - soil erosion; and, Jordan is susceptible to droughts and periodic earthquakes. Following World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, the UK received a mandate to govern much of the Middle East. Britain separated out a semi-autonomous region of Transjordan from Palestine in the early 1920s, and the area gained its independence in 1946. It adopted the name of Jordan in 1950. The country's long-time ruler was King Hussein (1953-99). A pragmatic leader, he successfully navigated competing pressures from the major powers (US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states, Israel, and a large internal Palestinian population. Jordan lost the West Bank to Israel in the 1967 war and defeated Palestinian rebels who attempted to overthrow the monarchy in 1970. King Hussein in 1988 permanently relinquished Jordanian claims to the West Bank. In 1989, he reinstituted parliamentary elections and initiated a gradual political liberalization; political parties were legalized in 1992. In 1994, he signed a peace treaty with Israel. King Abdallah II, King Hussein's eldest son, assumed the throne following his father's death in February 1999. Since then, he has consolidated his power and implemented some economic and political reforms. Jordan acceded to the World Trade Organization in 2000, and began to participate in the European Free Trade Association in 2001. In 2003, Jordan staunchly supported the Coalition ouster of Saddam Hussein in Iraq and, following the outbreak of insurgent violence in Iraq, absorbed thousands of displaced Iraqis. Approximately two million Iraqis have fled the conflict in Iraq, with the majority taking refuge in Syria and Jordan. A 2004 Agreement settles border dispute with Syria pending demarcation Municipal elections were held in July 2007 under a system in which 20% of seats in all municipal councils were reserved by quota for women. Parliamentary elections were last held in November 2010 and saw independent pro-government candidates win the vast majority of seats. Beginning in January 2011 in the wake of unrest in Tunisia and Egypt, as many as several thousand Jordanians staged weekly demonstrations and marches in Amman and other cities throughout Jordan to push for political reforms and protest government corruption, rising prices, rampant poverty, and high unemployment. In response, King Abdallah replaced his prime minister and formed two commissions - one to propose specific reforms to Jordan's electoral and political parties laws, and the other to consider limited constitutional amendments. In a televised speech in June, the King announced plans to work toward transferring authority for appointing future prime ministers and cabinet ministers to parliament; in a subsequent announcement, he outlined a revised political parties law intended to encourage greater political participation. Protesters and opposition elements generally acknowledged those measures as steps in the right direction but many continue to push for greater limits on the King's authority and to fight against government corruption. In September, a royal decree approved constitutional amendments passed by the Parliament aimed at strengthening a more independent judiciary and establishing a constitutional court and independent election commission to oversee the next municipal and parliamentary elections, slated for April 2012 and fall 2012, respectively. King Abdallah in October 2011 dissolved the Jordanian parliament and replaced the prime minister in response to widespread public dissatisfaction with government performance and escalating criticism of the premier because of public concerns over his reported involvement in corruption. Location: Middle East, northwest of Saudi Arabia, between Israel (to the west) and Iraq Geographic Coordinates: 31 00 N, 36 00 E Area: 89,342 sq km (land: 88,802 sq km; water: 540 sq km) Coastline: 26 km Maritime Claims: territorial sea: 3 nm Natural Hazards: droughts; periodic earthquakes Terrain: mostly desert plateau in east, highland area in west; Great Rift Valley separates East and West Banks of the Jordan River. The highest point is Jabal Umm ad Dami (1,854 m) and the lowest point Dead Sea (-408 m). Climate: mostly arid desert; rainy season in west (November to April) |This Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) image from the Terra satellite shows the Mediterranean Sea (left) and portions of the Middle East. Countries pictured are (clockwise from top right) Syria, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Egypt (across the Gulf of Aqaba), Israel, the disputed West Bank Territory, and Lebanon. In the center is Jordan. The lush, green vegetation along the Mediterranean coast and surrounding the Sea of Galilee (Lake Tiberias) in northern Israel and stands in marked contrast to the arid landscape all around. In Lebanon (and the border of Lebanon and Syria), bright white snow covers the peaks of the Jebel Liban Mountains. In the bottom right, a few scattered plots of green stand out against the orange sands of the deserts of Saudi Arabia. Source: NASA||Topography of Jordan. Source: Wikimedia Commons.| Ecology and Biodiversity Map source: World Wildlife Fund People and Society Population: 6,508,887 (July 2012 est.) Jordanians are Arabs, except for a few small communities of Circassians, Armenians, and Chechens who have adapted to Arab culture. The official language is Arabic, but English is used widely in commerce and government. About 70% of Jordan's population is urban; less than 6% of the rural population is nomadic or semi-nomadic. Approximately 1.7 million registered Palestinian refugees and other displaced persons, including Iraqis, reside in Jordan. |A view of the Wadi Rum, the largest wadi or valley in Jordan.| |The "Treasury" building (Al-Khazneh) at Petra was carved into the red-hued cliff face in the 2nd century B.C.| |Dana Biosphere Reserve, Jordan. Source: Bernard Gagnon/Wikimedia Commons| |A farm in the mountains of Ajloun in north western Jordan. Source: Wikimedia Commons.| Ethnic Groups: Arab 98%, Circassian 1%, Armenian 1% 0-14 years: 35.3% (male 1,180,595/female 1,114,533) 15-64 years: 59.9% (male 1,977,075/female 1,921,504) 65 years and over: 4.8% (male 153,918/female 160,646) (2011 est.) Population Growth Rate: -0.965% (2012 est.) Birthrate: 26.52 births/1,000 population (2012 est.) Death Rate: 2.74 deaths/1,000 population (July 2012 est.) Net Migration Rate: -33.42 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2012 est.) Life Expectancy at Birth: 80.18 year male: 78.82 years female: 81.61 years (2012 est.) Total Fertility Rate: 3.36 children born/woman (2012 est.) Languages: Arabic (official), English (widely understood among upper and middle classes) Literacy (age 15 and over can read and write): 89.9% (2003 est.) Urbanization: 79% of total population (2010) growing at an annual rate of change of 1.6% (2010-15 est.) The land that became Jordan is part of the richly historical Fertile Crescent region. Around 2000 B.C., Semitic Amorites settled around the Jordan River in the area called Canaan. Subsequent invaders and settlers included Hittites, Egyptians, Israelites, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arab Muslims, Christian Crusaders, Mameluks, Ottoman Turks, and, finally, the British. At the end of World War I, the League of Nations awarded the territory now comprising Israel, Jordan, the West Bank, Gaza, and Jerusalem to the United Kingdom as the mandate for Palestine and Transjordan. In 1922, the British divided the mandate by establishing the semiautonomous Emirate of Transjordan, ruled by the Hashemite Prince Abdullah, while continuing the administration of Palestine under a British High Commissioner. The mandate over Transjordan ended on May 22, 1946; on May 25, the country became the independent Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. It ended its special defense treaty relationship with the United Kingdom in 1957. Transjordan was one of the Arab states which moved to assist Palestinian nationalists opposed to the creation of Israel in May 1948, and took part in the warfare between the Arab states and the newly founded State of Israel. The armistice agreements of April 3, 1949 left Jordan in control of the West Bank and provided that the armistice demarcation lines were without prejudice to future territorial settlements or boundary lines. In 1950, the country was renamed the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan to include those portions of Palestine annexed by King Abdullah I. While recognizing Jordanian administration over the West Bank, the United States maintained the position that ultimate sovereignty was subject to future agreement. Jordan signed a mutual defense pact in May 1967 with Egypt, and it participated in the June 1967 war between Israel and the Arab states of Syria, Egypt, and Iraq. During the war, Israel gained control of the West Bank and all of Jerusalem. In 1988, Jordan renounced all claims to the West Bank but retained an administrative role pending a final settlement, and its 1994 treaty with Israel allowed for a continuing Jordanian role in Muslim holy places in Jerusalem. The U.S. Government considers the West Bank to be territory occupied by Israel and believes that its final status should be determined through direct negotiations among the parties concerned on the basis of UN Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338. The 1967 war led to a dramatic increase in the number of Palestinians living in Jordan. Its Palestinian refugee population--700,000 in 1966--grew by another 300,000 from the West Bank. The period following the 1967 war saw an upsurge in the power and importance of Palestinian resistance elements (fedayeen) in Jordan. The heavily armed fedayeen constituted a growing threat to the sovereignty and security of the Hashemite state, and open fighting erupted in September 1970. No fighting occurred along the 1967 Jordan River cease-fire line during the October 1973 Arab-Israeli war, but Jordan sent a brigade to Syria to fight Israeli units on Syrian territory. Jordan did not participate in the Gulf war of 1990-91. In 1991, Jordan agreed, along with Syria, Lebanon, and Palestinian representatives, to participate in direct peace negotiations with Israel sponsored by the U.S. and Russia. It negotiated an end to hostilities with Israel and signed a peace treaty in 1994. Jordan has since sought to remain at peace with all of its neighbors. King Hussein ruled Jordan from 1953 to 1999, surviving a number of challenges to his rule, drawing on the loyalty of his military, and serving as a symbol of unity and stability for both the East Bank and Palestinian communities in Jordan. In 1989 and 1993, Jordan held free and fair parliamentary elections. Controversial changes in the election law led Islamist parties to boycott the 1997 elections. King Hussein ended martial law in 1991 and legalized political parties in 1992. King Abdullah II succeeded his father Hussein following the latter's death in February 1999. King Abdullah moved quickly to reaffirm Jordan's peace treaty with Israel and its relations with the U.S., and has since focused the government's agenda on economic reform, political development, and poverty alleviation. Since assuming the throne in 1999, King Abdallah has implemented significant economic reforms, such as opening the trade regime, privatizing state-owned companies, and eliminating most fuel subsidies, which in the past few years have spurred economic growth by attracting foreign investment and creating some jobs. Jordan's continuing structural economic difficulties, burgeoning population, and more open political environment have led to the emergence of a variety of small political parties. In parliamentary elections held November 2007, the Islamist opposition lost many of the seats it had gained in 2003. In November 2009, the King dissolved parliament. New elections were held November 2010; the Islamist opposition boycotted these elections. New elections are anticipated in the fall of 2012, after the new independent electoral commission, authorized by the 2011 constitution, is named. Jordan is a constitutional monarchy based on the constitution promulgated on January 8, 1952 and amended on October 1, 2011. Executive authority is vested in the King and his Council of Ministers. The King signs and executes all laws. His veto power may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the parliament. He appoints and may dismiss all judges by decree, approves amendments to the constitution, declares war, and commands the armed forces. Cabinet decisions, court judgments, and the national currency are issued in his name. The King, who may dismiss other cabinet members at the prime minister's request, appoints the council of ministers, led by a prime minister. The cabinet is responsible to the lower house of parliament on matters of general policy and can be forced to resign by a two-thirds vote of "no confidence" by that body. Responding to popular demand set against the context of the Arab Spring, in February 2011 King Abdullah dismissed the cabinet and named a new prime minister, charged with pursuing democratic reforms. In March, the King established a National Dialogue Committee mandated with writing new laws governing political parties and elections, and in April he created the Royal Committee to Amend the Constitution. On August 14, King Abdullah announced proposed amendments to the constitution intended to strengthen the role of the judiciary and to enhance the rule of law. Parliament passed 40 of the 42 amendments, and the King accepted these changes. The amended constitution is now referred to as the October 1, 2011 Constitution. Parliament is working to enact the legislative framework to implement the constitutional changes as well as the political party and electoral laws recommended by the National Dialogue Committee. In October 2011, in response to popular frustration over the pace of reform and anger over a proposed municipal elections law, the King again dismissed the cabinet and named as Prime Minister Awn Khasawneh, who had been serving on the International Court of Justice. He also appointed a new director of the General Intelligence Directorate, and his letter mandating that the new director pursue reform within the intelligence services was leaked to the media. Legislative power rests in the bicameral parliament. The lower house of parliament, elected by universal suffrage to a 4-year term, is subject to dissolution by the King. The King appoints the 55-member upper house for a 4-year term. Jordan held elections for municipal councils and mayors in July 2007; 20% of the council seats were reserved by quota for women. New municipal elections are anticipated in mid-2012. The King dissolved parliament in November 2009; new elections were held November 9, 2010. Women hold 13 of the 120 seats, as one woman won a seat outright, above the new 10% quota for women. Only 25% of the current parliament held a seat in the previous parliament. Government Type: constitutional monarchy Capital: Amman 1.088 million (2009) About 9,000 years ago, a settlement was founded in an area of rolling hills between the fertile Jordan River Valley to the west and desert in the east. Along the banks of the Wadi Amman and its tributaries, this settlement has alternately flourished and declined, but has remained continuously inhabited to the present day. NASA’s Landsat 5 satellite captured this natural-color image of Amman, Jordan, on December 3, 2010. The city forms a rough V shape of gray. West of the city, the terrain is more rugged, with small valleys extending toward the Jordan River. Part of the Dead Sea appears southwest of Amman, and agricultural fields in the Jordan River Valley appear west of town. East of the city, the land is flatter. The uneven terrain in this region is composed of sedimentary rocks—chalk, chert, limestone, and marl—likely deposited when this slab of Earth's crust was underwater. The rocks in this region date from the Cenomanian Stage to the Paleocene Epoch, or roughly 95 million to 55 million years ago. Limestone and chert are good for holding water in aquifers, making them a valuable resource to the country. Less than 5 percent of Jordan’s land is arable, and just over 1 percent supports permanent crops. Fresh water is scarce, and drought and desertification pose perennial threats. A relatively moist area compared the deserts of eastern Jordan, Amman is home to more than 1 million of the country’s estimated 6 million residents. Source: NASA 12 governorates (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah): Map source: Wikimedia Commons Independence Date: 25 May 1946 (from League of Nations mandate under British administration) Legal System: Mixed legal system of civil law and Islamic religious law; judicial review of legislative acts in a specially provided High Tribunal. Jordan has not submitted an International Court of Justice (ICJ) jurisdiction declaration; but accepts International criminal court (ICCt) jurisdiction. The constitution provides for three categories of courts--civil, religious, and special. Administratively, Jordan is divided into 12 governorates, each headed by a governor appointed by the King. They are the sole authorities for all government departments and development projects in their respective areas. International Environmental Agreements Jordan is party to international agrements on: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, and Wetlands. Total Renewable Water Resources: 0.9 cu km (1997) Freshwater Withdrawal: 1.01 cu km/yr (21% domestic, 4% industrial, 75% agricultural) Per Capita Freshwater Withdrawal: 177 cu m/yr (2000) Agricultural products: citrus, tomatoes, cucumbers, olives, strawberries, stone fruits; sheep, poultry, dairy Irrigated Land: 820 sq km (2008) Natural Resources: phosphates, potash, shale oil arable land: 3.32% permanent crops: 1.18% other: 95.5% (2005) Jordan is a small country with limited natural resources. It is among the most water-poor countries in the world. The country is currently exploring ways to expand its limited water supply and use its existing water resources more efficiently, including through regional cooperation. Jordan also depends on external sources for the majority of its energy requirements. During the 1990s, its crude petroleum needs were met through imports from neighboring Iraq, often at concessionary prices. Since early 2003, Jordan has imported oil primarily from Saudi Arabia at concessionary and market prices. In addition, a natural gas pipeline from Egypt to Jordan through the southern port city of Aqaba is now operational. The pipeline has reached northern Jordan and construction to connect it to Syria and beyond is underway. Jordan developed a new energy strategy in 2007 aiming to develop more indigenous and renewable energy sources, including oil shale, nuclear energy, wind, and solar power. Under King Abdullah, Jordan has undertaken a program of economic reform. The government has eliminated most fuel and agricultural subsidies, passed legislation targeting corruption, and begun tax reform. It has also worked to liberalize trade, joining the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2000; signing an Association Agreement with the European Union (EU) in 2001; and signing the first bilateral free trade agreement (FTA) between the U.S. and an Arab country. Under the terms of the U.S.-Jordan FTA, which entered into force in 2001, the United States and Jordan agreed to phased tariff reductions culminating in the complete elimination of duties on nearly all products by 2010. The agreement contains labor and environmental provisions, and also provides for more open markets in communications, construction, finance, health, transportation, and services, as well as the strict application of international standards for the protection of intellectual property. In 1996, the U.S. Congress created Qualifying Industrial Zones (QIZ) to support the peace process. QIZ goods, which must contain a certain percentage of Israeli input and enter the United States tariff- and quota-free, have also driven economic growth, particularly in the export of light manufactured products such as garments. Jordan exported $6.9 million in goods to the U.S. in 1997, when two-way trade was $395 million; according to the U.S. International Trade Commission, it exported $796.2 million in the first 10 months of 2009, with U.S. exports to Jordan valued at $976.9 million and two-way trade reaching $1.77 billion. In 2009, Jordan's economy continued to grow slightly but was hurt by lower than expected revenues and slower growth due to the global financial crisis. In 1996, Jordan and the United States signed a civil aviation agreement that provides for "open skies" between the two countries, and a U.S.-Jordan Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) for the protection and encouragement of bilateral investment entered into force in 2003. The United States and Jordan also signed in 2007 a Science and Technology Cooperation Agreement to facilitate and strengthen scientific cooperation between the two countries, as well as a memorandum of understanding on nuclear energy cooperation. Such agreements bolster efforts to help diversify Jordan's economy and promote growth, and at the same time lessen reliance on exports of phosphates, potash, and recently textiles; overseas remittances; and foreign aid. The government has emphasized the information technology (IT), pharmaceuticals, and tourism sectors as other promising growth sectors. The low tax and low regulation Aqaba Special Economic Zone (ASEZ) is considered a model of a government-provided framework for private sector-led economic growth. Jordan is classified by the World Bank as a "lower middle income country." The per capita GDP is $4,700. According to Jordan's Department of Statistics, almost 13% of the economically active Jordanian population residing in Jordan was unemployed in 2008, although unofficial estimates cite a 30% unemployment rate. Education and literacy rates and measures of social well-being are relatively high compared to other countries with similar incomes. Jordan's population growth rate has declined in recent years and is currently 2.3% as reported by the Jordanian Government. One of the most important factors in the government's efforts to improve the well-being of its citizens is the macroeconomic stability that has been achieved since the 1990s. Jordan’s 2008 and 2009 budgets emphasized increases in the social safety net to help people most impacted by high inflation, but these increases were not included in the 2010 budget because of fiscal austerity plans and the low inflation rates during 2009. The average rate of inflation in 2009 was -0.1%. The currency has been stable with an exchange rate fixed to the U.S. dollar since 1995 at JD 0.708 to the dollar. In 2008, Jordan participated in a Paris Club debt buyback to retire more than $2 billion in debt using privatization proceeds which, at the time, reduced the percentage of external debt to GDP from 46% to 32%. While pursuing economic reform and increased trade, Jordan's economy will continue to be vulnerable to external shocks and regional unrest. Without calm in the region, economic growth seems destined to stay below its potential. Jordan’s conservative banking sector was largely protected from the worldwide financial crisis but many businesses, particularly in the tourism and real estate sector, experienced a slowdown in 2009. In 2011 the government approved two economic relief packages and a budgetary supplement, largely to improve the living conditions for the middle and poor classes. Jordan's finances have also been strained by a series of natural gas pipline attacks in Egypt, causing Jordan to substitute more expensive heavy fuel oils to generate electricity. An influx of foreign aid, especially from Gulf countries, has helped to somewhat offset these extrabudgetary expenditures, but the budget deficit is likely to remain high, at nearly 10% of GDP excluding grants. Amman likely will continue to depend heavily on foreign assistance to finance the deficit in 2012. Jordan's financial sector has been relatively isolated from the international financial crisis because of its limited exposure to overseas capital markets. Jordan is currently exploring nuclear power generation to forestall energy shortfalls. See: Energy profile of Eastern Mediterranean GDP: (Purchasing Power Parity): $36.82 billion (2011 est.) GDP: (Official Exchange Rate): $28.4 billion (2011 est.) GDP- per capita (PPP): $5,900 (2011 est.) GDP- composition by sector: services: 65.2% (2011 est.) Industries: clothing, fertilizers, potash, phosphate mining, pharmaceuticals, petroleum refining, cement, inorganic chemicals, light manufacturing, tourism Currency: Jordanian dinars (JOD)

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FECYT - Spanish Foundation for Science and Technology Caption: Spanish researchers have studied adults' accuracy in the recognition of the emotion causing babies to cry. Eye movement and the dynamic of the cry play a key role in recognition. Usage Restrictions: None Related news release: Fear, anger or pain -- Why do babies cry?

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The Origin of the Universe RRP US$15.99 US$13.42 Save 16% Free Shipping Worldwide Ships from USA supplier |Format:||Paperback / softback, 532 pages| |Other Information: ||Illustrated| |Published In: ||United States, 01 November 2005| This brief history of the beginning of the universe comes from the bestselling author of "Fermat's Enigma" and "The Code Book." Black-and-white photos and illustrations. The best-selling author of Fermat's Enigma, a former BBC producer with a Ph.D. in physics, goes back to the beginning. With a seven-city author tour. Copyright 2004 Reed Business Information. It was cosmologist Fred Hoyle who coined the term "big bang" to describe the notion that the universe exploded out of nothing to kick-start space and time. Ironically, Hoyle himself espoused the steady state theory, positing that the universe is eternal and never really changes. Former BBC producer and science writer Singh (Fermat's Enigma) recounts in his inimitable down-to-earth style how the big bang theory triumphed. Readers will find here one of the best explanations available of how Cepheid stars are used to estimate the distance of other galaxies. Singh highlights some of the lesser-known figures in the development of the big bang theory, like Henrietta Leavitt, a volunteer "computer" at the Harvard College Observatory who in 1912 discovered how Cepheid stars can be used to measure galactic distances. Singh shows how the creation of the heavier elements was a major stumbling block to widespread adoption of the big bang until Hoyle (once again boosting the theory that he so fervently opposed) proved that they were created in stars' nuclear furnaces and strewn throughout the universe via supernova explosions. Readers who don't need a review of the early development of cosmology may wish that Singh had adopted a somewhat less leisurely pace. But his introductory chapters hold a lot of worthwhile material, clearly presented for the science buff and lay reader. There's no better account of the big bang theory than this. B&w photos and illus. Agent, Patrick Walsh at Carville and Walsh, London. (Jan. 7) Copyright 2004 Reed Business Information. "An expert but friendly guide to help you decode the mysteries [of the universe] with crisp, clear running commentary."--Sylvia Nasar, author of A Beautiful Mind |Publisher: ||Harper Perennial| |Dimensions: ||20.42 x 13.46 x 3.43 centimeters (0.48 kg)|

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By Rob Coppinger in London European hypersonic civil transport project heats up as three concepts undergo trials An aircraft capable of flying five times the speed of sound and reaching Sydney in between two and four hours from Brussels is the leading design in a €7 million European research project to find a hypersonic civilian airliner replacement to the supersonic Concorde. A Mach 5 civil transport aircraft designed by a UK team is leading a pack of three concepts undergoing preliminary studies for the three-year, €7 million ($9 million) European hypersonic research project, Long Term Advanced Propulsion Concepts and Technologies (LAPCAT). With €4 million from the European Commission and the rest from industry, LAPCAT aims to develop a vehicle capable of travelling from Europe to Australia in 2-4h. Oxfordshire-based Reaction Engine says its A2 (a Flight artist's impression of which is pictured above), meets take-off noise restrictions and is powered by hydrogen-fuelled turbine-based combine cycle (TBCC) engines. The other two concepts are an EADS Mach 8 vehicle with rocket-based combined cycle propulsion and German aerospace research centre DLR’s kerosene-fuelled, TBCC-powered Mach 4 craft. LAPCAT is being co-ordinated by the European Space Agency for the EC. “Results so far show [the Mach 5 vehicle from Reaction Engines] can avoid later [technology] pitfalls and could travel from Brussels to Sydney,” says ESA’s LAPCAT project co-ordinator Johan Steelant. Criteria for vehicle evaluation include safety, ability to reach diversion airports, adaptability to different sonic boom restrictions and technological maturation. Steelant cites the heat exchangers in Reaction Engine’s Scimitar TBCC engine as being more advanced in their development. Later this month tests of an experimental engine intake will start at a DLR windtunnel facility. These should be followed by nozzle tests in July and eventually combustion chamber and combined intake, chamber and nozzle testing.

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Jeff McMahon, Contributor I cover green technology, energy and the environment from Chicago. Hydraulic fracturing has made natural gas so plentiful and cheap in the United States that rig operators are opting to drill for oil, a BP economist said in Chicago last night. In 2011 the United States passed Russia as the world’s largest producer of natural gas, said Mark Finley, BP’s general manager for global energy markets. But because the U.S. lacks sufficient facilities to liquefy and ship natural gas, most of that gas enters the domestic market. “If you had a rig in the United States would you be looking for expensive oil or inexpensive gas?” Finley asked about 75 people gathered at the University of Chicago’s downtown Gleacher Center. “Maybe I’m just a pointy-headed economist, but I’d be looking for the expensive one.” As a result, in 2011 the United States had the largest increase in oil production of any nation outside of OPEC. And the OPEC nations increased production largely in response to the disruption of Libya’s oil industry, and only after the U.S. and the International Energy Agency threatened to release strategic reserves. “For the first time in several decades, the majority of rigs in the U.S. are drilling for oil,” Finley said. ”We’ve seen a massive turnaround in drilling activity. We see that three-quarters of U.S. rigs are now drilling for oil, and we can see that just three years ago, that scenario was completely reversed.” Supply has also surpassed demand for oil, however, in part because of consumer response to high oil prices: ”This is just you putting pressure at the pump, by putting the Hummer company out of business and buying Priuses,” Finley said. The U.S. produced 651.3 billion cubic meters of natural gas in 2011, compared to 607 in Russia, the only other nation that comes close, according to BP’s Statistical Review of World Energy June 2012. The U.S. is responsible for about half of the worldwide increase in gas production. Although U.S. industries are preparing to export natural gas to world markets, those developments lag behind gas production. “The U.S. doesn’t have the capacity to export natural gas so it has to be absorbed within the U.S. domestic marketplace.” The U.S. produced 7,841 thousands barrels of oil per day, according to BP’s review, about a million barrels per day more than it did five years ago, with the production trend likely to continue. Saudi Arabia, the world leader, produced 11,161 thousand barrels per day in 2011. Finley’s appearance was sponsored by the Energy Policy Institute at Chicago and Young Professionals in Energy.

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The great campaign between Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia and Ulysses S. Grant's Army of the Potomac ground to a halt in mid-June. Having battered each other for a month and a half, the armies came to a standstill at Petersburg, just south of Richmond. Here, they settled into trenches for a long siege of the Confederate rail center. The men of the 48th Pennsylvania sought to break the stalemate with an ambitious project. The brainchild of Lieutenant Colonel Henry Pleasants, the plan called for the men of his regiment–mostly miners from Pennsylvania's anthracite coal region–to construct a tunnel to the Confederate line, fill it with powder, and blow a gap in the fortifications. On June 24, the plan received the approval of the regiment's corps commander, Ambrose Burnside, and the digging commenced the following day. Burnside's superiors, Generals Grant and George Meade, expressed little enthusiasm for the project but allowed it to proceed. For five weeks the miners dug the 500-foot long shaft, completing about 40 feet per day. On July 30, a huge cache of gunpowder was ignited. The plan worked, and a huge gap was blown in the Rebel line. But poor planning by Union officers squandered the opportunity, and the Confederates closed the gap before the Federals could exploit the opening. The Battle of the Crater, as it became known, was an unusual event in an otherwise uneventful summer along the Petersburg line.

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An excerpt from www.HouseOfNames.com archives copyright © 2000 - 2013 Where did the French Bodri family come from? What is the French Bodri family crest and coat of arms? When did the Bodri family first arrive in the United States? Where did the various branches of the family go? What is the Bodri family history?The origins of the name Bodri belongs to a very particular southern region that was once known as Languedoc. The name is derived from the ancient Norman personal name Baldric. One can encounter great variation in the spelling of French surnames; in part, as spelling, and the spelling names was not yet standardized during the early development of the written French language. Later, there was much branching and movement of families, and spellings would change according to region. Variations of the name Bodri include Beaudry, Beaudri, Beaudrie, Beaudris, Beauddry, Beauddri, Beauddrie, Beauddris, Bodry, Bodri, Bodrie, Bodris, Boddry, Boddri, Boddrie, Boddris, Baudry, Baudri, Baudrie, Baudris, Bauddry, Bauddri, Bauddrie, Bauddris, Beudry, Beudri, Beudrie, Beudris, Beuddry, Beuddri, Beuddrie and many more. This web page shows only a small excerpt of our Bodri research. Another 231 words(16 lines of text) are included under the topic Early Bodri History in all our PDF Extended History products. More information is included under the topic Early Bodri Notables in all our PDF Extended History products. In 1643, 109 years after the first landings by Cartier, there were only about 300 people in Quebec. Migration was slow. The fur trade attracted migrants, both noble and commoner. By 1675, there were 7000 French in Quebec. By the same year the French Acadian presence in the Maritimes had reached 500. The French founded Lower Canada, thus becoming one of the two great founding nations of Canada. The family name Bodri has made many distinguished contributions in France and New France to the world of science, culture, religion, and education. Amongst the settlers in North America with this distinguished name Bodri were Pindence Beaudry who settled in San Francisco in 1850; Pierre Baudry who settled in Virginia in 1700; Louis Baudry, son of Toussaint and Françoise Archambault, who married Catherine Picard in 1720 and married again Marguerite Lacombe, daughter of Jean and Marie Millet in 1728. The Bodri Family Crest was acquired from the Houseofnames.com archives. The Bodri Family Crest was drawn according to heraldic standards based on published blazons. We generally include the oldest published family crest once associated with each surname. This page was last modified on 28 February 2012 at 12:16. houseofnames.com is an internet property owned by Swyrich Corporation.

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You are taking the medication exactly as your doctor prescribed, but you aren't sure if your medication is working. There may be a number of reasons: - It may take time. Some medications take days or weeks to work. If you are taking one of these medications, it may simply not have reached its full effect yet. Medications that may take time to work: - skin medications - certain asthma medications (corticosteroid inhalers) - high blood pressure medications - cholesterol medications - thyroid medications - osteoporosis medications Other medications not listed here may also take time to work. To check your medication, ask your doctor or pharmacist. Some medications need to be taken in a special way in order to work properly, such as with or without food, or at specific times of the day. For more information, talk to your doctor or pharmacist The dose may not be right for you. Medications may not work optimally if they are not given at the proper dose. This may not be the best medication for you. Sometimes, a medication may not work for everyone. Don't be discouraged if this happens to you - talk to your doctor or pharmacist. Often, they can suggest another medication or treatment that may work better for you.

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An ad hoc committee is pushing a series of projects aimed at honoring the late-George I. Sanchez, a scholar credited with helping bring attention to the plight of poor Mexican-Americans in the 1930s. Those projects include naming a street and building after Sanchez, said Luisa Duran, a retired University of New Mexico bilingual education professor. In addition, New Mexico state lawmakers are scheduled Tuesday to read a memorial about the pioneer scholar's contributions to Latino education. For the Sanchez family, it's a stunning reversal of his legacy in a state where lawmakers once denounced him and forced him to leave because of his then-radical views on desegregation, said granddaughter Cindy Kennedy, 49, a Santa Fe teacher. "I think it's fantastic," Kennedy said. "It's about time he's being honored here nearly 40 years after his death." Duran said the committee is working on more ideas to honor Sanchez, who wrote the 1940 classic book "Forgotten People" about Mexican-Americans in Taos. The group of educators formed the committee after reading a story by The Associated Press last year that Sanchez was relatively unknown in his birth state and in Albuquerque, an area he worked as a young school teacher. "It's important that we remember him because A dozen or so schools in Texas and California are named in honor of Sanchez—including the School of Education building at the University of Texas where he taught for many years—but not a single school in New Mexico bears his name. Few New Mexico educators or activists know much about him, according to historians and educators. No plaque exists to show his birthplace or the school where Sanchez taught. He is not listed among the state's notable figures in New Mexico Centennial guidebooks. A son of an Arizona miner, Albuquerque-born Sanchez worked his way out of poverty as a rural public school teacher in New Mexico to become a pioneer scholar and education activist. Sanchez developed his theories on school inequalities using New Mexico's Hispanic and Navajo populations as examples. He argued that bilingual students were discriminated against by monolingual school systems and testified in landmark court cases about the negative effects of segregation and IQ testing on Hispanic, American Indian and black children. But Sanchez clashed with the state's governor for pushing a state equalization funding formula for schools and came under fire from some lawmakers for helping with a University of New Mexico professor's survey on racial attitudes in schools. Kennedy said her grandfather never sought much recognition while he was alive. "But I'm glad New Mexico is finally beginning to honor him," Kennedy said. "He's finally coming home." Follow Russell Contreras at http://twitter.com/russcontreras

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Matisse: Radical Invention, 1913-1917 July 18–October 11, 2010 Matisse conceived this "souvenir of Morocco" in 1912, stretched a canvas for it in 1913, and returned to the composition late in 1915, only to start again on a new canvas in early 1916. Black is the principal agent, at once simplifying, dividing, and joining the three zones of the canvas: the still life of melons and leaves on a gridded pavement, bottom left; the architecture with domed marabout, top left; and the figures, at right. Next to a seated Moroccan shown from behind, the large curving ocher shape and circular form derive from a reclining figure in the sketches. Above the shadowed archway, figures in profile may be discerned in the two windows: at right, the lower part of a seated man; at left, the upper part of a man with raised arms. Matisse built up the surface with thin layers of pigment, the color of the underlying layers modifying those on top. Painter Gino Severini reported that "Matisse said . . . that everything that did not contribute to the balance and rhythm of [this] work, had to be eliminated . . . as you would prune a tree." Matisse developed this painting of what he described as “the terrace of the little cafe of the casbah” in the years following two visits to Morocco, in 1912 and 1913. As he worked on various studies he eliminated details he felt were extraneous to the painting’s overall balance. A balcony with a flowerpot and a mosque behind it are at upper left, at lower left is a still life of vegetables, and to the right is a man wearing a round turban, seen from behind. Matisse’s generous application of black paint helps unify the three sections of the painting across its abstract expanse. Matisse: Radical Invention, 1913–1917, July 18–October 11, 2010 Director, Glenn Lowry: Matisse first conceived this painting in 1912, while he was visiting Morocco. But he didn't actually start the canvas until early 1916. Once he did, he continued working on it—with great focus and concentration—through the fall. Curator, John Elderfield: The forms are difficult to decipher. I know some people who have thought that what Matisse says are melons and leaves are in fact the Moroccans, but Matisse is insistent that they are not. I think one can clearly see the figure whose back is towards us. And if we look at it carefully we can see that that figure's grown in size. To the right of it, that black area does seem to derive from drawings of an arched doorway with light hitting the bottom, but the top part is in shadow, leading into another architectural space. And the two elements at the top are ones which we can trace back to drawings he made in Morocco—the one at the right, of a sort of seated figure, and the one to the left, more puzzling, but somewhat amusingly, in one of the drawings—and he refers to this in his letter—is of a figure who has got his arms raised to look through binoculars. All that remains is the forearms and part of the body, and Matisse is quite happy to have carried it to that point of almost unintelligibility. But I don't think the painting asks us to be specific about these forms. Curator, Stephanie D’Alessandro: I don't think so either. I think there's a level of memory and recollection, and maybe even nostalgia with this picture. Glenn Lowry: One aspect of Morocco that stayed with Matisse was the harsh contrast between the midday sun and the shade, evoked here in the black background. Conservator, Michael Duffy: You can see how it defines certain shapes. Particularly the shape in the middle, this curved shape, which is made up of ochre and white. The black edge on the left is painted over, so he actually defines the form further by overlaying the black paint. When you look closely at the black paint, you'll see that it covers areas of blue and pink underneath, and that gives the black a very warm color. And it's very typical of the way Matisse painted. Rather than blending his colors together, to achieve one color, he would typically layer colors, even black, over several layers, in order to build up a kind of rich, optical surface. MoMA Audio: Collection, 2008 Curator Emeritus, John Elderfield: This painting was made in 1915–1916 and is a remembrance of visits that Matisse made to Morocco. And while the paintings made in Morocco are beautifully, limpidly colored, obviously the remembrance is rather of the great heat, of contrasts of color in the conditions of very bright light. The Moroccans themselves are on the right on the terrace with their melons and gourds—the green and yellow forms at the left. We can see a figure with his back to us, and then, with more difficulty, figures in windows at the top. In the background is a mosque with a vase of blue and white flowers standing on the parapet. Matisse said that he put black in his pictures to simplify the composition. And indeed, through the teens and into the 1920s, he regularly puts in a little dosing of black to hold everything else in place. I think, unquestionably, he was thinking of shadow, and of the kind of stifling midday sun in North Africa. There is that element of renunciation of color and wanting to put in an element of real gravity in the composition. Its hard to imagine any other color doing it in that same way. The Museum of Modern Art , MoMA Highlights, New York: The Museum of Modern Art, revised 2004, originally published 1999, p. 79 The Moroccans marvelously evokes tropical sun and heat even while its ground is an enveloping black, what Matisse called "a grand black, . . . as luminous as the other colors in the painting." Utterly dense, this black evokes a space as tangible as any object, and allows a gravity and measured drama without the illusion of depth once necessary to achieve this kind of grandeur. The painting, which Matisse described as picturing "the terrace of the little café of the casbah," is divided into three: at the upper left, an architectural section showing a balcony with flowerpot and the dome of a mosque behind; a still life, of four green-leafed yellow melons at the lower left; and a figural scene in which an Arab sits with his back to us. To his right is an arched doorway, and windows above contain vestigial figures. The form to his left is hard to decipher, but has been interpreted as a man's burnoose and circular turban. During his visit to Morocco in 1912-13, Matisse had been inspired by African light and color. At the same time, he faced the challenge of Cubism, the leading avant-garde art movement of the period, and The Moroccans summarizes his memories of Morocco while also combining the intellectual rigor of Cubist syntax with the larger scale and richer palette of his own art. Matisse Picasso, February 13–May 19, 2003 Narrator: In 1911 and again in 1912 Matisse traveled to Morocco. Three years later, he tapped those memories for this big souvenir picture, The Moroccans. By that time he was deeply involved in the Cubist vocabulary of reduced geometric form. Curator, John Elderfield: What it shows is on the upper left a mosque with a vase of flowers on the right hand side. In the bottom left is a pavement with melons with their green leaves. And at the right, more difficult to figure out, various figures who are presumably sitting on some sort of terrace outside a cafe in Tangier. One can I think clearly understand the figure with his back to us, with a white turban and, blue shirt. And to the right, what looks like the top of an archway in shadow. Matisse talked about the black as being a way of representing heat and light. And as one gets further south, one gets these very strong black and white contrasts. It's also trying to convey some of the sense of the intense light, and the almost tangible heat of Tangier. Curator, Kirk Varnedoe: Certainly Picasso must have looked intensely at a major picture like this, and learned from it a new vocabulary of Cubism, more highly abstracted, more monumental. When you compare The Moroccans to Picasso's Three Musicians of 1921...what leaps out at you are certain similarities—the use of black for example. But Picasso unlike Matisse is not a traveler. Picasso often said, "If someone didn't come to the studio in the morning, I wouldn't have anything to paint in the afternoon." Narrator: The Three Musicians most likely represent the artist and his friends. Picasso himself is at the center, identified by the harlequin costume and guitar he often used as his symbols. To the right, the man dressed as a monk with a stylized beard is probably Picasso's friend the poet Max Jacob, who had entered a monastery after the First World War. And the large white figure with the clarinet may be another poet friend, Guillaume Apollinaire, who had died from war wounds. Kirk Varnedoe: The picture has a kind of gravity, a kind of sadness or melancholy, which is played off by small and amusing details, like the tiny little zig zags that represent the hand on the notes of music, or the dog that lies under the table to the left. So you imagine the music being played. Is it syncopated like a kind of bright jazz, and on the other hand melancholy like a threnody? And when you compare this in its detail, then you sense how monumental the Matisse is by comparison, and how in a certain sense impersonal it is.

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What are Eye Problems? Our pets are subject to many of the same eye conditions that we are, including glaucoma, corneal ulceration, cataracts, dry eye, retinal degeneration and eye infections such as conjunctivitis. However, in many cases, serious eye problems are not realized or treated in time and the result can be long term damage or visual impairment. What makes eye problems so tricky is that the severity of the symptoms is not always a testament to the severity of the condition. For example, a pet with a very red, puffy eye may have a harmless infection, while a pet with a slight squint may have a serious eye condition requiring immediate treatment. Our pets are also unable to tell us of any change in vision, eye pain or any eye discomfort the may be feeling. For these reasons it is always best to walk on the side of caution and take your pet to the vet if they show any symptoms of eye problems. Diagnosing Eye Problems Signs and symptoms may include: - red eye - painful eye (often expressed by squinting, pawing or rubbing at the eye, tearing, and appetite or behavior changes) - cloudy eye - yellow or greenish discharge - blood in or around eye - excessive tearing - bulging of the eye - dilated pupil or difference in pupil size - pupils that do not react to light changes - eye inflammation Help for Eye Problems One a veterinary examination has determined the type and cause of your pet’s eye problems, natural herbal and homeopathic remedies can be used as an alternative to or in conjunction with conventional treatments, depending on the condition. There are a number of natural ingredients that have been known to improve the health of the eyes and treat a variety of common eye problems. Burdock is one such herb that is well known for its excellent eye-cleansing and detoxifying properties. Burdock also helps to stimulate the functioning of the immune system and is very useful in the treatment of dry eyes and eye infections. The commonly used herb Rosemary is also beneficial for a number of eye problems as it has strong antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties as well as the ability to help relieve pain. Meadow Sweet is also highly recommended as it is an excellent astringent, antiseptic and anti-inflammatory and helps to soothe and heal infections of the eyes and conjunctiva. Lastly, the herb Chelidonium majus can be used to sharpen sight, boost the immune system and promote faster healing of the eye.

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Zap a metal with light and the electrons on the surface ripple into waves ? known as plasmons ? which emit light of their own. The frequency of that light reflects the electronic nature of the surface and is highly sensitive to contamination. Kevin Tetz and colleagues in the Ultrafast and Nanoscale Optics Group at the University of California, San Diego, have designed a system to exploit that to test for any surface contamination on the surface of, well, anything. Their idea uses a thin layer of metal drilled with nanoscale holes, laid onto the surface being tested. When the perforated plate is zapped with laser light, the surface plasmons that form emit light with a frequency related to the materials touching the plate. A sensitive light detector is needed to measure the frequency of light given off. The team says devices using this approach can be small and portable, will work on very low power, and could detect everything from explosives to bacteria. All that needs to be done now is build a system able to decode the light signatures.Read the full universal detector patent applicationJustin Mullins, New Scientist consultant

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Why the Red Dragon Is the Emblem of Wales W. Jenkyn Thomas After the Treachery of the Long Knives, King Vortigern called together his twelve wise men and asked them what he should do. They said to him, "Retire to the remote boundaries of your kingdom, and there build and fortify a city to defend yourself. The Saxon people you have received are treacherous, and they are seeking to subdue you by guile. Even during your life they will, if they can, seize upon all the countries which are subject to your power. How much more will they attempt it after your death?" The king was pleased with this advice, and departing with his wise men traveled through many parts of his territories in search of a convenient place for building a citadel. Far and wide they traveled, but nowhere could they find a suitable place until they came to the mountains of Eryri, in Gwynedd. On the summit of one of these, which was then called Dinas Ffaraon, they discovered a fine place to build a fortress. The wise men said to the king, "Build here a city, for in this place you will be secure against the barbarians." Then the king sent for artificers, carpenters, and stonemasons, and collected all the materials for building. In the night, however, the whole of these disappeared, and by morning nothing remained of all that had been provided. Materials were procured from all parts a second time, but a second time they disappeared in the night. A third time everything was brought together for building, but by morning again not a trace of them remained. Vortigern called his wise men together and asked them the cause of this marvel. They replied: "You must find a child born without a father, put him to death, and sprinkle with his blood the ground on which the citadel is to be built, or you will never accomplish your purpose." This did not appear such strange advice to King Vortigern as it does to us. In olden times there were very cruel practices in connection with building. Sometimes a human victim was sacrificed in order that his blood might be used as cement. At other times a living person was walled in a new building -- often an innocent little child. The king thought the advice of his wise men was good and sent messengers throughout Britain in search of a child born without a father. After having inquired in vain in all the provinces, they came to a field in Bassaleg, where a party of boys were playing at ball. Two of them were quarrelling, and one of them said to the other, "0 boy without a father, no good will ever happen to you." The messengers concluded that this was the boy they were searching for. They had him led away and conducted him before Vortigern the king. The next day the king, his wise men, his soldiers and retinue, his artificers, carpenters, and stonemasons, assembled for the ceremony of putting the boy to death. Then the boy said to the king, "Why have your servants brought me hither?" "That you may be put to death," replied the king, "and that the ground on which my citadel is to stand may be sprinkled with your blood, without which I shall be unable to build it." "Who," said the boy, "instructed you to do this?" "My wise men," replied the king. "Order them hither," returned the boy. This being done, he thus questioned the wise men: "By what means was it revealed to you that this citadel could not be built unless the spot were sprinkled with my blood? Speak without disguise, and declare who discovered me to you." Then turning to the king, "I will soon," said he, "unfold to you everything; but I desire to question your wise men and wish them to disclose to you what is hidden underneath this pavement." They could not do so and acknowledged their ignorance. Thereupon the boy said, "There is a pool; come and dig." They did so, and found a pool, even as the boy had said. "Now," he continued, turning to the wise men again, "tell me what is in the pool." But they were ashamed and made no reply. "I," said the boy, "can discover it to you if the wise men cannot. There are two vases in the pool." They examined and found that it was so. Continuing his questions, " What is in the vases? " he asked. They were again silent. "There is a tent in them," said the boy. "Separate them and you shall find it so." This being done by the king's command, there was found in them a folded tent. The boy, going on with his questions, asked the wise men what was in it. But they knew not what to reply. "There are," said he, "two serpents, one white and one red. Unfold the tent." They obeyed, and two sleeping serpents were discovered. "Consider attentively," said the boy, "what the serpents do." They began to struggle with each other, and the white one, raising himself up, threw down the other into the middle of the tent and sometimes drove him to the edge of it, and this was repeated thrice. At length the red one, apparently the weaker of the two, recovering his strength, expelled the white one from the tent, and the latter, being pursued through the pool by the red one, disappeared. Then the boy asked the wise men what was signified by this wonderful omen, but they had again to confess their ignorance. "I will now," said he to the king, "unfold to you the meaning of this mystery. The pool is the emblem of this world, and the tent that of your kingdom. The two serpents are two dragons; the red serpent is your dragon, but the white serpent is the dragon of the Saxons, who occupy several provinces and districts of Britain, even almost from sea to sea. At length, however, our people shall rise and drive the Saxon race beyond the sea whence they have come. But do you depart from this place where you are not permitted to erect a citadel, you must seek another spot for laying your foundations." Vortigern, perceiving the ignorance and deceit of the magicians, ordered them to be put to death, and their graves were dug in a neighboring field. The boy's life was spared. He became known to fame afterwards as the great magician Myrddin Emrys (or Merlin, as he is called in English), and the mountain on which he proved his mighty power was called in after time Dinas Emrys instead of Dinas Ffaraon. He remained in the Dinas for a long time, until he was joined by Aurelius Ambrosius, who persuaded him to go away with him. When they were about to set out, Myrddin placed all his treasure in a golden cauldron and hid it in a cave. On the mouth of the cave he rolled a huge stone, which he covered up with earth and green turf, so that it was impossible for anyone to find it. This wealth he intended to be the property of some special person in a future generation. This heir is to be a youth with yellow hair and blue eyes, and when he comes to the Dinas a bell will ring to invite him into the cave, which will open out of its own accord as soon as his foot touches it. Return to D. L. Ashliman's folktexts, a library of folktales, folklore, fairy tales, and mythology. Revised January 24, 2010.

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EARLY SPRING in the Lamar River Valley: several wolves chase elk while an interested grizzly bear awaits the outcome. Grizzlies can drive wolves off a kill; more often they scavenge after the wolves have eaten their fill. Image: DIANE HARGREAVES Several scrawny cottonwood trees do not usually generate much excitement in the world of ecology. But on a wind-whipped August afternoon in Yellowstone National Park's Lamar Valley, William J. Ripple, a professor of botany at Oregon State University, stands next to a 12-foot-high cottonwood tree and is quietly ecstatic. "You can see the terminal bud scars," the bespectacled Ripple says, bending the limber tree over to show lines that mark a year's growth of a foot or more on the broom-handle-size trunk. "You can see that elk haven't browsed it this year, didn't browse it last year and, in fact, haven't browsed it since 1998." Ripple gestures at the sprawling mountain valley around us and points out that although numerous other cottonwoods dot the landscape, this knot of saplings comprises the only young ones--the rest of this part of the Lamar is a geriatric ward for trees. The stately specimens that grow in the valley bottom are 70 to 100 years old, and not a newcomer is in sight to take their place. On the hillside, aspen trees present a similar picture. Groves of elderly aspen tremble in the wind, but no sprouts push up in the understory.

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Ethiopia's Famed Black-Maned Lions Being Stuffed For Lack Of Cash Addis Ababa (AFP) Nov 22, 2006 Dwindling finances and shrinking zoo space are reducing already declining population of Ethiopia's famed black-maned Abyssinian lions, the country's national symbol, to mere stuffed mementos. Despite concern among by conservationists, Addis Ababa's historic lion zoo, built nearly 60 years ago, has begun selling lion cubs to taxidermists because it is unable to feed the big cats and lacks room for their increasing numbers. Zoo administrator Muhedin Abdulaziz said his 50,000-euro (64,000-dollar) budget was simply not enough to provide for more than 16 adult lions, which cannot be reintroduced to the wild. "There is a shortage of place and a shortage of budget and when they are over-populated, most of the time we send them to taxidermists," Muhedin said, adding that he regretted the practice. "It is not really good, but we do this is because of the problems we have," he said. "But we as experts are telling the government to extend these places to the countryside. That's the best solution." "For the time being our immediate solution is to send them to the taxidermists, but the final and best solution is to extend the zoo into a wider area," Muhedin said. The Abyssinia lions, or panthera leo abyssinica, are smaller than their east African cousins and the males have distinguishable black manes. Experts say only 1,000 of them remain in the wild in Ethiopia's southern and eastern regions. The culling is done by a vet who kills the cubs with poison. The bodies are sold to for about 140 euros (175 dollars) each to taxidermists who then retail the stuffed lions for 335 euros (400 dollars). The zoo, built in 1949 during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie, was intended to rear the animals for exhibition as symbols of his rule, which ended in 1974 when he was ousted by a pro-Soviet Maxist-Leninist military junta. Currently, there are 15 adult lions and three cubs at the facility, which receives up to 1,200 visitors daily and is also home to monkeys, Egyptian ducks, rabbits and goldfish. The director of the wildlife division of Ethiopia's agriculture ministry said he had no idea the lions were being culled. "We are not aware that this is happening," said Tadese Haile, refusing to comment further on the matter. A wildlife expert said he was offered 11 cubs last year but declined because he did not have enough land and he felt the government should inform the public about their plight to attract help. "They have to create public awareness, there should be a lot of people interested in seeing lions," said the expert who spoke to AFP on condition of anonymity. "In Addis Ababa, there is no proper zoo." "Some experts say these lions are no more in the wild and they should not be killed every year," he said. "They are part of our natural resources and we need to keep our natural resource." However, it costs about 3,400 euros (4,000 dollars) per month to feed the 16 lions at the zoo and the government has refuse to hand them out because they are only found in the Horn of African country. "They are endemic lions," Muhedin said. "They are not present anywhere else in the world so the government says you can't give them to other places." "Our maximum capacity is for eight pairs of lions. We have two rooms for eight cubs, but when they grow we have to send them to the taxidermist, we don't have any other alternative," he added. Source: Agence France-Presse Darwin Today At TerraDaily.com Subscribe To SpaceDaily Express |The contents herein, unless otherwise known to be public domain, are Copyright 1995-2005 - SpaceDaily. AFP and UPI Wire Stories are copyright Agence France-Presse and United Press International. ESA Portal Reports are copyright European Space Agency. All NASA sourced material is public domain. Additional copyrights may apply in whole or part to other bona fide parties. Advertising does not imply endorsement, agreement or approval of any opinions, statements or information provided by SpaceDaily on any web page published or hosted by SpaceDaily. Privacy statement|

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Located within the Muang Municipality of Pattani, was constructed during the administration of Field Marshal Sarit Dhanarath and inaugurated on May 3, 1963. Built in the lslamic architectural style, it is the venue for praying ceremony during major Islamic days. A visit to the Central Mosque is a “must” for every visitor who should not miss the opportunity to see the great beauty of the Located in Tambon Krue Se, Muang District, on Highway no. 42 (Pattani-Narathiwat) about 7 kms. From the provincial town. The mosque is of the round-pillar, brick-and-mortar style of the Middle East. The most significant aspect of the mosque is the unfinished domed roof. Legend has it that it could never be completed because of the curse placed on it by Chao Mae Lim Kor Niew. Nearby is the tomb of the Chao Mae (goddess). It is believed that the Mosque was built during the reign of King Naresuan the Great (circa 1578-1599 A.D.) Is located within the Muang municipality of Pattani. Adherents of the Lim Koh Niew Goddess in the province fashion ner image in cashew nut tree (the same type of wood on which the Goddess hung herself) and place them in the shrine which is revered by both the townspeople and neighboring townships. Ceremonies to pay respect the Goddess and a procession in her honor are held every year during February-March (3 rd month of the lunar calendar) Is located at Tambon Wat, Yarang District, about 15 kms. From the provincial town of Pattani on Highway no. 410 and further along Highway no. 4061 for another 2 kms. A major archaeological site of the South, two groups of ancient communities have been discovered there. The Ban Wat ancient town was laid out in an ovate shape with the widest distance at 3 kms. Its age estimated of being during the 11 th-16th Centuries Buddhist Era. The Ban Prawae ancient town, on the other hand, is a small square-shaped community, each side measuring 500 m. dating from the 22nd-23rd Centuries B.E. Numerous antiquities and relics of various eras have At Tambon Talohkapor, Yaring District can be reached from Pattani town by taking Highway no. 42 for about 16 kms., then turning into and asphalt road for 3 kms. to the beach. It is a scenic lined with shade-proving pine trees, eminently suitable for rest and recreation. A flect of the local Korlae boats line up along the (Tachee Cape) is also located at Tambon Talohkapor. It can be reached by land from Pattani, which is about 30 kms. away but the distance by sea is only 5 kms. The scenery is quite striking, with the sun rising out of the sea in the morning and dipping behind Pattani town in the evening. Situated along side the Hat Yai-Sungai-kolok railway tracks at Tambon Pa Rai, Khok Pho District, is connected to Pattani town by Highway no. 409, a distance of some 30 kms. and a further 1 km. On and asphalt access road to reach the temple. More than three nundred years old, it was where the highly revered monk Luang Poh Tuad used to reside, who gave instructions before he died in Saiburi that he be crematedat this temple. A stupa was subsequently built at Wat Chang Hai to enshrine his remains. As a major religious site of Pattani and the South as a whole, it is the venue where ceremonial pouring of lustral water rituals are performed on the Luang Poh Tuad’s remains, attracting also large number of visitors. The Wat Chang Hai Vocational Training Center brainchild of a former governor of Pattani (Mr. Parakorn Suwannarath) was set up in response to suggestions by Her Majesty the Queen and to mark the 50th anniversary of His Majesty the King’s Ascension to the throne in 1996. The Queen herself personally presided over the official opening of the center on October 28, 1995. The facility also doubles as the provincial center for local handicrafts and products. Initially, the training concentrates on the arts, culture and traditions of the south, including silk-weaving, making of the traditional Kris and engraving of the Kris’hilt, replica of the Phraya Tani cannon, manufacturing of the Korlae boat and its There is also training in other vocations which can be profitable to the trainees serving at the same time to preserve the Southern arts and culture. Included are the making of fishing boats and replicas of Chinese junks, production of oil paintings, fashioning of flowers from rubber tree leaves and textile and glutinous rice flour, making of products from coconut shells, cloth-making, hand-embroidered cloth, embroidered wall murals and shawls for Thai Muslim women, and other basketry art. Such products are also on sale. At Tambon Khok Pho, Khok Pho District, is about 30 kms. From the provincial town of Pattani along Highway no. 409. The national park is part of the Sankalakhiri mountain range. Fertile and verdant, it is home to countless plant life worth studying. It boasts no less than three scenic waterfalls, the Saikhao which is the most beautiful, the Phong Phong and the Aranvarin. Located at the Tambon Ban Nam Bor, Panareh District, is about 30 kms. From the provincial town. It is located along a small bay of the Ta Phra Cape, a low hillock. Here beach is of yellow fine sand, with rock formations standing at places. It is a public beach popular with both the local people and visitors who enjoy its natural scenic Located at Tambon Panareh of the district of the same name, can be reached by taking Highway no. 42 from Pattani town for a distance of some 30 kms. And turning to Highway no. 4075 for a further 13 kms. The Panareh and Chalalai are connecting beaches covering a length of about 4 kms. Along the shore of Panareh is a large fishing community with groups of native and fishing boats anchored off-shore, affording a rustic and scenic view. To the South is the Chalalai beach, about 2 kms. away, wide and sandy. On the shore are lines of pine trees providing cool shade for rest and relaxation. Formerly called Wat Tuyong. Wat Mujalin-thavapi Viharn is about 10 kms. from Pattani town on Highway no. 42. His Majesty King Chulalongkorn, during his visit to the Malay Peninsula in 1890, made a stop at Muang Nongjik and visited Wat Tuyong. He donated his own money to build and Ubosot (convocation hall) and erect the letters Joh. Poh. Roh., his initials over th gable, the name being changed at the same time to Wat The Wasukri Beach (Patatimoh) at Tambon Taluban, Saiburi District, is about 80 kms. from Pattani town on Highway no. 42. It is a long stretch of white, clean beach shaded by rows of pine trees, eminently suitable for relaxation and swimming. Located at Tambon Paseyawor is about 50 kms. away from the provincial town or some 2 kms. from Saiburi District. It is noted for production of the indigenous Korlae boats, a type of coastal fishing vessels elaborately decorated with fascinating designs. Racing of Korlae boats are held annually. The village also makes the Budu sauce, a highly popular condiment among the Southern people.

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The Urban Aviary may be the world’s only skyscraper designed exclusively for birds. New York-based Stone Architects designed the Urban Aviary as a way to save the Big Apple’s birds from an untimely death caused by the city’s skyscrapers. According to Stone Architects, many birds meet their demise by mistaking the glass windows of big buildings for actual sky. The birds run smack into these windows and either die instant or become severely crippled. The Urban Aviary would solve this problem by giving birds a safe building to fly into. The aviary would be located in Central Park and would be outfitted with running water and natural vegetation to allow birds to nest in a safe and unobtrusive spot. City birds may be an annoying nuisance to some, but they should be saved as their presence helps keep the urban ecosystem in balance. Big Bird Buildings 1,817 clicks in 70 w More Stats +/-

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What is Raynaud’s disease? Do you toes sometimes feel cold and numb when it’s cold or when you’re stressed? That could signal Raynaud’s disease. According to the Mayo Clinic, this is a condition that causes areas of the body – like the fingers, toes, nose and ears – to feel cold and numb when it’s cold or when you are under stress. The Mayo Clinic says this is caused by the narrowing of small arteries that bring blood to these areas. The hospital says this condition is more common in women and in people who live in cold climates. The Mayo Clinic says treatment for Raynaud’s disease varies depending on how severe it is. If you think you might have this condition consult your doctor. Distributed by Internet Broadcasting. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.

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SAMe is a chemical that is found naturally in the body. It can also be made in the laboratory. SAMe has been available as a dietary supplement in the US since 1999, but it has been used as a prescription drug in Italy since 1979, in Spain since 1985, and in Germany since 1989. Researchers discovered the potential usefulness of SAMe for treating osteoarthritis by accident. They were studying SAMe’s effect on depression when the patients they were following reported an unexpected improvement in their osteoarthritis symptoms. SAMe is used for depression, anxiety, heart disease, fibromyalgia, osteoarthritis, bursitis, tendonitis, chronic lower back pain, dementia, Alzheimer's disease, slowing the aging process, chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), improving intellectual performance, liver disease, and Parkinson's disease. It is also used for attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, seizures, migraineheadache, and lead poisoning. Some women use SAMe for premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and a more severe form of PMS called premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). How does it work? The body uses SAMe to make certain chemicals in the body that play a role in pain, depression, liver disease, and other conditions. People who don’t make enough SAMe naturally may be helped by taking SAMe as a supplement. Likely Effective for: - Osteoarthritis. Taking SAMe by mouth seems to work about as well as aspirin and similar drugs, but it can take twice as long to start working. Most people with arthritis need to take SAMe for about a month before they feel better. - Depression. Taking SAMe by mouth or by injection seems to reduce symptoms of depression. Several studies have shown that SAMe can be beneficial and might be as effective as some prescription medications used for depression (tricyclic antidepressants). Some research also shows that taking SAMe might be helpful for people who don’t have a good response to a prescription antidepressant. But keep in mind, SAMe should not be taken in combination with a prescription antidepressant without the monitoring of a health professional. Possibly Effective for: - Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Limited research suggests SAMe might lessen ADHD symptoms in adults. - Alcohol-related liver disease. Research studies to date do not agree on the effectiveness of SAMe for liver disease. - Heart disease. - Chronic low back pain. - Improving intelligence. - Premenstrual syndrome (PMS). - Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). - Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). - Multiple sclerosis. - Spinal cord injury. - Migraine headache. - Other conditions. Side Effects & Safety SAMe is LIKELY SAFE for most people. It can sometimes cause gas, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, dry mouth, headache, mild insomnia, anorexia, sweating, dizziness, and nervousness, especially at higher doses. It can make some people with depression feel anxious. Special Precautions & Warnings:Pregnancy and breast-feeding: Not enough is known about the safety of using SAMe during pregnancy and breast-feeding. Stay on the safe side and avoid use. Bipolar disorder: Use of SAMe can cause people with bipolar disorder to convert from depression to mania. Parkinson’s disease: SAMe might make Parkinson’s symptoms worse. Surgery: SAMe might affect the central nervous system. This could interfere with surgery. Stop taking SAMe at least 2 weeks before a scheduled surgery. Major Interaction Do not take this combination - Medications for depression (Antidepressant drugs) interacts with SAMe SAMe increases a brain chemical called serotonin. Some medications for depression also increase the brain chemical serotonin. Taking SAMe along with these medications for depression might increase serotonin too much and cause serious side effects including heart problems, shivering, and anxiety. Do not take SAMe if you are taking medications for depression. Some of these medications for depression include fluoxetine (Prozac), paroxetine (Paxil), sertraline (Zoloft), amitriptyline (Elavil), clomipramine (Anafranil), imipramine (Tofranil), and others. - Medications for depression (MAOIs) interacts with SAMe SAMe increases a chemical in the brain. This chemical is called serotonin. Some medications used for depression also increase serotonin. Taking SAMe along with these medications used for depression might cause too much serotonin in the body, and serious side effects including heart problems, shivering, and anxiety. Some of these medications used for depression include phenelzine (Nardil), tranylcypromine (Parnate), and others. Moderate Interaction Be cautious with this combination - Dextromethorphan (Robitussin DM, and others) interacts with SAMe SAMe can affect a brain chemical called serotonin. Dextromethorphan (Robitussin DM, others) can also affect serotonin. Taking SAMe along with dextromethorphan (Robitussin DM, others) might cause too much serotonin in the brain and serious side effects including heart problems, shivering, and anxiety. Do not take SAMe if you are taking dextromethorphan (Robitussin DM, and others). - Levodopa interacts with SAMe Levodopa is used for Parkinson's disease. SAMe can chemically change levodopa in the body and decrease the effectiveness of levodopa. Taking SAMe along with levodopa might make Parkinson's disease symptoms worse. Do not take SAMe if you are taking levodopa. - Meperidine (Demerol) interacts with SAMe SAMe increases a chemical in the brain called serotonin. Meperidine (Demerol) can also increase serotonin in the brain. Taking SAMe along with meperidine (Demerol) might cause too much serotonin in the brain and serious side effects including heart problems, shivering, and anxiety. - Pentazocine (Talwin) interacts with SAMe SAMe increases a brain chemical called serotonin. Pentazocine (Talwin) also increases serotonin. Taking SAMe along with pentazocine (Talwin) might cause serious side effects including heart problems, shivering, and anxiety. Do not take SAMe if you are taking pentazocine (Talwin). - Tramadol (Ultram) interacts with SAMe Tramadol (Ultram) can affect a chemical in the brain called serotonin. SAMe can also affect serotonin. Taking SAMe along with tramadol (Ultram) might cause too much serotonin in the brain and side effects including confusion, shivering, stiff muscles, and other side effects. The following doses have been studied in scientific research: - For depression: 400-1600 mg per day. - For osteoarthritis: 200 mg three times daily. - For fibromyalgia: 800 mg per day.

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Halloween is Monday night, October 31st. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention provided some helpful tips for parents and kids planning to venture out for trick or treating reminding all to have a S.A.F.E. H.A.L.L.O.W.E.E.N. S - Swords, knives, and similar costume accessories should be short, soft, and flexible. A - Avoid trick-or-treating alone. Walk in groups or with a trusted adult. F - Fasten reflective tape to costumes and bags to help drivers see you. E - Examine all treats for choking hazards and tampering before eating them. Limit the amount of treats you eat. H - Hold a flashlight while trick-or-treating to help you see and others see you. Always WALK and don't run from house to house. A - Always test make-up in a small area first. Remove it before bedtime to prevent possible skin and eye irritation. L - Look both ways before crossing the street. Use established crosswalks wherever possible. L - Lower your risk for serious eye injury by not wearing decorative contact lenses. O - Only walk on sidewalks whenever possible, or on the far edge of the road facing traffic to stay safe. W - Wear well-fitting masks, costumes, and shoes to avoid blocked vision, trips, and falls. E - Eat only factory-wrapped treats. Avoid eating homemade treats made by strangers. E - Enter homes only if you're with a trusted adult. N - Never walk near lit candles or luminaries. Be sure to wear flame-resistant costumes.

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Drugs have a habit of making their way from our bodies into the environment: they’ve frequently been found in waste water, drinking water, and rivers (not to mention on dollar bills). But they could also be rising into the air, and a new study suggests their aerial concentrations could give scientists a clue to what, exactly, is happening on the ground below. Following up on earlier research showing that cocaine was present in the air above the cities of Taranto and Rome, Italian researchers at the Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research in Rome took about 60 samples of air in various regions and tested for a number of contaminants, including cocaine, cannabinoids (chemicals found in marijuana), and more common pollutants, like ozone and hydrocarbons. When they looked to see whether there was a correlation between cocaine concentration and addicts’ requests for treatment in particular geographical areas, they found a very strong relationship. Weaker correlations existed between cocaine concentration and police seizures of cocaine and concentration and seizure of all kinds of illicit substances. The team is excited about the possibility of using aerial cocaine concentration to get a sense of drug use levels, a notoriously slippery thing to measure, and possibly other activities that sometimes occur in tandem with drug use, like robberies. However, their approach didn’t turn up any significant correlations between crime-related activities and cannabinoids, which is interesting—what does that mean about the social correlates of marijuana use (or, alternatively, about the fraction of cannabinoids that actually make into the air)? If you’re worried about getting high from the air, it seems unlikely that concentrations are high enough to have an effect. But who knows—that’s a question that has yet to be addressed. What’s the News: Epidemiologists have long noticed that people with drug addictions often start out smoking cigarettes before moving on to harder stuff. Whether that’s because there’s something about cigarettes that makes people vulnerable to other drugs or because certain kinds of people are predisposed to addiction (or for some other reason entirely) is an open question, and the idea of so-called “gateway drugs” has been a controversial topic in addiction for years. Now, an elegant new study in mice has discovered a mechanism that could explain the gateway drug effect: nicotine actually changes the expression of genes linked to addiction. By combining a cocaine analog with part of a common cold virus, researchers have created a “cocaine vaccine” that tricks the body into attacking the drug, neutralizing its high-giving powers. It has only been tested in mice so far, but the results are good: “Our very dramatic data shows that we can protect mice against the effects of cocaine, and we think this approach could be very promising in fighting addiction in humans,” study researcher Ronald Crystal, a professor of genetic medicine at Weill Cornell Medical College, said in a statement. [LiveScience] The immune system doesn’t typically react to cocaine in the blood stream–it’s too small and doesn’t contain the “markers” of an invader. To get the white blood cells to notice it, the researchers strapped it to something the immune system can detect–the outside parts of the virus. The researchers took the outer shell from an adenovirus, which causes some types of the common cold, and removed the parts of the virus that cause illness. Then they linked that recognizable viral shell to a stable molecule similar to cocaine (they also tried it with cocaine itself, the researchers say, but the more-stable analog produced better results). Addiction researchers constantly wade through the ways that drugs like cocaine change your brain, and a new study in Science has pointed to a new epigenetic factor. Cocaine, the researchers say, can scramble the way genes turn on and off in a key brain region associated with pleasure and reward. Ian Maze said his team gave one group of mice repeated doses of cocaine and other group repeated doses of saline with just one blast of cocaine at the end to study the differences. The team paid particular attention to a protein called G9a, whose behavior in the nucleus accumbens region of the brain seems to be altered by cocaine use. The role of the protein appears to be to shut down genes that shouldn’t be on. One-time use of cocaine increases levels of G9a. But repeated use works the other way, suppressing the protein and reducing its overall control of gene activation [TIME]. The researchers found that the overactive genes caused brain cells in the region to grow more connections to each other. The growth of such neural connections can reflect learning. But in the case of addiction, that may involve learning to connect a place or a person with the desire for more drugs [TIME]. Cocaine combined with capsaicin, an active ingredient in pepper spray, can be deadly, if research in mice is any indication. In the early 1990s, anecdotes of people dying after being doused with pepper spray puzzled researchers, until autopsies revealed many were on cocaine at the time. To look for a link between the two substances, a research team injected cocaine, capsaicin or both at once into the abdomens of several groups of about 30 mice. Injections allowed them to control the dose of capsaicin the mice received, which wouldn’t have been possible if the mice were simply sprayed [New Scientist]. Equal doses of cocaine plus capsaicin killed about half the mice, compared to cocaine alone, which killed just a few. And a dose of cocaine high enough to kill half the mice on its own killed up to 90 percent when combined with capsaicin. Almost one-third of the cocaine seized in the United States is tainted with the livestock deworming medication levamisole, according to Drug Enforcement Administration documents the Associated Press received. Levamisole, which can give users a more intense high, weakens the immune system, and has killed at least three people and sickened 100 in Canada and the United States. What’s more, physicians remain largely unaware of the tainted drugs, leaving them helpless to diagnose or treat those affected. “I would think it would be fair to say the vast majority of doctors in the United States have no idea this is going on,” said Eric Lavonas, assistant director of the Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Center in Denver, where as much as half of the cocaine is believed to contain levamisole. “You can’t diagnose a disease you’ve never heard of” [Associated Press]. Because of the particular distribution mechanism of cocaine, it may be difficult to get the warning out to people at risk. “It’s not like you can put [a warning] on the bottle” [Associated Press], says Lavonas. 80beats: Honeybees Get High on Cocaine and Dance, Dance, Dance 80beats: To Help Heroin Addicts, Give Them… Prescription Heroin? 80beats: Can Erasing a Drug Memory Erase the Need for a Fix? When a honeybee is given a dose of cocaine, it gets overexcited about poor-quality food and performs overenthusiastic dances to communicate with its hivemates, according to an odd new study that got bees hooked on drugs. The research found similarities between honey bees and humans, in that they are both are driven by rewards and both have their judgment altered by cocaine. “This is the first time that it’s been shown that cocaine has been rewarding to an insect” [Reuters], says study coauthor Andrew Barron. After a honeybee has been out foraging for food, it returns to the hive and tells the other bees what it found by means of a “waggle dance” that describes the location and quality of the food source. But after dabbing low doses of cocaine on the bees’ backs before they went out, the researchers observed that when they returned they were more likely to dance for their nest mates, and performed particularly vigorous routines explaining where the food was located [The Guardian]. They performed these exuberant dances even when the food source that the researchers provided was a weak sugar water solution that didn’t merit the hive’s attention.

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Just how unusual is this? Very unusual, when you consider that irrigated agriculture in Mardi's rice engineering division has been growing the padi on an experimental basis at its centre in Seberang Prai, in the sugar cane growing region of Perlis and in the tobacco growing part of Kelantan. And it's a crucial move at a time when water catchment areas are dwindling and there is irregular rainfall for storage, says Yusoff. Furthermore, irrigation facilities are very expensive to build and maintain. Increased competition for water from growing industry and an expanding population only adds urgency to the project. So, one way to save water is through aerobic rice cultivation -- where rice is grown as a dry field crop rather than in flooded fields. "Besides, water resource is going to be vulnerable with climatic change. Crop adaptation to limited water or too much water needs to be looked into," says Yusoff, who heads Mardi's Strategic Resource Research Centre. The centre focuses on climate change and on adapting rice to climate change….Rice plant (Oryza sativa). Photograph taken at the Jardin d'Éden botanical park, shot by Damien Boilley, Wikimedia Commons, under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 License

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The Protestant Reformation The writings and actions of Martin Luther form a critical piece of history relative to the Astronomy Revolution, even though he was a Catholic monk desiring reforms within the Church. While he did not directly affect the science of Astronomy, his courage to speak out against the institution of the Roman Catholic Church. His courage to take such a stand was part of the reason why a Polish Canon named Nicholas Copernicus was able to take his stand. The material contained in this section is as unbiased an attempt as possible to present the truth in the history of the intervening years between Ptolemy's Almagast and de Revolutionibus ... a period of almost 1400 years. It is hoped that the truth is presented as accurately as possible, and that you will be encouraged by the reading of the accounts of Martin Luther and Copernicus to believe that you too can make a difference in the world. Reformation is the result of the Martin Luther's 95 Theses in 1517 against the sale of indulgences. It began at Diet of Wurms, Germany in 1521 because Luther would not recant his negative writings against the sale of indulgences as well as the papacy. He fled to Castle Wartburg for refuge, translated the Latin Bible into German, and the people read Scripture for themselves, and came to conclusions based upon what they read instead of what they were told. It was this act of courage against such a formidible institution as the Church that brought ab out a new attitude among the people and a willingness to look at the work around them in a different manner. To see a more detailed account of the life of Dr. Martin Luther with nice pictures and anecdotal references, click on the image at right to go to the Wittenberg, Germany website and follow the links on that page or go forward to the story of Martin Luther. Why is this account so central to the teaching of Astronomy? Martin Luther's boldness encouraged other people to take similar bold steps too. Martin Luther essentially translated the Bible from Latin into German and encouraged people to read the account for themselves and draw their own conclusions. Instead of taking the words of a priest or bishop as sole and final authority, one now could open a Bible in their own language, read and study, and make self-determination of the import of Scriptures. Soon afterward, Nicholas Copernicus was to make a bold statement contrary to the teachings of the Church. His rethinking of the order of the solar system opened the door for all mankind to study the world around them in a scientific manner. One needed only to look at the evidence in the natural world and make their own conclusion about how things above were ordered. Two men, Martin Luther in 1521 and Nicholas Copernicus in 1543 encouraged people to look at the evidence for themselves and draw their own conclusions. The Protestant Reformation and the Copernican Revolution were perhaps one of the greatest turning points in the history of man. No longer would church leaders be called upon to interpret the creation from merely a Biblical foundation. Science leaped from the Dark Ages. Copernicus would rethink the geocentric model of Ptolemy, Kepler would correctly interpret the sky maps of Tycho Brahe and validate Copernicus, Galileo would visually confirm the Copernican model, and Isaac Newton would lay down the physical laws which govern the motions of the planets and their moons. Now that you have finished this reading about the Protestant Reformation, you should return to the continuation of the history of Astronomy and learn what contribution Copernicus made, emboldened by the writings of Martin Luther. Click on Copernicus to continue this study, or return to the History

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Patric Vaelli / Logsdon Labs Bdelloid rotifers like the one shown in this photomicrograph are thought to be the champions of sexless animals. They've apparently gone without it for 40 million years. For the scientists who study sex and its mysterious origins, animal species that skip sex when they spawn were at first puzzling, and then exciting. Now it turns out that many of these supposedly sexless species can swing both ways. The latest peccadillo involves a type of ant that scientists thought had survived sans sexual reproduction for millions of years — until they discovered that the seemingly abstemious arthropods were covertly copulating. From an evolutionary point of view, sex is a costly business. Nevertheless, most species mate to multiply. For researchers grappling with the question of why sex exists, asexual species provide a clue, one small nudge in the direction of an answer. "We study how normal things work by studying mutant version of those things," John Logsdon, a biologist at the University of Iowa, told me. "In this case, how they basically get around the rule, because the rule seems to be sex." That's what makes the ants interesting. When scientists started scooping up Amazonian fungus-growing ants in Mexico, Argentina and other parts of South America, they believed that the all-female colonies of ant clones stayed strictly sex-free. But in a fresh set of samplings in new locations, the same ant species was found propagating sexually with the usual mingling of genomes of both genders. What seems to have happened, the researchers who found the ants surmise, is that isolated ant colonies lost the ability to reproduce sexually, due to a genetic switch that was turned off over time. Once this change occurred in a colony, there was no going back, Christian Rabeling and his colleagues propose in a paper published last week in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The ants are the latest addition to a small list of species that have a sometimes sexy, sometimes sexless life. These invertebrates' genomes are a rich source of insights for scientists who are still puzzling over one of nature's most basic mysteries: why sex exists. Worms do it, snails do it ... or don't In July, scientists studying the sex lives of the nematode C. elegans offered up one reason as to why sex exists. The worm propagates in two ways: Sometimes it mates with another worm, and sometimes it fertilizes itself. Scientists compared the offspring of two worms with the self-fertilized spawn of a single parent, and found that genetically diverse offspring were less likely to be infected by parasites than offspring from a single parent. This aligns well with a big idea called the Red Queen hypothesis, which claims that sex, as a behavior that allowed a mix-and-match of genomes, stuck around to help species win out over co-evolving parasites, Indiana University's Curtis Lively and his colleagues write in the July 8 issue of Science. Dodging parasites is probably just one chapter of the story. "My suspicion is that we're not going to come up with a universal solution to sex," Maurine Neiman, a biologist at the University of Iowa, told me. She expects the answer is going to be messy and complicated ... just like sex itself. Maurine Neiman / University of Iowa New Zealand's Potamopyrgus antipodarum, a freshwater snail. Neiman treks down to lakes in New Zealand every other summer to harvest a species of freshwater snail, which, like C. elegans, is sometimes asexual and sometimes sexual. For as yet unknown reasons, the snail's fate — to start a sexual or asexual lineage — is decided before the snails are born. Yet some lakes have both kinds of snails living in them. "They set the stage very nicely for comparing sexual and asexual genomes," Neiman told me. "You can compare populations that have lots and lots of sex with those that don't have any at all." Like the nematodes, the snails have a natural parasite, and Neiman is looking into how the snails' sexual behavior relates to their ability (or lack of ability) to survive being infected. There's another odd secret that is hidden in the snail genome: Those that are built to stay single sometimes have many, many copies of their DNA packed into the same space where most species just have two copies. Timema tahoe, a stick insect with a sexless past. Some species stay sexless A few species appear to have stuck with sexlessness, what scientists call "ancient asexuality." Tanya Schwander, a geneticist at the University of Groningen, recently showed that two species of stick insects have stayed asexual for more than 1 million generations. Schwander and her colleagues wrote about the stick insects in the June 12 issue of Current Biology, and they're continuing to investigate how they managed to do this without going extinct. While 1 million generations may seem like a long time, the stars of sexlessness are still the bdelloid rotifers — single-celled singletons who appear to have kept sex-free for 40 million years. Their unusual genomes also come riddled with questions, but researchers suspect they're getting closer to the answers. Whether by coincidence or causation, other extreme survival skills are coded into the rotifer genome — the superbugs can survive being blasted with radiation, and even bounce back to life after being dried out. Scientists such as the University of Iowa's Logsdon reason that the rotifers' exceptional talent for fixing errors in their DNA caused by radiation could explain how they fix unwanted changes that crop up in genomes that don't mix it up every so often. "It's not a smoking gun, but we smell a connection," Logsdon says. "What the connection is, is still an open question." More about animal sex and sexlessness: - No sex for 40 million years? No problem! - Experts learn creature's no-sex secret - Skewed sex ratio curbs courtship - Of mice and men: 10 sex lessons from the wild - Gallery: 10 peeks at sex in the wild - Hook-ups in the wild: Do animals enjoy sex? - How humans evolved big brains ... and barbless penises

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Binary--base two--uses a single digit to represent zero or one. With only 2 states, machines can differentiate between the two; if there is voltage it’s a one and if there is no voltage it’s a zero. Since digital computers communicate using binary numbers, network engineers need to have an in depth understanding of binary. Cox, Clyde, "Binary the Digital Language" (2012). Computer and Internetworking Technologies (CIT) Scholarship. Paper 1.

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Beer brewing in Budweis dates back to the 13th century. A few hundred years later, two breweries were founded in the city that made beer which they called "Budweiser," both being beers from the city of Budweis, which was then a part of the Kingdom of Bohemia. In 1876, the American brewer Anheuser-Busch began making a beer which it also called "Budweiser". This led in 1907 to the "Budweiser trademark dispute" between beer companies claiming trademarks rights to the name "Budweiser". The three companies are: - Budweiser Bier Bürgerbräu, founded 1795 by German-speaking citizens of Budweis, which began exporting Budweiser Bier to the United States in 1875. The company was expropriated by the state in 1945, when they changed the name of the company. However, the company reacquired the old naming rights in the 1990s after the fall of communism in Czechoslovakia. - Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch), made by Anheuser-Busch in the United States, was first marketed in 1876 as "Budweiser" in the United States and Canada. - Budweiser Budvar, a brewery founded in 1895 by Czech-speaking citizens of Budweis. Dispute over right to use the name Anheuser-Busch cites prior registration of the trademark in the United States and battles for the right to use it worldwide in many legal disputes against the Europe-based companies in several countries. The Europeans wish to maintain or regain their right to market their beer under their traditional trademark. Bürgerbräu has marketed its beer as Budweiser Bier since 1876, while Budvar has marketed its product this way since 1895. The two companies in Budweis point out that Budweiser is not a generic name, but refers to a beer actually made in the city. The existence of several beers with similar names has caused problems in some markets. In 1907, American and Bohemian brewers made an agreement that Anheuser-Busch could market its beer as Budweiser only in North America, while the Bohemian brewers had the rights to the European markets. Anheuser-Busch markets its product as "Bud" (in France and elsewhere) and "Anheuser-Busch B" (in Germany, Austria and Switzerland), where the beer brewed in the original city retains the rights to the name. The United Kingdom and Ireland are some of the few places where both Anheuser-Busch and Budvar beer are sold under the name "Budweiser". In 2009 the European Court of First Instance upheld a ruling that refuses AB InBev, owners of the American Budweiser brand, permission to register the Budweiser brand as a community trademark. After the ruling, AB InBev decided to keep the Budweiser or Bud name in 23 of 27 European countries. In the U.K., courts have ruled that neither company has exclusive rights to the name Budweiser. In Germany, Budvar has exclusive control over the Budweiser brand name since May 2009. According to the verdict of Court of Justice of the European Union in July 2010, Budweiser Budvar has exclusive control over the Budweiser brand name in the whole European Union. According to the British Budweiser Budvar website, "Currently [in 2011] there are about 40 trademark dispute cases pending in different jurisdictions and some 70 procedural issues up for consideration around the world". See also - Harper, Timothy; Oliver, Garrett (1997). The Good Beer Book, p.68. New York: Berkley. ISBN 0-425-15614-1. - Budweiser Case Study - Anheuser-Busch to Import Budvar Budweiser - Story of Czechvar at czechvar.com. Note that both the web pages and the bottle avoid the words Budvar or Budweis etc. using the abbreviation B.B.N.P. (Budějovický Budvar, národní podnik) as the name of the brewery and České Budějovice as the exclusive name of the city. - "JUDGMENT OF THE COURT OF FIRST INSTANCE (First Chamber) 25 March 2009". InfoCuria - Case-law of the Court of Justice. Retrieved 2012-04-12. "In the present case, the Board of Appeal found that the evidence which Budvar produced was clearly sufficient to prove genuine use of the earlier international word mark BUDWEISER (R 238 203). The Board of Appeal referred, in particular, to advertisements showing images of Budvar beer bearing the mark BUDWEISER, to invoices sent to customers in Germany and Austria and to the fact that those advertisements and invoices related to the relevant period." - Aaron O. Patrick (26 March 2009). "Czech Brewer Wins Suit Over Budweiser Naming Rights". Wall Street Journal. - December 21008, The Latest BUDWEISER Development Boult Wade Tennant (trade mark attorneys) - Trade Mark decision O/504/01 Intellectual Property Office - Carey, Susan; Kiviniemi, Peppi (29 July 2010). "EU Rejects Appeal for Bud Trademark". Wall Street Journal. - Případ uzavřen: Značka Budweiser v EU patří do Českých Budějovic, rozhodl soud (Czech) - UK Budweiser Budvar website - Budweiser to sponsor The FA Cup

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budweiser

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en

World War I World War I (WWI) was a global war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. It was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until the start of World War II in 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter. It involved all the world's great powers, which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; Italy did not enter into the war, as Austria–Hungary had taken the offensive against the terms of the alliance). These alliances were both reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war: Italy, Japan and the United States joined the Allies, and the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria the Central Powers. Ultimately, more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of technological advancements that led to enormous increases in the lethality of weapons without corresponding improvements in protection or mobility, causing both sides to resort to large-scale human wave attacks, which proved extremely costly in terms of casualties. It was the fifth-deadliest conflict in world history, subsequently paving the way for various political changes, such as revolutions in many of the nations involved. One of the long-term causes of the war was the resurgence of imperialism in the foreign policies of the great powers of Europe. More immediately, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, on 28 June 1914 by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo triggered a diplomatic crisis when Austria-Hungary subsequently delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Several alliances formed over the previous decades were invoked. Within weeks, the major powers were at war and, via their colonies, the conflict soon spread around the world. On 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians fired the first shots of the war as preparation for the invasion of Serbia. While the Russians mobilised, the Germans invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg on the way to France, providing a casus belli for Britain's declaration of war against Germany. After the German march on Paris was brought to a halt—the so-called Miracle of the Marne—the Western Front settled into a static battle of attrition with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, but was stopped in its invasion of East Prussia by the Germans. In November the Ottoman Empire joined the war, opening up fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. Italy and Bulgaria went to war in 1915 and Romania in 1916. In Russia, the tsar's government collapsed in March 1917 and a subsequent revolution in November brought the Russians to terms with the Central Powers. After a 1918 German offensive along the western front, the Allies drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives and American forces began entering the trenches. Germany, which had its own trouble with revolutionaries, agreed to an armistice on 11 November 1918. The war ended in victory for the Allies. Events on the home fronts were as tumultuous as on the battle fronts, as the participants tried to mobilize their manpower and economic resources to fight a total war. By the end of the war, four major imperial powers—the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires—ceased to exist. The successor states of the former two lost a great amount of territory, while the latter two were dismantled entirely. The map of central Europe was redrawn into several smaller states. The League of Nations was formed in the hope of preventing another such conflict. The European nationalism spawned by the war and the breakup of empires, the repercussions of Germany's defeat and problems with the Treaty of Versailles are agreed to be factors contributing to World War II. In Canada, Maclean's Magazine in October 1914 said, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War." A history of the origins and early months of the war published in New York in late 1914 was titled The World War. During the Interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. After the onset of the Second World War in 1939, the terms World War I or the First World War became standard, with British and Canadian historians favouring the First World War, and Americans World War I. Both of these terms had also been used during the Interwar period. The term "First World War" was first used in September 1914 by the German philosopher Ernst Haeckel, who claimed that "there is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word." The First World War was also the title of a 1920 history by the officer and journalist Charles à Court Repington. In the 19th century, the major European powers had gone to great lengths to maintain a balance of power throughout Europe, resulting in the existence of a complex network of political and military alliances throughout the continent by 1900. These had started in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria. Then, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors (German: Dreikaiserbund) between the monarchs of Austria–Hungary, Russia and Germany. This agreement failed because Austria–Hungary and Russia could not agree over Balkan policy, leaving Germany and Austria–Hungary in an alliance formed in 1879, called the Dual Alliance. This was seen as a method of countering Russian influence in the Balkans as the Ottoman Empire continued to weaken. In 1882, this alliance was expanded to include Italy in what became the Triple Alliance. After 1870, European conflict was averted largely through a carefully planned network of treaties between the German Empire and the remainder of Europe orchestrated by Bismarck. He especially worked to hold Russia at Germany's side to avoid a two-front war with France and Russia. When Wilhelm II ascended to the throne as German Emperor (Kaiser), Bismarck was compelled to retire and his system of alliances was gradually de-emphasised. For example, the Kaiser refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1890. Two years later, the Franco-Russian Alliance was signed to counteract the force of the Triple Alliance. In 1904, the United Kingdom signed a series of agreements with France, the Entente Cordiale, and in 1907, the United Kingdom and Russia signed the Anglo-Russian Convention. While these agreements did not formally ally the United Kingdom with France or Russia, they made British entry into any future conflict involving France or Russia probable, and the system of interlocking bilateral agreements became known as the Triple Entente. German industrial and economic power had grown greatly after unification and the foundation of the Empire in 1871. From the mid-1890s on, the government of Wilhelm II used this base to devote significant economic resources for building up the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy), established by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, in rivalry with the British Royal Navy for world naval supremacy. As a result, each nation strove to out-build the other in terms of capital ships. With the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906, the British Empire expanded on its significant advantage over its German rival. The arms race between Britain and Germany eventually extended to the rest of Europe, with all the major powers devoting their industrial base to producing the equipment and weapons necessary for a pan-European conflict. Between 1908 and 1913, the military spending of the European powers increased by 50 percent. Austria-Hungary precipitated the Bosnian crisis of 1908–1909 by officially annexing the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878. This angered the Kingdom of Serbia and its patron, the Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russian Empire. Russian political manoeuvring in the region destabilised peace accords, which were already fracturing in what was known as "the powder keg of Europe". In 1912 and 1913, the First Balkan War was fought between the Balkan League and the fracturing Ottoman Empire. The resulting Treaty of London further shrank the Ottoman Empire, creating an independent Albanian State while enlarging the territorial holdings of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. When Bulgaria attacked both Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913, it lost most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece and Southern Dobruja to Romania in the 33-day Second Balkan War, further destabilising the region. July 1914 crisis On 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb student and member of Young Bosnia, assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo, Bosnia. This began a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France, and Britain called the July Crisis. Wanting to finally end Serbian interference in Bosnia – the Black Hand had provided Princip and his group with their bombs and pistols, trained them, and helped them across the border, and the Austrians were correct to believe that Serbian officers and officials were involved - Austria-Hungary delivered the July Ultimatum to Serbia, a series of ten demands intentionally made unacceptable, intending to provoke a war with Serbia. When Serbia agreed to only eight of the ten demands, Austria-Hungary declared war on 28 July 1914. Strachan argues, "Whether an equivocal and early response by Serbia would have made any difference to Austria-Hungary's behaviour must be doubtful. Franz Ferdinand was not the sort of personality who commanded popularity, and his demise did not cast the empire into deepest mourning". The Russian Empire, unwilling to allow Austria–Hungary to eliminate its influence in the Balkans, and in support of its longtime Serb protégés, ordered a partial mobilisation one day later. The German Empire mobilized on 30 July 1914, ready to apply the "Schlieffen Plan", which planned a quick, massive invasion of France to eliminate the French army, then to turn east against Russia. The French cabinet resisted military pressure to commence immediate mobilisation, and ordered its troops to withdraw 10 km from the border to avoid any incident. France only mobilized on the evening of 2 August, when Germany invaded Belgium and attacked French troops. Germany declared war on Russia on the same day. The United Kingdom declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914, following an "unsatisfactory reply" to the British ultimatum that Belgium must be kept neutral. Theatres of conflict Confusion among the Central Powers The strategy of the Central Powers suffered from miscommunication. Germany had promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but the replacements had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Germany, however, envisioned Austria-Hungary directing most of its troops against Russia, while Germany dealt with France. This confusion forced the Austro-Hungarian Army to divide its forces between the Russian and Serbian fronts. On 9 September 1914, the Septemberprogramm, a possible plan that detailed Germany's specific war aims and the conditions that Germany sought to force on the Allied Powers, was outlined by German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg. It was never officially adopted. Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorate of Togoland. On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces in German East Africa, led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, fought a guerrilla warfare campaign during World War I and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. Austria invaded and fought the Serbian army at the Battle of Cer and Battle of Kolubara beginning on 12 August. Over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were thrown back with heavy losses, which marked the first major Allied victories of the war and dashed Austro-Hungarian hopes of a swift victory. As a result, Austria had to keep sizable forces on the Serbian front, weakening its efforts against Russia. Serbia's defeat of the Austro-Hungarian invasion of 1914 counts among the major upset victories of the last century. German forces in Belgium and France At the outbreak of World War I, the German army (consisting in the West of seven field armies) carried out a modified version of the Schlieffen Plan. This marched German armies through neutral Belgium and into France, before turning southwards to encircle the French army on the German border. Since France had declared that it would "keep full freedom of acting in case of a war between Germany and Russia", Germany had to expect the possibility of an attack by France on one front and by Russia on the other. To meet such a scenario, the Schlieffen Plan stated that Germany must try to defeat France quickly (as had happened in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71). It further suggested that to repeat a fast victory in the west, Germany should not attack through the difficult terrain of Alsace-Lorraine (which had a direct border west of the river Rhine), instead, the idea was to try to quickly cut Paris off from the English Channel and British assistance, and take Paris, thus winning the war. Then the armies would be moved over to the east to meet Russia. Russia was believed to need a long period of mobilization before they could become a real threat to the Central Powers. The only existing German plan for a two-front war had German armies marching through Belgium. Germany wanted free escort through Belgium (and originally the Netherlands as well, which plan Kaiser Wilhelm II rejected) to invade France. Neutral Belgium rejected this idea, so the Germans decided to invade through Belgium instead. France also wanted to move their troops into Belgium, but Belgium originally rejected this "suggestion" as well, in the hope of avoiding any war on Belgian soil. In the end, after the German invasion, Belgium did try to join their army with the French (but a large part of the Belgian army retreated to Antwerp where they were forced to surrender when all hope of help was gone). The plan called for the right flank of the German advance to bypass the French armies (which were concentrated on the Franco-German border, leaving the Belgian border without significant French forces) and move south to Paris. Initially the Germans were successful, particularly in the Battle of the Frontiers (14–24 August). By 12 September, the French, with assistance from the British forces, halted the German advance east of Paris at the First Battle of the Marne (5–12 September), and pushed the German forces back some 50 km. The last days of this battle signified the end of mobile warfare in the west. The French offensive into Southern Alsace, launched on 20 August with the Battle of Mulhouse, had limited success. In the east, the Russians invaded with two armies, surprising the German staff who had not expected the Russians to move so early. A field army, the 8th, was rapidly moved from its previous role as reserve for the invasion of France, to East Prussia by rail across the German Empire. This army, led by general Paul von Hindenburg defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First Battle of Tannenberg (17 August – 2 September). But the failed Russian invasion, causing the fresh German troops to move to the east, allowed the tactical Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne. The Central Powers were denied a quick victory in France and forced to fight a war on two fronts. The German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and had permanently incapacitated 230,000 more French and British troops than it had lost itself. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of early victory. Asia and the Pacific New Zealand occupied German Samoa (later Western Samoa) on 30 August 1914. On 11 September, the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of Neu Pommern (later New Britain), which formed part of German New Guinea. On 28 October, the cruiser SMS Emden sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang. Japan seized Germany's Micronesian colonies and, after the Siege of Tsingtao, the German coaling port of Qingdao in the Chinese Shandong peninsula. As Vienna refused to withdraw the Austro-Hungarian cruiser "Kaiserin Elisabeth" from Tsingtao, Japan declared war not only on Germany, but also on Austria-Hungary; the ship participated in the defense of Tsingtao where it was sunk in November 1914 (see: DONKO, Wilhelm M.: "A Brief History of the Austrian Navy" epubli GmbH, Berlin, 2012, page 79). Within a few months, the Allied forces had seized all the German territories in the Pacific; only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea remained. Trench warfare begins (1914–1915) Military tactics before World War I had failed to keep pace with advances in technology. These advances allowed for impressive defence systems, which out-of-date military tactics could not break through for most of the war. Barbed wire was a significant hindrance to massed infantry advances. Artillery, vastly more lethal than in the 1870s, coupled with machine guns, made crossing open ground extremely difficult. The Germans were the first to use lethal poison gas on a large scale; it soon became used by both sides, though it never proved decisive in winning a battle. Its effects were brutal, causing slow and painful death, and poison gas became one of the most-feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. Commanders on both sides failed to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, however, technology began to produce new offensive weapons, such as the tank. After the First Battle of the Marne (5–12 September 1914), both Entente and German forces began a series of outflanking manoeuvres, in the so-called "Race to the Sea". Britain and France soon found themselves facing entrenched German forces from Lorraine to Belgium's coast. Britain and France sought to take the offensive, while Germany defended the occupied territories. Consequently, German trenches were much better constructed than those of their enemy; Anglo-French trenches were only intended to be "temporary" before their forces broke through German defences. Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating the Hague Convention) used chlorine gas for the first time on the Western Front. Algerian troops retreated when gassed and a six-kilometre (four-mile) hole opened in the Allied lines, which the Germans quickly exploited, taking Kitcheners' Wood, before Canadian soldiers closed the breach. Tanks were first used in combat by the British during the Battle of Flers-Courcelette (part of the wider Somme offensive) on 15 September 1916 with only partial success; the French introduced the revolving turret of the Renault FT in late 1917; the Germans employed captured Allied tanks and small numbers of their own design. Trench warfare continues (1916–1917) Neither side proved able to deliver a decisive blow for the next two years. Around 1.1 to 1.2 million soldiers from the British and Dominion armies were on the Western Front at any one time. A thousand battalions, occupying sectors of the line from the North Sea to the Orne River, operated on a month-long four-stage rotation system, unless an offensive was underway. The front contained over 9,600 kilometres (5,965 mi) of trenches. Each battalion held its sector for about a week before moving back to support lines and then further back to the reserve lines before a week out-of-line, often in the Poperinge or Amiens areas. Throughout 1915–17, the British Empire and France suffered more casualties than Germany, because of both the strategic and tactical stances chosen by the sides. Strategically, while the Germans only mounted a single main offensive at Verdun, the Allies made several attempts to break through the German lines. On 1 July 1916, the British Army endured the bloodiest day in its history, suffering 57,470 casualties, including 19,240 dead, on the first day of the Battle of the Somme. Most of the casualties occurred in the first hour of the attack. The entire Somme offensive cost the British Army almost half a million men. Protracted German action at Verdun throughout 1916, combined with the bloodletting at the Somme (July and August 1916), brought the exhausted French army to the brink of collapse. Futile attempts at frontal assault came at a high price for both the British and the French poilu and led to the widespread French Army Mutinies, after the costly Nivelle Offensive (April and May 1917). Tactically, German commander Erich Ludendorff's doctrine of "elastic defence" was well suited for trench warfare. This defence had a lightly defended forward position and a more powerful main position farther back beyond artillery range, from which an immediate and powerful counter-offensive could be launched. Ludendorff wrote on the fighting in 1917, The 25th of August concluded the second phase of the Flanders battle. It had cost us heavily ... The costly August battles in Flanders and at Verdun imposed a heavy strain on the Western troops. In spite of all the concrete protection they seemed more or less powerless under the enormous weight of the enemy's artillery. At some points they no longer displayed the firmness which I, in common with the local commanders, had hoped for. The enemy managed to adapt himself to our method of employing counter attacks ... I myself was being put to a terrible strain. The state of affairs in the West appeared to prevent the execution of our plans elsewhere. Our wastage had been so high as to cause grave misgivings, and had exceeded all expectation. On the battle of the Menin Road Ridge, Ludendorff wrote, Another terrific assault was made on our lines on the 20 September ... The enemy's onslaught on the 20th was successful, which proved the superiority of the attack over the defence. Its strength did not consist in the tanks; we found them inconvenient, but put them out of action all the same. The power of the attack lay in the artillery, and in the fact that ours did not do enough damage to the hostile infantry as they were assembling, and above all, at the actual time of the assault. In the 1917 Battle of Arras, the only significant British military success was the capture of Vimy Ridge by the Canadian Corps under Sir Arthur Currie and Julian Byng. The assaulting troops could – for the first time – overrun, rapidly reinforce, and hold the ridge defending the coal-rich Douai plain. At the start of the war, the German Empire had cruisers scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The British Royal Navy systematically hunted them down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect Allied shipping. For example, the German detached light cruiser SMS Emden, part of the East-Asia squadron stationed at Qingdao, seized or destroyed 15 merchantmen, as well as sinking a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. However, most of the German East-Asia squadron—consisting of the armoured cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, light cruisers Nürnberg and Leipzig and two transport ships—did not have orders to raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when it met British warships. The German flotilla and Dresden sank two armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel, but was almost destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, with only Dresden and a few auxiliaries escaping, but at the Battle of Más a Tierra these too were destroyed or interned. Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of Germany. The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated accepted international law codified by several international agreements of the past two centuries. Britain mined international waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, causing danger to even neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. The 1916 Battle of Jutland (German: Skagerrakschlacht, or "Battle of the Skagerrak") developed into the largest naval battle of the war, the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. It took place on 31 May – 1 June 1916, in the North Sea off Jutland. The Kaiserliche Marine's High Seas Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer, squared off against the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet, led by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. The engagement was a stand off, as the Germans, outmanoeuvred by the larger British fleet, managed to escape and inflicted more damage to the British fleet than they received. Strategically, however, the British asserted their control of the sea, and the bulk of the German surface fleet remained confined to port for the duration of the war. German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the "cruiser rules", which demanded warning and placing crews in "a place of safety" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet). Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, realising that the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the U.S. could transport a large army overseas, but could maintain only five long-range U-boats on station, to limited effect. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in convoys, escorted by destroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after the hydrophone and depth charges were introduced, accompanying destroyers might attack a submerged submarine with some hope of success. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies, since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled. The solution to the delays was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The U-boats had sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at a cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol. War in the Balkans Faced with Russia, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade. A Serbian counterattack in the battle of Kolubara, however, succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first ten months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats, however, scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria-Hungary, invading Serbia as well as fighting Russia and Italy. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania (which they had invaded at the beginning of the war[dubious ]). The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo. Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat towards the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac in 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians conquered Montenegro, too. The 70,000 surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated by ship to Greece. In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at Salonica in Greece, to offer assistance and to pressure the government to declare war against the Central Powers. Unfortunately for the Allies, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expeditionary force could arrive. The friction between the King of Greece and the Allies continued to accumulate with the National Schism, which effectively divided Greece between regions still loyal to the king and the new provisional government of Venizelos in Salonica. After intensive diplomatic negotiations and an armed confrontation in Athens between Allied and royalist forces (an incident known as Noemvriana), the King of Greece resigned, and his second son Alexander took his place. Venizelos returned to Athens on 29 May 1917 and Greece, now unified, officially joined the war on the side of the Allies. The entire Greek army was mobilized and began to participate in military operations against the Central Powers on the Macedonian Front. After conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria. In 1917, the Serbs launched the Toplica Uprising and, for a short time, liberated the area between the Kopaonik mountains and the South Morava river. The uprising was crushed by the joint effort of Bulgarian and Austrian forces at the end of March 1917. In the beginning, the Macedonian Front was mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 following the costly Monastir Offensive, which brought stabilization of the front. Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough, after most of the German and Austro-Hungarian troops had withdrawn. This breakthrough was significant in defeating Bulgaria and Austro-Hungary, which led to the final victory of WWI. The Bulgarians suffered their only defeat of the war at the Battle of Dobro Pole, but, days later, they decisively defeated British and Greek forces at the Battle of Doiran, avoiding occupation. After the Serbian breakthrough of Bulgarian lines, Bulgaria capitulated on 29 September 1918. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against the Central Powers and a day after the Bulgarian collapse, during a meeting with government officials, insisted on an immediate peace settlement. The disappearance of the Macedonian Front meant that the road to Budapest and Vienna was now opened for the 670,000-strong army of general Franchet d'Esperey as the Bulgarian surrender deprived the Central Powers of the 278 infantry battalions and 1,500 guns (the equivalent of some 25 to 30 German divisions) that were previously holding the line. The German high command responded by sending only seven infantry and one cavalry division, but these forces were far too weak to reestablish a front. The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in the war, the secret Ottoman–German Alliance having been signed in August 1914. It threatened Russia's Caucasian territories and Britain's communications with India via the Suez Canal. The British and French opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamian campaigns. In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French, and Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs). In Mesopotamia, by contrast, after the disastrous Siege of Kut (1915–16), British Imperial forces reorganised and captured Baghdad in March 1917. Further to the west, the Suez Canal was successfully defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August, a joint German and Ottoman force was defeated at the Battle of Romani by the ANZAC Mounted and the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Divisions. Following this victory, a British Empire Egyptian Expeditionary Force advanced across the Sinai Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in the Battle of Magdhaba in December and the Battle of Rafa on the border between the Egyptian Sinai and Ottoman Palestine in January 1917. Russian armies generally had the best of it in the Caucasus. Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed forces, was ambitious and dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that had been lost to Russia previously. He was, however, a poor commander. He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops; insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter, he lost 86% of his force at the Battle of Sarikamish. General Yudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southern Caucasus with a string of victories. In 1917, Russian Grand Duke Nicholas assumed command of the Caucasus front. Nicholas planned a railway from Russian Georgia to the conquered territories, so that fresh supplies could be brought up for a new offensive in 1917. However, in March 1917 (February in the pre-revolutionary Russian calendar), the Czar abdicated in the course of the February Revolution and the Russian Caucasus Army began to fall apart. Instigated by the Arab bureau of the British Foreign Office, the Arab Revolt started with the help of Britain in June 1916 at the Battle of Mecca, led by Sherif Hussein of Mecca, and ended with the Ottoman surrender of Damascus. Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander of Medina, resisted for more than two and half years during the Siege of Medina. Along the border of Italian Libya and British Egypt, the Senussi tribe, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small-scale guerrilla war against Allied troops. The British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose them in the Senussi Campaign. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916. |Name of Allied country||Number of troops deployed on Ottomans fronts| |Great Britain||2,550,000 men deployed (32% of the total British armed forces), at one point 880,300 British soldiers were fighting the Ottomans (24% of total.)| |Russian Empire||702,000 men (19% of total army) were fighting the Ottomans in the Caucasus Front by September 1916.| |France||50,000 men were fighting at the Dardanelles| |Kingdom of Italy||70,000 expeditionary force in Italian Libya to quell an Ottoman supported revolt.| Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted 650,000 men. Total Ottoman casualties were 725,000 (325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded). Italy had been allied with the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires since 1882 as part of the Triple Alliance. However, the nation had its own designs on Austrian territory in Trentino, Istria, and Dalmatia. Rome had a secret 1902 pact with France, effectively nullifying its alliance. At the start of hostilities, Italy refused to commit troops, arguing that the Triple Alliance was defensive and that Austria–Hungary was an aggressor. The Austro-Hungarian government began negotiations to secure Italian neutrality, offering the French colony of Tunisia in return. The Allies made a counter-offer in which Italy would receive the Southern Tyrol, Julian March and territory on the Dalmatian coast after the defeat of Austria-Hungary. This was formalised by the Treaty of London. Further encouraged by the Allied invasion of Turkey in April 1915, Italy joined the Triple Entente and declared war on Austria-Hungary on 23 May. Fifteen months later, Italy declared war on Germany. Militarily, the Italians had numerical superiority. This advantage, however, was lost, not only because of the difficult terrain in which fighting took place, but also because of the strategies and tactics employed. Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna, a staunch proponent of the frontal assault, had dreams of breaking into the Slovenian plateau, taking Ljubljana and threatening Vienna. Cadorna's plan did not take into account the difficulties of the rugged Alpine terrain, or the technological changes that created trench warfare, giving rise to a series of bloody and inconclusive stalemated offensives. On the Trentino front, the Austro-Hungarians took advantage of the mountainous terrain, which favoured the defender. After an initial strategic retreat, the front remained largely unchanged, while Austrian Kaiserschützen and Standschützen engaged Italian Alpini in bitter hand-to-hand combat throughout the summer. The Austro-Hungarians counterattacked in the Altopiano of Asiago, towards Verona and Padua, in the spring of 1916 (Strafexpedition), but made little progress. Beginning in 1915, the Italians under Cadorna mounted eleven offensives on the Isonzo front along the Isonzo River, northeast of Trieste. All eleven offensives were repelled by the Austro-Hungarians, who held the higher ground. In the summer of 1916, the Italians captured the town of Gorizia. After this minor victory, the front remained static for over a year, despite several Italian offensives. In the autumn of 1917, thanks to the improving situation on the Eastern front, the Austro-Hungarian troops received large numbers of reinforcements, including German Stormtroopers and the elite Alpenkorps. The Central Powers launched a crushing offensive on 26 October 1917, spearheaded by the Germans. They achieved a victory at Caporetto. The Italian Army was routed and retreated more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) to reorganise, stabilising the front at the Piave River. Since the Italian Army had suffered heavy losses in the Battle of Caporetto, the Italian Government called to arms the so-called '99 Boys (Ragazzi del '99): that is, all males who were 18 years old or older. In 1918, the Austro-Hungarians failed to break through in a series of battles on the Piave River, and were finally decisively defeated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto in October of that year. From 5–6 November 1918, Italian forces were reported to have reached Lissa, Lagosta, Sebenico, and other localities on the Dalmatian coast. By the end of hostilities in November 1918, the Italian military had seized control of the entire portion of Dalmatia that had been guaranteed to Italy by the London Pact. In 1918, Admiral Enrico Millo declared himself Italy's Governor of Dalmatia. Austria-Hungary surrendered in early November 1918. Romania had been allied with the Central Powers since 1882. When the war began, however, it declared its neutrality, arguing that because Austria-Hungary had itself declared war on Serbia, Romania was under no obligation to join the war. When the Entente Powers promised Romania large territories of eastern Hungary (Transylvania and Banat), which had a large Romanian population, in exchange for Romania's declaring war on the Central Powers, the Romanian government renounced its neutrality and, on 27 August 1916, the Romanian Army launched an attack against Austria-Hungary, with limited Russian support. The Romanian offensive was initially successful, pushing back the Austro-Hungarian troops in Transylvania, but a counterattack by the forces of the Central Powers drove back the Russo-Romanian forces. As a result of the Battle of Bucharest, the Central Powers occupied Bucharest on 6 December 1916. Fighting in Moldova continued in 1917, resulting in a costly stalemate for the Central Powers. Russian withdrawal from the war in late 1917 as a result of the October Revolution meant that Romania was forced to sign an armistice with the Central Powers on 9 December 1917. In January 1918, Romanian forces established control over Bessarabia as the Russian Army abandoned the province. Although a treaty was signed by the Romanian and the Bolshevik Russian government following talks from 5–9 March 1918 on the withdrawal of Romanian forces from Bessarabia within two months, on 27 March 1918 Romania attached Bessarabia to its territory, formally based on a resolution passed by the local assembly of the territory on the unification with Romania. Romania officially made peace with the Central Powers by signing the Treaty of Bucharest on 7 May 1918. Under that treaty, Romania was obliged to end the war with the Central Powers and make small territorial concessions to Austria-Hungary, ceding control of some passes in the Carpathian Mountains, and grant oil concessions to Germany. In exchange, the Central Powers recognised the sovereignty of Romania over Bessarabia. The treaty was renounced in October 1918 by the Alexandru Marghiloman government, and Romania nominally re-entered the war on 10 November 1918. The next day, the Treaty of Bucharest was nullified by the terms of the Armistice of Compiègne. Total Romanian deaths from 1914 to 1918, military and civilian, within contemporary borders, were estimated at 748,000. The role of India Contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty and goodwill towards the United Kingdom. Indian political leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups were eager to support the British war effort, since they believed that strong support for the war effort would further the cause of Indian Home Rule. The Indian Army in fact outnumbered the British Army at the beginning of the war; about 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while both the central government and the princely states sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. In all, 140,000 men served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East. Casualties of Indian soldiers totalled 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded during World War I. The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India after the end of hostilities, bred disillusionment and fuelled the campaign for full independence that would be led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and others. While the Western Front had reached stalemate, the war continued in East Europe. Initial Russian plans called for simultaneous invasions of Austrian Galicia and German East Prussia. Although Russia's initial advance into Galicia was largely successful, it was driven back from East Prussia by Hindenburg and Ludendorff at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in August and September 1914. Russia's less developed industrial base and ineffective military leadership was instrumental in the events that unfolded. By the spring of 1915, the Russians had retreated to Galicia, and, in May, the Central Powers achieved a remarkable breakthrough on Poland's southern frontiers. On 5 August, they captured Warsaw and forced the Russians to withdraw from Poland. Despite the success of the June 1916 Brusilov Offensive in eastern Galicia, dissatisfaction with the Russian government's conduct of the war grew. The offensive's success was undermined by the reluctance of other generals to commit their forces to support the victory. Allied and Russian forces were revived only temporarily by Romania's entry into the war on 27 August. German forces came to the aid of embattled Austro-Hungarian units in Transylvania, and Bucharest fell to the Central Powers on 6 December. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia, as the Tsar remained at the front. Empress Alexandra's increasingly incompetent rule drew protests and resulted in the murder of her favourite, Rasputin, at the end of 1916. In March 1917, demonstrations in Petrograd culminated in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the appointment of a weak Provisional Government, which shared power with the Petrograd Soviet socialists. This arrangement led to confusion and chaos both at the front and at home. The army became increasingly ineffective. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Vladimir Lenin, which demanded an immediate end to the war. The successful armed uprising by the Bolsheviks of November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when German troops began marching across the Ukraine unopposed, the new government acceded to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including Finland, the Baltic provinces, parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers. Despite this enormous apparent German success, the manpower required for German occupation of former Russian territory may have contributed to the failure of the Spring Offensive and secured relatively little food or other materiel. With the adoption of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Entente no longer existed. The Allied powers led a small-scale invasion of Russia, partly to stop Germany from exploiting Russian resources and, to a lesser extent, to support the "Whites" (as opposed to the "Reds") in the Russian Civil War. Allied troops landed in Arkhangelsk and in Vladivostok. Central Powers proposal for starting peace negotiations In December 1916, after ten brutal months of the Battle of Verdun and a successful offensive against Romania, the Germans attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies. Soon after, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson attempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking in a note for both sides to state their demands. Lloyd George's War Cabinet considered the German offer to be a ploy to create divisions amongst the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilson's note as a separate effort, signalling that the U.S. was on the verge of entering the war against Germany following the "submarine outrages". While the Allies debated a response to Wilson's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of "a direct exchange of views". Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities. This included the liberation of Italians, Slavs, Romanians, Czecho-Slovaks, and the creation of a "free and united Poland". On the question of security, the Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars, complete with sanctions, as a condition of any peace settlement. The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German offer, because Germany did not state any specific proposals. To Wilson, the Entente powers stated that they would not start peace negotiations until the Central powers evacuated all occupied Allied territories and provided indemnities for all damage which had been done. Developments in 1917 Events of 1917 proved decisive in ending the war, although their effects were not fully felt until 1918. The British naval blockade began to have a serious impact on Germany. In response, in February 1917, the German General Staff convinced Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg to declare unrestricted submarine warfare, with the goal of starving Britain out of the war. German planners estimated that unrestricted submarine warfare would cost Britain a monthly shipping loss of 600,000 tons. The General Staff acknowledged that the policy would almost certainly bring the United States into the conflict, but calculated that British shipping losses would be so high that they would be forced to sue for peace after 5 to 6 months, before American intervention could make an impact. In reality, tonnage sunk rose above 500,000 tons per month from February to July. It peaked at 860,000 tons in April. After July, the newly re-introduced convoy system became extremely effective in reducing the U-boat threat. Britain was safe from starvation, while German industrial output fell and the United States troops joined the war in large numbers far earlier than Germany had anticipated. On 3 May 1917, during the Nivelle Offensive, the weary French 2nd Colonial Division, veterans of the Battle of Verdun, refused their orders, arriving drunk and without their weapons. Their officers lacked the means to punish an entire division, and harsh measures were not immediately implemented. Then, the French Army Mutinies afflicted an additional 54 French divisions and saw 20,000 men desert. The other Allied forces attacked, but sustained tremendous casualties. However, appeals to patriotism and duty, as well as mass arrests and trials, encouraged the soldiers to return to defend their trenches, although the French soldiers refused to participate in further offensive action. Robert Nivelle was removed from command by 15 May, replaced by General Philippe Pétain, who suspended bloody large-scale attacks. The victory of Austria–Hungary and Germany at the Battle of Caporetto, led the Allies to convenve the Rapallo Conference at which they formed the Supreme War Council to coordinate planning. Previously, British and French armies had operated under separate commands. In December, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia. This released large numbers of German troops for use in the west. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for success based on a final quick offensive. Furthermore, the leaders of the Central Powers and the Allies became increasingly fearful of social unrest and revolution in Europe. Thus, both sides urgently sought a decisive victory. Ottoman Empire conflict in 1917 In March and April 1917, at the First and Second Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had begun in August 1916 at Romani. At the end of October, the Sinai and Palestine Campaign resumed, when General Edmund Allenby's XXth Corps, XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps won the Battle of Beersheba. Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at the Battle of Mughar Ridge and, early in December, Jerusalem was captured following another Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Jerusalem (1917). About this time, Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein was relieved of his duties as the Eighth Army's commander, replaced by Djevad Pasha, and a few months later the commander of the Ottoman Army in Palestine, Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced by Otto Liman von Sanders. Entry of the United States At the outbreak of the war, the United States pursued a policy of non-intervention, avoiding conflict while trying to broker a peace. When a German U-boat sank the British liner RMS Lusitania on 7 May 1915 with 128 Americans among the dead, President Woodrow Wilson insisted that "America is too proud to fight" but demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Germany complied. Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement. However, he also repeatedly warned that the U.S.A. would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare, in violation of international law. Former president Theodore Roosevelt denounced German acts as "piracy". Wilson was narrowly reelected in 1916 as his supporters emphasized "he kept us out of war". In January 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, realizing it would mean American entry. The German Foreign Minister, in the Zimmermann Telegram, invited Mexico to join the war as Germany's ally against the United States. In return, the Germans would finance Mexico's war and help it recover the territories of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. Britain intercepted the message and presented it to the US embassy in Britain. From there it made its way to President Wilson who released the Zimmerman note to the public, and Americans saw it as casus belli—a cause for war. Wilson called on antiwar elements to end all wars, by winning this one and eliminating militarism from the globe. He argued that the war was so important that the U.S. had to have a voice in the peace conference. US declaration of war on Germany First active US participation The United States was never formally a member of the Allies but became a self-styled "Associated Power". The United States had a small army, but, after the passage of the Selective Service Act, it drafted 2.8 million men, and, by summer 1918, was sending 10,000 fresh soldiers to France every day. In 1917, the U.S. Congress gave U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans when they were drafted to participate in World War I, as part of the Jones Act. Germany had miscalculated, believing it would be many more months before American soldiers would arrive and that their arrival could be stopped by U-boats. The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to Queenstown, Ireland, and submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of U.S. Marines were also dispatched to France. The British and French wanted U.S. units used to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not waste scarce shipping on bringing over supplies. General John J. Pershing, American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) commander, refused to break up U.S. units to be used as reinforcements for British Empire and French units. As an exception, he did allow African-American combat regiments to be used in French divisions. The Harlem Hellfighters fought as part of the French 16th Division, earning a unit Croix de Guerre for their actions at Château-Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Sechault. AEF doctrine called for the use of frontal assaults, which had long since been discarded by British Empire and French commanders because of the large loss of life. Austrian offer of separate peace In 1917, Emperor Charles I of Austria secretly attempted separate peace negotiations with Clemenceau, with his wife's brother Sixtus in Belgium as an intermediary, without the knowledge of Germany. When the negotiations failed, his attempt was revealed to Germany, resulting in a diplomatic catastrophe. German Spring Offensive of 1918 German General Erich Ludendorff drew up plans (codenamed Operation Michael) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The Spring Offensive sought to divide the British and French forces with a series of feints and advances. The German leadership hoped to strike a decisive blow before significant U.S. forces arrived. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918, with an attack on British forces near Amiens. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometres (37 mi). British and French trenches were penetrated using novel infiltration tactics, also named Hutier tactics, after General Oskar von Hutier. Previously, attacks had been characterised by long artillery bombardments and massed assaults. However, in the Spring Offensive of 1918, Ludendorff used artillery only briefly and infiltrated small groups of infantry at weak points. They attacked command and logistics areas and bypassed points of serious resistance. More heavily armed infantry then destroyed these isolated positions. German success relied greatly on the element of surprise. The front moved to within 120 kilometres (75 mi) of Paris. Three heavy Krupp railway guns fired 183 shells on the capital, causing many Parisians to flee. The initial offensive was so successful that Kaiser Wilhelm II declared 24 March a national holiday. Many Germans thought victory was near. After heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks or motorised artillery, the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. This situation was not helped by the supply lines now being stretched as a result of their advance. The sudden stop was also a result of the four Australian Imperial Force (AIF) divisions that were rushed south, stopping the German advance in its tracks. Afterwards, the 1st Australian Division was hurriedly sent back north to stop the second German breakthrough. General Foch pressed to use the arriving American troops as individual replacements, whereas Pershing sought to field American units as an independent force. These units were assigned to the depleted French and British Empire commands on 28 March. A Supreme War Council of Allied forces was created at the Doullens Conference on 5 November 1917. General Foch was appointed as supreme commander of the allied forces. Haig, Petain, and Pershing retained tactical control of their respective armies; Foch assumed a coordinating rather than a directing role, and the British, French, and U.S. commands operated largely independently. Following Operation Michael, Germany launched Operation Georgette against the northern English Channel ports. The Allies halted the drive after limited territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the south then conducted Operations Blücher and Yorck, pushing broadly towards Paris. Operation Marne was launched on 15 July, attempting to encircle Reims and beginning the Second Battle of the Marne. The resulting counterattack, starting the Hundred Days Offensive, marked the first successful Allied offensive of the war. By 20 July, the Germans were back across the Marne at their Kaiserschlacht starting lines, having achieved nothing. Following this last phase of the war in the West, the German Army never regained the initiative. German casualties between March and April 1918 were 270,000, including many highly trained storm troopers. Meanwhile, Germany was falling apart at home. Anti-war marches became frequent and morale in the army fell. Industrial output was 53 percent of 1913 levels. Ottoman Empire conflict 1918 Early in 1918, the front line was extended into the Jordan Valley, which continued to be occupied, following the First Transjordan and the Second Transjordan attack by British Empire forces in March and April 1918, into the summer. During March, most of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force's British infantry and Yeomanry cavalry were sent to fight on the Western Front as a consequence of the Spring Offensive. They were replaced by Indian Army units. During several months of reorganisation and training during the summer, a number of attacks were carried out on sections of the Ottoman front line. These pushed the front line north to more advantageous positions in preparation for an attack and to acclimatise the newly arrived Indian Army infantry. It was not until the middle of September that the integrated force was ready for large-scale operations. The reorganised Egyptian Expeditionary Force, with an additional mounted division, broke Ottoman forces at the Battle of Megiddo in September 1918. In two days the British and Indian infantry supported by a creeping barrage broke the Ottoman front line and captured the headquarters of the Eighth Army (Ottoman Empire) at Tulkarm, the continuous trench lines at Tabsor, Arara and the Seventh Army (Ottoman Empire) headquarters at Nablus. The Desert Mounted Corps rode through the break in the front line created by the infantry and, during virtually continuous operations by Australian Light Horse, British mounted Yeomanry, Indian Lancers and New Zealand Mounted Rifle brigades in the Jezreel Valley, they captured Nazareth, Afulah and Beisan, Jenin, along with Haifa on the Mediterranean coast and Daraa east of the Jordan River on the Hejaz railway. Samakh and Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee, were captured on the way northwards to Damascus. Meanwhile, Chaytor's Force of Australian light horse, New Zealand mounted rifles, Indian, British West Indies and Jewish infantry captured the crossings of the Jordan River, Es Salt, Amman and at Ziza most of the Fourth Army (Ottoman Empire). The Armistice of Mudros, signed at the end of October ended hostilities with the Ottoman Empire when fighting was continuing north of Aleppo. New states under war zone In the late spring of 1918, three new states were formed in the South Caucasus: the Democratic Republic of Armenia, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, and the Democratic Republic of Georgia, which declared their independence from the Russian Empire. Two other minor entities were established, the Centrocaspian Dictatorship and South West Caucasian Republic (the former was liquidated by Azerbaijan in the autumn of 1918 and the latter by a joint Armenian-British task force in early 1919). With the withdrawal of the Russian armies from the Caucasus front in the winter of 1917–18, the three major republics braced for an imminent Ottoman advance, which commenced in the early months of 1918. Solidarity was briefly maintained when the Transcaucasian Federative Republic was created in the spring of 1918, but this collapsed in May, when the Georgians asked and received protection from Germany and the Azerbaijanis concluded a treaty with the Ottoman Empire that was more akin to a military alliance. Armenia was left to fend for itself and struggled for five months against the threat of a full-fledged occupation by the Ottoman Turks. Allied victory: summer and autumn 1918 The Allied counteroffensive, known as the Hundred Days Offensive, began on 8 August 1918. The Battle of Amiens developed with III Corps British Fourth Army on the left, the French First Army on the right, and the Australian and Canadian Corps spearheading the offensive in the centre through Harbonnières. It involved 414 tanks of the Mark IV and Mark V type, and 120,000 men. They advanced 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) into German-held territory in just seven hours. Erich Ludendorff referred to this day as the "Black Day of the German army". The Australian-Canadian spearhead at Amiens, a battle that was the beginning of Germany's downfall, helped pull forward the British armies to the north and the French armies to the south. On the British Fourth Army front at Amiens, after an advance as far as 14 miles (23 km), German resistance stiffened, and the battle there concluded. But the French Third Army lengthened the Amiens front on 10 August, when it was thrown in on the right of the French First Army, and advanced 4 miles (6 km), liberating Lassigny in fighting which lasted until 16 August. South of the French Third Army, General Charles Mangin (The Butcher) drove his French Tenth Army forward at Soissons on 20 August to capture eight thousand prisoners, two hundred guns, and the Aisne heights overlooking and menacing the German position north of the Vesle. Another "Black day", as described by Erich Ludendorff. Meanwhile, General Byng of the British Third Army, reporting that the enemy on his front was thinning in a limited withdrawal, was ordered to attack with 200 tanks towards Bapaume, opening the Battle of Albert, with specific orders "To break the enemy's front, in order to outflank the enemy's present battle front" (opposite the British Fourth Army at Amiens). Allied leaders had now realised that to continue an attack after resistance had hardened was a waste of lives, and it was better to turn a line than to try to roll over it. They began to undertake attacks in quick order to take advantage of successful advances on the flanks, then broke them off when each attack lost its initial impetus. The British Third Army's 15-mile (24 km) front north of Albert progressed after stalling for a day against the main resistance line to which the enemy had withdrawn. Rawlinson's British Fourth Army was able to push its left flank forward between Albert and the Somme, straightening the line between the advanced positions of the Third Army and the Amiens front, which resulted in recapturing Albert at the same time. On 26 August the British First Army on the left of the Third Army was drawn into the battle, extending it northward to beyond Arras. The Canadian Corps, already back in the vanguard of the First Army, fought its way from Arras eastward 5 miles (8 km) astride the heavily defended Arras-Cambrai area before reaching the outer defences of the Hindenburg Line, breaching them on 28 and 29 August. Bapaume fell on 29 August to the New Zealand Division of the Third Army, and the Australians, still leading the advance of the Fourth Army, were again able to push forward at Amiens to take Peronne and Mont Saint-Quentin on 31 August. Further south, the French First and Third Armies had slowly fought forward while the Tenth Army, which had by now crossed the Ailette and was east of the Chemin des Dames, neared the Alberich position of the Hindenburg Line. During the last week of August the pressure along a 70-mile (113 km) front against the enemy was heavy and unrelenting. From German accounts, "Each day was spent in bloody fighting against an ever and again on-storming enemy, and nights passed without sleep in retirements to new lines." Even to the north in Flanders the British Second and Fifth Armies during August and September were able to make progress, taking prisoners and positions that had previously been denied them. On 2 September, the Canadian Corps' outflanking of the Hindenburg line, with the breaching of the Wotan Position, made it possible for the Third Army to advance, which sent repercussions all along the Western Front. That same day, Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL) had no choice but to issue orders to six armies to withdraw back into the Hindenburg Line in the south, behind the Canal du Nord on the Canadian-First Army's front and back to a line east of the Lys in the north. This ceded without a fight the salient seized the previous April. According to Ludendorff "We had to admit the necessity ...to withdraw the entire front from the Scarpe to the Vesle." In nearly four weeks of fighting beginning 8 August, over 100,000 German prisoners were taken, 75,000 by the BEF and the rest by the French. As of "The Black Day of the German Army", the German High Command realised that the war was lost and made attempts to reach a satisfactory end. The day after that battle, Ludenforff told Colonel Mertz: "We cannot win the war any more, but we must not lose it either." On 11 August he offered his resignation to the Kaiser, who refused it, replying, "I see that we must strike a balance. We have nearly reached the limit of our powers of resistance. The war must be ended." On 13 August, at Spa, Hindenburg, Ludendorff, the Chancellor, and Foreign Minister Hintz agreed that the war could not be ended militarily and, on the following day, the German Crown Council decided that victory in the field was now most improbable. Austria and Hungary warned that they could only continue the war until December, and Ludendorff recommended immediate peace negotiations, to which the Kaiser responded by instructing Hintz to seek the mediation of the Queen of the Netherlands. Prince Rupprecht warned Prince Max of Baden: "Our military situation has deteriorated so rapidly that I no longer believe we can hold out over the winter; it is even possible that a catastrophe will come earlier." On 10 September Hindenburg urged peace moves to Emperor Charles of Austria, and Germany appealed to the Netherlands for mediation. On 14 September Austria sent a note to all belligerents and neutrals suggesting a meeting for peace talks on neutral soil, and on 15 September Germany made a peace offer to Belgium. Both peace offers were rejected, and on 24 September OHL informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable. September saw the Germans continuing to fight strong rear-guard actions and launching numerous counterattacks on lost positions, but only a few succeeded, and then only temporarily. Contested towns, villages, heights, and trenches in the screening positions and outposts of the Hindenburg Line continued to fall to the Allies, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the last week of September. Further small advances eastward would follow the Third Army's victory at Ivincourt on 12 September, the Fourth Army's at Epheny on 18 September, and the French gain of Essigny-le-Grand a day later. On 24 September a final assault by both the British and French on a 4-mile (6.4 km) front would come within 2 miles (3.2 km) of St. Quentin. With the outposts and preliminary defensive lines of the Siegfried and Alberich Positions eliminated, the Germans were now completely back in the Hindenburg Line. With the Wotan position of that line already breached and the Siegfried position in danger of being turned from the north, the time had now come for an Allied assault on the whole length of the line. The Allied attack on the Hindenburg Line, begun on 26 September, included U.S. soldiers. The still-green American troops suffered problems coping with supply trains for large units on a difficult landscape. The following week, cooperating French and American units broke through in Champagne at the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge, forcing the Germans off the commanding heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier. The last Belgian town to be liberated before the armistice was Ghent, which the Germans held as a pivot until the Allies brought up artillery. The German army had to shorten its front and use the Dutch frontier as an anchor to fight rear-guard actions. When Bulgaria signed a separate armistice on 29 September, the Allies gained control of Serbia and Greece. Ludendorff, having been under great stress for months, suffered something similar to a breakdown. It was evident that Germany could no longer mount a successful defence. Meanwhile, news of Germany's impending military defeat spread throughout the German armed forces. The threat of mutiny was rife. Admiral Reinhard Scheer and Ludendorff decided to launch a last attempt to restore the "valour" of the German Navy. Knowing the government of Prince Maximilian of Baden would veto any such action, Ludendorff decided not to inform him. Nonetheless, word of the impending assault reached sailors at Kiel. Many, refusing to be part of a naval offensive, which they believed to be suicidal, rebelled and were arrested. Ludendorff took the blame; the Kaiser dismissed him on 26 October. The collapse of the Balkans meant that Germany was about to lose its main supplies of oil and food. Its reserves had been used up, even as U.S. troops kept arriving at the rate of 10,000 per day. The Americans supplied more than 80 percent of Allied oil during the war, meaning no such loss of supplies could affect the Allied effort. Having suffered over 6 million casualties, Germany moved towards peace. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge of a new government as Chancellor of Germany to negotiate with the Allies. Telegraphic negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the vain hope that he would offer better terms than the British and French. Instead, Wilson demanded the abdication of the Kaiser. There was no resistance when the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann on 9 November declared Germany to be a republic. Imperial Germany was dead; a new Germany had been born: the Weimar Republic. Armistices and capitulations The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice, on 29 September 1918 at Saloniki. On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated at Moudros (Armistice of Mudros). On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto. This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, which marked the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October, declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice. But the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine, and Trieste. On 3 November, Austria–Hungary sent a flag of truce to ask for an Armistice. The terms, arranged by telegraph with the Allied Authorities in Paris, were communicated to the Austrian commander and accepted. The Armistice with Austria was signed in the Villa Giusti, near Padua, on 3 November. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the Habsburg Monarchy. On 11 November, at 5:00 am, an armistice with Germany was signed in a railroad carriage at Compiègne. At 11 am on 11 November 1918 — "the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month" — a ceasefire came into effect. During the six hours between the signing of the armistice and its taking effect, opposing armies on the Western Front began to withdraw from their positions, but fighting continued along many areas of the front, as commanders wanted to capture territory before the war ended. Canadian Private George Lawrence Price was shot by a German sniper at 10:57 and died at 10:58. American Henry Gunther was killed 60 seconds before the armistice came into force while charging astonished German troops who were aware the Armistice was nearly upon them. The last British soldier to die was Pte George Edwin Ellison. The last casualty of the war was a German, Lieutenant Thomas, who, after 11 am, was walking towards the line to inform Americans who had not yet been informed of the Armistice that they would be vacating the buildings behind them. The occupation of the Rhineland took place following the Armistice. The occupying armies consisted of American, Belgian, British and French forces. Allied superiority and the stab-in-the-back legend, November 1918 In November 1918, the Allies had ample supplies of men and materiel to invade Germany. Yet at the time of the armistice, no Allied force had crossed the German frontier; the Western Front was still almost 900 mi (1,400 km) from Berlin; and the Kaiser's armies had retreated from the battlefield in good order. These factors enabled Hindenburg and other senior German leaders to spread the story that their armies had not really been defeated. This resulted in the stab-in-the-back legend, which attributed Germany's defeat not to its inability to continue fighting (even though up to a million soldiers were suffering from the 1918 flu pandemic and unfit to fight), but to the public's failure to respond to its "patriotic calling" and the supposed intentional sabotage of the war effort, particularly by Jews, Socialists, and Bolsheviks. Treaty of Versailles, June 1919 A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until the signing of the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on 28 June 1919. However, the American public opposed ratification of the treaty, mainly because of the League of Nations the treaty created; the U.S. did not formally end its involvement in the war until the Knox–Porter Resolution was signed in 1921. After the Treaty of Versailles, treaties with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire were signed. However, the negotiation of the latter treaty with the Ottoman Empire was followed by strife (the Turkish War of Independence), and a final peace treaty between the Allied Powers and the country that would shortly become the Republic of Turkey was not signed until 24 July 1923, at Lausanne. Some war memorials date the end of the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned to their home countries; by contrast, most commemorations of the war's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918. Legally, the formal peace treaties were not complete until the last, the Treaty of Lausanne, was signed. Under its terms, the Allied forces divested Constantinople on 23 August 1923. World War I began as a clash of 20th-century technology and 19th-century tactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies, now numbering millions of men, had modernised and were making use of telephone, wireless communication, armoured cars, tanks, and aircraft. Infantry formations were reorganised, so that 100-man companies were no longer the main unit of manoeuvre; instead, squads of 10 or so men, under the command of a junior NCO, were favoured. Artillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917, indirect fire with guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably aircraft and the often overlooked field telephone. Counter-battery missions became commonplace, also, and sound detection was used to locate enemy batteries. Germany was far ahead of the Allies in utilising heavy indirect fire. The German Army employed 150 and 210 mm howitzers in 1914, when typical French and British guns were only 75 and 105 mm. The British had a 6 inch (152 mm) howitzer, but it was so heavy it had to be hauled to the field in pieces and assembled. The Germans also fielded Austrian 305 mm and 420 mm guns and, even at the beginning of the war, had inventories of various calibers of Minenwerfer, which were ideally suited for trench warfare. Much of the combat involved trench warfare, in which hundreds often died for each yard gained. Many of the deadliest battles in history occurred during World War I. Such battles include Ypres, the Marne, Cambrai, the Somme, Verdun, and Gallipoli. The Germans employed the Haber process of nitrogen fixation to provide their forces with a constant supply of gunpowder despite the British naval blockade. Artillery was responsible for the largest number of casualties and consumed vast quantities of explosives. The large number of head wounds caused by exploding shells and fragmentation forced the combatant nations to develop the modern steel helmet, led by the French, who introduced the Adrian helmet in 1915. It was quickly followed by the Brodie helmet, worn by British Imperial and US troops, and in 1916 by the distinctive German Stahlhelm, a design, with improvements, still in use today. The widespread use of chemical warfare was a distinguishing feature of the conflict. Gases used included chlorine, mustard gas and phosgene. Few war casualties were caused by gas, as effective countermeasures to gas attacks were quickly created, such as gas masks. The use of chemical warfare and small-scale strategic bombing were both outlawed by the 1907 Hague Conventions, and both proved to be of limited effectiveness, though they captured the public imagination. The most powerful land-based weapons were railway guns weighing hundreds of tons apiece. These were nicknamed Big Berthas, even though the namesake was not a railway gun. Germany developed the Paris Gun, able to bombard Paris from over 100 kilometres (62 mi), though shells were relatively light at 94 kilograms (210 lb). While the Allies also had railway guns, German models severely out-ranged and out-classed them. Fixed-wing aircraft were first used militarily by the Italians in Libya on 23 October 1911 during the Italo-Turkish War for reconnaissance, soon followed by the dropping of grenades and aerial photography the next year. By 1914, their military utility was obvious. They were initially used for reconnaissance and ground attack. To shoot down enemy planes, anti-aircraft guns and fighter aircraft were developed. Strategic bombers were created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former used Zeppelins as well. Towards the end of the conflict, aircraft carriers were used for the first time, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in 1918. Manned observation balloons, floating high above the trenches, were used as stationary reconnaissance platforms, reporting enemy movements and directing artillery. Balloons commonly had a crew of two, equipped with parachutes, so that if there was an enemy air attack the crew could parachute to safety. (At the time, parachutes were too heavy to be used by pilots of aircraft (with their marginal power output), and smaller versions were not developed until the end of the war; they were also opposed by the British leadership, who feared they might promote cowardice.) Recognised for their value as observation platforms, balloons were important targets for enemy aircraft. To defend them against air attack, they were heavily protected by antiaircraft guns and patrolled by friendly aircraft; to attack them, unusual weapons such as air-to-air rockets were even tried. Thus, the reconnaissance value of blimps and balloons contributed to the development of air-to-air combat between all types of aircraft, and to the trench stalemate, because it was impossible to move large numbers of troops undetected. The Germans conducted air raids on England during 1915 and 1916 with airships, hoping to damage British morale and cause aircraft to be diverted from the front lines, and indeed the resulting panic led to the diversion of several squadrons of fighters from France. Germany deployed U-boats (submarines) after the war began. Alternating between restricted and unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic, the Kaiserliche Marine employed them to deprive the British Isles of vital supplies. The deaths of British merchant sailors and the seeming invulnerability of U-boats led to the development of depth charges (1916), hydrophones (passive sonar, 1917), blimps, hunter-killer submarines (HMS R-1, 1917), forward-throwing anti-submarine weapons, and dipping hydrophones (the latter two both abandoned in 1918). To extend their operations, the Germans proposed supply submarines (1916). Most of these would be forgotten in the interwar period until World War II revived the need. Trenches, machine guns, air reconnaissance, barbed wire, and modern artillery with fragmentation shells helped bring the battle lines of World War I to a stalemate. The British and the French sought a solution with the creation of the tank and mechanised warfare. The British first tanks were used during the Battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916. Mechanical reliability was an issue, but the experiment proved its worth. Within a year, the British were fielding tanks by the hundreds, and they showed their potential during the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917, by breaking the Hindenburg Line, while combined arms teams captured 8,000 enemy soldiers and 100 guns. Meanwhile, the French introduced the first tanks with a rotating turret, the Renault FT-A7, which became a decisive tool of the victory. The conflict also saw the introduction of Light automatic weapons and submachine guns, such as the Lewis Gun, the Browning automatic rifle, and the Bergmann MP18. Flamethrowers and subterranean transport Another new weapon, the flamethrower, was first used by the German army and later adopted by other forces. Although not of high tactical value, the flamethrower was a powerful, demoralising weapon that caused terror on the battlefield. It was a dangerous weapon to wield, as its heavy weight made operators vulnerable targets. Trench railways evolved to supply the enormous quantities of food, water, and ammunition required to support large numbers of soldiers in areas where conventional transportation systems had been destroyed. Internal combustion engines and improved traction systems for automobiles and trucks/lorries eventually rendered trench railways obsolete. Genocide and ethnic cleansing The ethnic cleansing of the Ottoman Empire's Armenian population, including mass deportations and executions, during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is considered genocide. The Ottomans saw the entire Armenian population as an enemy that had chosen to side with Russia at the beginning of the war. In early 1915, a number of Armenians joined the Russian forces, and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to issue the Tehcir Law (Law on Deportation). This authorized the deportation of Armenians from the Empire's eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and 1917. The exact number of deaths is unknown: while Balakian gives a range of 250,000 to 1.5 million for the deaths of Armenians, the International Association of Genocide Scholars estimates over 1 million. The government of Turkey has consistently rejected charges of genocide, arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World War I. Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians and Greeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination. "Rape of Belgium" The German invaders treated any resistance—such as sabotaging rail lines—as illegal and immoral, and shot the offenders and burned buildings in retaliation. In addition, they tended to suspect that most civilians were potential "franc-tireurs" and, accordingly, took and sometimes killed hostages from among the civilian population. The German army executed over 6,500 French and Belgian civilians between August and November 1914, usually in near-random large-scale shootings of civilians ordered by junior German officers. The German Army destroyed 15,000–20,000 buildings—most famously the university library at Louvain—and generated a refugee wave of over a million people. Over half the German regiments in Belgium were involved in major incidents. Thousands of workers were shipped to Germany to work in factories. British propaganda dramatizing the "Rape of Belgium" attracted much attention in the U.S., while Berlin said it was legal and necessary because of the threat of "franc-tireurs" (guerrillas) like those in France in 1870. The British and French magnified the reports and disseminated them at home and in the U.S., where they played a major role in dissolving support for Germany. The British soldiers of the war were initially volunteers but increasingly were conscripted into service. Britain's Imperial War Museum has collected more than 2,500 recordings of soldiers' personal accounts, and selected transcripts, edited by military author Max Arthur, have been published. The Museum believes that historians have not taken full account of this material, and accordingly has made the full archive of recordings available to authors and researchers. Surviving veterans, returning home, often found that they could only discuss their experiences amongst themselves. Grouping together, they formed "veterans' associations" or "Legions". Prisoners of war About eight million men surrendered and were held in POW camps during the war. All nations pledged to follow the Hague Conventions on fair treatment of prisoners of war. POWs' rate of survival was generally much higher than that of their peers at the front. Individual surrenders were uncommon; large units usually surrendered en masse. At the siege of Maubeuge about 40000 French soldiers surrendered, at the battle of Galicia Russians took about 100-120000 Austrian captives, at the Brusilov Offensive about 325 000 to 417 000 Germans and Austrians surrendered to Russians, at the Battle of Tannenberg 92,000 Russians surrendered. When the besieged garrison of Kaunas surrendered in 1915, some 20,000 Russians became prisoners, at the battle near Przasnysz (February–March 1915) 14 000 Germans surrendered to Russiansб at the First Battle of the Marne about 12 000 Germans surrendered to the Allies. 25-31 % of Russian losses (as a proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner status; for Austria-Hungary 32%, for Italy 26%, for France 12%, for Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost 2.-3.5[clarification needed] million men as prisoners. In some researches it is stated that the number of Russian Prisoners was 2 417 000) From the Central Powers about 3.3 million men became prisoners; most of them surrendered to Russians. Germany held 2.5 million prisoners; Russia held 2.2-2.9 million; while Britain and France held about 720,000. Most were captured just prior to the Armistice. The U.S. held 48,000. The most dangerous moment was the act of surrender, when helpless soldiers were sometimes gunned down. Once prisoners reached a camp, conditions were, in general, satisfactory (and much better than in World War II), thanks in part to the efforts of the International Red Cross and inspections by neutral nations. However, conditions were terrible in Russia: starvation was common for prisoners and civilians alike; about 15–20% of the prisoners in Russia died (in some researches it is stated that 2.5% of prisoners in Russia died, and in Central powers imprisonment – 8% of Russians. In Germany, food was scarce, but only 5% died. The Ottoman Empire often treated POWs poorly. Some 11,800 British Empire soldiers, most of them Indians, became prisoners after the Siege of Kut in Mesopotamia in April 1916; 4,250 died in captivity. Although many were in very bad condition when captured, Ottoman officers forced them to march 1,100 kilometres (684 mi) to Anatolia. A survivor said: "We were driven along like beasts; to drop out was to die." The survivors were then forced to build a railway through the Taurus Mountains. In Russia, when the prisoners from the Czech Legion of the Austro-Hungarian army were released in 1917, they re-armed themselves and briefly became a military and diplomatic force during the Russian Civil War. While the Allied prisoners of the Central Powers were quickly sent home at the end of active hostilities, the same treatment was not granted to Central Power prisoners of the Allies and Russia, many of whom served as forced labor, e.g., in France until 1920. They were released only after many approaches by the Red Cross to the Allied Supreme Council. German prisoners were still being held in Russia as late as 1924. Military attachés and war correspondents Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war. Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern "embedded" positions within the opposing land and naval forces. These military attachés and other observers prepared voluminous first-hand accounts of the war and analytical papers. For example, former US Army Captain Granville Fortescue followed the developments of the Gallipoli Campaign from an embedded perspective within the ranks of the Turkish defenders; and his report was passed through Turkish censors before being printed in London and New York. However, this observer's role was abandoned when the U.S. entered the war, as Fortescue immediately re-enlisted, sustaining wounds at Forest of Argonne in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, September 1918. In-depth observer narratives of the war and more narrowly focused professional journal articles were written soon after the war; and these post-war reports conclusively illustrated the battlefield destructiveness of this conflict. This was not the first time the tactics of entrenched positions for infantry defended with machine guns and artillery became vitally important. The Russo-Japanese War had been closely observed by military attachés, war correspondents and other observers; but, from a 21st-century perspective, it is now apparent that a range of tactical lessons were disregarded or not used in the preparations for war in Europe and throughout the Great War. Support and opposition to the war In the Balkans, Yugoslav nationalists such as the leader Ante Trumbić in the Balkans strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom of Yugoslavs from Austria-Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav Committee was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London; Trumbić led the Committee. In the Middle East, Arab nationalism soared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of a pan-Arab state. In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of the Middle East in an effort to achieve independence. Italian nationalism was stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war was Gabriele d'Annunzio, who promoted Italian irredentism and helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war. The Italian Liberal Party, under the leadership of Paolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and utilised the Dante Alighieri Society to promote Italian nationalism. A number of socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914. But European socialists split on national lines, with the concept of class conflict held by radical socialists such as Marxists and syndicalists being overborne by their patriotic support for war. Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries' intervention in the war. Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war, including Benito Mussolini and Leonida Bissolati. However, the Italian Socialist Party decided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting in a general strike called Red Week. The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini. Mussolini, a syndicalist who supported the war on grounds of irredentist claims on Italian-populated regions of Austria-Hungary, formed the pro-interventionist Il Popolo d'Italia and the Fasci Riviluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista ("Revolutionary Fasci for International Action") in October 1914 that later developed into the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919, the origin of fascism. Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments firm) and other companies to create Il Popolo d'Italia to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war. In April 1918, the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, including Czechoslovak, Italian, Polish, Transylvanian, and Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support national self-determination for the peoples residing within Austria-Hungary. The trade union and socialist movements had long voiced their opposition to a war, which they argued would only mean that workers would kill other workers in the interest of capitalism. Once war was declared, however, many socialists and trade unions backed their governments. Among the exceptions were the Bolsheviks, the Socialist Party of America, and the Italian Socialist Party, and individuals such as Karl Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg, and their followers in Germany. There were also small anti-war groups in Britain and France. Benedict XV, elected to the papacy less than three months into World War I, made the war and its consequences the main focus of his early pontificate. In stark contrast to his predecessor, five days after his election he spoke of his determination to do what he could to bring peace. His first encyclical, Ad Beatissimi Apostolorum, given 1 November 1914, was concerned with this subject. Seen as being biased in favour of the other and resented for weakening national morale, Benedict XV found his abilities and unique position as a religious emissary of peace ignored by the belligerent powers. The 1915 Treaty of London between Italy and the Triple Entente included secret provisions whereby the Allies agreed with Italy to ignore papal peace moves towards the Central Powers. Consequently, the publication of Benedict's proposed seven-point Peace Note of August 1917 was roundly ignored by all parties except Austria-Hungary. In Britain, in 1914, the Public Schools Officers' Training Corps annual camp was held at Tidworth Pennings, near Salisbury Plain. Head of the British Army Lord Kitchener was to review the cadets, but the imminence of the war prevented him. General Horace Smith-Dorrien was sent instead. He surprised the two-or-three thousand cadets by declaring (in the words of Donald Christopher Smith, a Bermudian cadet who was present), that war should be avoided at almost any cost, that war would solve nothing, that the whole of Europe and more besides would be reduced to ruin, and that the loss of life would be so large that whole populations would be decimated. In our ignorance I, and many of us, felt almost ashamed of a British General who uttered such depressing and unpatriotic sentiments, but during the next four years, those of us who survived the holocaust—probably not more than one-quarter of us—learned how right the General's prognosis was and how courageous he had been to utter it. Voicing these sentiments did not hinder Smith-Dorien's career, or prevent him from doing his duty in World War I to the best of his abilities. Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These included Eugene Debs in the United States and Bertrand Russell in Britain. In the U.S., the Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918 made it a federal crime to oppose military recruitment or make any statements deemed "disloyal". Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors, and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic. A number of nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to. Although the vast majority of Irish people consented to participate in the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority of advanced Irish nationalists staunchly opposed taking part. The war began amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912, and, by July 1914, there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in the Easter Rising of 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland in order to stir unrest in the United Kingdom. The UK government placed Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Rising, although, once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling. Other opposition came from conscientious objectors – some socialist, some religious – who refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status. Some of them, most notably prominent peace activist Stephen Henry Hobhouse, refused both military and alternative service. Many suffered years of prison, including solitary confinement and bread and water diets. Even after the war, in Britain many job advertisements were marked "No conscientious objectors need apply". In 1917, a series of French Army Mutinies led to dozens of soldiers being executed and many more imprisoned. In Milan, in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation. The Italian army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks and anarchists, who fought violently until 23 May when the army gained control of the city. Almost 50 people (including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800 people arrested. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 in Canada erupted when conservative Prime Minister Robert Borden brought in compulsory military service over the objection of French-speaking Quebecers. Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 173,000 wounded. In 1917, Emperor Charles I of Austria secretly entered into peace negotiations with the Allied powers, with his brother-in-law Sixtus as intermediary, without the knowledge of his ally Germany. He failed, however, because of the resistance of Italy. In September 1917, Russian soldiers in France began questioning why they were fighting for the French at all and mutinied. In Russia, opposition to the war led to soldiers also establishing their own revolutionary committees, which helped foment the October Revolution of 1917, with the call going up for "bread, land, and peace". The Bolsheviks agreed to a peace treaty with Germany, the peace of Brest-Litovsk, despite its harsh conditions. In northern Germany, the end of October 1918, saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918–1919. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost; this initiated the uprising. The sailors' revolt which then ensued in the naval ports of Wilhelmshaven and Kiel spread across the whole country within days and led to the proclamation of a republic on 9 November 1918 and shortly thereafter to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II. As the war slowly turned into a war of attrition, conscription was implemented in some countries. This issue was particularly explosive in Canada and Australia. In the former, it opened a political gap between French Canadians, who believed their true loyalty should be to Canada and not to the British Empire, and members of the Anglophone majority, who saw the war as a duty to both Britain and Canada. Prime Minister Robert Borden pushed through a Military Service Act, provoking the Conscription Crisis of 1917. In Australia, a sustained pro-conscription campaign by Prime Minister Billy Hughes caused a split in the Australian Labor Party, so Hughes formed the Nationalist Party of Australia in 1917 to pursue the matter. Nevertheless, the labour movement, the Catholic Church, and Irish nationalist expatriates successfully opposed Hughes' push, which was rejected in two plebiscites. Conscription put into uniform nearly every physically fit man in Britain, six of ten million eligible. Of these, about 750,000 lost their lives and 1,700,000 were wounded. Most deaths were to young unmarried men; however, 160,000 wives lost husbands and 300,000 children lost fathers. Health and economic effects No other war had changed the map of Europe so dramatically. Four empires disappeared: the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian. Four dynasties, together with their ancillary aristocracies, all fell after the war: the Hohenzollerns, the Habsburgs, the Romanovs, and the Ottomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead, not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected. The war had profound economic consequences. Of the 60 million European soldiers who were mobilised from 1914 to 1918, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1% of its active male population, Austria–Hungary lost 17.1%, and France lost 10.5%. In Germany civilian deaths were 474,000 higher than in peacetime, due in large part to food shortages and malnutrition that weakened resistance to disease. By the end of the war, famine had killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon. The best estimates of the death toll from the Russian famine of 1921 run from 5 million to 10 million people. By 1922, there were between 4.5 million and 7 million homeless children in Russia as a result of nearly a decade of devastation from World War I, the Russian Civil War, and the subsequent famine of 1920–1922. Numerous anti-Soviet Russians fled the country after the Revolution; by the 1930s, the northern Chinese city of Harbin had 100,000 Russians. Thousands more emigrated to France, England, and the United States. In Australia, the effects of the war on the economy were no less severe. The then Prime Minister Hughes wrote to the British Prime Minister Lloyd George, "You have assured us that you cannot get better terms. I much regret it, and hope even now that some way may be found of securing agreement for demanding reparation commensurate with the tremendous sacrifices made by the British Empire and her Allies." Australia received ₤5,571,720 war reparations, but the direct cost of the war to Australia had been ₤376,993,052, and, by the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were ₤831,280,947. Of about 416,000 Australians who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded. Diseases flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In 1914 alone, louse-borne epidemic typhus killed 200,000 in Serbia. From 1918 to 1922, Russia had about 25 million infections and 3 million deaths from epidemic typhus. Whereas before World War I Russia had about 3.5 million cases of malaria, its people suffered more than 13 million cases in 1923. In addition, a major influenza epidemic spread around the world. Overall, the 1918 flu pandemic killed at least 50 million people. Lobbying by Chaim Weizmann and fear that American Jews would encourage the USA to support Germany culminated in the British government's Balfour Declaration of 1917, endorsing creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. A total of more than 1,172,000 Jewish soldiers served in the Allied and Central Power forces in World War I, including 275,000 in Austria-Hungary and 450,000 in Czarist Russia. The social disruption and widespread violence of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War sparked more than 2,000 pogroms in the former Russian Empire, mostly in the Ukraine. An estimated 60,000–200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities. In the aftermath of World War I, Greece fought against Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal, a war which resulted in a massive population exchange between the two countries under the Treaty of Lausanne. According to various sources, several hundred thousand Pontic Greeks died during this period. Peace treaties and national boundaries After the war, the Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles officially ended the war. Building on Wilson's 14th point, the Treaty of Versailles also brought into being the League of Nations on 28 June 1919. In signing the treaty, Germany acknowledged responsibility for the war, and agreed to pay enormous war reparations and award territory to the victors. The "Guilt Thesis" became a controversial explanation of later events among analysts in Britain and the United States. The Treaty of Versailles caused enormous bitterness in Germany, which nationalist movements, especially the Nazis, exploited with a conspiracy theory they called the Dolchstosslegende (Stab-in-the-back legend). The Weimar Republic lost the former colonial possessions and was saddled with accepting blame for the war, as well as paying punitive reparations for it. Unable to pay them with exports (as a result of territorial losses and postwar recession), Germany did so by borrowing from the United States. Runaway inflation in the 1920s contributed to the economic collapse of the Weimar Republic, and the payment of reparations was suspended in 1931 following the Stock Market Crash of 1929 and the beginnings of the Great Depression worldwide. Austria–Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Transylvania was shifted from Hungary to Greater Romania. The details were contained in the Treaty of Saint-Germain and the Treaty of Trianon. As a result of the Treaty of Trianon, 3.3 million Hungarians came under foreign rule. Although the Hungarians made up 54% of the population of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary, only 32% of its territory was left to Hungary. Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The Russian Empire, which had withdrawn from the war in 1917 after the October Revolution, lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland were carved from it. Bessarabia was re-attached to Greater Romania, as it had been a Romanian territory for more than a thousand years. The Ottoman Empire disintegrated, and much of its non-Anatolian territory was awarded to various Allied powers as protectorates. The Turkish core was reorganised as the Republic of Turkey. The Ottoman Empire was to be partitioned by the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920. This treaty was never ratified by the Sultan and was rejected by the Turkish republican movement, leading to the Turkish Independence War and, ultimately, to the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. The first tentative efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences of modern warfare began during the initial phases of the war, and this process continued throughout and after the end of hostilities. Memorials were erected in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields, those buried in improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal graveyards under the care of organisations such as the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, the American Battle Monuments Commission, the German War Graves Commission, and Le Souvenir français. Many of these graveyards also have central monuments to the missing or unidentified dead, such as the Menin Gate memorial and the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme. On 3 May 1915, during the Second Battle of Ypres, Lieutenant Alexis Helmer was killed. At his graveside, his friend John McCrae, M.D., of Guelph, Ontario, Canada, wrote the memorable poem In Flanders Fields as a salute to those who perished in the Great War. Published in Punch on 8 December 1915, it is still recited today, especially on Remembrance Day and Memorial Day. Liberty Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri, is a United States memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in World War I. The site for the Liberty Memorial was dedicated on 1 November 1921. On this day, the supreme Allied commanders spoke to a crowd of more than 100,000 people. It was the only time in history these leaders were together in one place. In attendance were Lieutenant General Baron Jacques of Belgium; General Armando Diaz of Italy; Marshal Ferdinand Foch of France; General Pershing of the United States; and Admiral D. R. Beatty of Great Britain. After three years of construction, the Liberty Memorial was completed and President Calvin Coolidge delivered the dedication speech to a crowd of 150,000 people in 1926. Liberty Memorial is also home to The National World War I Museum, the only museum in the United States dedicated solely to World War I. World War I had a lasting impact on social memory. It was seen by many in Britain as signalling the end of an era of stability stretching back to the Victorian period, and across Europe many regarded it as a watershed. Historian Samuel Hynes explained: "A generation of innocent young men, their heads full of high abstractions like Honour, Glory and England, went off to war to make the world safe for democracy. They were slaughtered in stupid battles planned by stupid generals. Those who survived were shocked, disillusioned and embittered by their war experiences, and saw that their real enemies were not the Germans, but the old men at home who had lied to them. They rejected the values of the society that had sent them to war, and in doing so separated their own generation from the past and from their cultural inheritance." This has become the most common perception of World War I, perpetuated by the art, cinema, poems, and stories published subsequently. Films such as All Quiet on the Western Front, Paths of Glory and King & Country have perpetuated the idea, while war-time films including Camrades, Flanders Poppies, and Shoulder Arms indicate that the most contemporary views of the war were overall far more positive. Likewise, the art of Paul Nash, John Nash, Christopher Nevison, and Henry Tonks in Britain painted a negative view of the conflict in keeping with the growing perception, while popular war-time artists such as Muirhead Bone painted more serene and pleasant interpretations subsequently rejected as inaccurate. Several historians like John terriane, Niall Ferguson and Gary Sheffield have challenged these interpretations as partial and polemical views: "These beliefs did not become widely shared because they offered the only accurate interpretation of wartime events. In every respect, the war was much more complicated than they suggest. In recent years, historians have argued persuasively against almost every popular cliché of World War I. It has been pointed out that, although the losses were devastating, their greatest impact was socially and geographically limited. The many emotions other than horror experienced by soldiers in and out of the front line, including comradeship, boredom, and even enjoyment, have been recognised. The war is not now seen as a 'fight about nothing', but as a war of ideals, a struggle between aggressive militarism and more or less liberal democracy. It has been acknowledged that British generals were often capable men facing difficult challenges, and that it was under their command that the British army played a major part in the defeat of the Germans in 1918: a great forgotten victory." Though these historians have discounted as "myths" these perceptions of the war, they are common. They have dynamically changed according to contemporary influences, reflecting in the 1950s perceptions of the war as 'aimless' following the contrasting Second World War and emphasising conflict within the ranks during times of class conflict in the 1960s. The majority of additions to the contrary are often rejected. The social trauma caused by unprecedented rates of casualties manifested itself in different ways, which have been the subject of subsequent historical debate. Some people[who?] were revolted by nationalism and its results, and began to work towards a more internationalist world, supporting organisations such as the League of Nations. Pacifism became increasingly popular. Others had the opposite reaction, feeling that only strength and military might could be relied upon in a chaotic and inhumane world. Anti-modernist views were an outgrowth of the many changes taking place in society. The experiences of the war led to a collective trauma shared by many from all participating countries. The optimism of la belle époque was destroyed, and those who had fought in the war were referred to as the Lost Generation. For years afterwards, people mourned the dead, the missing, and the many disabled. Many soldiers returned with severe trauma, suffering from shell shock (also called neurasthenia, a condition related to posttraumatic stress disorder). Many more returned home with few after-effects; however, their silence about the war contributed to the conflict's growing mythological status. In the United Kingdom, mass mobilisation, large casualty rates, and the collapse of the Edwardian era made a strong impression on society. Though many participants did not share in the experiences of combat or spend any significant time at the front, or had positive memories of their service, the images of suffering and trauma became the widely shared perception. Such historians as Dan Todman, Paul Fussell, and Samuel Heyns have all published works since the 1990s arguing that these common perceptions of the war are factually incorrect. Discontent in Germany The rise of Nazism and fascism included a revival of the nationalist spirit and a rejection of many post-war changes. Similarly, the popularity of the Stab-in-the-back legend (German: Dolchstoßlegende) was a testament to the psychological state of defeated Germany and was a rejection of responsibility for the conflict. This conspiracy theory of betrayal became common, and the German populace came to see themselves as victims. The Dolchstoßlegende's popular acceptance in Germany played a significant role in the rise of Nazism. A sense of disillusionment and cynicism became pronounced, with nihilism growing. Many believed the war heralded the end of the world as they had known it because of the high fatalities among a generation of men, the dissolution of governments and empires, and the collapse of capitalism and imperialism. Communist and socialist movements around the world drew strength from this theory and enjoyed a new level of popularity. These feelings were most pronounced in areas directly or harshly affected by the war. Out of German discontent with the still controversial Treaty of Versailles, Adolf Hitler was able to gain popularity and power. World War II was in part a continuation of the power struggle never fully resolved by World War I; in fact, it was common for Germans in the 1930s and 1940s to justify acts of international aggression because of perceived injustices imposed by the victors of World War I. American historian William Rubinstein wrote that: "The 'Age of Totalitarianism' included nearly all of the infamous examples of genocide in modern history, headed by the Jewish Holocaust, but also comprising the mass murders and purges of the Communist world, other mass killings carried out by Nazi Germany and its allies, and also the Armenian genocide of 1915. All these slaughters, it is argued here, had a common origin, the collapse of the elite structure and normal modes of government of much of central, eastern and southern Europe as a result of World War I, without which surely neither Communism nor Fascism would have existed except in the minds of unknown agitators and crackpots". The establishment of the modern state of Israel and the roots of the continuing Israeli–Palestinian conflict are partially found in the unstable power dynamics of the Middle East that resulted from World War I. Prior to the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire had maintained a modest level of peace and stability throughout the Middle East. With the fall of the Ottoman government, power vacuums developed and conflicting claims to land and nationhood began to emerge. The political boundaries drawn by the victors of World War I were quickly imposed, sometimes after only cursory consultation with the local population. In many cases, these continue to be problematic in the 21st-century struggles for national identity. While the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I was pivotal in contributing to the modern political situation of the Middle East, including the Arab-Israeli conflict, the end of Ottoman rule also spawned lesser known disputes over water and other natural resources. Views in the United States US intervention in the war, as well as the Wilson administration itself, became deeply unpopular. This was reflected in the U.S. Senate's rejection of the Versailles Treaty and membership in the League of Nations. In the interwar era, a consensus arose that US intervention had been a mistake, and the Congress passed laws in an attempt to preserve U.S. neutrality in any future conflict. Polls taken in 1937 and the opening months of World War II established that nearly 60% regarded intervention in WWI as a mistake, with only 28% opposing that view. But, in the period between the fall of France and the attack on Pearl Harbor, public opinion changed dramatically and, for the first time, a narrow plurality rejected the idea that the war had been a mistake. New national identities Poland reemerged as an independent country, after more than a century. As a "minor Entente nation" and the country with the most casualties per capita, the Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty became the backbone of the new multinational state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed Yugoslavia). Czechoslovakia, combining the Kingdom of Bohemia with parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Russia became the Soviet Union and lost Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia, which became independent countries. The Ottoman Empire was soon replaced by Turkey and several other countries in the Middle East. In the British Empire, the war unleashed new forms of nationalism. In Australia and New Zealand the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations' "Baptism of Fire". It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of the British Crown. Anzac Day, commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, celebrates this defining moment. After the Battle of Vimy Ridge, where the Canadian divisions fought together for the first time as a single corps, Canadians began to refer to theirs as a nation "forged from fire". Having succeeded on the same battleground where the "mother countries" had previously faltered, they were for the first time respected internationally for their own accomplishments. Canada entered the war as a Dominion of the British Empire and remained so, although it emerged with a greater measure of independence. When Britain declared war in 1914, the dominions were automatically at war; at the conclusion, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa were individual signatories of the Treaty of Versailles. One of the most dramatic effects of the war was the expansion of governmental powers and responsibilities in Britain, France, the United States, and the Dominions of the British Empire. In order to harness all the power of their societies, governments created new ministries and powers. New taxes were levied and laws enacted, all designed to bolster the war effort; many have lasted to this day. Similarly, the war strained the abilities of some formerly large and bureaucratised governments, such as in Austria–Hungary and Germany; however, any analysis of the long-term effects were clouded by the defeat of these governments. Gross domestic product (GDP) increased for three Allies (Britain, Italy, and U.S.), but decreased in France and Russia, in neutral Netherlands, and in the three main Central Powers. The shrinkage in GDP in Austria, Russia, France, and the Ottoman Empire reached 30 to 40%. In Austria, for example, most pigs were slaughtered, so at war's end there was no meat. In all nations, the government's share of GDP increased, surpassing fifty percent in both Germany and France and nearly reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the United States, Britain cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily on Wall Street. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916, but allowed a great increase in U.S. government lending to the Allies. After 1919, the U.S. demanded repayment of these loans. The repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations, which, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and the loans were never repaid. In 1934, Britain owed the US $4.4 billion of World War I debt. Macro- and micro-economic consequences devolved from the war. Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, industry needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle for voting rights for women. World War I further compounded the gender imbalance, adding to the phenomenon of surplus women. The deaths of nearly one million men[clarification needed] during the war increased the gender gap by almost a million; from 670,000 to 1,700,000. The number of unmarried women seeking economic means grew dramatically. In addition, demobilisation and economic decline following the war caused high unemployment. The war increased female employment; however, the return of demoblised men displaced many from the workforce, as did the closure of many of the wartime factories. Hence women who had worked during the war found themselves struggling to find jobs and those approaching working age were not offered the opportunity. In Britain, rationing was finally imposed in early 1918, limited to meat, sugar, and fats (butter and oleo), but not bread. The new system worked smoothly. From 1914 to 1918, trade union membership doubled, from a little over four million to a little over eight million. Work stoppages and strikes became frequent in 1917–1918 as the unions expressed grievances regarding prices, alcohol control, pay disputes, fatigue from overtime and working on Sundays, and inadequate housing. Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply had become difficult from traditional sources. Geologists such as Albert Ernest Kitson were called on to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits of manganese, used in munitions production, in the Gold Coast. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called "war guilt" clause) declared Germany and its allies responsible for all "loss and damage" suffered by the Allies during the war and provided the basis for reparations. The total reparations demanded was 132 billion gold marks, which was far more than the total German gold or foreign exchange. The economic problems that the payments brought, and German resentment at their imposition, are usually cited as one of the more significant factors that led to the end of the Weimar Republic and the beginning of the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler. After Germany's defeat in World War II, payment of the reparations was not resumed. 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Thorough coverage of 1914 - Strachan, Hew (1998), The Oxford Illustrated History of the First World War, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-820614-3 - Stumpp, Karl; Weins, Herbert; Smith, Ingeborg W (trans) (1997), A People on the Move: Germans in Russia and in the Former Soviet Union: 1763–1997, North Dakota State University Libraries Unknown parameter - Swietochowski, Tadeusz (2004), Russian Azerbaijan, 1905–1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community 42, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-52245-8 Unknown parameter |series-title=ignored (help), reviewed at JSTOR 1866737 - Taylor, Alan John Percivale (1963), The First World War: An Illustrated History, Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 0-399-50260-2, OCLC 2054370 - Taylor, Alan John Percivale (1998), The First World War and its aftermath, 1914–1919, London: Folio Society, OCLC 49988231 Unknown parameter - Taylor, John M (Summer 2007), "Audacious Cruise of the Emden", The Quarterly Journal of Military History 19 (4): 38–47, doi:10.1353/jmh.2007.0331 (inactive 2010-07-26), ISSN 0899-3718 - Terraine, John (1963), Ordeal of Victory, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, pp. 508pp, ISBN 0-09-068120-7, OCLC 1345833 - Tschanz, David W, Typhus fever on the Eastern front in World War I, Montana State University, retrieved 12 November 2009 - Tuchman, Barbara Wertheim (1962), The Guns of August, New York: Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-02-620310-4, OCLC 192333, tells of the opening diplomatic and military manoeuvres - Tuchman, Barbara Wertheim (1966), Zimmermann Telegram (2nd ed.), New York: Macmillan, ISBN 0-02-620320-0, OCLC 233392415 - Tucker, Spencer C (1999), European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia, ISBN 0-8153-3351-X, OCLC 40417794 - Tucker, Spencer C; Roberts, Priscilla Mary (2005), Encyclopedia of World War I, Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, ISBN 1-85109-420-2, OCLC 61247250 - Tucker, Spencer C; Wood, Laura Matysek; Murphy, Justin D (1999), The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-8153-3351-7 - von der Porten, Edward P (1969), German Navy in World War II, New York: T. Y. Crowell, ISBN 0-213-17961-X, OCLC 164543865 - Westwell, Ian (2004), World War I Day by Day, St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing, pp. 192pp, ISBN 0-7603-1937-5, OCLC 57533366 - Wilgus, William John (1931), Transporting the A. E. F. in Western Europe, 1917–1919, New York: Columbia University Press, OCLC 1161730 - Willmott, H.P. (2003), World War I, New York: Dorling Kindersley, ISBN 0-7894-9627-5, OCLC 52541937 - Winegard, Timothy, "Here at Vimy: A Retrospective – The 90th Anniversary of the Battle of Vimy Ridge", Canadian Military Journal 8 (2) - Winter, Denis (1983), The First of the Few: Fighter Pilots of the First World War, Penguin, ISBN 978-0-14-005256-5 - Wohl, Robert (1979), The Generation of 1914 (3 ed.), Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-34466-2 - Zieger, Robert H (2001), America's Great War: World War I and the American experience, Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, p. 50, ISBN 0-8476-9645-6 - <Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.> (28 July 2005), "Country Briefings: Israel", The Economist, retrieved 30 December 2008 - Israeli Foreign Ministry, Ottoman Rule, Jewish Virtual Library, retrieved 30 December 2008 |Wikisource has original text related to this article:| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: World War I| |Meta has related information at:| - The Heritage of the Great War / First World War. Graphic color photos, pictures and music - A multimedia history of World War I - British Pathé Online film archive containing extensive coverage of World War I - The Heritage of the Great War, Netherlands - The World War I Document Archive Wiki, Brigham Young University - Maps of Europe covering the history of World War I at omniatlas.com - The Great War Association – World War One Reenacting - Your Family History of World War I – Europeana 1914–1918(Crowd-sourcing project) - EFG1914 – Film digitisation project on First World War - WWI Films on the European Film Gateway

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Children learn about money from many sources. Long before they enter school, they observe adults using money and buying things. These activity sheets provide learning activities to teach children the fundamentals of money management. By Philip Heckman et al. Submitting Institution(s): Credit Union National Association English and Spanish Versions Available

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London, July 18 (IANS) Improving body image helps in weight loss programs based on diet and exercise. Obesity is known to increase the risk of diabetes and heart disease and can significantly shorten life expectancy. Technical University of Lisbon's Pedro J. Teixeira, who led the research, said: 'Body image problems are very common amongst overweight and obese people, often leading to comfort eating and more rigid eating patterns, and are obstacles to losing weight.' 'Our results showed a strong correlation between improvements in body image, especially in reducing anxiety about other peoples' opinions, and positive changes in eating behaviour.' Researchers from Technical and Bangor universities (Spain and Britain, respectively) enrolled overweight and obese women on a year-long weight loss programme, reports the International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical Activity. Half the women were given general health information about good nutrition, stress management, and the importance of looking after themselves, according to a Technical University statement. The other half attended 30 weekly group sessions where issues such as exercise, emotional eating, improving body image and the recognition of, and how to overcome, personal barriers to weight loss and lapses from the diet were discussed. Women in the second group found that the way they thought about their body improved and that concerns about body shape and size were reduced. Compared to the first group, they were better able to self-regulate their eating and they lost much more weight, losing ann average seven percent of their starting weight compared to less than two percent for the first group. --Indo-Asian News service

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BRIEF HISTORY OF SOUTH AFRICA South Africa - A Brief History The history of Southern Africa goes back into the recesses of time. The oldest surviving inhabitants are members of the Khoisan language groups but there are not many left in modern South Africa. Most black South Africans belong to the people which migrated south from central Africa, settling in the Transvaal region sometime before AD 100. It is totally incorrect to call them Bantu people. The word Bantu means people so that comes out as people people. The Boers did not call them Africans for that would have implied, correctly, a prior ownership. The Boers called themselves Afrikaners to indicate, incorrectly, that it was their land. The first Europeans to reach the Cape of Good Hope were the Portuguese who arrived in 1488. But it was nearly two centuries later before permanent European settlement. In 1652 the Dutch East India Company established a provisioning station on the Cape. This settlement later attracted French Huguenot refugees, the Dutch, and Germans who began to spread and settle in the Cape. Collectively they are now the Afrikaners.By 1779, European settlements extended throughout the southern part of the Cape and east toward the Great Fish River. It was not a peaceful settlement. It was a land grab involving the subjugation of the Africans. The British gained control of the Cape of Good Hope at the end of the 18th century and immediately came in to conflict with the Afrikaners. In 1836, partly because the British had abolished slavery, many Afrikaner farmers - Boers - pulled up roots and went north in what was to be known as the Great Trek. This brought them into conflict with several African groups, specifically and especially the Zulus. Although they were beaten by the Boers in 1838 at the battle of Blood River they remained a potent force before being finally conquered in 1879. In 1852 and 1854, the independent Boer Republics of the Transvaal and Orange Free State were created. The relationships between the Boers and the British were always strained. When diamonds were discovered at Kimberley in 1870 and deposits in the Witwatersrand region of the Transvaal in 1886, the situation became even more tense. British intrigue and Boer resistance to change led to the Anglo-Boer Wars of 1880-81 and 1899-1902. Britain won the war - but only just and after a series of humiliating defeats - and the republics were incorporated into the British Empire. In May 1910, the two republics and the British colonies of the Cape and Natal formed the Union of South Africa, a self-governing dominion of the British Empire. Its constitution meant that all political power was kept in the hands of whites.In 1912, the South Africa Native National Congress was formed in Bloemfontein and eventually became known as the African National Congress. Its goals were the elimination of restrictions based on colour and an universal vote. The enfranchisement of and parliamentary representation for blacks. Despite these efforts, the government continued to pass laws limiting the rights and freedoms of Africans. That was the start of a long struggle, and in the 1960s the appalling Sharpeville massacre led to the banning of the party and the arrest and imprisonment of Nelson Mandela and many other anti-apartheid leaders. In May 1961, South Africa relinquished its dominion status and declared itself a republic. In February 1990, State President F.W. de Klerk announced the lifting of bans on all other anti-apartheid groups. Two weeks, later Nelson Mandela was released from prison. In 1991 all of the laws relating to apartheid were abolished. The country's first non-racial elections were held in 1994 and Nelson Mandela became President on May 10, 1994. He served until his retirement in 1999 and was succeeded as President by Thabo Mbeki. This article is reprinted from TourismWorld.com This site is dedicated to our Prime Ministers and Presidents who by their efforts and personal strength made it to be heads of the state. Each leader here was right on his right. All the contributions that they have made is vital to the chain of events in the history of our country, we need not to feel ashed about our past, but to appreciate it and ambrace it with pride sense of pride, so that we can look back and learn were did we go wrong and how can we improve from what had happened. The present generation of both black and white of South Africa we need to create our own world based on the acceptance of one another and to create a platform to work together.

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With the opening of millimeter-wave spectrum to commercial communications, a number of companies are developing practical solutions for high-speed data access. Millimeter-wave frequencies represent the next great frontier for broadband, albeit limited range, communications. Since the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and other global regulatory agencies have designated or freed bandwidth at millimeter-wave frequencies for point-to-point communications links (see Microwaves & RF, August 2007, p. 40), a number of companies at the system level have experienced increased interest in their high-frequency links while some companies at the component level have shared in the enthusiasm. The growing demand for high-speed voice, data, and video interconnections around the world is driving frequency regulators to free up spectrum at millimeter- wave frequencies. Millimeter-wave frequencies are generally accepted to be in the range from 30 to 300 GHz, with the name coming from the small size of the signal wavelengths at those frequencies. Components for those frequencies are usually based on waveguide interconnections, with the physical size of the waveguide corresponding to the portion of the millimeter-wave spectrum that is passed with minimal signal loss. Of course, many coaxial connector companies now offer connectors with interface dimensions as small as 1 mm for broadband use as wide as DC to 110 GHz (typically for broadband measurement applications), although most millimeter-wave applications fit within a relative small percentage of the total 30-to-300-GHz spectrum. One of the companies offering complete point-to-point millimeter-wave link solutions is BridgeWave Communications (www.bridgewave.com), with thousands of 60- and 80-GHz wireless gigabit radios deployed worldwide. The firm's millimeter-wave radios support local-area-network (LAN) backbone extensions, mobile-telephone backhaul applications, and high-capacity Internet access. The radio systems are referred to as "wireless fiber" systems for their capability of providing the performance, reliability, and security of a fiber-optic link, but without the installation headaches. The company's point-to-point, fixed wireless systems employ proprietary AdaptRateTM technology and forward error- correction (FER) techniques to achieve reliable performance over the longest link distances possible for millimeter- wave frequencies. BridgeWave recently announced the additional availability of AdaptPathTM technology to their systems, which allows the integration of their AdaptRate millimeter wave links with secondary connections using complementary wired or wireless technologies. The result is a multiple-technology solution with increased availability and range. The AdaptPath link switching technology creates an all-weather, dual path data connection by teaming one of the company's 60- or 80-GHz wireless bridges with a lower-speed secondary communications path, such as an unlicensed 5-GHz radio bridge or a licensed 6- or 11-GHz link. Should environmental conditions degrade the performance of the millimeter-wave link, the AdaptPath technology automatically switches data traffic to the secondary path before data errors occur. According to Gregg Levin, senior vice president and chief marketing officer for the company, "AdaptPath is the next step in BridgeWave's strategy to offer enterprises, government entities, and network operators greater flexibility in meeting their network capacity, range, and uptime requirements." Their customers concur. The combination of technologies has helped broadband service provider Roadstar Internet accelerate the rollout of reliable Internet services in the Washington, DC area. According to the firm's founder and CEO, Marty Dougherty, "Our state-of-the-art GigE wireless backbone enables us to be first to deliver next-generation access services in this fast-growing region. The combination of BridgeWave's AdaptRate and AdaptPath features takes us well beyond what's currently available in the industry." Roadstar and BridgeWave determined rain fading rates for millimeter-wave signals in the service area and applied the combination of AdaptRate and AdaptPath technologies to deliver the highest-performance service possible even during heavy rainfall. The network employs the AdaptRate feature to switch from a full Gigabit Ethernet (GigE) data rate to a lower 100-Mb/s rate during heavy rains but, if needed, will engage the AdaptPath capability to switch data traffic to a secondary, rain-tolerant 40-Mb/s 5-GHz bridge. Once the rainfall has sufficiently eased, the system quickly reverts to the full GigE rate. Dougherty points out some hidden benefits of the BridgeWave technologies: "AdaptPath also reduces networking equipment costs and complexity since we don't have to provision redundant wireless paths using external Ethernet switches and routers." Earlier this year, Endwave Corp. (www.endwave.com) introduced a transmitter/receiver module pair for use from 71 to 86 GHz (E-band), nominally for broadband point-to-point radios. The two modules combine the company's MLMSTM (Multilithic Microsystems) and EpsilonTM Packaging technologies to achieve small size and low cost with outstanding performance at millimeter-wave frequencies. The MLMS technology is an alternative to monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs) using flip-chip devices and electromagnetic (EM) coupling methods to minimize circuit-board space and the number of wire bonds. The MLMS approach supports a mixture of technologies, such as GaAs, indium-phosphide (InP), and silicon-germanium (SiGe) active devices on the same MLMS chip for a true system-on-chip (SoC) design at frequencies to 100 GHz. The company supports its MLMS designs with a growing library of MLMS models, including frequency mixers, multipliers, voltage- variable attenuators (VVAs), filters, and Lange couplers. Epsilon Packaging replaces high-cost elements, such as machined housings, with lower-cost injection-molded metallized- plastic housing and metallized FR-4 circuit boards. The end result is a package with no machined metal parts that is mass producible with minimal weight and size. The packaging approach allows a combination of assembly techniques, such as surface-mount technology (SMT), chip-on-board, and bare chip-and-wire approaches, to be integrated into a single low-cost module capable of excellent performance at millimeter-wave frequencies. The transmit module typically provides +16 dBm output power with 15-dB conversion gain. It features an integrated power detector on the transmit output. The receiver features a noise figure of better than 9 dB and better than 25- dB RF-to-IF conversion gain. It has an input 1-dB compression point of -25 dBm. Separate models are available for the 71-to-71-GHz and 81-to-86-GHz bands. Endwave also offers an example of its millimeter-wave transceiver technology on its website, in the form of the PDH point-to-point transceiver for use at 57 to 59 GHz. The transceiver contains all the transmit, receiver, and source functions needed to assemble a full-featured time-division-duplex (TDD) digital point-to-point radio. Designed for unlicensed use, the half-duplex design employs a modulation bandwidth of 20 MHz with saturated transmit output power of +5 dBm across the frequency range. The receiver section, which operates with in phase (I) and quadrature (Q) intermediate frequency (IF) input range of 0.1 to 50.0 MHz, features a double-sideband (DSB) noise figure of 12 dB (for a 4-MHz bandwidth) and input 1-dB compression point of -20 dBm. The transceiver module measures just 51 X 51 X 8 mm. Another company making use of the FCC-approved frequency bands at 71 to 76 GHz, 81 to 86 GHz, and 92 to 95 GHz is GigaBeam (www.gigabeam.com). The company's WiFiber Wireless Fiber link product lines are delivering performance levels to 10 Gb/s at distances to 1 mile using millimeter-wave transceivers. The firm recently received an order for two 100-Mb/s WiFiber links from MetroNext, Inc., a wireless service provider serving Boston and other major metropolitan areas in the Northeast US. The links likely will be deployed as access links for businesses in the downtown Boston area. According to GigaBeam chairman and CEO, Lou Slaughter, "GigaBeam continues to solidify its competitive advantage in the US Northeast, one of the most densely populated and economically active regions in the world." Slaughter adds, "A few months ago, GigaBeam announced an order for a WiFiber link for use in a major university in Spain, marking the company's first penetration into the potential large market for millimeter- wave links in that country." Of course, not all millimeter-wave applications are for communications systems. Britain's Roke Manor Research (www.roke.co.uk), for example, recently launched their latest generation of miniature radar altimeters (MRAs) for use with autonomous unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for military, paramilitary, civil monitoring, and surveying tasks. Designed for RoHS compliance and meeting applicable military standards, the compact and light-weight designs feature an integrated antenna with radome, low altitude operation, highly precise height positioning, and low probability of intercept waveform (LPI) operation. In contrast to conventional radar altimeters, which are large, heavy, and suffer high power consumption, these compact MRAs are available in a millimeter-wave variant operating at 76 to 77 GHz with medium-to-low altitude above-ground-level (AGL) measurement precision of 0.02 m for heights of 0,2 to 100 m above ground. Along with the lower-frequency variant, which operates at 4.2 to 4.4 GHz, the MRAs are ideal for vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) applications as well as for geophysical, wave height monitoring, airborne mapping, towed airborne targets, traffic monitoring, and collision avoidance applications. The Irish firm Farran Technology Ltd. (www.farran.com) has a long history of innovation in millimeter-wave component and system design. Working with local academic institutions, such as the Tyndall Institute in Cork, the firm has developed a wide range of millimeter- wave products for space and military applications. The firm recently won a contract with OSIS (www.osis.biz) to supply a millimeter-wave sub-system designed to facilitate enhanced surveillance capabilities. Their customer has developed the Oil Spill Identification System (OSIS) for full-time online surveillance and measurement of oil spilled into the marine environment. Vessels and offshore structures are understood to be two of the major sources of the more than 500,000 tons of oil spilled into the marine environment every year. This surveillance capability makes it possible to closely monitor and control spills to a greater extent than ever before. The hope is that the new technology will allow for the enforcement of applicable environmental regulations and set the stage for future environmental initiatives to control marine oil spills. In the military area, long-time millimeter- wave technology supplier Millitech (www.millitech.com) recently received a $3.7 million contract from the US Army Communications-Electronics Research, Development, and Engineering Center (CERDEC) for the design and development of a next-generation Satellite Communications on the Move (SOTM) antenna system. The two-year contract includes the delivery of five prototype systems, with an option for a third year for support of the prototypes. The novel Active Quasioptic Array (AQA) antenna systems, which are designed for use on moving vehicles, will increase the military's communications capabilities. The patent-pending AQA antenna combines the best features of conventional and phased-array antenna technology to provide unprecedented performance at an affordable price. According to Kent Whitney, president and COO of Millitech, "The system is designed to supply crucial information to our soldiers in their vehicles, while moving at full speed over very rough terrain. It is one of the most critical technologies for the next generation of communication systems and has both military and commercial applications." The Millimeter-Wave Division of ELVA-1 (www.elva-1.com) has developed a 94-GHz frequency-modulated-continuous- wave (FMCW) radar front-end ideal for vehicle collision-warning and construction level-sensing applications. Based on the company's Impatt-diode-based active frequency multiplier (AFM), the FMCW module can be modified for use at frequencies from 20 to 150 GHz. For improved sensitivity and accuracy, the frequency sweep of the transmitter is linearized, with the linearizer being implemented as an open-loop system. Inclusion of the AFM technology allows the use of a low-cost voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) to ultimately generate the millimeter-wave frequencies. With about 200-mW transmit power and good receiver sensitivity, the FMCW radar module can be used effectively for distances of several hundred meters. On the component side, ARRA (www.arra.com) offers a wide range of passive microwave and millimeter-wave components including horns from 2.6 through 40 GHz. They are available with minimum gain of 15 dBi and as much as 18 dBi gain. The precisely machined aluminum horns, which are suitable for high-frequency receiving and transmitting applications, exhibit maximum VSWR of 1.25:1. Lower-frequency models are supplied with coaxial connectors while millimeter-wave models are shipped with waveguide flanges. In addition, the company offers several millimeter-wave crossguide couplers, including the WR-34 model 34-600 with coverage from 22 to 33 GHz and the WR-28 model 28-600 with a frequency range of 26.5 to 40.0 GHz. Both couplers are available with coupling of 20 to 60 dB and provide 15 dB directivity, maximum VSWR of 1.15:1, and maximum frequency sensitivity of 1.3 dB. Spacek Labs (www.spaceklabs.com) offers a wide range of components at millimeter- wave frequencies. The firm's model P34-1 low-noise mixer/preamplifier, for example, offers a 26-GHz bandwidth at Ka-band, with 2-GHzwide local oscillator (LO) and RF bandwidths handled by WR-28 waveguide. The multifunction component provides 25-dB typical RF-to-IF gain, with an IF band of 10 to 500 MHz and typical DSB noise figure of 2.5 dB. Recently, the company introduced the model AW- 8X frequency multiplier. The 8X unit translates inputs from 9.35 to 13.75 GHz into outputs from 75 to 110 GHz at 0 dBm or more output power. Dorado International (www.dorado-intl.com) provides passive millimeter- wave components for most waveguide bands, including attenuators, couplers, and phase shifters for 60-to-90-GHz E-band applications. Full-band 60-to- 90-GHz couplers can be specified with coupling values of 3, 6, 10, and 20 dB and as much as 40 dB directivity and VSWR of less than 1.20:1. Fixed and variable 60-to-90-GHz attenuators provide as much as 30 dB attenuation at millimeter wave frequencies.

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Darfur’s people are a complex mosaic of between 40 and 90 ethnic groups, some of ‘African’ origin (mostly settled farmers), some Arabs. All Darfurians are Muslim. The Arabs began arriving in the 14th century and established themselves as mainly nomadic cattle and camel herders. Peaceful coexistence has been the norm, with inevitable disputes over resources between fixed and migratory communities resolved through the mediation of local leaders. For much of its history, the division between ‘Arab’ and ‘African’ has been blurred at best, with so much intermarriage that all Darfurians can claim mixed ancestry. Identities have been defined in different ways at different times, based on race, speech, appearance or way of life. An Independent Sultanate At the heart of Darfur is an extinct volcano in a mountainous area called Jebel Marra. Around it the land is famously fertile, and it was here that the earliest known inhabitants of Darfur lived – the Daju. Very little is known about them. The recorded history of Darfur begins in the 14th century, when the Daju dynasty was superseded by the Tunjur, who brought Islam to the region. Darfur existed as an independent state for several hundred years. In the mid-17th century, the Keyra Fur Sultanate was established, and Darfur prospered. In its heyday in the 17th and 18th centuries the Fur Sultanate’s geographical location made it a thriving commercial hub, trading with the Mediterranean in slaves, ivory and ostrich feathers, raiding its neighbours and fighting wars of conquest in the surrounding region. Darfur under siege In the mid-19th century, Darfur’s sultan was defeated by notorious slave trader Zubayr Rahma, who was in turn subjugated by the Ottoman Empire. At the time, this included Egypt and what is now northern Sudan. The collapse of the Keyra dynasty plunged Darfur into lawlessness. Roaming bandits and local armies preyed on vulnerable communities, and Islamic ‘Mahdist’ forces fighting British colonial control of the region sought to incorporate Darfur into a much larger Islamic republic. A period of almost constant war followed, until 1899 when the Egyptians – now under British rule – recognized Ali Dinar, grandson of one of the Keyra sultans, as Sultan of Darfur. This marked a de facto return to independence, and Darfur lived in peace for a few years. Colonial ‘benign neglect’ Ali Dinar refused to submit to the wishes of either the French or the British, who were busy building their empires around his territory. Diplomatic friction turned into open warfare. Ali Dinar defied the British forces for six months, but was ambushed and killed, along with his two sons, in November 1916. In January 1917 Darfur was absorbed into the British Empire and became part of Sudan, making this the largest country in Africa. The only aim of Darfur’s new colonial rulers was to keep the peace. Entirely uninterested in the region’s development (or lack thereof), no investment was forthcoming. In stark contrast to the north of Sudan, by 1935 Darfur had only four schools, no maternity clinic, no railways or major roads outside the largest towns. Darfur has been treated as an unimportant backwater, a pawn in power games, by its successive rulers ever since. Independence brings war The British reluctantly but peacefully granted Sudan independence in 1956. The colonialists had kept North and South Sudan separate, developing the fertile lands around the Nile Valley in the North, whilst neglecting the South, East and Darfur to the west. They handed over political power directly to a minority of northern Arab élites who, in various groupings, have been in power ever since. This caused the South to mutiny in 1955, starting the first North-South war. It lasted until 1972 when peace was signed under President Nimeiry. But the Government continually flouted the peace agreement. This, combined with its shift towards imposing radical political Islam on an unwilling people, and the discovery of oil, reignited conflict in the South in 1983. Darfur, meanwhile, became embroiled in the various conflicts raging around it: not just internal wars by the centre over its marginalized populations – many of the soldiers who fought for the Government against the South were Darfurian recruits – but also regional struggles. The use of Darfur by Libya’s Colonel Qadafhi as a military base for his Islamist wars in Chad promoted Arab supremacism, inflamed ethnic tensions, flooded the region with weaponry and sparked the Arab-Fur war (1987-89), in which thousands were killed and hundreds of Fur villages burned. The people’s suffering was exacerbated by a devastating famine in the mid-1980s, during which the Government abandoned Darfurians to their fate. Bashir seizes power In 1989 the National Islamic Front (NIF), led by General Omar al-Bashir, seized power in Sudan from the democratically elected government of Sadiq al Mahdi, in a bloodless coup. The NIF revoked the constitution, banned opposition parties, unravelled steps towards peace and instead proclaimed jihad against the non-Muslim South, regularly using ethnic militias to do the fighting. Although depending on Muslim Darfur for political support, the NIF’s programme of ‘Arabization’ further marginalized the region’s ‘African’ population. The regime harboured several Islamic fundamentalist organizations, including providing a home for Osama bin Laden from 1991 until 1996, when the US forced his expulsion. Sudan was implicated in the June 1995 assassination attempt on Egyptian President Mubarak. Its support for terrorists and increasing international isolation culminated in a US cruise-missile attack on a Sudanese pharmaceutical factory in 1998, following terrorist bombings of the US embassies in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam. The Janjaweed: ‘counterinsurgency on the cheap’ Janjaweed fighters, with their philosophy of violent Arab supremacism, were first active in Darfur in the Arab-Fur war in the late 1980s. Recruited mainly from Arab nomadic tribes, demobilized soldiers and criminal elements, the word janjaweed means ‘hordes’ or ‘ruffians’, but also sounds like ‘devil on horseback’ in Arabic. The ruthlessly opportunistic Sudanese Government first armed, trained and deployed them against the Massalit people of Darfur in 1996-98. This was an established strategy by which the Government used ethnic militias to fight as proxy forces for them. It allowed the Government to fight local wars cheaply, and also to deny it was behind the conflict, despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary. The Comprehensive Peace Agreement When President George W Bush came to power in 2000, US policy shifted from isolationism to engagement with Sudan. After 11 September 2001 Bashir ‘fell into line’, started to co-operate with the US in their ‘war on terror’ and a peace process began in earnest in the South. After years of painstaking negotiations, and under substantial pressure from the US, in January 2005 a Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) was signed between the Government and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A), ending 21 years of bloody war which killed two million people, displaced another four million and razed southern Sudan to the ground. A surprisingly favourable deal for the South, the CPA included a power-sharing agreement leading up to a referendum on independence for the South in 2011, a 50-50 share of the profits from its lucrative oilfields, national elections in 2009, and 10,000 UN peacekeepers to oversee the agreement’s implementation. But the ‘comprehensive’ deal completely ignored Darfur, catalyzing the conflict that is currently engulfing the region. The rebels attack Rebellion had been brewing in marginalized, poverty-stricken Darfur for years. After decades in the political wilderness, being left out of the peace negotiations was the final straw. Inspired by the SPLA’s success, rebel attacks against Government targets became increasingly frequent as two main rebel groups emerged – the Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM). By early 2003 they had formed an alliance. Attacks on garrisons, and a joint attack in April on an airbase that reduced several Government planes and helicopters to ashes, were causing serious damage and running rings around the Sudanese army. Facing the prospect of its control over the entire country unravelling, in 2003 the Government decided to counterattack. Manipulating ethnic tensions that had flared up in Darfur around access to increasingly scarce land and water resources, they unleashed the Janjaweed to attack communities they claimed had links to the rebels. Julie Flint and Alex de Waal, Darfur: a Short History of a Long War, Zed Books, 2005; Ruth Iyob and Gilbert M. Khadiagala, Sudan: The Elusive Quest for Peace, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2006; Douglas H. Johnson, The Root Causes of Sudan’s Civil Wars, Indiana University Press, 2006; Gerard Prunier, Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide, Cornell University Press, 2007; www.wikipedia.org This first appeared in our award-winning magazine - to read more, subscribe from just £7

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Oregon Green Schools has several helpful tools that you can use to evaluate your school’s environmental performance, educate staff and students about your program, lesson plans and more! Use the following tools and links to help you start or improve your Green Schools program and find resources for teaching about resource conservation in the classroom. Do you need project ideas for your school’s green team? We’ve compiled over 125 ideas of projects in the areas of waste reduction, recycling, composting, water conservation, energy conservation, hazardous waste, green procurement, transportation and communication. If your school or school district is working towards becoming a Merit or Premier level school, you will need to adopt a resource conservation policy. Examples of policies that other Oregon schools have adapted can be adapted for your situation. Find the forms and a step-by-step guide to conducting school waste audits. Calculators and School Environmental Assessments– Use these tools to identify opportunities to save resources and money. – A list of lesson plans and activities is available to help you teach your students about resource conservation. – Download videos to teach your students about recycling and resource conservation. Green School Newsletter– Current and archived issues of our newsletter – Online listing of more than 300 short facts related to waste reduction and natural resources. Signs, Stickers and Clip Art – A variety of artwork depicting recycling, composting, waste prevention, and waste reduction produced by other state agencies and local governments available to use on your website, newsletters, posters, recycling signs, etc. There are stickers and signs for doing waste audits too. Kids’ Stuff Activity Book – A 16 page activity book for elementary and middle school students that focuses on resource conservation. Field Trip Guides – Many recycling facilities in the Portland metro-area and Salem welcome school and youth group field trips. Glossary of Solid Waste Terms – A comprehensive list of common solid waste terms. Educational Resources – Check out the huge variety of links to information about: - Energy and water conservation - Grants for gardening projects - On-line recycling activities for students - State and national environmental education groups - Naturescaping and school yard habitat projects. . . . . and more! Awards – Some local jurisdictions offer start-up and/or incentive grants or awards to schools for waste reduction , recycling and composting projects. Contact your regional coordinator to see what is available in your area.

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Depression and Your Health The mind and the body are intimately connected, and our overall health depends on both working well. This is most evident in depression: Research shows that people who suffer from clinical depression face a higher risk of contracting one of the stress-linked illnesses than the rest of the population. Your mind and body are intimately connected, and your overall health depends on both of them working well. This is most evident in depression: Research shows that people who suffer from clinical depression face a higher risk for contracting certain illnesses, according to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). One reason for this, the NIMH says, is that depression can lead to poor physical and mental functioning; a person with depression is less likely to follow a healthy lifestyle that prevents some diseases. Also, if a person with depression has a chronic medical condition that requires a certain diet or medication, the depression may make it harder for him or her to follow the treatment plan. Sometimes, developing a chronic condition or having a serious health problem can lead to depression. Having diabetes, for example, doubles the risk for depression, and the chances of becoming depressed increase as diabetes complications worsen, the NIMH says. People with heart disease also are more likely to suffer from depression, and people with depression are at greater risk for developing heart disease. In addition, people with heart disease who are depressed have an increased risk for death after a heart attack. Drugs used to treat chronic conditions, such as high blood pressure, can worsen or even trigger depression and other mood disorders, the NIMH says. People who are depressed also frequently suffer from headaches and stomach problems. How do you know if you have depression? Depression is more than a temporary attack of the blues. It is an illness that affects how you feel about yourself and how you think. Without treatment, the symptoms of depression can last for weeks or months, or even years, the NIMH says. Fortunately, depression can be treated and managed, often with a combination of antidepressant medications and therapy. According to the NIMH, these questions can help you be aware of the warning signs of clinical depression: Do you often or usually feel sad, anxious or "empty"? Do you sleep too little or too much? Has your appetite shrunk, and have you lost weight? Or do you have a bigger appetite, and have you gained weight? Have you lost interest in activities you once enjoyed? Are you restless or irritable? Do you have persistent physical symptoms, such as headaches, chronic pain or constipation, that don't respond to treatment? Do you have difficulty concentrating, remembering or making decisions? Do you often feel tired or lack energy? Do you feel guilty, hopeless or worthless? Do you have recurring thoughts of death or suicide? See your doctor if you answered yes to three or more of these questions and have felt this way for longer than two weeks, or if the symptoms interfere with your daily routine. Not everyone with depression has all of these symptoms. The symptoms also can vary in severity. If you have any of these symptoms, talk to your health care provider. Join the Conversation Like this article? Have a point of view to share? Let us know!

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|Tweet|Guiding Light A new kind of glass pane containing liquid crystal droplets can guide and manipulate beams of light. 25, 2003: The Information Age rides on beams of carefully controlled light. Because lasers form the arteries of modern communications networks, dexterous manipulation of light underpins the two definitive technologies of our times: telecommunications and the Internet. Now researchers at Harvard University have developed a new way of steering and manipulating light beams. Using droplets of liquid crystals--the same substance in laptop displays--the scientists can make a pane of glass that quickly switches from transparent to diffracting and back again. When the pane is transparent a laser beam passes straight through, but when the pane is diffracting, it splits the beam, bending it in several new directions. "Telecommunications could be one application, but at this point we're still looking at the basic properties of these droplets. Their potential is great, and it's hard to imagine all the ways engineers might use them," says David Weitz, Gordon McKay Professor of Applied Physics at Harvard University and lead scientist for the NASA-supported research. Beyond telecommunications, one could imagine this light-steering ability being useful in astronomy. For example, these liquid-crystal panes could be used in reverse to combine (rather than split) beams of light from multiple telescopes. Combining light from many telescopes, a technique called interferometery, is a good way to search for distant planets around other stars. Another application: a liquid crystal pane held in front of the mirror of a telescope could be used to "unwrinkle" light that has passed through Earth's turbulent atmosphere. Such adaptive optics telescopes could gain a crystal-clear view of the heavens from Earth's surface. The many uses of steering light are part of the reason that NASA recently decided to award Weitz and colleagues a grant for this research. In addition, NASA can provide a unique environment for experimenting with liquid crystals: low gravity. "We've already seen several exciting results from fluid physics experiments done in Earth orbit," says Brad Carpenter, lead scientist for NASA's Physical Sciences Research Division. "This latest project of Dr. Weitz, who has already completed some successful experiments on the International Space Station (ISS), was selected for funding with the vision of aiding advances in optical information technologies." All droplets are created equal Liquid crystals are a class of liquids whose molecules are more orderly than molecules in regular fluids. Because of this orderliness, when these liquids interact with light, they can affect the light like crystals do. Left: The droplets of liquid crystal in the Harvard group's experiments, like those shown here, are of equal size and arranged in a regular pattern. Image courtesy Harvard University. A technique invented by Weitz and his colleagues produces equal-sized droplets of liquid crystal, each about a dozen microns across (a micron is one thousandth of a millimeter). Because they're all the same size, packing the droplets together on a glass plate causes them to arrange themselves into a honeycomb It's this regular pattern that gives sheets of liquid crystal droplets their light-steering ability. Making droplets of liquid crystals is nothing new; the basic technology has been around since the mid-1980s. Today you can find such droplets in the window-walls of some executives' offices. With the flip of a switch, the office's transparent windows magically change to opaque walls somewhat like frosted glass. "The big difference between what we do and what has been done before is that older-style glass panes contain a random distribution of drops and drop sizes--tiny ones and big ones. They're not ordered at all," explains Darren Link, one of the scientists on the research team. Without any order in the drop size and spacing, these older liquid crystal systems simply scatter light in all directions--hence the frosted-glass effect. "In our case, because we make all the drops the same size, we're able to steer light in specific directions," Link says. Left: Light striking a surface after passing through the flat sheet of liquid crystal droplets doesn't appear as a single dot, but is split and bent to produce a patterns of dots. Image courtesy Harvard University. The molecules in a liquid crystal droplet are long and rod-shaped. An electric field can steer these rods (much as a magnetic field moves a compass needle) and so control how they guide rays of light passing through them. Steering light at will is useful enough, but Link suspects that the most interesting results will come from the next phase of their research. Exploring another dimension "Where I think the interesting new physics is going to be is in getting away from having a 2-D sheet and going into 3-dimensional ordered structures," Link says. "From now on our research will focus on doing this with real 3-D ordered structures using smaller particles." Link and colleagues aren't sure what they're going to find when they shine light through several stacked-up layers of these ordered droplets ... that's what's so exciting about doing it! It might split the light up into a rainbow, like a prism, or it might affect the light in a totally unexpected way. But first they need to find reliable ways to arrange the droplets into various 3-dimensional patterns. This is where low gravity comes in handy. Weightlessness greatly simplifies making 3-D structures from fluid droplets. The tiny droplets have a different density than the liquid in which they are suspended. On Earth they'll either float or sink, which greatly complicates arranging them into a pattern. In orbit, the lack of buoyancy allows droplets to remain nicely suspended, allowing researchers to explore many configurations that would be difficult or impossible to create on the ground. Above: 3-dimensional stacked layers of liquid crystal droplets could have some novel and useful effects on light that passes through them. Image courtesy NASA. Weitz says they intend to design a space-experiment and eventually fly it on the ISS. First, though, more research on the ground is needed to understand the basic physics of these droplets--how they respond to the applied electric field, and exactly how those responses affect the passing light. It's details such as these that could soon give researchers a new tool to use in their ever-expanding mastery of light. More detailed information -- a short paper offering a more technical explanation of the concept discussed in the article above Weitz's research group's home page -- the Experimental Soft Condensed Matter Group home page at Harvard University Liquid crystals and LCDs -- an explanation of what liquid crystals are and how they're used to make the LCD displays used in laptops and digital watches, from HowStuffWorks.com. crystals: a tutorial -- information about the history and physics of liquid crystals, from the Georgia Institute of A. Fernandez-Nieves, D.R. Link, D. Rudhardt, and D. A. Weitz, "Electrooptics of bipolar nematic liquid crystal droplets," preprint D. Rudhardt, A. Fernandez-Nieves, D.R. Link, and D. A. Weitz, "Phase switching of ordered arrays of liquid crystal emulsions," Applied Physics Letters, 82 2610 (2003).

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Consider the following excerpt from a letter written by Isaac Newton to Reverend Dr. Richard Bentley in 1692, in which he describes some of the implications of his Law of Gravitation… “To your second query I answer that the motions which the planets now have could not spring from any natural cause alone but were impressed by an intelligent agent. For since comets descend into the region of our planets and here move all manner of ways, going sometimes the same way with the planets, sometimes the contrary way, and sometimes in cross ways in planes inclined to the plane of the ecliptic at all kinds of angles, it’s plain that there is no natural cause which could determine all the planets both primary and secondary to move the same way and in the same plane without any considerable variation. This must have been the effect of counsel.” I’ve been thinking about this for a while, and I think it’s time to discuss my theory of intelligent falling. I was inspired to question the Newtonist dogma on “gravity” when I learned that science cannot explain the movement of three things at once. Sure, Newton’s “laws” can explain how two things move, but Newtonists can’t explain how a third object would affect that movement. Newtonism would be great if there were only two objects. But Newton cannot explain even this one object: The Pioneer Spacecraft. Newtonism would be great of it could explain the Pioneer anomaly. Of course Newtonists claim they can predict the motion of planets and such, but if they can’t predict the motion of three objects, it’s clear this is a lie. Afterward, they can explain why they were wrong, but close only counts in horeshoes and hand grenades. Did a Newtonist ever predict where a comet would come into existence? Newtonism would be great if they could explain where the planets come from. Newtonism would be great if they could tell were gravity comes from. Newtonism would be great if they knew what gravity was. There’s a lot of little “if”s in Newtonism, and a lot of debate about “gravity.” I think those little “if”s add up to one big IF: Intelligent Falling. IF holds that the motion of the planets and stars around the earth is too complex to be explained through natural processes alone. There must be a Pusher. If a person is just walking along and suddenly falls down, you expect that happened because he was pushed. I believe that angels push the planets around, and control the falling of objects toward one another. If this is true, there’s no reason to teach our children the unBiblical falsehood that the earth moves around the sun. If the Pusher wanted the sun to move, there’s no reason that it couldn’t. Newtonism is in crisis, and our children should be taught the controversy. If Newtonists can’t explain what gravity is, why not accept their “saint”‘s recantation above and acknowledge that Intelligent Falling is the only credible explanation for the universe.

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Scientists have for the first time succeeded in taking skin cells from patients with heart failure and transforming them into healthy, beating heart tissue that could one day be used to treat the condition. The researchers, based in Haifa, Israel, said there were still many years of testing and refining ahead. But the results meant they might eventually be able to reprogram patients’ cells to repair their own damaged hearts. “We have shown that it’s possible to take skin cells from an elderly patient with advanced heart failure and end up with his own beating cells in a laboratory dish that are healthy and young - the equivalent to the stage of his heart cells when he was just born,” said Lior Gepstein from the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, who led the work. The researchers, whose study was published in the European Heart Journal on Wednesday, said clinical trials of the technique could begin within 10 years. Heart failure is a debilitating condition in which the heart is unable to pump enough blood around the body. It has become more prevalent in recent decades as advances medical science mean many more people survive heart attacks. At the moment, people with severe heart failure have to rely on mechanical devices or hope for a transplant. Researchers have been studying stem cells from various sources for more than a decade, hoping to capitalize on their ability to transform into a wide variety of other kinds of cell to treat a range of health conditions. There are two main forms of stem cells - embryonic stem cells, which are harvested from embryos, and reprogrammed “human induced pluripotent stem cells” (hiPSCs), often originally from skin or blood. Gepstein’s team took skin cells from two men with heart failure - aged 51 and 61 - and transformed them by adding three genes and then a small molecule called valproic acid to the cell nucleus. They found that the resulting hiPSCs were able to differentiate to become heart muscle cells, or cardiomyocytes, just as effectively as hiPSCs that had been developed from healthy, young volunteers who acted as controls for the study. The team was then able to make the cardiomyocytes develop into heart muscle tissue, which they grew in a laboratory dish together with existing cardiac tissue. Within 24 to 48 hours the two types of tissue were beating together, they said. In a final step of the study, the new tissue was transplanted into healthy rat hearts and the researchers found it began to establish connections with cells in the host tissue. “We hope that hiPSCs derived cardiomyocytes will not be rejected following transplantation into the same patients from which they were derived,” Gepstein said. “Whether this will be the case or not is the focus of active investigation.” Experts in stem cell and cardiac medicine who were not involved in Gepstein’s work praised it but also said there was a lot to do before it had a chance of becoming an effective treatment. “This is an interesting paper, but very early and it’s really important for patients that the promise of such a technique is not over-sold,” said John Martin a professor of cardiovascular medicine at University College London. “The chances of translation are slim and if it does work it would take around 15 years to come to clinic.” Nicholas Mills, a consultant cardiologist at Edinburgh University said the technology needs to be refined before it could be used for patients with heart failure, but added: “These findings are encouraging and take us a step closer to … identifying an effective means of repairing the heart.”

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News: News Archives Science Magazine Prize Goes To Teaching Tool for Undergraduate Genomics Course When biology professor Susan Singer was a college student, her freshman science classes were held in huge lecture halls, where she and her classmates listened and took notes, preparing themselves for a weekly test. She said it was deadening. Luckily, Singer had experienced what it was like to do scientific research much earlier, in middle school and high school and even as a child, when her parents allowed her to graft the trees in their backyard. Wanting to replicate the kind of research exposure she encountered outside of her freshman science classes, Singer has developed a Web-based undergraduate teaching tool called Genomics Explorers, which is the winner of the Science Prize for Inquiry-Based Instruction (IBI). Science’s IBI Prize was developed to showcase outstanding materials, usable in a wide range of schools and settings, for teaching introductory science courses at the college level. The materials must be designed to encourage students’ natural curiosity about how the world works, rather than to deliver facts and principles about what scientists have already discovered. Organized as one free-standing “module,” the materials should offer real understanding of the nature of science, as well as provide an experience in generating and evaluating scientific evidence. Each month, Science publishes an essay by a recipient of the award, which explains the winning project. The essay about Genomics Explorers was published on 25 January. “We want to recognize innovators in science education, as well as the institutions that support them,” said Bruce Alberts, editor-in-chief of Science. “At the same time, this competition will promote those inquiry-based laboratory modules with the most potential to benefit science students and teachers. The publication of an essay in Science on each winning module will encourage more college teachers to use these outstanding resources, thereby promoting science literacy.” Singer started college as an engineering major, but she had always had a fascination with the study of education and decided to get a teaching credential while still an undergraduate. Because engineering wasn’t the best specialty for a K-12 teacher, she went back to the interest she had courted as a child when grafting trees in her backyard. “It was an excuse to come back to biology,” said Singer, who earned her undergraduate degree, a Master’s and a Ph.D. in biology at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Her specialties these days include investigating flowering in legumes and genomics problem-solving, and she is the Laurence McKinley Gould Professor in the biology and cognitive science departments at Carleton College. Also engaged in research on learning in genomics and deeply involved in the study of science education, Singer is currently on leave from Carleton and is serving as the director of the U.S. National Science Foundation undergraduate education division. As a genomics teaching tool, Genomics Explorers helps students make use of the huge opportunity that exists to explore and make discoveries using genomic data sets. Often the scope and scale of such data sets, not to mention the many ways in which the data can be approached, are overwhelming to students. Genomics Explorers, a Web site, offers students strategies and practical tools for approaching the data so that the students can get to and follow a biological line of inquiry that interests them. With some of the logistical methodology issues handled by the Web site, such how to conduct a gene expression analysis, class discussions are freed up for deeper questions about the research. Students as a class are able to reflect on the nature of doing research and the nature of data analysis. Students use the Genomics Explorer Web tool to develop new research project with “non-model” organisms such as the pale anemone. [From Wikimedia Commons] An important challenge that Genomics Explorers has overcome has been calibrating the degree to which students are guided through their research, so that they are able to connect with biological questions without the process becoming too rigidly mapped out. “Genomics Explorers is able to strike the fine balance between providing a learning structure, while still allowing students to be thinking on their own,” said Melissa McCartney, an associate editor at Science. The organisms focused on in classes using Genomics Explorers at Carleton and at Vassar College—the partridge pea (Chamaecrista fasciculata) and the pale anemone (Aiptasia pallida) respectively—are “non-model” organisms, which means they have not been studied or written about extensively. This allows students to actually make discoveries in their research. “What my students find is really novel,” Singer said. “There is the potential for doing really interesting work.” Previous to the implementation of Genomics Explorers, Singer said students found it difficult to select the scale at which they wanted to explore genomic data, hunting for a single, often poorly chosen gene and finding themselves inundated by irrelevant data. The question was how to allow them the possibility of doing real research while still allowing the students to follow their own fascinations and to cultivate an ownership of their research. As Singer points out, the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology stressed in a 2012 report that science, technology, engineering, and math students need to experience real research, not “cookbook” labs that simply walk them through steps to a known outcome, with no room for following their own curiosity or thinking up approaches of their own design. “The challenge in Genomics Explorers was getting risers between the steps to be the right height,” Singer said. Although Singer’s students sometimes panic at the open-endedness of the Genomics Explorers process, they begin to develop trust in their own ideas, she said. For instance, one group of students became interested in the possibility of increasing the biomass of the partridge pea and improving its value as a biofuel. Their research zoomed in on their interest, and was filtered to reflect that line of inquiry. “They owned it,” said Singer, adding that such “ownership” allows the students to engage their own creativity as they look at a research question. Singer hopes that winning the IBI prize and publishing an essay in Science about Genomics Explorers will allow other teachers to engage their students in similar ways. “What I hope most,” she said, “is that this encourages instructors to bring more authentic research experiences into their teaching laboratories.” 29 January 2013

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Science Fair Project Encyclopedia Populist Party (United States) The Populist Party was a short-lived political party in late 19th century in the United States. In some states, it was known as the People's Party. It flourished among western farmers, based largely on its opposition to the gold standard. Although the party did not remain a lasting feature of the political landscape, many of its positions have became adopted over the course of the following decades. The very term "populist" has since become a generic term in U.S. politics for politics which appeals to the common person in opposition to established interests. The Populist Party grew of the agrarian revolt that rose after the collapse of agriculture prices following the Panic of 1873. The Farmers' Alliance, formed in Lampasas, Texas in 1876, promoted collective economic action by farmers and achieved widespread popularity in the South and Great Plains. The Farmers' Alliance was ultimately unable to achieve its wider economic goal of collective economic action against brokers, railroads, and merchants, and many in the movement agitated for changes in national policy. By the late 1880s, the Alliance had developed a political agenda that called for regulation and reform in national politics, most notably an opposition to the gold standard to counter the deflation in agricultural prices. The drive to create a new political party out of the movement arose from the refusal of both Democrats and Republicans to take up and promote the policies advocated by the Alliance, notably in regard to the Populists' call for unlimited coinage of silver. The promotion of silver as legal tender was especially favored by farmers as a means of countering the deflation of agricultural prices and allowing credit to flow more easily through the rural banking system. The Populist Party was formed by members of the Alliance, in conjunction with the Knights of Labor, in 1889–1890. The movement reached its peak in 1892 when the party held a convention in Omaha, Nebraska and nominated candidates for the national election. The party's platform called for the abolition of national banks, a graduated income tax, direct election of Senators, civil service reform, and a working day of eight hours. In the 1892 Presidential election, James B. Weaver received 1,027,329 votes. Weaver carried four states (Colorado, Kansas, Idaho, and Nevada) and received electoral votes from Oregon and North Dakota as well. The party flourished most among farmers in the Southwest and Great Plains. Opposition to the gold standard was especially strong among western farmers, who viewed the inherent scarcity of gold (and its slow movement through the banking system) as an instrument of Eastern banking interests who could force mass bankruptcies among farmers in the west by instigating "credit crunches". Many western farmers rallied around the Populist banner in the belief that "easy money" not backed by a hard mineral standard would allow credit to flow more freely through rural regions. By 1896, the Democratic Party took up many of the Populist Party's causes and the party faded from the national political scene. Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan took up the Populist opposition to the gold standard in his famous Cross of gold speech. The nation nevertheless remained on the gold standard, a fact that some (but by no means all) economic historians blame for the banking crisis during the Great Depression. The Populist position was fully vindicated in 1973 when Richard Nixon withdrew the gold backing of the U.S. currency. Likewise, the Populist Party's call for direct election of Senators was realized in 1913 with the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment. The party's call for civil service reform became a part of the United States Progressive Party platform. The enduring appeal of the term "populist" has led to several modern attempts to form political parties using the label. In each none of the parties has any connection to its manifestation in the late 19th century. In 1984, the Populist Party name was revived by some extreme right activists including Willis Carto. It had no connection to the earlier Populist Party. The party's 1984 presidential nominee, Olympic medalist and ordained minister Bob Richards and running mate Maureen Salaman carried 66,324 votes. This party became the electoral vehicle for the right-wing Presidential campaigns of former Ku Klux Klan leader David Duke in 1988, and of former Green Beret officer Bo Gritz in 1992, but was defunct by 1996. Willis Carto and party chair Don Wassall were said to be rivals competing for control of the party, and supporters of each side blame the other for the party's collapse. In 2002, the Populist Party of America was formed on a national level in the United States. The Populist Party of America platform is to establish what they consider to be a Constitutional Democracy on a federal level. McMath, Robert C. Jr. 1993. American Populism: A Social History 1877-1898. New York: Hill and Wang; Farrar, Straus & Giroux. (ISBN 0809077965) Nugent, Walter T. K. 1962. The Tolerant Populists: Kansas Populism and Nativism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kazin, Michael. 1995. The Populist Persuasion: An American History. New York: Basic Books. (ISBN 0465037933) Stock, Catherine McNicol. 1996. Rural Radicals: Righteous Rage in the American Grain. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. (ISBN 0801432944) The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

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Altruistic Animals: Compatible With Evolution? The humanistic sociologist Auguste Comte coined the term “altruism,” derived from the Italian altrui, which means “other” (Rhode, 2005). Under Comte’s definition, altruism signified an unselfish regard for the welfare of others (Rhode, 2005). People are not entirely self-interested. If they were, then families would be nonexistent. Yet, 90 percent of Americans marry (Coltrane, 44:395). Modern instances of what we generally call altruism abound. For an example of obvious altruism on a grand scale, over $4.25 billion was raised for Hurricane Katrina-related relief and recovery (“Hurricane...,” 2006). The animal world also is filled with animals that appear to help other creatures. Eduardo Porter noted in The New York Times, “altruism isn’t an exclusively human trait. Vampire bats are pretty altruistic, too, regurgitating blood for members of the group that haven’t eaten. Sterile worker bees, which are incapable of conscious thought, let alone moral behavior, are about as altruistic as a living creature can be: they give their lives so their queen may reproduce” (2005). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy reveals: In numerous bird species, a breeding pair receives help in raising its young from other ‘helper’ birds, who protect the nest from predators and help to feed the fledglings. Vervet monkeys give alarm calls to warn fellow monkeys of the presence of predators, even though in so doing, they attract attention to themselves, increasing their personal chance of being attacked (Okasha, 2003). As we ask of all relevant features of scientific data, we ask of the phenomenon of altruism in the animal kingdom: Does it best fit the creation model or the evolution model? Evolutionists categorize altruism as a product of genetic determinism (i.e., genetics explain all behavior), while Christians believe that God instilled altruism as an instinct in animals and a psychological, moral force in humans (see Thompson, 2004, pp. 23-24; cf. Jackson, 1992). Of course, we are ignorant as to exactly what goes on inside the heads of animals and humans. We do not expect a dolphin to answer intelligibly when we ask, “Why did you help that other creature, even when it created the potential of danger to your own health?” Animal altruism troubled Charles Darwin, who popularized evolution in the 1800s. Darwin wrote that “[n]atural selection will never produce in a being anything injurious to itself, for natural selection acts solely by and for the good of each. No organ will be formed, as Paley has remarked, for the purpose of causing pain or for doing any injury to its possessor” (1859, p. 228). As Okasha well noted, “From a Darwinian viewpoint, the existence of altruism in nature is at first sight puzzling.... Natural selection leads us to expect animals to behave in ways that increase their own chances of survival and reproduction, not those of others” (2003). Indeed, traditional evolutionary theory has emphasized the individual, to the neglect of any social obligation. McFadden commented, “Altruism—helping others at our own expense—puzzled Charles Darwin, whose theory predicted that individuals should act selfishly to serve their self-interest. Why should wolves share their kill; or sparrows draw attention to themselves by issuing a warning call when they spot a hawk” (2004)? Major observed, “If a bird helps a breeding pair build its nest and feed its young, without breeding itself, then it would seem to be a loser in the struggle for life. While this individual is busy helping others, it is missing out on the opportunity to produce heirs of its own” (1999). How, then, do evolutionists account for altruism in animals? Evolutionists have suggested that natural selection involves “group selection,” whereby a member of a group of animals would do something for the biological benefit of its entire group. In this way, evolutionists argue, the fittest group will survive, and natural selection will have met its obligation. Of course, there are severe problems with natural selection (Thompson, n.d.; Thompson and Harrub, 2003, pp. 227-270). Problems with group selection theory further illustrate the flaws in natural selection as a mode of evolution. As evolutionist Bryan Appleyard observed, “[Group selection theory—CC] makes no sense in the context of the selfish gene because all the gene can possibly see is the survival of its own particular organism” (1998, p. 112, emp. added). The selfish gene is Dawkins’ notion, reflective of Darwin, that the individual gene will do whatever it takes to ensure that the individual in which they are stored produces additional copies of the gene (1989; cf. Thompson, 2004). Even if we were to admit that group selection occurs, however, it would not prove that genetic determinism is responsible for altruism in animals. Major explained: [Group selection theory—CC] does not explain how the gene for altruism can survive over the long term. If an individual carrying this mutation behaves unselfishly and, as a result, leaves fewer or no offspring, then the mutation will die out. Also, the group needs to discourage cheaters—individuals that take advantage of altruists to further their own selfish interests, and thus neutralize the benefits of altruism for the species as a whole (1999). By attempting to account for legitimate altruism by introducing a faulty hypothesis that maintains dependence on the genetically selfish individual, evolutionists have moved right back where they started. Dawkins (1989) proposed a solution to the problems with the group selection idea: “kin selection” (i.e., since close relations share genes, a gene may prompt its organism to help others who are closely related). The theory of kin selection is responsible for much of the development of sociobiological research. McFadden objected: “Altruism isn’t always restricted to kith and kin. When a female vervet monkey is attacked, non-relatives will often come to her aid. Studies show that the likelihood that a non-relative helps depends on how recently the distressed monkey groomed the helper” (2004). Even if we were to suppose that some animal altruism occurs due to some “kin selection” mechanism, evolutionists “still have a gaping hole in an attempt to explain altruism. If, for example, I help a blind man cross the street, it is plainly unlikely that I am being prompted to do this because he is a close relation and bears my genes. And the animal world is full of all sorts of elaborate forms of cooperation which extend far beyond the boundaries of mere relatedness” (Appleyard, 1998, p. 112). cheating still is possible. A mutation could arise that mimicked the identifying features of individuals that carried the gene for altruism. This introduces the need for some sort of policing strategy.... The problem now is that the difficulties have multiplied. The evolutionists sought to explain a highly complex social behavior in biological terms, and ended up having to explain other complex behaviors, such as cheating and policing (Major, 1999). Again, if evolutionists merely repackage selfishness and call it “altruism,” they fail to explain how real altruism fits in evolutionary theory. They may insist that altruism is only apparent. But such a notion is untenable, particularly in the wake of such a generous, altruistic outpouring of support to those devastated by Katrina. Evolutionists are forced to dichotomize aspects of beings, artificially separating the biological from the psychological/moral. The fact is, we differentiate between selfish human acts and altruistic acts, because we can identify altruism when we see it. Altruism is real, and even in the light of kin selection theory, remains biologically inexplicable. A more recent evolutionary explanation involves attributing even more psychological human qualities to biological features of animals that “help”: game theory. “Game theory seeks to make sense of competition by analyzing different moves in as clear a mathematical way as possible” (Appleyard, p. 111). When applied to animal altruism, game theory suggests that various organisms play an instinctive, mathematical “game” to determine what is best for the group. When some lions share a zebra corpse, for example, they are playing a sharing game that involves “subtleties of calculation and...a remarkable distillation of all the complexities in any confrontation” (p. 111). In short, game theory is the idea that organisms cooperate because it is beneficial (p. 112). Observe that reductionist, evolutionary game theorists again have reduced a discussion of altruism to an explanation of survival tactics. In order to prove that game theory accounts for the altruism exhibited in nature, evolutionists would be forced to prove that animals are capable of solving very complex mathematical equations about which advanced college students study regularly (see “Certificate...,” 2006). Such proof is—and will be—unavailable. Furthermore, evolutionists would need to explain why, on occasion, some members of a particular “kind” of animal help members of another “kind,” which would seem to be excluded from the “game.” For example, dogs occasionally “adopt” orphaned kittens (“Mother Dog...,” 2006). Game theory cannot explain why animals, with no prior training, occasionally appear to help humans. For example, a group of New Zealand swimmers had to depend on a group of dolphins, which formed a protective circle that kept a great white shark at bay (McFadden, 2004). Moreover, proof that all animals coexist by playing these types of “games” would fall woefully short of proving evolution and disproving the biblical creation account. The Creator endowed animals with instinctive dictates that allow them to live together. Having demonstrated that the major evolutionary explanations of altruism fail, we reach the conclusion that evolution logically implies that altruism, as an instinctive motivation in animals, or as a psychological/moral factor in humans, is imaginary (cf. Lipe, n.d.). However, we observe altruism in nature and in the clear teaching of the Bible (John 15:13; Philippians 2:2-4). Altruism embarrasses evolution, but makes perfect sense in light of the biblical creation account. Appleyard, Bryan (1998), Brave New Worlds: Staying Human in a Genetic Future (New York: Viking). “Certificate Program in Mathematical Modeling in Political Science and Economics,” (2006), University of Rochester, College Center for Academic Support, [On-line], URL: http://www.rochester.edu/College/CCAS/certificates/cert_mathmodel.html. Coltrane, Scott (2001), “Marketing the Marriage ‘Solution’: Misplaced Simplicity in the Politics of Fatherhood: 2001 Presidential Address to the Pacific Sociological Association,” Sociological Perspectives, 44:387-418, Winter. Darwin, Charles (1859), The Origin of Species (New York: Avanel, 1979 reprint). Dawkins, Richard (1989), The Selfish Gene (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press), second edition. “Hurricane Katrina One Year Later: Where Did the Money Go?” (2006), Charity Navigator, [On-line], URL: http://www.charitynavigator.org/index.cfm/bay/katrina.article/cpid/452.htm. Jackson, Wayne (1992), “The Blind Bookwriter,” [On-line], URL: http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/321. Lipe, David L. (no date), “The Foundations of Morality,” [On-line], URL: http://www.apologeticspress.org/rr/reprints/Foundations-of-Morality.pdf. Major, Trevor (1999), “Ethics and Darwinism [Part II],” [On-line], URL: http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/73. McFadden, Johnjoe (2004), “The Kindness of Animals,” The Hindu: On-line Edition of India’s National Newspaper, [On-line], URL: http://www.hindu.com/2004/12/14/stories/2004121401511000.htm. “Mother Dog Adopts Litter of Kittens” (2006), WNBC, [On-line], URL: http://www.wnbc.com/news/9927844/detail.html?rss=ny&psp=news#. Okasha, Samir (2003), “Biological Altruism,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, [On-line], URL: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/. Porter, Eduardo (2005), “Putting Charity Through the ‘What’s in It for Me?’ Test,” The New York Times, [On-line], URL: http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10814FF3B540C718C DDA90994DD404482. Rhode, Debora L. (2005), “Altruism and Hurricane Katrina: Lesson For and From the Public’s Response to Social Needs,” Stanford Center on Ethics, [On-line], URL: http://ethics.stanford.edu/newsletter/December%2005/Altruism.htm. Thompson, Bert (no date), “Neo-Darwinism: A Look at the Alleged Genetic Mechanism of Evolution,” [On-line], URL: http://www.apologeticspress.org/rr/reprints/NeoDarwinism.pdf. Thompson, Bert (2004), The Many Faces, and Causes, of Unbelief (Montgomery, AL: Apologetics Press), second edition. Thompson, Bert, and Brad Harrub (2003), Investigating Christian Evidences (Montgomery, AL: Apologetics Press).

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One of the most fascinating questions that occurs when contemplating the universe is whether there other life exists, equally or more intelligent than we. Are there alien eyes looking at our star or our galaxy and do these creatures ask the same cosmological questions we ask? Nobody knows, although the straightforward application of the Copernican Principle suggests that we cannot be unique in the universe. Is there other life in the universe? How can we begin to answer that question, in the absence of direct evidence to answer the question in the affirmative? One way is through something known as the Drake equation, named after the astronomer Frank Drake. It is not really an equation to be solved, so much as it is a way of systematizing the unknowns. Here is how it works. Let us say we wish to estimate the quantity N, the number of technological civilizations in the galaxy. Of the n stars in the galaxy, only some fraction   fp  of them will have planets. Only some average number of planets per star, (H), will be potentially habitable. Of the habitable planets, there is a fraction   fl  that will develop life. Now of the planets that develop life, how many will develop intelligent life? Use   fi  for that fraction. Only some fraction of intelligent species   ft  will develop technology. So given all these things, we can write N = n ×   fp  ×   H  ×   fl  ×   fi  ×   ft Some of these factors are easier to estimate than others. There are about 100 billion stars in the Milky Way so we will use that for n. There now seems to be some direct evidence for planets around other stars, but as yet we still don't know what fraction of stars would have planets. If we are optimistic, then we would take a fraction near one, essentially saying that all stars have planets. What number of planets per star would be habitable? The planets would have to be located at a distance from their star that is neither too hot nor too cold. In our solar system there are three that are potentially habitable, Venus, Mars, and the Earth. Some stars would support fewer, or possibly no, habitable planets. Let's say that, on average, only one in 10 stars with planets has one planet that could support life. What have we got so far? N = 100,000,000,000 × 1 × 0.1 ×   fl  ×   fi  ×   ft This still leaves a lot of potentially life-bearing planets! The next three fractions are the especially tricky ones. If life can develop, does it? Opinions differ widely on this topic. This is where the recent Life on Mars issue has some application. If this development holds up, then life developed on both Mars and the Earth and it becomes much more problematic to say that life is incredibly difficult to get started on any given planet. If you believe life is inevitable, given habitable conditions, then make   fl  =1. Now, if life forms, does it become intelligent? A difficult question. Life has been around on Earth for billions of years and we (modern humans) came on the scene only in the last 100,000 or so years. And any life on Mars that may have once existed (if it did) died out completely. For purposes of an estimate, let's take the ratio of 100,000 years of humans to 1 billion years of life, giving us 1 in 10,000 planets with life that develop intelligence. Does intelligent life inevitably develop technology? Good arguments can be made either way. There doesn't seem to be anything particularly inevitable about humanity's rise to technological prowess. Although it happened rapidly once it got going, did it have to happen? Could an intelligent creature stay as a hunter/gatherer or simple tool-user for the entire length of its existence? Who knows? Let's adopt the attitude that intelligence necessarily leads to technology and say that   ft  = 1. So we have N = 100,000,000,000 × 1 × 0.1 × 1 × 0.0001 × 1 = 1,000,000 One million planets with technologies! OK, we stacked the deck by choosing all the optimistic numbers. Go back and put in some numbers of your own. You only have to insert one pessimistic number to drop the number of planets in the Milky Way down to around 1, which would be the Earth. For example, humanity has been technological for only 100 out of its 100,000 years of existence. If you find the thought of a low number of life-bearing planets depressing, that we might be alone in the Milky Way, bear in mind that there are more galaxies in the visible universe, than there are stars in our galaxy. So if there were only one life bearing planet in each galaxy there would still be trillions of life bearing planets. But we will never communicate with or visit other galaxies. And how likely are life-bearing planets that can lead to intelligent life? Do they require a large moon, such as the Earth has? Such double planets may well be rare, particularly if the Moon formed as the result of a huge impact early in the history of the solar system. Does intelligent life require dry land as well as oceans? What are the odds that the Earth would end up with both oceans and dry land (as opposed to all oceans or all dry land)? We don't really know, but once you start thinking about it, things become rather tricky quite rapidly. So who knows? But it does tend to make you want treat our planet and its unique inhabitants with some respect.

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Simulating dynamic crop growth with an adapted land surface model – JULES-SUCROS: Model development and validation The increasing demand for ecosystem services, in conjunction with climate change, is expected to significantly alter terrestrial ecosystems. In order to evaluate the sustainability of land and water resources, there is a need for a better understanding of the relationships between crop production, land surface characteristics and the energy and water cycles. These relationships are analysed using the Joint UK Land Environment Simulator (JULES). JULES includes the full hydrological cycle and vegetation effects on the energy, water, and carbon fluxes. However, this model currently only simulates land surface processes in natural ecosystems. An adapted version of JULES for agricultural ecosystems, called JULES-SUCROS has therefore been developed. In addition to overall model improvements, JULES-SUCROS includes a dynamic crop growth structure that fully fits within and builds upon the biogeochemical modelling framework for natural vegetation. Specific agro-ecosystem features such as the development of yield-bearing organs and the phenological cycle from sowing till harvest have been included in the model. This paper describes the structure of JULES-SUCROS and evaluates the fluxes simulated with this model against FLUXNET measurements at 6 European sites. We show that JULES-SUCROS significantly improves the correlation between simulated and observed fluxes over cropland and captures well the spatial and temporal variability of the growth conditions in Europe. Simulations with JULES-SUCROS highlight the importance of vegetation structure and phenology, and the impact they have on land–atmosphere interactions. ⶠThe model JULES helps to understand land–surface interactions. ⶠJULES however only simulates land–surface processes in natural ecosystems. ⶠJULES-SUCROS has been developed and validated for agricultural ecosystems. ⶠJULES-SUCROS improves the accuracy of simulations over cropland in Europe. ⶠJULES-SUCROS captures well spatial and temporal variability.

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Shirin Ebadi - Fast Facts Here is a look at the life of Shirin Ebadi, the first Muslim woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize. Personal: Birth date: 1947 Birth place: Hamedan, Iran Father: Muhammad Ali Ebadi, law professor and lawyer Mother: Minu Yamini Marriage: Javad Tavassolian (1975-present) Children: Nargess (female), Negar (female) Education: University of Tehran, law degree, 1969; University of Tehran, doctorate, 1971 Other Facts: Is the first Iranian to win the Nobel Peace Prize. Is a campaigner for women's and children's rights and has published numerous books on the subject. Worked to try to change child custody laws in Iran after 9-year-old Arian Golshani was beaten to death by her father and step-mother. Golshani's mother was not allowed to have custody of her due to Iranian laws that favor men over women. Timeline: March 1969 - The first and only female judge in Iran. 1975-1979 - Serves as president of the city court of Tehran. 1979 - Is forced to step down as a judge after the Islamic Revolution. May 1997 - Plays a key role in the landslide presidential election of the reformist Mohamad Khatami. 1999, 2000 - Represents families of writers and intellectuals killed. 1999 - Works to expose conspirators behind an attack by pro-clergy assailants on students at Tehran University. 2000 - Spends about three weeks in jail after a closed trial. Ebadi is given a suspended sentence and is banned from working as a lawyer for five years. 2001 - Wins the Rafto Prize in recognition of her sustained fight, over many years, for human rights and democracy in Iran. 2003 - Wins the Nobel Peace Prize for her work fighting for democracy and the rights of women and children. 2004 - Comes together with other female Nobel Peace Prize winners at the time, Wangari Maathai and Jody Williams, to work on a plan for empowering women worldwide in the fight against injustice, violence and inequality. The plan becomes the Nobel Women's Initiative. 2006 - Publishes a memoir called Iran Awakening: One Woman's Journey to Reclaim Her Life and Country. 2007 - Represents imprisoned American scholar Haleh Esfandiari, who was arrested on charges of threatening national security. April 2008 - Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad orders police protection for Ebadi after she receives death threats. June 6, 2008 - Talks about her new book, Refugee Rights In Iran, in London. December 21, 2008 - Ebadi says that Iranian security forces raided and shut down her offices in Tehran. January 1, 2009 - Protesters attack Ebadi's home and office, spraying graffiti and shouting that she supports Israel. June 2009 - Ebadi leaves Iran the day before presidential elections and does not return. November 2009 - Iranian government confiscates the Nobel medal Ebadi was awarded in 2003 and freezes her bank accounts. 2011 - Publishes a new book called The Golden Cage: Three Brothers, Three Choices, One Destiny. April 2012 - Is a panelist at the 12th World Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates. Copyright 2013 by CNN NewSource. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.

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(1) A generic term for an extremely thin flexible display that can be rolled up. There are several technologies in the works, and this type of display is expected to become mainstream by 2015.| This OLED display screen unrolled out of a pen may seem far fetched, but such products are expected to be commercialized in a few years (see (2) A paper-thin display technology that uses charged black and white elements oriented toward the viewer when a charge is applied and which retain their formation without power. The first electronic paper was developed at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center (www.parc.com) in the 1970s. It used a thin sheet of Xerox Gyricon plastic, containing millions of charged beads with black and white hemispheres. When the paper was fed through a "printer," a voltage pattern was applied, and the beads were oriented toward their black or white side, or half way for gray. Although the Gyricon Media Inc. subsidiary was created to develop the technology, it never worked well enough to become a product. In the 1990s, another electronic paper technology was developed at MIT Media Labs that placed the black and white elements inside a microcapsule. E Ink Corporation was created in 1997 to further develop and market the method, and it succeeded (see E Ink). Nick Sheridan, who invented the electronic paper at PARC, and Fereshteh Lesani show the first roll of paper produced by 3M. (Image courtesy of Palo Alto Research Center.) In 2008, Epson demonstrated a super-high-resolution prototype display using E Ink technology. At 385 dpi, this 13.4" display provides an outstanding 3104 x 4128 pixel resolution. (Image courtesy of Seiko Epson Corporation.)

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A student of mine quoted something in reference to a famous symbol on Ryoanji Temple which basically means, "I only know what is eough." He said the symbol was based on the last teaching of the Buddha before he died. He quoted that teaching as, “You Bhikku! If you want to escape from suffering, you have to comprehend the realization of enough. The basis of realizing enough is comfort and peace. The one who realizes enough would be comfortable even if he slept on the ground. The one who does not realize enough would be uncomfortable even if he were in palace. The one who does not realize enough would be poor even if he were rich. The one who realizes enough would be rich even if he were poor. That is called realizing enough.” Any ideas on which sutra this quotation may have come from? I had guessed the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, but I'm not sure this is so.

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It sounds like science fiction, but the possibility of protecting buildings and other structures from damaging earthquakes via "invisibility cloaks" could be very real. The idea is to surround the structure with a series of rubber cylinders that act as a barrier or cloak against seismic waves. In a paper published last week, a team from the University of Manchester's School of Mathematics suggested specially treated rubber cylinders of synthetic metamateral, could be placed in the ground surrounding critical structures. This material would absorb and convert the seismic waves into different kinds of waves that would then dissipate quickly before crippling a building. The cloaking effect is similar to the techniques used to make objects invisible by scattering the waves of light around them. In practice, the building isn't exactly invisible, but is protected by the barrier that absorbs the seismic waves and converts them into sound and heat energy. According to a statement, professor William Parnell noted, "Five or six years ago scientists started with light waves, and in the last few years we have started to consider other wave-types, most importantly perhaps sound and elastic waves. The real problem with the latter is that it is normally impossible to use naturally available materials as cloaks We showed theoretically that pre-stressing a naturally available material — rubber — leads to a cloaking effect from a specific type of elastic wave." Fortunately rubber is fairly readily available, though it doesn't appear that entire cities or towns could be protected by a giant cloak. At least not yet. The team suggests that the technology would be best used for isolated or strategically important buildings — it's not clear whether this is because it is not cost effective or whether the technology isn't as successful on a large scale. Should the theory be put into practice knowing that critical buildings such as dams, or nuclear and power plants could be protected should give people a marginal sigh of relief. With these kinds of structures, a miss is as good as a mile.

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What is Triple DES? 3DES (also “Triple DES”) is an open encryption standard that offers strong encryption at 112-bit and 168-bit strengths. 3DES is a symmetric encryption algorithm often used today to secure data in motion in both SSH and SSL/TLS. (After asymmetric key exchange is used perform the handshake in a SSH or SSL/TLS sessions, data is actually transmitted using a symmetric algorithm such as 3DES.) 3DES is also often used today to secure data at rest in SMIME, PGP, AS2, strong Zip encryption and many vendor-specific implementations. (After asymmetric key exchange is used to unlock a key on data at rest, data is actually read or written using a symmetric algorithm such as 3DES.) NIST‘s AES competition was held to find a faster and stronger replacement for 3DES. However, 3DES has not yet been phased out and is expected to remain approved through 2030 for sensitive government information. (Only the 168-bit version is currently allowed; permitted use of the 112-bit version ceased January 1, 2011.) NIST validates specific implementations of 3DES under FIPS 140-2, and several hundred unique implementations have now been validated under that program. The 3DES algorithm itself is specified in FIPS 46-3. See the Wikipedia entry for 3DES if you are interested in the technical mechanics behind 3DES. BEST PRACTICE: All modern file transfer clients and file transfer servers should support FIPS-valided AES, FIPS-validated 3DES or both. (AES is faster, may have more longevity and offers higher bit rates; 3DES offers better backwards compatibility.)

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Evaluating Tagging Methods and Movement Patterns of Round Gobies The round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) is an invasive fish species introduced in the St. Clair River in 1990 and is now found throughout the Great Lakes basin. Information on round goby movement and behavior is needed to understand their potential impact on the Great Lakes. Research on potential tagging methods and movement of round gobies is scant. We explored the use of marking round gobies with passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags in order to determine the effects of tagging on growth and mortality. In general, we found that the presence of a tag in the fish had no strong effect on growth or mortality. We also conducted a study on the movement patterns of round gobies in Muskegon Lake. Using PIT tagged fish we followed 48 round gobies enclosed in a 20x20-m block net for 22 days. Our goal was to determine the movement patterns of the gobies within the block net and examine the effects of various factors on these patterns. However, during the course the study, we found that the equipment used was not optimal for use with round gobies. Due to a high escape rate and low detection rate of fish, no conclusions could be surmised on round goby movement. Overall, we determined that although PIT tags do not strongly affect the growth or mortality of round gobies, the equipment available currently seems to be inadequate for tracking round gobies in shallow-water, lake habitats. Faculty Mentor: Carl Ruetz Page last modified July 14, 2009

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FRIDAY, Feb. 26 (HealthDay News) -- Cutting off the flow of blood to the heart by repeatedly inflating a blood pressure cuff appears to reduce the amount of tissue damaged during a heart attack, a new Danish study shows. In a study of 142 patients being rushed to a hospital for treatment of severe heart attacks, the amount of heart tissue saved for those who got the treatment, called induced ischemia, was 30 percent greater than for those who didn't, according to a report in the Feb. 27 issue of The Lancet. "For patients being transported to the hospital for acute myocardial infarction [heart attack], we inflated the blood pressure cuff for five minutes, relaxed it and repeated it four times," said study author Dr. Hans Erik Botker, a professor of cardiology at Aarhus University Hospital in Skejby. While the initial results appear promising, induced ischemia is not being used routinely, Botker said. "We have demonstrated cardioprotection by decrease of the infarct [damaged heart muscle]," he explained. "But this is a surrogate marker. The question is whether it translates into clinical benefit for the patient. We have shown improvement during hospitalization, but it was not sustained for more than 30 days. Now, we need to follow more patients for longer times to clarify whether there is clinical benefit." The induced ischemia trial is the latest in a long series of studies, first in animals and now in humans, which started with the observation that brief stoppages of blood flow can improve the ability of an organ to withstand stress, Botker said. He and his colleagues have been working with the technique since 2002, with animal experiments followed by trials in people undergoing bypass surgery and now the heart attack trial. More studies are needed to determine whether the procedure reduces the incidence of congestive heart failure and death, Botker said. "To be honest, we need these clinical endpoints," he said. "To show that the therapy translates into clinical benefit, that is the next step." Most of the work on induced ischemia is being done in Europe. In the United States, a group led by Jacob Vinten-Johansen, a professor of cardiothoracic surgery at Emory University in Atlanta, has been trying a variation on the theme, in which blood flow is interrupted by inflating the balloon on a catheter, the thin wire inserted for the artery-opening procedure called angioplasty. "We were the first to try it, in 2003," Vinten-Johansen said. "We did a series of pilot studies simulating models of myocardial infarction. We did find it beneficial and went through the litany of what would be rational and effective. Essentially, in a nutshell, a little bit of ischemia can be helpful and a little bit of reperfusion can be helpful." The beauty of the technique is its simplicity, Vinten-Johansen said, but there are complexities within the simplicity. While one small human trial is under way at Emory, "we still are looking at preclinical work, what makes it tick, what are the mechanisms," he said. "We want to answer some questions about why this thing is doing what it is doing." So far, there have been only small human trials of induced ischemia, generally in single medical centers in Europe, Vinten-Johansen said. "The U.S. cardiology community is a bit slower to embrace these things, and the regulatory situation is better in Europe," he explained. U.S. regulations require signing of a consent form for such an experimental procedure, "and that is difficult when the patient is in an ambulance coming into the hospital," said Dr. Ajay J. Kirtane, an interventional cardiologist at New York-Presbyterian Hospital/Columbia Medical Center. Caution about the technique is advisable because "particularly for patients with acute heart attacks, many interventions have shown promise in single-center trials but have not had the same effect in multi-center trials," Kirtane said. But induced ischemia does have appeal, he said. "If you can consistently have the same kind of outcome these doctors have observed, that is pretty exciting," Kirtane said. A report in the Feb. 26 online edition of The Lancet described a study led by British researchers that found that surgery to remove blockages in the carotid artery, the main blood vessel to the brain, is safer and better at preventing a stroke than implanting a stent, a thin metal tube, to improve blood flow. Current heart attack treatments are described by the American Heart Association.

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The Albatros D.XII was one of a series of unsuccessful Albatros fighter designs produced during 1918. It was similar to the D.XI, with a flat sided fuselage, unequal span wings with a shorter wing span on the lower wing and was about the same size and weight as the D.XI. The D.XI used I struts to connect the wings and another set of struts to connect the bottom of the struts to the top of the fuselage. The D.XII reverted to a more conventional layout, with a pair of struts connecting the wings supported by wire bracing. Two prototypes were built. The first was powered by a 180hp Mercedes D.IIIa engine. It made its first flight in March 1918 and entered the second D class contest of May-June 1918. The second prototype was powered by a 185hp BMW IIIa engine. It made its first flight in April 1918 and entered the third D class contest in October 1918. One of the prototypes was given a Bohme undercarriage (with compressed-air shock absorbers) in April 1918. The D.XII wasn't particularly fast and the type didn't enter production. Engine: Mercedes D.IIIa Span: 26ft 10 7/8in Length: 18ft 11 3/4in Height: 9ft 2 1/4in Empty weight: 1,276lb Loaded weight: 1,672lb Max speed: 112mph Climb Rate: 54 minutes to 26,240ft Endurance: 1 hr Armament: Two Spandau machine guns ||Save this on Delicious| Help - F.A.Q. - Contact Us - Search - Recent - About Us - Subscribe in a reader |Subscribe to History of War| |Browse Archives at groups.google.co.uk|

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The Immigration History Research Center is home to thousands of feet of archival records that illuminate the immigrant experience, past and present. While these records are available to students and teachers for research in the University of Minnesota’s Andersen Library, exploring the archive from afar is as simple as connecting to the internet. The IHRC’s collection of digitized archival material provides a plethora of resources suitable for a variety of purposes, including the creation of curriculum for K-12 educators interested in migration history. What were characteristics of the immigrant experience? How did immigrants and refugees adjust to their new lives in the United States? Inversely, how did American citizens born in the United States react to the increased diversification of their communities, and learn to live with individuals from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds? Minnesota K-12 Academic Standards in Social Studies expect students of all grade levels to consider how immigrants and citizens alike participate in the civic lives of their communities, and to understand the steps that immigrants take to become United States citizens. Incorporating digitized archival material into lesson plans will provide opportunities for students to engage these questions, and prompt young people to begin considering the many types of common experiences that bring together people from all corners of the globe. In the pages that follow, IHRC staff members have identified digitized images from the collections of the Ukrainian Folk Ballet of the Twin Cities; Immigration and Refugee Services of America; and the International Institute. Founded in 1919, the International Institute was established to provide various services for migrants who recently arrived to the United States. With branches in Minneapolis/Saint Paul, St. Louis, San Francisco, and other major U.S. cities, the International Institute continues to address the needs of the immigrants and refugees who settle in the United States. The images have been organized thematically in order to initiate student discussion related to Minnesota K-12 Academic Standards and Benchmarks that address the study of migration. By incorporating these archival records into lesson plans, students will be able to think critically about the immigrant experience. Furthermore, working directly with primary sources will enable students to practice and develop research skills that will become increasingly important as they progress in their studies. English language class To discover more digital records for use in K-12 lesson plans, visit the IHRC’s portal for digital resources via the University of Minnesota’s UMedia Archive:http://ihrc.umn.edu/research/digitalsources.php Click here for additional resources. Back to the Spotlight on Selected Sources index page Back to all finding aids in IHRC VITRAGE.

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|Facts & Figures| President: Lt. Gen. Thein Sein (2011) Vice President: Vice President Sai Mouk Kham (2011) Land area: 253,954 sq mi (657,741 sq km); total area: 261,969 q mi (678,500 sq km) Population (2012 est.): 54,584,650 (growth rate: 1.07%); birth rate: 19.11/1000; infant mortality rate: 47.74/1000; life expectancy: 65.24; density per sq km: 72 Capital and largest city (2009 est.): Rangoon (Yangon), 4,259,000 cities: Mandalay, 1,009,000; Nay Pyi Taw 992,000 More Facts & Figures Slightly smaller than Texas, Myanmar occupies the Thailand/Cambodia portion of the Indochinese peninsula. India lies to the northwest and China to the northeast. Bangladesh, Laos, and Thailand are also neighbors. The Bay of Bengal touches the southwest coast. The fertile delta of the Irrawaddy River in the south contains a network of interconnecting canals and nine principal river mouths. The ethnic origins of modern Myanmar (known historically as Burma) are a mixture of Indo-Aryans, who began pushing into the area around 700 , and the Mongolian invaders under Kublai Khan who penetrated the region in the 13th century. Anawrahta (1044–1077) was the first great unifier of Myanmar. In 1612, the British East India Company sent agents to Burma, but the Burmese doggedly resisted efforts of British, Dutch, and Portuguese traders to establish posts along the Bay of Bengal. Through the Anglo-Burmese War in 1824–1826 and two subsequent wars, the British East India Company expanded to the whole of Burma. By 1886, Burma was annexed to India, then became a separate colony in 1937. 24 X 7 ||24 x 7 Tutor Availability ||Unlimited Online Tutoring

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James Clerk Maxwell Maxwell, James Clerk (klärk) [key], 1831–79, great Scottish physicist. After a brilliant career at Edinburgh and Cambridge, where he won early recognition with mathematical papers, he was professor at Marischal College, Aberdeen (1856–60), and at King's College, London (1860–65). In 1871 he was appointed first professor of experimental physics at Cambridge, where he directed the organization of the Cavendish Laboratory. He is known especially for his work in electricity and magnetism, summarized in A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (1873). Basing his own study and research on that of Faraday, he developed the theory of the electromagnetic field on a mathematical basis and made possible a much greater understanding of the phenomena in this field. He was led to the conclusion that electric and magnetic energy travel in transverse waves that propagate at a speed equal to that of light; light is thus only one type of electromagnetic radiation. Maxwell's electromagnetic theory occupies a position in classical physics comparable to Newton's work on mechanics. One of his early papers, "On the Stability of Motion of Saturn's Rings" (1859), was especially important and foreshadowed his later investigations of heat and the kinetic theory of gases. He is also known for his studies of color (which led to his invention of the color disk named for him), and color blindness. In addition to his papers in these fields, he wrote a classic elementary text in dynamics, Matter and Motion (1876). The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. More on James Clerk Maxwell from Infoplease: See more Encyclopedia articles on: Physics: Biographies

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Launch of the first Dugong Status Report and Action Plan 13 February 2002 | News story Cartagena, Colombia 13.02.02. IUCN's Director General, Achim Steiner, and Dr. Klaus Töpfer, Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) launched a joint publication, Dugong: Status Report and Action Plans for Countries and Territories, during the seventh special session of UNEP's Governing Council in Columbia yesterday. Steiner said that the report provides a practical example of global collaboration on environmental issues as also shown by the current Global Ministerial Environmental Forum convening in Cartagena this week. The report, compiled by Helene Marsh, a member of the IUCN/SSC Sirenia Specialist Group has been several years in development and is the first ever global study of the enigmatic "sea cow". The publication presents a global overview of the status of the dugong and its management in the many countries that make up its range. It is hoped the report will help individual countries develop their own, more detailed conservation plans for the species. "IUCN is proud to be part of this important collaboration. An enormous amount of work has gone into this publication by our Species Survival Commission and we are extremely pleased that UNEP is making the information and recommendations available to global audiences via the Internet," said Steiner during a press conference. The report will be printed in English and French. Töpfer said that IUCN is one of the most important international environmental organisations, providing a platform for governments and NGOs to meet, and being supported by a large scientist network. "Status Reports and Action Plans are critical in alerting the global community to the plight of our species - the challenge is to ensure that the recommendations are quickly implemented to reverse the fortunes of dugong populations," said Steiner. The dugong, the only herbivorous mammal that is strictly marine, is long-lived and reproduces slowly. It relies on seagrasses of coastal habitats which are often under pressure from human activities. Dugongs are also impacted by pollution, disease, hunting, and incidental drowning in fishing nets. The species is listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The full publication is available on the UNEP website at http://www.unep.org/dewa/reports/dugongreport.asp A list of all SSC species Action Plans is available here.

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Clouds May Hold Key to Why Early Earth Didn’t Freeze Over A paradox about the climate of the early Earth that has been plaguing scientists for nearly 50 years may have a new solution. The so-called 'young' sun paradox — first proposed by Carl Sagan and his colleague George Mullen in 1972 — refers to the fact that the Earth had liquid oceans for the first half of its more than 4-billion-year existence despite the fact that the sun was likely only 70 percent as bright in its youth as it is now. A lower solar luminosity should have left Earth's oceans frozen over, but there is ample evidence in the Earth's geological record that there was liquid water — and life — on the planet at the time. Over the past few decades, scientists have proposed several possible mechanisms that may have kept the Earth toasty enough to keep water from freezing during our planet's early history – a period of time called the Archaean. But just when scientists think they have the paradox solved, other researchers come up with alternate explanations or reasons why a previous proposal doesn't work. "It keeps resurfacing," said atmospheric scientist Jim Kasting of Penn State University, who put forward his own explanation for the young sun paradox in 1980s and '90s. That explanation involved a greenhouse gas effect that would have kept the planet warm — similar to the human-driven effect that is warming the Earth today. The early greenhouse, first proposed by other scientists in the 1970s, would have been on a much larger scale than current climate warming, with theoretical calculations suggesting that about 30 percent of the Earth's atmosphere at the time consisted of carbon dioxide. For comparison, today, Earth's atmosphere is about 0.038 percent carbon dioxide. A powerful greenhouse effect on the early Earth is "the obvious solution" to the paradox, said Minik Rosing of the University of Copenhagen in Denmark. Rosing and his colleagues have offered up a new explanation for the seeming paradox that is detailed in the April 1 issue of the journal Nature. Carbon dioxide constraints To see what carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations might have actually been in the Archaean, Rosing and his team analyzed samples of 3.8-billion-year-old mountain rock from the world's oldest sedimentary rock, called Isua, in western Greenland. The samples contain features called banded iron formations (BIFs) that formed in abundance when the Earth was young, but not since. These BIFs contain certain iron-rich minerals that give clues as to the atmospheric environment in which they formed. "The analyses of the CO2 content in the atmosphere, which can be deduced from the age-old rock, show that the atmosphere at the time contained a maximum of one part per thousand of this greenhouse gas. This was three to four times more than the atmosphere's CO2 content today. However, not anywhere in the range of the 30 percent share in early Earth history which has hitherto been the theoretical calculation," Rosing said. So Rosing and his colleagues looked at another avenue that could explain the paradox. All about albedo One of the factors that partly determines the temperature of the Earth is the amount of incoming sunlight the Earth's surface and atmosphere reflect back to space, called the planet's albedo. Different types of surfaces reflect or absorb different amounts of light — for example, ice is highly reflective, while the open ocean is highly absorptive. Rosing and his team looked at two possible influences on the early Earth's albedo: the amount of land on the planet's surface and the amount of cloud cover in the atmosphere. Geologists haven't yet determined when the Earth's continents first formed, but radioactive tracers in the hot rock of the Earth's mantle can help determine the rate at which the crust of the planet formed, hinting at how much land was exposed above the oceans. Rosing and his colleagues suggest that there was less continental area on the early Earth, and because oceans are more absorptive of sunlight than land, the Earth's albedo would have been slight lower, meaning the Earth's surface would have absorbed slightly more sunlight than it does today. A bigger effect might have been the thinner cloud cover of the early Earth, which could have allowed more sunlight through the atmosphere to reach the surface. "The reason for the lack of cloud [cover] back in Earth's childhood can be explained by the process by which clouds form," Rosing said. The droplets of water that make up clouds form by glomming on to tiny particles, called cloud condensation nuclei, many of which are chemical substances produced by algae and plants, which weren't present on the Earth at that time. Rosing and his team came to this conclusion by observing areas of the present-day ocean that have very little biological activity and thin cloud cover, which "shows that the clouds are different in such places" and therefore were likely the same for the early Earth. Any clouds that did form would have had larger drops — as happens when cloud condensation nuclei are in low supply — which are more transparent to sunlight and so would have allowed more through to reach the Earth's surface, keeping it warm. So the combination of less continental area and an atmosphere more transparent to sunlight could explain why the Earth didn't freeze over, despite the smaller amount of sunlight. But this explanation may not settle the paradox for all scientists who have looked into the problem. Kasting, who wrote an accompanying editorial piece to the new study also appearing in Nature, had several critiques of the explanation to the paradox. The part of the study he found most interesting was the analysis of the BIFs to determine the amount of carbon dioxide in the ancient atmosphere. "But I think that's going to be controversial," Kasting told SPACE.com, as other researchers have looked at the same rock and come to the completely opposite conclusion about the carbon dioxide content, suggesting that it contained substantially more than Rosing and his team concluded. To figure out the issue once and for all, geochemists need to come up with a model that explains how the BIFs formed, something that has been missing from the equation up until now. Kasting also wasn't sure that thinner cloud layer could explain the paradox. "I'm not that sold on the cloud-feedback mechanism," he said. In part this is because the temperature that the thinner clouds would boost Earth up to isn't as warm as scientists think the Earth was during the Archaean, he said. "It just barely gets you up to the freezing point." Rosing counters though that not all scientists agree with the evidence that has been used to suggest that the early Earth was a very warm place. So while the new research provides a plausible explanation for what kept the early Earth from freezing over, the paradox isn't likely to be declared solved anytime soon. "We keep solving it, and someone comes along and tells you that you haven't solved it right," Kasting said. Still, other studies are already in the works with other possible explanations for the young sun paradox, he added. - 101 Amazing Earth Facts - Top 10 Ways to Destroy Earth - Images: Earth from Above MORE FROM LiveScience.com

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MANAGED CARE November 2003. ©MediMedia USA Treatments that interfere with protein synthesis at the cellular level will soon be debated in medical policy committee meetings. In my travels around the country, I find that most pharmacy and medical directors are having a difficult time keeping up with all of the newly released products in the pharmaceutical arena. They appear to have a particularly difficult time with the biologics as these agents are used to treat many diseases that received little time and attention in medical and pharmacy school. Until recently, biologics were also off the pharmacy and medical director's radar due to their cost. Prior columns have concentrated on newly released products. This column, however, will give a glimpse of the future. Most biologic drugs currently available in the U.S. are proteins or polypeptides. Other cellular products and processes are starting to appear in the drug pipeline. It is known that abnormal, insufficient, or overabundant proteins are a major factor in many, if not most, human diseases. Therefore, most current small molecules and biologic drugs target proteins. Some take aim at protein receptors that turn cellular function on or off. Others, such as the monoclonal antibodies, bind to a protein to cause its destruction or inactivation. Still others such as insulin, Ceradase (alglucerase injection), or Fabrazyme (agalsidase beta) are simply protein or polypeptide replacements for deficient or abnormal molecules. But merely supplementing a protein or blocking its overproduction with bioengineered small molecules can lead to undesirable side effects or efficacy issues. One really interesting area that will soon demand the attention of medical and pharmacy directors is the area of protein manufacture. With the ability to identify specific genes that affect disease, there is growing concern among clinicians that by altering one area of the gene, other areas that are essential to life may also be affected. To avoid this, researchers are targeting an intermediate process of gene replication — messenger RNA. There are two methods that interfere with the manufacture of proteins in our cells — RNA interference and antisense. We must first review RNA. There are numerous forms of RNA, each playing an extensive role in cellular activity. Recalling basic cellular metabolism, during protein manufacturing DNA unravels and a "messenger" is made that is a single-stranded compound called messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA is then used to code for the actual proteins made by the protein-creating machine, the ribosome. Geneticists and bioengineers often refer to this mRNA as the "sense" form. Numerous experiments have shown that introducing a neutralizing "antisense" version of RNA can modify this process. Antisense RNA is a matched "mirror image" of the mRNA created by using the matching base pairs of the original RNA. When inserted into the cell, antisense binds to the mRNA and protein synthesis ceases. Another strategy is to deter RNA metabolism by using a technique called RNA interference (RNAi). This process involves the use of a synthetically created double-stranded RNA known as dsRNA. This form of RNA does not normally occur in humans; however, viruses that use this RNA can infect humans. Human cellular response When faced with dsRNA, human cells silence gene expression. It is thought that the human cellular response to dsRNA is a protective action against double-stranded RNA viruses. This response appears to occur when the dsRNA is approximately 21 to 25 base pairs in length. This response is remarkably gene-specific, silencing only the gene that was used for the model of the dsRNA. Silencing appears to occur in several ways. In some cases, it involves methylation of the gene, which may be permanent. In other cases, the silencing occurs at the post-transcriptional level later in the protein building process. The result is the destruction of the corresponding mRNA before it can be used to trigger protein synthesis. This process has been used to study gene expression. Scientists turn off a specific DNA segment and observe what happens to the organism. This effect appears to be present in all species studied. In theory, the use of this same technique can be used as a therapy. One possible disease to target would be cancer. Imagine taking a biopsy from a patient with a malignancy, analyzing the DNA, and finding specific mutated genes coding for a protein that stimulates the proliferation of cancer cells. Imagine that these genes are then used to map out a dsRNA that is injected back into the tumor, shutting down the factors thought to be the cause of the cancer cell's replication. How might this be of interest to managed care professionals? First, it is exciting science. Second, it is a rapidly developing field that will require deliberation at medical policy committee meetings. To demonstrate, there were nine articles written about RNA interference in 1998. That number jumped to 229 in 2002, according to the Web of Science database. The December 2002 edition of Science called RNA interference the "breakthrough of the year." The first issue that MCOs will be asked to review will be genetic testing using RNAi or antisense technology. The new technology will also be used to develop a better understanding of our existing drug armamentarium. Researchers have already demonstrated RNAi's ability to block viruses and certain diseases. In fact, there have been positive results demonstrated in hepatitis C virus, poliovirus, and human immunodeficiency virus. Within two years, U.S. clinical trials of RNAi-based drugs will be initiated. But that is not all. ISIS Pharmaceuticals is currently enrolling patients in two separate antisense phase III trials for Crohn's disease. The company has numerous antisense products in various stages of development for cancer, hepatitis C, ulcerative colitis, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and CMV retinitis. Sooner rather than later, one or more of these drugs may be in front of the pharmacy committee. Keep informed, and remember to look for tomorrow's medicine!

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You may be familiar with Florence Nightingale and her outstanding accomplishments in the nursing field. But how much do you really know about her? Here are five facts about Nightingale’s life that may surprise you. 1. Her parents didn’t want her to enter the nursing field. Nightingale’s affluent British family ran with some of the most elite social circles in the country. But while her parents took great pride in climbing the social ladder, Nightingale preferred to avoid the limelight. She took an interest in philanthropy at an early age, caring for ill and poor people in her village. By the time she was 16 years old, Nightingale had decided that nursing was her calling. It shouldn't be a surprise to you–being bilingual has definitive benefits over speaking only one language. Since when has being bilingual been viewed as a bad thing? It hasn't, and it never will be. In fact, more and more businesses are looking to hire employees with a bilingual background. The healthcare industry is no different. If you're anything like me, I bet you wish you would have paid closure attention in Spanish class. If you're not, congratulations! You're one step closure to landing a well-paying job. Click on the infograph below to find out the benefits of a bilingual education: This Valentine's Day, the love bug is highly contagious and the only cure is to share special healthcare-themed cards. Do you have a special someone that's off the charts or makes your heart beat faster? Want to spread some cheer to a classmate, teacher or boss? Tell them just how vital they are with these Valentine's Day cards that are specially designed for healthcare professionals. Click on a thumbnail below to print cards for cutting out and sharing below. You can even make your own card from the templates included below. Everything you need to know for the first step to nursing school. If you've considered applying for nursing school, you've probably heard about the TEAS. While people seem to be more familiar with the NCLEX-RN and NCLEX-PN examinations, the TEAS is a common preadmission test used by many nursing programs. TEAS, which stands for Test of Essential Academic Skills, is administered through Assessment Technologies Institute (ATI) Nursing Education. The test is a basic aptitude test designed to identify students who would succeed in nursing school and who have the ability to think like a nurse. While all examinations can seem a bit daunting, it's important to remember that it's another step to figuring out if nursing school truly is for you. ATLANTA, GA. - (Jan, 19, 2011) - All three Javelin Technical Training Center schools, top post-secondary healthcare education providers within the Atlanta area, have changed their name to Medtech Institute.

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(Amgueddfa Cymru regrets that we are not able to provide an image for this item at this time. This is either due to copyright restrictions, or the item is awaiting digitisation. We apologise for any inconvenience caused.) In AD 75, the Romans built a fortress at Caerleon that would guard the region for over 200 years. Today at the National Roman Legion Museum you can learn what made the Romans a formidable force and how life wouldn't be the same without them.

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Study finds little benefit in organic diets POSTED: Tuesday, September 4, 2012 - 9:00am UPDATED: Tuesday, September 4, 2012 - 9:00am NBC NATIONAL NEWS — A new study suggests "organic" doesn't necessarily mean "healthier." The popularity of organic food and drinks has skyrocketed, growing from $1 billion in U.S. sales in 1990 to nearly $30 billion last year. Dr. Crystal Smith-Spangler and colleagues at Stanford University compiled data from more than 200 studies of organic versus conventionally grown food. "We thought we'd find more differences than we actually found," Dr. Smith-Spangler says. What they found was that the two groups were virtually the same in vitamin content, and although the organic foods had less pesticide residue all of the produce studied had pesticide levels that fell below federally-set safety limits. "What we've gotten from this is good, solid evidence that organic produce is not necessarily superior in terms of safety or nutrition," says UH Case Medical Center clinical dietitian Lisa Cimperman. There was no difference in the protein or fat contents of organic and conventional milk, although some studies suggested organic milk may have higher levels of healthy Omega-3 fatty acids. While taste differences and environmental concerns about synthetic pesticides may continue to prompt many to go organic, cheaper conventional food may be just as healthy.

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- SU won the 2009 PLANT Green Award, the highest sustainability award given by the Maryland Department of Natural Resources Forest Service and Forestry Council. - SU's recycling program began in 1990 through the - New benches are made from recycled material. - Since 2003, SU has recycled more than 111 tons of computers and audio-visual equipment. - In the greenhouse and interior spaces, Ivory soap and water are used instead of typical chemicals to remove insects. - Students weed planting beds to reduce the use of weed - Mulching blades are used on SU lawnmowers to reduce waste and add nutrients to the soil. - Bicycle racks are incorporated into campus design to promote an alternative to driving. - Greenhouse staff wash and reuse pots and bedding trays instead of discarding. - Campus trash containers are paired with recycling receptacles so users have a choice. - Maryland requires the University recycle 20 percent of its trash; SU always far exceeds this standard. - New battery recycling program to collect spent batteries from campus operations and student residents.

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Five tips for conserving water during warm-weather months (BPT) - Water and the summer months tend to go hand-in-hand - water skiing or fishing at a lake, taking a dip in a swimming pool and watering home-grown plants with a garden hose are among the season's most popular activities. Recent summers have also been some of the driest on record, prompting grass fires, drastically low lake levels and water utilities having to implement water restrictions on their customers. The National Weather Service has predicted that states from Georgia to Texas to California and even the Hawaiian islands will see persisting and potentially intensifying drought conditions this summer. In addition to local droughts, water scarcity is a global issue. According to the United Nations' Water for Life campaign, around 1.2 billion people, or almost one-fifth of the world's population, live in parts of the world where access to clean water sources is extremely difficult. Additionally, water around the world is unevenly distributed, taken for granted and wasted, polluted or unsustainably managed. "Water scarcity and access to clean water are issues in the U.S. and around the world, but the good news is that we can all make a positive difference when it comes to saving water," says Caitlin Feehan, environmental engineer with MWH Global , a water-focused engineering consulting firm. "While climate change, population growth and tendency to waste resources are impacting the world's water, there are small steps each of us can take to conserve water every day." So how can you positively impact water usage inside and outside your home? Here are five simple tips for the summer months: * Start with smart landscaping decisions. Adjust your lawn mower to a higher setting - longer grass shades the root systems and holds moisture in soil better than shorter grass. Also, consider composting kitchen scraps, lawn clippings and garden waste to retain more water, reduce erosion and even decrease weed growth. * Water your yard responsibly. When summer temperatures heat up, water your lawn in the mornings to reduce water loss from evaporation. You can also set your sprinklers to a lower pressure. Why? Higher pressure creates a fine mist that evaporates faster or will blow away, thus wasting water. * Start your day by showering with a low-flow showerhead. Low-flow showerheads limit the water flow to around three gallons per minute as compared to twice that for a normal showerhead. Pick one up at a local home improvement or hardware store. If you're remodeling a bathroom, you can look at other water- and energy-saving gadgets like tank-less water heaters or low-volume flush toilets. * Reduce the amount of water that runs down drains. It's estimated that 95 percent of water that flows through a home runs down the drain, but simple steps like turning off the running water while brushing teeth or washing hands until it's time to rinse decreases water waste. Consider collecting some of this water when there may be another use for it, such as watering a plant. Also, rather than running cold water from the tap until it's cold enough to quench your summer thirst, refill and store a pitcher of water in the refrigerator. * Save water and energy in the laundry room. Reduce water waste by running a washer only when it's full. Using cold water also reduces the amount of energy used and conserves hot water for other household needs that require it. Need a new washer? According to ENERGY STAR, the average American family washes almost 300 loads of laundry each year, but can significantly reduce energy and water usage by purchasing ENERGY STAR-qualified products. For example, a full-sized ENERGY STAR qualified washer uses 14 gallons of water per load, nearly 50 percent less water than a standard machine. "Summer is the perfect time to evaluate how we use water as part of our daily routine," says Feehan. "Water is our planet's most precious resource that we can all conserve for future generations by taking smart, simple steps today." For more information on water savings tips this summer and information on incentives or rebates in your area, check with your local water utility.

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What is biotechnology? Simply put, biotechnology takes the DNA from one organism and transfers it into another. For as long as humans have been raising crops, we have cross-bred plants in order to improve them. We've done this by taking the pollen from one plant and physically transferring the genes in the pollen to another plant in order to make offspring that produce more seed or that can fight off diseases and pests, for example. However, pollen contains many genes, some good and some bad. So, late in the last century, we identified a way to accomplish gene transfer in the lab. This made it possible to add only the good genes, or fix bad ones already in the plant, in order to improve its usefulness to farmers and mankind. Is it safe? Yes. To ensure they are safe, the U.S. government has established a rigorous approval process for biotech products that includes the Food and Drug Administration, the Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Moreover, ever since the first biotech crop hit the market in 1996, about 1 billion acres of U.S. farmland have been planted to biotech crops and trillions of pounds of U.S. soybeans and corn have been consumed worldwide, all with no credible reports of harm to human health. In addition, these organizations have come out in support of biotech foods: · American Medical Association · U.S. National Academy of Science · UN Food and Agriculture Organization · World Health Organization · International Council for Science · British Medical Association Why is it important to know about the safety of biotech crops? Some have questioned the safety of biotech crops. That is because there are people, some of whom are even from the academic world, who claim that research has been done that questions biotech's safety. But it's important to know that in order for any research to be credible, it needs to be reviewed by the authors' peers and replicated in their labs. No such "peer-reviewed" research has proven GMOs to be unsafe. As a matter of fact, the opposite is true: Peer-reviewed research shows that GMOs are safe. The 69 farmer-directors of USB oversee the investments of the soy checkoff to maximize profit opportunities for all U.S. soybean farmers. These volunteers invest and leverage checkoff funds to increase the value of U.S. soy meal and oil, to ensure U.S. soybean farmers and their customers have the freedom and infrastructure to operate, and to meet the needs of U.S. soy's customers. As stipulated in the federal Soybean Promotion, Research and Consumer Information Act, the USDA Agricultural Marketing Service has oversight responsibilities for USB and the soy checkoff.

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American Staffordshire Terrier The Pitbull Guide — The Best Selling Pitbull Training And Care Book. The American Staffordshire Terrier breed is a type of dog that is very muscular. This gives the dog a lot of power for its relatively average size. This type of dog is 17 to 19 inches high and can weigh up to 50 pounds. This breed shares its ancestry with the Staffordshire bull terrier and the American pit bull terrier. Origins of the American Staffordshire Terrier The Staffordshire bull terrier and the Blue Paul terrier, which no longer exists, were the first dogs to arrive in the United States with immigrants. Blue Paul terriers were bigger than the Staffordshire bull terrier breed and were also used in dog fighting. Paddy and Pilot were two dogs that were imported from England and were used in forming the Americanized breed. Breeding was begun in order to create dogs of a bigger weight and height. This breeding also made the head and chest larger. Cropped ears made the head appear larger and they also made it less of a possibility that the ears would rip during dog fighting. In 1900, dog fighting became illegal, so a group of people who admired the breed got together in order to promote other characteristics besides those desirable for fighting. The American Staffordshire was used in World War II and one of the dogs became the most decorated war dog. The American Kennel Club recognized these dogs as a sparate breed in 1936, but they were called the Staffordshire terrier. The term American was added to the breed name in 1972 in order to prevent confusion with the similarly-named Staffordshire bull terrier. After its popularity increased, the breed spread all over. Today’s American Staffordshire terrier is differentiated from the pit bull, but it was registered in 1898 as the American pit bull terrier. At the time of registration, common names such as the Yankee terrier, pit bulldog, and blue paul were abandoned. The American Staffordshire terrier differs from the pit bull dog in several areas. In terms of color, there is no priority, but the brindle color is the most popular. Black and tan are not popular because they show heredity of the nlack and tan terrier. Liver and white are also not desirable in this breed. The bone structure in the American Staffordshire terrier is important, while the pit bull’s agility is what is considered most important. The American Staffordshire terrier has a bed reputation, but it’s actually a very sweet and friendly dog around children. Even when dog fighting was popular, the hostility of this breed was towards other dogs and not directed at humans. This breed was bred specifically because it could be aggressive to other dogs and still be easily handle by owners. These dogs were also bred in order to achieve the goals set by their masters. This breed is loyal and intelligent and makes a great companion. The tolerance displayed during dog fighting times is now displayed into patience with family members. These dogs are also very courageous and make excellent guard dogs due to their strength and agility. These characteristics can be enhanced with proper training and love. The Pitbull Guide — The Best Selling Pitbull Training And Care Book.Read more:

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