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Diet drink

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Diet (alternatively marketed as sugar-free, zero-calorie or low-calorie) drinks or light drinks are sugar-free, artificially sweetened versions of carbonated beverages with few or no calories. They are generally marketed toward health-conscious people, diabetics, athletes, and other people who want to lose weight, improve physical fitness, or reduce their sugar intake. History Though artificial sweeteners had been known since the discovery of saccharin in 1878, the diet beverage era began in earnest with the 1949 launch of La Casera (also known as Gaseosa) in Madrid, Spain using cyclamate. The product, which belongs now to Suntory Beverage and Food Europe (SBFE), is still in market. This was followed by the development of No-Cal ginger ale in 1952. Hyman and Morris Kirsch of Kirsch Beverages (Brooklyn, New York) formulated No-Cal for diabetic and otherwise sugar-restricted hospital patients, also using cyclamate calcium to replace the sugar. Recognizing Americans' growing desire for weight loss, Kirsch began marketing No-Cal to the general public, particularly to women. By 1953, the drink had become popular in New York City and the surrounding region. Canada Dry followed with Canada Dry Glamor in 1954. In 1958, Royal Crown Cola introduced their own cyclamate and saccharin sweetened dietetic beverage, Diet Rite. Following highly successful trials in Chicago and North Carolina, RC began marketing Diet Rite nationwide for the general public in 1962. It shortly became the 4th-best selling soda in the US, behind only Coca-Cola, Pepsi, and RC Cola itself. The following year (1963), Dr Pepper released a diet version of its own soft drink, "Dietetic Dr. Pepper" (later renamed to Sugar Free Dr. Pepper, then Diet Dr. Pepper), although it sold slowly due to the misconception that it was meant solely for diabetic consumption. The same year, The Coca-Cola Company joined the diet soft drink market with Tab, followed up by Pepsi with Patio Diet Cola (shortly renamed to Diet Pepsi). Coca-Cola added Fresca in 1966. All of the above products were originally sweetened with cyclamates and saccharin, which soon proved disastrous. In 1969, an experiment at the University of Wisconsin-Madison found that a cyclamate combination caused bladder cancer in laboratory rats, quickly followed up by another from Abbott Labs (a manufacturer of cyclamate). This finding was quickly accepted in the medical field and by the public as evidence that cyclamate was carcinogenic in humans. Per the Delaney amendment, the FDA immediately announced a ban on cyclamate in food and drink products, to take effect in 1970. Diet sodas were quickly reformulated with saccharin alone (in the hopes that consumers would tolerate the metallic aftertaste), but the market share of diet sodas rapidly fell from 20% to 3% overall. After further studies in the 1980s linked saccharin to cancer as well, most manufacturers switched to aspartame in 1983. By the early 1990s, a wide array of companies had their own diet refreshments on supermarket shelves. Tab made a comeback during the late 1990s after new studies demonstrated that saccharin is not an important factor in the risk of cancer. Nevertheless, The Coca-Cola Company has maintained its 1984 reformulation, replacing some of the saccharin in Tab with NutraSweet. By 2002, some beverage companies had diversified to include such flavors as vanilla and lemon among their products and diet drinks were soon being produced with those flavors as well (see Diet Vanilla Coke, Diet Pepsi Vanilla). By 2004, several alcohol companies had released sugar-free or "diet" alcoholic products too. Sweeteners Several different sweeteners are used to replace sugar in low-calorie diet beverages. The primary compounds worldwide are aspartame, saccharin, sucralose, cyclamates (outside the US), acesulfame potassium ("Ace K"), and stevia. The ideal goal in artificial sweetening is to replicate the exact taste and texture effects of sucrose with one or more of these non-caloric sweeteners. Despite decades of research and development, this goal remains elusive. Most sweeteners carry a marked aftertaste, often described as "bitter" or "metallic". The perception of this aftertaste has been studied intensively, and appears to be based on genetic factors that vary from person to person. In recent years, rising consumer preference for "natural" products and concern over the possible health effects of artificial sweeteners has spurred demand for stevia-based sweeteners and driven manufacturers to seek novel phytochemicals. Aspartame Aspartame, commonly known by the brand name NutraSweet, is one of the most commonly used artificial sweeteners. The 1982 introduction of aspartame-sweetened Diet Coke accelerated this trend. Today, at least in the United States, "diet" is nearly synonymous with the use of aspartame in beverages. Neotame and advantame are further derivatives of aspartame. They received FDA approval in 1998 and 2014 respectively. Due to its high efficiency (20,000 times sucrose) which enables use of minute quantities for sweetening, advantame has the advantage of being safe to consume for individuals with phenylketonuria. As such, products sweetened with it are not required to carry a phenylalanine warning label. Cyclamates In 1970, the Food and Drug Administration banned cyclamates in the United States based on the results of a study which found that it caused bladder cancer in rats in combination with saccharin. This effect was later revealed to be specific to rodents; neither saccharin nor cyclamate are now considered human carcinogens. Nevertheless, cyclamate remains banned in the US. Sucralose and acesulfame potassium; "sugar-free" soft drinks Recently, two other sweeteners have been used with increasing frequency: sucralose (marketed as Splenda) and acesulfame potassium ("Sunett" or "Ace K"). The K in "Ace K" represents the chemical symbol for potassium. Acesulfame potassium is usually combined with aspartame, sucralose, or saccharin rather than alone and its use is particularly common among smaller beverage producers (e.g. Big Red). Diet Rite is the non-aspartame diet soft drink brand with the highest sales today; it uses a combination of sucralose and acesulfame potassium. In the US, sucralose and Ace-K received FDA approval for use in soft drinks in 1998. Advocates say drinks employing these sweeteners have a more natural sugar-like taste than those made just with aspartame, and do not have a strong aftertaste. The newer aspartame-free drinks can also be safely consumed by phenylketonurics, because they do not contain phenylalanine. Critics say the taste is not better, merely different, or note that the long-term health risks of all or certain artificial sweeteners is unclear. The widespread, though not universal, agreement that the newest formulations taste much more "normal" (sugar-like) than the older diet soft drinks have prompted some producers, such as Jones Soda, to abandon the "diet" label entirely in favor of "sugar-free", implying that the taste is good enough to drink even when not trying to lose weight. (This idea was first floated by Diet Coke in 1984, with the tagline, "Just For the Taste of It.") In 2005, The Coca-Cola Company announced it would produce a sucralose-containing formulation of Diet Coke known as Diet Coke with Splenda, but that it would continue to produce the aspartame version as well. There were also rumors that a sugar-free version of Coca-Cola Classic, also sweetened with sucralose, was being formulated as well. This formulation was eventually called Coca-Cola Zero, though it is sweetened with aspartame in conjunction with acesulfame potassium. Stevia Stevia-based sweeteners incorporate steviol glycosides, sweet-tasting compounds produced in the leaves of the Stevia rebaudiana plant. Initially launched in Argentina in 2013, Coca-Cola Life is made with a mix of stevia and sugar as its sweeteners. Pepsi has also released a variant of their cola sweetened with stevia and sugar, called Pepsi Next. Amount of artificial sweeteners in diet soft drinks The table below displays milligrams of sweetener and phosphorus in a 12-ounce (≈355 ml) serving of canned soft drink, as provided by the manufacturers in the US market in 2012. Fountain drinks may contain different sweeteners or different amounts of the same sweeteners. Health concerns Many consumers are concerned about possible health effects of sugar substitutes and caffeine overuse. Reviews and dietetic professionals have concluded that moderate use of non-nutritive sweeteners as a safe replacement for sugars can help limit energy intake and assist with managing blood glucose and weight. Nomenclature In countries outside of the United States, United Kingdom and Canada, the term "light" is often used instead of "diet"; sometimes, even in countries that do not speak English, the word "light" in English is used (e.g., "Coca-Cola Light" in Spain). The formulation of these is slightly different than the "diet"-named versions and thus the taste is slightly different. Reduced-calorie drinks In an effort to profit on the surging popularity of low-carbohydrate diets, Coca-Cola and PepsiCo both released reduced-calorie versions of their flagship colas in 2004. The products contain approximately half the sugar of the regular versions. The Pepsi variant, Pepsi Edge, is sweetened with sucralose and corn syrup. The sweetening of the Coca-Cola variant, Coca-Cola C2, is a combination of corn syrup, aspartame, acesulfame potassium and sucralose. Pepsi discontinued Edge in 2005, citing lackluster sales. Coca-Cola soon followed suit. Pepsi then released Pepsi Max in 2012. Half of the sugar of a can of regular cola still exceeds the daily sugar allowance of some popular low-carbohydrate diets. It is possible that these soft drinks were targeted to so-called "carb-conscious consumers", who are paying attention to their carbohydrate intake but not trying to drastically reduce it. Consumption According to a study by the National Center for Health Statistics, about one-fifth of the US population ages 2 years and over consumed diet drinks on a given day in 2009‒2010, and 11% consumed 16 fluid oz. of diet drinks or more. Overall, the percentage consuming diet drinks was higher among females compared with males. The percentage consuming diet drinks was similar for females and males at all ages except among 12- to 19-year-olds, where a higher percentage of females than males consumed diet drinks. A higher percentage of non-Hispanic white people consumed diet drinks compared with non-Hispanic black and Hispanic people. The study included calorie-free and low-calorie versions of soft drinks, fruit drinks, energy drinks, sports drinks, and carbonated water. Regulation Diet soda is defined in US law as a food of minimal nutritional value. See also List of brand name soft drinks products List of soft drink flavors List of soft drink producers List of soft drinks by country References Products introduced in 1952 Convenience foods

Plagues of Egypt

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The Plagues of Egypt, in the story of the book of Exodus, are ten disasters inflicted on Biblical Egypt by the God of Israel in order to convince the Pharaoh to allow the Israelites to depart from slavery, each of them confronting Pharaoh and one of his Egyptian gods; they serve as "signs and marvels" given by God to answer Pharaoh's taunt that he does not know Yahweh: "The Egyptians shall know that I am the ". Plagues 1. Turning water to blood: Ex. 7:14–24 2. Frogs: Ex. 7:25–8:11/15 3. Lice or gnats: Ex. 8:12–15/8:16–19 4. Wild animals or flies: Ex. 8:16–28/8:20–32 The fourth plague of Egypt was of creatures capable of harming people and livestock. The Torah emphasizes that the ‘arob (עָרוֹב "mixture" or "swarm") only came against the Egyptians and did not affect the Israelites. Pharaoh asked Moses to remove this plague and promised to grant the Israelites their freedom. However, after the plague was gone, the Lord hardened his heart and he refused to keep his promise. Various sources use either "wild animals" or "flies". 5. Pestilence of livestock: Ex. 9:1–7 6. Boils: Ex. 9:8–12 7. Thunderstorm of hail and fire: Ex. 9:13–35 8. Locusts: Ex. 10:1–20 9. Darkness for three days: Ex. 10:21–29 10. Death of firstborn son: Ex. 11:1–12:36 Before this final plague, God commands Moses to tell the Israelites to mark a lamb's blood above their doors in order that the Angel of Death will pass over them (i.e., that they will not be touched by the death of the firstborn). Pharaoh orders the Israelites to leave, taking whatever they want, and asks Moses to bless him in the name of the Lord. The passage goes on to state that the passover sacrifice recalls the time when the "passed over the houses of the Israelites in Egypt". Composition and theology Scholars are in broad agreement that the publication of the Torah took place in the mid-Persian period (the 5th century BCE). The Book of Deuteronomy, composed in stages between the 7th and 6th centuries, mentions the "diseases of Egypt" (Deuteronomy 7:15 and 28:60) but refers to something that afflicted the Israelites, not the Egyptians, and never specifies the plagues. The traditional number of ten plagues is not actually mentioned in Exodus, and other sources differ; Psalms 78 and 105 seem to list only seven or eight plagues and order them differently. It appears that originally there were only seven (which included the tenth), to which were added the third, sixth, and ninth, bringing the count to ten. In this final version, the first nine plagues form three triads, each of which God introduces by informing Moses of the main lesson it will teach. In the first triad, the Egyptians begin to experience the power of God; in the second, God demonstrates that he is directing events; and in the third, the incomparability of Yahweh is displayed. Overall, the plagues are "signs and marvels" given by the God of Israel to answer Pharaoh's taunt that he does not know Yahweh: "The Egyptians shall know that I am the ". Historicity Scholars broadly agree that the Exodus is not a historical account, that the Israelites originated in Canaan and from the Canaanites and that, while a small group of proto-Israelites probably did originate from Egypt, it did not happen in the massive way the Bible describes. The Ipuwer Papyrus, written probably in the late Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt (c. 1991–1803 BCE), has been put forward in popular literature as confirmation of the biblical account, most notably because of its statement that "the river is blood" and its frequent references to servants running away; however, these arguments ignore the many points on which Ipuwer contradicts Exodus, such as Asiatics arriving in Egypt rather than leaving and the fact that the "river is blood" phrase probably refers to the red sediment colouring the Nile during disastrous floods, or is simply a poetic image of turmoil. Attempts to find natural explanations for the plagues (e.g., a volcanic eruption to explain the "darkness" plague) have been dismissed by biblical scholars on the grounds that their pattern, timing, rapid succession, and above all, control by Moses mark them as supernatural. Artistic representation Visual art In visual art, the plagues have generally been reserved for works in series, especially engravings. Still, relatively few depictions in art emerged compared to other religious themes until the 19th century, when the plagues became more common subjects, with John Martin and Joseph Turner producing notable canvases. This trend probably reflected a Romantic attraction to landscape and nature painting, for which the plagues were suited, a Gothic attraction to morbid stories, and a rise in Orientalism, wherein exotic Egyptian themes found currency. Given the importance of noble patronage throughout Western art history, the plagues may have found consistent disfavor because the stories emphasize the limits of a monarch's power, and images of lice, locusts, darkness, and boils were ill-suited for decoration in palaces and churches. Music Taking direct inspiration from the ten plagues, Iced Earth's eleventh studio album Plagues of Babylon contains many references and allusions to the plagues. Metallica's song "Creeping Death" (from their second album, Ride the Lightning) makes references to a few of the plagues, in addition to the rest of the story of the Exodus. Perhaps the most successful artistic representation of the plagues is Handel's oratorio Israel in Egypt, which, like his perennial favorite, "Messiah", takes a libretto entirely from scripture. The work was especially popular in the 19th century because of its numerous choruses, generally one for each plague, and its playful musical depiction of the plagues. For example, the plague of frogs is performed as a light aria for alto, depicting frogs jumping in the violins, and the plague of flies and lice is a light chorus with fast scurrying runs in the violins. Documentaries The Exodus Decoded (2006) Films The Ten Commandments (1923) The Moon of Israel (1924) The Ten Commandments (1956) The Abominable Dr. Phibes (1971) Moses (1995) The Prince of Egypt (1998) Magnolia (1999) The Mummy (1999) The Reaping (2007) Exodus: Gods and Kings (2014) Seder-Masochism (2018) TV The Bible (2013 miniseries) – Episode 2 has a scene of these plagues. Os Dez Mandamentos (2015) "A Rugrats Passover" "Simpsons Bible Stories" Family Guy – In the second season episode "If I'm Dyin', I'm Lyin'", the Griffin family is affected by most of the plagues due to Peter being worshipped like God. Haven – In "A Tale of Two Audreys" the town of Haven is afflicted by almost all of the plagues of Egypt. South Park – In the sixteenth season episode "Jewpacabra". Image gallery See also Aaron's rod Jochebed Miriam References Further reading External links Book of Exodus Egypt in the Hebrew Bible Moses Passover Jewish miracles Animals in religion Insects in religion Disasters in Egypt

Rambo: First Blood Part II

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Rambo: First Blood Part II is a 1985 American action film directed by George P. Cosmatos and co-written by Sylvester Stallone, who also reprises his role as Vietnam War veteran John Rambo. A sequel to First Blood (1982), it is the second installment in the Rambo franchise, followed by Rambo III. It co-stars Richard Crenna, who reprises his role as Colonel Sam Trautman, with Charles Napier, Julia Nickson, and Steven Berkoff. The film's plot is inspired by the Vietnam War POW/MIA issue. In the film, Rambo gets released from prison in a deal with the U.S. government to document the possible existence of missing POWs in Vietnam, but with strict orders not to rescue them. When Rambo defies his orders, he is abandoned and forced to rely once more on his own brutal combat skills to save the POWs. Despite mixed reviews, Rambo: First Blood Part II was a major worldwide box office blockbuster, with an estimated 42 million tickets sold in the US. It has become one of the most recognized and memorable installments in the series, having inspired countless rip-offs, parodies, video games, and imitations. Entertainment Weekly ranked the movie number 23 on its list of "The Best Rock-'em, Sock-'em Movies of the Past 25 Years". Plot Three years after the events in Hope, Washington, former US Army Green Beret John Rambo receives a visit from his former mission commander and old friend, Col. Sam Trautman, at a rural labor work prison. With the Vietnam War now officially over, the public has become increasingly concerned over news that a small group of US POWs have been left in enemy custody in Vietnam. To placate their demands for action, the US government has authorized a solo infiltration mission to confirm the reports. Rambo agrees to undertake the operation in exchange for a pardon. In Thailand, he is taken to meet Marshall Murdock, the bureaucrat overseeing the operation. Rambo is temporarily reinstated into the US Army and instructed only to take pictures of the suspected POW camp and not to rescue any prisoners or engage enemy personnel, as they will be retrieved by a better equipped extraction team upon his return. During his insertion, Rambo's parachute becomes tangled and breaks, causing him to lose his guns and most of his equipment, leaving him with only his knife, his bow, and his arrows. He meets his assigned contact, a young female Vietnamese intelligence agent named Co Bao, who arranges for a local band of river pirates to take them upriver. Reaching the camp, Rambo spots one of the prisoners tied to a cross-shaped post, left to suffer from exposure, and rescues him against orders. During their escape, they are discovered by Vietnamese troops and attacked by an armored gunboat; causing the pirates to turn on them, revealing they swapped allegiance to the Vietnamese and intend to hand them over for a reward. Rambo kills the pirates and destroys the gunboat with an RPG while the POW and Co Bao swim to safety. Rambo asks Co to stay behind shortly before they reach the extraction point. The rescue helicopter is ordered by Murdock to abort the rescue, saying Rambo has violated his orders. Co Bao watches as Rambo and the POW are recaptured and returned to the camp. When Trautman confronts him, Murdock reveals that he never intended to save the POWs, explaining that Congress expected Rambo to find nothing, and that even if he did, Murdock would simply leave him to die to avoid having to deal with the issue any further. Trautman is then told he will be removed from the mission to keep him from trying to help Rambo on his own. Rambo learns that Soviet troops are working with the Vietnamese army. He is interrogated by the local liaison, Lieutenant Col. Podovsky, and his right-hand man, Sgt. Yushin. Upon learning of Rambo's mission from intercepted missives, Podovsky demands that Rambo broadcast a message to Murdock warning against any further rescue missions for the POWs. Meanwhile, Co infiltrates the camp disguised as a prostitute and hides under the hut where Rambo is being tortured with electric shocks. Rambo refuses to cooperate, but relents when the prisoner he tried to save is threatened. As he begins to read the scripted comments, Rambo directly threatens Murdock, overpowers the Soviets, and escapes the camp with Co's help. Rambo agrees to take Co to the United States, and they kiss. As they start moving again, a small Vietnamese force attacks the pair and Co is killed during the assault. An enraged Rambo guns down the soldiers and buries Co in the mud. Rambo snaps and, with the use of his knife and bow, he systematically dispatches the numerous Soviet and Vietnamese soldiers sent after him one after the other - even blowing up the Vietnamese officer who killed Co with an explosive arrow. After surviving a barrel bomb dropped by Yushin's helicopter, Rambo climbs on board and throws Yushin out of the cabin to his death. The pilot is forced out at gunpoint, and Rambo takes control. He lays waste to the prison camp and wipes out the rest of the enemy forces before extracting the POWs and heading towards friendly territory in Thailand. Podovsky, pursuing them in a helicopter gunship, seemingly shoots the chopper down and moves in for the kill. Having faked the crash, Rambo uses a rocket launcher to destroy the aircraft; killing Podovsky. As he returns to base with the POWs, Rambo (after using the helicopter's machine gun to destroy Murdock's office) confronts the terrified Marshall with his knife; demanding that Murdock rescue the remaining POWs. Trautman tries to convince Rambo to return home now that he has been pardoned. When Rambo refuses, Trautman asks what he wants. An angry Rambo responds that he only wants his country to love its soldiers as much as its soldiers love it. Trautman asks Rambo how he will live now, to which Rambo tersely says, "Day by day". With that, the film credits roll as Rambo walks off into the distance. Cast Sylvester Stallone as John J. Rambo Richard Crenna as Colonel Sam Trautman Charles Napier as Major Marshall Roger T. Murdock Steven Berkoff as Lieutenant Colonel Sergei T. Podovsky Julia Nickson as Agent Co Phuong Bao Martin Kove as Michael Reed Ericson George Cheung as Lieutenant Tay Andy Wood as Banks William Ghent as Captain Vinh Voyo Goric as Sergeant Yushin Dana Lee as Captain Trong Kinh Steve Williams as Lifer Production Development and writing Development of a sequel to First Blood began when Carolco Pictures sold foreign distribution rights to distributors in Europe and Japan in 1983, initially scheduling the film for a December 1984 release. It was later rescheduled for August 1, 1985. Producers considered that Rambo would have a partner in the rescue mission of POWs. The producers allegedly wanted John Travolta to play Rambo's partner, but Stallone vetoed the idea. Lee Marvin (who was considered to play Colonel Trautman in the first film) was offered the role of Marshall Murdock, but declined, leading to the role being played by Charles Napier. James Cameron wrote a first draft under the title First Blood II: The Mission. (Cameron had been recommended by David Giler who did some uncredited script work on the first film.) Cameron's script had the same basic structure of the first film but had a character of Rambo's sidekick. Stallone later recalled: I think that James Cameron is a brilliant talent, but I thought the politics were important, such as a right-wing stance coming from Trautman and his nemesis, Murdock, contrasted by Rambo's obvious neutrality, which I believe is explained in Rambo's final speech. I realize his speech at the end may have caused millions of viewers to burst veins in their eyeballs by rolling them excessively, but the sentiment stated was conveyed to me by many veterans. ... [Also] in his original draft it took nearly 30-40 pages to have any action initiated and Rambo was partnered with a tech-y sidekick. So it was more than just politics that were put into the script. There was also a simpler story line. If James Cameron says anything more than that, then he realizes he's now doing the backstroke badly in a pool of lies. Before filming started, Stallone went through torturous trainings to build the perfect musculature. Writer David J. Moore said in the 2019 documentary film In Search of the Last Action Heroes: "Here's a guy who went against the grain in everything that he ever did. Here's a guy who transformed himself, literally he chiseled his own body into this statuesque, muscular specimen." Filming The film was shot between June and August 1984, and was shot on location in the State of Guerrero, Mexico, and Thailand. During filming, special effects man Clifford P Wenger, Jr. was accidentally killed by one of the film's explosions. Music The musical score was composed by Jerry Goldsmith, conducting the National Philharmonic Orchestra, although, Goldsmith uses heavily on electronic synthesized elements in the film score. The main song is sung by Stallone's brother, singer/songwriter Frank Stallone. Varèse Sarabande issued the original soundtrack album. Main Title (2:12) Preparations (1:16) The Jump (3:18) The Snake (1:48) Stories (3:26) The Cage (3:55) Betrayed (4:22) Escape from Torture (3:39) Ambush (2:45) Revenge (6:14) Bowed Down (1:04) Pilot Over (1:52) Home Flight (3:01) Day by Day (2:06) Peace in Our Life – music by Frank Stallone, Peter Schless, and Jerry Goldsmith; lyrics by Frank Stallone; performed by Frank Stallone (3:18) Note: As released in the United Kingdom by That's Entertainment Records (the British licensee for Varèse Sarabande at the time), the UK version placed "Peace in Our Life" between "Betrayed" and "Escape from Torture", thus making "Day by Day" the final track. In 1999, Silva America released an expanded edition with the cues in film order. Previously unreleased music is in bold. Main Title (2:14) The Map (1:09) Preparations (1:18) The Jump (3:19) The Snake (1:49) The Pirates (1:29) Stories (3:27) The Camp/Forced Entry (2:24) The Cage (3:57) River Crash/The Gunboat (3:37) Betrayed (4:24) Bring Him Up/The Eyes (2:06) Escape from Torture (3:41) Ambush (2:47) Revenge (6:16) Bowed Down (1:06) Pilot Over (1:54) Village Raid/Helicopter Flight (4:55) Home Flight (3:02) Day By Day (2:08) Peace in Our Life (3:19) – Frank Stallone Release Marketing Unusually for the time, a teaser trailer for the film—then titled First Blood Part II: The Mission—was released in 3,000 theaters in the summer of 1984, over a year before its scheduled release date of August 1, 1985, and several months before any footage for the film was completed. Mario Kassar arranged this in order to capitalize off the popularity of the first film. The film was also marketed through merchandising, with posters of Rambo selling rapidly. Although the film was rated R and directed at adults, tie-in toys were created for it. Home media The video sold 425,000 units, a record for a tape with a retail price of $79.95. Rambo: First Blood Part II was released on DVD on November 23, 2004, and a Blu-Ray release followed on May 23, 2008. Rambo: First Blood Part II was released on 4K UHD Blu-Ray on November 13, 2018. Reception Box office Rambo: First Blood Part II opened in the US on May 22, 1985, in a then-record 2,074 theaters, becoming the first film to be released to over 2,000 theaters in the United States, and was the number one film that weekend, grossing $20,176,217 . Overall, the film grossed $150,415,432 in the US and Canada and $149,985,000 internationally, for a worldwide total of $300,400,432. The movie broke various international box office records. In France the film had a record opening day with 269,564 admissions. Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 33% based on 43 reviews. The site's consensus is "First Blood Part II offers enough mayhem to satisfy genre fans, but remains a regressive sequel that turns its once-compelling protagonist into just another muscled action berserker." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 47 out of 100 based on reviews from 15 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews. Vincent Canby of The New York Times called the film "almost as opportunistic as the Congressman it pretends to abhor. In spite of everything it says, it's much less interested in the M.I.A. question than it is in finding a topical frame for the kind of action-adventure film in which Mr. Stallone — his torso and his vacant stare — can do what his fans like best. That is, fight, outwit and kill, usually all by himself, dozens of far better armed but lesser mortals." Variety wrote, "The charade on the screen, which is not pulled off, is to accept that the underdog Rambo character, albeit with the machine-gun wielding help of an attractive Vietnamese girl, can waste hordes of Viet Cong and Red Army contingents enroute to hauling POWs to a Thai air base in a smoking Russian chopper with only a facial scar (from a branding iron-knifepoint) marring his tough figure. You never even see him eating in this fantasy, as if his body feeds on itself." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film three stars out of four and called it "very good at what it does, but what it does isn't always that good", referring to the depiction of the enemy as going "back to the image of the Yellow Peril, to the notion that white is right and other colors are wrong." Michael Wilmington of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "If a character can seemingly do anything, it's hard to feel tension or concern about his fate. (At least, Superman had kryptonite.) We are left with nothing but detached aesthetic appreciation: watching Rambo race through several million dollars worth of explosions and aerial attacks, coruscant fireballs billowing everywhere and bodies flying hither and yon. Except for anyone irretrievably into violent power fantasies, this will probably soon pall." Pauline Kael commented in The New Yorker, "The director, George P. Costmatos, gives this near-psychotic material—a mixture of Catholic iconography and Soldier of Fortune pulp—a veneer of professionalism, but the looniness is always there." Paul Attanasio of The Washington Post wrote, "At best, Rambo: First Blood Part II is a crudely effective right-wing rabble-rouser, the artistic equivalent of carpet bombing—you don't know whether to cheer or run for cover. At worst, it's a tribute to Sylvester Stallone, by Sylvester Stallone, starring Sylvester Stallone." In the Soviet Union, the Ministry of Culture criticized the film's anti-Soviet and anti-Vietnamese tones and depiction of Russians. Yevgeny Yevtushenko compared Stallone's portrayal of Rambo to pornography. The film is listed in Golden Raspberry Award founder John Wilson's book The Official Razzie Movie Guide as one of The 100 Most Enjoyably Bad Movies Ever Made. Accolades Legacy The film was referenced in the 1985 episode of The Golden Girls, titled "On Golden Girls". Female characters seem to be aroused by John Rambo's muscular physique, and Sophia Petrillo (Estelle Getty) says: "I sat through it twice. You'll love it! He sweats like a pig and he doesn't put his shirt on!" Other media Sequel A sequel titled Rambo III, was released in 1988. Novelization David Morrell, author of First Blood, the novel the first Rambo film is based on, wrote a novelization called Rambo: First Blood Part II. Video games A tie-in video game was produced for ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC and Commodore 64 called Rambo. There was also Rambo for NES as well as a Rambo: First Blood Part II, for Sega. MSX and DOS games based on the film. Sega later adapted some of the battle scenes in the film for the 2008 arcade game Rambo. In 2014 was released Rambo: The Video Game, based on the first three Rambo films. The 1986 run-and-gun shooter arcade hit Ikari Warriors was originally intended by its developer SNK to be an official licensed adaptation of Rambo. However, they were initially unable to acquire the rights to the film. This resulted in the game's title being changed to Ikari, referencing part of the film's Japanese title, Rambo: Ikari no Dasshutsu ("Rambo: The Furious Escape"). After the game made its North American debut at an arcade game expo, they managed to get in touch with Sylvester Stallone about acquiring the rights to the film. However, it was too late by that point, as the game had already become popularly known by its Japanese title Ikari among arcade players in Japan and North America, leading to the game being officially released as Ikari Warriors in North America. Stallone was friends with SNK's president at the time, and owned an Ikari Warriors arcade cabinet. In popular culture Missing in Action, an American film inspired by Rambo: First Blood Part II, but released before Rampage, a Turkish copy film of Rambo: First Blood Part II Strike Commando, an Italian film influenced by Rambo: First Blood Part II Strike Commando 2, an Italian film influenced by Rambo: First Blood Part II Hot Shots! Part Deux, an American parody film of Rambo: First Blood Part II and Rambo III with colonel role reprised by Richard Crenna When Eagles Strike, a Philippines film influenced by Rambo: First Blood Part II Second Blood, a Kuwaiti action film inspired by Rambo: First Blood Part II UHF is a 1989 comedy-parody film starring "Weird Al" Yankovic. Yankovic's character, George Newman, late in the film has a fantasy of rescuing Stanley Spadowski (Michael Richards) from the rival station owner's goons. In the fantasy he is dressed in the style of John Rambo from Rambo: First Blood Part II, and wears an exaggerated body suit to look like an overly muscular version of actor Sylvester Stallone's muscular built. The fantasy sequence is a parody exaggeration of the action sequences in about the last third of Rambo: First Blood Part II. References External links 1985 films American films 1980s English-language films Vietnamese-language films 1980s action films 1980s adventure films American action films American anti-communist propaganda films American sequel films Cold War films Films about missing people Films set in 1985 Films set in prison Films set in Thailand Films set in the United States Films set in Vietnam Films shot in Mexico Golden Raspberry Award winning films Rambo (franchise) Films about United States Army Special Forces TriStar Pictures films Carolco Pictures films StudioCanal films Films scored by Jerry Goldsmith Films directed by George P. Cosmatos Films with screenplays by James Cameron Films with screenplays by Sylvester Stallone Vietnam War films Films produced by Buzz Feitshans

Koeberg Nuclear Power Station

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Koeberg nuclear power station is a nuclear power station in South Africa. It is currently the only one on the entire African continent. It is located 30 km north of Cape Town, near Melkbosstrand on the west coast of South Africa. Koeberg is owned and operated by the country's only national electricity supplier, Eskom. The two reactors form the cornerstone of the South African nuclear program. Design Koeberg contains two pressurised water reactors based on a design by Framatome of France. Framatome has a 51% shareholding in local South African company Lesedi Nuclear Services. Koeberg supplies power to the national grid so that over-capacity can be redistributed to the rest of the country on an as-needed basis. Fuel stock used within the reactor is enriched uranium dioxide pellets containing gadolinium, contained in fuel rods. Koeberg is rated at 1,860 MW, its average annual production is 13,668 GWh and it has two large turbine generators (2 × 970 MW). Each reactor delivers 970 MW (gross) and is capable of delivering 930 MW (net) to the grid. The power station was constructed near Cape Town to be the sole provider of power in the Western Cape after fossil-fuel power stations were deemed too small and too expensive to be viable. Nuclear power was considered because it was more economical than transporting coal to the existing fossil-fuel power stations, and construction of new fossil-fuel power-stations, which would have required 300 m tall chimneys to comply with clean-air legislation. Athlone Power Station in the city was too small to provide Cape Town's needs, and the Paarden Island power station (itself too small) has been demolished. Koeberg was one of the first nuclear power stations designed to be specifically resistant to earthquakes. The reactors at the Koeberg nuclear power station are built upon an aseismic raft designed – on the basis of a mid-1970s hazard study - to withstand a magnitude 7 earthquake at a focal distance of about 10 km, 0.3g zero period ground acceleration (ZPGA). The largest recorded earthquake in the Cape Town area has been 6.5 magnitude at Jan Biesjes Kraal in 1809. The reactor at Koeberg is cooled by cold water from the Atlantic Ocean pumped through an isolated circuit at 80 tons a second. Low and intermediate level waste from Koeberg is transported by road in steel and concrete containers to a rural disposal site at Vaalputs, 600 km away in the Kalahari Desert. The power station was originally located outside the metropolitan area, but urban growth has exceeded expectations in the intervening years, so that the power station is now close to suburban housing. The administration enforces maximum housing density regulations in case of evacuation, which precludes the construction of high rise buildings. The buffer zone around the nuclear power station forms the 22 km2 Koeberg Nature Reserve, open to the public and containing more than 210 species of birds and a number of mammal species including zebra, eland and springbok. History Construction of the power station began in 1976, and Unit 1 was synchronized to the grid on 4 April 1984. Unit 2 followed on 25 July 1985. On 17 December 1982, Umkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing of the ANC attacked Koeberg while it was still under construction. Damage was estimated at R 500 million and the commissioning of the power station was put back by 18 months. The bomber was Rodney Wilkinson, who had previously represented South Africa in international fencing tournaments. In August 2002 twelve Greenpeace activists obtained access to the station. Six of them scaled the wall to hang up an anti-nuclear protest banner. The twelve were arrested and fined. At the end of 2005, Koeberg started experiencing numerous technical difficulties. On 11 November 2005, a fault on a transmission busbar caused the reactor to go into safe mode, cutting supply to most of the Western Cape for about two hours. On 16 November a fire under a 400 kV transmission line caused the line to trip, causing severe voltage dips which resulted in Koeberg once again shutting down. Various parts of the Cape were left without electricity for hours at a time. On the evening of 23 November, a routine inspection of the backup safety system revealed a below-spec concentration of an important chemical, resulting in a controlled shutdown of the reactor. Due to the sufficiency of backup supply, major power cuts were not experienced until Friday 25 November, when the backup capacity began running out. At this point, rotational load shedding was employed, with customers being switched off in stages for most of the day. Koeberg was re-synchronised to the national grid on Saturday 26 November. On Sunday 25 December 2005, the generator of Unit 1 was damaged. While the generator was being powered up after scheduled refuelling and maintenance, a loose bolt, which was left inside the generator caused severe damage, forcing it to be shut down. Subsequent to the unexpected unavailability of Unit 1, Unit 2 was also brought down for scheduled refuelling, resulting in a severe shortage of supply to the Western Cape. This resulted in widespread load shedding in order to maintain the stability of the network. A replacement rotor for Unit 1 was shipped in from France and the unit was brought back into operation in May 2006. On 18 and 19 February 2007 large parts of the Western Cape again experienced blackouts due to a controlled shutdown of Koeberg. According to Eskom and the City of Cape Town, power cuts were to continue until 26 February 2007, however power supply problems continued beyond this date. The estimated economic losses due to the power cuts was over R 500 M as at February 2007, and was estimated to rise to possibly as high as R 2 billion. On 12 September 2010, 91 members of staff were contaminated with cobalt-58 dust in an incident that appears confined to the station. The government's agreed 2019 Integrated Resource Plan (IRP) plans a 20-year life-extension for Koeberg to 2044, and a delayed nuclear new build programme with a scenario that may build new capacity after 2030. On 10 September 2020, Eskom announced it will install six new steam generators in 2021. Production Koeberg 1/2 1984-2017 (TWh/yr) Post Fukushima stress tests After the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, seismic safety at Koeberg was reevaluated in conjunction with the IAEA. Although Koeberg was designed for 0.3g zero period ground acceleration (ZPGA), a magnitude 7 earthquake, stress tests evaluated Koeberg against a 0.5g ZPGA. Overall Koeberg found to be seismically robust and well designed, with some areas for attention and improvement that were highlighted. New build Duynefontein next door on the northern side of Koeberg is a proposed site for a new nuclear power station. Opposition to Koeberg South Africa's nuclear industry has seen its fair share of opposition, chiefly from environmentalists concerned about safety issues such as radioactive waste, and anti-war activists concerned about nuclear proliferation and use of atomic weapons. Current campaigns against nuclear energy are being run by Earthlife Africa and Koeberg Alert. See also List of nuclear reactors List of power stations in South Africa Notes References Koeberg on the Eskom-Website Nuclear Tourist. Includes a picture. Koeberg details Evacuation modelling for Koeberg Google Map Satellite Image January 2006 Eskom media release on Koeberg's problems. Energy infrastructure completed in 1985 Nuclear power stations in South Africa Nuclear power stations in Africa Buildings and structures in Cape Town Buildings and structures in the Western Cape Economy of the Western Cape Nuclear power stations using pressurized water reactors France–South Africa relations 1985 establishments in South Africa

List of English words of Spanish origin

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This is a list of English language words whose origin can be traced to the Spanish language as "Spanish loan words". Words typical of "Mock Spanish" used in the United States are listed separately. A abaca via Spanish abacá from Tagalog abaká abalone from Spanish , from Ohlone aluan or Rumsen awlun.adios from Spanish 'adiós' meaning "goodbye" < latin ad deus "to god" (short for "a Dios seas", "a Dios seades", literally, "may (you) be (commended) to God") adobe From Egyptian via Arabic "Al-tub" aficionado from past participle of aficionar, to inspire affection, from afición affection, from Latin affection-, affectio, from afficere . albatross from alcatraz, see below. Alcalde from alcalde, magistrate. Alcatraz (meaning "gannet") from Arabic غطاس al-ġaţţās ("the diver") alidade via French, Spanish alidada and Medieval Latin alhidade from Arabic العهدة al-idada, "the revolving radius" alligator from el lagarto, "the lizard" < latín lacartus < lacertus. alpaca via Spanish, from Aymara allpaqaaludel from Old French alutel, via Spanish and Medieval Latin from Arabic الأثال al-ʾuṯāl, "the sublimation vessel" amigo from Spanish and/or Portuguese amigo, "friend"; from Latin amicus meaning "friend," derived from amare (to love). amole Mexican Spanish from Nahautl amolli meaning "soap root." amontillado from the village of Montilla "little mount", Province of Córdoba, Spain ancho from Mexican Spanish (chile) ancho, "wide (chili)" < latin amplusanchovy from Spanish anchoa or more probably Portuguese anchova meaning "bluefish"; from Genoese or Corsican dialect; ultimately from Latin apua meaning "small fish" and Greek Αφυε aphye meaning "small fry" or from Basque anchuva meaning "dry" Angeleno from American Spanish Apache from Mexican Spanish from Yavapai epache meaning "people" or from Zuni apachu meaning "enemy" armada "armed [fleet]" from the Spanish navy, La armada españolaarmadillo from armadillo, "little armored one" arroyo from arroyo, "stream" < arrugiumavocado alteration of Spanish aguacate, from Nahuatl ahuacatl. ayahuasca via Spanish from Quechua ayawaska meaning "soul vine." B banana from Spanish or Portuguese banana, probably from a Wolof word, or from Arabic بأننا “ba’ nana” fingers bandolier from Spanish bandolero, meaning "band (for a weapon or other) that crosses from one shoulder to the opposite hip" and bandolero, loosely meaning "he who wears a bandolier" barbeque from barbacoa, from Spanish, taken from Caribbean Taínos barbacu, cooking set-up with wood tray at a height over fire barracuda from barracuda May have come from barraco, meaning overlapping tooth barranca from Spanish barranca or barranco, ravinebarrio from Spanish barrio, "neighborhood", from Arabic بري barri, wild bastinado from bastonada, from Spanish bastón, cane bodega from Spanish and/or Portuguese bodega, meaning cellar < latin-greek aphothekam. bodegón from bodegónbolero from Spanish bolerobonanza from bonanza meaning "prosperity" < latin bonantia < bonus "good". bonito from Spanish bonito, meaning "beautiful" < latin bonus "good". breeze from brisa "cold northeast wind" or from Frisian briesen - to blow (wind) bronco from bronco meaning "coarse" buckaroo from vaquero meaning "cowboy", ultimately from Latin "vaccarium" "cowboy" (vacca "cow"). burrito diminutive of burro, a dish originally from Northern Mexico, literally "little donkey" burro from burro, "donkey" < latin burricus "small horse". C caballero from Spanish caballero meaning "knight/gentleman", from caballo, "horse", Celtic caballos "horse". cabana from Spanish cabaña or Portuguese cabana < latin < capanna; both meaning "cabin" cacique from Spanish, from Taíno cacike or Arawak kassequa, both meaning a chief cafeteria from cafetería, "coffee store" calaboose from Vulgar Latin calafodium "to dig a protected place" and Louisiana French calabouse, from Spanish calabozocaldera from Spanish caldera meaning "cauldron" from Latin caldaria, "cooking pot." California place name first seen in print in 1510 Spanish novel 'Las sergas de Esplandián' by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo camarilla from camarilla, "small room" diminutive of cámara "room" < latin camara. camino from camino a path or road, from Celtic cammanos "road". cannibal from Spanish caníbal, alteration of caríbal, from Caribe canoe from Spanish canoa, from Haitian canaouacanyon from cañón with same meaning. Derived from caño, "a pipe, tube, gorge, tube;" ultimately from Latin canna meaning "reed." carabao from Spanish from Visayan language kalabaw, from Malay language kerabau.caramba from Spanish, meaning "heck"; expression of dread, displeasure, or disapproval, euphemism for carajocarbonado from carbonada, from carbón meaning "coal" cargo from the verb cargar meaning "to load" Caribbean from Spanish Caribe, from name of Carib Indians of the region. cassava from cazabe, from Taíno caçábicaudillo from caudillo, from Latin capitellium "head" meaning "leader" cedilla from cedilla, archaic spelling zedilla (little z), "elsewhere" chaparral from Spanish, chaparro loosely meaning small evergreen oak, from Basque txapar, "small, short" chaps from Mexican Spanish chaparreras, leg protectors for riding through chaparral chayote from Spanish, literally: "squash", from Nahuatl chayotl meaning "spiny squash" chicha from Spanish chicha, from Kuna chichab, meaning "maize" or from Nahuatl chichiatl, "fermented water." chicle from chicle "gum", from Nahuatl tzictli "squishy stuff" or Mayan tsicte.chile from Spanish chile, from Nahuatl chillichipotle from Spanish, smoked jalapeño, from Nahuatl chilpoctlichocolate from Spanish chocolate, from Nahuatl xocolatl meaning "hot water" or from a combination of the Mayan word chocol meaning "hot" and the Nahuatl word atl meaning "water." Choctaw from the native name Chahta of unknown meaning but also said to come from Spanish chato (="flattened") because of the tribe's custom of flattening the heads of male infants. chorizo from chorizo, "sausage" churro from churro, "fritter" cienega or cienaga from ciénaga, "swamp" < latin caenus "mud" and native suffix -aka, caénaka. cigar from Spanish cigarro meaning "fag (UK), stogie, stogy", from Mayan sicar or sic, "tobacco" cigarette from French cigarette "little weed", diminutive of French cigare "stogie", from Spanish cigarro meaning "fag (UK), stogie, stogy." cilantro from Spanish cilantro < latin coriandrum, "coriander" coca from Spanish, coca meaning "coke", from Quechua kukacockroach from Spanish cucarachacocoa or cacao from Spanish cacao, from Nahuatl cacáhuatlcojones from Spanish cojones < latin coleones meaning "balls, testicles", to denote courage Colorado from Spanish colorado < latin coloratus, red or colored comrade from French camarade meaning "friend", from Spanish camarada < latin camara "room", "pal, mate" condor from Spanish, from Quechua kunturconquistador from conquistador meaning "conqueror", from conquista < latin conquisita, "conquest" coquina from coquina, dim. form of "concha" meaning seashell; a sedimentary rock of NE Florida cordillera from cordillera, "range" < cordel "cord". corral from corral meaning "pen, yard" from Portuguese curral meaning "pen" of unknown; perhaps ultimately from Afrikaans kraal or from Vulgar Latin currale loosely meaning "enclosure for vehicles." corrida a bullfight (literally: "raced") coyote from Spanish coyote, from Nahuatl coyotlcowboy from Spanish vaquero, an individual who managed cattle while mounted on horseback, from vaca, "cow", from Latin vacca creole from French créole, from Spanish criollo, from Portuguese crioulo, raised in the house crimson from Old Spanish cremesín, via Medieval Latin cremesinus from Arabic قيرميزل qirmizI, from Persian قرمز qermez kermes; ultimately from Sanskrit कृमिज krmi-ja meaning "worm-made." crusade blend of Middle French croisade and Spanish cruzada; both ultimately from Latin crux, crucis "cross" cuadrilla from cuadrilla "group of people" diminutive of cuadro "square" < latin quadrus. cumbia from Spanish cumbia, a popular dance (for couples) originating in Colombia. D daiquiri from Daiquiri, a port city in eastern Cuba dengue from Spanish dengue meaning "fever", from Swahili dinga, "seizure" derecho from Spanish derecho meaning "straight" or "masculine of right side" < latin directum, a widespread and long-lived convection-induced straight-line windstorm descamisado from Spanish descamisado, "without a shirt" < camisa "shirt" < celtic kamisia. desperado from Spanish desesperado, desperate doubloon from Spanish doblón : meaning "two-sided" for two-headed coin ("doble" is double in Spanish < latin duplex). E El Dorado from El Dorado, literally, "the golden one" El Niño from El Niño de la Navidad, literally, "the Christmas child" due to the warming of Pacific waters seemed to warm around Christmas embarcadero from embarcadero a boat dock, from barca "rowboat". embargo from Spanish embargar, to "seize" or "impound" < latin imbarricare. escabeche from escabeche, "pickle" < Arabic assukkabáǧ. escopeteros from Spanish escopetero, "musketeer", from escopeta "shotgun" < italian schioppetto. F Federales from Federales, "federal police" fiesta from the Spanish fiesta meaning "party" < latin festaFlamenco "Spanish genre of music and dance typical of the gypsies". From Dutch flaming "from Flanders" (in the past it was believed that the gypsies were of German origin) Florida from La Florida, the flowery or plant-filled place or pascua florida, "flowery Easter." flotilla diminutive of flota, "fleet" G galleon from Spanish "galeón" (a large sailing ship having three or more masts, from the 15th to 18th century) gaucho from Mapuche "Argentine cowboy" gracias from Latin expression gratias agere ("to give thanks") gringo probably from griego ("Greek"), in reference to the language (cf. Greek to me), and originally referring to any type of foreigner guacamole via American Spanish from Nahuatl ahuaca-molli ("avocado sauce") guerrilla from Spanish obsolete meaning "small war" or current meaning "fire-armed group" (raised out of unbalanced democracy) from guerra "war" < Gothic werra "war" () H habanero from the Spanish for the name of the Cuban city of La Habana, which is known as Havana in English. Although it is not the place of origin, it was frequently traded there. hacienda from Old Spanish facienda, "estate" hackamore from Spanish jaquima, "halter." hola Spanish greeting, equivalent to "hello" Hispano From Spanish hispanic. Also came from Latin Hispania, the whole Iberian peninsula (Spain and Portugal) called by Romans. hombre from Spanish hombre, "man" < medieval homre < latin hominishoosegow from Spanish juzgado, courthouse, from juzgar < latin iudicare "to judge" hurricane from Spanish huracán, from Taíno hurákan; akin to Arawak kulakani, thunder I Inca via Spanish inca, from Quechua Inka, literally: "lord, king." incommunicado from incomunicado, without communication (in the mountains, in the jail,...), "in solitary confinement." iguana from Spanish iguana from Arawak iwana. J jade from Spanish piedra de ijada, "stone of flank." jalapeño from Spanish, a type of spicy chilli named after Jalapa de Enríquez, a town in Mexico, and the capital of the state of Veracruz jerky via Spanish charqui, from Quechua ch'arki, "dried flesh" junta from Spanish junta literally "joint"; a board of joint administration; sometimes used to refer to military officers command in a coup d'état. As an adjective, it means "together". K key from Spanish cayo, from Taíno cayo (this is English 'key'/'cay'/'quay' as in an island, reef or a linked series of them, not the 'key' with which one locks/unlocks doors) L La Niña "The little girl", complementary weather pattern to (q.v.) El Niño lariat from la reata, meaning "the strap, rein, or rope" from reatar ("to tie again") from atar "to tie (up);" from Latin aparte, "to join." lasso via American English from Spanish lazo meaning "tie; or rope" ultimately from Latin laqueum, "noose, snare." Latino English short for the Spanish word latinoamericano, formed by latino "related to the Latin empire and language" and americano "from the Americas" llama via Spanish llama, from Quechua llamaLlanos from Spanish llano "plain" < latin planus; vast tropical grassland plain situated to the east of the Andes in Colombia and Venezuela. loco from loco, "mad" or "crazy" Lolita from the diminutive for Lola, short for Dolores M macho from macho "male, brave" < latin masculus, the property of being overtly masculine. majordomo via Spanish mayordomo or Italian maggiordomo (both meaning "butler") from Latin maior domus meaning "mayor of the place." mano from mano, "hand". Stone handtool manzanilla from Spanish manzanilla, a natural tea for some superficial pains. The word is diminutive of manzana "apple" marijuana from Spanish marihuana meaning cannabis. maroon from the Spanish cimarrón, which was derived from an Arawakan root matador from matador meaning "killer" from matar ("to kill") probably from Arabic مات mata meaning "he died", also possibly cognate with Persian مردن mordan, "to die" as well as English "murder." Another theory is that the word "matador" is derived from a combination of the Vulgar Latin mattāre, from Late Latin mactare (to slaughter, kill) and the Latin -tor (which is cognate with Greek τορ -tōr and Sanskrit तर -tar-.) merengue a type of music and dance originating in the Dominican Republic mesa from mesa, table < latin mensa. The corresponding Spanish word to a flat top mountain is mesetamescal from Spanish mezcal, from Nahuatl mexcallimesquite from Mexican Spanish mezquite, from Nahuatl mizquitlmestizo from mestizo "racially mixed" < latin mixticius "mixed" or "mongrel", in Spanish, refers to a person of mixed European and Native American descent. mojito dim. formed from "mojado" (wet or dripping) probably referring to the mint leaves in the well known Cuban drink mole also from Spanish as Guacamole, from Nahuatl molle or molli ("sauce") Montana from montaña, a mountain mosquito from mosquito, literally "little fly" < mosca "fly" < latin musca. mulatto from Spanish or Portuguese mulato meaning "octoroon, sambo" from mulo "mule" > "hybrid". in Spanish, refers to a person of mixed European-African descent. mustang from mustango, mestengo, mestencoor mesteño, "without known master or owner" (archaic) mustee from mestizo, "racially mixed."or "mongrel" N nacho from Nacho, a nickname for the given name Ignacio, inventor of the snack nada from "nada" meaning " nothing." Negro from Spanish, Portuguese, or Italian negro, "black", from Latin nigrum (nom. niger) and Greek νέγρος négros, both meaning "black.". In Spanish it might be derogatory (depending on intonation and facial expression on some Latin countries). Nevada from Nevada ("snowy") after the Sierra Nevada ("snowy mountains") nostromo from nuestro amo, "our master". O olé an interjection, an expression of approval or triumph, similar to the Italian bravo (capable), by spectators of bull fights or football (soccer) matches oregano from orégano, "marjoram" P pachuco from pachuco, "fancy-dresser." or "unsuitable or bad-looking attire" paella from Spanish paella, from Valencian paella "pan" and the dish name. Originated in Latin patella, also meaning "pan." palmetto from palmito, "palm heart, little palm", diminutive form of the word for palm. pampa via Spanish, from Quechua pampa, plainpapaya from papaya, akin to Arawak papáiapáramo from Spanish páramo (moorland) patio from patio, inner courtyard, "an open paved area adjacent to a home" peccadillo from pecadillo, "small sin" peccary from Spanish pecarí, from Carib pakira or paquira.peon from Spanish peón ("laborer") peyote from Spanish, from Nahuatl peyotl ("caterpillar") Philippines via Spanish Filipinas from Latin Philippinae, "islands of king Philip II of Spain"; ultimately from Greek Φιλιππίναι Philippinai from the Greek phrase Φίλος ίππος Νησιά Fílos Íppos Ni̱sí, "Islands of the Horse Friend." piccadill from picadillo, "hash" pimento or pimiento from pimiento, "pepper." piña colada from Spanish piña (pineapple), and colada, which means strained, from the Spanish verb colar ("to strain") piñata from piñata ("jug, pot") from Latin pinea, "pine cone." or "birthday batting-pony game for kids" piñon or pinyon from piñón, "pine" pinta from pinta, "he/she/it paints"; also archaic Spanish for pintada, "painted" Pinto from pintar, "to paint"; a white horse with a coat "painted" in large patterns of any other color. piragua from Carib language pisco from pisco, "turkey" placer mining from placer, "sand bank" or "pleasure" platinum from platina, "little silver" (now platino) playa from playa, "beach" < latin plageaplaza from plaza, "public square, spot or place" < latin platea. politico from Spanish or Italian político meaning "politician, political agent;" ultimately from Latin politicus meaning "of citizens or the state, civil, civic," from Greek πολιτικός (Ancient Greek: πολῑτικός) politikos, "of citizens or the state," from πολίτης (plural: πολίτες) polites (citizen) from πόλις polis, "city." poncho from poncho, from Araucanian pontho meaning "woolen fabric." or "Short of Proper name Alfonso" potato from Peninsular Spanish patata, itself from batata, "sweet potato", from Taíno and papa, "potato" from Quechua potrero from potrero, archaic term for "tongue of land" pronto from Spanish "soon, prompt" pronunciamento from pronunciamiento proclamation, "military coup d'état", usually establishing a military dictatorship (often a junta) puma from Spanish "cougar, panther", from Quechua pueblo via Castilian pueblo from Latin populus ("people") or "Population of Country-side or outskirts". Q quadroon from cuarterón, "fourth" quesadilla from quesadilla meaning a traditional Mexican dish made with tortillas and cheese, diminutive of queso, cheese. quetzal from Spanish, from Nahuatl "quetzalli": a group of colourful birds of the trogon family found in tropical regions of the Americas. It also may refer to Guatemalan quetzal, the currency of Guatemala. quinoa via Spanish quinua, from Quechua kinwaquinceañera from Spanish quince años, literally: "fifteen-year-old-girl"; a girl's fifteenth birthday celebration similar to a "sweet sixteen"; with special rituals in South America. Quixotism/Quixotic from fictional character Don Quixote as in "tilting at windmills" quirt from Spanish cuarta literally: "quarter"; a short horseman's whip, from "one fourth" (of a vara) R ranch from rancho, a very small rural community, smaller than a town; also a very humble dwelling in South American Spanish. reconquista from reconquista, "reconquest" remuda from Mexican Spanish remudar, to exchange (horses) renegade from renegado, "turncoat, heretic, disowned" rhumba from rumba synomyn of Big-Party rincon from rincón, "meadow" or "corner-side" robalo from Spanish róbalo meaning "bass, sea wolf," a tropical marine game and fish food roble from Spanish roble, "oak tree" < latin roboris. rodeo from rodeo and verb rodear (to go around) or "go-after and animal" rumba from rumba or "farra" synomyn of Big-Party S saguaro from saguaro, from Piman salsa from salsa, "sauce" sapodilla from zapotillosarabande from French sarabande in turn from Spanish zarabandasavanna from sabana, "veld", from Taíno zabanasavvy from Spanish or Portuguese sabe, "knows"; sabio, "wise, learned" < latin sapidus "with sapience". shack perhaps from Mexican Spanish jacal meaning "hut", from Nahuatl xacallisherry from Old Spanish Xerés , modern Spanish Jerez . sierra from sierra, a mountain range Sierra Nevada literally "snowy mountains" siesta from siesta, "nap", from Latin Sexta [hora] "sixth hour" silo from silosombrero from sombrero (literally, shade maker), "hat" stampede from estampidastevedore from estibador (literally, one who stuffs), "ship loader" stockade from a French derivation of the Spanish estocada, "stab" suave meaning "charming, confident, and elegant" < latin suavis "sweet". T taco from taco, "plug" or from Portugues Bat tamale from Spanish tamales, pl. of tamal, from Nahuatl tamalli meaning dumpling made from corn flour tango from Spanish tango. tapioca from tapioca, "cassava" ten-gallon hat from Spanish tan galán meaning "so gallant (looking)"; alternate theory is the gallon of Texas English here is a misunderstanding of galón meaning braid temblor Spanish for trembling, or earthquake; from temblar, to shake, from Vulgar Latin *tremulāre, from Latin tremulus tequila from tequila, from the town Tequila, where the beverage originated telenovela or telenovella from telenovela, "soap opera" or to some extend "TV-Drama-show" tilde from tilde from Spanish ' symbol above some vowels tobacco from Spanish (Nahuatl influenced) tabaco, "snuff" tomatillo from Spanish tomatillo, "small tomato" (see Physalis philadelphica) tomato from Spanish tomate, from Nahuatl xitomatltorero from toro, "bull" tornado from Spanish tronada, "thunderstorm", influenced by tornar, "to turn" tortilla from tortilla, literally "small cake". In Mexico is a type of thin flatbread made of finely ground wheat flour. Now is called "omelet" in Spain tostada (toast) and tostada (tortilla) from tostada, "toasted" tuna from Spanish atún, from Arabic تون tun, from Latin thunnus, from Greek θύννος, thynnos (=tuna fish) turista from turista, "tourist" as either gender M/F V vamoose from vamos, meaning "let's go" vanilla from Spanish vainilla, diminutive of Latin vaina, from vagina meaning "pod" vaquero from the Spanish word vaquerovertigo from the Spanish word vértigovicugna via Spanish, from Quechua wik'uñavigilante from Spanish vigilante, meaning "watchman." < latin vigiliā "sleepless night, vigil". W wop from Italian guappone, from Spanish guapo, "handsome" or "attractive". Y yerba buena from Spanish yerbabuena meaning "good herb" (infused in Tea which has a Mint smell) < latin erbam bonam Z Zorro from Spanish zorro'', a fox, originally "smart" (of Basque origin) See also List of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin List of U.S. place names of Spanish origin List of English–Spanish interlingual homographs References External links Montague, Artur, El elemento español en el vocabulario inglés: prolegómenos a una lista. AIH. Actas IV (1971). (in Spanish) Online Etymology Dictionary List of English words of Spanish origin Spanish

Law & Order: Criminal Intent

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Law & Order: Criminal Intent is an American police procedural drama television series set in New York City, where it was also primarily produced. Created and produced by Dick Wolf and René Balcer, the series premiered on September 30, 2001, as the third series in Wolf's successful Law & Order franchise. Criminal Intent focuses on the investigations of the major case squad in a fictionalized version of the New York City Police Department set in New York City's One Police Plaza. In the style of the original Law & Order, episodes are often "ripped from the headlines" or loosely based on a real crime that received media attention. The series aired on NBC for the first six seasons but was moved to the NBCUniversal-owned USA Network starting with the seventh season to share costs and due to declining ratings. During its NBC run, each episode aired on USA the week after its original NBC airing. The 10th and final season premiered on Sunday, May 1, 2011, at 9 p.m. EDT with original cast members Vincent D'Onofrio and Kathryn Erbe starring as Detectives Robert Goren and Alexandra Eames, respectively, and featuring Jay O. Sanders as Captain Joseph Hannah. The series concluded on June 26, 2011, after 10 seasons comprising 195 episodes. Premise Criminal Intent follows The NYPD Manhattan "Major Case Squad", a force of detectives who investigate high-profile cases (in most cases, murder, kidnappings or major robberies), such as those involving VIPs, local government officials and employees, the financial industry, and the art world. This series in the franchise is notable for its heavy focus on the motives and actions of the criminals, paralleling the investigation with scenes of the suspects' lives that show the audience circumstances that the investigators can, at most, only attempt to deduce. Each episode features a cold open of the victim and suspects in (at most) a few days leading up to the crime; these scenes are presented without context, and maintain suspense as to the perpetrator's identity and often motive, until the ensuing investigation reveals these. However, some episodes reveal the offender at the start, while leaving out other key details and presenting a puzzle, over which the detectives labor, and agonise, to discover; thereby they provide the plot conflict of the episode, and (usually) the resolution of the case: solving the crime, and (likewise) insinuating a plea, or verdict, of "guilty". Occasionally, however, either the detectives resign themselves to conviction being infeasible—or an acquittal or dismissal dramatizes the limits of criminal prosecution. Unlike other Law & Order series, most Criminal Intent episodes end with the detectives eliciting confessions, rather than continuing to the trial phase. Seasons 1–4 (and 10) focus on Detectives Robert "Bobby" Goren and Alexandra Eames as the primary detectives in every episode. In seasons 5–8, the episodes then typically alternate between that team, and one composed of veteran Detective Michael "Mike" Logan and three female colleagues, Carolyn Barek, Megan Wheeler, and Nola Falacci. After season 7, Mike Logan retires from the NYPD, and 8 and 9 feature Detective Zack Nichols. In season 10, the Goren and Eames characters return as lead characters. The UK-aired version of Law & Order: Criminal Intent features the song "There's Only Me" by Rob Dougan in the opening credits (seasons 1–5). (Another Rob Dougan track, "I'm Not Driving Anymore", is used as the theme music for Law & Order and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit.) From season 6 of the UK-aired version, the theme music is "Urban Warfare" by Paul Dinletir. History Law & Order: Criminal Intent was created in 2001 by René Balcer and Dick Wolf. Balcer served as the show's executive producer, showrunner, and head writer for its first five seasons. The show dominated its original time slot on Sundays at 9:00 p.m. for its first three seasons (routinely beating its competition, ABC's Alias and HBO's The Sopranos, in households and in the 18–49 demographic), and was often the highest-rated show of the night, with an average audience of 15.5 million viewers. The show aired Sundays on NBC, with each week's episode being repeated on USA Network the following Saturday. Beginning in season 4, it faced stiff new competition from ABC's night-time soap opera Desperate Housewives, a show that soon became the No. 1 drama on television. Although ratings for Criminal Intent further eroded in season 5 amid stiff competition, the series maintained respectable ratings through the season, enough to get it renewed for a sixth season on NBC. Balcer left the show at the end of season 5, and the show was handed off to Warren Leight, a longtime Criminal Intent staffer. Under Leight's leadership, the show acquired a new, more melodramatic tone. When NBC had acquired the rights to Sunday Night Football for the 2006–2007 season, Law & Order: Criminal Intent was moved to a new time slot on Tuesdays at 9:00 p.m., to serve as a lead-in to fellow Law & Order spin-off, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. For its first six airings, it faced CBS's The Unit and baseball on Fox. In late October, Fox's hit series House moved opposite Law & Order: Criminal Intent. In May 2007, NBC faced a choice of renewing either Criminal Intent or the original Law & Order, which had seen a ratings increase in the last few episodes of its 17th season. Ultimately, because of Criminal Intents weak ratings, NBC picked up Law & Order. Criminal Intents new episodes were moved to the NBCUniversal-owned USA Network, where it could be expected to attract a much larger audience than the cable channel's average. The remaining episodes from the seventh season began running on June 8, 2008. Production on the show was halted temporarily in December 2007 due to the writers' strike. For its move to the USA Network, the version of the Law & Order theme used for the show's opening credits was replaced by the version originally used on the short-lived Law & Order: Trial by Jury. On May 22, 2008, USA Network renewed Criminal Intent for an eighth season. Season 7 was the top-rated television series on basic cable, having more than quadrupled the audience for the 10 p.m. Thursday slot on USA Network when compared to the ratings from the previous year. Nielsen ratings for the week of July 13, 2008 showed that Criminal Intent was ranked sixth overall on top 20 cable ratings, with a viewer base of 4.899 million viewers. The network ordered 16 episodes, which were originally to begin broadcasting in November 2008, but the network moved the premiere back, first to February 5, 2009, then with an expected date of spring–summer 2009, and finally announcing the start date as April 19. The only change in cast members from the seventh season was Chris Noth's departure and replacement by Jeff Goldblum. At the end of season 7, Leight, who left to focus on In Treatment, was replaced by new executive producers Walon Green and Robert Nathan. In December 2008, Nathan left the show after completing two Goldblum episodes. Law & Order co-executive producer and writer Ed Zuckerman then picked up Nathan's assignment while continuing his duties for the original Law & Orders 19th season. Michael Chernuchin co-executive produced Green's episodes, and Tim Lea co-executive produced Zuckerman's episodes. Other executive producers on the series were Norberto Barba, Peter Jankowski, Diana Son, Julie Martin, and Arthur W. Forney. Charlie Rubin was the supervising producer, and Balcer, Eric Overmyer, and Siobhan Byrne O'Connor were consulting producers. In April 2009, NBC began airing Law & Order: Criminal Intent season 8 encores a few days after they premiered on USA. D'Onofrio, Erbe, and Bogosian left the series in the season 9 premiere, which aired in two parts on March 30 and April 6, 2010. Walon Green, Peter Jankowski, John David Coles, and Dick Wolf were the executive producers for the ninth season of Criminal Intent. Media outlets reported in August 2010 that actor Jeff Goldblum (Detective Zachary Nichols) had decided to leave the cast of Law & Order: CI, citing concerns about the show's future. The option to return on all the actors formally expired on July 31, 2010 after being extended by a month on June 30, 2010 when they were originally up. A final decision by the USA Network over whether the series would be renewed for another season had not been announced at that time. On September 22, 2010, Variety announced that Criminal Intent had been renewed, and that Vincent D'Onofrio would be returning to the series as Detective Robert Goren for its final season. Kathryn Erbe subsequently signed on to reprise the role of Detective Eames for the eight-episode final season of Law & Order: Criminal Intent. Chris Brancato was announced as the executive producer/showrunner for the final eight-episode season of Law & Order: CI. Brancato succeeded Walon Green, who served as the showrunner during the eighth and ninth seasons. Prior to the season premiere, creator Dick Wolf was hoping the series would be renewed for an 11th season, versus ending with season 10. "Being the unbridled optimist that I am, I still have hope that this is a 'victory lap' and not a 'swan song,'" Wolf said during a conference call. "Based on the work so far, I think the audience is going to be very happy, relieved, and welcoming ... and hopefully enough fans will come out so the powers-that-be reconsider their decision." New showrunner/EP Chris Brancato suggested that the show could be picked up for an 11th season if the intended final episodes garnered sufficient ratings. The tenth season ended on June 26, 2011, and USA Network announced the following month that they were choosing not to air more episodes of the series due to costs. When asked if LOCI would be taken back by NBC, Wolf tweeted, "USA Network decided not to pick up #LOCI for another season. We hoped ratings & fans could change their mind but. ... I've learned to never say never but most execs are looking for something new. We truly appreciate our loyal fans! Thank you." In August 2012, it was announced that Kathryn Erbe would be playing her character Alexandra Eames again in Law & Order: Special Victims Units fourteenth season. Detective Eames transferred out of Major Case, and is now working for a joint City/Federal Homeland Security Task Force, and crosses paths with the SVU squad when their investigation of a sex trafficking ring uncovers a connection to terrorists. Warren Leight, who now is showrunner and executive producer on Law & Order: SVU, tweeted that Erbe's first episode would be the fourth of the season, "Acceptable Loss". Erbe later returned to guest star again in the fourteenth season of SVU in the episode "Poisoned Motive". In February 2013, Warren Leight further tweeted on Criminal Intents ending, "... simply put, USA didn't make enough money on LOCI to justify even the final 8 [episodes] they did. they felt they owed it to the fans. ... And they certainly showed LOCI more loyalty than NBC did the Mothership." Leight further tweeted, "I think fans should enjoy the long run we had, and maybe hope for a MadeForTV movie if anyone ever makes those in future." Starting September 2017, series lead Vincent D'Onofrio (Detective Goren), showrunner/executive producer Warren Leight, Julie Martin, and director and executive producer Norberto Barba have begun using their Twitter accounts to re-tweet tweets aimed at ION Television with the hashtag: #BringBackLOCI. Season seven co-star Alicia Witt (Detective Falacci) also sent a re-tweeted reply to a tweet that praised her portrayal and her character, saying, "Aww thank you. I have always wanted to revisit Falacci one day- loved being there during JN's [Julianne Nicholson's] maternity leave but want to play her again!" Broadcast history The show originally aired on Sunday nights at 9:00 p.m. ET on NBC for the first five seasons, from September 30, 2001 through May 14, 2006. It was then shifted to Tuesday nights at 9 p.m. ET on September 19, 2006, and remained in that timeslot through the end of season 6 on May 21, 2007. CI was then moved to the USA Network for its 7th season and aired Thursday nights at 9:00 p.m. starting October 4, 2007 until the fall finale in December 2007. It was then moved to Sunday nights at 9:00 p.m. ET on June 8, 2008 (when it paired up with In Plain Sight) until the 8th-season finale on August 9, 2009. For the ninth season only, the series moved to a new day and timeslot, Tuesday nights at 10:00 p.m. ET. During the tenth and final season, the series went back to Sundays at 9:00 p.m. ET on USA Network. After the show moved to USA, NBC re-aired episodes from the most recent season during the summer months. Reruns also air frequently on Bravo, USA Network, Universal HD, WGN America, Cloo, Oxygen, Ion Television, MyNetworkTV, WE tv, and in syndication on local stations. Cast and characters Seasons 1 and 2 On September 30, 2001, NBC premiered the show, starring Vincent D'Onofrio as Detective Robert Goren, a junior detective in the Major Case Squad who has a degree in psychology and has a knack for solving difficult crimes, and Kathryn Erbe as his partner, Detective Alexandra Eames, a veteran detective from an NYPD family who initially resists her partner's eccentric style, but grows to understand him as the series progresses. Before joining the NYPD Goren was a Special Agent with the United States Army's Criminal Investigations Division. Jamey Sheridan plays Captain James Deakins; although Deakins's first priority is the success of criminal investigations, he is often forced to rein in and protect his more maverick detectives, especially Goren and later Logan, to manage the bad publicity they occasionally attract. While this creates some friction between Deakins and his detectives, for the most part they respect his professional judgment and authority. Courtney B. Vance's Assistant District Attorney Ron Carver is frequently in conflict with all the detectives because they tend to rely on hunches and instinct, when he wants more hard evidence. Despite this conflict, however, he has a strong working relationship with both teams. Season 3 In the third season, from episodes 5–11, Eames is temporarily replaced by Detective G. Lynn Bishop portrayed by Samantha Buck. Eames is volunteering to serve as a surrogate mother for her sister-in-law's baby; in reality, Erbe was pregnant with her second child. Seasons 4 and 5 In the fifth season, Chris Noth joined the cast, reprising his role as Detective Mike Logan from the original Law & Order. Noth alternates the starring role every other episode with D'Onofrio, and is partnered with Annabella Sciorra as Detective Carolyn Barek. Sciorra left after one season. Deakins retires from the Major Case Squad at the end of Season 5 rather than battle a conspiracy to frame him instigated by former Chief of Detectives Frank Adair, whom Major Case detectives have arrested for killing a female acquaintance and her husband. Carver leaves as well, though there is no explanation as to why he departed the ADA's office. Seasons 6–9 Deakins was replaced by Captain Danny Ross (Eric Bogosian). Carver was initially replaced by ADA Patricia Kent (Theresa Randle), although she appears in only two episodes. The ADA role from this point on is left vacant, as the detectives aren't shown working with any ADA on a regular basis. Julianne Nicholson replaced Annabella Sciorra as Detective Megan Wheeler, who remains with the show through the end of the eighth season. In season 7, Wheeler temporarily leaves MCS to go to Europe, where she teaches a course on American police procedure. In reality, Julianne Nicholson was pregnant with her first child and was replaced temporarily by Alicia Witt, playing Detective Nola Falacci. Noth left the series at the end of season seven. He was replaced by Jeff Goldblum as Detective Zack Nichols. The series was renewed for a ninth season, which began in March 2010 and marked the departure of D'Onofrio, Erbe, and Bogosian. Ross is murdered in the first half of the season premiere, while Eames fires Goren in the second half and then quits the NYPD. Goldblum was the head of the series with new partner Detective Serena Stevens, played by Saffron Burrows. Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio succeeded Bogosian, portraying Captain Zoe Callas. Season 10 The final season featured the return of Detectives Alex Eames and Robert Goren, replacing outgoing Zack Nichols and Serena Stevens who made their final appearances in the season 9 finale. Eames and Goren are brought back at the request of Joseph Hannah, played by Jay O. Sanders, the new Major Case Captain who replaced Zoe Callas, on the condition that Goren attend mandatory psych sessions with brilliant police doctor Paula Gyson, played by Julia Ormond. The final season consisted of eight episodes, all featuring D'Onofrio, Erbe and Sanders and Ormond. Seasons Law & Order: Criminal Intent's seasons 1–5 aired on NBC on Sunday nights at 9pm EST. Season 6 aired on NBC on Tuesday nights at 9pm EST and the last two episodes in May on Monday nights at 10pm EST. In October 2007, new episodes of season 7 aired on the USA Network on Thursday nights at 9pm EST. In June 2008 the remaining episodes of the seventh season until the end of the eighth season aired on Sunday nights at 9pm EST on USA. Starting on January 9, 2008, reruns of season 7 began airing on NBC and May 6, 2009, reruns of season 8 began airing on NBC. Criminal Intent's season finale aired August 9, 2009. June 20, 2010, reruns of season 9 began airing on Sunday nights on NBC. The show moved to Tuesday nights at 10pm EST on USA as of the ninth season which premiered on March 30, 2010 and ended July 6, 2010. The show returned to Sunday nights at 9pm EST on USA for the tenth and final season when it premiered May 1, 2011. Episodes Law & Order: Criminal Intent aired for ten seasons and 195 episodes, which aired between September 30, 2001 and June 26, 2011. Seasons one through seven each consisted of 21 to 23 episodes, seasons eight and nine each consisted of 16, and season ten consisted of 8; each episode lasts approximately sixty minutes including commercials (approx. 43 without commercials). Awards/nominations Home media Universal Studios Home Entertainment has released Law & Order: Criminal Intent on DVD in Regions 1, 2 and 4. Seasons 1–5 have been released in both Region 2 and Region 4. In April 2012, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series in Region 1. They subsequently released season 7 on DVD on June 26, 2012. Season 8 was released on October 23, 2012 with Season 9 on December 11, 2012 and Season 10 on March 12, 2013. The complete series is currently exclusively streaming through premium plans on NBC's streaming service Peacock. Region 2 dates refer to United Kingdom releases only Due to content issues stemming from the Season 8 episode, "The Glory That Was ...", only 15 episodes from Season 8 will be on the DVD set. Technical information Law & Order: Criminal Intent had been produced in 16:9 format since late 2003, when it was first broadcast in HDTV. Standard definition NBC stations aired the episodes cropped to 4:3 until 2006, when all Law & Order series began airing episodes in 16:9 for SD. Reruns of those episodes which were cropped to 4:3 have subsequently been aired in 16:9 as well. Some broadcasters outside the US, however, still use versions cropped to 4:3. The show was recorded on 3-perf 35mm film with the use of motion cameras for the first eight seasons, the first five seasons the series' on set lighting was very dim, with the sixth season scenes on set were brightened until season eight. At the commencement of season nine, the camera department switched to digital video acquisition. The lighting in the MCS squad room also received a significant change. The series has always relied heavily on color corrected fluorescent lighting which contributed to its drab and bluish look. At the beginning of season nine, sections of the MCS ceiling were removed and banks of incandescent lighting strips were added to steepen the warmer, sunny day look of the drab squad room. In the tenth season, the lighting in interrogation room senses were brightened to their color in the sixth and seventh seasons. Starting with the sixth season, the editing style changed, moving away from the style of the other shows in the Law & Order franchise (examples: zooms, colors, and thud sounds used to quickly fade to commercials, quick brighting effects and sharp sounds to show scene changes) and the tempo of the background music was amplified and at a faster pace. Related series Crossovers To Law & Order: Criminal Intent During the first season of Law & Order: Criminal Intent (L&O:CI), several cast members from the original series made guest appearances as their Law & Order (L&O) characters. Dianne Wiest appeared in the first episode of the series, "One", Jerry Orbach and Jesse L. Martin guest starred in the episode "Poison", S. Epatha Merkerson appeared in the episode "Badge", and J.K. Simmons appeared in the episode "Crazy." Leslie Hendrix also reprises her L&O role as Medical Examiner Dr. Elizabeth Rodgers as a recurring character throughout the run of the series starting with the first-season episode "The Faithful." In 2005, Chris Noth reprised his L&O role as Detective Mike Logan for the show's fourth season. This appearance led to Noth joining the cast in the fifth season, appearing in the starring role for half the episodes of the season. Noth remained with the show for three seasons before departing in 2008. Also appearing in their roles from L&O, during L&O:CIs fifth season, were Fred Dalton Thompson in the episode "In the Wee Small Hours: Part 2" and Carolyn McCormick in the episode "To the Bone". On June 15, 2008, Mary McCormack made a guest appearance in the seventh season episode "Contract", as Mary Shannon, her character from In Plain Sight. At the time of the original airing, In Plain Sight followed L&O:CI on the USA Network. From Law & Order: Criminal Intent In the 14th season of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (L&O:SVU), Kathryn Erbe reprised her role as Alexandra Eames in the episodes "Acceptable Loss" and "Poisoned Motive". Also in this L&O:SVU season, Denis O'Hare guest starred as his character Father Shea from the Criminal Intent episode "Last Rites" for the L&O:SVU episode "Presumed Guilty". Jo, a 2013 series created by René Balcer, featured Olivia d'Abo reprising her role as Nicole Wallace in its last episode. In the 22nd season of L&O:SVU, Annabella Sciorra reprised her role as Detective (now Lieutenant) Carolyn Barek in the episode "Hunt, Trap, Rape, and Release". French adaptation In July 2005, NBC Universal sold the format of Law & Order: Criminal Intent to French channel TF1 Alma Productions to create a French remake of the show. The show mirrors the content of the original US stories, although it is set in Paris and is adjusted for language and culture. The show ran for 20 episodes over three seasons between May 2007 to November 2008. Russian adaptation A Russian version of L&O: CI (shot in Moscow with Russian actors) premiered in March 2007, where it was shown back to back with the Russian version of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, to become one of Russia's top-rated series. As a result, the initial order of eight episodes has been expanded to some 40 episodes. The show is entitled Закон и порядок. Преступный умысел (Translation – Law & Order: Criminal Intent) See also List of television shows filmed in New York City References External links on Wolf Entertainment on NBC on USA Network on Channel 5 Law & Order: Criminal Intent at the TV IV 2001 American television series debuts 2011 American television series endings 2000s American crime drama television series 2010s American crime drama television series 2000s American mystery television series 2010s American mystery television series 2000s American legal television series 2010s American legal television series 2000s American police procedural television series 2010s American police procedural television series Edgar Award-winning works English-language television shows Fictional portrayals of the New York City Police Department Law & Order (franchise) NBC original programming Television series by Universal Television Television shows set in New York City Television shows filmed in New York City American television spin-offs USA Network original programming Television series created by Dick Wolf Television series based on actual events New York Supreme Court Television series by Universal Content Productions

Fenfluramine/phentermine

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The drug combination fenfluramine/phentermine, usually called fen-phen, was an anti-obesity treatment that utilized two anorectics. Fenfluramine was marketed by American Home Products (later known as Wyeth) as Pondimin, but was shown to cause potentially fatal pulmonary hypertension and heart valve problems, which eventually led to its withdrawal and legal damages of over $13 billion. Phentermine was not shown to have harmful effects. Fenfluramine acts as a serotonin releasing agent, phentermine as primarily a norepinephrine releasing agent. Phentermine also induces the release of serotonin and dopamine, although to a far lesser extent than it induces the release of norepinephrine. History Fenfluramine as a single drug was first introduced in the 1970s, but was not popular because it only temporarily reduced weight. A 1984 study found a weight loss of 7.5 kg on average in 24 weeks, as compared to 4.4 kg under placebo. It sold modestly until the 1990s, when it was combined with phentermine and heavily marketed. A similar drug, aminorex, had caused severe lung damage and "provided reason to worry that similar drugs ... could increase the risk of a rare but often fatal lung disease, pulmonary hypertension." In 1994, Wyeth official Fred Wilson expressed concerns about fenfluramine's labeling containing only four cases of pulmonary hypertension when a total of 41 had been observed, but no action was taken until 1996. In 1995, Wyeth introduced dexfenfluramine (the dextro isomer, marketed as Redux), which it hoped would cause fewer adverse effects. However, the medical officer of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Leo Lutwak, insisted upon a black box warning of pulmonary hypertension risks. After Lutwak refused to approve the drug, the FDA management had James Milton Bilstad, FDA Senior Drug Evaluator, sign it and approved the drug with no black box warning for marketing in 1996. European regulators required a major warning of pulmonary hypertension risks. In 1996, a 30-year-old woman developed heart problems after a month of using fenfluramine/phentermine; when she died in February 1997, the Boston Herald devoted a front-page article to her. Later that year, in August 1997, a paper in the New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM) from the Mayo Clinic discussed clinical findings in 24 people who had taken fen-phen. The authors noted that their findings suggested a possible correlation between mitral valve dysfunction and the use of these anorectic agents. The FDA alerted medical doctors that it had received nine additional reports of the same type, and requested all health care professionals to report any such cases to the agency’s MedWatch program, or to their respective pharmaceutical manufacturers. The FDA subsequently received over a hundred additional reports of valvular heart disease in people taking fen-phen, fenfluramine alone or dexfenfluramine alone. The FDA requested that the manufacturers of fenfluramine and dexfenfluramine stress the potential risk to the heart in the drugs' labeling and in package inserts. As of 1997, the FDA was continuing to receive reports of valvular heart disease in persons who had taken these drugs. This disease typically involves the aortic and mitral valves. After reports of valvular heart disease and pulmonary hypertension, primarily in women who had been undergoing treatment with fen-phen or (dex)fenfluramine, the FDA requested its withdrawal from the market in September 1997. The action was based on findings from doctors who had evaluated people taking these two drugs with echocardiograms, a procedure that can test the functioning of heart valves. The findings indicated that approximately 30 percent of people who had taken the combination up to 24 months had abnormal echocardiograms, even though they had no symptoms. This percentage of abnormal test results was much higher than would be expected from a comparatively sized sample of the population who had not been exposed to either fenfluramine or dexfenfluramine. Follow up studies showed that for people who took the combination for 3 months or less, the rate of heart valve complications was less than 3%. Aftermath Upon the release of the information regarding fen-phen's cardiac risks, the Association of Trial Lawyers of America formed a large trial lawyer group to seek damages from American Home Products, the distributor of fenfluramine and dexfenfluramine. Fen-phen is no longer widely available. In April 2005, American Lawyer magazine ran a cover story on the wave of fen-phen litigation, reporting that more than 50,000 product liability lawsuits had been filed by alleged fen-phen victims. Estimates of total liability ran as high as $14 billion. As of February 2005, Wyeth was still in negotiations with injured parties, offering settlements of $5,000 to $200,000 to some of those who had sued, and stating they might offer more to those who were most seriously injured. One plaintiff's attorney claimed that "the payments [were] not going to be large enough to cover medical expenses." Thousands of injured persons rejected these offers. At the time, Wyeth announced it had set aside $21.1 billion (U.S.) to cover the cost of the lawsuits. Possible uses Obesity In 1984, researchers at the University of Rochester Medical Center reported that they had performed a double-blind, controlled clinical trial comparing phentermine alone, fenfluramine alone, a combination of phentermine and fenfluramine, and placebo, for weight loss in humans. Weight loss in those receiving the fen-phen combination was significantly greater (8.4±1.1 kg) than in those receiving placebo (4.4±0.9 kg) and equivalent to that of those receiving fenfluramine (7.5±1.2 kg) or phentermine alone (10.0±1.2 kg). This amounts to an additional weight loss of 4±2 kg over the course of 24 weeks. Adverse effects were less frequent with the combination regimen than with the other active (non-placebo) treatments. The authors felt that combining fenfluramine and phentermine capitalized on their pharmacodynamic differences, resulting in equivalent weight loss, fewer adverse effects, and better appetite control. Addiction The term fen-phen was coined in 1994 when Pietr Hitzig and Richard B. Rothman reported that this combination could presumptively remit alcohol and cocaine craving. The authors suggested that other combined dopamine and serotonin agonists or precursors might share this therapeutic potential. Subsequent experiments in rats supported these preliminary reports. In 2006 it was confirmed that the combination of phentermine and the serotonin precursor 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), in place of fenfluramine, significantly decreased alcohol withdrawal seizures in rats. Intramural National Institutes of Health (NIH) double-blind protocols to demonstrate the efficacy of fen-phen in alcohol and cocaine addiction were designed, but never performed. Adverse effects The findings on fen-phen, specifically fenfluramine, causing valvular heart disease and pulmonary hypertension prompted a renewed interest in the deleterious effects of systemic serotonin. It had already been known for decades that two of the major side-effects of the carcinoid syndrome, in which excessive serotonin is produced endogenously, are valvular disease and pulmonary hypertension. Several centers were able to note a relationship to an excessive activation of the serotonin receptor subtype 5-HT2B. References External links Frontline: Dangerous prescriptions – Interview with Leo Lutwak, in which he discusses the side effects of fenfluramine (Pondimin), its successor dexfenfluramine (Redux), and the fen-phen combination. U.S. FDA fen-phen information Anorectics Combination drugs Withdrawn drugs

Mean corpuscular volume

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The mean corpuscular volume, or mean cell volume (MCV), is a measure of the average volume of a red blood corpuscle (or red blood cell). The measure is obtained by multiplying a volume of blood by the proportion of blood that is cellular (the hematocrit), and dividing that product by the number of erythrocytes (red blood cells) in that volume. The mean corpuscular volume is a part of a standard complete blood count. In patients with anemia, it is the MCV measurement that allows classification as either a microcytic anemia (MCV below normal range), normocytic anemia (MCV within normal range) or macrocytic anemia (MCV above normal range). Normocytic anemia is usually deemed so because the bone marrow has not yet responded with a change in cell volume. It occurs occasionally in acute conditions, namely blood loss and hemolysis. If the MCV was determined by automated equipment, the result can be compared to RBC morphology on a peripheral blood smear, where a normal RBC is about the size of a normal lymphocyte nucleus. Any deviation would usually be indicative of either faulty equipment or technician error, although there are some conditions that present with high MCV without megaloblastic cells. For further specification, it can be used to calculate red blood cell distribution width (RDW). The RDW is a statistical calculation made by automated analyzers that reflects the variability in size and shape of the RBCs. Calculation To calculate MCV, the hematocrit (Hct) is divided by the concentration of RBCs ([RBC]) Normally, MCV is expressed in femtoliters (fL, or 10−15 L), and [RBC] in millions per microliter (106 / μL). The normal range for MCV is 80–100 fL. If the hematocrit is expressed as a percentage, the red blood cell concentration as millions per microliter, and the MCV in femtoliters, the formula becomes For example, if the Hct = 42.5% and [RBC] = 4.58 million per microliter (4,580,000/μL), then Using implied units, The MCV can be determined in a number of ways by automatic analyzers. In volume-sensitive automated blood cell counters, such as the Coulter counter, the red cells pass one-by-one through a small aperture and generate a signal directly proportional to their volume. Other automated counters measure red blood cell volume by means of techniques that measure refracted, diffracted, or scattered light. Interpretation The normal reference range is typically 80-100 fL. High In pernicious anemia (macrocytic), MCV can range up to 150 femtolitres. (as are an elevated GGT and an AST/ALT ratio of 2:1). Vitamin B12 and/or folic acid deficiency has also been associated with macrocytic anemia (high MCV numbers). Low The most common causes of microcytic anemia are iron deficiency (due to inadequate dietary intake, gastrointestinal blood loss, or menstrual blood loss), thalassemia, sideroblastic anemia or chronic disease. In iron deficiency anemia (microcytic anemia), it can be as low as 60 to 70 femtolitres. In some cases of thalassemia, the MCV may be low even though the patient is not iron deficient. Worked example Derivation The MCV can be conceptualized as the total volume of a group of cells divided by the number of cells. For a real world sized example, imagine you had 10 small jellybeans with a combined volume of 10 µL. The mean volume of a jellybean in this group would be 10 µL / 10 jellybeans = 1 µL / jellybean. A similar calculation works for MCV. 1. Measure the RBC index in cells/µL. Take the reciprocal (1/RBC index) to convert it to µL/cell. 2. The 1 µL is only made of a proportion of red cells (e.g. 40%) with the rest of the volume composed of plasma. Multiply by the hematocrit (a unitless quantity) to take this into account. 3. Finally, convert the units of µL to fL by multiplying by . The result would look like this: Note: the shortcut proposed above just makes the units work out: References Blood tests

Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty

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is a 2001 stealth game developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Japan and published by Konami. Released on November 13, originally for the PlayStation 2, it is the fourth Metal Gear game produced by Hideo Kojima, the seventh overall game in the series and is a direct sequel to the original Metal Gear Solid. An expanded edition, titled , was released the following year for Xbox and Microsoft Windows in addition to the PlayStation 2. A remastered version of the game was later included in the Metal Gear Solid HD Collection for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita, and Xbox 360. The story revolves around the Big Shell, a massive offshore clean-up facility seized by a group of terrorists who call themselves the Sons of Liberty. They demand an enormous ransom in exchange for the life of the President of the United States and threaten to destroy the facility and create a cataclysmic environmental disaster if their demands are not met. The motives and identities of many of the antagonists and allies change throughout the course of the game, as the protagonists discover a world-shaking conspiracy constructed by a powerful organization known as the Patriots. Metal Gear Solid 2 received acclaim for its gameplay, graphics, and attention to detail. However, critics were initially divided on the protagonist and the philosophical nature and execution of the game's storyline, which explores themes such as the Information Age, memetics, social engineering, political conspiracies, censorship, artificial intelligence, existentialism, postmodernism, virtual reality, and the internal struggle of political liberty and freedom of thought. The game was a commercial success, selling seven million copies by 2004. It has since been considered to be one of the greatest video games of all time, as well as a leading example of artistic expression in video games. The game is often considered ahead of its time for dealing with themes and concepts, such as post-truth politics, fake news, alternative facts, and echo chambers, that became culturally relevant in the 2010s. Gameplay Metal Gear Solid 2 carries the subtitle of "Tactical Espionage Action," and most of the game involves the protagonist sneaking around avoiding being seen by the enemies. Most fundamental is the broader range of skills offered to the player. The first-person aiming mode allows players to target specific points in the game, greatly expanding tactical options; guards can be blinded by steam, distracted by a flying piece of fruit or hit in weak spots. Players can walk slowly, allowing them to sneak over noisy flooring without making a sound, or hang off walkways to slip past below guards' feet. The corner-press move from Metal Gear Solid, which allowed players a sneak peek around the next bend is expanded to allow players to fire from cover. Other abilities included leaping over and hanging off of railings, opening and hiding in storage lockers, and sneaking up behind enemies to hold them at gunpoint for items and ammunition. Players can shoot out the enemy's radio, so they are unable to communicate with others on their team. The environment also has a more significant impact on the stealth gameplay, taking into account factors such as weather, smell, atmosphere, and temperature. In Metal Gear Solid 2, the enemy guards are given more advanced AI "to prevent an imbalance of power," and unlike the original Metal Gear Solid, work in squads. They call on their radios for a strike team upon seeing the player, then attempt to flank him and cut off his escape while avoiding the player's attacks. Often strike teams will carry body armor and riot shields, making them a greater threat. Even if the player escapes to a hiding place, a team will sweep in to check the area. The game has a collective enemy AI, where enemy guards work together in squads, can communicate with one another, and react more realistically towards the player. The game's enemy AI was considered one of the best in gaming for many years. The game expanded its predecessor's cover mechanic, with Solid Snake or Raiden able to take cover behind walls or objects and pop out to shoot at enemies, while the improved enemy AI allowed enemies to also take cover from the player character. The enemies will often take cover to call for backup, but during battle, they will take cover then pop out and shoot at the player or blindly throw grenades from behind their cover. The game features a laser sight mechanic, where a laser sight helps assist with manually aiming a gun. Boss battles and set-pieces remain a case of finding a strategy that bypasses the defenses of the enemy. However, in a major break from action game standards, it is also possible to clear the entire game, including boss fights, without causing a single deliberate death, through use of tranquilizer guns, stun grenades, and melee attacks. Plot Setting Sons of Liberty takes place within an alternate history of events, in which the Cold War ended during the late 1990s. The game's story focuses on two narratives that occur around and near New York City the first in 2007, two years after the events of Metal Gear Solid; and the second in 2009. The game's plot is the fourth chapter of an overarching plot concerning the character of Solid Snake. Characters The main protagonist of Metal Gear Solid 2 is a young rookie agent named Raiden. He is supported by his commanding officer, the Colonel, and Rosemary, his girlfriend. Allies formed on the mission include Lt. Junior Grade Iroquois Pliskin, a Navy SEAL of mysterious background who provides his knowledge of the facility; Peter Stillman, an NYPD bomb-disposal expert; Otacon, a computer security specialist; and a cyborg ninja imitating Gray Fox's persona, first calling itself Deepthroat, then changing its name to Mr. X. The antagonists are the Sons of Liberty, a group of terrorists who seize control of the Big Shell environmental cleanup facility, including anti-terrorist training unit gone rogue Dead Cell, and a Russian mercenary force that patrols the facility. The Dead Cell team members are Vamp, a seemingly immortal man exhibiting vampire-like attributes; Fatman, a rotund man with exceptional knowledge of bombs; and Fortune, a woman whose uncontrollable psychic ability prevents any bodily harm from befalling her. The leader of Sons of Liberty claims to be Solid Snake, previously declared dead after a terrorist attack, later revealed to be Solidus Snake, a third clone of the "Les Enfants Terribles" project. Assisting the Sons of Liberty are Olga Gurlukovich, commander of the Russian mercenaries, and Revolver Ocelot, a disenfranchised Russian nationalist and former FOXHOUND agent, Solid Snake's old nemesis, and henchman of Solidus Snake. Other characters include Emma Emmerich, Otacon's stepsister and a computer whiz-kid; Sergei Gurlukovich, Ocelot's former commanding officer and Olga's father; President James Johnson, held hostage by the Sons of Liberty; and DIA operative Richard Ames. Liquid Snake returns, seemingly by possessing the body of Ocelot. The game also features cameos by Mei Ling, the communications expert who aided Snake in the first game, and Johnny Sasaki, the luckless soldier with chronic digestive problems. Story In 2007, Solid Snake infiltrates a tanker carrying a new Metal Gear model, RAY. The tanker is attacked by Russian mercenaries, led by Colonel Gurlukovich, his daughter Olga, and Ocelot. Ocelot betrays his allies and scuttles the ship. Upon seeing Snake, Ocelot is possessed by the will of Liquid Snake and escapes with RAY. Two years later, an environmental cleanup facility, the Big Shell, has been erected to clear up the oil spill. During a tour by US President James Johnson, the Sons of Liberty raid the facility, take Johnson hostage, and threaten to destroy it. FOXHOUND's Raiden is ordered by the Colonel to rescue the hostages and disarm the terrorists. The surviving members of a responding Navy SEAL team, Iroquois Pliskin and Peter Stillman, help Raiden disable explosives planted by Fatman. A timed bomb goes off, killing Stillman. Raiden kills Fatman and encounters a mysterious cyborg ninja. Raiden and Pliskin arrange to transport hostages via helicopter, but are confronted by Dead Cell's leader identifying as Solid Snake, flying a Harrier. Raiden shoots down the Harrier, but "Solid Snake" escapes with the stolen Metal Gear RAY. Pliskin reveals he is the real Solid Snake and, along with Otacon, helps locate Johnson. Johnson reveals to Raiden the United States' democratic process is a sham staged by an organization called "the Patriots", who secretly rule the country. Furthermore, the Big Shell is a facade to hide Arsenal Gear, a submersible mobile fortress that houses an AI called "GW". He explains the leader of Dead Cell is his predecessor George Sears, a clone of Big Boss known as Solidus Snake, who plans to seize Arsenal and overthrow the Patriots. Johnson is then killed by Ocelot. Raiden rescues computer programmer Emma Emmerich, step-sister of Otacon, who plans to upload a virus into GW to disable Arsenal. Vamp stabs Emma, before being shot by Raiden. Emma uploads the virus but dies from her injury as the virus is cut off prematurely. Otacon leaves to rescue the hostages while Raiden is captured by the ninja, revealed to be Olga, when Snake seemingly betrays him. Big Shell collapses as Arsenal departs. Raiden awakens on Arsenal before Solidus who reveals he had murdered Raiden's parents and raised him as a child soldier during the Liberian civil war. Solidus leaves and Olga frees Raiden, explaining she is a Patriot double-agent forced to aid Raiden in exchange for her child's safety. After the Colonel begins acting erratically, Raiden discovers he is a construct of GW, damaged by the virus. Rose tells Raiden she had been ordered by the Patriots to become his lover and spy on him, and that she is pregnant with his child. Raiden finds Snake who had helped Olga capture Raiden so they could gain entry to Arsenal. Fortune battles Snake while Raiden is forced into battle with AI-controlled Metal Gear RAYs. The virus causes the RAYs to malfunction and Solidus kills Olga when she discloses her double-agent status to protect Raiden. Snake and Raiden are captured and taken to the top of Arsenal by Solidus, Fortune, and Ocelot. Ocelot reveals himself to be a Patriot agent and that the entire affair was orchestrated by the Patriots to artificially replicate a soldier (Raiden) on par with Solid Snake, titled the S3 Plan. Ocelot kills Fortune before being possessed again by Liquid Snake. Liquid explains that Ocelot's severed right arm was replaced with his own, and plans to hunt down the Patriots using his host's knowledge and the stolen RAY. Snake pursues Liquid, as Arsenal loses control. Arsenal crashes into Manhattan. Raiden is contacted by an AI impersonating the Colonel and Rose. It states that GW was the only AI destroyed, and that the S3 Plan's real purpose is to control human thought to prevent society's regression in the digital era from trivial information drowning knowledge and truth. They order Raiden to eliminate Solidus; refusal will result in the deaths of Olga's child and Rose. After Raiden defeats Solidus, Snake appears after tracking Liquid's RAY. Snake and Otacon plan to rescue Olga's child, and locate the Patriots, whose details were hidden in the GW virus disc. Raiden is reunited with the real Rose. In the epilogue, having decoded the disc, Otacon and Snake find it contains data on all twelve members of the Patriots' highest council, the Wiseman's Committee. However, the members have allegedly been dead for a hundred years. Themes and analysis Metal Gear Solid 2 is often considered the first example of a postmodern video game and has often been cited as a primary example of artistic expression in video games. The storyline explored many social, philosophical and cyberpunk themes in significant detail, including meme theory, social engineering, sociology, artificial intelligence, information control, conspiracy theories, political and military maneuvering, evolution, existentialism, censorship, the nature of reality, the Information Age, virtual reality, child exploitation, taboos such as incest, sexual orientation, and the moral dilemma between security and personal liberty. Since its release, the game's themes have been studied and analyzed by numerous writers, journalists, and academics. MGS2, along with its predecessor, has been featured in the Smithsonian American Art Museum's exhibition, The Art of Video Games, in 2012. In his paper How Videogames Express Ideas, Matthew Weise of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology described Sons of Liberty as "perhaps the most vivid example of a game that uses tension between different levels of player agency to fuel a multi-faceted ideological argument," noting Solidus Snake's suggestion of the United States being a "totalitarian regime of thought control" and pointing to the "very meta concept" of "how the designer’s imposed plan or path for the player maps to the tyrannical nature of the government," where, "like the player, Jack has no agency other than what his puppet masters give him." In the book Joystick Soldiers: The Politics of Play in Military Video Games, Tanner Higgin examined the game's "resistant and subversive counter-history of military engagement," describing its "convoluted narrative and unconventional gameplay logics" as a "critique" of "the very networks of biopolitical and informational control that comprise the postmodern military, and posthumanity generally," and noting that it "purposefully manufactures frustration and negative affect" to "highlight the typically unexamined codes, conventions, and hidden pleasures of the military game genre." Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com notes that "Metal Gear Solid 2 is a game built on misinformation" and that it "was simply too avant-garde—too clever—for its own good." Steven Poole commented in a 2012 Edge column, "the story of MGS2, with its mythic wit and sweep, is still in a different league from the vast majority of videogame yarns. ... [H]owever, the fact that MGS2 still seems so avant-garde today might well prompt a worry: does it represent the pinnacle of a now-vanished era, the age of the experimental mainstream? This was, after all, a big-budget commercial boxed product that gleefully took risks and subverted genre conventions at every turn. Modern blockbuster games play it painfully safe by comparison." Gamasutra notes that the game deals with issues concerning the Information Age, and has compared the game's themes to the philosophies of Thomas Hobbes, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. The existential themes of the game align with the political philosophy and theses of Isaiah Berlin and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, focusing on the struggle between freedom and equality, and Berlin's concept of the "pursuit of the ideal", as the player's internal conflict of ideals are one of the main driving forces of the plot. The game is considered to be ahead of its time for dealing with themes and concepts that later became culturally relevant in the 2010s. The game has been described as "profound," particularly the final dialogue scene between Raiden and the AI posing as the Colonel and Rose. In 2011, Dugan Patrick of Gamasutra drew comparisons to social media and social gaming, and found that the game predicted elements of Facebook, such as allowing "people to intentionally censor their own experience within the self-curated walls of Facebook." In 2016, Alex Wiltshire of Glixel found the game to be "strangely prescient of not only its own time but also today," noting how it dodged "truth at every turn" and comparing it to post-truth politics, Facebook's curated News Feed, and the 2016 United States presidential election. Further comparisons have been drawn to concepts that became mainstream during the 2010s, such as fake news, echo chambers, and alternative facts. According to Cameron Kunzelman of Vice, Metal Gear Solid 2 is still politically relevant in 2017. In March 2018, GamesRadar drew comparisons to recent political events including the Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal and the investigations involving Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections. In 2018, Adrian Mróz published a paper in the academic journal Kultura i Historia, where the "idea of Selection for Societal Sanity" from the game is "applied into a philosophical framework based on select concepts from Bernard Stiegler's writing and incorporating them with current events such as post-truth or fake news in order to explore the role of techne and filtration within social organizations and individual psyches." He notes that, despite being released in an era of neoliberal dominance, the game's themes resonate with current affairs in the late 2010s, such as post-truth, the collapse of political correctness, cognitive dissonance, and "the problem of filtering within a society flooded by information." IGN said its "fourth-wall-obliterating final act posed a number of terrifying questions about the overload of data in the information age, and how technology has led to an increasingly shaky definition" of "reality," and has drawn comparisons to deep fakes, machine learning, and information warfare. Development The creator Hideo Kojima's original design document for the game was completed in January 1999. The Japanese document was published by Konami in 2002, and translated into English in 2006. It mentioned that the game was originally going to be called Metal Gear Solid III to symbolize Manhattan's three tallest skyscrapers." The document outlines new game mechanics and features, such as bodies that need to be hidden, enemies being able to detect shadows, lights in an area that can be destroyed to affect enemy vision, realistic enemy AI that relies on squad tactics rather than working individually, and multi-level environments that add an element of "vertical tension" to the stealth gameplay. It also outlines themes, such as passing on memories, environmental issues, and particularly social themes regarding the "digitization of the military," digital simulations, the "digitization of operational planning," the "digitization of everyday life," and the "effects of digitization on personality." The document stated that the "aim of the story" involves "a series of betrayals and sudden reversals, to the point where the player is unable to tell fact from fiction" (departing from the "very clear and understandable story" of its predecessor), that "every character lies to (betrays) someone once," blurring the line between "what is real, and what is fantasy," and "ironies aimed at the digital society and gaming culture." The game's production budget was $10 million, similar to the budget of a Japanese Godzilla film. Kojima states that when he "heard about the hardware for the PlayStation 2," he "wanted to try something new. Up to that point, all cutscenes had focused more on details like facial expressions, but I wanted to pay more attention to the surroundings, to see how much I could change them in real time." Protagonist switch For Metal Gear Solid 2, the established protagonist of Solid Snake was only made playable for the prologue portion of the game. A new protagonist named Raiden would substitute him as the player character for the main portion. The decision to introduce a new protagonist came from the idea of portraying Solid Snake from another character's perspective, but also to get around the dilemma of having to write gameplay tutorials directed at Snake, as Kojima felt that having to explain mission procedures and weapon handling to a veteran soldier like Snake would have felt unnatural after three games in the same continuity. According to Kojima, he came up with the idea of Raiden to appeal to female players after overhearing female debuggers working on the first Metal Gear Solid remark that the game was not appealing to them. Raiden's presence in the game was kept a secret before release, with preview trailers showing Snake in situations and battles that occurred to Raiden in the published game, such as a battle against a Harrier on George Washington Bridge and an encounter with the new Cyborg Ninja inside the tanker. Plot changes According to Kojima in the documentary Metal Gear Saga Vol. 1, the original plot of the game revolved around nuclear weapon inspections in Iraq and Iran and had Solid Snake trying to stop the Metal Gear while it was located on an aircraft carrier, in a certain time limit, while trying to stop Liquid Snake and his group. However, about six months into the project, the political situation in the Middle East became a concern, and they decided that they could not make a game with such a plot. The tanker in the released game is based on this original plot. MGS2 was also intended to reference the novel City of Glass, notably in the naming of its characters. Raiden's support team originally featured a different field commander named Colonel Daniel Quinn; Maxine "Max" Work, an Asian woman who saves game data and quotes Shakespeare, and William "Doc" Wilson, the creator of GW. All take their names from key characters in the book, and all three would have turned out to be AIs. None of these characters survived to the final edition, their roles being absorbed by other characters, namely the "Colonel Campbell" simulation, Rose, and Emma Emmerich. Peter Stillman, however, takes his name from another City of Glass character. A character named Chinaman, originally planned to be included as a villain, was later on omitted and his abilities incorporated in Vamp, namely the ability to walk on water and walls. Chinaman would have movements modeled after Jet Li and have a body tattoo of a dragon that would come alive as soon as he dove into the water. Significant changes to the game's ending were made late in development following the September 11 attacks in New York, where the finale occurs. A sequence depicting Arsenal Gear's displacement of the Statue of Liberty and crashing through half of Manhattan was removed, as was a short coda to appear after the credits, a breaking newscast showing the Statue of Liberty's new resting place, Ellis Island. At the point where Solidus dies, Raiden was supposed to have cut the rope on Federal Hall's flagpole, causing an American flag to fall over Solidus' body, and American flags that were supposed to be on all the flagpoles in New York were removed from the title. The Japanese spelling of the name "Raiden" was changed from katakana (ライデン) to kanji (雷電) due to the former form of the name resembling "Bin Laden" in Japanese. Music Kojima's choice of composer for Metal Gear Solid 2 was highly publicized in the run-up to the game's release, with him deciding upon Harry Gregson-Williams, a film composer from Hans Zimmer's studio, after watching The Replacement Killers with sound director Kazuki Muraoka. A mix CD containing 18 tracks of Gregson-Williams' work was sent to his office. Flattered by the research put into creating the CD (as some of the tracks were unreleased, and that what tracks he'd worked on for some films were undocumented), he joined the project soon after. To bypass the language barrier and allow the score to be developed before the cutscenes were finalized, Gregson-Williams was sent short phrases or descriptions of the intended action. The resultant themes then shaped the action sequences in return. Gregson-Williams also arranged and re-orchestrated the original "Metal Gear Solid Main Theme" for use in the game's opening title sequence. Norihiko Hibino, who had worked on previous Konami games such as Metal Gear: Ghost Babel, was responsible for the in-game music. He also worked on the majority of the game's cutscenes, re-orchestrating Gregson-Williams' "Main Theme" remix for use in several sequences. As with Metal Gear Solid, the cutscene music includes orchestral and choir pieces, while the in-game soundtrack is scored with ambient music. However, the score as a whole incorporates more electronic elements (particularly breakbeat) than its predecessor, to reflect the plot's thematic thrust of a machine-dominated society. Rika Muranaka again provided a vocal ending theme, a jazz track entitled "Can't Say Goodbye to Yesterday," sung by Carla White. The game's music was released via four CDs: Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty Original Soundtrack, Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty Soundtrack 2: The Other Side, Metal Gear Solid 2: Substance Limited Sorter (Black Edition) and Metal Gear Solid 2: Substance Ultimate Sorter (White Edition). The game's main theme was chosen by the London Philharmonic Orchestra for their Greatest Video Game Music compilation, and the theme is a key regular in the Video Games Live concert when the Metal Gear Solid segment is introduced. A segment of the song's main chorus is included in the closing sequence of Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater. Releases In contrast to the original Metal Gear Solid, Sons of Liberty was released in North America first, on November 13, 2001. Because of the later release in the region, the protagonist switch was not kept a secret in the Japanese version in the weeks before its release. A preview event was held in Zepp Tokyo on the day of the game's North American release in which the character of Raiden was unveiled to the Japanese public. As a result, the Japanese packaging artwork depicts Raiden standing prominently next to Solid Snake, as opposed to only having Snake like on the cover artwork used for the American (and later European) version. A questionnaire was also added in the Japanese version, in which players are asked about their experience with the original Metal Gear Solid and action games in general; the answers to the questionnaire determines the difficulty level of the game and whether the player starts the game on the Tanker chapter or skips directly to the Plant chapter (an option that is only available after clearing the game once in the American version). The Japanese version has a few other additional features over the American version, including two extra game modes unlocked after completing the main game: Boss Survival, in which the player replays through the boss battles from the main game as either, Snake or Raiden; and Casting Theater, in which the player can view certain cutscenes from the main game and replace the character models. The Japanese version was released on November 29, two weeks after the American version. As with the original Metal Gear Solid, Sons of Liberty was sold in a limited "Premium Package" edition in addition to the standard release, which was packaged in a black box containing the game itself with a reversible cover art on the DVD case (with Snake on one side and Raiden on the other), a video DVD known as the Premium Disc, which features a collection of Metal Gear Solid-related commercials and trailers, a metallic Solid Snake figurine, and an 80-page booklet titled Metal Gear Chronicle featuring artwork and commentary about the series. The European version, which was initially scheduled for February 22, 2002, was released on March 8, nearly four months after the other regions. The added features from the Japanese release were carried over to the European version, along with a new difficulty setting (European Extreme). The European version came packaged with a video DVD titled The Making of Metal Gear Solid 2. As well as collating all of the game's promotional trailers and a GameSpot feature on the game's final days of development, it features a titular documentary produced by French television production house FunTV, which was filmed at KCE Japan West's Japanese studio. The DVD was included as an apology to European consumers for the several months delay that had occurred since the original November release in North America and Japan, which saw numerous European gaming magazines detail the various twists in the game. The Document of Metal Gear Solid 2 Released on September 12, 2002, in Japan and September 24 in North America, The Document of Metal Gear Solid 2 is an interactive database for the PlayStation 2 that documents the development of Metal Gear Solid 2. It contains a gallery of all the 3D models of characters, scenery, and objects that were used in the game (as well as unused assets), along with corresponding concept art when available. All the real-time cutscenes (or polygon demos) are also available to view (without audio), with the option to pause them at any point, change the camera angle and move them frame by frame. Other content includes storyboards, behind-the-scenes footage, preview trailers, music tracks (with the option to play alternate patterns when applicable), the finalized screenplay, Hideo Kojima's original draft (available in Japanese only), a development timeline, and a gallery of Metal Gear Solid related products and merchandise. The disc also includes a sampler selection of VR training missions that were later featured in Metal Gear Solid 2: Substance. In Europe, the disc was bundled as a bonus with the PlayStation 2 version of Substance instead of having a stand-alone release. It was also included in the Japanese 20th Anniversary re-release of Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty in July 2007. Substance Metal Gear Solid 2: Substance, the expanded edition of the game, was released on the original Xbox and Microsoft Windows in addition to the PlayStation 2. The Xbox version was initially released in North America as a timed exclusive for the console on November 5, 2002. This was followed by the PlayStation 2 version, released in Japan on December 19 of the same year. Substance was eventually released on PlayStation 2 and Microsoft Windows in North America and on all three platforms in Europe on March 2003. The console versions were developed internally by KCE Japan, whereas the Windows port was outsourced to Success. Substance contains several supplemental game modes in addition to the main story mode from the original Sons of Liberty releases. The main game contains all the changes and additions that were made in the Japanese and European versions of the original release (e.g., Boss Survival, Casting Theater, European Extreme), along with further additional changes. Players can now start the main story mode at the Tanker or Plant chapters without the need to answer a questionnaire first, and a new set of collectible dog tags have been added (exclusively on the PlayStation 2 version) based on names submitted from a second contest in addition to the original (2001) set. The visual effect for the thermal goggles was also changed in Substance, and the FHM-licensed posters that adorned several locations in the original Sons of Liberty version have been replaced with public domain images (these were also replaced in The Document of Metal Gear Solid 2). The Xbox and Windows versions feature slight dialogue changes during specific control explanations in which the term "analog stick" was substituted with "thumbstick" (Microsoft's preferred term). The controls were also slightly altered for the Xbox version, due to its fewer shoulder buttons (clicking on the left thumbstick switches between normal and first-person view, while the Y button serves as a lock-on for the player's aim). The Xbox version has support for 5.1 surround sound. The primary addition of Substance is the inclusion of an extra missions mode with 350 VR missions set in a computer-constructed environment and 150 "Alternative" missions set in areas from the main story. The player can choose to play these missions as Solid Snake or Raiden, with alternate versions of both characters (in different outfits) becoming available as the player progresses. These missions are divided into eight categories (although not all of them are available to every character): Sneaking, Weapon, First Person View (which simulates a first-person shooter), Variety, Hold Up, Bomb Disposal, Elimination, and Photograph. The other new addition is "Snake Tales," which is a set of five story-based missions featuring Solid Snake as the player character. These missions are primarily set in the Big Shell and involve characters from the main story in new roles such as Fatman, Emma, Vamp and Solidus Snake, while one mission set in the Tanker features Meryl Silverburgh. These missions, which are unrelated to the main campaign and are non-canonical, have no voice-acted cutscenes - instead, the story is told through text-only interludes. Exclusive to the PlayStation 2 version is a skateboarding minigame in which the player control Snake or Raiden in a pair of Big Shell-themed levels. The player has to complete a set of objectives before time runs out, which range from collecting dog tags scattered throughout the level to blowing up parts of Big Shell. The minigame uses the same engine from Evolution Skateboarding, which was developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Osaka. On release, Famitsu magazine scored the PlayStation 2 version of the game a 35 out of 40. HD Edition Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty - HD Edition was released on the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in 2011 and for the PlayStation Vita in 2012. This version is included in the Metal Gear Solid HD Collection but is also available as a digital download on the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade. The PS3 and Xbox 360 versions feature an increased 720p resolution and a 16:9 aspect ratio, providing a clearer and wider view of the player's surroundings compared to the original 480p resolution and 4:3 ratio of the PlayStation 2 version, while the PS Vita version runs at qHD resolution. Cutscenes can now be viewed in fullscreen or letterboxed format, while online achievements/trophies have been added as well. Most of the additional content from Metal Gear Solid 2: Substance has also been ported in this version, such as the Missions and Snake Tales modes, although the Skateboarding minigame that was present in the PlayStation 2 version of Substance is absent. The PS3 and Vita versions have a "transfarring" option that allows players to transfer save data between both versions through a Wi-Fi connection or a cloud network. The Vita version has touchscreen and touchpad support for certain gameplay functions such as switching between items and weapons or zooming into cutscenes. Related media IDW Publishing published a 12-issue comic book adaptation from 2006 to 2007, titled Metal Gear Solid: Sons of Liberty, illustrated by Ashley Wood (who also worked on the comic book adaptation of the previous game) and written by Alex Garner. This version deviates from the game, where many scenes involving Raiden are substituted with Snake. A digital version of the comic, titled Metal Gear Solid 2: Bande Dessinée, was released on June 12, 2008, in Japan. Originally announced as a PlayStation Portable game, similar to the Metal Gear Solid: Digital Graphic Novel, the digital comic was released as a DVD film instead. A fully voiced version of the graphic novel adaptation of the first Metal Gear Solid is featured as well. A novelization of the game written by Raymond Benson and published by Del Rey. The American paperback edition was published on November 24, 2009. A majority of the character interaction in the novel is taken verbatim from the Codec conversations in the game itself. A second novelization by Kenji Yano (written under the pen name Hitori Nojima), titled Metal Gear Solid Substance II, was published by Kadokawa Shoten in Japan on September 24, 2015. This novelization is narrated in real-time during the events of the Plant chapter from the perspective of a young man living in Manhattan. Reception Commercial As a result of promising trailers and the enormous commercial success of its predecessor Metal Gear Solid, there was a high level of anticipation in the gaming community surrounding the release of Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty. The game's E3 2000 demo surprised many spectators with its level of realism and played a vital role in the PlayStation 2 console's early success. It was the most anticipated game for the PlayStation 2 in 2001. In Japan, the game sold 400,000 units in its first day, in addition to its 600,000 pre-orders in the country. In the United States, the game sold 500,000 units within two days of release, and 680,000 copies within five. It was the top-selling game in November 2001, with units sold, and topped the video game rental chart the same month. It went on to be one of the top four best-selling games of 2001 in the United States. By July 2006, it had sold 2 million copies and earned in the United States alone. Next Generation ranked it as the 16th highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in the country. In Europe, the game received pre-orders, surpassing Konami's initial expectations of units. In the United Kingdom, it set a fastest sales record with 200,000 copies sold and or grossed within three days. The PlayStation 2 version received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom. It also received a Platinum Award in Germany for sales above 200,000 units in the country. Worldwide, the game had sold over units by 2003. , the original release had sold and Substance had sold for a combined units sold worldwide, making it the highest-selling game in the series. Critical Metal Gear Solid 2 received "universal acclaim" according to review aggregator Metacritic, where it is one of the highest-rated games on the website, and remains the highest-rated exclusive on the PlayStation 2. Game Informer gave the game a score of 10/10, while GameSpot gave the game a 9.6 rating, stating, "It boils down to this: You must play Metal Gear Solid 2." Critics praised the title's stealth gameplay and the improvements over its predecessor, as well as the game's level of graphical detail, particularly in the use of in-game graphics to render plot-driving cutscenes. The title's storyline, however, was initially divisive and became the source of controversy. Hideo Kojima's ambitious script received praise for exploring numerous social, philosophical, and cyberpunk themes in significant detail, and it has often been called the first example of a postmodern video game. However, some critics considered the plot to be "incomprehensible" and overly cumbersome for an action game, and also felt that the lengthy dialogue sections heavily disrupted the gameplay and that the dialogue itself was overly disjointed and convoluted. The surprise introduction of Raiden as the protagonist for the majority of the game (replacing long-time series protagonist Solid Snake) was also controversial with fans of Metal Gear Solid. Blake Fischer reviewed the PlayStation 2 version of the game for Next Generation, rating it five stars out of five, and stated that "MGS2 is everything we hoped it would be, and more. Great action, an enthralling story, and plenty of surprises makes this the PS2 game to get this holiday season." Awards E3 2000 Game Critics Awards: "Special Commendation for Graphics" E3 2001 Game Critics Awards: "Best Console Game," "Best Action/Adventure Game" Edge: "Innovation of the Year" Game Informer 2001 Game of the Year Awards: "Game of the Year" Japan Game Awards 2001-2002: "Excellence Award" Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences 2002: "Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design" GameSpot named Metal Gear Solid 2 the fourth-best console game of 2001, and presented the game with its annual "Best Music" and "Biggest Surprise" awards among console games. It was nominated in the publication's "Best PlayStation 2 Game", "Best Sound", "Best Story", "Best Graphics, Technical", "Best Graphics, Artistic" and "Best In-Game Water" award categories. Substance was nominated for the 2002 "Best Music on Xbox" and "Best Story on Xbox" awards. Legacy In a 2006 viewer poll conducted by Japan's Famitsu magazine of top 100 games of all time, Metal Gear Solid 2 was ranked at No. 42 in the poll. In the 200th issue of Game Informer Magazine in 2009, its list of top 200 games of all time ranked the game at No. 50 on the list. Metal Gear Solid 2 was ranked No. 7 in Game Informers 2008 list of the top ten video game openings. In 2010, GamesRadar included the game in its list of top seven games "with mega plot twists you never saw coming." The game was included in Tony Mott and Peter Molyneux's 2011 book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die. It has also been listed as one of the best games of all time by Electronic Gaming Monthly, Empire, GameFAQs, GameRankings, IGN, Metacritic, Slant, and Stuff. According to John Linneman of Digital Foundry, the game was a technical milestone for its time. It served as a killer app showcasing what the PlayStation 2 hardware was capable of, with the game setting "a new standard in cinematic presentation" and attention to detail, and demonstrating "huge numbers of enemies on screen with bodies that remain in the scene, the interaction of light and shadow, physics interactions with real world objects, multi-tiered environments and advanced enemy AI." This made possible new "gameplay opportunities" and a sense of freedom offered by levels "designed as mini-sandboxes with a tremendous amount of interactivity." The early anticipation that surrounded Metal Gear Solid 2 since its E3 2000 demo has been credited as a critical factor in the PlayStation 2's best-selling success and dominance during the sixth console generation, as well as the demise of Sega's Dreamcast. According to John Szczepaniak, "MGS2 was the game which single-handedly sold Sony's new PlayStation 2 to the masses." In 2009, Wired included the game in its list of "The 15 Most Influential Games of the Decade" at No. 13, concluding that every "videogame story that subverts a player's expectations owes a debt to the ground broken by Metal Gear Solid 2." The artistic influence of Metal Gear Solid 2 can be seen in later video games such as Goichi Suda's similarly postmodern game Killer7, the similarly metanarrative game Portal, the survival horror title Eternal Darkness: Sanity's Requiem, and particularly the first-person shooter BioShock, which featured a similar plot twist to Metal Gear Solid 2. Several game mechanics developed in Metal Gear Solid 2, such as the cover system and laser sight mechanic, have since become staples of stealth games as well as shooters, including Kill Switch (2003), Resident Evil 4 (2005) and Gears of War (2006). The reveal of Metal Gear Solid 2 also led to the development of Splinter Cell, which Ubisoft originally intended to be "a Metal Gear Solid 2 killer." According to Kojima, Metal Gear Solid 2 paid more "attention to the surroundings" in real-time and later "games like Call of Duty have followed this trend of making your surroundings more realistic." Neil Druckmann cited the revelation of Raiden in Metal Gear Solid 2 as an inspiration for the bold surprise in The Last of Us Part II (2020). In a 20-year retrospective, Christian Smith of Collider said that Metal Gear Solid 2 remains a "controversial masterpiece" that played a pivotal role in "redefining the art of making video games after the turn of the millennium". References Notes Footnotes External links 2001 video games Action-adventure games Video games about artificial intelligence Cyberpunk video games Drones in fiction Dystopian video games Existentialist works Eco-terrorism in fiction Impact of the September 11 attacks on the video game industry Interactive Achievement Award winners LGBT-related video games Malware in fiction Metafictional video games Metal Gear video games PlayStation 2 games PlayStation 3 games PlayStation Vita games Postmodern works Science fiction video games Single-player video games Stealth video games Terrorism in fiction Video games about the United States Marine Corps Video game controversies Video game sequels Video games designed by Hideo Kojima Video games developed in Japan Video games directed by Hideo Kojima Video games produced by Hideo Kojima Video games set in 2007 Video games set in 2009 Alternate history video games Video games set in New York City Video games set in the United States Works about nuclear technology Video games about virtual reality Windows games Works about censorship Works about conspiracy theories Xbox games Xbox 360 games Fiction about hypnosis Video games about bomb disposal Video games scored by Harry Gregson-Williams Video games scored by Norihiko Hibino

Post-it Note

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A Post-it Note (or sticky note) is a small piece of paper with a re-adherable strip of glue on its back, made for temporarily attaching notes to documents and other surfaces. A low-tack pressure-sensitive adhesive allows the notes to be easily attached, removed and even re-posted elsewhere without leaving residue. Originally small yellow squares, Post-it Notes and related products are available in various colors, shapes, sizes and adhesive strengths. As of 2019, there are at least 26 documented colors of Post-it Notes. Although 3M's patent expired in 1997, "Post-it" and the original notes' distinctive yellow color remain registered company trademarks, with terms such as "repositionable notes" used for similar offerings manufactured by competitors. While use of the trademark 'Post-it' in a representative sense refers to any sticky note, no legal authority has ever held the trademark to be generic. History In 1968, Dr. Spencer Silver, a scientist at 3M in the United States, attempted to develop a super-strong adhesive. Instead, he accidentally created a "low-tack", reusable, pressure-sensitive adhesive. For five years, Silver promoted his "solution without a problem" within 3M both informally and through seminars, but failed to gain "adherents". In 1974, a colleague who had attended one of his seminars, Art Fry, came up with the idea of using the adhesive to anchor his bookmark in his hymn book. Fry then utilized 3M's sanctioned "permitted bootlegging" policy to develop the idea. The original notes' pale yellow color was chosen by chance, from the color of the scrap paper used by the lab next door to the Post-It team. 3M test marketed the product as "Press 'n Peel" bookmark in stores in four cities in 1977, but results were disappointing. A year later, 3M gave free samples to consumers in Boise, Idaho, with 94 percent of those who tried them indicating they would buy the product. The product was sold as "Post-Its" at its 1979 introduction, and was rolled out across the United States from April 6, 1980. The following year, they were launched in Canada and Europe. In 2003, the company introduced "Post-it Brand Super Sticky Notes", with a stronger glue that adheres better to vertical and non-smooth surfaces. Until 3M's patent expired in the 1990s, Post-it type notes were produced only in the company's plant in Cynthiana, Kentucky. In 2018, 3M launched "Post-It Extreme Notes", which are more durable and water-resistant and which stick to wood and other materials in industrial environments. Competing claims Alan Amron claimed to have been the actual inventor in 1973 who disclosed the Post-it Note technology to 3M in 1974. His 1997 suit against 3M was settled with a payment from 3M to Amron. As part of the settlement, Amron agreed not to make future claims against the company unless the settlement agreement should be breached. However, in 2016, he launched a further suit against 3M, asserting that 3M was wrongly claiming to be the inventor, and seeking $400 million in damages. At a preliminary hearing, a federal judge ordered the parties to undergo mediation. The suit was subsequently dismissed, upholding the previous 1998 settlement. In July 2016 a former 3M marketing department employee, Daniel Dassow, admitted that in 1974 Alan Amron had disclosed his Press-on memo sticky notes invention to 3M. In art "The Yellow Stickee Diary of a Mad Secretary", by Rosa Maria Arenas, is the mini graphic journal of an office worker/artist, exhibited July 7 through August 25, 2013, at the Michigan Institute of Contemporary Art (MICA) Gallery in Lansing, Michigan. The 41 drawings displayed are a tiny percentage of the more than 2000 original drawings that constitute the Yellow Stickee Diary Project which Arenas created while working temp jobs from 1994 to 2005. Printed with archival inks on archival paper, the reproductions include "stickee sized" (3″ × 5″) framed prints and enlargements of the original drawings (which were all done on Post-It Notes). In 2012, Turkish artist Ardan Özmenoğlu was selected to have a solo exhibition at Bertrand Delacroix Gallery in the art district of Chelsea, Manhattan. The exhibition, titled "E Pluribus Unum" (Latin for "Out of many, one"), opened November 15, 2012 and featured large scale works on Post-It Notes. In 2004, Paola Antonelli, a curator of architecture and design, included Post-it Notes in a show entitled "Humble Masterpieces". Rebecca Murtaugh, a California artist, who uses Post-it Notes in her artwork, in 2001 created an installation by covering her whole bedroom with $1000 worth of the notes, using the ordinary yellow for objects she saw as having less value and neon colors for more important objects, such as the bed. In 2000, the 20th anniversary of Post-it Notes was celebrated by having artists create artworks on the notes. One such work, by the artist R. B. Kitaj, sold for £640 in an auction, making it the most valuable Post-It Note on record. The Lennon Wall, a message board created during the 2014 Hong Kong protests from a stretch of curved staircase in the Central Government Complex, is covered in multi-colored Post-It Notes with handwritten messages from supporters. Satiregram, a parody account on Instagram by Euzcil Castaneto, showcases handwritten messages on Post-it Notes that describe typical pictures people would post on Instagram. Software implementations Virtual Post-It Notes have been created for computers in the form of desktop notes. These include 3M's own Post-it Brand Software Notes, Stickies in macOS, Sticky Notes in Windows, or other applications like ShixxNOTE. Virtual Post-It–like notes are also available online using Evernote, Google Keep, or Microsoft OneNote. In 1997, 3M sued Microsoft for trademark infringement for using the term "Post-It" in a help file. Notes References External links Acrylate-copolymer microspheres [adhesive formula] Repositionable Pressure-Sensitive Adhesive Sheet Material [sheet material] Post-it homepage BBC news article on 20th anniversary of Post-it Notes The Rake magazine article on 25th anniversary of Post-it notes Post-it Note History by 3M 3M brands American inventions Paper products Printing and writing paper Products introduced in 1977 Stationery Office equipment

Display resolution

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The display resolution or display modes of a digital television, computer monitor or display device is the number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed. It can be an ambiguous term especially as the displayed resolution is controlled by different factors in cathode ray tube (CRT) displays, flat-panel displays (including liquid-crystal displays) and projection displays using fixed picture-element (pixel) arrays. It is usually quoted as , with the units in pixels: for example, means the width is 1024 pixels and the height is 768 pixels. This example would normally be spoken as "ten twenty-four by seven sixty-eight" or "ten twenty-four by seven six eight". One use of the term display resolution applies to fixed-pixel-array displays such as plasma display panels (PDP), liquid-crystal displays (LCD), Digital Light Processing (DLP) projectors, OLED displays, and similar technologies, and is simply the physical number of columns and rows of pixels creating the display (e.g. ). A consequence of having a fixed-grid display is that, for multi-format video inputs, all displays need a "scaling engine" (a digital video processor that includes a memory array) to match the incoming picture format to the display. For device displays such as phones, tablets, monitors and televisions, the use of the term display resolution as defined above is a misnomer, though common. The term display resolution is usually used to mean pixel dimensions, the maximum number of pixels in each dimension (e.g. ), which does not tell anything about the pixel density of the display on which the image is actually formed: resolution properly refers to the pixel density, the number of pixels per unit distance or area, not the total number of pixels. In digital measurement, the display resolution would be given in pixels per inch (PPI). In analog measurement, if the screen is 10 inches high, then the horizontal resolution is measured across a square 10 inches wide. For television standards, this is typically stated as "lines horizontal resolution, per picture height"; for example, analog NTSC TVs can typically display about 340 lines of "per picture height" horizontal resolution from over-the-air sources, which is equivalent to about 440 total lines of actual picture information from left edge to right edge. Background Some commentators also use display resolution to indicate a range of input formats that the display's input electronics will accept and often include formats greater than the screen's native grid size even though they have to be down-scaled to match the screen's parameters (e.g. accepting a input on a display with a native pixel array). In the case of television inputs, many manufacturers will take the input and zoom it out to "overscan" the display by as much as 5% so input resolution is not necessarily display resolution. The eye's perception of display resolution can be affected by a number of factors see image resolution and optical resolution. One factor is the display screen's rectangular shape, which is expressed as the ratio of the physical picture width to the physical picture height. This is known as the aspect ratio. A screen's physical aspect ratio and the individual pixels' aspect ratio may not necessarily be the same. An array of on a 16:9 display has square pixels, but an array of on a 16:9 display has oblong pixels. An example of pixel shape affecting "resolution" or perceived sharpness: displaying more information in a smaller area using a higher resolution makes the image much clearer or "sharper". However, most recent screen technologies are fixed at a certain resolution; making the resolution lower on these kinds of screens will greatly decrease sharpness, as an interpolation process is used to "fix" the non-native resolution input into the display's native resolution output. While some CRT-based displays may use digital video processing that involves image scaling using memory arrays, ultimately "display resolution" in CRT-type displays is affected by different parameters such as spot size and focus, astigmatic effects in the display corners, the color phosphor pitch shadow mask (such as Trinitron) in color displays, and the video bandwidth. Aspects Overscan and underscan Most television display manufacturers "overscan" the pictures on their displays (CRTs and PDPs, LCDs etc.), so that the effective on-screen picture may be reduced from  (480) to  (450), for example. The size of the invisible area somewhat depends on the display device. Some HD televisions do this as well, to a similar extent. Computer displays including projectors generally do not overscan although many models (particularly CRT displays) allow it. CRT displays tend to be underscanned in stock configurations, to compensate for the increasing distortions at the corners. Interlaced versus progressive scan Interlaced video (also known as interlaced scan) is a technique for doubling the perceived frame rate of a video display without consuming extra bandwidth. The interlaced signal contains two fields of a video frame captured consecutively. This enhances motion perception to the viewer, and reduces flicker by taking advantage of the phi phenomenon. The European Broadcasting Union has argued against interlaced video in production and broadcasting. The main argument is that no matter how complex the deinterlacing algorithm may be, the artifacts in the interlaced signal cannot be completely eliminated because some information is lost between frames. Despite arguments against it, television standards organizations continue to support interlacing. It is still included in digital video transmission formats such as DV, DVB, and ATSC. New video compression standards like High Efficiency Video Coding are optimized for progressive scan video, but sometimes do support interlaced video. Progressive scanning (alternatively referred to as noninterlaced scanning) is a format of displaying, storing, or transmitting moving images in which all the lines of each frame are drawn in sequence. This is in contrast to interlaced video used in traditional analog television systems where only the odd lines, then the even lines of each frame (each image called a video field) are drawn alternately, so that only half the number of actual image frames are used to produce video. Televisions Current standards Televisions are of the following resolutions: Standard-definition television (SDTV): 480i (NTSC-compatible digital standard employing two interlaced fields of 243 lines each) 576i (PAL-compatible digital standard employing two interlaced fields of 288 lines each) Enhanced-definition television (EDTV): 480p ( progressive scan) 576p ( progressive scan) High-definition television (HDTV): 720p ( progressive scan) 1080i ( split into two interlaced fields of 540 lines) 1080p ( progressive scan) Ultra-high-definition television (UHDTV): 4K UHD ( progressive scan) 8K UHD ( progressive scan) Computer monitors Computer monitors have traditionally possessed higher resolutions than most televisions. Evolution of standards Many personal computers introduced in the late 1970s and the 1980s were designed to use television receivers as their display devices, making the resolutions dependent on the television standards in use, including PAL and NTSC. Picture sizes were usually limited to ensure the visibility of all the pixels in the major television standards and the broad range of television sets with varying amounts of over scan. The actual drawable picture area was, therefore, somewhat smaller than the whole screen, and was usually surrounded by a static-colored border (see image to right). Also, the interlace scanning was usually omitted in order to provide more stability to the picture, effectively halving the vertical resolution in progress. , and on NTSC were relatively common resolutions in the era (224, 240 or 256 scanlines were also common). In the IBM PC world, these resolutions came to be used by 16-color EGA video cards. One of the drawbacks of using a classic television is that the computer display resolution is higher than the television could decode. Chroma resolution for NTSC/PAL televisions are bandwidth-limited to a maximum 1.5MHz, or approximately 160 pixels wide, which led to blurring of the color for 320- or 640-wide signals, and made text difficult to read (see example image below). Many users upgraded to higher-quality televisions with S-Video or RGBI inputs that helped eliminate chroma blur and produce more legible displays. The earliest, lowest cost solution to the chroma problem was offered in the Atari 2600 Video Computer System and the Apple II+, both of which offered the option to disable the color and view a legacy black-and-white signal. On the Commodore 64, the GEOS mirrored the Mac OS method of using black-and-white to improve readability. The resolution ( with borders disabled) was first introduced by home computers such as the Commodore Amiga and, later, Atari Falcon. These computers used interlace to boost the maximum vertical resolution. These modes were only suited to graphics or gaming, as the flickering interlace made reading text in word processor, database, or spreadsheet software difficult. (Modern game consoles solve this problem by pre-filtering the 480i video to a lower resolution. For example, Final Fantasy XII suffers from flicker when the filter is turned off, but stabilizes once filtering is restored. The computers of the 1980s lacked sufficient power to run similar filtering software.) The advantage of a overscanned computer was an easy interface with interlaced TV production, leading to the development of Newtek's Video Toaster. This device allowed Amigas to be used for CGI creation in various news departments (example: weather overlays), drama programs such as NBC's seaQuest and The WB's Babylon 5. In the PC world, the IBM PS/2 VGA (multi-color) on-board graphics chips used a non-interlaced (progressive) 640 × 480 × 16 color resolution that was easier to read and thus more useful for office work. It was the standard resolution from 1990 to around 1996. The standard resolution was until around 2000. Microsoft Windows XP, released in 2001, was designed to run at minimum, although it is possible to select the original in the Advanced Settings window. Programs designed to mimic older hardware such as Atari, Sega, or Nintendo game consoles (emulators) when attached to multiscan CRTs, routinely use much lower resolutions, such as or for greater authenticity, though other emulators have taken advantage of pixelation recognition on circle, square, triangle and other geometric features on a lesser resolution for a more scaled vector rendering. Some emulators, at higher resolutions, can even mimic the aperture grille and shadow masks of CRT monitors. In 2002, eXtended Graphics Array was the most common display resolution. Many web sites and multimedia products were re-designed from the previous format to the layouts optimized for . The availability of inexpensive LCD monitors made the aspect ratio resolution of more popular for desktop usage during the first decade of the 21st century. Many computer users including CAD users, graphic artists and video game players ran their computers at resolution (UXGA) or higher such as QXGA if they had the necessary equipment. Other available resolutions included oversize aspects like SXGA+ and wide aspects like WXGA, WXGA+, WSXGA+, and WUXGA; monitors built to the 720p and 1080p standard were also not unusual among home media and video game players, due to the perfect screen compatibility with movie and video game releases. A new more-than-HD resolution of WQXGA was released in 30-inch LCD monitors in 2007. In 2010, 27-inch LCD monitors with the resolution were released by multiple manufacturers, and in 2012, Apple introduced a display on the MacBook Pro. Panels for professional environments, such as medical use and air traffic control, support resolutions up to (or, more relevant for control rooms, pixels). Common display resolutions The following table lists the usage share of display resolutions from two sources, as of June 2020. The numbers are not representative of computer users in general. In recent years the 16:9 aspect ratio has become more common in notebook displays. (HD) has become popular for most low-cost notebooks, while (FHD) and higher resolutions are available for more premium notebooks. When a computer display resolution is set higher than the physical screen resolution (native resolution), some video drivers make the virtual screen scrollable over the physical screen thus realizing a two dimensional virtual desktop with its viewport. Most LCD manufacturers do make note of the panel's native resolution as working in a non-native resolution on LCDs will result in a poorer image, due to dropping of pixels to make the image fit (when using DVI) or insufficient sampling of the analog signal (when using VGA connector). Few CRT manufacturers will quote the true native resolution, because CRTs are analog in nature and can vary their display from as low as 320 × 200 (emulation of older computers or game consoles) to as high as the internal board will allow, or the image becomes too detailed for the vacuum tube to recreate (i.e., analog blur). Thus, CRTs provide a variability in resolution that fixed resolution LCDs cannot provide. Film industry As far as digital cinematography is concerned, video resolution standards depend first on the frames' aspect ratio in the film stock (which is usually scanned for digital intermediate post-production) and then on the actual points' count. Although there is not a unique set of standardized sizes, it is commonplace within the motion picture industry to refer to "nK" image "quality", where n is a (small, usually even) integer number which translates into a set of actual resolutions, depending on the film format. As a reference consider that, for a 4:3 (around 1.33:1) aspect ratio which a film frame (no matter what is its format) is expected to horizontally fit in, n is the multiplier of 1024 such that the horizontal resolution is exactly 1024•n points. For example, 2K reference resolution is pixels, whereas 4K reference resolution is pixels. Nevertheless, 2K may also refer to resolutions like (full-aperture), (HDTV, 16:9 aspect ratio) or pixels (Cinemascope, 2.35:1 aspect ratio). It is also worth noting that while a frame resolution may be, for example, 3:2 ( NTSC), that is not what you will see on-screen (i.e. 4:3 or 16:9 depending on the intended aspect ratio of the original material). See also Graphics display resolution Computer display standard Display aspect ratio Display size Ultrawide formats Pixel density of computer displays – PPI (for example, a 20-inch 1680 × 1050 screen has a PPI of 99.06) Resolution independence Video scaler Widescreen References Digital imaging Display technology History of television Television technology Television terminology Video signal

Little River Band

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Little River Band (LRB) is a rock band originally formed in Melbourne, Australia in March 1975. The band achieved commercial success in both Australia and the United States. They have sold more than 30 million records; six studio albums reached the top 10 on the Australian Kent Music Report albums chart including Diamantina Cocktail (May 1977) and First Under the Wire (July 1979), which both peaked at No. 2. Nine singles appeared in the top 20 on the related singles chart, with "Help Is on Its Way" (1977) as their only number-one hit. Ten singles reached the top 20 on the Billboard Hot 100 with "Reminiscing" their highest, peaking at No. 3. Little River Band have received many music awards in Australia. The 1976 line-up of Glenn Shorrock, Graeham Goble, Beeb Birtles, George McArdle, David Briggs and Derek Pellicci were inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame at the 18th Annual ARIA Music Awards of 2004. Most of the group's 1970s and 1980s material was written by Goble and/or Shorrock, Birtles and Briggs. In May 2001 the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), as part of its 75th anniversary celebrations, named "Cool Change", written by Shorrock, as one of the Top 30 Australian songs of all time. "Reminiscing", written by Goble, received a 5-Million Broadcast Citation from BMI in 2020. The group have undergone numerous personnel changes, with over 30 members since their formation, including John Farnham as lead singer after Shorrock first departed in 1982. None of the musicians now performing as Little River Band are original members, nor members in the 1970s. In the 1980s, members included Farnham, Wayne Nelson, Stephen Housden, David Hirschfelder and Steve Prestwich. As from October 2020 the line-up is Nelson, Rich Herring, Chris Marion, Ryan Ricks and Colin Whinnery – none of whom are Australian. Various legal disputes over the band's name occurred in the 2000s, with Housden filing suit against Birtles, Goble and Shorrock. History 1970–1974: Pre Little River Band Little River Band formed in March 1975 in Melbourne as a harmony rock group with Beeb Birtles on guitar and vocals, Graham Davidge on lead guitar, Graeham Goble on guitar and vocals, Dave Orams on bass guitar, Derek Pellicci on drums and Glenn Shorrock on lead vocals. Upon formation they were an Australian super group, with Birtles, Goble, Pellicci and Shorrock each from prominent local bands. Birtles had been the bass guitarist and vocalist in the pop-rock band Zoot (which launched the career of singer-guitarist Rick Springfield) from 1967 to 1971. Goble had led Adelaide-formed folk rock group Allison Gros in 1970. They relocated to Melbourne and in 1972 were renamed as Mississippi, a harmony country rock band, where late that year Birtles joined on guitar and vocals and Pellicci on drums. They had chart success in Australia and built up a following on the concert and festival circuit. During 1971 to 1972 the original members of Mississippi had also recorded as a studio band under the pseudonym Drummond. They achieved a number-one hit, for eight consecutive weeks, on the Go-Set National Top 40 with a novelty cover version of the Rays' song "Daddy Cool". Shorrock had been the lead singer of a pop band, the Twilights (1964–69), and a country rock group, Axiom, from 1969 to 1971 (alongside singer-songwriter Brian Cadd). Both Axiom and Mississippi had relocated to the United Kingdom to try to break into the local record market, but without success. Axiom disbanded after moving to the UK, and Shorrock sang for a more progressive rock outfit, Esperanto, in 1973. He also provided backing vocals for Cliff Richard. In late 1974, Birtles, Goble, Pellicci and Shorrock met with talent manager Glenn Wheatley (former bass player of the Masters Apprentices) in London. With Wheatley as manager, they agreed to reconvene in Melbourne in early 1975. Due to the indifferent reception they had each received in the UK, they decided their new band would establish itself in the United States. Wheatley's first-hand experiences of the rip-offs in the 1960s music scene, combined with working in music management in the UK and the US in the early 1970s, allowed him to help the Little River Band become the first Australian group to enjoy consistent commercial and chart success in the US. After their return to Australia, the members began rehearsing in February 1975, still using the name of Mississippi. On 20 March 1975 they played their first official gig at Martini's Hotel in Carlton. In Birtles' autobiography, Every Day of My Life, he explains how the band came to change its name: Little River Band (as Mississippi) had recorded their first track, a cover version of the Everly Brothers' song "When Will I Be Loved", in February 1975, at Armstrong Studios. However, Linda Ronstadt's version appeared in the following month, so LRB did not release theirs. Before the group performed, Graham Davidge was replaced by Ric Formosa on guitar, and Dave Orams by Roger McLachlan on bass guitar and backing vocals (ex-Levi Smith's Clefs). Phil Manning (ex-Chain) was LRB's first choice for lead guitar. Manning was busy with his solo career and recommended Formosa. The latter had travelled to Australia from Canada and was working in a music store; he joined soon after. 1975–1976: Early years In May 1975 they signed with EMI Records and started recording their debut self-titled album at Armstrong Studios in the following month. The album was co-produced by Birtles, Goble, Shorrock and Wheatley. Tony Catterall of The Canberra Times described it in November as "one of those flawed creations that inevitably draws a more-in-sorrow-than-in-anger response." Bruce Eder of AllMusic observed, "[it's] an astonishingly strong debut album." Little River Band peaked at No. 17 on the Kent Music Report Albums Chart and was certified gold in early 1976. Their debut single, "Curiosity (Killed the Cat)", was released in September, reaching No. 15 on the related Kent Music Report Singles Chart. Two more singles followed, "Emma" and "It's a Long Way There". Wheatley travelled to Los Angeles in December 1975 and touted the group to various record companies until Rupert Perry of Capitol Records signed them on Christmas Eve. Little River Band issued their second Australian album, After Hours, in April 1976. It was produced by the band but was not issued in the US until 1980. After Hours peaked at No. 5 and provided the single "Everyday of My Life", in May 1976, which reached the top 30. 1976–1982: Success and changes of personnel During August 1976 both Formosa and McLachlan were replaced. David Briggs joined on guitar (ex-Cycle, the Avengers, Ram Band) and George McArdle on bass guitar (also ex-Ram Band). According to Wheatley, Formosa was not enthusiastic about touring outside of Australia, He left to work as a session musician, composer and arranger. The group had also decided to bring in McArdle to replace McLachlan, who also became a sessions player and joined the country rock group Stars in 1976. Australian music journalist Ed Nimmervoll listed the classic line-up of the band as Birtles, Briggs, Goble, McArdle, Pellici and Shorrock. Formosa still worked with LRB by arranging and writing string parts for several tracks on subsequent albums. Encouraged by their Australian success, they undertook their first international tour. They flew to the UK in September 1976 to play a show in London's Hyde Park supporting Queen. They then opened shows in the rest of Europe for the Hollies during September and October. Birtles advised fellow Australian bands to establish themselves in Australia first before trying the UK market. In October they performed their first US concert, at James Madison University (then called Madison College) in Harrisonburg, Virginia, as the opening act for Average White Band. Due to US appearances and support from FM stations, "It's a Long Way There" reached No. 28 on the Billboard Hot 100. Little River Band's third studio album Diamantina Cocktail was released in April 1977. The Australian version was co-produced by the group with John Boylan – who stayed on to co-produce their next two studio albums. Due to tension between band members Birtles, Goble and Shorrock recorded as much of their parts individually as was feasible. The Canberra Times Julie Meldrum caught their local performance in May 1977 and described the band as "tightly disciplined" and "there was nothing that was not world class." She reviewed the album, which had no Australian references and felt they were aiming at the US East Coast scene with influences from David Crosby, Graham Nash and Little Feat apparent. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic commented on the US release, "laidback, sweet country-rock, [it] has a similar sound to the band's debut, but the melodies are a little sharper and catchier, making [it] a better, more fully-rounded collection." In Australia Diamantina Cocktail became their highest charting album, peaking at No. 2; while the US version reached the top 50 on the Billboard 200. In January 1978 it was certified gold by RIAA for sales of 500,000 copies: the first Australian band to do so. The lead single, "Help Is on Its Way" reached No. 1 in Australia. Both it and the fourth single, "Happy Anniversary", peaked in the top 20 on the Billboard Hot 100. During 1977 they consistently toured, mostly in the US, headlining in smaller venues and appearing in stadiums on multi-billed shows supporting the Doobie Brothers, Supertramp and America. In August they co-headlined day two of the Reading Music Festival in the UK alongside Thin Lizzy. In November they supported Fleetwood Mac and Santana at Rockarena concerts in Sydney and Melbourne. Early in 1978, Little River Band performed in a free concert on the steps of the Sydney Opera House, drawing 80,000 people, topping the previous record of 57,000, set by Fleetwood Mac and Little River Band on their last Australian tour. Their fourth studio album, Sleeper Catcher, was released in April 1978 and peaked at No. 4 in Australia and No. 16 in the US. By May of the following year, it was certified platinum by RIAA for sales of 1,000,000 copies: the first Australian recorded album to achieve that feat. AllMusic'''s Mike DeGagne praised Shorrock's vocals, which give it "the perfect MOR sound, draping the tracks with his cool, breezy style that is much more apparent and effectual here than on the band's earlier efforts." Sleeper Catcher provided three singles with "Shut Down Turn Off", their highest charting in Australia at No. 16. However in the US the highest charting was "Reminiscing", which peaked at No. 3. The album's last single, "Lady", reached No. 10 in the US in early 1979. Pellicci was hospitalised in May 1978 with severe burns due to methylated spirits igniting on a barbecue. Geoff Cox (ex-Brian Cadd, Bootleg Family Band, Avalanche) substituted on drums, rather than cancelling their next US tour. They supported Boz Scaggs, Jimmy Buffett and the Eagles. Cox remained playing alongside Pellicci, when he joined the tour in August 1978; they supported the Eagles at C.N.E. Stadium in Toronto. Cox left once Pellicci had recovered. Keyboardist Ian Mason, who was a session player on LRB's first three albums, played as a guest on some dates of their 1978 fall Australian jaunt. Mal Logan (ex-the Dingoes, Renée Geyer Band) then joined on keyboards for another US tour which commenced in late December 1978. Logan stayed on as a touring member until the end of 1981. Nimmervoll observed that by February 1978, "frictions inside the band continued to brew, relieved a little by" side projects. Birtles & Goble showcased tracks rejected for LRB. They issued three singles, "Lonely Lives" (March 1978), "I'm Coming Home" (March 1979) and "How I Feel Tonight" (June 1980) and an album, The Last Romance (May 1980). "I'm Coming Home" reached No. 8 in Australia. Shorrock's solo single was a cover version of Bobby Darin's "Dream Lover" (April 1979), which peaked in the Australian top 10. Little River Band's fifth studio album, First Under the Wire was released in July 1979, which reached No. 2 in Australia – equalling Diamantina Cocktail. It was also their highest charting album on the Billboard 200 at No. 10. In November it was certified by RIAA as a platinum album. AllMusic's Mark Allan described their "mix of harmony-drenched pop tunes and unthreatening rockers" which had a wide appeal. Both singles, "Lonesome Loser" and "Cool Change" peaked in the US top 10. Briggs wrote "Lonesome Loser" and Shorrock wrote "Cool Change". Bassist George McArdle left in late January 1979 to become a Christian minister. In July of that year Barry Sullivan (ex-Chain, Renée Geyer Band) took over on bass guitar. He was replaced, in turn, by Wayne Nelson (ex-Jim Messina Band) in April 1980. Goble was the producer for Australian pop singer John Farnham's solo album, Uncovered which was released in September 1980. Goble wrote or co-wrote nine of its ten tracks and provided vocals. The album had other LRB alumni: Briggs, Formosa, Logan, Nelson, Pellicci and Sullivan. Farnham had signed with Wheatley's management company. The line-up of Birtles, Briggs, Goble, Nelson, Pellicci and Shorrock recorded Little River Band's sixth studio album, Time Exposure, which was released in August 1981, with George Martin (the Beatles) producing. The Canberra Times Garry Raffaele felt "it's easy listening, no demands, easing up, slowing down, getting older." By the time it appeared, Stephen Housden (ex-Stevie Wright Band, the Imports) replaced Briggs on lead guitar. The album reached No .9 in Australia and No. 21 in the US; and in November it was certified gold by RIAA. In August 1981, Nelson provided lead vocals for its lead single, "The Night Owls", which peaked at No. 18 in Australia and No. 6 in the US. Raffaele described the track as "the punchiest thing LRB has done for some time but it's still middle-of-the-road pap, hummable." Nelson also shared vocal duties with Shorrock on the second single, "Take It Easy on Me" (November 1981). According to Nimmervoll, Nelson's presence added to the conflict between band members and that Goble "agitated within the band to replace [Shorrock] with [Farnham]." 1982–1987: John Farnham years In February 1982 Shorrock left Little River Band and resumed his solo career. Farnham replaced Shorrock on lead vocals and "Man on Your Mind", the third single from Time Exposure (with Shorrock's vocals), reached No. 14 in the US. Birtles described the removal of Briggs and Shorrock:I remember a couple of embarrassing moments in the studio where [Briggs] was quite rude to [Martin], insisting that his way was better and that he didn't need to be told how or what to play. After our return from recording in Montserrat, during a meeting at [Wheatley]'s house, [Goble] was quite vocal about [Briggs'] conduct. He confronted [him] and virtually fired him ... After [Shorrock] took his frustration out on me one day during a rehearsal ... I said I couldn't work with [him] any more. [Goble], who had always been at opposite poles to Shorrock, agreed with me and Wheatley started freaking out saying he thought it was a big mistake... in hindsight, I believe he was right on the money and to me this would be the mistake that cut Little River Band's throat. In September 1982 Farnham told Susan Moore of The Australian Women's Weekly, how easy it was to fit into the group although both recording and stage work had differed. On covering early LRB repertoire he said, "We've had to change the key with a lot of things because Glenn sang in a different register from me." The first single with Farnham as lead vocalist, "The Other Guy" was released in November 1982, which reached No. 18 in Australia and No. 11 in the US. Another single, "Down on the Border", peaked at No. 7 in Australia. Their next single, "We Two", from their seventh studio album, The Net, reached No. 22 in the US. It had been co-produced by the group and Ern Rose (Mississippi, Rénee Geyer, Stars). DeGagne reviewed the album, which "failed to capture the same success they experienced with Shorrock at the helm. The same type of soft rock fluidity and laid-back charm has been replaced with a sound that seems forced and somewhat strained." In 1983, "You're Driving Me Out of My Mind" became the group's last single to reach the US Top 40. The band moved towards a 1980s style of sound and added a keyboardist, David Hirschfelder (ex-Peter Cupples Band, who had guested on The Net and at some LRB shows), in September 1983. The pressures of success and constant touring took their toll on the band as line-up changes continued. Birtles left in October 1983 because he did not like the harder, more progressive musical path which Goble was taking and because he had preferred Shorrock's vocals. Birtles contributed to soundtracks for feature films, From Something Great (1985) and Boulevard of Broken Dreams (1988). He also worked as a session musician, eventually relocating to the US and releasing a solo album, Driven by Dreams, in 2000. Pellicci left in February 1984 for similar reasons and Steve Prestwich (ex-Cold Chisel) replaced him on drums. Pellicci also became a session musician: including working for Brian Cadd. Their eighth studio album, Playing to Win, was released in January 1985, which delivered a harder sound with producer Spencer Proffer. The change in sound, along with the unofficial shortening of their name to LRB, confused fans and radio programmers. Australian musicologist Ian McFarlane felt it was "a strong album but it failed to halt the band's slide in popularity." It reached No. 38 in Australia and No. 75 on the US charts. The title track made No. 59 on the Australian singles chart, No. 15 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart and No. 60 on Hot 100. The second single, "Blind Eyes", failed to enter the charts. In July 1985 LRB performed on the Oz for Africa benefit concert (part of the global Live Aid program): "Don't Blame Me", "Full Circle", "Night Owls", and "Playing to Win". They were broadcast in Australia (on both Seven Network and Nine Network) and on MTV in the US. ABC broadcast "Don't Blame Me" and "Night Owls" during their Live Aid telecast ("Night Owls" was only partially transmitted). Farnham left the group following the completion of their short Australian tour in April 1986, which had Malcolm Wakeford drumming in Prestwich's place. Their ninth studio album, No Reins, recorded when Farnham was still aboard, appeared in the next month and was produced by Richard Dodd. It reached the Kent Music Report top 100. Farnham explained to Pollyanna Sutton of The Canberra Times why he left, "[On the stage] I was up front and had to be the most liked. There was a lot of pressure because it wasn't, perhaps, working as it should, although there were other contributing things like the membership changes and perhaps the material." Nimmervoll described the Farnham years, "The experiment had never worked. Whatever [Farnham]'s talents, America longed for [Shorrock]. At the end of 1985, while LRB was seriously contemplating its future, Farnham took the initiative to start work on another solo album." Farnham continued to be managed by Wheatley – who left LRB in 1987 – and his solo career took off with his next album, Whispering Jack (October 1986). Hirschfelder, McLachlan, Nelson and Pellicci contributed to the album or the related tour. 1987–1998: Shorrock's return After Farnham's departure Little River Band were in limbo until July 1987 when Pellicci and Shorrock returned at the request of Irving Azoff, the head of MCA Records, who wanted the band on his label. The reformed group signed new management with Geoffrey Schuhkraft and Paul Palmer, who assisted the line-up of Goble, Housden, Nelson, Pellicci and Shorrock in establishing a holding company, We Two Pty. Ltd, with all members as directors in equal share. Goble and former manager Glenn Wheatley signed away rights to the band's name to the new company. In July 1988 Pellicci described the group's previous two albums: "It was an overstatement to say the response to No Reins and Playing to Win was lukewarm — there was no response at all." The revamped group with keyboardist James Roche ( James Stewart Paddle Roche or Jamie Paddle) performed at the opening of World Expo 88 in Brisbane on 30 April. They were joined by the Eagles' Glenn Frey, who also accompanied them that year on tour. The group released their tenth studio album, Monsoon, in May 1988, which peaked at No. 9 on the Kent Music Report. It was co-produced by Boylan and Goble. The Canberra Times Lisa Wallace was disappointed by its lack of innovation despite showing technical skills. Its lead single, "Love Is a Bridge", co-written by Goble and Housden was released in April and peaked at No. 7 on the Kent Music Report. It was their second highest charting single in the Australian market, and a moderate Adult Contemporary radio hit in the US. In 1989 the group recorded "Listen to Your Heart", written by Tom Kelly and Billy Steinberg, for the film soundtrack, The Karate Kid Part III. The eleventh studio album, Get Lucky was released in April 1990, their last charting one in Australia, made the top 60. Mike Boehm of Los Angeles Times caught their gig in May, where "[Shorrock] was stiff and seemed stuck for words between songs. But he knew what to do when the music started, singing in a comfortably husky voice that resembled Phil Collins in tone and easy pop appeal. [Nelson], the group's Californian, generated more heat in his two lead vocal turns. The three-part harmonies behind Shorrock were exemplary, although the Crosby, Stills & Nash parallels were unmistakable. Lead guitarist [Housden] reinforced the emphasis on melody with his clean, lyrical lines." MCA released a compilation album, Worldwide Love, of tracks from the previous two LPs on their Curb Records imprint in June 1991. Both Get Lucky and Worldwide Love peaked in the top 40 on the Swiss Hitparade; with the latter also appearing on the Ö3 Austria Top 40. Goble had ceased touring with the group in 1989 and left altogether by 1992, as well as resigning from We Two. Peter Beckett (ex-Player) joined in 1989 to take Goble's place. The group went through a series of keyboard players, including Tony Sciuto (1990–1992, 1993–1997) and Richard Bryant (1992–1993, ex-Doobie Brothers). In September 1992 Nelson's daughter was killed in a traffic collision in San Diego, while he was on tour with the band in Europe. Nelson immediately returned home and Hal Tupaea substituted on bass guitar for the New Zealand dates of the band's tour in November 1993. Little River Band subsequently took a break until Nelson's return in 1994 and embarked on a four-and-a-half month 20th Anniversary US tour in 1995. Shorrock left again in 1996: he was offered the option to buy out the remaining members of We Two Pty. Ltd. He took a one-third share of the monetary value of the company as he did not want to commit to the band's US touring schedule. Shorrock was replaced on lead vocals by Melbourne singer Steve Wade (ex-Dolphin Street). Nelson also left in 1996 and Tupaea returned on bass guitar. This line-up lasted until late 1997, when everyone, except Housden and Wade, started to leave, including Pellicci, who left again that December. The departure of all original directors left Housden as the sole owner of We Two Pty. Ltd and the Little River Band's name and trademarks. 1998–present: Recent years In 1998 Housden re-established Little River Band with contracted members: Wade was joined by Paul Gildea on vocals and guitars; Kevin Murphy on vocals, drums and percussion; and Adrian Scott on vocals and keyboards (ex-Air Supply) and McLachlan, who returned after 22 years, on bass guitar. McLachlan's second tenure was short lived; both he and Scott departed after a year. Nelson returned early in the following year and Glenn Reither joined on keyboards, saxophone and backing vocals. Gildea and Wade left early in 2000 with Australian Greg Hind joining on vocals and guitars and Nelson taking over as lead singer. The line-up of Hind, Housden, Murphy, Nelson and Reither recorded two studio albums, Where We Started From (November 2000) and Test of Time (June 2004). In March 2002 Birtles Shorrock Goble (BSG) were formed in Melbourne as a soft rock trio, initially billed as "The Original Little River Band" or "The Voices of Little River Band". Wheatley returned as their manager. They undertook a series of concerts performing LRB's earlier material. In June of that year a legal dispute, We Two Pty Ltd v Shorrock (2002) over the use of the name "Little River Band" reached the Federal Court of Australia. Housden's company We Two Pty Ltd lodged an action against Birtles, Goble and Shorrock seeking to stop BSG from using the LRB trademarks, logos or band name. Housden provided documentation showing the assignment of those trademarks to We Two, registered by the United States Patent and Trademark Office in 1989, and Birtles' transfer of ownership of the url "littleriverband.com" to We Two in 2000. The parties settled out of court on 13 June 2002 where We Two had ownership of the Little River Band name, trademarks and logos and that Birtles, Goble and Shorrock could reference their history in advertising separate to BSG's name but only in a descriptive manner. On 12 July of that year Birtles, Goble and Shorrock were directed to pay half of We Two's taxed costs. A further legal case in late July 2005 was also settled out of court, which allowed the trio to advertise their Little River Band connection but not to perform under that name. The three former members shared their frustration at the situation via song with Goble's "Someone's Taken Our History", Birtles' "Revolving Door" and Shorrock's "Hear My Voice". At the end of 2004, Murphy and Reither left LRB and Chris Marion joined on keyboards, while Kip Raines briefly took on drumming duties until replaced by Billy Thomas in early 2005. Housden stopped touring with the band in 2006 but still participated in their recordings and management. Rich Herring took over lead guitar on tour and Mel Watts replaced Thomas, who had suffered a shoulder injury, on drums in 2007. Ryan Ricks replaced Watts in 2012.Lehigh Valley Musics reviewer John Moser saw their performance in early 2013. He perceived that they largely played material from before 1985 and were unable to deliver improvements on the originals. That August LRB released an album Cuts Like a Diamond on the Frontiers Records, a majority of which was written by other musicians. Little River Band were scheduled to appear on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon in January 2015, to promote the group's 40th anniversary. It was cancelled after complaints from early members over advertising that LRB would perform "Reminiscing". Permission for the use of any songs written by Birtles, Briggs, Goble or Shorrock was refused. Shorrock expressed his concerns over LRB's misrepresentations, "They are promoting a newly recorded album of their own material, or whatever material they have got. They should do that rather than pretend they are the band that sold 30 million albums." In March 2015 the group's appearance in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, was cancelled after the venue received a cease and desist order from the early members regarding the use of their recordings in advertising and the demands by LRB members to be paid in full before performing. The venue described the latter demand as "not only unreasonable, but uncustomary." Rahni Sadler of TV show Sunday Night investigated the band name controversy. She asked Housden to display the document, which showed the transfer of ownership but he had not located it. Wheatley claimed that he could not remember signing it when it appeared in the court case. Shorrock offered to make peace with Housden and perform together. Housden told Sadler that he would not allow the original members to work as Little River Band "in this lifetime". Housden and Nelson acknowledged that the later version of the band would not be successful without the songs of the founders. In September 2015 Little River Band received Casino Musical Entertainer of the Year at the Annual G2E Awards ceremony at the Hard Rock Hotel in Las Vegas. As of 2017 LRB continue to tour, mostly in the US, performing more than 80 concerts annually, re-recording earlier material. When asked about LRB's Hits Revisited album, Birtles disparaged it, "That to me is the comedy album ... They re-arranged all the songs and it's bloody awful. They're nothing more than a tribute band." Also in 2017 Little River Band blocked Australia from its official website. Australian access to the band's Facebook page was also blocked. On 13 November 2017 Birtles on Australian talk show Studio 10 confirmed that the founders would not reunite, "Once [BSG] folded we all realised it wasn't going to go any further than that. It's unfortunate how we lost the name and everything, but if its ruled in the court that way all you can do is walk away from it." In February 2018 Herring in Everyone Loves Guitar disclosed "We actually re-recorded all the hits and I'll say without any shame that I tried to make it sound as close to the originals as possible by bringing in background singers that actually sounded like those guys did 30-40 years ago. I'm pretty proud of it." Nashville musician Colin Whinnery was recruited to replace Hind on vocals and guitar in 2018, consequently there are no Australians in Little River Band. In January 2019, an agent for Goble, Birtles and Shorrock applied to the Australian Trademark Office to register "Little River Band" as a trademark. Little River Band Pty Ltd had current registered trademarks for "Little River Band". The application sought to have the existing Little River Band trademarks removed, alleging non-use in the three year period ending December 2018. On 17 May 2021 the Australian Trademark Office ruled in favour of Little River Band Pty Ltd's opposition to the application for removal of their "Little River Band" trademarks. From May 2020 major music and streaming platforms such as iTunes recognise the original Little River Band as a separate entity to the latterday band. On 18 September 2020 Birtles, Briggs, Goble and Shorrock participated in a video-conference where they discussed the formation and early history of the band. In December 2020 Rolling Stone Magazine Australia reported "the songwriters responsible for the band’s biggest songs – Graeham Goble, Glenn Shorrock, Beeb Birtles and David Briggs – are unable to perform as the Little River Band, the band they themselves invented back in 1974! A fake version of Little River Band continues to tour, playing parodies of their hits. The owner of the title, Stephen Housden, is adamant he won't share the rights with the original members.” The Little River Band were listed at number 44 in Rolling Stone Australias "50 Greatest Australian Artists of All Time" issue. Little River Band's original manager, Glenn Wheatley, died from complications of COVID-19 on 1 February 2022 at the age of 74. Legacy The Little River Band are considered to be among Australia's most significant bands. As of September 2004 they have sold more than 30 million records and scored 13 US Top 40 hits. In May 2001 the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), as part of its 75th anniversary celebrations, named "Cool Change" as one of the Top 30 Australian songs of all time. At that ceremony Goble and Shorrock reconnected after ten years; they proposed a reunion with Birtles to perform their earlier material, which became the trio Birtles Shorrock Goble. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2004, Little River Band were inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame. The presentation acknowledged the band's three decade career and thirteen official members and was accepted by the 1976 to 1978 line-up of Birtles, Briggs, Goble, Pellicci, McArdle and Shorrock. They were referred to as "The Classic Line-up of the Little River Band". They performed "Help Is on Its Way" at the ceremony on 17 October 2004. Shorrock had previously been inducted in 1991 for his work with the Twilights, Axiom and his solo career. Farnham, who had been inducted in 2003 for his solo work, was not inducted in 2004 with Little River Band. However, Farnham's contribution to LRB was acknowledged by Goble in his acceptance speech. The 2018 version of Little River Band claims the band's Hall of Fame induction, amongst other past achievements, on its website. With more than five million plays, "Reminiscing", written by Goble, was recognised by BMI as one of the most frequently played songs in the history of US radio, the highest achievement of any Australian pop song internationally. According to Albert Goldman's biography, John Lennon named "Reminiscing" as one of his favourite songs. May Pang, Lennon's erstwhile girlfriend, said they considered "Reminiscing" as "our song". "Lady" has accumulated more than four million plays. LRB were mentioned in the 2010 film The Other Guys, when the character portrayed by Will Ferrell played "Reminiscing" while driving. The character portrayed by Mark Wahlberg threw the CD out the window, but Ferrell's character played it again later on and said that he always had six identical LRB CDs in his car. In Sea Stories: My Life in Special Operations (2019), Admiral William H. McRaven wrote that he would sing "Happy Anniversary" before every jump. Shorrock was appointed an Honorary Member of the Order of Australia (AM) on 26 January 2020, awarded for significant service to the performing arts as a singer, songwriter and entertainer. In March he was due to perform at the Little River Country Fair, the town after which LRB were named. Shorrock wanted to celebrate the 45th Anniversary of the group's first show. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic the performance was postponed. In September Goble was acknowledged for achieving 12 million plays of his songs on US commercial radio by BMI after receiving his fifth such Million-Air Award, with the latest for "The Night Owls" (see their BMI Awards). Discography Little River Band (1975) After Hours (1976) Diamantina Cocktail (1977) Sleeper Catcher (1978) First Under the Wire (1979) Time Exposure (1981) The Net (1983) Playing to Win (1985) No Reins (1986) Monsoon (1988) Get Lucky (1990) Where We Started From (2000) Test of Time (2004) We Call It Christmas (2007) Cuts Like a Diamond (2013) The Hits...Revisited (2016) Black Tie'' (2020) Personnel Current members Wayne Nelson – bass, vocals (1980–96, 1999–present), lead vocals (2000–present) Chris Marion – keyboards, vocals (2004–present) Rich Herring – guitar, vocals (2006–present) Ryan Ricks – drums, vocals (2012–present) Colin Whinnery – guitar, vocals (2018–present) Former members Graeham Goble – guitar, vocals (1975–92) Glenn Shorrock – vocals (1975–82, 1987–96) Beeb Birtles – guitar, vocals (1975–83) Derek Pellicci – drums (1975–84, 1987–98) Graham Davidge – lead guitar (1975) Dave Orams – bass (1975) Ric Formosa – guitar, vocals (1975–76) Roger McLachlan – bass (1975–76, 1998–99) David Briggs – guitar (1976–81) George McArdle – bass (1976–79) Geoff Cox – drums (1978) Mal Logan – keyboards (1978–82) Barry Sullivan – bass (1979–80; died 2003) Stephen Housden – guitar (1981–2006) John Farnham – vocals (1982–86) David Hirschfelder – keyboards, synthesisers, backing vocals (1983–86) Steve Prestwich – drums (1984–86; died 2011) Malcolm Wakeford – drums (1986) James Roche – keyboards (1988–89) Peter Beckett – guitar, vocals (1989–97) Tony Sciuto – keyboards, guitar, vocals (1990–92, 1993–97) Richard Bryant – keyboards, backing vocals (1992–93) Steve Wade – lead vocals, guitar (1996–2000) Hal Tupea – bass (1996–97) Kevin Murphy – drums, vocals (1998–2004) Paul Gildea – guitar, vocals (1998–2000) Adrian Scott – keyboards, vocals (1998–99) Glenn Reither – keyboards, saxophone, backing vocals (1999–2004) Greg Hind - vocals, guitar (2000–18) Kip Raines – drums (2004–05) Billy Thomas – drums (2005–07) Mel Watts – drums (2007–12) Awards and nominations References External links Shorrock Birtles Goble Website Little River Band holdings in the National Film and Sound Archive "Little River Band: ‘L.A. was home to so many great bands and musicians’ " Interview with Wayne Nelson on Yuzu Melodies, 10 January 2014. APRA Award winners ARIA Award winners Australian supergroups Musical groups from Melbourne Australian soft rock music groups Musical groups established in 1975 ARIA Hall of Fame inductees 1975 establishments in Australia Frontiers Records artists

Pierre Janssen

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Pierre Jules César Janssen (22 February 1824 – 23 December 1907), also known as Jules Janssen, was a French astronomer who, along with English scientist Joseph Norman Lockyer, is credited with discovering the gaseous nature of the solar chromosphere, and with some justification the element helium. Life, work, and interests Janssen was born in Paris into a cultivated family. His father, Antoine César Janssen (born in Paris, 1780 – 1860) was a well known clarinettist from Dutch/Belgian descent (his father emigrated from Walloon Brabant to Paris). His mother Pauline Marie Le Moyne (1789 – 1871) was a daughter of the architect Paul Guillaume Le Moyne. Pierre Janssen studied mathematics and physics at the faculty of sciences. He taught at the Lycée Charlemagne in 1853, and in the school of architecture 1865 – 1871, but his energies were mainly devoted to various scientific missions entrusted to him. Thus in 1857 he went to Peru in order to determine the magnetic equator; in 1861–1862 and 1864, he studied telluric absorption in the solar spectrum in Italy and Switzerland; in 1867 he carried out optical and magnetic experiments at the Azores; he successfully observed both transits of Venus, that of 1874 in Japan, that of 1882 at Oran in Algeria; and he took part in a long series of solar eclipse-expeditions, e.g. to Trani (1867), Guntur (1868), Algiers (1870), Siam (1875), the Caroline Islands (1883), and to Alcosebre in Spain (1905). To see the eclipse of 1870, he escaped from the Siege of Paris in a balloon. Unfortunately the eclipse was obscured from him by cloud. In the year 1874, Janssen invented the Revolver of Janssen or Photographic Revolver, instrument that originated the chronophotography. Later this invention was of great use for researchers like Etienne Jules Marey to carry out exhibitions and inventions. Discovery of helium In 1868 Janssen discovered how to observe solar prominences without an eclipse. While observing the solar eclipse of 18 August 1868, at Guntur, Madras State (now in Andhra Pradesh), British India, he noticed bright lines in the spectrum of the chromosphere, showing that the chromosphere is gaseous. Present in the spectrum of the Sun, though not immediately noticed or commented upon, was a bright yellow line later measured to have a wavelength of 587.49 nm. This was the first observation of this particular spectral line, and one possible source for it was an element not yet discovered on the earth. From the brightness of the spectral lines, Janssen realized that the chromospheric spectrum could be observed even without an eclipse, and he proceeded to do so. On 20 October, Joseph Norman Lockyer in England set up a new, relatively powerful spectroscope. He also observed the emission spectrum of the chromosphere, including the same yellow line. Within a few years, he worked with a chemist and they concluded that it could be caused by an unknown element, after unsuccessfully testing to see if it were some new type of hydrogen. This was the first time a chemical element was discovered on an extraterrestrial body before being found on the earth. Lockyer and the English chemist Edward Frankland named the element after the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος (helios). Observatories At the great Indian eclipse of 1868 that occurred in Guntur, Janssen also demonstrated the gaseous nature of the red prominences, and devised a method of observing them under ordinary daylight conditions. One main purpose of his spectroscopic inquiries was to answer the question whether the Sun contains oxygen or not. An indispensable preliminary was the virtual elimination of oxygen-absorption in the Earth's atmosphere, and his bold project of establishing an observatory on the top of Mont Blanc was prompted by a perception of the advantages to be gained by reducing the thickness of air through which observations have to be made. This observatory, the foundations of which were fixed in the hard ice that appeared to cover the summit to a depth of over ten metres, was built in September 1893, and Janssen, in spite of his sixty-nine years, made the ascent and spent four days taking observations. In 1875, Janssen was appointed director of the new astrophysical observatory established by the French government at Meudon, and set on foot there in 1876 the remarkable series of solar photographs collected in his great Atlas de photographies solaires (1904). The first volume of the Annales de l'observatoire de Meudon was published by him in 1896. (see also Meudon Great Refractor) Janssen was the President of the Société Astronomique de France (SAF), the French astronomical society, from 1895 to 1897. International Meridian Conference In 1884 he took part in the International Meridian Conference. Death, honors, and legacy Janssen died at Meudon on 23 December 1907 and was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, with the name "J. Janssen" inscribed on his tomb. During his life he was made a Knight of the Legion of Honor and a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London. Craters on both Mars and the Moon are named in his honor. The public square in front of Meudon Observatory is named Place Jules Janssen after him. Two major prizes carry his name: the Prix Jules Janssen of the French Astronomical Society, and the Janssen Medal of the French Academy of Sciences. Janssen named minor planet 225 Henrietta discovered by Johann Palisa, after his wife, Henrietta. Notes and references Further reading Obituary, from Popular Astronomy, 1908, vol. 16, pp. 72–74 Obituary, from Astronomische Nachrichten, 1908, vol. 177, p. 63 (in French) Obituary, from The Astrophysical Journal, 1908, vol. 28, pp. 89–99 (in French) Janssen statue, description and black-and-white picture from The Observatory, 1922, vol. 45, pp. 175–176 Brief biography, from the High Altitude Observatory at Boulder, Colorado 1824 births 1907 deaths Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery Discoverers of chemical elements 19th-century French astronomers Members of the French Academy of Sciences Foreign Members of the Royal Society Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur Honorary Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Scientists from Paris Helium Spectroscopists Recipients of the Lalande Prize

List of mountains in India

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Highest major summits in India Other significant mountains Agastyamalai Anamudi Anginda Bamba Dhura Bandarpunch Betlingchhip Blue Mountain Burphu Dhura Chandrashila Changuch Chaudhara Chiring We Deomali Doddabetta Doli Gutta Gangotri Group Gauri Parbat Gimmigela Chuli Girnar Gori Chen Guru Shikhar Gya Hathi Parbat Kalrayan hills Kalsubai Kang Yatze Kangju Kangri Kodachadri Kolaribetta Kolukkumalai Kumara Parvatha Maiktoli Meesapulimala Mentok (mountain) Mol Len Mukurthi Mullayanagiri Nag Tibba Nagalaphu Nanda Ghunti Nanda Gond Nanda Khat Nanda Kot Nanda Pal Nilkantha Nun Kun Om Parvat Pandim Parasnath Plateau Peak Pichalbetta Rajrambha Reo Purgyil Sangthang Shevaroy hills Siniolchu Sispara Suj Tilla East Suj Tilla West Sujarkamiltan Suli Top Swargarohini Matanga Hill Mountain ranges The Himalayas Karakoram Arakan Yoma Western Ghats Eastern Ghats Vindhyas Aravali Satpura See also List of Himalayan peaks of Uttarakhand List of Indian states and territories by highest point List of mountain peaks of Maharashtra List of mountains and hills of the West Bengal List of mountains in Kerala List of peaks in Himachal Pradesh List of peaks in the Western Ghats Notes References Bibliography

Degrassi: The Next Generation

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Degrassi: The Next Generation (also known as Degrassi for seasons 10 to 14) is a Canadian teen drama television series and the fourth series in the Degrassi franchise, which was created by Linda Schuyler and Kit Hood in 1979. It is a direct followup to Degrassi Junior High and Degrassi High, featuring a new ensemble cast of students at the fictional Degrassi Community School who face various issues and challenges such as sex, teen pregnancy, bullying, date rape, drug abuse, body image, homosexuality, domestic violence, gang violence, self-injury, suicide, abortion, mental disorders, death, and many other issues. Various characters from the previous two series also return as adults in recurring or guest roles. The series was initially created by Linda Schuyler and Yan Moore, the latter of who was the head writer of Degrassi Junior High and Degrassi High. It was produced by Epitome Pictures (a subsidiary of DHX Media) in association with Bell Media. The series premiered on CTV on October 14, 2001, to mixed reviews, with some critics expressing doubts about whether the show would make the same impact as its predecessors, but would ultimately garner similar critical and commercial success. It received favourable reviews from critics of Entertainment Weekly, The New York Times, and AfterElton.com. In its initial years, it was frequently the most watched domestic drama series in Canada. In the United States, it became the highest-rated show on Noggin's teen block, The N. By 2004, the series had averaged nearly a million viewers in Canada, and half a million in the United States. The series won numerous awards, including awards from the Geminis, Writers Guild of Canada, and Directors Guild of Canada. Internationally, it also won several Teen Choice Awards, Young Artist Awards, and Prix Jeunesse. The episode "My Body Is a Cage", in which a character is outed as transgender, won a Peabody Award in 2011. The format of the series underwent several changes during its later seasons after increased involvement of TeenNick support. The series moved to MuchMusic for season ten for Canadian viewership in 2010. In the US, the tenth season with TeenNick promotional involvement marked a change in production style to a telenovela format during the summer months, before returning to its standard fall-spring schedule until its end in 2015. In Canada the thirteenth season reverted to a weekly schedule and part way through moved to MTV Canada, where it aired until its final episode on August 2, 2015, after fourteen seasons. It was followed by Degrassi: Next Class, which followed characters from the show's later seasons as well as introducing newer ones, in 2016. Production Concept The Degrassi universe was created in 1979 by Playing With Time, a production company owned by former schoolteacher Linda Schuyler and her partner Kit Hood. The franchise began with The Kids of Degrassi Street, which was spawned out of three half-hour short films, and came to prominence with the critical and commercial successes of Degrassi Junior High, which debuted in 1987, and Degrassi High, which premiered in 1989. The two series followed an ensemble cast of students attending the titular schools as they confronted various issues. It became an international sensation, with the shows experiencing upwards of a million viewers on average in Canada, and received numerous accolades. The telemovie.School's Out, which concluded the franchise, aired in 1992. Schuyler and original Degrassi series head writer Yan Moore began developing a new television drama in 1999, following a reunion of the original Degrassi cast on the CBC series Jonovision. As the months progressed, they began to think about what had happened to the original characters to develop a school-reunion theme. However, they decided that a series would not work effectively if based around adults instead of children. Moore realized that the character Emma Nelson, born to character Christine "Spike" Nelson at the end of Degrassi Junior Highs second season, would soon be entering junior high school, and development for the series took a new direction by focusing on Emma and her school experiences. Schuyler's husband Stephen Stohn suggested Degrassi: The Next Generation as the name for the new sequel series, borrowing the concept from Star Trek: The Next Generation, of which he was a fan. The project was pitched to CTV in May 2000, with the originally planned reunion episode serving as the pilot to the new series. Executive producers, script-writers and directors Produced by Epitome Pictures Inc, in association with CTVglobemedia, later renamed Bell Media in 2011, Degrassi: The Next Generation received funding from Canadian Television Fund and BCE the Shaw Rocket Fund, Mountain Cable Program and the Royal Bank of Canada, the Bell Broadcast and New Media Fund, and the Cogeco Program Development Fund. Linda Schuyler and Stephen Stohn served as executive producers throughout its run. Other Epitome Pictures employees and series crew members were also been credited as executive producers, including Sara Snow, Brendon Yorke, James Hurst, Aaron Martin, and Sarah Glinski. Story editors included Sarah Glinski and Matt Huether, Shelley Scarrow, James Hurst, Aaron Martin, and Sean Reycraft. Frequent directors included Phil Earnshaw, Stefan Scaini and Bruce McDonald. When production of season three began, a user on the official Degrassi: The Next Generation website with the alias "ExecProducer" began a forum thread titled "Shooting Season 3", revealing production details, guest actors, scheduling information and DVD release details. He referred to himself as "Stephen Stohn" in one post, although it was not until the release of Degrassi: Generations – The Official 411 in 2005, that Stohn confirmed he was the poster and it was not an imposter. Episode format The episodes are written following the same formula with two or three storylines (Plot A, Plot B and Plot C). The main storyline, A, opens and closes the episode and is usually driven by a single character. Plot B is usually more comedic in tone and sometimes slightly intertwined with the other stories, often moving story arcs forward. Plot C was usually used sporadically in a season-long arc, but is now used in every episode as comedic relief. The problems and issues presented in the episode are not always resolved by the end of the episode, and are carried over to the next, or create a mini-arc over several episodes. The majority of episodes are named after songs from the 1980s, and since the tenth season, episodes are named after songs from the 1990s to the present, representing the entering of a new decade and a completely different cast from the earlier seasons. For the first nine seasons, Degrassi: The Next Generation had been produced as a weekly half-hour teen comedy-drama series, with each season consisting of between fifteen and twenty-four episodes. Due to falling viewing figures between seasons six and nine, the series developed a daily soap opera format for the summer run of the tenth season, and increased the number of episodes to forty-four. The tenth season also dropped the tagline "The Next Generation", with only one original cast member remaining, and due to the young audience unfamiliar with the past generation, referring to the series as "Degrassi". Season 13 reverted to airing episodes weekly, but still produced more episodes than prior to the soap opera format, airing a block in the summer of 2013 and the summer of 2014. Opening sequence The Degrassi opening sequence follows a two- to three-minute cold open. During the first five seasons these credits showed the characters on the school premises and followed a mini storyline. Seasons six and seven featured titles with the actors breaking the fourth wall and facing the camera, over a montage of character videos from past seasons, saturated with blue colour and gold outlines. The montages behind the characters depicting a major event in that character's storyline. For the eighth season, the show abandoned the style of titles used for the previous two seasons and returned to the original form of showing the characters at school while participating in school-related activities. Season thirteen dropped the opening credits, replacing it with an eleven-second montage. This continued into season fourteen. Instead of listing every ensemble actor, after the montage, season thirteen and fourteen episodes credit only the regular actors appearing in that episode. The theme music, "Whatever It Takes", was composed by Jim McGrath, with lyrics written by Jody Colero and Stephen Stohn. The song include lines such as, "Whatever it takes, I know I can make it through/Be the best, the best I can be", to convey what Colero calls, "a sense of joy and optimism." Lisa Dalbello performed the lyrics with a children's choir over a 1980s pop music style tune during the first three seasons. Dave Ogilvie and Anthony Valcic of Canadian industrial-pop group Jakalope reworked and performed the song with a heavier sound, reflecting the growing maturity of the characters in season four. For seasons six and seven, the theme—still performed by Jakalope—was remixed and stripped of vocals. A fourth version of the theme song, with lyrics sung by Damhnait Doyle, was introduced for the eighth season, and a fifth version of the theme, performed by the in-show band "Stüdz" is used for the ninth and tenth seasons. For seasons eleven and twelve, a sixth version of the theme song is used, performed by Alexz Johnson. Seasons thirteen and fourteen featured a truncated version of the Alexz Johnson theme. Music Jim McGrath created the musical score for each episode using an instrumental version of the theme music. He also worked with actors such as Jake Epstein, Melissa McIntyre and Jamie Johnston, when writing music for their characters Craig Manning, Ashley Kerwin, and Peter Stone to perform in the bands Downtown Sasquatch, Paige Michalchuk and the Sexkittens (PMS), Hell Hath No Fury, and Stüdz. In addition to being scored, Degrassi features a mix of original emo, alternative rock and pop music. Popular songs were used sparingly in the series, mainly because of budget constraints. Usually, music supervisor Jody Colero selected songs from little-known, unsigned Canadian artists. When these songs are included, they originate from a diegetic source. Examples of this can be seen in the first-season episode "Jagged Little Pill", when well-known songs are played during Ashley's house party, at the wedding reception in the fifth-season episode "Weddings, Parties, Anything", and during the party scene in the seventh-season episode "Everything She Wants". Filming locations The Degrassi universe is set on De Grassi Street in Toronto, Ontario. The three previous series were filmed on and near the street. However, The Next Generation was filmed at Epitome Pictures' four soundstages and backlot located at the company's production studios in Toronto. The facade of Degrassi Community School is the exterior of Studio C, and uses the same colours and glass pattern as Centennial College, which was used to depict the school in Degrassi High. The area in front of this facade features a "hoarding area" where students gather, a street, and a bus stop across the road. The studio's backlot is used for exterior shots of the characters' houses, which is one unit dressed differently for each house, and The Dot Grill. The building for The Dot is the only one on the backlot large enough to allow filming inside; scenes taking places inside the school and house interiors are filmed on one of four sound stages. Studio A contains sets for the school's hallways, washrooms, cafeteria and classrooms. The hallways are stenciled with phrases such as "the perfect human being is all human", which were found at the Etobicoke School for the Arts, one of the many schools that set designers used during their original research. The washroom set has graffiti on the walls to look authentic, and is used for the girls' and boys' room; urinals are installed and removed as needed. The set used for the cafeteria is "purposefully bland to take the edge off the rest of the school looking so beautiful." It is also used as the studio's cafeteria where the cast and crew eat. In addition to being used as the exterior of the school, Studio C holds sets for the school's entrance foyer, the gymnasium, the media lab and a hallway with lockers. As the series progressed and the budget increased, a stairway and balcony was installed in the foyer in an attempt to get characters off the floor and not all appear in the same geometric plane. For the first few seasons, the gym floor was made of real wooden floorboards; due to warping, it was replaced by concrete painted to look like wood. Studio B contains the sets for the characters' houses and The Core newspaper office which was introduced in season six. It also held sets for Instant Star, another Epitome Pictures production. The fourth studio, Studio D, houses all the production offices, dressing rooms, and make-up and hair departments. The pool hall and university campus club sets were built in Studio D for the seventh season. York University's Keele Campus in Toronto served as the location for various sites at Smithdale University. Episodes Cast Main roles Main For the new generation of students, producers auditioned over six hundred school-aged children in an attempt to provide characters to which the teenaged target-audience could relate. The decision to cast age-similar actors was purposeful to contrast the series from other shows of the same period such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Dawson's Creek, which had cast actors in their twenties as teenagers. Eleven children were given star billing in the first season. Sarah Barrable-Tishauer portrayed the lonely high-achiever Liberty Van Zandt. Daniel Clark played bad-boy Sean Cameron. Lauren Collins was cast as Paige Michalchuk, the school's head cheerleader and queen bee. Ryan Cooley portrayed class clown James Tiberius "J.T." Yorke, with Jake Goldsbie cast as J.T.'s best friend, Toby Isaacs, a computer geek. Drake portrayed basketball star Jimmy Brooks, who is from a wealthy family. Shane Kippel played school bully Gavin "Spinner" Mason. Miriam McDonald was cast as Emma Nelson, an environmental rights activist, with Cassie Steele cast in the role of Emma's best friend, promiscuous high school cheerleader Manuela "Manny" Santos. Melissa McIntyre portrayed Ashley Kerwin, the perfect girl who attracts the popular boys, and who the other girls are jealous of. Christina Schmidt portrayed the overweight and insecure Terri McGreggor. Providing ties to the previous series in the Degrassi universe, Stefan Brogren was approached to play his old character Archie "Snake" Simpson, now working at the school as the media immersion teacher. Dan Woods reprised his role as English teacher Mr. Raditch, now promoted to school principal, and Pat Mastroianni returned to his role as Joey Jeremiah. Amanda Stepto also returned to the franchise to play her character Christine "Spike" Nelson in a recurring role. In the pilot episode, former Degrassi Junior High and Degrassi High actors Danah Jean Brown (Trish Skye), Darrin Brown (Dwayne Myers), Michael Carry (Simon Dexter), Irene Courakos (Alexa Pappadopoulos), Chrissa Erodotou (Diana Economopoulos), Anais Granofsky (Lucy Fernandez), Rebecca Haines (Kathleen Mead), Sarah Holmes (Alison Hunter), Neil Hope (Derek "Wheels" Wheeler), Kyra Levy (Maya Goldberg), Cathy Keenan (Liz O'Rourke), Stacie Mistysyn (Caitlin Ryan), and Siluck Saysanasy (Yick Yu) reprised their roles for the class reunion storyline. In season two, Mastroianni returned to the Degrassi franchise in a starring role as Joey Jeremiah, a car salesman and single father of two children. Joey's stepson, musician Craig Manning, played by Jake Epstein, is a new student at Degrassi Community School. Three other new characters were introduced in season two in recurring roles. Stacey Farber played Ellie Nash, a goth whose home life is in turmoil, and Adamo Ruggiero portrayed Marco Del Rossi, who is struggling to accept the reality that he is gay. Melissa Di Marco was cast as science and gym teacher Daphne Hatzilakos. Mistysyn also returned to her former Degrassi role as Joey's ex-high school sweetheart, Caitlyn Ryan, who in the years following graduation has become a world-renowned journalist. In season three, Farber, Ruggiero and Mistysyn were given regular roles, as were Andrea Lewis (Hazel Aden) and Stepto, who had held recurring roles since the first season. Mike Lobel (Jay Hogart), Deanna Casaluce (Alex Nuñez), Ephraim Ellis (Rick Murray) and John Bregar (Dylan Michalchuk) were introduced in recurring roles as new students. Towards the end of the season, Schmidt's character, Terri McGreggor, was written out of the show when her possessive boyfriend Rick pushed her to the ground and knocked her head against a rock, causing her to fall into a coma. Over the course of the ten seasons of Degrassi: The Next Generation, there have been several departures from the series. Season six depicted the first death of one of the show's main characters when J.T. Yorke was stabbed and killed. Clark's character Sean Cameron has been written out of the show twice. He left the series during the fourth season in the wake of the death of Rick Murray, and returned for the sixth season, but departed the series again at the end of the season. At the end of season five several main characters graduated from Degrassi Community School, and either left the series or went on to university. Six new characters were introduced in season seven in a storyline where nearby rival high school Lakehurst merged with Degrassi following a fire. Season eight saw many changes when many of the existing cast members, including Collins, Farber, Graham, Stepto, Ruggiero, and DiMarco either moved to recurring status or left the series entirely. The exodus of several major cast members was reportedly an executive decision that left the actors and producers on bad terms, with Graham stating in an interview with Vibe that "[the producers] did us foul." Thirteen actors were added to the main cast to replace them. By season nine, Brogren, McDonald, Steele and Kippel were the only actors from season one who remained in the series as storylines began to focus on a new generation of children attending the school. This was done to avoid moving the show to a primarily college setting, as the first generation cast aged or "graduated" out of Degrassi Community School into college. As of season 10, none of the characters from the earlier seasons remain, with the exception of Brogren, whose character has been promoted to the principal of Degrassi Community School; the series now centres on the new generation of Degrassi students. Guest roles Besides Brogren, Mistysyn, Stepto, and Mastroianni having starring roles, other actors from Degrassi Junior High and Degrassi High have returned to guest star in their old roles throughout Degrassi: The Next Generation's run. As well as the pilot episode featuring the return of many Degrassi alumni, Granofsky made a second guest appearance during the second season in the episode "White Wedding" when her character attends the wedding of Spike and Snake. Actor Neil Hope, who portrayed "Wheels" in the original series, returns for a brief cameo in a third-season episode centered around Snake's battle with Leukemia. In a fifth-season episode, Keenan guest stars when her character returns to console Spike after her marriage with Snake breaks down. Movie director Kevin Smith has been a fan of the Degrassi series from the early 1990s, when he worked at a convenience store in Leonardo, New Jersey. Actor Jason Mewes was his co-worker at the store and also became a fan . Every Sunday morning at work, Smith and Mewes watched episodes of Degrassi Junior High and Degrassi High on Public Broadcasting Service. Smith enjoyed the earlier series and has acknowledged an infatuation with Stacie Mistysyn. He has also paid homage to Degrassi by referring to it in several of his films. He named a Clerks character Caitlin Bree after Mistysyn's Degrassi character, Caitlin Ryan, wrote Shannen Doherty's character Rene wearing a Degrassi jacket throughout his Mallrats film, and had Jason Lee's character in Chasing Amy specifically mention Degrassi Junior High as a TV show he wants to watch, rather than going out. Smith and Mewes guest starred as themselves in the final three episodes of the fourth season. The plot for these episodes involves the pair working on Jay and Silent Bob Go Canadian, Eh!, a fictional feature film in the View Askewniverse, using Degrassi Community School as a filming location. Singer Alanis Morissette, who had worked with Smith, also guest stars in "Going Down the Road Part One" as herself, acting as the school principal in Smith's film. Smith and Mewes return to Degrassi: The Next Generation as themselves for two episodes in season five. The storyline in the episodes was of the premiere of Jay and Silent Bob Go Canadian, Eh! Alanis Morissette made a cameo appearance as the school principal when scenes from the film were shown during its premiere screening. Smith and Mewes guest starred a third time for four episodes in season eight when many of the characters travelled to Hollywood, Los Angeles. In the episodes, Mewes is the writer-director and protagonist of Mewesical High, which stars a number of Degrassi Community School students. Smith appears in the episodes to support Mewes as he makes his directorial debut. Other actors to appear in Degrassi: The Next Generation include Jayne Eastwood as Sean Cameron's mother, Billy Ray Cyrus as Duke, a limousine driver who gets arrested, the result of which leaves Jimmy, Hazel, Paige, and Spinner stranded in the street. Season seven featured appearances from Shirley Douglas as a university professor, Free The Children founder Craig Kielburger, and English pop singer Natasha Bedingfield as themselves. Jonathan Torrens guest starred as Emma's father, Shane, in the two-part season three premiere. The character had been played by Bill Parrott in the original series, but he decided not to return the former role. In season 10, ballroom dancer Jean-Marc Généreux appears as a teacher during the episode "My Body Is a Cage". After moving to MuchMusic cameos became more frequent, including Keke Palmer, Ben Mulroney, Chaz Bono, Hedley, and Fefe Dobson. Broadcast and distribution First-run broadcast While the earlier Degrassi series aired in Canada on CBC, Degrassi is broadcast on Bell Media-owned stations. Until mid-season 9, it aired on the CTV, but due to a decline in viewing figures since season 7, CTV executives had determined that they planned to cancel the show. The co-creator Linda Schuyler and executive producer Stephen Stohn were unsure of the fate of the show after being told such news, but luckily Stohn had been in talks with the American broadcaster TeenNick of the Nickelodeon company and he offered a proposal that rescued the show from a premature end. Combined with the massively contributing efforts of TeenNick, the show was then able to avoid cancellation and continue for four more seasons. After TeenNick's involvement, the show was renewed and introduced the re-title of "Degrassi." In Canadian media it moved to sister network MuchMusic in 2010. In 2013, following a revamp of MuchMusic's schedule, the show moved to MTV in Canada. It currently airs on ABC Spark and CMT and YTV as of 2020. In the United States, Degrassi aired on Noggin's programming block for teenagers, The N. By 2004, it had become the highest-rated show on the block; an episode that aired July 2, 2004, was watched by a record 300,000 people, and Nielsen Media Research called it "the No. 1 program for Noggin viewers 12 to 17." Seasons 6 and 7 premiered on The N before they aired on CTV. During mid-season 9, the show was carried over to TeenNick, a channel that merged the programming of two Viacom-owned teen blocks (Noggin's The N and Nickelodeon's TEENick). The show's cancellation was announced in June 2015. That same month, on June 9, Epitome Pictures announced that a sequel series, Degrassi: Next Class, would premiere on Family Channel, owned by DHX Media, and stream outside of Canada on Netflix. Episodes became available on Netflix in Canada following the conclusion of the first season. Post-broadcast distribution In Canada, stripped reruns of Degrassi: The Next Generation have aired on CTV Two and MTV2, which are owned by Bell Media. In the United States, independent distributor Program Partners and Sony Pictures Television, announced on September 24, 2006, that they acquired the syndication rights to the first 119 episodes of the show in the United States, and any subsequent new episodes. In December 2006, Sony Pictures Television and Program Partners had reached agreements with the Tribune Company for every station it owned, The CW Plus affiliated stations, and many other stations owned by major media conglomerates. Degrassi: The Next Generation was cleared in 60% of the country including all five of the top five media markets. By March 2007, Program Partners had cleared it in over 70% of the country after stations owned by Hearst-Argyle Television, Capitol Broadcasting Company, and ACME Communications purchased the syndication. The series meets the US FCC's educational and informational guidelines towards children's programming. In October 2019, as part of a content deal struck between Viacom and WildBrain, a channel dedicated to Degrassi was added to Pluto TV on channel 172 (now channel 144) of the free, advertiser-supported streaming service's entertainment tier, offering episodes of Degrassi, with a limited number of episodes—including some consisted of portions of two-part episodes, such as "Bitter Sweet Symphony (Part 1)"—omitted from the episode rotation. As of July 2021, reruns of Degrassi: The Next Generation continue to air on certain Canadian television networks owned by Corus Entertainment, including ABC Spark, CMT, and YTV. DVD releases The first twelve seasons of Degrassi: The Next Generation have been released on DVD. The box sets are released in Canada by Alliance Home Entertainment. In the United States, FUNimation Entertainment released the first six seasons and Echo Bridge Entertainment released seasons seven through twelve. Each season boxset includes extra features such as pictures, karaoke sessions, audition tapes, bloopers, deleted scenes and more. In Australia, seasons 1 to 4 were released by Umbrella Entertainment in 2010 and 2011. These DVDs are compatible with the region 4 code, which is in use in, Oceania and Latin America. The three-episode story arc from the fourth season in which Kevin Smith and Jason Mewes guest star has also been released as a single disc Region 1 DVD. FUNimation Entertainment released the disc on November 8, 2005, in two versions: the first subtitled as "Uncut, Uncensored and Unrated", and the second, "Rated." Each release has the same DVD extras, including an interview with Kevin Smith, bloopers and a Jay and Silent Bob Photo Album, except the Unrated release also features episode commentaries by Kevin Smith, Jason Mewes, Stacie Mistysyn, the associate producer Jim Jackman and writer Aaron Martin. Streaming Degrassi: The Next Generation has been made available over various streaming platforms over the years. In the 2000s, episodes were made available to stream on CTV and TeenNick's websites in Canada and the United States respectively. It was also made available on ITunes in North America. In 2007, Puretracks in Canada offered episodes for download as a media file that could be only burned or copied three times. In the US, Zune sold the full series. Beginning on March 25, 2022, all 14 seasons will be available to stream on HBO Max. Impact and reception Critical reception Degrassi: The Next Generation has received generally positive reviews. Entertainment Weekly has called it "a cult hit", and The New York Times named it "Tha Best Teen TV N da WRLD (The best teen TV in the world)". Of the first season, The Ottawa Citizen Tony Atherton had mixed feelings of the new incarnation, saying it "has a cleaner, more polished look, has lost its edge [and offers] nothing new to viewers familiar with the groundbreaking preceding series, nor to anyone else who has watched the deluge of teen dramas since ... there is a sense of déjà vu with regards to the plots and characters". He did, however, praise the show for having "the same simple narrative told from a kid's viewpoint, and the same regard for unvarnished reality [as Degrassi Junior High and Degrassi High]". Before its debut in the United States, The Seattle Times Melanie McFarland wondered whether the series would do well, writing: "soft-pedaling through the issues might work for today's family of viewers, but what's gentle enough for Mom and Dad's peace of mind might not be enough to hook Junior or the original Degrassi's older fans". The issues that the characters experience have often been commented on in the media. It has been noted that the series never attempts to hide from depicting honest accounts of the trials and tribulations that real teenagers may often experience. Sarah Liss from CBC News said that despite often being corny and soap opera-y, Degrassi: The Next Generation tackles issues that other genre series prefer to gloss over, and was part of her essential viewing. She named the series one of "the [ten] most important television shows of the 2000s", and was the only children's series, and the only Canadian television series, to appear on the list, which included Mad Men, Lost, the CSI franchise, and Sex and the City. In 2008, Jeffrey Bento-Carrier described one storyline that showed a teacher being accused of sexually assaulting one of his students as "shock[ing]", adding that "Degrassi is not for everyone, mainly because it's an honest account what it's like to be a teen in a society which values cliques and confrontation over truth and real growth." Brian Orloff of the St. Petersburg Times echoed the sentiments, and praised the series for "stay[ing] in touch with teens' lives". In spite of these comments, The N held back one of the more controversial episodes of the first season, which showed a character losing control after taking an ecstasy pill, and refused to broadcast it until it was presented with an edited copy from the producers. The N also refused to broadcast two episodes from the second season that featured a storyline about date-rape until suitable edits could be made, and withheld other episodes from season three that showed a fourteen-year-old character having an abortion after having consensual sexual intercourse with her boyfriend, and feeling no regrets. The decision caused an uproar amongst fans who organized a petition that caught the attention of the New York Times, as well as CBC, the National Post and the London Free Press in Canada. The episodes eventually aired three years later as part of an "every episode ever" marathon, with very little advertisement from the network. Another storyline was featured in the media after ten children from a Québécois school were found to have a number of cuts on their bodies. They said they had copied the show when one character began self harming herself in an episode. Comparisons between Degrassi: The Next Generation and other genre specific series have also been made throughout the run. Jake Surette, a writer with AfterElton.com, a website which focuses on the portrayal of homosexual and bisexual men in the media, reported on the portrayal of two Degrassi: The Next Generation gay characters. "Degrassi features ongoing stories of real-life teen dilemmas—including intense gay and lesbian storylines—and does it without the righteous, 'On a Very Special Blossom endings that many teen dramas and sitcoms thrive on." Kevin Thompson of The Palm Beach Post said the series "is told from a teenager's point of view since the writers have no interest in appealing to a broad-based demographic like the writers on, say, Fox's The O.C. ... it connects with teens on their level". PopMatters's Jodie Janella Horn also compared it with The O.C., saying that while scenes from Degrassi could be "actual scenes from my actual teenage life ... The O.C. will never remind me of anything in my life", adding that it is the most unnervingly accurate series ever of the high school genre. The San Jose Mercury News has said "If they [Everwood, The O.C., and One Tree Hill] want to be taken seriously, the shows could take a cue from Canadian drama Degrassi: The Next Generation, which ... addresses the same gritty teen issues without being far-fetched". The New York Times has also made favourable reviews of the series in comparison to Everwood, The O.C., and One Tree Hill, as well as Beverly Hills, 90210, Gilmore Girls, Dawson's Creek, and adult series such as Sex and the City, Maude, and Six Feet Under. AOL TV ranked it as the sixth TV's Biggest Guilty Pleasure. Television ratings With characters from Degrassi Junior High and Degrassi High appearing in Degrassi: The Next Generation, viewers of the earlier series who are in their 20s and 30s make up a dedicated fan base of the current incarnation. Approximately 40% of the series' viewers are outside of Degrassi: The Next Generations 12- to 17-year-old target audience. Degrassi: The Next Generation averaged 365,000 viewers aged 12–20 years old in season one, and became the most watched domestic drama in Canada. By the end of season two, it had become the most popular Canadian show for the three youngest age groups (children aged 2–11, teenagers aged 12–17 and young adults aged 18–34). In the third season, Degrassi: The Next Generation was again the most-watched all-Canadian drama series, and the most watched Canadian drama among adults 18–49. A season four episode that features a school shooting received 930,000 viewers; at that time it was the programme's highest-ever rating. A second episode in the same season that features a storyline about oral sex also earned just under 1,000,000 viewers. Overall, the season averaged 600,000 viewers, and was again the top Canadian drama for teens aged 12–17, and adults in three age brackets 18–34, 18–49 and 25–54. It averaged 250,000 viewers in the US in 2004 and was the highest rated digital cable series in the US in 2006. While that figure is still far lower than successful shows on the "big four" networks (ABC, CBS, Fox and NBC), the premiere episodes of earlier seasons have achieved higher audience figures with females aged 12–34. 2004 also saw the school-shooting episode receive more than half a million US viewers. The fifth season drew in an average of 767,000 viewers, with episode two of the season being watched by 1,000,000 viewers. Ratings began to decline halfway through the series' run. In Canada, season six was watched by fewer viewers than had watched season five; episode fourteen was the highest-viewed episode of the season, with a total of 645,000 viewers. The season finale was watched by 520,000 viewers, and the season overall averaged 522,000 viewers. The average viewing figures fell again during the seventh season. The season premiere achieved the highest figures with 585,000 viewers. This progressively dropped over the coming weeks, from 446,000 total viewers for the third episode, to 407,000 total viewers for the fifth episode, and continued to fall to a low of 314,000 viewers by the tenth episode. Overall, the first twelve episodes of the season averaged 455,000 viewers, 45,000 less than the same number of episodes from the season six. Viewing figures continued to fall throughout season eight; Bill Brioux, the television columnist for The Canadian Press, was surprised that Degrassi: The Next Generation had even reached its eighth season with such poor ratings, asking "What other show in the history of Canadian or American television has so consistently drawn so few viewers yet gets renewed year after year?" The season premiere was watched by 398,000 viewers, almost 200,000 viewers fewer than what the premiere of season seven achieved. Viewing figures continued to drop when episodes two and six were both watched by an average of 220,000 viewers. At the time they were the lowest figures Degrassi: The Next Generation has ever received; however, they continued to fall and by episode eleven, overnight ratings indicated it had received 139,000 viewers. The overall number of viewers rose slightly for the thirteenth episode, the first of a two-parter, when it was watched by 157,000 people, but the viewing figures for the key 18–34 demographics was at a low of 81,000. The following week, the episode that concluded the two-parter picked up viewers, reaching an estimated total of 206,000. Brioux commented again about Degrassi: The Next Generation still being on the schedules, wondering when CTV was going to announce its cancellation and noting that The Amazing Race, which follows it in the scheduling, was watched by ten times the number of Degrassis viewers. That pattern was repeated the following week, when Degrassi: The Next Generation was watched by 222,000 viewers, compared to 1,834,000 viewers for The Amazing Race, 1,579,000 viewers for Desperate Housewives and 1,106,000 viewers for The Mentalist, which were broadcast by CTV later in the evening. CTV aired two episodes back-to-back in the first half of season nine, and the scheduling had improved ratings. The first two episodes earned a combined figure of 471,000 viewers, and the third and fourth episodes retained them; they were watched by a combined 475,000 viewers. The following week, the total viewing figures for episodes five and six had increased to 608,000, and remained high as the season went into hiatus in November with 572,000 total viewers. Awards Degrassi: The Next Generation has won over fifty awards, and has been nominated for many others. The Writers Guild of Canada has awarded its Canadian Screenwriting Awards to the writers of two episodes. In 2004, Aaron Martin, James Hurst and Shelley Scarrow won the "Best Youth Script Award" for "Pride". The following year, the Scarrow-penned episode "Secret" vied with "Mercy Street", written by James Hurst and Miklos Perlus for the "Best Youth Script Award". "Mercy Street" won. The series has been nominated for fourteen Directors Guild of Canada Awards. In the "Outstanding Achievement in a Television Series – Children's" group category, the Bruce McDonald helmed "Mother and Child Reunion" (nominated 2002) and "When Doves Cry" (nominated 2003) were winners. "White Wedding", also directed by McDonald, won the award in 2003 for "Outstanding Achievement in Direction – Television Series". McDonald's "Holiday" (nominated 2004), and Stefan Scaini's "Time Stands Still, part 2" (nominated 2005) won the group categories for "Outstanding Achievement in a Television Series – Family". "Can't Hardly Wait" and "Pass the Dutchie" were also nominated in that category in 2007 and 2008, respectively, but failed to win the awards. Stephen Withrow has picked up two awards in the "Outstanding Achievement in Picture Editing" category, for "Mother and Child Reunion" in 2002 and "When Doves Cry" in 2003. Degrassi: The Next Generation has won seventeen Gemini Awards since 2002, and has been nominated in twenty-six other categories. In 2010, producer Linda Schuyler received the Academy Achievement Award. Degrassi: The Next Generation has also seen awards success internationally. It was nominated for a "Best Children's Television Programme" Prix Jeunesse in Germany in 2004, and has been nominated at the GLAAD Media Awards four times. In 2004, the show received a nomination in the Outstanding Drama Series category, but lost to the sports drama Playmakers. It was nominated in the same category again in 2008, but lost to Brothers & Sisters. In 2005, Degrassi: The Next Generation won the Television Critics Association Award for "Outstanding Achievement in Children's Programming." It was only the second time that a non-United States series has won an award in this category (the first time was Degrassi Junior High in 1988). The Young Artist Awards has been recognising actors in the Degrassi franchise since 1987. Degrassi: The Next Generation was nominated for four awards in its first year. Ryan Cooley and Jake Goldsbie were nominated in the "Best Leading Young Actor Performance in a TV Comedy Series" category, but lost to Frankie Muniz from Malcolm in the Middle. The series won the award for "Best Ensemble in a Comedy or Drama TV Series" category. A year later, Jake Epstein won the Young Artist Award in the category for "Best Leading Young Actor Performance in a TV Comedy Series". In 2005, Christina Schmidt tied with Alia Shawkat of Arrested Development to win the award for "Best Supporting Young Actress Performance in a TV Comedy Series", and Jamie Johnston won the 2008 category for "Best Leading Young Actor Performance in a TV Series". Young Artist Awards were awarded again in 2012, with both Cristine Prosperi and A.J. Saudin winning awards in the Lead Young Actress and Recurring Young Actor categories respectively. However, they both tied with another in their category. At the Teen Choice Awards, children aged between twelve and nineteen vote for each category's winner. The series has been nominated three times in the "Choice Summer TV Show" category, and has won twice, in 2005 and 2007. The episode "My Body Is a Cage", where Adam was outed as transgender, earned a Peabody Award, and a Creative Arts Emmy Award nomination in 2011. Notes References External links Official MTV Canada website (Canada) Archive of The N website (United States) 2000s Canadian LGBT-related television series 2000s Canadian LGBT-related drama television series 2010s Canadian LGBT-related television series 2010s Canadian LGBT-related drama television series 2000s Canadian high school television series 2010s Canadian high school television series 2000s Canadian teen drama television series 2010s Canadian teen drama television series 2001 Canadian television series debuts 2015 Canadian television series endings English-language television shows Television series about bullying Canadian television soap operas Teenage pregnancy in television Gay-related television shows Lesbian-related television shows Sequel television series Serial drama television series Transgender-related television shows Television shows set in Toronto Television shows filmed in Toronto Funimation Television shows about drugs Television series by DHX Media Television series by Bell Media Television series by Entertainment One Fiction about interracial romance CTV Television Network original programming Canadian Screen Award-winning television shows Peabody Award-winning television programs Television series by Alliance Atlantis MTV (Canadian TV channel) original programming Television series about teenagers

Soul Train

eng_Latn

Soul Train was an American musical variety show which aired in syndication from October 2, 1971, to March 25, 2006. In its 35-year history, the show primarily featured performances by R&B, soul, and hip hop artists. The series was created by Don Cornelius, who also served as its first host and executive producer. Production was suspended following the 2005–2006 season, with a rerun package under the moniker The Best of Soul Train airing for two years subsequently. As a nod to Soul Trains longevity, the show's opening sequence during later seasons contained a claim that it was the "longest-running first-run, nationally syndicated program in American television history," with over 1,100 episodes produced from the show's debut through the 2005–2006 season. Despite the production hiatus, Soul Train held that superlative record until 2016, when Entertainment Tonight surpassed it completing its 35th season. Among non-news programs, Wheel of Fortune surpassed that mark in 2018. As of 2016, the rights to the Soul Train brand, library, and associated events, such as its cruises and annual awards show, the Soul Train Music Awards, are now under the ownership of Paramount Global, through BET Networks. History Chicago origins The origins of Soul Train can be traced to 1965 when WCIU-TV, an upstart UHF station in Chicago, began airing two youth-oriented dance programs: Kiddie-a-Go-Go and Red Hot and Blues. These programs—specifically the latter, which featured a predominantly African Americans group of in-studio dancers—would set the stage for what was to come to the station several years later. Don Cornelius, a news reader and backup disc jockey at Chicago radio station WVON, was hired by WCIU in 1967 as a news and sports reporter. Cornelius also was promoting and emceeing a touring series of concerts featuring local talent (sometimes called "record hops") at Chicago-area high schools, calling his traveling caravan of shows "The Soul Train". WCIU-TV took notice of Cornelius's outside work and in 1970, allowed him the opportunity to bring his road show to television. After securing a sponsorship deal with the Chicago-based retailer Sears, Roebuck and Company, Soul Train premiered on WCIU-TV on August 17, 1970, as a live show airing weekday afternoons. Beginning as a low-budget affair, in black and white, the first episode of the program featured Jerry Butler, the Chi-Lites, and the Emotions as guests. Cornelius was assisted by Clinton Ghent, a local professional dancer who appeared on early episodes before moving behind the scenes as a producer and secondary host. Move to syndication The program's immediate success attracted the attention of another locally based firm—the Johnson Products Company (manufacturers of the Afro Sheen line of hair-care products)—and they later agreed to co-sponsor the program's expansion into broadcast syndication. Cornelius and Soul Trains syndicator targeted 25 markets outside of Chicago to carry the show, but stations in only seven other cities—Atlanta; Birmingham; Cleveland; Detroit; Houston; Los Angeles; and Philadelphia—purchased the program, which began airing on a weekly basis on October 2, 1971. By the end of the first season, Soul Train was on in the other eighteen markets. At the time, there were no other commercial television programs being produced by black people for a black audience; the only nationally available show by blacks for blacks at the time was the public television series Soul! When the program moved into syndication, its home base was also shifted to Los Angeles, where it remained for the duration of its run. Soul Train was part of a national trend toward syndicated music-oriented programs targeted at niche audiences; two other network series (Hee Haw for country music, and The Lawrence Welk Show for traditional music) also entered syndication in 1971 and would go on to have long runs. Though Don Cornelius moved his operations west, a local version of Soul Train continued in Chicago; Cornelius hosted both the local Chicago and Los Angeles–based national programs simultaneously but soon focused his attention solely on the national edition. He continued to oversee production in Chicago, where Clinton Ghent hosted episodes on WCIU-TV until 1976, followed by three years of once-weekly reruns. The syndicated version was picked up in the Chicago market by CBS-owned WBBM-TV at its launch; the program moved to WGN-TV in 1977 and remained there for the rest of its Chicago run. Don Cornelius hosted every episode of Soul Train from 1971 to 1993, except for Richard Pryor, who hosted the final episode of Season 4 (1974-1975). From 1981 to 1993, Soul Train aired a country music-themed episode, titling it "Country Soul". Beginning in Season 15 (1985-1986), Tribune Entertainment acquired syndication contract; Tribune Entertainment continued producing Soul Train until the end of the show's run on March 25, 2006. Later years Don Cornelius stopped hosting after 22 seasons (1971-1993), though he remained the show's main creative force from behind the scenes. The following fall, Soul Train began using celebrity hosts until comedian Mystro Clark took over as the host in 1997. Shemar Moore took over as the host in 2000. In 2003, Dorian Gregory took over as the host, and stayed until the end of the show's run in 2006. Cancellation Production of first-run Soul Train episodes was suspended at the conclusion of the 2005–06 season, the show's 35th. In place of new content, for two seasons starting in the 2006–2007 season, the program aired archived episodes (selected from between 1973 and 1988) under the title The Best of Soul Train. This was because in later years, Nielsen ratings dropped to below 1.0; most of the stations that aired Soul Train by that point were either Fox television affiliates or independent stations that would later become affiliates of The WB or UPN, and, in the process, some of the stations which had been airing Soul Train on Saturday afternoons started rescheduling the program to overnight time slots. The future of Soul Train was uncertain with the announced closing of Tribune Entertainment in December 2007, which left Don Cornelius Productions to seek a new distributor for the program. Cornelius soon secured a deal with Trifecta Entertainment & Media. Attempted revivals and new ownership When Don Cornelius Productions still owned the program, clips of the show's performances and interviews were kept away from online video sites such as YouTube owing to copyright infringement claims. Cornelius also frowned upon the unauthorized distribution of Soul Train episodes through the sale of third-party VHS or DVD compilations. In May 2008, Cornelius sold the rights to the Soul Train library to MadVision Entertainment, whose principal partners came from the entertainment and publishing fields. The price and terms of the deal were not disclosed. However, by the start of the 2008–09 television season, the Tribune Broadcasting-owned stations (including national carrier WGN America) that had been the linchpin of the show's syndication efforts dropped the program, and many others followed suit. Soul Trains website acknowledged that the program had ceased distribution on September 22, 2008. Following the purchase by MadVision, the Soul Train archives were exposed to new forms of distribution. In April 2009, MadVision launched a Soul Train channel on YouTube. Three months later, the company entered into a licensing agreement with Time Life to distribute Soul Train DVD sets."Soul Train - Heads Up: The Hippest Trip In America Comes to DVD Soon!" TV Shows on DVD. MadVision then came to terms with ViacomCBS-owned BET to relaunch the Soul Train Music Awards for BET's spin-off channel, Centric, in November 2009. Centric would broadcast archived episodes of the program. Archived episodes can also be seen on Bounce TV. MadVision sold the rights to Soul Train to a consortium led by basketball player Magic Johnson and backed by private equity firm InterMedia Partners in 2011. The Johnson-InterMedia consortium planned on a potential film project Cornelius had briefly mentioned prior to selling the franchise, as well as producing potential stage adaptations and a cruise. As part of the sale, Johnson's Aspire TV channel also began airing reruns of the series. Cornelius continued to appear for Soul Train documentaries and ceremonies up until his death by suicide in February 2012. In 2013, Centric began presenting a cruise-based revival, marketed as Soul Train Cruise. All rights and trademarks to the Soul Train brand including the show's extensive library, the annual cruise event, and the award shows are under the ownership of ViacomCBS after its ViacomCBS Domestic Media Networks division acquired the franchise in 2016. Influence Some commentators have called Soul Train a "black American Bandstand," another long-running program with which Soul Train shares some similarities. Cornelius acknowledged Bandstand as a model for his program; as the years advanced and Soul Train evolved into a tradition in its own right, he tended to bristle at the Bandstand comparisons. In 1973, Dick Clark, host and producer of Bandstand, launched Soul Unlimited — controversial for its pronounced racial overtures — to compete directly with Soul Train. Cornelius, with help from Jesse Jackson, openly accused Clark of trying to undermine TV's only Black-owned show. Agreeing, ABC canceled it after a few episodes. Clark later agreed to work with Cornelius on a series of network specials featuring R&B and soul artists. Cornelius was relatively conservative in his musical tastes and was admittedly not a fan of the emerging hip hop genre, believing that the genre did not reflect positively on African-American culture (one of his stated goals for the series). Even though Cornelius would feature rap artists on Soul Train frequently during the 1980s, he publicly would admit (to the artists' faces such as Kurtis Blow) that the genre was one that he did not understand; as rap continued to move further toward hardcore hip hop, Cornelius would admit to be frightened by the antics of groups such as Public Enemy. Rosie Perez testified in the 2010 VH1 documentary Soul Train: The Hippest Trip in America that Cornelius also disliked seeing the show's dancers perform sexually suggestive "East Coast" dance moves. Cornelius admittedly had rap artists on the show only because the genre was becoming popular among his African-American audience, though the decision alienated middle-aged, more affluent African Americans like himself. This disconnect (which was openly mocked in an In Living Color sketch where Cornelius and the show were lampooned as extremely old and out of touch) eventually led to Cornelius's stepping down as host in the early 1990s and the show's losing its influence. Questlove, drummer for hip-hop band The Roots and a fan of the program, authored a book chronicling Soul Train. Titled Soul Train: The Music, Dance, and Style of a Generation was published in 2013. Program elements The opening sequence showed a black animated locomotive with multicolored smoke coming out of its smokestack, and steam coming out of its sides, passing through a city, tunnel, or through outer space around the Earth. The scenery around the train changed as years went on. The Soul Train logo was featured, with a song or instrumental playing throughout. One of the most distinctive parts of the opening was when “Soul Train” was announced, stretching out the first word into a high-pitched imitation of a train whistle. Within the structure of the program, there were two enduring elements. The first was the "Soul Train Scramble Board", where two dancers are given 60 seconds to unscramble a set of letters that form the name of that show's performer or a notable person in African American history. In describing the person's renown, the host concluded their description with the phrase "...whose name you should know". Cornelius openly admitted after the series ended its run that the game was usually set up so everybody won in an effort not to cause embarrassment for the show or African Americans in general. Soul Train line There was also the popular "Soul Train Line'''" (a variant of the 1950s fad then known as The Stroll), in which all the dancers form two lines with a space in the middle for dancers to strut down and dance in consecutive order. Originally, this consisted of a couple—with men on one side and women on the other. In later years, men and women had their own individual lineups. Sometimes, new dance styles or moves were featured or introduced by particular dancers. In addition, there was an in-studio group of dancers who danced along to the music as it was being performed. Rosie Perez, Damita Jo Freeman, Darnell Williams, Cheryl Song, Louie "Ski" Carr, Alfie Lewis, Pat Davis ("Madam Butterfly"), Alise Mekhail, Andrea N. Miles, Carmen Electra, Nick Cannon, Vivica A. Fox, MC Hammer, Jermaine Stewart, Heather Hunter, Fred Berry, Laurieann Gibson, Pebbles, and NFL legend Walter Payton were among those who got noticed dancing on the program over the years. Two former dancers, Jody Watley and Jeffrey Daniel, enjoyed years of success as members of the R&B group Shalamar after they were chosen by Soul Train talent booker/record promoter Dick Griffey and Cornelius to replace the group's original session singers in 1978. Guest stars Each musical guest usually performed twice on each program; after their first number, they were joined by the program host onstage for a brief interview. From time to time, stand-up comedians, such as Tom Dreesen (whom Don Cornelius knew from his time in Chicago) and Franklyn Ajaye (known in the 1970s for being a star of the hit movie Car Wash), would be featured on the program to perform a brief comedy routine.Soul Train was also known for two popular catchphrases, referring to itself as the "Hippest trip in America" at the beginning of the show and closing the program with "...and you can bet your last money, it's all gonna be a stone gas, honey. I'm Don Cornelius, and, as always in parting, we wish you love, peace...and SOUL!" UK version In 1985, Cornelius gave permission for a version of the show in the United Kingdom. The UK version, hosted by former Soul Train dancer and member of Shalamar Jeffrey Daniel, was titled 620 Soul Train and ran for one series on Channel 4. Spinoffs In 1987, Soul Train launched the Soul Train Music Awards, which honors the top performances in R&B, hip hop, and gospel music (and, in its earlier years, jazz music) from the previous year.Soul Train then produced the short-lived Soul Train Comedy Awards in 1993, which discontinued that same year.Soul Train later created two additional annual specials: The Soul Train Lady of Soul Awards, first airing in 1995, celebrated top achievements by female performers; and the Soul Train Christmas Starfest, which premiered in 1998, featured holiday music performed by a variety of R&B and gospel artists. Award categories for the Soul Train Lady of Soul Awards presented to female recipients included: Best R&B/Soul Album of the Year, Solo Best R&B/Soul Album of the Year, Group or Duo Best R&B/Soul Song of the Year Best R&B/Soul Single, Solo Best R&B/Soul Single, Group or Duo Best R&B/Soul or Rap New Artist Best Jazz Album Best Gospel Album Best R&B/Soul or Rap Music Video Special awards were given Aretha Franklin Award for Entertainer of the Year and Lena Horne Award for Outstanding Career Achievements. The Lady of Soul Awards and Christmas Starfest programs last aired in 2005. In April 2008, Don Cornelius announced that year's Soul Train Music Awards ceremony had been canceled. Cornelius cited 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike by the Writers Guild of America as one of the reasons, though a main factor may have been the uncertainty surrounding Soul Train's future. Cornelius also announced that a motion picture based on the program was in development. Subsequent owners of the franchise have followed their own agenda for the program, which included a revival of the Soul Train Music Awards in 2009. Theme musicSoul Train used various original and current music for theme songs during its run, including 1971–1973: "Soul Train (Hot Potato)", by King Curtis (Curtis Ousley) and later redone by The Rimshots as "Soul Train, Parts 1 & 2". [The original 1962 version, which was used on the show, was recorded nine years before the show was named "Hot Potatoes (Piping Hot)"] 1973–1975: "TSOP (The Sound of Philadelphia)", composed by Gamble and Huff and recorded by MFSB with vocals by The Three Degrees. Released as a single, this song became a pop and R&B radio hit in 1974 and the show's best-known theme. 1975–1976: "Soul Train '75", by The Soul Train Gang, which was later released as a single for the newly formed SOLAR Records 1976–1978: "Soul Train '76 (Get On Board)", by The Soul Train Gang 1978–1980: "Soul Train Theme '79", produced by the Hollywood Disco Jazz Band with vocals by the Waters 1980–1983: "Up On Soul Train", first by the Waters and later by The Whispers, whose version appears in their 1980 album Imagination. 1983–1987: "Soul Train's a Comin'", by R&B artist O'Bryan 1987–1993: "TSOP '87", a remake of the original "TSOP (The Sound of Philadelphia)," composed and produced by George Duke 1989–1993: "TSOP '89", a remixed version of "TSOP '87", by George Duke 1993–1999: "Soul Train '93" (Know You Like to Dance)", by Naughty by Nature with a saxophone solo by Everette Harp 2000–2006: "TSOP 2000", with rap vocals by Samson and music by Dr. Freeze, and again featuring an Everette Harp saxophone solo. However, a portion of "Know You Like to Dance" was still used in the show's second-half opening segment during this period, though in earlier episodes, a portion of "TSOP 2000" was played. See also List of Soul Train episodes List of people who appeared on Soul Train SOLAR Records Soul Train Music Awards American Soul, a 2019 TV series on BET based on Soul Train American Bandstand Showtime at the Apollo The Midnight Special Don Kirshner's Rock Concert Electric Circus The Party Machine with Nia Peeples Sherman's Showcase'', a parody of the series and Cornelius References External links Soul Train DVD from Time-Life African-American culture African-American television 1971 American television series debuts 2006 American television series endings 1970s American music television series 1980s American music television series 1990s American music television series 2000s American music television series 1970s American variety television series 1980s American variety television series 1990s American variety television series 2000s American variety television series Dance television shows English-language television shows First-run syndicated television programs in the United States Television series by Metromedia Pop music television series Television series by Tribune Entertainment Chicago television shows

Edition (book)

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The bibliographical definition of an edition includes all copies of a book printed “from substantially the same setting of type,” including all minor typographical variants. First edition According to the definition of edition above, a book printed today, by the same publisher, and from the same type as when it was first published, is still the first edition of that book to a bibliographer. However, book collectors generally use the term first edition to mean specifically the first print run of the first edition (aka "first edition, first impression"). Since World War II, books often include a number line (printer's key) that indicates the print run. A "first edition" per se is not a valuable collectible book. A popular work may be published and reprinted over time by many publishers, and in a variety of formats. There will be a first edition of each, which the publisher may cite on the copyright page, such as: "First mass market paperback edition". The first edition of a facsimile reprint is the reprint publisher's first edition, but not the first edition of the work itself. The Independent Online Booksellers Association has a A First Edition Primer which discusses several aspects of identifying first editions including publishing and specific publishers way of designating first editions. Bibliographical definition The classic explanation of edition was given by Fredson Bowers in Principles of Bibliographical Description (1949). Bowers wrote that an edition is “the whole number of copies printed at any time or times from substantially the same setting of type-pages,” including “all issues and variant states existing within its basic type-setting, as well as all impressions.” Publishers often use the same typesetting for the hardcover and trade paperback versions of a book. These books have different covers, the title page and copyright page may differ, and the page margin sizes may differ (same type area, smaller trim), but to a bibliographer they are the same edition. From time to time, readers may observe an error in the text (or, in the days of metal type, a piece of broken type), and report these to the publisher. The publisher typically keeps these "reprint corrections" in a file pending demand for a new print run of the edition, and before the new run is printed, they will be entered. The method of entry, obviously, depends on the method of typesetting. For letterpress metal, it typically meant resetting a few characters or a line or two. For linotype, it meant casting a new line for any line with a change in it. With film, it involved cutting out a bit of the film and inserting a new bit. In an electronic file, it means entering the changes digitally. Such minor changes do not constitute a new edition, but introduce typographical variations within an edition, which are of interest to collectors. Collectors' definition A common complaint of book collectors is that the bibliographer's definition is used in a book-collecting context. For example, J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye remains in print in hardcover. The type is the same as the 1951 first printing, therefore all hardcover copies are, for the bibliographer, the first edition. Collectors would use the term for the first printing only. First edition most often refers to the first commercial publication of a work between its own covers, even if it was first printed in a periodical: the complete text of Ernest Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea appeared in the September 1, 1952 issue of Life, yet the generally accepted “first” edition is the hardcover book Scribner’s published on September 8, 1952. The term "first trade edition," refers to the earliest edition of a book offered for sale to the general public in book stores. For example, Upton Sinclair's 1906 novel The Jungle was published in two variant forms. A "Sustainers' Edition", published by the Jungle Publishing Company, was sent to subscribers who had advanced funds to Sinclair. The first trade edition was published by Doubleday, Page to be sold in bookstores. Many book collectors place maximum value on the earliest bound copies of a book—promotional advance copies, bound galleys, uncorrected proofs, and advance reading copies sent by publishers to book reviewers and booksellers. It is true that these are rarer than the production copies; but given that these were not printed from a different setting of type (just the opposite; the main purpose of galleys and proofs is to double-check the typeset matter that will be used for production), they are not different editions. Publishers' definitions Publishers use "first edition" according to their own purposes, and consequently among them the designation is used very inconsistently. The "first edition" of a trade book may be the first iteration of the work printed by the publisher in question or the first iteration of the work that includes a specific set of illustrations or editorial commentary. Publishers of non-fiction, academic works, and textbooks generally distinguish between revisions of the text of the work, by typically citing the dates of the first and latest editions of the work in the copyright page. Exceptions to this rule of thumb include denominating as a "second edition" a new textbook that has a different format, title, and/or author(s) because a previous textbook that shares only the same subject matter as the "second edition" is considered the first edition. The reason for this stretch of the definition is often for the short-term marketing advantage of the new textbook, because, although first editions are often considered more valuable than later editions to book collectors, being a subsequent edition of a previous textbook gives the impression that the textbook denominated as a subsequent edition is more authoritative. Other types of editions Revised edition Publishers sometimes denominate a new iteration of a work a "revised edition" or the "(N)th edition, revised" when the previous iteration has been editorially revised or updated yet the author or publisher does not want to denominate it the "(N+1)th edition" ("N" being the number of the previous edition) for some subjective reason. Conversely, a new iteration of a work that is not substantially different may be denominated a "new edition" or the "(N+1)th edition". The qualitative difference between a "revised edition" and a "new edition" is subjective. This is analogous to the way that software publishers may denominate an iteration "version 3.7" and the subsequent updated iteration "version 4" instead of "version 3.8". The subjective judgment of the degree of the significance of the change made with the new iteration or the perceived marketing advantage of designating the new iteration as a specific number determines how the new iteration is numbered. Therefore, the designation "revised edition" does not designate any quality or quantity of revision with certainty. Revised and updated edition When a non-fiction book is first published it sometimes instigates more research on its subject. The author may determine that new information justifies the revision of the book. A new iteration of the book would be published as a new edition, which may be denominated a "revised and updated edition". However, as with the denomination of "revised edition", the use of "revised and updated edition" manifests only the subjective choice of the publisher, which may be different from the publisher of a previous "revised edition" of the same work. Co-edition The basic definition of a co-edition is when two publishing houses publish the same edition of a book (or equivalent versions of an edition, for example, translated versions), simultaneously or near-simultaneously, usually in different countries. English and American editions may differ in spelling, and they sometimes have different titles. Some examples: An English-language edition, from the same plates, films, or files, may be published in different anglophone countries by different publishing companies. For example, Arms & Armour Press in the UK and Stackpole Books in the U.S. published co-editions of various monographs on military matters. A French-language novel published in France this year by a French publisher could become an English-language translation published in the U.S. next year by a U.S. publisher. The motivation for co-editions has often been to use the existing distribution systems of the different publishers in each country rather than establishing new distribution systems. Advancing IT and the globalization of publishing have been blurring the lines of what co-edition means. For example, anything published online is effectively published worldwide. Also, large multinational publishers now have existing distribution systems for their hardcopy books in many countries, so they don't need to partner with other companies. They may issue a book under a different imprint for each country, but the imprints are parts of the same parent corporation. The actual manufacturing of the books may be done in China regardless of where the copies will be sold. e-dition The term e-dition, a play on the e-for-electronic prefix, has been used by various publishers to refer to various ideas, which include: The hardcopy book's content posted online, fully searchable Supplemental online-only content for buyers of the hardcopy book Online-only publishing (no hardcopy distribution) Proprietary-format digital publication (e-books) for use in specialized hardware for reading the book (e-book readers) Library edition A library edition may appear to be the same as copies appearing in shops and almost certainly uses the same setting. However, the binding and hinges are made extra strong to allow for the greater wear and tear in library books. This is analogous to the "police and taxi" packages for automobiles, in which heavier brakes and other upgrades are made to withstand harsher-than-standard use and longer duty cycles. Book club edition A popular book is sometimes re-issued under the imprint of a book club. Often it is a new setting and with cheaper paper and binding. Any photographic illustrations in the original are either absent or reduced in number. Book club editions are sold to members at a good discount compared with the original issue price. Cheap edition After a book has exhausted the market at the high original price a publisher may issue a cheap edition themselves or sell the rights on to another publisher who will produce the book. A cheap edition typically uses a low-cost paper and is a paperback but they can be hardback. Also typically the size of the font is reduced to fit more words on a page to reduce the overall cost of the book. Naturally, for a cheap edition the author will receive a lower royalty but that may be compensated for by a greater volume of sales. Colonial edition During the peak of the British Empire, cheap editions of novels published in Britain would often be produced for sale in the colonies before other editions of the books were sold. The rationale was that books took a long time to export to the colonies, that readership in those settlements was avid, and that books were an effective means to disseminate British values. Australia was by far the largest consumer of colonial editions. Macmillan (London) published the largest number of colonial edition titles. They began in 1843 and persisted (in terms of pricing and trade) until the 1970s. Cadet edition A cadet edition is a cut down version of a book which is more simply written. It is intended for young readers rather than adults. Large print edition These editions are typically library editions but the font size of the text is much larger than usual so that persons with poor eyesight (often older persons) can more easily read the book. The large print books tend to be of a uniform size. Critical edition A critical edition is a scholarly publication, containing commentary, critique, and sometimes a full developmental history of the work from all available sources. Numbering Because of the variation in quality, lower-numbered prints in an edition are sometimes favored as superior, especially with older works where the image was struck until the plate wore out. However the numbering of impressions in fact may well not equate at all to the sequence in which they were printed, and may often be the reverse of it. In later times, printmakers recognized the value of limiting the size of an edition and including the volume of the edition in the print number (e.g., "15/30" for the 15th print in an edition of 30). Tight controls on the process to limit or eliminate variation in quality have become the norm. In monotyping, a technique where only two impressions at most can be taken, prints may be numbered 1/1, or marked "unique". Artists usually print an edition much smaller than the plate allows, both for marketing reasons and to keep the edition comfortably within the lifespan of the plate. Specific steps may also be taken to strengthen the plate, such as electroplating intaglio images, which uses an electric process to put a very thin coat of a stronger metal onto a plate of a weaker metal. The conventions for numbering prints are well-established, a limited edition is normally hand signed and numbered by the artist, typically in pencil, in the form (e.g.): 14/100. The first number is the number of the print itself. The second number is the number of overall prints the artist will print of that image. The lower the second number is, the more valuable and collectible the limited editions are likely to be, within whatever their price range is. Other marks may indicate that a print has been made in addition to the numbered prints of an edition. Artist's proofs are marked "A. P." or "P/A", sometimes E. A. or E. d'A. (épreuve d'artiste); monoprints and uniquely hand-altered prints are marked "unique"; prints that are given to someone or are for some reason unsuitable for sale are marked "H. C." or "H/C", meaning "hors de commerce", not for sale. These are usually prints reserved for the publisher, like Artist's Proofs. The printer is also often allowed to retain some proof impressions; these are marked "P. P." Finally, a master image may be printed against which the members of the edition are compared for quality: these are marked as "bon à tirer" or "BAT" ("good to print" in French). In all, the number of the main edition can represent 50% or less of the total number of good impressions taken. Professional artist printmakers will sometimes limit an edition to several artist's proof copies, including a "bon a tirer" print and then one unique copy designated as a "one-off" or "1/1" or "one/off". Republication Many commercially successful books have been republished, either by their original or other imprints. For this reason if a popular book is searched for in a large bookseller such as Amazon.com or a large library catalog such as WorldCat, often an array of different copyright years, publishers, editions, formats (hardcover, softcover, trade, and mass market), and so forth are observed. Because no universal authority or convention determines the exact distinction between a "reprinting" and "republishing" and whether a republishing is a different "edition", the denotation of such denominations is ambiguous, at least at first glance. Legal status UK Since 1956, typographical arrangements of published editions are protected by copyright law. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 defines a published edition to mean a published edition of the whole or any part of one or more literary, dramatic or musical works. It thus protects the publisher's investment in typesetting, as well as the processes of design and selection that are reflected in the appearance of the text. It also covers modern editions of public domain works (such as the complete works of Shakespeare), and prohibits the reproduction of the layout (but not the work itself). See also Editio princeps – essentially, the first printed edition of classical or medieval works Publication Publication right Remaindered book Notes References Citations Sources Bibliography Bowers, Fredson. Principles of Bibliographical Description, Winchester and New Castle, Delaware: St Paul's Bibliographies and Oak Knoll Press, 2005 (reprint edition, first published in 1949). External links Bookpoi.com official homepage — a comprehensive online guide to identifying first editions, rare and collectible books. Edition state terminology First Edition Points Online Reference Guide is a free searchable database of points of issue for hundreds of modern first edition books. Includes images of cover, copyright page, dust jacket flaps, etc. How to Identify a First Edition Pulitzer Prize First Edition Guide is a free searchable database of first edition Pulitzer Prize for Fiction books. Includes images and points of issue. Identifying First Editions, A Primer (from the International On-Line Booksellers Association) Includes discussion on general identification, book club, the reprint publishers, etc., and specific publishers. Glossary, International League of Antiquarian Booksellers — see "Edition", "First Edition", "Impression", "Printing" etc. Bibliography Book collecting Book publishing Printing Textual scholarship

Transmission (mechanics)

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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of power. Often the term 5-speed transmission refers simply to the gearbox, that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed and torque block conversions from a rotating power source to another device. The term transmission properly refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft (for rear-wheel drive vehicles), differential, and final drive shafts. In the United States the term is sometimes used in casual speech to refer more specifically to the gearbox alone, and detailed usage differs. The most common use is in motor vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a relatively high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping, and slower travel. The transmission reduces the higher engine speed to the slower wheel speed, increasing torque in the process. Transmissions are also used on pedal bicycles, fixed machines, and where different rotational speeds and torques are adapted. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios (or simply "gears") with the ability to switch between them as the speed varies. This switching may be done manually (by the operator) or automatically (by a control unit). Directional (forward and reverse) control may also be provided. Single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque (and sometimes direction) of motor output. In motor vehicles, the transmission generally is connected to the engine crankshaft via a flywheel or clutch or fluid coupling, partly because internal combustion engines cannot run below a particular speed. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, which drive the wheels. While a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds (essential to avoid wheel slippage on turns) as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the only mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation (e.g. diesel-electric transmission and hydraulic drive system). Hybrid configurations also exist. Automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in response to engine RPM, speed, and throttle input. Explanation Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, and hoisting. Most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft (e.g. a motor crankshaft). This means that the output shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft, and this reduction in speed produces a mechanical advantage, increasing torque. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in shaft speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the physical rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios. In this case, most of the gear ratios (often simply called "gears") are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque. However, the highest gears may be "overdrive" types that increase the output speed. Uses Gearboxes have found use in a wide variety of different—often stationary—applications, such as wind turbines. Transmissions are also used in agricultural, industrial, construction, mining and automotive equipment. In addition to ordinary transmission equipped with gears, such equipment makes extensive use of the hydrostatic drive and electrical adjustable-speed drives. Simple The simplest transmissions, often called gearboxes to reflect their simplicity (although complex systems are also called gearboxes in the vernacular), provide gear reduction (or, more rarely, an increase in speed), sometimes in conjunction with a right-angle change in direction of the shaft (typically in helicopters, see picture). These are often used on PTO-powered agricultural equipment, since the axial PTO shaft is at odds with the usual need for the driven shaft, which is either vertical (as with rotary mowers), or horizontally extending from one side of the implement to another (as with manure spreaders, flail mowers, and forage wagons). More complex equipment, such as silage choppers and snowblowers, have drives with outputs in more than one direction. So too Helicopters use a split-torque gearbox where power is taken from the engine in two directions for the different rotors. The gearbox in a wind turbine converts the slow, high-torque rotation of the turbine into much faster rotation of the electrical generator. These are much larger and more complicated than the PTO gearboxes in farm equipment. They weigh several tons and typically contain three stages to achieve an overall gear ratio from 40:1 to over 100:1, depending on the size of the turbine. (For aerodynamic and structural reasons, larger turbines have to turn more slowly, but the generators all have to rotate at similar speeds of several thousand rpm.) The first stage of the gearbox is usually a planetary gear, for compactness, and to distribute the enormous torque of the turbine over more teeth of the low-speed shaft. Durability of these gearboxes has been a serious problem for a long time. Regardless of where they are used, these simple transmissions all share an important feature: the gear ratio cannot be changed during use. It is fixed at the time the transmission is constructed. For transmission types that overcome this issue, see Continuously variable transmission, also known as CVT. Multi-ratio systems Many applications require the availability of multiple gear ratios. Often, this is to ease the starting and stopping of a mechanical system, though another important need is that of maintaining good fuel efficiency. Automotive basics The need for a transmission in an automobile is a consequence of the characteristics of the internal combustion engine. Engines typically operate over a range of 600 to about 7000 rpm (though this varies, and is typically less for diesel engines), while the car's wheels rotate between 0 RPM and around 1800 RPM. Furthermore, the engine provides its highest torque and power outputs unevenly across the rev range resulting in a torque band and a power band. Often the greatest torque is required when the vehicle is moving from rest or traveling slowly, while maximum power is needed at high speed. Therefore, a system is required that transforms the engine's output so that it can supply high torque at low speeds, but also operate at highway speeds with the motor still operating within its limits. Transmissions perform this transformation. The dynamics of a car vary with speed: at low speeds, acceleration is limited by the inertia of vehicular gross mass; while at cruising or maximum speeds wind resistance is the dominant barrier. Many transmissions and gears used in automotive and truck applications are contained in a cast iron case, though more frequently aluminium is used for lower weight especially in cars. There are usually three shafts: the main shaft, a countershaft, and an idler shaft. The main shaft extends outside the case in both directions: the input shaft towards the engine, and the output shaft towards the rear axle (on rear-wheel-drive cars. Front-wheel-drive vehicles generally have the engine and transmission mounted transversely, the differential being part of the transmission assembly.) The shaft is suspended by the main bearings, and is split towards the input end. At the point of the split, a pilot bearing holds the shafts together. The gears and clutches ride on the main shaft, the gears being free to turn relative to the mainshaft except when engaged by the clutches. Manual Manual transmissions come in two basic types: A simple but rugged sliding-mesh or unsynchronized/non-synchronous system; where straight-cut spur gear sets spin freely and must be synchronized by the operator matching engine revs to road speed, to avoid noisy and damaging clashing of the gears The now ubiquitous constant-mesh gearboxes; which can be/include unsynchronized/non-synchronized, or synchronized/synchromesh systems, where typically diagonal-cut helical (or sometimes either straight-cut, or double-helical) gear sets are constantly "meshed" together, and a dog clutch is used for changing gears. On synchromesh 'boxes, friction cones or "synchro-rings" are used in addition to the dog clutch to closely match the rotational speeds of the two sides of the (declutched) transmission before making a full mechanical engagement. The former type was standard in many vintage cars (alongside; e.g., epicyclic and multi-clutch systems) before the development of constant-mesh manuals and hydraulic-epicyclic automatics, older heavy-duty trucks, and can still be found in use in some agricultural equipment. The latter is the modern standard for on- and off-road transport manual and automated manual transmissions, although it may be found in many forms; e.g., non-synchronized straight-cut in a racetrack or super-heavy-duty applications, non-synchro helical-cut in the majority of heavy-trucks and motorcycles, and in certain classic cars (e.g., the Fiat 500), and partly- or fully-synchronized helical in almost all modern manual-shift passenger cars and light trucks. Manual transmissions are the most common type outside North America and Australia. They are cheaper, lighter, usually give better performance, but the newest automatic transmissions and CVTs give better fuel economy. It is customary for new drivers to learn, and be tested, on a car with a manual gear change. In Malaysia and Denmark all cars used for testing (and because of that, virtually all those used for instruction as well) have a manual transmission. In Japan, the Philippines, Germany, Poland, Italy, Israel, the Netherlands, Belgium, New Zealand, Austria, Bulgaria, the UK, Ireland, Sweden, Norway, Estonia, France, Spain, Switzerland, the Australian states of Victoria, Western Australia and Queensland, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and the Czech Republic, a test pass using an automatic car does not entitle the driver to use a manual car on the public road; a test with a manual car is required. Manual transmissions are much more common than automatic transmissions in Asia, Africa, South America and Europe. Manual gearboxes can include both synchromesh engagement and plain tooth to tooth engagement. For example, reverse gear is usually without synchromesh, as the driver is only expected to engage it when the vehicle is at a standstill. Many older (up to 1970s) cars also lacked synchromesh on first gear (for various reasons—cost, typically "shorter" overall gearing, engines typically having more low-end torque), meaning it also could only be used for moving away from a stop unless the driver became adept at double-declutching and had a particular need to regularly downshift into the lowest gear. Some manual gearboxes have an extremely low ratio for first gear, Referred to in the UK as a crawler gear but some know it as a creeper gear or granny gear. Such gears are usually not engaged via a synchromesh mechanism. This feature is used on larger and heavier vehicles (Goods vehicles, coaches or those made for trailer-towing, farming, or construction-site work. During normal on-road use, the truck is usually driven without using the creeper gear at all, and second gear is used from a standing start. Some off-road vehicles, most particularly the Willys Jeep and its descendants, also had transmissions with "granny first's" either as standard or an option, but this function is now more often provided for by a low-range transfer gearbox attached to a normal fully synchromeshed gearbox. Non-synchronous Some commercial applications use non-synchronized manual transmissions that require a skilled operator. Depending on the country, many local, regional, and national laws govern the operation of these types of vehicles (see Commercial Driver's License). This class may include commercial, military, agricultural, or engineering vehicles. Some of these may use combinations of types for multi-purpose functions. An example is a power take-off (PTO) gear. The non-synchronous transmission type requires an understanding of gear range, torque, engine power, and multi-functional clutch and shifter functions. Sequential manual transmissions, which are commonly used in motorcycles and race cars, are a form of non-synchronous manual transmission. Automatic Most modern North American and some European and Japanese cars have an automatic transmission that selects an appropriate gear ratio without any operator intervention. They primarily use hydraulics to select gears, depending on pressure exerted by fluid within the transmission assembly. Rather than using a clutch to engage the transmission, a fluid flywheel, or torque converter is placed in between the engine and transmission. It is possible for the driver to control the number of gears in use or select reverse, though precise control of which gear is in use may or may not be possible. Automatic transmissions are easy to use. However, in the past, some automatic transmissions of this type have had a number of problems; they were complex and expensive, sometimes had reliability problems (which sometimes caused more expenses in repair), have often been less fuel-efficient than their manual counterparts (due to "slippage" in the torque converter), and their shift time was slower than a manual making them uncompetitive for racing. With the advancement of modern automatic transmissions, this has changed. Attempts to improve the fuel efficiency of automatic transmissions include the use of torque converters that lock up beyond a certain speed or in higher gear ratios, eliminating power loss, and overdrive gears that automatically actuate above certain speeds. In older transmissions, both technologies could be intrusive, when conditions are such that they repeatedly cut in and out as speed and such load factors as grade or wind vary slightly. Current computerized transmissions possess complex programming that both maximizes fuel efficiency and eliminates intrusiveness. This is due mainly to electronic rather than mechanical advances, though improvements in CVT technology and the use of automatic clutches have also helped. A few cars, including the 2013 Subaru Impreza and the 2012 model of the Honda Jazz sold in the UK, actually claim marginally better fuel consumption for the CVT version than the manual version. For certain applications, the slippage inherent in automatic transmissions can be advantageous. For instance, in drag racing, the automatic transmission allows the car to stop with the engine at a high rpm (the "stall speed") to allow for a very quick launch when the brakes are released. In fact, a common modification is to increase the stall speed of the transmission. This is even more advantageous for turbocharged engines, where the turbocharger must be kept spinning at high rpm by a large flow of exhaust to maintain the boost pressure and eliminate the turbo lag that occurs when the throttle suddenly opens on an idling engine. Continuously variable The continuously variable transmission (CVT) is a transmission in which the ratio of the rotational speeds of two shafts, as the input shaft and output shaft of a vehicle or other machine, can be varied continuously within a given range, providing an infinite number of possible ratios. The CVT allows the driver or a computer to select the relationship between the speed of the engine and the speed of the wheels within a continuous range. This can provide even better fuel economy if the engine constantly runs at a single speed. The transmission is, in theory, capable of better user experience, without the rise and fall in the speed of an engine, and the jerk felt when changing gears poorly. CVTs are increasingly found on small cars and especially high-gas-mileage or hybrid vehicles. On these platforms, the torque is limited because the electric motor can provide torque without changing the speed of the engine. By leaving the engine running at the rate that generates the best gas mileage for the given operating conditions, overall mileage can be improved over a system with a smaller number of fixed gears, where the system may be operating at peak efficiency only for a small range of speeds. CVTs are also found in agricultural equipment; due to the high-torque nature of these vehicles, mechanical gears are integrated to provide tractive force at high speeds. The system is similar to that of a hydrostatic gearbox, and at 'inching speeds' relies entirely on a hydrostatic drive. German tractor manufacturer Fendt pioneered the technology, developing its 'Vario - YouTube' transmission. Electric variable The Electric Variable Transmission (EVT or e-CVT) are used in hybrid vehicle combines the output of an electric motor and a gasoline engine, and like a CVT, provides continuously varied gear ratios. In the common implementation, a gasoline engine is connected to a traditional transmission, which is in turn connected to an epicyclic gear system's planet carrier. An electric motor/generator is connected to the central "sun" gear, which is normally un-driven in typical epicyclic systems. Both sources of power can be fed into the transmission's output at the same time, splitting power between them. In common examples, between one-quarter and half of the engine's power can be fed into the sun gear. Depending on the implementation, the transmission in front of the epicyclic system may be greatly simplified or eliminated. EVTs are capable of continuously modulating output/input speed ratios like mechanical CVTs, but offer the distinct benefit of being able to also apply power from two different sources to one output, as well as potentially reducing overall complexity dramatically. In typical implementations, the gear ratio of the transmission and epicyclic system is set to the ratio of the common driving conditions, say highway speed for a car, or city speeds for a bus. When the driver presses on the gas, the associated electronics interpret the pedal position and immediately set the gasoline engine to the RPM that provides the best gas mileage for that setting. As the gear ratio is normally set far from the maximum torque point, this set-up would normally result in very poor acceleration. Unlike gasoline engines, electric motors offer efficient torque across a wide selection of RPM and are especially effective at low settings where the gasoline engine is inefficient. By varying the electrical load or supply on the motor attached to the sun gear, additional torque can be provided to make up for the low torque output from the engine. As the vehicle accelerates, the power to the motor is reduced and eventually ended, providing the illusion of a CVT. The canonical example of the EVT is Toyota's Hybrid Synergy Drive. This implementation has no conventional transmission, and the sun gear always receives 28% of the torque from the engine. This power can be used to operate any electrical loads in the vehicle, recharging the batteries, powering the entertainment system, or running the air conditioning system. Any residual power is then fed back into a second motor that powers the output of the drivetrain directly. At highway speeds, this additional generator/motor pathway is less efficient than simply powering the wheels directly. However, during acceleration, the electrical path is much more efficient than an engine operating so far from its torque point. GM uses a similar system in the Allison Bus hybrid powertrains and the Tahoe and Yukon pick-up trucks, but these use a two-speed transmission in front of the epicyclic system, and the sun gear receives close to half the total power. Automated manual Automated manual transmission (AMT) denotes a type of multi-speed motor vehicle transmission system that is closely based on the mechanical design and build of a conventional manual transmission, but uses automation to control either the clutch, and/or the gear shifting. Modern versions of these systems began to appear on mass-production automobiles in the mid-1990s, and are fully-automatic in operation. Tradenames include Selespeed and Easytronic, and they can control both the clutch operation and the gear shifts automatically, by means of an ECU, therefore requiring no manual intervention or driver input over gear changes. The usage of modern computer-controlled AMTs in passenger cars increased during the mid-1990s, as a more sporting alternative to the traditional hydraulic automatic transmission. During the 2010s, AMTs were largely replaced by the increasingly widespread dual-clutch transmission design. Clutchless manual / Semi-automatic Semi-automatic transmission denotes a multi-speed motor vehicle transmission where part of its operation is automated (usually the clutch actuation), but the driver's input is still required to manually change gear ratios. Most semi-automatic transmissions used in cars and motorcycles are based on conventional manual transmissions or a sequential manual transmission, but use an automatic clutch system. Occasionally, however, some semi-automatic transmissions have also been based on standard hydraulic automatic transmissions, with a fluid coupling or torque converter, and using a planetary gearset. Names for specific types of semi-automatic transmissions include clutchless manual, auto-manual, auto-clutch manual, and paddle-shift transmissions. These systems facilitate gear shifts for the driver by operating the clutch system automatically, usually by means, or under control of an actuator or servo, and sensors, while still requiring the driver to manually shift gears The first usage of semi-automatic transmissions was in automobiles, increasing in popularity in the mid-1930s when they were offered by several American car manufacturers. Less common than traditional (hydraulic) automatic transmissions, semi-automatic transmissions have nonetheless been made available on various car and motorcycle models, and currently remain in production. Semi-automatic transmissions with paddle-shift operation have been used in various racing cars, and were first introduced to control the electro-hydraulic gear shift mechanism of the Ferrari 640 Formula One race car in 1989. These systems are currently used on a variety of top-level racing car classes; including Formula One, Indycar, and Touring car racing. Other applications include motorcycles, trucks, buses, and railway vehicles. Early semi-automatic systems used a variety of mechanical, electrical, pneumatic, and hydraulic systems—including centrifugal clutches, vacuum-operated clutches, torque converters, electro-pneumatic clutches, electro-mechanical (and even electrostatic) and servo/solenoid-controlled clutches, and control schemes—automatic clutching when moving the gearshift, pre-selector controls, centrifugal clutches with drum-sequential-shift, requiring the driver to lift the throttle for a successful shift, etc.—and some were little more than regular lock-up torque converter automatics with manual gear selection. Semi-automatic transmission systems on motorcycles generally use a centrifugal clutch. An example of this transmission type in automobiles is the VW Autostick semi-automatic transmission; a conventional 3-speed manual transmission, with a vacuum-operated automatic clutch, plus a torque converter (like in a regular automatic), and a standard gear shifter. Semi-automatic transmissions on motorcycles and ATVs still require the driver to manually shift gears, and generally use a conventional sequential manual foot-shift lever, coupled with an automatic centrifugal clutch, so there is no manually-operated clutch lever on the handlebar for the driver to use, as it is a fully-automated clutch system. Sequential manual A sequential manual transmission (like the kind of gearbox used on a fully-manual motorcycle) is a type of multi-speed non-synchronous manual transmission, which only allows the driver to select either the next gear (e.g., shifting from second gear to first gear) or the previous gear (e.g. shifting from second gear to third gear), in a successive order. This restriction avoids accidentally selecting the wrong gear, however, it also prevents the driver from deliberately "skipping" gears. The clutch in a sequential manual transmission is only needed when going from a standstill (i.e., stationary; neutral) into 1st gear, after that, it's clutchless shifting since the gears are forced into place via the dogs. This contrasts with a conventional manual transmission, which uses synchromesh for smooth gear shifts. The use of dog-clutches (rather than synchromesh) results in faster shift speeds than a manual transmission. sequential manual transmissions use the rotation of a drum and selector forks to switch gears, like what is used on a fully-manual motorcycle transmission. The shift-drum mechanism is connected and rotated in a fore-and-aft motion by either a mechanical linkage (e.g., shift lever) or via an electro-pneumatic or electro-hydraulic control system, which typically will mechanically connect to the shift forks and dog clutches, and is operated with paddle-shifters, behind the steering wheel. They can also be designed with manual or automatic clutch systems. Semi-automatic sequential transmissions (with automatic clutches) may be found both in automobiles (mainly track and some rally racecars, e.g.; paddle-shift), motorcycles (typically light "step-thru" type city utility bikes, e.g.; the Honda Super Cub) and quad bikes (often with a separately engaged reversing gear), the latter two normally using a scooter-style centrifugal clutch. On a sequential manual transmission, the shift lever operates a ratchet mechanism that converts the fore and aft motion of the shift lever into rotation of a selector drum (sometimes called a barrel) which has three or four tracks machined around its circumference. Selector forks are guided by the tracks, either directly or via selector rods. The tracks deviate around the circumference and as the drum rotates, the selector forks are moved to select the required gear. Bicycle gearing Bicycles usually have a system for selecting different gear ratios. There are two main types: derailleur gears and hub gears. The derailleur type is the most common, and the most visible, using sprocket gears. Typically there are several gears available on the rear sprocket assembly, attached to the rear wheel. A few more sprockets are usually added to the front assembly as well. Multiplying the number of sprocket gears in front by the number to the rear gives the number of gear ratios, often called "speeds". Several attempts have been made to fit bicycles with an enclosed gearbox, giving obvious advantages for better lubrication, dirt-sealing and shifting. These have usually been in conjunction with a shaft drive, as a gearbox with a traditional chain would (like the hub gear) still have many of the derailleur's disadvantages for an exposed chain. Bicycle gearboxes are enclosed in a box replacing the traditional bottom bracket. The requirement for a modified frame has been a serious drawback to their adoption. One of the most recent attempts to provide a gearbox for bicycles is the 18 speed Pinion P1.18. This gives an enclosed gearbox, but still a traditional chain. When fitted to a rear suspension bike, it also retains a derailleur-like jockey cage chain tensioner, although without the derailleur's low ground clearance. Causes for failure of bicycle gearing include worn teeth, damage caused by a faulty chain, damage due to thermal expansion, broken teeth due to excessive pedaling force, interference by foreign objects, and loss of lubrication due to negligence. Uncommon types Dual-clutch transmission A dual-clutch transmission (DCT) (sometimes referred to as a twin-clutch transmission, or a double-clutch transmission) is a type of multi-speed vehicle transmission system, that uses two separate clutches for odd and even gear sets. The design is often similar to two separate manual transmissions with their respective clutches contained within one housing, and working as one unit. In car and truck applications, the DCT functions as an automatic transmission, requiring no driver input to change gears. A dual-clutch transmission uses two sets of internals, each with its own clutch, so that a "gearchange" actually only consists of one clutch engaging as the other disengages—providing a supposedly "seamless" shift with no break in (or jarring reuptake of) power transmission. Each clutch's attached shaft carries half of the total input gear complement (with a shared output shaft), including synchronized dog clutch systems that pre-select which of its set of ratios is most likely needed at the next shift, under command of a computerized control system. Specific types of this transmission include: Direct-Shift Gearbox and Twin-Clutch SST. Infinitely variable The IVT is a specific type of CVT that includes not only an infinite number of gear ratios, but an "infinite" range as well. This is a turn of phrase, it actually refers to CVTs that are able to include a "zero ratio", where the input shaft can turn without any motion of the output shaft while remaining in gear. The gear ratio, in that case, is not "infinite" but is instead zero. Most (if not all) IVTs result from the combination of a CVT with an epicyclic gear system with a fixed ratio. The combination of the fixed ratio of the epicyclic gear with a specific matching ratio in the CVT side results in zero output. For instance, consider a transmission with an epicyclic gear set to 1:−1 gear ratio; a 1:1 reverse gear. When the CVT side is set to 1:1 the two ratios add up to zero output. The IVT is always engaged, even during its zero output. When the CVT is set to higher values it operates conventionally, with increasing forward ratios. In practice, the epicyclic gear may be set to the lowest possible ratio of the CVT, if reversing is not needed or is handled through other means. Reversing can be incorporated by setting the epicyclic gear ratio somewhat higher than the lowest ratio of the CVT, providing a range of reverse ratios. Direct-drive mechanism A direct-drive mechanism is where the transmitting of mechanical power and torque from an electric motor to the output device (such as the driven wheels of a car) occurs without any gearing reductions. Several cars from the late 19th century used direct-drive wheel hub motors, as did some concept cars in the early 2000s; however, most modern electric cars use inboard motor(s), where drive is transferred to the wheels, via the driveshaft or axles. Non-direct Electric Electric transmissions convert the mechanical power of the engine(s) to electricity with electric generators and convert it back to mechanical power with electric motors. Electrical or electronic adjustable-speed drive control systems are used to control the speed and torque of the motors. If the generators are driven by turbines, such arrangements are called turbo-electric transmission. Likewise, installations powered by diesel-engines are called diesel-electric. Diesel-electric arrangements are used on many railway locomotives, ships, large mining trucks, and some bulldozers. In these cases, each driven wheel is equipped with its own electric motor, which can be fed varying electrical power to provide any required torque or power output for each wheel independently. This produces a much simpler solution for multiple driven wheels in very large vehicles, where driveshafts would be much larger or heavier than the electrical cable that can provide the same amount of power. It also improves the ability to allow different wheels to run at different speeds, which is useful for steered wheels in large construction vehicles. Hydrostatic See also Continuously variable transmission > Hydrostatic CVTs Hydrostatic transmissions transmit all power hydraulically, using the components of hydraulic machinery. They are similar to electrical transmissions but use the hydraulic fluid as the power distribution system rather than electricity. The transmission input drive is a central hydraulic pump and the final drive unit(s) is/are a hydraulic motor or hydraulic cylinder (see: swashplate). Both components can be placed physically far apart on the machine, being connected only by flexible hoses. Hydrostatic drive systems are used on excavators, lawn tractors, forklifts, winch drive systems, heavy lift equipment, agricultural machinery, earth-moving equipment, etc. An arrangement for motor-vehicle transmission was probably used on the Ferguson F-1 P99 racing car in about 1961. The Human Friendly Transmission of the Honda DN-01 is hydrostatic. Hydrodynamic If the hydraulic pump or hydraulic motor makes use of the hydrodynamic effects of the fluid flow, i.e. pressure due to a change in the fluid's momentum as it flows through vanes in a turbine. The pump and motor usually consist of rotating vanes without seals and are typically placed in proximity. The transmission ratio can be made to vary by means of additional rotating vanes, an effect similar to varying the pitch of an airplane propeller. The torque converter in most automotive automatic transmissions is, in itself, a hydrodynamic transmission. Hydrodynamic transmissions are used in many passenger rail vehicles, those that are not using electrical transmissions. In this application, the advantage of smooth power delivery may outweigh the reduced efficiency caused by turbulence energy losses in the fluid. See also Bearing reducer Chain drive Clutch Driveline shunt Epicyclic gearing Hydraulic transmission Manual transmission Motorcycle transmission Torque converter Transfer case Idle creep Notes References Further reading External links WeberAuto 2012-09-23 American Gear Manufacturers Association Mechanisms (engineering)

Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase

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An aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (aaRS or ARS), also called tRNA-ligase, is an enzyme that attaches the appropriate amino acid onto its corresponding tRNA. It does so by catalyzing the transesterification of a specific cognate amino acid or its precursor to one of all its compatible cognate tRNAs to form an aminoacyl-tRNA. In humans, the 20 different types of aa-tRNA are made by the 20 different aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, one for each amino acid of the genetic code. This is sometimes called "charging" or "loading" the tRNA with an amino acid. Once the tRNA is charged, a ribosome can transfer the amino acid from the tRNA onto a growing peptide, according to the genetic code. Aminoacyl tRNA therefore plays an important role in RNA translation, the expression of genes to create proteins. Mechanism The synthetase first binds ATP and the corresponding amino acid (or its precursor) to form an aminoacyl-adenylate, releasing inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi). The adenylate-aaRS complex then binds the appropriate tRNA molecule's D arm, and the amino acid is transferred from the aa-AMP to either the 2'- or the 3'-OH of the last tRNA nucleotide (A76) at the 3'-end. The mechanism can be summarized in the following reaction series: Amino Acid + ATP → Aminoacyl-AMP + PPi Aminoacyl-AMP + tRNA → Aminoacyl-tRNA + AMP Summing the reactions, the highly exergonic overall reaction is as follows: Amino Acid + tRNA + ATP → Aminoacyl-tRNA + AMP + PPi Some synthetases also mediate an editing reaction to ensure high fidelity of tRNA charging. If the incorrect tRNA is added (aka. the tRNA is found to be improperly charged), the aminoacyl-tRNA bond is hydrolyzed. This can happen when two amino acids have different properties even if they have similar shapes—as is the case with Valine and Threonine. The accuracy of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is so high that it is often paired with the word "superspecificity” when it is compared to other enzymes that are involved in metabolism. Although not all synthetases have a domain with the sole purpose of editing, they make up for it by having specific binding and activation of their affiliated amino acids. Another contribution to the accuracy of these synthetases is the ratio of concentrations of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase and its cognate tRNA. Since tRNA synthetase improperly acylates the tRNA when the synthetase is overproduced, a limit must exist on the levels of aaRSs and tRNAs in vivo. Classes There are two classes of aminoacyl tRNA synthetase, each composed of ten enzymes: Class I has two highly conserved sequence motifs. It aminoacylates at the 2'-OH of a terminal adenosine nucleotide on tRNA, and it is usually monomeric or dimeric (one or two subunits, respectively). Class II has three highly conserved sequence motifs. It aminoacylates at the 3'-OH of a terminal adenosine on tRNA, and is usually dimeric or tetrameric (two or four subunits, respectively). Although phenylalanine-tRNA synthetase is class II, it aminoacylates at the 2'-OH. The amino acids are attached to the hydroxyl (-OH) group of the adenosine via the carboxyl (-COOH) group. Regardless of where the aminoacyl is initially attached to the nucleotide, the 2'-O-aminoacyl-tRNA will ultimately migrate to the 3' position via transesterification. Structures Both classes of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are multidomain proteins. In a typical scenario, an aaRS consists of a catalytic domain (where both the above reactions take place) and an anticodon binding domain (which interacts mostly with the anticodon region of the tRNA). Transfer-RNAs for different amino acids differ not only in their anticodon but also at other points, giving them slightly different overall configurations. The aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases recognize the correct tRNAs primarily through their overall configuration, not just through their anticodon. In addition, some aaRSs have additional RNA binding domains and editing domains that cleave incorrectly paired aminoacyl-tRNA molecules. The catalytic domains of all the aaRSs of a given class are found to be homologous to one another, whereas class I and class II aaRSs are unrelated to one another. The class I aaRSs have the ubiquitous Rossmann fold and have the parallel beta-strands architecture, whereas the class II aaRSs have a unique fold made up of antiparallel beta-strands. The alpha helical anticodon binding domain of Arginyl, Glycyl and Cysteinyl-tRNA synthetases is known as the DALR domain after characteristic conserved amino acids. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases have been kinetically studied, showing that Mg2+ ions play an active catalytic role and therefore aaRs have a degree of magnesium dependence. Increasing the Mg2+ concentration leads to an increase in the equilibrium constants for the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases’ reactions. Although this trend was seen in both class I and class II synthetases, the magnesium dependence for the two classes are very distinct. Class II synthetases have two or three (more frequently three) Mg2+ ions, while class I only requires one Mg2+ ion. Beside their lack of overall sequence and structure similarity, class I and class II synthetases feature different ATP recognition mechanisms. While class I binds via interactions mediated by backbone hydrogen bonds, class II uses a pair of arginine residues to establish salt bridges to its ATP ligand. This oppositional implementation is manifested in two structural motifs, the Backbone Brackets and Arginine Tweezers, which are observable in all class I and class II structures, respectively. The high structural conservation of these motifs suggest that they must have been present since ancient times. Evolution Most of the aaRSs of a given specificity are evolutionarily closer to one another than to aaRSs of another specificity. However, AsnRS and GlnRS group within AspRS and GluRS, respectively. Most of the aaRSs of a given specificity also belong to a single class. However, there are two distinct versions of the LysRS - one belonging to the class I family and the other belonging to the class II family. The molecular phylogenies of aaRSs are often not consistent with accepted organismal phylogenies. That is, they violate the so-called canonical phylogenetic pattern shown by most other enzymes for the three domains of life - Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. Furthermore, the phylogenies inferred for aaRSs of different amino acids often do not agree with one another. In addition, aaRS paralogs within the same species show a high degree of divergence between them. These are clear indications that horizontal transfer has occurred several times during the evolutionary history of aaRSs. A widespread belief in the evolutionary stability of this superfamily, meaning that every organism has all the aaRSs for their corresponding aminoacids is misconceived. A large-scale genomic analysis on ~2500 prokaryotic genomes showed that many of them miss one or more aaRS genes whereas many genomes have 1 or more paralogs. AlaRS, GlyRS, LeuRS, IleRS and ValRS are the most evolutionarily stable members of the family. GluRS, LysRS and CysRS often have paralogs, whereas AsnRS, GlnRS, PylRS and SepRS are often absent from many genomes. With the exception of AlaRS, it has been discovered that 19 out of the 20 human aaRSs have added at least one new domain or motif. These new domains and motifs vary in function and are observed in various forms of life. A common novel function within human aaRSs is providing additional regulation of biological processes. There exists a theory that the increasing number of aaRSs that add domains is due to the continuous evolution of higher organisms with more complex and efficient building blocks and biological mechanisms. One key piece of evidence to this theory is that after a new domain is added to an aaRS, the domain becomes fully integrated. This new domain's functionality is conserved from that point on. As genetic efficiency evolved in higher organisms, 13 new domains with no obvious association with the catalytic activity of aaRSs genes have been added. Application in biotechnology In some of the aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, the cavity that holds the amino acid can be mutated and modified to carry unnatural amino acids synthesized in the lab, and to attach them to specific tRNAs. This expands the genetic code, beyond the twenty canonical amino acids found in nature, to include an unnatural amino acid as well. The unnatural amino acid is coded by a nonsense (TAG, TGA, TAA) triplet, a quadruplet codon, or in some cases a redundant rare codon. The organism that expresses the mutant synthetase can then be genetically programmed to incorporate the unnatural amino acid into any desired position in any protein of interest, allowing biochemists or structural biologists to probe or change the protein's function. For instance, one can start with the gene for a protein that binds a certain sequence of DNA, and, by directing an unnatural amino acid with a reactive side-chain into the binding site, create a new protein that cuts the DNA at the target-sequence, rather than binding it. By mutating aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, chemists have expanded the genetic codes of various organisms to include lab-synthesized amino acids with all kinds of useful properties: photoreactive, metal-chelating, xenon-chelating, crosslinking, spin-resonant, fluorescent, biotinylated, and redox-active amino acids. Another use is introducing amino acids bearing reactive functional groups for chemically modifying the target protein. Certain diseases’ causation (such as neuronal pathologies, cancer, disturbed metabolic conditions, and autoimmune disorders) have been correlated to specific mutations of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) is the most frequent heritable disorder of the peripheral nervous system (a neuronal disease) and is caused by a heritable mutation in glycol-tRNA and tyrosyl-tRNA. Diabetes, a metabolic disease, induces oxidative stress, which triggers a build up of mitochondrial tRNA mutations. It has also been discovered that tRNA synthetases may be partially involved in the etiology of cancer. A high level of expression or modification of aaRSs has been observed within a range of cancers. A common outcome from mutations of aaRSs is a disturbance of dimer shape/formation which has a direct relationship with its function. These correlations between aaRSs and certain diseases have opened up a new door to synthesizing therapeutics. Noncatalytic domains The novel domain additions to aaRS genes are accretive and progressive up the Tree of Life. The strong evolutionary pressure for these small non-catalytic protein domains suggested their importance. Findings beginning in 1999 and later revealed a previously unrecognized layer of biology: these proteins control gene expression within the cell of origin, and when released exert homeostatic and developmental control in specific human cell types, tissues and organs during adult or fetal development or both, including pathways associated with angiogenesis, inflammation, the immune response, the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling, apoptosis, tumorigenesis, and interferon gamma (IFN-) and p53 signalling. Clinical Mutations in the mitochondrial enzyme have been associated with a number of genetic disorders including Leigh syndrome, West syndrome and CAGSSS (cataracts, growth hormone deficiency, sensory neuropathy, sensorineural hearing loss and skeletal dysphasia syndrome). Prediction servers ICAARS: B. Pawar, and GPS Raghava (2010) Prediction and classification of aminoacyl tRNA synthetases using PROSITE domains. BMC Genomics 2010, 11:507 MARSpred: Prokaryotic AARS database: See also TARS (gene) References External links EC 6.1 Protein biosynthesis

Lake Texcoco

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Lake Texcoco () was a natural lake within the "Anahuac" or Valley of Mexico. Lake Texcoco is best known as where the Aztecs built the city of Tenochtitlan, which was located on an island within the lake. After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, efforts to control flooding by the Spanish led to most of the lake being drained. The entire lake basin is now almost completely occupied by Mexico City, the capital of the present-day nation of Mexico. Drainage of the lake has led to serious ecological and human consequences: the local climate and water availability have changed considerably, contributing to water scarcity in the area; subsequent groundwater extraction leads to land subsidence under much of the city; and native species endemic to the lake region have become severely endangered or extinct due to ecosystem change, such as the Axolotl. After the cancellation of the Mexico City Texcoco Airport, the government initiated a major restoration project of a significant park of the lake in the form of the Lake Texcoco Ecological Park, 12,000 hectares of public space and ecological restoration. History Between the Pleistocene epoch and the last glacial period, the lake occupied the entire Mexico Valley. Lake Texcoco reached its maximum extent 11,000 years ago with a size of about and over deep. When the lake's water level fell it created several paleo-lakes that would connect with each other from time to time. At the north in the modern community of San Miguel Tocuilla there is a great paleontological field, with a great amount of pleistocenic fauna. The Lake was primarily fed by snowmelt and rain runoff when the Mexico Valley had a temperate climate. Between 11,000 and 6,000 years ago, the climate naturally warmed and snowfall in central Mexico became less prevalent. This caused the water level of the lake to drop over the next several millennia. Remnants of the ancient shoreline that Lake Texcoco had from the last glacial period can be seen on some slopes of Mount Tlaloc as well as mountains west of Mexico City. The disarticulated remains of seven Columbian mammoths dated between 10,220 ± 75 and 12,615 ± 95 years (BP) were found, suggesting human presence. It is believed that the lake disappeared and re-formed at least 10 times in the last 30,000 years. Agriculture around the lake began about 7,000 years ago, with humans following the patterns of periodic inundations of the lake. Several villages appeared on the northeast side of the lake between 1700 and 1250 BC. By 1250 BC the identifying signs of the Tlatilco culture, including more complex settlements and a stratified social structure, are seen around the lake. By roughly 800 BC Cuicuilco had eclipsed the Tlatilco cultural centers and was the major power in the Valley of Mexico during the next 200 years when its famous conical pyramid was built. The Xitle volcano destroyed Cuicuilco around AD 30, a destruction that may have given rise to Teotihuacan. After the fall of Teotihuacan, AD 600–800, several other city states appeared around the lake, including Xoloc, Azcapotzalco, Tlacopan, Coyohuacan, Culhuacán, Chimalpa and Chimalhuacán – mainly from Toltec and Chichimeca influence. None of these predominated and they coexisted more or less in peace for several centuries. This time was described as a Golden age in Aztec chronicles. By the year 1300, however, the Tepanec from Azcapotzalco were beginning to dominate the area. Tenochtitlan According to a traditional story, the Mexica wandered in the deserts of modern Mexico for 100 years before they came to the thick forests of the place now called the Valley of Mexico. Tenochtitlan was founded on an islet in the western part of the lake in the year 1325. Around it, the Aztecs created a large artificial island using a system similar to the creation of chinampas. To overcome the problems of drinking water, the Aztecs built a system of dams to separate the salty waters of the lake from the rain water of the effluents. It also permitted them to control the level of the lake. The city also had an inner system of channels that helped to control the water. The Aztec ruler Ahuitzotl attempted to build an aqueduct that would take fresh water from the mainland to the lakes surrounding the Tenochtitlan city. The aqueduct failed, and the city suffered a major flood in 1502. During Cortés's siege of Tenochtitlan in 1521, the dams were destroyed, and never rebuilt, so flooding became a big problem for the new Mexico City built over Tenochtitlan. Geography The Valley of Mexico is a basin with an average elevation of above mean sea level located in the southern highlands of Mexico's central altiplano. Lake Texcoco formerly extended over a large portion of the southern half of the basin, where it was the largest of an interconnected chain of five major and several smaller lakes (the other main lakes being Xaltocan, Zumpango, Chalco and Xochimilco lakes). Much of the lake was fed from groundwater aquifers; fresh water poured in from Lake Chalco and Xochimilco's freshwater springs, and the thermal springs of Zumpango and Xalcotan, as well as some in Texcoco itself, provided saline water. During periods of high water levels—typically after the May-to-October rainy seasons—the lakes were often joined as one body of water, at an average elevation of above mean sea level. In the drier winter months the lake system tended to separate into individual bodies of water, a flow that was mitigated by the construction of dikes and causeways in the Late Postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology. Lake Texcoco was the lowest-lying of all the lakes, and occupied the minimum elevation in the valley so that water ultimately drained towards it. The Valley of Mexico is a closed or endorheic basin. Because there is no outflow, evapotranspiration is estimated to be 72–79% of precipitation. Artificial drainage Mexico City suffered from periodic floods; in 1604 the lake flooded the city, with an even more severe flood following in 1607. Under the direction of Enrico Martínez, a drain was built to control the level of the lake, but in 1629 another flood kept most of the city covered for five years. At that time, it was debated whether to relocate the city, but the Spanish authorities decided to keep the current location. Eventually the lake was drained by the channels and a tunnel to the Pánuco River, but even that could not stop floods, since by then most of the city was under the water table. The flooding could not be completely controlled until the twentieth century. In 1967, construction of the Drenaje Profundo ("Deep Drainage System"), a network of several hundred kilometers of tunnels, was done, at a depth between . The central tunnel has a diameter of and carries rain water out of the basin. The eastern discharge tunnel was inaugurated in 2019. The ecological consequences of the draining were enormous. Parts of the valleys were turned semi-arid, and even today Mexico City suffers from lack of water. Due to overdrafting that is depleting the aquifer beneath the city, Mexico City is estimated to have sunk 10 meters (33 feet) in the last century. Furthermore, because soft lake sediments underlie most of Mexico City, the city has proven vulnerable to soil liquefaction during earthquakes, most notably in the 1985 earthquake when hundreds of buildings collapsed and thousands of lives were lost. The term "Texcoco Lake" now refers only to a big area surrounded by salt marshes east of Mexico City, which covers part of the ancient lake bed. Also there are small remnants of the lakes of Xochimilco, Chalco, and Zumpango. Several species indigenous to the lake are now extinct or endangered (e.g. axolotls). The modern Texcoco Lake has a high concentration of salts and its waters are evaporated for their processing. A Mexican company, "Sosa Texcoco S.A" has an solar evaporator known as El Caracol. Land reclamation of the lakebed was part of Mexico's attempts at development in the twentieth century. Restoration and conservation Ecological park See also History of Mexico City Index of Mexico-related articles Paleontological Museum in Tocuila List of prehistoric lakes Notes References External links Agua y Subordinación en la Cuenca del Río Lerma Lakes of Mexico Former lakes of North America Valley of Mexico Geography of Mesoamerica Landforms of Mexico City Landforms of the State of Mexico Pánuco River Tenochtitlan Tlatilco culture Important Bird Areas of Mexico

Book of Jasher (biblical references)

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The Book of Jasher (also spelled Jashar; ), which means the Book of the Upright or the Book of the Just Man, is a book mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, often interpreted as a lost non-canonical book. Numerous forgeries purporting to be rediscovered copies of this lost book have been written based on this interpretation. A different interpretation identifies it as a reference to the Pentateuch, an interpretation which is notably favoured by the Jewish scholar Rashi in his commentary on the Hebrew Bible (see here-below his commentary on Joshua). The translation "Book of the Just Man" is the traditional Greek and Latin translation, while the transliterated form "Jasher" is found in the King James Bible, 1611. Biblical references The book is mentioned twice in the Hebrew Bible. A possible third reference exists with a variant spelling. In Joshua According to the Book of Joshua, while Joshua was winning a battle against Adonizedek (king of Jerusalem) and his allies, Joshua prayed for the sun and moon to stand still. Joshua 10:13 then states: The presence of this event in a book of poetry has been interpreted as a poetic description of the prolonged battle. According to the medieval Jewish scholar Rashi, "Sefer HaYashar" in this verse refers to the Pentateuch: Jacob's prophecy regarding Joshua's ancestor Ephraim—"His seed will fill the nations"—was fulfilled when Joshua's victory gave him renown among the various nations who heard of the victory. In Samuel According to the Book of Samuel, when David spoke his lament over the deaths of Saul and Jonathan, he began as follows: The King James Version of the English Bible includes the words "the use of" in italics, material which its translator(s) added in order to render the text into what they considered understandable and comfortable English. According to some other translations (such as the English Standard Version), David taught his Judeans "The Bow" (), which they hypothesize was a poetic lament of the deaths of Saul and Jonathan. According to this interpretation, this "Bow" was a lament or a tune contained in the Book of Jashar which that book also says was taught to the Israelites. The Septuagint translation renders sefer hayashar in both cases as the 'book of the just'. It also misses the reference to the bow. It reads: In Kings A possible third reference appears in I Kings 8. In the Septuagint (though not in the Hebrew text or in most translations), verse 8:53 says that the preceding prayer of Solomon is written "in the book of song" (). The Hebrew version of "book of song" could be (sefer ha-shir), which is the same as "Sefer HaYashar" with two letters transposed. According to Alexander Rofeh, this suggests that the name of "Sefer HaYashar" could be related to its function as a book of song, and the second word of "Sefer HaYashar" might have originally been (shir, "song") or (yashir, "he will sing"). See also Book of Jasher (Pseudo-Jasher) – an 18th-century literary forgery which purports to be an English translation of the lost Book of Jasher. Sefer haYashar (midrash) – a Hebrew midrash, also known as The Book of Jasher, named after the lost Book of Jasher. References Lost Jewish texts Religious texts

Inflammatory bowel disease

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Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of inflammatory conditions of the colon and small intestine, Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis being the principal types. Crohn's disease affects the small intestine and large intestine, as well as the mouth, esophagus, stomach and the anus, whereas ulcerative colitis primarily affects the colon and the rectum. IBD also occurs in dogs and is thought to arise from a combination of host genetics, intestinal microenvironment, environmental components and the immune system. There is an ongoing discussion, however, that the term "chronic enteropathy" might be better to use than "inflammatory bowel disease" in dogs because it differs from IBD in humans in how the dogs respond to treatment. For example, many dogs respond to only dietary changes compared to humans with IBD, who often need immunosuppressive treatment. Some dogs may also need immunosuppressant or antibiotic treatment when dietary changes are not enough. After having excluded other diseases that can lead to vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain in dogs, intestinal biopsies are often performed to investigate what kind of inflammation is occurring (lymphoplasmacytic, eosinophilic, or granulomatous). In dogs, low levels of cobalamin in the blood have been shown to be a risk factor for negative outcome. Signs and symptoms In spite of Crohn's and UC being very different diseases, both may present with any of the following symptoms: abdominal pain, diarrhea, rectal bleeding, severe internal cramps/muscle spasms in the region of the pelvis and weight loss. Anemia is the most prevalent extraintestinal complication of inflammatory bowel disease. Associated complaints or diseases include arthritis, pyoderma gangrenosum, primary sclerosing cholangitis, and non-thyroidal illness syndrome (NTIS). Associations with deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia (BOOP) have also been reported. Diagnosis is generally by assessment of inflammatory markers in stool followed by colonoscopy with biopsy of pathological lesions. Causes IBD is a complex disease which arises as a result of the interaction of environmental and genetic factors leading to immunological responses and inflammation in the intestine. Diet A 2022 study found that diets with increased intake of fruits and vegetables, reduction of processed meats and refined carbohydrates, and preference of water for hydration were associated with lower risk of active symptoms with IBD, although increased intake of fruits and vegetables alone did not reduce risk of symptoms with Crohn's disease. Dietary patterns are associated with a risk for ulcerative colitis. In particular, subjects who were in the highest tertile of the healthy dietary pattern had a 79% lower risk of ulcerative colitis. Gluten sensitivity is common in IBD and associated with having flareups. Gluten sensitivity was reported in 23.6 and 27.3% of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis patients, respectively. A diet high in protein, particularly animal protein, and/or high in sugar may be associated with increased risk of inflammatory bowel disease and relapses. Microbiota As a result of microbial symbiosis and immunity, alterations in the gut microbiome may contribute to inflammatory gut diseases. IBD-affected individuals have been found to have 30–50 percent reduced biodiversity of commensal bacteria, such as decreases in Firmicutes (namely Lachnospiraceae) and Bacteroidetes. Further evidence of the role of gut flora in the cause of inflammatory bowel disease is that IBD-affected individuals are more likely to have been prescribed antibiotics in the 2–5 year period before their diagnosis than unaffected individuals. The enteral bacteria can be altered by environmental factors, such as concentrated milk fats (a common ingredient of processed foods and confectionery) or oral medications such as antibiotics and oral iron preparations. The mucosal microbiota in the large intestine of IBD patients with active inflammation was found to be associated with pro-inflammatory changes to the host epigenome. However, large international studies have failed to identify a single microbial biomarker of IBD indicating it's not driven by any single micro-organism. Breach of intestinal barrier Loss of integrity of the intestinal epithelium plays a key pathogenic role in IBD. Dysfunction of the innate immune system as a result of abnormal signaling through immune receptors called toll-like receptors (TLRs)—which activates an immune response to molecules that are broadly shared by multiple pathogens—contributes to acute and chronic inflammatory processes in IBD colitis and associated cancer. Changes in the composition of the intestinal microbiota are an important environmental factor in the development of IBD. Detrimental changes in the intestinal microbiota induce an inappropriate (uncontrolled) immune response that results in damage to the intestinal epithelium. Breaches in this critical barrier (the intestinal epithelium) allow further infiltration of microbiota that, in turn, elicit further immune responses. IBD is a multifactorial disease that is nonetheless driven in part by an exaggerated immune response to gut microbiota that causes defects in epithelial barrier function. Genetics A genetic component to IBD has been recognized for over a century. Research that has contributed to understanding of the genetics include studies of ethnic groups (e.g., Ashkenazi Jews, Irish), familial clustering, epidemiological studies, and twin studies. With the advent of molecular genetics, understanding of the genetic basis has expanded considerably, particularly in the past decade. The first gene linked to IBD was NOD2 in 2001. Genome-wide association studies have since added to understanding of the genomics and pathogenesis of the disease. More than 200 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs or "snips") are now known to be associated with susceptibility to IBD. One of the largest genetic studies of IBD was published in 2012 . The analysis explained more of the variance in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis than previously reported. The results suggested that commensal microbiota are altered in such a way that they act as pathogens in inflammatory bowel diseases. Other studies show that mutations in IBD-associated genes might interfere with the cellular activity and interactions with the microbiome that promote normal immune responses. Many studies identified that microRNAs dysregulation involved in IBD and to promote colorectal cancer. By 2020, single-cell RNA sequencing analysis was launched by a small consortium using IBD patient biopsy material in a search for therapeutic targets. Diagnosis The diagnosis is usually confirmed by biopsies on colonoscopy. Fecal calprotectin is useful as an initial investigation, which may suggest the possibility of IBD, as this test is sensitive but not specific for IBD. Differential diagnosis Other diseases may cause an increased excretion of fecal calprotectin, such as infectious diarrhea, untreated coeliac disease, necrotizing enterocolitis, intestinal cystic fibrosis and neoplastic pediatric tumor cells. Conditions with similar symptoms as Crohn's disease includes intestinal tuberculosis, Behçet's disease, ulcerative colitis, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug enteropathy, irritable bowel syndrome and coeliac disease. Conditions with similar symptoms as ulcerative colitis includes acute self-limiting colitis, amebic colitis, schistosomiasis, Crohn's disease, colon cancer, irritable bowel syndrome, intestinal tuberculosis and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug enteropathy. Liver function tests are often elevated in inflammatory bowel disease, and are often mild and generally return spontaneously to normal levels. The most relevant mechanisms of elevated liver functions tests in IBD are drug-induced hepatotoxicity and fatty liver. Classification The chief types of inflammatory bowel disease are Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis (UC). Inflammatory bowel diseases fall into the class of autoimmune diseases, in which the body's own immune system attacks elements of the digestive system. Accounting for fewer cases are other forms of IBD, which are not always classified as typical IBD: Microscopic colitis subdivided into collagenous colitis and lymphocytic colitis Diversion colitis Behçet's disease Early Onset IBD Indeterminate colitis No disease specific markers are currently known in the blood, enabling the reliable separation of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis patients. The way doctors can tell the difference between Crohn's disease and UC is the location and nature of the inflammatory changes. Crohn's can affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract, from mouth to anus (skip lesions), although a majority of the cases start in the terminal ileum. Ulcerative colitis, in contrast, is restricted to the colon and the rectum. Microscopically, ulcerative colitis is restricted to the mucosa (epithelial lining of the gut), while Crohn's disease affects the full thickness of the bowel wall ("transmural lesions"). Lastly, Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis present with extra-intestinal manifestations (such as liver problems, arthritis, skin manifestations and eye problems) in different proportions. In 10–15% of cases, a definitive diagnosis neither of Crohn's disease nor of ulcerative colitis can be made because of idiosyncrasies in the presentation. In this case, a diagnosis of indeterminate colitis may be made. Although a recognised definition, not all centres refer to this. Treatment Surgery CD and UC are chronic inflammatory diseases, and are not medically curable. However, ulcerative colitis can in most cases be cured by proctocolectomy, although this may not eliminate extra-intestinal symptoms. An ileostomy will collect feces in a bag. Alternatively, a pouch can be created from the small intestine; this serves as the rectum and prevents the need for a permanent ileostomy. Between one-quarter and one-half of patients with ileo-anal pouches do have to manage occasional or chronic pouchitis. Surgery cannot cure Crohn's disease but may be needed to treat complications such as abscesses, strictures or fistulae. Severe cases may require surgery, such as bowel resection, strictureplasty or a temporary or permanent colostomy or ileostomy. In Crohn's disease, surgery involves removing the worst inflamed segments of the intestine and connecting the healthy regions, but unfortunately, it does not cure Crohn's or eliminate the disease. At some point after the first surgery, Crohn's disease can recur in the healthy parts of the intestine, usually at the resection site. (For example, if a patient with Crohn's disease has an ileocecal anastomosis, in which the caecum and terminal ileum are removed and the ileum is joined to the ascending colon, their Crohn's will nearly always flare-up near the anastomosis or in the rest of the ascending colon). Medical therapies Medical treatment of IBD is individualised to each patient. The choice of which drugs to use and by which route to administer them (oral, rectal, injection, infusion) depends on factors including the type, distribution, and severity of the patient's disease, as well as other historical and biochemical prognostic factors, and patient preferences. For example, mesalazine is more useful in ulcerative colitis than in Crohn's disease. Generally, depending on the level of severity, IBD may require immunosuppression to control the symptoms, with drugs such as prednisone, tumor necrosis factor inhibitors (TNF inhibitors), azathioprine, methotrexate, or 6-mercaptopurine. Steroids, such as the glucocorticoid prednisone, are frequently used to control disease flares and were once acceptable as a maintenance drug. Biological therapy for inflammatory bowel disease, especially the TNF inhibitors, are used in people with more severe or resistant Crohn's disease and sometimes in ulcerative colitis. Treatment is usually started by administering drugs with high anti-inflammatory effects, such as prednisone. Once the inflammation is successfully controlled, another drug to keep the disease in remission, such as mesalazine in UC, is the main treatment. If further treatment is required, a combination of an immunosuppressive drug (such as azathioprine) with mesalazine (which may also have an anti-inflammatory effect) may be needed, depending on the patient. Controlled release budesonide is used for mild ileal Crohn's disease. Nutritional and dietetic therapies Exclusive enteral nutrition is a first-line therapy in pediatric Crohn's disease with weaker data in adults. Evidence supporting exclusive enteral nutrition in ulcerative colitis is lacking. Nutritional deficiencies play a prominent role in IBD. Malabsorption, diarrhea, and GI blood loss are common features of IBD. Deficiencies of B vitamins, fat-soluble vitamins, essential fatty acids, and key minerals such as magnesium, zinc, and selenium are extremely common and benefit from replacement therapy. Dietary interventions, including certain exclusion diets like the specific carbohydrate diet (SCD) can be beneficial for symptom management. Dietary fiber interventions, such as psyillium supplementation (a mixture of soluble and insoluble fibers), may relieve symptoms as well as induce/maintain remission by altering the microbiome composition of the GI tract, thereby improving regulation of immune function, reducing inflammation, and helping to restore the intestinal mucosal lining. Anaemia is commonly present in both ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. Due to raised levels of inflammatory cytokines which lead to the increased expression of hepcidin, parenteral iron is the preferred treatment option as it bypasses the gastrointestinal system, has lower incidence of adverse events and enables quicker treatment. Hepcidin itself is also an anti-inflammatory agent. In the murine model very low levels of iron restrict hepcidin synthesis, worsening the inflammation that is present. Enteral nutrition has been found to be efficient to improve hemoglobin level in patients with inflammatory bowel disease, especially combined with erythropoietin. Microbiome There is preliminary evidence of an infectious contribution to inflammatory bowel disease in some patients that may benefit from antibiotic therapy, such as with rifaximin. The evidence for a benefit of rifaximin is mostly limited to Crohn's disease with less convincing evidence supporting use in ulcerative colitis. Fecal microbiota transplant is a relatively new treatment option for IBD which has attracted attention since 2010. Some preliminary studies have suggested benefits similar to those in Clostridium difficile infection but a review of use in IBD shows that FMT is safe, but of variable efficacy. A 2014 review stated that more randomized controlled trials were needed. Alternative medicine Complementary and alternative medicine approaches have been used in inflammatory bowel disorders. Evidence from controlled studies of these therapies has been reviewed; risk of bias was quite heterogeneous. The best supportive evidence was found for herbal therapy, with Plantago ovata and curcumin in UC maintenance therapy, wormwood in CD, mind/body therapy and self-intervention in UC, and acupuncture in UC and CD. Novel approaches Stem cell therapy is undergoing research as a possible treatment for IBD. A review of studies suggests a promising role, although there are substantial challenges, including cost and characterization of effects, which limit the current use in clinical practice. Psychological interventions Currently, there is no evidence to recommend psychological treatment, such as psychotherapy, stress management and patient's education, to all adults with IBD in general. These treatments had no effect on quality of life, emotional well-being and disease activity. The need for these approaches should be individually assessed and further researched to identify subgroups and determine type of therapy that may benefit individuals with IBD. In adolescents population such treatments may be beneficial on quality of life and depression, although only short-term effects have been found, which also imposes the need for further research. Prognosis While IBD can limit quality of life because of pain, vomiting, and diarrhea, it is rarely fatal on its own. Fatalities due to complications such as toxic megacolon, bowel perforation and surgical complications are also rare.. Fatigue is a common symptom of IBD and can be a burden. Around one-third of individuals with IBD experience persistent gastrointestinal symptoms similar to irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) in the absence of objective evidence of disease activity. Despite enduring the side-effects of long-term therapies, this cohort has a quality of life that is not significantly different to that of individuals with uncontrolled, objectively active disease, and escalation of therapy to biological agents is typically ineffective in resolving their symptoms. The cause of these IBS-like symptoms is unclear, but it has been suggested that changes in the gut-brain axis, epithelial barrier dysfunction, and the gut flora may be partially responsible. While patients of IBD do have an increased risk of colorectal cancer, this is usually caught much earlier than the general population in routine surveillance of the colon by colonoscopy, and therefore patients are much more likely to survive. New evidence suggests that patients with IBD may have an elevated risk of endothelial dysfunction and coronary artery disease. The goal of treatment is toward achieving remission, after which the patient is usually switched to a lighter drug with fewer potential side effects. Every so often, an acute resurgence of the original symptoms may appear; this is known as a "flare-up". Depending on the circumstances, it may go away on its own or require medication. The time between flare-ups may be anywhere from weeks to years, and varies wildly between patients – a few have never experienced a flare-up. Life with IBD can be challenging; however, many sufferers lead relatively normal lives. IBD carries a psychological burden due to stigmatization of being diagnosed, leading to high levels of anxiety, depression, and a general reduction in the quality of life for sufferers. Although living with IBD can be difficult, there are numerous resources available to help families navigate the ins and out of IBD, such as the Crohn's and Colitis Foundation of America (CCFA). Epidemiology IBD resulted in a global total of 51,000 deaths in 2013 and 55,000 deaths in 1990. The increased incidence of IBD since World War 2 has been correlated to the increase in meat consumption worldwide, supporting the claim that animal protein intake is associated with IBD. However, there are many environmental risk factors that have been linked to the increased and decreased risk of IBD, such as smoking, air pollution and greenspace, urbanization and Westernization. Inflammatory bowel diseases are increasing in Europe. Incidence and prevalence of IBD has risen steadily for the last decades in Asia, which could be related changes in diet and other environmental factors. Around 0.8% of people in the UK have IBD. Similarly, around 270,000 (0.7%) of people in Canada have IBD, with that number expected to rise to 400,000 (1%) by 2030. Research The following treatment strategies are not used routinely, but appear promising in some forms of inflammatory bowel disease. Initial reports suggest that "helminthic therapy" may not only prevent but even control IBD: a drink with roughly 2,500 ova of the Trichuris suis helminth taken twice monthly decreased symptoms markedly in many patients. It is even speculated that an effective "immunization" procedure could be developed—by ingesting the cocktail at an early age. Prebiotics and probiotics are focusing increasing interest as treatments for IBD. Currently, there is evidence to support the use of certain probiotics in addition to standard treatments in people with ulcerative colitis but there is no sufficient data to recommend probiotics in people suffering Crohn's disease. Further research is required to identify specific probiotic strains or their combinations and prebiotic substances for therapies of intestinal inflammation. Currently, the probiotic strain, frequency, dose and duration of the probiotic therapy are not established. In severely ill people with IBD there is a risk of the passage of viable bacteria from the gastrointestinal tract to the internal organs (bacterial translocation) and subsequent bacteremia, which can cause serious adverse health consequences. Live bacteria might not be essential because of beneficial effects of probiotics seems to be mediated by their DNA and by secreted soluble factors, and their therapeutic effects may be obtained by systemic administration rather than oral administration. In 2005 New Scientist published a joint study by Bristol University and the University of Bath on the apparent healing power of cannabis on IBD. Reports that cannabis eased IBD symptoms indicated the possible existence of cannabinoid receptors in the intestinal lining, which respond to molecules in the plant-derived chemicals. CB1 cannabinoid receptors – which are known to be present in the brain – exist in the endothelial cells which line the gut, it is thought that they are involved in repairing the lining of the gut when damaged. The team deliberately damaged the cells to cause inflammation of the gut lining and then added synthetically produced cannabinoids; the result was that gut started to heal: the broken cells were repaired and brought back closer together to mend the tears. It is believed that in a healthy gut, natural endogenous cannabinoids are released from endothelial cells when they are injured, which then bind to the CB1 receptors. The process appears to set off a wound-healing reaction, and when people use cannabis, the cannabinoids bind to these receptors in the same way. Previous studies have shown that CB1 receptors located on the nerve cells in the gut respond to cannabinoids by slowing gut motility, therefore reducing the painful muscle contractions associated with diarrhea. CB2, another cannabinoid receptor predominantly expressed by immune cells, was detected in the gut of IBD sufferers at a higher concentration. These receptors, which also respond to chemicals in cannabis, appear to be associated with apoptosis – programmed cell death – and may have a role in suppressing the overactive immune system and reducing inflammation by mopping up excess cells. Activation of the endocannabinoid system was found efficient in ameliorating colitis and increasing the survival rate of mice, and reducing remote organ changes induced by colitis, further suggest that modulation of this system is a potential therapeutic approach for IBDs and the associated remote organ lesions. Alicaforsen is a first generation antisense oligodeoxynucleotide designed to bind specifically to the human ICAM-1 messenger RNA through Watson-Crick base pair interactions in order to subdue expression of ICAM-1. ICAM-1 propagates an inflammatory response promoting the extravasation and activation of leukocytes (white blood cells) into inflamed tissue. Increased expression of ICAM-1 has been observed within the inflamed intestinal mucosa of ulcerative colitis, pouchitis and Crohn's sufferers where ICAM-1 over production correlated with disease activity. This suggests that ICAM-1 is a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of these diseases. Cannabinoid CB2 receptor agonists are found to decrease the induction of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 surface expression in human brain tissues and primary human brain endothelial cells (BMVEC) exposed to various pro-inflammatory mediators. In 2014, an alliance among the Broad Institute, Amgen and Massachusetts General Hospital formed with the intention to "collect and analyze patient DNA samples to identify and further validate genetic targets." In 2015, a meta-analysis on 938 IBD patients and 953 controls, IBD was significantly associated with having higher odds of vitamin D deficiency. Gram-positive bacteria present in the lumen could be associated with extending the time of relapse for ulcerative colitis. Bidirectional pathways between depression and IBD have been suggested and psychological processes have been demonstrated to influence self-perceived physical and psychological health over time. IBD-disease activity may impact quality of life and over time may significantly affect individual's mental well-being, which may be related to the increased risk to develop anxiety and/or depression. On the other hand, psychological distress may also influence IBD activity. Higher rates of anxiety and depression are observed among those with IBD compared to healthy individuals, which correlated with disease severity. Moreover, anxiety and depression rates increase during active disease compared with inactive phases. See also Inflammatory bowel disease-22 World Inflammatory Bowel Disease Day References External links Autoimmune diseases Gastrointestinal tract disorders Steroid-responsive inflammatory conditions

Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego

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Marine Corps Recruit Depot (commonly referred to as MCRD) San Diego is a United States Marine Corps military installation in San Diego, California. It lies between San Diego Bay and Interstate 5, adjacent to San Diego International Airport and the former Naval Training Center San Diego. MCRD San Diego's main mission is the initial training of enlisted male and female recruits living west of the Mississippi River. Over 21,000 recruits are trained each year. The Depot also is the home to the Marine Corps' Recruiter School and Western Recruiting Region's Drill Instructors School. History Marines made an amphibious landing in San Diego in 1846 from and during the Mexican–American War. Marines made a presence in San Diego again in July 1914, but ground was not broken for a permanent base until March 2, 1919. The initial proposal for the base came from Congressman William Kettner, who also proposed construction of Naval Training Center San Diego. The Marine base only became a reality due to the perseverance of its first commanding officer, Colonel Joseph Henry Pendleton (later a general and the namesake of Camp Pendleton). Before the commissioning of the base on Dutch Flats, the Marines were based in Balboa Park. The structures were designed by architect Bertram Goodhue in the Spanish Colonial Revival style, and they echoed the style used for the buildings of the 1915 Panama–California Exposition (also inspired by Goodhue). The base and its original buildings are now on the National Register of Historic Places listings in San Diego County, California. On December 1, 1921, the base was formally commissioned as the Marine Advanced Expeditionary Base San Diego. In 1923, the Marine Corps Recruit Depot for the west coast was relocated to the new base in San Diego from Mare Island Naval Shipyard, Vallejo, California. On March 1, 1924, the base became officially the Marine Corps Base San Diego. It became the Marine Corps' recruit training center for the western United States. During World War II, the flow of recruits into the base surged, with 18,000 recruits arriving in one month. On January 1, 1948, the base was officially renamed the Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego. Recruit training The base's main mission is to train new United States Marine Corps recruits, specifically males recruited from west of the Mississippi River, but also from some areas east of the river, such as Wisconsin, Michigan, the Chicago metropolitan area and New Orleans. Until 2021, all female recruits were trained at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island. Recruit training for those enlisted in the United States Marine Corps, includes a thirteen-week process during which the recruit becomes cut off from the civilian world and must adapt to a Marine Corps lifestyle. During training, drill instructors train recruits in a wide variety of subjects including weapons training, Marine Corps Martial Arts Program, personal hygiene and cleanliness, close order drill, and Marine Corps history. The training emphasizes physical fitness, and recruits must attain a minimum standard of fitness to graduate by passing a Physical Fitness Test. Recruits must also meet minimum combat-oriented swimming qualifications, qualify in rifle marksmanship with the M16A4 service rifle, and pass a 54-hour simulated combat exercise known as "The Crucible". Unlike training at Parris Island, recruits must leave the depot to conduct field training. At Edson Range aboard Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, recruits fire on the rifle range, conduct field training, and undergo the Crucible. At the conclusion, recruits return to MCRD San Diego for Marine week and then graduation. On December 14, 2020, the depot agreed to accept female recruits. On December 17, 2020, three women successfully completed training at the depot to become drill instructors. 60 female recruits would then begin training at the San Diego depot's boot camp in February 2021. Despite training alongside men, it was acknowledged that female drill instructors were put in charge of training the women recruits. On April 22, 2021, 53 of these female recruits became Marines after becoming the first women to complete boot camp training at the San Diego Depot. Tenant organizations and facilities In addition to recruit training, MCRD San Diego is also home to the Drill Instructor's School for the Western Recruiting Region and the Recruiter's School for the entire Marine Corps. The Coast Guard also has a presence on board MCRD, with the Pacific Area Tactical Law Enforcement Team and the Maritime Safety and Security Team. The base is also home to the MCRD San Diego Command Museum. Several schools pertinent to the Marine Corps mission are and have been based at MCRD. Among these was the "Sea School," which trained the Marine Detachments for duty aboard Naval vessels. The Communications and Electronics School was formerly located there. The parade deck at MCRD San Diego serves both as a vital part of every recruit's training and as a memorial to the veterans of WWII, Korea, Vietnam, and the war on terror. It also divides the portion of the base dedicated to recruit training from the sections housing other schools and administrative personnel. Possibility of closure Some politicians have pushed for the closure of MCRD San Diego, primarily because it occupies what is now extremely valuable land adjacent to the city's harbor and airport. Although the installation was not on the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure list proposed by the Pentagon, the Defense Base Closure and Realignment Commission asked the Pentagon for a written explanation as to why the MCRD was not proposed to be closed and consolidated into the depot at Parris Island. The Commission noted that the Navy and Air Force had successfully consolidated training facilities without risk to the mission or risk of loss of "surge capability" (the ability to quickly increase the rate of recruit training if circumstances make that necessary). They also noted that the military value of San Diego is lower than Parris Island due in part to encroachment and land constraints. Closure meets heavy resistance from the Marine Corps, because of the status of the parade deck as a memorial to veterans of World War II, Korea, Vietnam, and Iraq, as well as the cost of relocation of the Depot. In a July 14, 2005 public response to the Commission, Gordon R. England, the acting Deputy Secretary of Defense, stated that the Department of Defense did not recommend San Diego's closure because it would create a single point of failure in regard to Parris Island's vulnerability to hurricanes, among other threats. He also noted that the payback on such a closure would take over 100 years, due to the need for new construction at Parris Island and the need to relocate rather than eliminate personnel from San Diego. In popular culture Film and TV Vietnam War-era recruit training at MCRD San Diego is depicted in the 1970 TV film Tribes, starring Darren McGavin and Jan-Michael Vincent. Portions of the movie were filmed on location at MCRD. Recruits marching on the parade deck at MCRD San Diego are shown during the opening montage of the 1960s TV show Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C.. A gruff Marine sergeant and a handsome new recruit compete for the affection of a nurse in Tell It to the Marines starring Lon Chaney. This is a black and white silent movie released in 1926, filmed partly at MCRD San Diego. References Fahey, John Edward (1974). History of the Marine Corps Recruit Depot at San Diego 1911-1974, Masters Thesis, History Department, University of San Diego. Retrieved on 2006-06-30. External links Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego official website USMC Recruiters School Drill Instructors School, Western Recruiting Region. USMC Recruit Depot San Diego Base Overview & PCS Information (MarineCorpsUSA.org) National Register of Historic Places in San Diego Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in California Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in California Buildings and structures in San Diego Military in San Diego San Diego United States Marine Corps schools Bertram Goodhue buildings Spanish Colonial Revival architecture in California Military facilities in San Diego County, California World War II sites in the United States

List of American Revolutionary War battles

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This is a list of military actions in the American Revolutionary War. Actions marked with an asterisk involved no casualties. Major campaigns, theaters, and expeditions of the war Boston campaign (1775–1776) Invasion of Quebec (1775–1776) New York and New Jersey campaigns (1776–1777) Saratoga campaign (1777) Philadelphia campaign (1777–1778) Yorktown campaign (1781) Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga (1778–1781) Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) Western theater of the American Revolutionary War (1777–1782) Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War Battles (in chronological order) See also List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War List of British Forces in the American Revolutionary War List of George Washington articles American Revolutionary War Battles

Heinz Field

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Heinz Field is a football stadium located in the North Shore neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. It primarily serves as the home of the Pittsburgh Steelers of the National Football League *NFL) and the University of Pittsburgh Panthers college football team, and opened in 2001, after the controlled implosion of both teams' previous home, Three Rivers Stadium. The stadium is named for the locally based H. J. Heinz Company, which purchased the naming rights in 2001. In February of 2022, the Heinz company decided to part ways for the stadium, letting the door open for it to be rebranded and named. Funded in conjunction with PNC Park and the David L. Lawrence Convention Center, the $281 million (equivalent to $ million in ) stadium stands along the Ohio River, on the Northside of Pittsburgh in the North Shore neighborhood. The stadium was designed with the city of Pittsburgh's history of steel production in mind, which led to the inclusion of 12,000 tons of steel into construction. Ground for the stadium was broken in June 1999, and the first football game was hosted in September 2001. The stadium's natural grass surface has been criticized throughout its history, but Steelers ownership has kept the grass after lobbying from players and coaches. Attendance for the 68,400-seat stadium has sold out for every Steelers home game, a streak which dates back to 1972. A collection of memorabilia from the Steelers and Panthers of the past can be found in the Great Hall. The stadium has hosted two outdoor hockey games: the 2011 NHL Winter Classic between the Pittsburgh Penguins and Washington Capitals, and the 2017 NHL Stadium Series game between the Penguins and Philadelphia Flyers. The venue has also hosted numerous concerts; on May 18, 2019, it hosted a performance by Garth Brooks that was attended by 75,000, making it the highest-ticketed show in Pittsburgh history. History Planning and funding The Pittsburgh Steelers and the Pittsburgh Pirates shared Three Rivers Stadium from 1970 to 2000. After discussions over the Pirates building a full-time baseball park, a proposal was made to renovate Three Rivers Stadium into a full-time football facility. Although it was met with negative reaction from Steelers ownership, the proposal was used as a "fallback position" that would be used if discussions for a new stadium failed. Steelers ownership stated that failing to build a new stadium would hurt the franchise's chances of signing players who might sign with other teams, such as the other three in the Steelers division, who had all recently built new football-only stadiums. In June 2001, the H. J. Heinz Company purchased the naming rights to the stadium. Per the deal, Heinz will pay the Steelers a total of $57 million through 2021, the "57" being an intentional reference to Heinz 57. Despite Heinz later announcing its acquisition of Kraft Foods Group to form Kraft Heinz Company in 2015, the stadium's name was retained. Originally, a sales tax increase was proposed to fund three projects: Heinz Field, PNC Park, and an expansion of the David L. Lawrence Convention Center. After the rejection of this proposal in a 1997 referendum known as the "Regional Renaissance Initiative", the city developed the alternate funding proposal Plan B. Similarly controversial, the proposal was labeled Scam B by opponents. The Steelers' pledge toward the new stadium was criticized for being too little, even after it was raised from $50 million to $76.5 million. Other local government members criticized the $281 million of public money allocated for Plan B. One member of the Allegheny Regional Asset District board called the use of tax dollars "corporate welfare". The plan, totaling $809 million, was approved by the Allegheny Regional Asset District board on July 9, 1998, with $233 million allotted for Heinz Field. Shortly after Plan B was approved, the Steelers made a deal with Pittsburgh city officials to stay in the city until at least 2031. The total cost of Heinz Field was $281 million. Design and construction HOK Sport designed the stadium. HOK Sport's project manager for the project, Melinda Lehman, said that the Rooney family asked for the stadium's design to "acknowledge the history of Pittsburgh and also bring in an element of looking forward, this is where Pittsburgh is going." In order to accomplish this, HOK Sport used steel structurally and externally. The stone used in Heinz Field's design is artificial, in order to decrease cost. Of the glass used in the stadium's design, Lehman said, "The glass is a more modern building element, which ties into a lot of the buildings in [Downtown] Pittsburgh and gives great views of the surrounding areas." The Steelers and Panthers have their own locker rooms, which differ in size based on the number of players each team is permitted to dress for each game. The visitor facilities are modeled after the home locker rooms' design. As with its predecessor, Heinz Field's culinary service provider is Aramark; over 400 eateries are located throughout the stadium. A bronze statue of Steelers founder Art Rooney, similar to those located outside PNC Park, was moved from its previous position outside Three Rivers Stadium. In addition, a statue of a Pitt Panther over a paved depiction of Pitt's Cathedral of Learning was placed outside Gate A. Upon opening in 2001, Heinz Field's Sony JumboTron was the largest scoreboard in the NFL. In 2007, ESPN named the "tipping" of the oversized Heinz ketchup bottles atop the scoreboard one of the top ten touchdown celebrations in the NFL. Ground was broken for Heinz Field on June 18, 1999, at a ceremony co-hosted by the Steelers and the University of Pittsburgh. The stadium was constructed by Hunt Construction Group and Mascaro Corporation. The two companies directed 1,400 workers over two years, in which there were no construction accidents or lawsuits. The stadium is inspected yearly, along with PNC Park, by Chronicle Consulting, LLC, for structural defects and maintenance. Opening The first event held at Heinz Field was a concert hosted by 'N Sync on August 18, 2001. Coincidentally, they were also the last band to perform at the Steelers' previous home, Three Rivers Stadium. Prior to the Steelers regular season schedule, the team played a pre-season game against the Detroit Lions on August 25, 2001. Pittsburgh won the stadium's unofficial opening game 20–7, with 57,829 spectators in attendance. The first official football game played in the stadium was between the Pittsburgh Panthers and East Tennessee State, on September 1. The Panthers won the game 31–0, with quarterback David Priestley scoring the first touchdown on an 85-yard run. The Steelers were scheduled to open the regular season play at Heinz Field on September 16 against the Cleveland Browns; however, due to the September 11 attacks, all NFL games of the week were postponed, thus moving the stadium's premiere to October 7, against the Cincinnati Bengals. Prior to the game, a speech from US President George W. Bush, ordering attacks on Taliban-controlled Afghanistan, was shown live on the stadium's JumboTron. The speech was met with much applause and support from the spectators in attendance. Pittsburgh defeated the Bengals, 16–7. Steelers kicker Kris Brown scored the first NFL points in the stadium on a 26-yard field goal, and quarterback Kordell Stewart scored the first touchdown on an eight-yard run. That same year, two light-emitting diode (LED) video displays from Daktronics were installed at the field. The larger, HD video display measures approximately high by nearly wide. In 2007, writer Bill Evans named Heinz Field the second best stadium in the NFL, behind Lambeau Field, in an article for ESPN.com. Although both stadiums received a score of 54 out of 70, Sports Illustrated named Heinz Field the second best stadium in the NFL, also behind Lambeau Field. Future While the Steelers continue to make capital improvements to Heinz Field as well as expand seating, the future of the Pitt Panthers at the stadium has been more murky. Since the Panthers moved to Heinz Field, attendance for games has been varied, ranging from an average high of 59,197 people per game for the 2003 season to a low of 33,315 in 2007. Most recently, Pitt averaged 41,696 in home attendance during the 2018 season. Many argue that Pitt's low attendance numbers are attributed to Heinz Field being a distance from the Pitt campus in Oakland, with games being largely attended by alumni as well as fans of the opposing teams. Many of Pitt's students who live on or near campus either do not own a car or chose not to bring their car from home, leaving them to rely on the Port Authority of Allegheny County or vehicle for hire companies. While there has been talk of extending the Pittsburgh Light Rail to Oakland, significant costs were cited during construction of the North Shore Connector, which terminates at Heinz Field. Another solution has mentioned moving the games back on campus with a purpose-built stadium, which has gained support from Pitt's administration. In January 2021, just as the Heinz naming rights deal was set to expire, it was announced that Kraft-Heinz decided to renew the naming rights for just one more year, ensuring the name would remain through at least the end of 2021. Notable events In addition to football games, Heinz Field has hosted other various activities. Football On August 4, 2012, Heinz Field hosted the Women's Football Alliance's National Championship Game, becoming the first NFL stadium to host a title game for any women's football league. The quickest score in NFL history occurred on September 8, 2013, in the Steelers season opener against the Tennessee Titans, when the Steelers scored a safety on the opening kickoff three seconds into the game. Darius Reynaud of the Titans fielded the kickoff and took a short step backwards (into the south end zone) for what was ruled to be a safety, not a touchback, because the ball was not in the end zone when it was fielded. The Steelers, however, lost the game 16–9, which was also their first home opener loss since Heinz Field opened. The record for longest NFL field goal at Heinz field (regular season or preseason) is 56 yards and was kicked by Steelers kicker Chris Boswell on September 19, 2021. In collegiate play, University of Pittsburgh kicker Alex Kessman kicked a 55-yard field goal against the Syracuse Orange on October 6, 2018. On October 7, 2018, the Steelers won their 100th regular season game at Heinz Field with a record of 100-38-1 at that point. Concerts Since its opening in 2001, bands and artists including 'N Sync, Beyoncé, Taylor Swift, Kenny Chesney, and LeAnn Rimes have performed at the stadium. In addition, hometown bands The Clarks and the Povertyneck Hillbillies have played multiple shows at the stadium. Soccer On July 27, 2014, Heinz Field hosted a soccer match between A.C. Milan and Manchester City which was part of the 2014 International Champions Cup and Manchester City won the match 5–1. Heinz Field hosted a women's international exhibition match between the United States and Costa Rica on August 16, 2015. It ended in an 8–0 victory for the United States, in their first match since winning the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, and set a new attendance record for a standalone women's friendly in the U.S. with 44,028 spectators. NHL Winter Classic On May 28, 2010, National Hockey League commissioner Gary Bettman announced that Heinz Field would be the host of the 2011 NHL Winter Classic. The game was played January 1, 2011, between the Pittsburgh Penguins and Washington Capitals. Pittsburgh native Jackie Evancho sang the Star Spangled Banner before local sports legends Franco Harris, Jerome Bettis and Mario Lemieux dropped the ceremonial puck. The Capitals won, 3–1. The game was the highest rated NHL contest since 1996 and the highest rated regular season game since 1975. It was also the first night Classic and the first to use "CableCam" technology. In film & TV The 2011 American Idol Auditions chose Pittsburgh of one of six cities and scheduled signups at Heinz Field on July 12–13 and auditions on July 15, 2011. Heinz Field served as the home field of the Gotham Rogues in the 2012 film The Dark Knight Rises. An estimated 15,000 unpaid extras filled the stadium during shooting on August 6, 2011. During Episode 4 of The Bachelorette (season 12), eleven contestants competed in a five on five football game. In addition, they met with football players from the Steelers, including Ben Roethlisberger, Hines Ward, and Brett Keisel. Other events In 2002, the Pittsburgh Marathon concluded at Heinz Field; the course was altered from past years to allow competitors to cross the finish line on the field. In 2005, the Pittsburgh Wine Festival was held at Heinz Field, over 2,000 people attended. Features Playing surface In June 2001, Kentucky Bluegrass was laid on the field, at half the height of most NFL field's grass. The field is heated from below, using a mixture of antifreeze and hot water, to keep the field at around 62 °F (17 °C) in order to keep the grass growing year-round. The field was re-surfaced multiple times, until the synthetic-enhanced Desso GrassMaster was installed in 2003. Debate continued over the surface after players began slipping during game play. Despite this players and coaches of Pitt, the Steelers, and their opponents supported keeping the current turf. On Friday, November 23, 2007, Heinz Field hosted four WPIAL championship football games which were followed the day after with a game between Pitt and South Florida. After discussion with the NFL, Steelers ownership made the decision to re-surface the field for their nationally televised game against the Miami Dolphins. A layer of sod was laid overtop the Desso GrassMaster surface. The field's condition was exacerbated by 1½ inches of rain after the new sod had been laid, which did not allow the tarp to be removed from the field until 70 minutes before the game began. The field conditions during the game ended up being so bad that at one point during the game, a punt by Dolphins punter Brandon Fields ended up sticking into the turf without bouncing. The Steelers won the game 3–0, with a field goal by Jeff Reed with 17 seconds remaining in regulation; it was the NFL's first 3–0 game since 1993 and the longest two teams went without scoring since the New York Giants and Detroit Lions played to a scoreless tie on November 11, 1943. Scott Brown, of the Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, called the field a "veritable mud pit". While Gene Upshaw, head of the National Football League Players' Association, also criticized the field citing a 2006 survey of NFL players that ranked Heinz Field as the second worst field in the league. Steelers receiver Hines Ward called the playing conditions "horrendous" after the game. However, the following day Ward and other Pittsburgh players lobbied to keep the natural surface stating, "I think everybody wants to keep the grass." Since that season, the Steelers have played their game on the weekend following Thanksgiving on the road at the team's request. Debate continued over the field later in the season when Jacksonville running back Fred Taylor called the field "a lawsuit pending". Pittsburgh's ownership stated that the decision was up to the players, who once again defended the natural surface. In February 2008, the Steelers announced that they would keep the Desso GrassMaster surface. During the 2008 season quarterback Ben Roethlisberger was given a concussion after being hit at Heinz Field. He later stated, "I'm glad we weren't on FieldTurf. That grass—you know, the soft Heinz Field—might've helped a little bit." After the 2008 season, a poll of 1,565 NFL players rated the surface at Heinz Field as the worst of the 18 natural surfaces in the League. The DDGrassmaster surface was removed in January 2009 and replaced with the old sod placed on top of the DDGrassmaster surface for the AFC Championship also in January 2009. Field design When the outdoor sports venue opened in 2001, both end zones were painted athletic gold during Steelers home games (this also happened for the final 5 seasons at Three Rivers Stadium), with “PITTSBURGH” on the North side and “Steelers” on the South side; both words were painted black with white outlines. Either "Steelers" or "Panthers" was painted in the end zone, depending on the game itself, during the first three years. For the 2002 Steelers regular season, the athletic gold end zone paint was scaled backed to being just around the words. The design for the 2002 Wild Card matchup had athletic gold paint replace the white outlines for both black painted words and removed everywhere else. In 2003, the Steelers played the Philadelphia Eagles in a preseason game with plain diagonal white lines in the South end zone, which were common in NFL end zones until the 1960s. Although the Steelers lost the game 21–16, team president Dan Rooney liked the look of the South end zone being "plain", and decided to bring it back the next year. The 2003 season was the last year to date which contained “PITTSBURGH” and “Steelers” in black words with athletic gold outlines in both end zones. Starting in 2004, the wordmark designs were flipped in paint color, “PITTSBURGH” in the North and “Steelers” in the South were now athletic gold with the former having either dark blue outlines for Pitt or black for the Steelers. The diagonal white lines in the South end zone during the college portion of the season began in this year too, with “Steelers” being added after Pitt has played their final home game of the year. In the aforementioned Dolphins-Steelers Monday Night Football match of 2007, the surface conditions had become so deteriorated from the rain and gameplay itself that the field grid of hash marks, yard lines, mid-field logo, and wordmarks in both end zones were barely visible throughout the game. Sideline hash marks (painted orange) and yard lines were re-painted at halftime. From 2001 through 2010, there was typically no midfield logo when both Pitt and the Steelers were in season; the Steelers had their logo painted on the sidelines when Pitt's football season was ongoing and transferred it to midfield after Pitt's football season ended (except for the first two seasons when it was only added for the postseason). As of the 2011 season, Pitt and the Steelers in cooperation have their respective logos at midfield for their own homes games, being interchanged frequently. Being a member of the American Football Conference (AFC), the grounds crew of Heinz Field has painted the conference logo in both end zones for every Pittsburgh Steelers postseason home game to date. Seating and tickets As of 2018, the Pittsburgh Steelers have sold out every home game since the 1972 season. Entering the 2008 season, the Steelers average ticket price of $69.47 was the 15th highest out of the NFL's 32 teams. The majority of the 65,050 seats are colored "Steeler gold," though club seats are dark gray. Heinz Field features 1,500 seats in 129 luxury boxes, with prices ranging from $64,000 to $135,000 depending on location and size. These boxes were predicted to increase the Steelers' profits from $10 to $11 million per season over those at Three Rivers Stadium. The stadium also features 6,600 club seats that include a restaurant and an indoor bar, at prices up to $2,000 per person. For the 2010 season, season ticket prices for Panthers games range from a maximum of $295 per club seat with required donations per seat between $250 and $500 depending on location, to as low as $87 per seat with no required donation for upper end zone sections. Individual game ticket prices ranged from $30 to $65 depending on the seat location and the opponent. Great Hall The Great Hall spans approximately on the east side of the stadium and houses a collection of Steelers and Pittsburgh Panthers memorabilia. The Hall includes a timeline of the Steelers franchise's major events, an oversized Steelers helmet hangs from the ceiling beside a video screen that shows entertainment for fans throughout game days. The Great Hall also features the actual lockers of several former Steelers, including Hall of Fame members Franco Harris, Joe Greene, and Bill Dudley. Six large Super Bowl trophies-shaped display columns were erected and contain artifacts from each championship the Steelers have won including replica trophies. Two display columns are dedicated to the University of Pittsburgh and contain memorabilia from the Panthers' teams. The floor is painted to resemble the post-baseball season football field at Three Rivers Stadium, with the word "Steelers" painted in black over a gold background. University of Pittsburgh players are featured on two large murals within the Hall. Eight additional tile murals created by local high schools represent western Pennsylvania football history. In 2007, the Great Hall was named the best concourse at an NFL stadium by writer Bill Evans, in an article for ESPN.com. Seating expansion The Steelers notified the Pittsburgh Stadium Authority in December 2010 of their intention to add up to 4,000 seats to the lower southern end of the stadium. The plan would increase seating up to 69,050 as soon as the 2012 NFL season. Seating was added in that section for the 2011 NHL Winter Classic, which had an attendance of 68,111. The temporary seating was left in place for the 2010–11 NFL playoffs, with the AFC Championship game on January 23 having a record attendance of 66,662. On April 12, 2012, the Steelers confirmed they would seek approval from the NFL to expand seating by 3,000. On May 19, 2014, after more than two years, the Steelers and the SEA came to an agreement to add about 3,000 seats to the venue. After contractors surveyed the complex the final number of 2,390 added seats with five additional suites including more parking, restrooms and concessions was determined in December 2014 to increase capacity to a total of 68,400. The seating was put in place by the summer of 2015. Transportation access Heinz Field is located at Exit 1B of Interstate 279 within a mile of direct access to both Interstate 376 and Interstate 579. The stadium also has dedicated elevated walkway access to the Allegheny Station of the Light Rail/Subway system. On Steelers and Pitt Panthers game days, access is also provided from Station Square parking facilities via the Gateway Clipper Fleet. See also List of NCAA Division I FBS football stadiums References Further reading External links Music venues completed in 2001 Sports venues completed in 2001 Pittsburgh Steelers stadiums National Football League venues Pittsburgh Panthers football venues College football venues Ice hockey venues in Pennsylvania Outdoor ice hockey venues in the United States Sports venues in Pittsburgh Music venues in Pittsburgh American football venues in Pennsylvania Heinz 2001 establishments in Pennsylvania Soccer venues in Pennsylvania

Sex reassignment surgery (male-to-female)

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Male-to-female sex reassignment surgery involves reshaping the male genitals into a form with the appearance of, and as far as possible, the function of female genitalia. Before any surgery, patients usually undergo feminizing hormone therapy, though this is not a requirement. There are associated surgeries patients may elect to undergo, including vaginoplasty, facial hair removal, facial feminization surgery, breast augmentation and various other procedures. History Lili Elbe was the first well-known recipient of male-to-female sex reassignment surgery, in Germany in 1930, the first being Dora Richter. She was the subject of four surgeries: one for orchiectomy, one to transplant an ovary, one for penectomy, and one for vaginoplasty and a uterus transplant. However, she died three months after her last operation. Christine Jorgensen was likely the most famous recipient of sex reassignment surgery, having her surgery done in Denmark in late 1952 and being outed right afterwards. She was a strong advocate for the rights of transgender people. French actress and singer Coccinelle travelled to Casablanca in 1958 to undergo a vaginoplasty by Georges Burou. She said later, "Dr Burou rectified the mistake nature had made and I became a real woman, on the inside as well as the outside. After the operation, the doctor just said, 'Bonjour, Mademoiselle', and I knew it had been a success." Another famous person to undergo male-to-female sex reassignment surgery was Renée Richards. She transitioned and had surgery in the mid-1970s, and successfully advocated to have transgender people recognized in U.S sports. The first physician to perform sex reassignment surgery in the United States was Los Angeles-based urologist Dr. Elmer Belt, who quietly performed operations from the early 1950s until 1968. In 1966 Johns Hopkins University opened the first sex reassignment surgery clinic in America. The Hopkins Gender Identity Clinic was made up of two plastic surgeons, two psychiatrists, two psychologists, a gynecologist, a urologist, and a pediatrician. In 1997, Sergeant Sylvia Durand became the first serving member of the Canadian Forces to transition from male to female, and became the first member of any military worldwide to transition openly while serving under the Flag. On Canada Day of 1998, the military changed her legal name to Sylvia and changed her sex designation on all of her personal file documents. In 1999, the military paid for her sex reassignment surgery. Durand continued to serve and was promoted to the rank of Warrant Officer. When she retired in 2012, after more than 31 years of service, she was the assistant to the Canadian Forces Chief Communications Operator. In 2017, for the first time, the United States Defense Health Agency approved payment for sex reassignment surgery for an active-duty U.S. military service member. The patient, an infantry soldier who identifies as a woman, had already begun a course of treatment for gender reassignment. The procedure, which the treating doctor deemed medically necessary, was performed on November 14 at a private hospital, since U.S. military hospitals lack the requisite surgical expertise. Genital surgery When changing anatomical sex from male to female, the testicles are removed (castration), and the skin or foreskin and penis is usually inverted, as a flap preserving blood and nerve supplies (a technique pioneered by Sir Harold Gillies in 1951), to form a fully sensitive vagina (vaginoplasty). A clitoris fully supplied with nerve endings (innervated) can be formed from part of the glans of the penis. If the patient has been circumcised (removal of the foreskin), or if the surgeon's technique uses more skin in the formation of the labia minora, the pubic hair follicles are removed from some of the scrotal tissue, which is then incorporated by the surgeon within the vagina. Other scrotal tissue forms the labia majora. In extreme cases of shortage of skin, or when a vaginoplasty has failed, a vaginal lining can be created from skin grafts from the thighs or hips, or a section of colon may be grafted in (colovaginoplasty). Surgeon's requirements, procedures, and recommendations vary enormously in the days before and after, and the months following these procedures. Since plastic surgery involves skin, it is never an exact procedure. Cosmetic refining to the outer vulva is sometimes required. Some surgeons prefer to do most of the crafting of the outer vulva as a second surgery, when other tissues, blood and nerve supplies have recovered from the first surgery. This relatively minor surgery, which is usually performed only under local anaesthetic, is called labiaplasty. The aesthetic, sensational, and functional results of vaginoplasty vary greatly. Surgeons vary considerably in their techniques and skills, patients' skin varies in elasticity and healing ability (which is affected by age, nutrition, physical activity and smoking), any previous surgery in the area can impact results, and surgery can be complicated by problems such as infections, blood loss, or nerve damage. Supporters of colovaginoplasty state that this method is better than use of skin grafts for the reason that colon is already mucosal, whereas skin is not. Lubrication is needed when having sex and occasional douching is advised so that bacteria do not start to grow and give off odors. Because of the risk of vaginal stenosis (the narrowing or loss of flexibility of the vagina), any current technique of vaginoplasty requires some long-term maintenance of volume by the patient using a vaginal expander, or vaginal dilation using graduated dilators to keep the vagina open. Penile-vaginal penetration with a sexual partner is not an adequate method of performing dilation. Daily dilation of the vagina for six months in order to prevent stenosis is recommended among health professionals. Over time, dilation is required less often, but it may be required indefinitely in some cases. Regular application of estrogen into the vagina, for which there are several standard products, may help, but this must be calculated into the total estrogen dose. Some surgeons have techniques to ensure continued depth, but extended periods without dilation will still often result in reduced diameter (vaginal stenosis) to some degree, which would require stretching again, either gradually, or, in extreme cases, under anaesthetic. With current procedures, trans women are unable to receive ovaries or a uterus. This means that they are unable to bear children or menstruate, and that they will need to remain on hormone therapy after surgery to maintain hormone levels. Other related procedures Facial feminization surgery Occasionally these basic procedures are complemented further with feminizing cosmetic surgeries or procedures that modify bone or cartilage structures, typically in the jaw, brow, forehead, nose and cheek areas. These are known as facial feminization surgery or FFS. Breast augmentation Breast augmentation is the enlargement of the breasts. Some trans women choose to undergo this procedure if hormone therapy does not yield satisfactory results. Usually, typical growth for trans women is one to two cup sizes below closely related females such as the mother or sisters. Oestrogen is responsible for fat distribution to the breasts, hips and buttocks, while progesterone is responsible for developing the actual milk glands. Progesterone also rounds out the breast to an adult Tanner stage-5 shape and matures and darkens the areola. Voice feminization surgery Some MTF individuals may elect to have voice surgery, which alters an individual's vocal range or pitch. However, this procedure carries a risk of impairing a trans woman's voice forever. Since estrogen alone does not alter a person's vocal range or pitch, some people take the risk that comes along with voice feminization surgery. Other options, like voice feminization lessons, are available to people wishing to speak with less masculine mannerisms. Tracheal shave A tracheal shave procedure is also sometimes used to reduce the cartilage in the area of the throat and minimize the appearance of the Adam's apple in order to assimilate to female physical features. Buttock augmentation Some MTF individuals will choose to undergo buttock augmentation because anatomically, male hips and buttocks are generally smaller than those presented on a female. If, however, efficient hormone therapy is conducted before the patient is past puberty, the pelvis will broaden slightly, and even if the patient is past their teen years, a layer of subcutaneous fat will be distributed over the body, rounding contours. Trans women usually end up with a waist to hip ratio of around 0.8, and if estrogen is administered at a young enough age "before the bone plates close", some trans women may achieve a waist to hip ratio of 0.7 or lower. The pubescent pelvis will broaden under estrogen therapy even if the skeleton is anatomically masculine. See also List of transgender-related topics Sex reassignment surgery Sex reassignment surgery (female-to-male) Uterus transplantation References Surgical procedures and techniques

Overtime (sports)

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Overtime or extra time is an additional period of play specified under the rules of a sport to bring a game to a decision and avoid declaring the match a tie or draw where the scores are the same. In some sports, this extra period is played only if the game is required to have a clear winner, as in single-elimination tournaments where only one team or players can advance to the next round or win the tournament. The rules of overtime or extra time vary between sports and even different competitions. Some may employ "sudden death", where the first player or team who scores immediately wins the game. In others, play continues until a specified time has elapsed, and only then is the winner declared. If the contest remains tied after the extra session, depending on the rules, the match may immediately end as a draw, additional periods may be played, or a different tiebreaking procedure such as a penalty shootout may be used instead. The terms overtime and in overtime (abbreviated "OT" or "IOT") are primarily used in North America, whereas the terms extra time and after extra time (abbreviated "a.e.t.") are usually used in other continents. Association football Knock-out contests (including professional competition) In association football knockout competitions or competition stages, teams play an extra 30 minutes, called extra time, when the deciding leg (or replay of a tie) has not produced a winner by the end of normal or full-time. It follows a short break (traditionally 5 minutes) where players remain on or around the field of play and comprises two 15-minute periods, with teams changing ends in between. Although the Laws of the Game state that extra time is one of the approved methods to decide a winner, competitions are not bound to adopt extra time, and each competition is free to choose any method designated in the Laws of the Game to decide a winner. In a one-off tie or deciding replay, level scores nearly always go to extra time. In games played over two legs (such as the UEFA Champions League or FIFA World Cup qualification) or even at lower levels (such as the English Football League play-offs), teams only play extra time in the second leg where the aggregate score – then normally followed by an away goals rule – has not produced a winner first. Ties in the FA Cup used to be decided by as many replays as necessary until one produces a winner within normal time rather than have any extra time or shootouts though, nowadays, replays are limited to just the one with the second going to extra time if teams are still level. Equally, CONMEBOL has historically never used extra time in any of the competitions it directly organises, such as the Copa Libertadores. Today, it uses extra time only in the final match of a competition. The score in games or ties resorting to extra time are often recorded with the abbreviation a.e.t. (after extra time) usually accompanying the earlier score after regulation time. Ties that are still without a winner after extra time are usually broken by kicks from the penalty spot, commonly called a penalty shootout. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, many international matches tried to reduce this by employing the golden goal (also called "sudden death") or silver goal rules (the game ending if a team has the lead after the first 15-minute period of extra time), but competitions have not retained these. The term "asdet" refers to the result of a penalty shootout "after sudden death extra time". U.S. collegiate rules In NCAA college soccer rules, all matches that remain tied after ninety minutes have an overtime period. A sudden death golden goal rule is applied, with the game ending as soon as an overtime goal is scored. If neither team scores in the two ten-minute halves, the match ends in a draw unless it is a conference or national championship tournament match. A playoff game tied after two overtime periods then moves to a penalty kick shoot-out with the winner determined by the teams alternating kicks from the penalty mark. U.S. high school rules High school rules vary depending on the state and conference, but most will have a sudden-death overtime procedure wherein the game ends upon scoring a golden goal, although in some instances the overtime will go until completion with the team in the lead after time expires (i.e., silver goal rules) declared the winner. The overtime period length may vary, but it is commonly 10 minutes long. Depending on the state, if the game is still tied at the end of the first overtime: As many additional overtime periods – golden or silver goal rules – may be played as needed to determine a winner. After one or more overtime periods result in the score remaining tied, a shootout procedure may be played. In a shootout, the coaches or team captains select five players to shoot penalty kicks with teams alternating kicks from the penalty mark in an attempt to put the ball into the net. The procedure continues until each team has taken five kicks, or, if one side has scored more successful kicks, the other could not possibly reach with its remaining kicks. If both teams make the same number of successful penalty kicks after all eligible players have taken their first kick, the procedure repeats; the teams are not required to follow the same order of kickers as was used for the first kick, and may replace one or more of the original kickers. The procedure repeats until one side has successfully converted more penalty kicks in a set of five attempts. Depending on the state or conference, the game may go directly to a penalty shoot-out, rather than playing overtime. American and Canadian football National Football League The National Football League (NFL) introduced sudden-death overtime for any divisional tiebreak games beginning in 1940, and for championship games beginning in 1946. The first postseason game to be played under these rules was the 1958 NFL Championship Game between the Baltimore Colts and New York Giants (the "Greatest Game Ever Played"). In 1974, the NFL adopted sudden-death overtime for regular season and preseason games: if the score is tied after regulation time, one additional period is played. Until the 2016 season, the period was 15 minutes in all games: in , it was changed to 10 minutes in regular season games, while overtime in preseason games was abolished in , and it remains 15 minutes for playoff games. The captains meet with the officials for a coin toss, and then one side kicks off to the other, as at the start of a game. Under the original regular-season format used through 2011, whoever scored first won the game. Additionally, during regular season games, fourth-quarter timing rules were in effect throughout the period, including a two-minute warning if necessary. In the regular season, if the overtime period expired without either side scoring, the game ended in a tie. Because there cannot be a tie in the playoffs, the teams would switch ends of the field and start multiple 15-minute overtime periods until one side scored, and all clock rules were as if a game had started over. Should a tie remain after overtime, this procedure repeats in true sudden death thereafter. Therefore, if a game was still tied with two minutes to go in any even overtime, there would be a two-minute warning (but not during the first overtime period as in the regular season). If it was still tied at the end of double overtime, the team that lost the overtime coin toss would have the option to kick or receive, or to choose which direction to play; at the end of quadruple overtime, there is a new coin toss, and play continues. In March 2010, NFL owners voted to amend overtime rules for postseason games; the changes were extended to the regular season in 2012. The changes preserved sudden death with one notable exception: if the team that receives the opening kickoff scores a field goal, the team that initially kicked off gets one possession to tie or win the game; any other score on the opening possession ends the game immediately. In postseason games, if both teams are still tied after the first overtime, the procedure is repeated (but in true sudden death hereafter) until a winner is declared. In regular-season games, if the score is tied after 10 minutes has expired, the game ends in a tie. As no 2010 postseason game went into overtime, the first overtime game played after the implementation of this rule came in the wild-card round in 2011. Incidentally, this was also the shortest overtime in NFL history; Pittsburgh Steelers kicker Shaun Suisham kicked off and the ball went out of the back of the end zone, resulting in a touchback and no time off the clock. Tim Tebow, then with the Denver Broncos, threw an 80-yard touchdown pass on the first play to Demaryius Thomas to give the Broncos the win in only 11 seconds. The first time the "first-possession field goal" rule was enforced occurred on 9 September 2012, the first week of the season, in a game between the Minnesota Vikings and Jacksonville Jaguars. Minnesota's Blair Walsh kicked a 38-yard field goal on the Vikings' first drive. When Jacksonville regained possession, they failed to gain a first down, losing possession and the game on a failed fourth-down conversion. The first overtime in which both teams scored occurred on 18 November 2012, in a game between the Houston Texans and Jacksonville Jaguars; the Texans won 43–37. The first overtime game that ended in a tie after both teams scored in overtime occurred on 24 November 2013, when the Minnesota Vikings and Green Bay Packers played to a 26–all tie. On 5 February 2017, a Super Bowl went into overtime for the first time, with the New England Patriots defeating the Atlanta Falcons, 34–28; the Patriots scored a touchdown on their initial possession, so the Falcons never received the ball in overtime. Other professional football leagues The Arena Football League and NFL Europe used a variant in which each team is guaranteed one possession. Whoever is leading after one possession won the game; if the teams remain tied after one possession, the game went to sudden death. This procedure was used by the United Football League in its inaugural 2009 season. This included both games of all semifinals series. All overtime periods thereafter were true sudden death periods. The short-lived World Football League, for its inaugural 1974 season (the same year the NFL established sudden death in the regular season), used a fifteen-minute quarter of extra time, divided into two halves. It was not sudden death. The New York Pro Football League, a 1910s-era league that eventually had several of its teams join the NFL, used the replay to settle ties in its playoff tournament. The replay was used in the 1919 tournament to decide the championship between the Buffalo Prospects and the Rochester Jeffersons. The teams had played to a tie on Thanksgiving; Buffalo won the replay 20–0 to win the championship. College, high school, and Canadian football In college (since the 1996 season) and high school football, as well as the Canadian Football League (since the 2000 season) and the short-lived Alliance of American Football, an overtime procedure is used to determine the winner. This method is sometimes referred to as a "Kansas Playoff", or "Kansas Plan" because of its origins for high school football in that state. A brief summary of the rules: A coin toss determines which side attempts to score first, and at which end zone the scores are attempted. Each team in turn receives one possession (similar to innings in baseball), starting with first-and-10 from a fixed point on the opponent's side of the field: Under NCAA rules, the first possession of overtime begins at the opponent's 25-yard line. When overtime was introduced, all possessions for each team started at that point, but the procedure for subsequent overtimes has changed twice since 2019. In 2019 and 2020, the first four possessions for each team (if necessary) started at the opponent's 25. All subsequent possessions were two-point conversion attempts taken from the 3-yard line, the standard starting point for that play under NCAA rules, and were scored as conversions. Starting in 2021, only the first two possessions for each team start at the opponent's 25. All subsequent possessions are two-point conversion attempts. Under standard high school football rules, the possession begins at the 10-yard line. However, the high school rulebook only recommends the overtime procedure and allows state associations to use their own; the 15-, 20-, and 25-yard lines are variously used. The AAF also used the 10-yard line as its starting point. In the CFL, where a single point can be scored on a punt, the possession begins at the 35-yard line. The play clock runs as normal. There is no game clock, and all play is otherwise untimed. A team's possession ends when it (or the defense) scores, misses a field goal, or turns over the ball (either on downs or by the defense otherwise gaining possession). In high school, college and the CFL, a field goal can be kicked at any time. Thus, if the first team fails to score, the opponent, already usually in field goal range, can end the game by kicking one (in the CFL, as previously noted, one can do the same with a single). In the AAF, no field goals were allowed at any time during the playoff. As usual, a touchdown by the offense is followed by a try for one or two points. In NCAA football, since 2021, teams must attempt a two-point conversion after a touchdown in double overtime; all overtime procedures thereafter consist of two-point conversion attempts and are scored as such. Since 2010, CFL teams must also attempt the two-point conversion after any touchdown in overtime. The AAF required two-point conversions after any touchdown. In college football, the defense may score a touchdown on a play on which it gains possession by turnover; such a play will satisfy the condition of each team having a possession and will therefore end the game. In high school football, the defense is generally not allowed to score if it gains possession, although the Oregon School Activities Association adopted the college rule experimentally in 2005, and the two main high school governing bodies in Texas, the University Interscholastic League and Texas Association of Private and Parochial Schools, use NCAA football rules (as did Massachusetts through the 2018 season, after which it adopted standard high school rules). If scoring is not allowed or the turnover play does not end with a score, regardless of the eventual position of the ball at the end of the play, the team assumes offense and will begin their procedure from the specified position on the field. Each team receives one charged time-out per offensive or defensive series (except in the CFL). If the score remains tied at the end of the first overtime period, the procedure is repeated. The team with the second possession in one overtime will have the first possession in the next overtime. In the CFL, there is a limit of two overtime procedures in regular-season games, and if the scores are still level, the game is a tie, but in playoff games, overtime periods are continued until a winner is determined. The AAF did the same, except that regular-season games ended after only one overtime procedure, regardless of the score. (The AAF folded before it ever played any playoff games.) In American college and high school football, the overtime periods are continued until a winner is determined. All points scored in overtime count as if they were scored in regulation. (This is in contrast to the analogous penalty shootout used in other sports, where shootout points are counted separately and only one point is awarded to the winner; however, this procedure is like extra innings in baseball.) On two occasions, just two plays were required to determine an overtime winner in an NCAA football game: on 26 September 2002, when Louisville defeated Florida State 26–20 and on 27 September 2003, when Georgia Tech defeated Vanderbilt 24–17. It is possible for a college game to end after a single play in overtime if the team on defense secures a turnover and returns it for a touchdown: on 9 September 2005, Ohio defeated Pittsburgh 16–10 on an 85-yard interception return by Dion Byrum on the third play of overtime. It is also possible for the defense to get a safety on the first play of overtime (which would also end the game), but this would require the offense to lose 75 yards on the play, which is extremely unlikely (such a scenario is attested in regular play from scrimmage in college football but never in an overtime period). As of 2016, the Tennessee Volunteers have competed in the most overtime college football games, totalling 19. The college game with the most overtime periods was on 23 October 2021, when Illinois defeated Penn State 20–18 after nine overtimes. Prior to that, five games had been decided in seven overtimes: Arkansas vs. Ole Miss in 2001, Arkansas vs. Kentucky in 2003, North Texas vs. FIU in 2006, Western Michigan vs. Buffalo in 2017, and LSU vs. Texas A&M in 2018, the latter of which was the impetus for the 2019 rule change which mandated two-point conversion attempts after a set number of overtime periods. The Kansas System was first implemented in 1970. The original Kansas System had each team start on the 10-yard line. Throughout the state that first year, seventy games went into overtime with one game requiring five overtime periods to determine a winner. After the system was reviewed positively by the majority of state's coaches and administrators, Kansas State High School Activities Association leadership presented the system to the National Federation of State High School Associations, who approved giving state associations the option of using the overtime system for two years. Two years later the overtime system became a permanent option for state associations use. Another type of overtime system was once used by the California Interscholastic Federation. Known as the "California tiebreaker", it was used in high school football from 1968 through the 1970s and '80s. The California tiebreaker starts with the ball placed at the 50-yard line, and the teams run four plays each (a coin toss decides who gets to go first), alternating possession at the spot of the ball after every play. If no one manages to score (field goals are not allowed), then the team that is in its opponents' territory at the conclusion of the eight plays is awarded one point and declared the winner. When the California tiebreaker was finally phased out, it was replaced by the Kansas tiebreaker. Basketball In basketball, if the score is tied at the end of regulation play, the teams play multiple five-minute overtime periods until a winner is decided. In levels below collegiate/Olympic play, an overtime period is half the length of a standard quarter, i.e., four minutes for high school varsity. The alternating possession rule is used to start all overtime periods under international rules for full-court basketball, while a jump ball is used under high school and NCAA rules, with the arrow reset based on the results of the jump ball to start each overtime. The (Women's) National Basketball Association, which use a quarter-possession rule to start periods after the opening jump, also use a jump ball. The entire overtime period is played; there is no sudden-death provision. All counts of personal fouls against players are carried over for the purpose of disqualifying players. If the score remains tied after an overtime period, this procedure is repeated until a winner is determined. As many as six overtime periods have been necessary to determine a winner in an NBA game. In exhibition games (non-competitive play), it is upon the discretion of the coaches and organizers if an overtime is to be played especially if it is a non-tournament game (a one-off event). Starting in the 2009–10 season, Euroleague Basketball, the organizer of the EuroLeague and EuroCup, introduced a new rule for two-legged ties that eliminated overtime unless necessary to break a tie on aggregate. The rule was first used in the 2009–10 EuroCup quarterfinals (which consist of two-legged ties), although no game in that phase of the competition ended in a regulation draw. Euroleague Basketball extended this rule to all two-legged ties in its competitions, including the EuroLeague, in 2010–11. One game in the qualifying rounds of that season (the only phase of the EuroLeague that uses two-legged ties), specifically the second leg of the third qualifying round tie between Spirou Charleroi and ALBA Berlin, ended in a draw after regulation. No overtime was played in that game because Spirou had won the first leg, and the two-legged tie. Although other competitions use two-legged ties at various stages, the FIBA Europe competitions are the only ones known to use overtime only if the aggregate score after the second game is tied. A rule change in the FIBA rules effective 1 October 2017 (Article D.4.2) permits drawn games at the end of either leg of the two-legged tie. The definition states, "If the score is tied at the end of the first game, no extra period shall be played." In The Basketball Tournament, a 64-team single-elimination tournament held each summer in the U.S. with a $2 million winner-take-all prize, no overtime is played since 2018. Games employ the "Elam Ending", named after its creator, Ball State University professor Nick Elam, with the idea of making sure the game always ends on a basket. Upon the first dead ball (time-out, foul, violation) with 4 minutes or less remaining in the fourth period, the game clock is turned off (though the shot clock remains active). A target score is set at the current lead score plus eight points (originally seven, but changed for the 2019 edition), and the first team to reach or surpass the target wins. The NBA All-Star Game also uses the Elam Ending since 2020. The fourth period has no game clock, but the shot clock is active. Instead, a target score is set at the leading score after three periods plus 24 points; the first team to reach that score by any legal basket (field goal, three-pointer, or free throw) wins the game. In 3x3 basketball, a formalized version of the half-court three-on-three game, ties after a 10-minute game are settled by continuing play with no game clock (only the shot clock) until one team scores two additional points: baskets made outside the arc being worth two points and all others being worth one point. The 21-point rule, under which a regulation game ends once either team has reached 21 points, does not apply during overtime; a tie at 20 must go to 22. The team that did not get first possession in the game gets first possession in overtime (as jump balls are not used in 3x3). Individual personal foul counts are not kept at any time during the game; all personal fouls are recorded against the team, and team fouls carry over to overtime. Ice hockey Ties are common in ice hockey due to the game's low-scoring nature. If the score is tied at the end of regulation play, certain leagues play overtime. NHL (regular season): If a game is tied after regulation time (three 20-minute periods), the teams play in a sudden death five-minute overtime period, with a goaltender and three skaters per side (as opposed to the standard five). If regulation time ends while a power play is in progress, the team with the advantage starts overtime with more than three skaters (almost always four, very rarely five), and maintains its advantage for the duration of the penalty. Similarly, if a penalty is called in overtime, the player is removed from the ice (or one of the skaters if the penalized player is the goaltender), but can be replaced, while the non-penalized team receives an extra skater for the duration of the penalty. If nobody scores in the overtime period, the teams engage in a "penalty shootout" where three skaters, selected by the head coaches on the teams, go one-on-one against the opposing goaltender, taking the puck at center ice for a "penalty shot." If the shootout remains tied after the initial three rounds, additional rounds are played until there is a winner; no player may participate in a shootout twice unless the entire active roster (excluding the backup goaltender) has been exhausted. The greatest number of shooters in a single shootout was 40 during a game between the Florida Panthers and Washington Capitals. Panthers player Nick Bjugstad gave Florida a 2–1 shootout and game victory on a trick move. The 5-minute overtime period was introduced for regular season games beginning with the 1983–84 NHL season, but with teams at full strength on the ice. Overtime in the regular season was reduced to four skaters a side starting in the 2000-2001 season. The "shootout" was introduced for the 2005–06 NHL regular season, thus abolishing tie games. Previously, ties during the regular season were allowed to stand if not resolved in overtime. Starting in the 2015–16 season, overtime was reduced to three skaters a side. NHL (postseason and all tiebreaker games): Following an intermission, multiple full 20-minute periods are played. Teams remain at full strength unless this is affected by penalties during the third period. A goal ends the game in sudden death; if neither team scores, this procedure is repeated after the intermission. The teams change ends after each period. This has made for lengthy games in the history of the NHL playoffs, with some games going as far as five or six overtimes before the deciding goal is scored. NCAA (regular season): Effective with the 2020–21 season, all regular-season men's and women's games that are tied at the end of regulation will use the NHL regular-season overtime procedure (5 minutes, sudden death, three skaters per side unless affected by penalties). Ties at the end of regulation stand in nonconference games; conferences may (but are not required to) use the NHL penalty shootout for league games. The so-called "spin-o-rama" move, in which the shooter completes a 360-degree turn with the puck, is banned in NCAA shootouts as of 2020–21. Previously, the teams played the 5-minute overtime at full strength (unless affected by penalties), and all games tied at the end of regulation ended in a tie. NCAA (in-season tournaments): For tournaments held during the season (such as the Beanpot and Great Lakes Invitational), in which advancement or determination of a champion is necessary, the new regular-season overtime procedure is used, followed by the NHL penalty shootout procedure. Before 2020–21, organizers had the option of either using the postseason overtime procedure or using the regular-season procedure followed by a penalty shootout. Statistics from a shootout are not counted by the NCAA, and a game decided by a shootout is considered a tie for NCAA tournament selection purposes. NCAA (postseason): Same as the NHL postseason overtime procedure above, except that overtimes are played with the teams defending the ends of the ice that they would as if they were starting over, and repeat that pattern every three periods. Games decided in overtime are considered wins or losses rather than ties, regardless of how many overtimes are played. International (round robin): As of the 2007 IIHF World Championship, the IIHF instituted the "three point rule", which not only awarded the winning team three points for a regulation win, but awarded them two points for a win in a 5-minute overtime period or a Game Winning Shot (shootout). Games in IIHF round robins can therefore no longer end in a tie. In the World Cup of Hockey in 2004, the NHL's tiebreaking procedure at the time was followed: there was a five-minute sudden death period at four skaters per side, and if the score remained tied after the overtime period, it stood as a tie. The game between Sweden and Finland ended in a 4–4 tie after 65 minutes. The 2016 World Cup of Hockey had the new NHL tiebreaking procedures: in round-robin play, 5-minute sudden death period with three skaters per side, plus best-of-3-round shootouts and extra rounds if needed. International (medal rounds): Various tiebreaking procedures have been used for international tournaments, with all of them save one (World Cup of Hockey 2004) following a common theme: one period varying in length of sudden-death overtime followed by a shootout of five skaters (since 2010, 3) per side (as opposed to the NHL's three skaters per side originally; it also differs in that if the shootout does not resolve the tie, the same five skaters [now 3] then shoot again). The length of the overtime period has varied between 5, 10, and 20 minutes, and 5-on-5 and 4-on-4 formats have been used. The most recent format used was at the 2010 Olympics (particularly in the gold medal game); there were 20 minutes of 4-on-4 followed by a shootout. In 2006, it was 20 minutes of 5-on-5. All men's games ended in regulation during the medal rounds, while the women's semifinal between the United States and Sweden required a shootout to determine the winner. At the World Cup of Hockey in 2004, the NHL's postseason tiebreaking procedure was used (multiple 20-minute periods of 5-on-5 until a goal is scored). The only overtime game in the playoff round was the semifinal between the Czech Republic and Canada. Canada won 4–3 with a goal at 2:16 of overtime. The 2016 World Cup of Hockey had the same overtime procedure as the 2004 event. Since 2019, the Gold Medal Game for the World Championships & Olympics use multiple 20-minute 3-on-3 periods until one team scores, which wins the game. Handball When a tie needs to be broken in handball, two straight 5-minute overtimes are played. If the teams are still tied after that, this overtime procedure is repeated once more; a further draw will result in a penalty shootout. Baseball and softball Baseball and softball are unique among the popular North American team sports in that they do not use a game clock. However, if the regulation number of innings are complete (normally nine in baseball and seven in softball) and the score is even, extra innings are played to determine a winner. Complete innings are played, so if a team scores in the top half of the inning, the other team has the chance to play the bottom half of the inning; they will extend the game by tying the score again and win if they take the lead before their third out. The longest professional baseball game ever played, a 1981 minor league baseball game between the Pawtucket Red Sox and the Rochester Red Wings required 33 innings and over eight hours to complete. The Red Wings had scored in the top half of the 21st inning, but Pawtucket tied the game in the bottom half, extending the game. Major League Baseball games normally end in a tie only if the game is called off due to weather conditions. In the early decades of baseball (up to the 1920s), a game could also be called off due to nightfall, but this ceased to be a problem once stadiums began installing lights in the 1930s. Two Major League Baseball All-Star Games have ended in a tie; the second 1961 game was called due to rain with the teams tied 1-1 after the ninth inning, and the 2002 game was called after the eleventh inning after both teams had exhausted their supply of pitchers. The exceptions to this are in Nippon Professional Baseball, Chinese Professional Baseball League, and the Korea Baseball Organization, where the game cannot go beyond 12 innings (in Japan Series, first 7 games only; no such limit thereafter). During the 2011 season the NPB had a game time limit of hours during the regular season; ties are allowed to stand in the regular season and postseason ties are resolved in a full replay, extending a series if necessary. Extra innings are not played in KBO doubleheaders' first game. In 2017, the Arizona League and Gulf Coast League served as testing grounds for the softball version of the World Baseball Softball Confederation extra-inning rule that places a runner on second base to start an extra inning of play. That rule also was followed by MLB as an experimental rule in and . Cricket Ties are allowed to stand in most forms of cricket, but should a winner be necessary (such as in tournament settings), the most commonly used tiebreaking method is the Super Over, which is a limited extra session of the game wherein each team plays an additional six balls (together known as an over) to determine the winner. Tied Super Overs may be followed by another Super Over in some matches, such as (since 2008) the knockout matches of International Cricket Council tournaments. The Super Over originates from Twenty20 cricket, and has been used several times in Twenty20 International games; its first use in a One-Day International was the 2019 Cricket World Cup Final, wherein the Super Over was tied, and the winner then had to be determined by boundary countback (a statistical tiebreaker). Following this event, the ICC changed the rules of its knockout matches so that tied matches continue until one team wins a Super Over. In the past, a bowlout was used in which bowlers attempted to hit an unguarded wicket. Rugby league Rugby league games in some competitions are decided using overtime systems if scores are level at full-time (80 minutes). One extra time system is golden point, where any score (try, penalty goal, or field goal) by a team immediately wins the game. This entails a five-minute period of golden point time, after which the teams switch ends and a second five-minute period begins. Depending on the game's status, a scoreless extra time period ends the game as a draw, otherwise play continues until a winner is found. Rugby union In the knockout stages of rugby competitions, most notably the Rugby World Cup, two full-length extra time periods of 10 minutes each are played (with an interval of 5 minutes in between) if the game is tied after full-time. If scores are level after 100 minutes, the rules call for a period of sudden-death extra time to be played. Originally, this sudden-death period was 20 minutes, but is now 10 minutes. If the sudden-death extra time period results in no scoring, standard World Rugby rules call for a kicking competition to be used to determine the winner. Domestic leagues may use other tiebreakers; for example, playoff games in the French professional leagues that are level at the end of extra time use a set of tiebreakers before going to a kicking competition, with the first tiebreaker being tries scored. However, no match in the history of the Rugby World Cup has gone past 100 minutes into a sudden-death extra time period. Rugby sevens In the sevens variant of rugby union, extra time is used only in knockout stages of competitions, such as the World Rugby Sevens Series and Rugby World Cup Sevens. Extra time begins one minute after the end of full-time, and is played in multiple 5-minute periods. Unlike the 15-man game, extra time in sevens is true sudden-death, with the first score by either team winning the match. If neither team has scored at the end of a period, the teams change ends. This procedure is repeated until one team scores. Other sports In Australian rules football, drawn matches during a season remain as draws, with the premiership points being split. Extra time is generally played only in finals matches: in the Australian Football League finals; if the scores are level when regular time has expired, two periods of three minutes (five minutes prior to 2020) each (plus time on) are played. If the scores remain level after the extra time has expired, this procedure is repeated until the winner is determined. In some competitions, there are no extra time periods and play simply continues under sudden death rules until the next score. The 2013 VFL reserves Grand Final was a notable match decided in this manner. A third period under golden point rules was implemented in 2016, but was never used before the AFL abolished it in 2019. Before the 2016 season, the only exception to this rule was the AFL Grand Final, which used a full replay in case of a drawn match, and only used extra time if the score was tied at the end of regular time in the replay. The AFL extended its extra-time procedure to the Grand Final in 2016, thereby abolishing Grand Final replays. In most codes of bowling, ties are allowed to stand, but most organizations have tiebreaker procedures should a winner be necessary (such as in tournament settings). In gaelic football and hurling, two straight ten-minute periods are played each way after a draw. In major Gaelic football and hurling tournaments, a further two straight five-minute periods may be played each way if the scores are still level; then golden goal thereafter, in two straight five-minute periods. In futsal matches, two overtime periods of 5 minutes each are played, with teams changing ends in between. If the teams are still tied after the overtime, the match is decided with a penalty shootout. In water polo, if the score is tied at the end of regulation play the game goes to penalty shootouts. In college play teams play two straight 3-minute periods, and if still tied multiple 3-minute golden goal periods thereafter. Same for high school, but may incorporate both methods. If a game of curling is tied at the end of its prescribed number of rounds (called ends), extra ends are played until there is a winner. In netball matches, two straight 7-minute periods of extra time are played, with teams changing ends in between (with no break between periods). If the scores are still tied after the overtime, the match continues uninterrupted. Whoever is up two goals will be the winners. This is known as double overtime should a match end this way. All ANZ Championship matches (2008–2014), ANZ Championship finals (2015–2016), ANZ Premiership, Suncorp Super Netball, Commonwealth Games finals and World Netball Championships finals implement this tiebreaker to ensure a winner. In touch football under the Federation of International Touch structure, finals matches that are drawn at full-time progress into an extra time period known as a "drop-off". During a drop-off, each team reduces their on-field playing strength by one player every two minutes, until teams are down to three players. Both teams must have had possession of the ball before a result can be declared. See More: Mode of play and duration Longest games American football Six National Football League playoff games have gone into double overtime, the longest being an AFC divisional playoff game on 25 December 1971. The Miami Dolphins defeated the Kansas City Chiefs 27–24 at 7:40 into double overtime (at 82:40 of total play, the longest game in NFL history). Garo Yepremian kicked a walk-off field goal to win it. The length of the game, coupled with the fact that it was played on Christmas Day, led to a great deal of controversy and the league placed an 18-year moratorium on Christmas games. The most recent 2OT NFL game came in an AFC divisional playoff game on 12 January 2013, with the Baltimore Ravens beating the Denver Broncos 38–35 on a field goal at 1:42 of double overtime. Justin Tucker kicked a walk-off field goal to win it. In the former American Football League, the championship game played on 23 December 1962, the Dallas Texans defeated the Houston Oilers 20–17 on a 25-yard field goal at 2:54 into double overtime. (This game, along with all other AFL games, was incorporated into the NFL record books following the 1970 merger of the two leagues.) The former United States Football League had a triple-overtime playoff game on 30 June 1984, with the Los Angeles Express defeating the Michigan Panthers 27–21 on a walk-off touchdown 3:33 of triple overtime. At 93:33 of total play, this is the longest professional football game ever played in the United States. Collegiate (NCAA Division I FBS, formerly Division I-A): Five games have gone to seven overtimes, and one game has gone to nine overtimes. On 3 November 2001, the Arkansas Razorbacks beat the Ole Miss Rebels 58–56; the game had been tied 17–all at end of regulation. On 1 November 2003, Arkansas beat the Kentucky Wildcats 71–63; the score was tied 24–all at end of regulation. On 7 October 2006, North Texas beat FIU 25–22 in a game that had been tied 16-all at end of regulation. On 17 October 2017, Western Michigan beat Buffalo 71–68 in a game that had been tied 31–all at end of regulation. On 24 November 2018, Texas A&M beat LSU 74–72 in a game that had been tied 31–all at end of regulation. This game directly led to the NCAA's 2019 change in overtime rules that calls for all overtime procedures after the fourth to be played (and scored) as two-point conversion attempts, also adopted for Texas high schools because that state's high school governing bodies base their rules on the NCAA set. On 23 October 2021, Illinois beat Penn State 20–18 in nine overtimes in the longest game in FBS history. The game was tied 10-all at the end of regulation. Collegiate (NCAA Division I FCS, formerly Division I-AA) – 27 September 1998: Bethune-Cookman University recorded a 63–57 victory over Virginia State University, ending in eight overtimes. High school – 29 October 2010: Jacksonville High School (TX) beat Nacogdoches High School (TX) 84-81 after dodectuple overtime. Nacogdoches could have won in earlier overtime periods, but needed a win by 8 points to keep its postseason hopes alive and so they intentionally forced additional overtime periods rather than win by fewer than 8 points. Association football In the past, some football competitions also allowed successive extra times before the use of penalty shootouts. The final game of the 1977 Campeonato Pernambucano de Futebol, which ended with the victory of Sport over Náutico, was decided in the fourth extra time of 15 minutes each, resulting in a game of 158 minutes duration. The 1922 Final for the German Championship between Hamburger SV and 1.FC Nürnberg had to be called off after 189 minutes at 2-2 as the coming dusk made play impossible. The rematch seven weeks later was also called off after 158 minutes at 1-1, as Nürnberg were unable to field the minimum of eight players due to injuries, with no substitutions being allowed under the rules of the time). The 1982 and 1985 NCAA Division I men's soccer finals both went to the 8th (10-minute) period of extra time before being decided, lasting into the 160th and 167th minutes respectively. In Game 1 of the 1971 North American Soccer League playoffs semifinal (best of three series) between the Dallas Tornado and the Rochester Lancers, league scoring champion Carlos Metidieri of Rochester mercifully ended the match in the 6th overtime at the 176th minute, less than four minutes shy of playing two complete games. Seven days later in Game 3, the two teams also played a 4-OT, 148 minute match with Dallas winning this time. Incredibly, only four days after that, Dallas lost Game 1 of the NASL Championship Series in the 3rd OT to Atlanta in the 123rd minute. All totaled, Dallas played 537 minutes of football (3 minutes short of six games) in 13 days' time. Baseball MLB – American League – 8 May 1984: Chicago White Sox beat the Milwaukee Brewers 7–6 in 25 innings. The game took 8 hours and 6 minutes to decide; play was suspended after 17 innings with the score tied 3-3 and resumed the next night. Harold Baines hit a walk-off home run to win it. MLB – National League – 1 May 1926: Game between the Brooklyn Robins and Boston Braves ended in a 1–1 tie after 26 innings. MLB – By time length – 3 June 1989: Timewise, the Houston Astros beat the L.A. Dodgers 5–4 in 22 innings as Rafael Ramírez hit a walk-off single off Jeff Hamilton to end the 7-hour, 14-minute contest. Bill Doran scored the winning run & Fernando Valenzuela was playing first baseman that night. World Series – 26 October 2018: Los Angeles Dodgers beat the Boston Red Sox 3–2 in 18 innings as Max Muncy hit a walk-off solo shot off Nathan Eovaldi to end the 7-hour, 20-minute contest. Minor league – International League – 18 April 1981: In the longest professional baseball game ever played with 8 hours and 25 minutes of playing time, the Pawtucket Red Sox defeated the Rochester Red Wings 3–2 in 33 innings. The game was suspended at the end of the 32nd inning at 4:09 AM local time and resumed one month later. The decisive 33rd inning took just 18 minutes to play. Collegiate – 30 May 2009: The Texas Longhorns defeated the Boston College Eagles 3–2 in 25 innings in the Austin regional of the 2009 NCAA Division I Baseball Championship tournament. Basketball International basketball: Summer Olympics: Six games needed two overtimes to finish, four of them in the men's tournament and two in the women's tournament: 2016 men: defeated 111–107 2000 men: defeated 86–83 1996 women: defeated 79–76 1996 men: defeated 83–81 1996 men: defeated 109–101 1992 women: defeated 92–80 FIBA Basketball World Cup: In the 2006 FIBA World Championship, Germany defeated Angola 108–103 after triple overtime. FIBA Women's Basketball World Cup: In the 1953 FIBA World Championship for Women, Paraguay defeated Cuba 69–59 after double overtime. FIBA men's continental championships: In EuroBasket 1953, Yugoslavia defeated Israel 57–55 after four overtimes. FIBA women's continental championships: These games needed two overtime periods to finish: AfroBasket Women 2017: def. 69–94 2011 FIBA Asia Championship for Women: def. 99–93 EuroBasket Women 2011: def. 83–82 EuroBasket Women 2005: def. 84–78 2004 FIBA Asia Championship for Women: def. 82–71 EuroBasket Women 1995: def. 108–105 EuroBasket Women 1980: def. 83–81 NBA – 6 January 1951: The Indianapolis Olympians and the Rochester Royals played six overtimes, with Indianapolis winning 75–73 in a four-hour game. US Collegiate NCAA Division I – 21 December 1981: Cincinnati edged Bradley 75–73 in seven overtimes. NCAA Division II – 18 February 1956: Black Hills edged Yankton (a college which no longer exists) 80–79 after seven extra periods. NCAA Division III – 24 November 2010: Skidmore edged Southern Vermont 128–123, also in seven overtimes. US, High School North Carolina – 29 February 1964: Boone Trail won over Angier 56–54, after 13 overtimes in the Harnett County 1A Conference Tournament championship at the Carter Gymnasium, Buies Creek. Indiana – 15 March 1964: Swayzee won over Liberty Center 65–61, after a state record 9 overtimes in a regional tournament game in Marion. Camogie "Extra extra time" was played in the 2015 Ashbourne Cup final. Hurling A semi-final of the 2014 Ulster Senior Hurling Championship went to 30 minutes of extra time. After Down and Derry finished level (3-23 to 4-20) after the usual 20 minutes (two periods of 10 minutes' duration) of extra time, it was agreed by both teams to play another ten minutes of extra time (two periods of 5 minutes). After this, the game was still tied: 3–28 to 5-22 after 100 minutes' play. Ice hockey Olympics — At the 2018 Winter Games, the USA defeated Canada 3–2 in a shootout in the women's final after both teams went the entire 20-minute overtime period scoreless; Jocelyne Lamoureux-Davidson scored in the 6th shootout round. The men's final at the same Olympics also went into overtime; Kirill Kaprizov, playing for the Olympic Athletes from Russia, scored at 9:40 of overtime, resulting in a 4–3 win over Germany. The overtime procedure for gold-medal games is multiple 20-minute 3-on-3 periods until one team scores come 2022. GET-ligaen (premier Norwegian ice hockey league) - 12 March 2017: Storhamar beat Sparta 2–1 in octuple overtime after Joakim Jensen scored the game winner at 17:14 of the 8th overtime period, for a total of 157:14 of overtime and a game length of 217:14. NHL – 23 March 1936: The Detroit Red Wings beat the Montreal Maroons 1–0 in sextuple overtime and after a total of 116:30 minutes had been played in overtime. Collegiate (NCAA Division I, men's) – 6 March 2015: In a Hockey East men's first round, UMass beat Notre Dame 4–3 in quintuple overtime, after 151:42 minutes of play. Yale University @ Union College & Quinnipiac University @ Union College also extended 5 overtimes. Collegiate (NCAA Division I, women's) – February 22, 2020: In a New England Women's Hockey Alliance tournament semifinal, Saint Anselm defeated Franklin Pierce 2–1 at 12:36 of quintuple overtime (152:36 overall time). High School (Ohio High School Athletic Association)- The 2014 state championship game between Sylvania Northview (OH) and Cleveland St. Ignatius (OH) ended in a 1–1 tie after 7th (8 minute) overtime period by mutual agreement, mostly due to concerns over player safety. In response, all tournaments since 2015 allow a limit of five overtime periods, with 4-on-4 play starting on the 2nd overtime period, and a 3-player shootout commencing after all periods were played. In terms of number of periods, the 1977 North Dakota state high school hockey championship game between Grand Forks Central and Grand Forks Red River, tied 1-1 after regulation, went eight scoreless five-minute overtime periods. Officials, citing player safety concerns, stopped play after the eighth overtime and declared the teams co-champions. Lacrosse Collegiate (NCAA Division I, men's) – 28 March 2009: The Virginia Cavaliers team played in the longest game in the history of NCAA Division I lacrosse—a 10–9 victory over the Maryland Terrapins in seven overtime periods. Rugby league The longest rugby league game at first class level is 104 minutes, during the 1997 Super League Tri-series final between NSW and QLD. Normal game time is 80 minutes, but with scores level a further 20 minutes was played. When the scores remained level after 100 minutes, golden point extra time was invoked, a Noel Goldthorpe field goal decided the game after 104 minutes. At a lower level, the 2015 Group 21 grand final lasted 128 minutes Tennis The Isner–Mahut match at the 2010 Wimbledon Championships was a first round Men's Singles match, in which the American 23rd seed John Isner played French qualifier Nicolas Mahut. In total, the match took 11 hours, 5 minutes of play over three days, with a final score of 6–4, 3–6, 6–7(7), 7–6(3), 70–68 for a total of 183 games. It remains by far the longest match in tennis history, measured both by time and number of games. The final set alone was longer than the previous longest match. The official longest tie-break on record, 50 points, came in the first round of Wimbledon in 1985 when Michael Mortensen and Jan Gunnarson defeated John Frawley and Victor Pecci 6–4, 6–4, 3–6, 7-6 (24). Of note is an even longer tie-break of 70 points, with Benjamin Balleret defeating Guillaume Couillard 7-6 (34), 6–1. The match, held in Plantation, FL in 2013, was only a qualifying match in a Futures event, the lowest level tournament in pro tennis. All matches in qualifying are played without any chair umpire or any lines people. Without any official scorecard, this record is not official. Since 2019, all 5th-set tiebreakers for men's (3rd-set for women's) are broken using the "super tiebreaker", with the first to reach 10 points winning the match; this began with the Australian Open. If the tiebreaker game deciding the match is tied at 9–all, whoever scores two straight points wins. At Wimbledon, when the deciding set is tied at 12–all, 7 points or two straight points after a 6–all tie wins. The U.S. Open & Olympics employs this at 6–all in deciding set. It would not apply to the French Open. Summary Length is in minutes unless otherwise specified. See also Tiebreaker Green–white–checker finish, the procedure used in motorsport to add extra laps if a Safety Car situation is in effect when the race has reached the scheduled lap count. Replay (sports), a procedure in some sports to resolve a tied game in which a game is played from the beginning, with the original match discarded. References Terminology used in multiple sports no:Ekstraomgang

Hydrochloride

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In chemistry, a hydrochloride is an acid salt resulting, or regarded as resulting, from the reaction of hydrochloric acid with an organic base (e.g. an amine). An alternative name is chlorhydrate, which comes from French. An archaic alternative name is muriate, derived from hydrochloric acid's ancient name: muriatic acid. Uses Converting amines into their hydrochlorides is a common way to improve their water solubility, which can be desirable for substances used in medications. The European Pharmacopoeia lists more than 200 hydrochlorides as active ingredients in medications. These hydrochlorides, compared to free bases, may more readily dissolve in the gastrointestinal tract and be absorbed into the bloodstream more quickly. Additionally, many amine hydrochlorides of amines have a longer shelf-life than their respective free bases. Amine hydrochlorides represent latent forms of a more reactive free base. In this regard, formation of an amine hydrochloride confers protection. This effect is illustrated by the hydrochlorides of the amino acids. Glycine methyl ester hydrochloride is a shelf-stable salt that can be readily converted to a reactive glycine methyl ester, a compound that is not shelf-stable. See also Chloride, inorganic salts of hydrochloric acid Free base (chemistry) Quaternary ammonium cation References Acid salts Organochlorides Salts

Punxsutawney Phil

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Punxsutawney Phil is a groundhog in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, who is the central figure in the borough's annual Groundhog Day celebration. On February 2 each year, Punxsutawney holds a civic festival with music and food. During the ceremony, which begins well before the winter sunrise, Phil emerges from his temporary home on Gobbler's Knob, located in a rural area about southeast of town. According to the tradition, if Phil sees his shadow and returns to his hole, he has predicted six more weeks of winter-like weather. If Phil does not see his shadow, he has predicted an "early spring." Punxsutawney's event is the most famous of many Groundhog Day festivals held in the United States and Canada. The event formally began in 1887, although its roots go back even further. The event is based upon a communal light-hearted suspension of disbelief. It is organized by the "Inner Circle" – recognizable from their top hats and tuxedos – who ostensibly communicate with Phil to receive his prognostication. This suspension of disbelief extends to the assertion that the same groundhog has been making predictions since the 19th century. The Vice President of the Inner Circle prepares two scrolls in advance of the actual ceremony, one proclaiming six more weeks of winter and one proclaiming an early spring. At daybreak on February 2, Punxsutawney Phil awakens from his burrow on Gobbler's Knob, is helped to the top of the stump by his handlers, and purportedly explains to the President of the Inner Circle, in a language known as "Groundhogese", whether he has seen his shadow. The President of the Inner Circle, the only person able to understand Groundhogese through his possession of an ancient acacia wood cane, then interprets Phil's message, and directs the Vice President to read the proper scroll to the crowd gathered on Gobbler's Knob and the masses of "phaithphil phollowers" tuned in to live broadcasts around the world. The Inner Circle scripts the Groundhog Day ceremonies in advance, with the Inner Circle deciding beforehand whether Phil will see his shadow. The Stormfax Almanac has made note of the weather conditions on each Groundhog Day since 1999; the almanac has recorded 12 incidents in a 20-year span in which the Inner Circle said the groundhog saw his shadow while the sky was cloudy or there was rain or snow coming down, and in one case said the groundhog did not see his shadow despite sunshine. Punxsutawney Phil's prediction for 2022 was "six more weeks of winter." Punxsutawney Phil canon The practices and lore of Punxsutawney Phil's predictions are predicated on a light-hearted suspension of disbelief by those involved. According to the lore, there is only one Phil, and all other groundhogs are impostors. It is claimed that this one groundhog has lived to make weather prognostications since 1886, sustained by drinks of "groundhog punch" or "elixir of life" administered at the annual Groundhog Picnic in the fall. The lifespan of a groundhog in the wild is roughly six years. According to the Groundhog Club, Phil, after the prediction, speaks to the club president in the language of 'Groundhogese', which supposedly only the current president can understand, and then his prediction is translated and revealed to all. The Groundhog Day celebration is rooted in a Celtic and Germanic tradition that says that if a hibernating animal casts a shadow on February 2, the pagan holiday of Imbolc (known among Christians as Candlemas), winter and cold weather will last another six weeks. If no shadow is seen, legend says, spring will come early. In Germany, the tradition evolved into a myth that if the sun came out on Candlemas, a hedgehog would cast its shadow, predicting snow all the way into May. When German immigrants settled in Pennsylvania, they transferred the tradition onto local fauna, replacing hedgehogs with groundhogs. Several other towns in the region hold similar Groundhog Day events. Each year two scrolls are prepared by the vice president of the Inner Circle: One says early spring and the other says six more weeks of winter. These scrolls are placed during the ceremony on the stump and after Phil is awakened by the crowd, Phil communicates in Groundhogese to the President, who is then directed by Phil to the proper scroll and forecast. Phil first received his name in 1961. The origins of the name are unclear, but speculation suggests that it may have been indirectly named after Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Reception Prior to 1993, the Groundhog Day event in Punxsutawney attracted crowds of approximately 2,000. The popularity of the film Groundhog Day brought significantly more attention to the event, with annual crowds rising to 10,000–20,000 (with the notable exception of 2021 where the event took place without any crowds due to the COVID-19 pandemic). The event is also streamed online each year. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals have objected to the event, claiming that Phil is put under stress. They have suggested replacing Phil with a robotic groundhog. In some cases where Phil's prognostications have been incorrect, organizations have jokingly made legal threats against the groundhog. Such tongue-in-cheek actions have been made by a prosecutor in Ohio, the sheriff's office of Monroe County, Pennsylvania, and the Merrimack, New Hampshire Police Department. In media and popular culture Phil and the town of Punxsutawney were portrayed in the 1993 film Groundhog Day. However, the actual town used to portray Punxsutawney in the film is Woodstock, Illinois. In Groundhog Day, the 2016 Broadway musical adaptation of the film, Phil is ascribed a more mythical role. In 1995, Phil flew to Chicago for a guest appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, which aired on Groundhog Day, February 2, 1995. A 2002 episode of the children's animated series Stanley, titled "Searching for Spring", featured Punxsutawney Phil. Phil was the main attraction in "Groundhog Day", the April 10, 2005 episode of the MTV series Viva La Bam. In the episode, street skater Bam Margera holds a downhill race in honor of Punxsutawney Phil at Bear Creek Mountain Resort, Pennsylvania. The Pennsylvania Lottery's mascot is a groundhog named Gus, referred to in commercials as "the second most famous groundhog in Pennsylvania", in deference to Phil. Past predictions Predictive accuracy The Inner Circle, in keeping with the suspension of disbelief, claims a 100% accuracy rate, and an approximately 80% accuracy rate in recorded predictions (claiming in turn that whenever the prediction is wrong, the person in charge of translating the message must have made a mistake in their interpretation). Impartial estimates place the groundhog's accuracy between 35% and 41%. See also Balzac Billy, the official groundhog of Balzac, Alberta, Canada Buckeye Chuck, the official groundhog of Marion, Ohio, United States Fred la Marmotte, the official groundhog of Val-d'Espoir, Quebec, Canada Milltown Mel, the official groundhog of Milltown, New Jersey, United States General Beauregard Lee, the official groundhog of Jackson, Georgia, United States (and by extension, the entire Southern US) Gus the Groundhog, mascot of the Pennsylvania Lottery Staten Island Chuck, the official groundhog of New York City, New York, United States Stormy Marmot, the official groundhog of Aurora, Colorado, Unite States. Stormy is a yellow-bellied marmot. Wiarton Willie, the official groundhog of Wiarton, Ontario, Canada References Further reading External links Gobbler's Knobb Tradition Groundhog.org. the official site of the Punxsutawney Groundhog Club. The Oddities of Groundhog Day. Onward State. Visiting Phil at Punxsutawney Library Individual groundhogs Holiday characters Oracular animals Pennsylvania culture Individual animals in the United States Groundhog Day

Burt Ward

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Burt Ward (born Bert John Gervis Jr. , July 6, 1945) is an American actor, animal rights activist and businessman. He is best known for his portrayal of Robin, the sidekick of Batman (played by Adam West), in the television series Batman (1966–1968), its theatrical feature film, the Saturday morning animated series The New Adventures of Batman (1977), the two-episode pilot Legends of the Superheroes (1979), the animated reunion films Batman: Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) and Batman vs. Two-Face (2017), and the live-action television event Crisis on Infinite Earths (2019). Early life Ward was born Bert John Gervis Jr., on July 6, 1945, in Los Angeles, California. His father, Bert Sr., was the owner of a traveling ice show called "Rhapsody On Ice". At age 2, Ward was listed in the magazine Strange as It Seems as a professional ice skater. Growing up, he was an avid reader of comic books such as Superman and Superboy, and enjoyed the action-adventure show Adventures of Superman. He acquired the nickname "Sparky" in his youth, possibly from the sparks his skates kicked up during his routines or his energetic nature. He excelled in high school sport activities such as football, track, and wrestling; he was also a member of the chess club and is a practitioner of Taekwondo. After graduation, he enrolled in college, while working part-time for his father's real estate company. Career At the age of 19, Ward auditioned for the role of Robin. West and Ward were up against Lyle Waggoner and Peter Deyell for the roles of Batman and Robin, respectively. Selected for the role of Robin, Ward thought people would find Gervis (the "G" is soft, as in "gentleman") hard to pronounce and adopted his mother's maiden name, Ward. He also changed the spelling of Bert to "Burt" to add "punch". Unlike the series' lead, Adam West, Ward was required to perform some dangerous stunt work. He was told this was because his costume revealed more of his face, making it impractical for all of his stunt scenes to be performed by a stunt double. Later, he also discovered that he was being paid the minimum wage allowed by the Screen Actors Guild, and his stunt double was paid per stunt, so having Ward perform his own stunts was a cost-saving strategy. He saw the emergency room dozens of times during his time as Robin. At the height of the series' popularity, Ward recorded several musical tracks under the production of Frank Zappa. The first two, "Boy Wonder, I Love You" (which Zappa wrote) and "Orange Colored Sky", were released as a single on November 14, 1966. Two other tracks from these sessions, "Teenage Bill of Rights" and "Autumn Love", remain unreleased. During the first months of shooting, Ward was paid $350 per week. The series only lasted three seasons, for a total of 120 episodes; according to Ward in an interview, this was because of the high cost of production. It was still high in the ratings, but ABC was losing a great deal of money. Later, NBC offered to pick it up for a fourth season, but the offer was withdrawn after learning that the sets had been destroyed. Adam West and Burt Ward reprised their TV roles of Batman and Robin in the 20th Century Fox film Batman: The Movie released on July 30, 1966. In 1969, a year after Batman'''s cancellation, West's mother died, bringing the two men closer together. They were reunited many times at conventions and TV reunion specials. In turn, Ward also made three guest appearances with West on separate cartoons: one was a 2002 episode of The Simpsons, later in 2010 on an episode of SpongeBob SquarePants, and in 2013 for one of the final episodes of Futurama. Ward remained friends with West until his death on June 9, 2017, at age 88. Ward is the last surviving main cast member of Batman. Post-Batman career After the end of Batman, Ward, like Adam West, found himself hard-pressed to find other acting jobs. He re-emerged to act in more than 40 made-for-television films such as Virgin High. In 1985, DC Comics named Ward as one of the honorees in the company's 50th-anniversary publication Fifty Who Made DC Great for his work on the Batman series. In June 1995, Ward wrote a tell-all autobiography called Boy Wonder: My Life in Tights, which described his time playing Robin. Ward appeared in numerous reunions with co-star Adam West. The most memorable included reprising their roles as the Dynamic Duo on a short-lived animated series called The New Adventures of Batman, as well as The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour and Tarzan and the Super 7. In addition, they reappeared as the Dynamic Duo for Legends of the Superheroes. West and Ward finally reunited in the 2003 television movie, Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt. During a Pro Wrestling Unplugged angle with wrestler Johnny Kashmere, Ward "knighted" Kashmere as the "New Batman". Ward has appeared on the show several times, walking out to the theme music from the 1960s Batman. In 2001, Ward established the now-closed Boy Wonder Visual Effects, Inc. In 2012, Bluewater comics was planning to issue a four-issue comic miniseries in homage to Burt Ward playing Robin, called Burt Ward, Boy Wonder, but it was apparently canceled. It starred Burt Ward and his crimefighting rescue dogs Gentle and Giant fighting crime. Part of the first issue was released on Free Comic Book Day 2012. Beginning in late 2017, Ward is seen promoting the Batman television series and other classic television series on the MeTV television network. On January 9, 2020, Ward received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Charity work In 1994, Ward and his fourth wife, Tracy Posner Ward, founded a charitable organization called Gentle Giants Rescue and Adoptions, Inc., which rescues giant-breed dogs such as Great Danes and some smaller-breed dogs. Their work with the organization has been featured in such outlets as People magazine, ASPCA Animal Watch, Hard Copy, Inside Edition, and Entertainment Tonight. Ward was also seen in an episode of Animal Planet's Adoption Tales. Business activity Burt has also created a company, Gentle Giants, which sells dog and cat food. Personal life Ward's first wife was Bonney Lindsey, daughter of conductor Mort Lindsey. Ward and Lindsey married on July 19, 1965 and divorced in 1967. They had one daughter, Lisa Ann Ward, in 1966. He was briefly married to actress Kathy Kersh from 1967 to 1969, whom he met when she appeared as a guest on the Batman'' teke series, and to model Mariana Torchia from 1985 to 1989. Since 1990, Ward has been married to Tracy Posner. Their daughter, Melody Lane Ward, was born on February 16, 1991. Filmography Film Television References External links Gentle Giants Rescue and Adoptions site Interview with Burt Ward – The Spectrum, September, 2016 Living people American male taekwondo practitioners American male film actors American stunt performers American male television actors American male voice actors Male actors from Los Angeles Animal welfare workers Inkpot Award winners 20th-century American male actors 1945 births

You Can Count On Me

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You Can Count On Me is a 2000 American drama film written and directed by Kenneth Lonergan (in his directorial debut) and starring Laura Linney, Mark Ruffalo, Rory Culkin, and Matthew Broderick. It tells the story of Sammy, a single mother living in a small Catskill Mountains town, and her complicated relationships with family and friends. The film and its performances received highly positive reviews among critics, and dozens of award nominations and awards at film festivals and during awards season. At the 73rd Academy Awards, the film received nominations for Best Actress (Linney) and Best Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen/Original Screenplay. Plot As children, Sammy and Terry Prescott lose their parents to a car accident. Years later, Sammy, a single mother and lending officer at a bank, still lives in her childhood home in a village in the Catskill Mountains region of New York, while Terry has drifted around the country, scraping by and getting in and out of trouble. After months of no communication with his sister, Terry and his girlfriend, Sheila, are desperate for money, so he comes to visit Sammy and her son, Rudy, who are excited about reuniting with him. Despite the disappointment of learning that he cut off contact because he was in jail for three months, Sammy lends him the money, which he mails back to Sheila. After Sheila attempts suicide, he decides to extend his stay with Sammy, which she welcomes. For a school writing assignment, Rudy imagines his father, who he has no memory of, as a fantastic hero. While Sammy has always given him vague yet negative descriptions of Rudy Sr., Terry is frank with him that Rudy Sr. is not a nice person – though Rudy naively believes his father has changed. Sammy rekindles a sexual relationship with Bob, an old boyfriend, but is surprised when he proposes to her after a short time and says she needs time to consider it. At the bank, the new manager, Brian, tries to make his mark with unusual demands about computer color schemes and daily timesheets. While co-worker Mabel works well with the changes, Sammy is upset when Brian requests that she make arrangements for someone else to pick up Rudy from the school bus rather than Sammy leaving work at random. After some minor arguments, they start having sex, despite Brian's wife being six months pregnant. Terry grows close to Rudy during their time together. Yet he pushes the limits of Sammy's parental control, keeping Rudy out very late as the two play pool at a bar. She turns to Ron, her church minister, to counsel Terry about his outlook on life. While Terry resists his sister's advice, he and Rudy grow steadily closer. Realizing her own questionable decisions, Sammy turns down Bob's marriage proposal and breaks off her relationship with Brian. After a day of fishing, Terry and Rudy decide to visit Rudy Sr. in a shack in a nearby village. Confronted by his past, Rudy Sr. reveals what terrible person he is, denying he is Rudy's father and starting a brawl with Terry. Rudy watches silently as Terry beats Rudy Sr. and gets arrested. Sammy brings her brother and son home. When Rudy insists that Rudy Sr. is not his father, Sammy finally tells him the truth. Sammy asks Terry to move out, but admits how important he is to her and Rudy, suggesting he get his own place in town and get his life back on track. He scoffs at Sammy's idea and plans to go back to Alaska. While at first it appears the separation will be another heartache, they reconcile before Terry leaves, coming to terms with their respective paths in life. Cast Laura Linney as Sammy Mark Ruffalo as Terry Matthew Broderick as Brian Jon Tenney as Bob Rory Culkin as Rudy J. Smith-Cameron as Mabel Josh Lucas as Rudy Sr. Gaby Hoffmann as Sheila Adam LeFevre as Sheriff Darryl Amy Ryan as Mrs. Prescott Michael Countryman as Mr. Prescott Kenneth Lonergan as Ron While listed in the main opening credits, Amy Ryan and Michael Countryman, playing Sammy and Terry's parents, appear for only a few seconds in the cold opening of the film, caught in the headlights of the truck that kills them. Production The story takes place in the Catskill region of south east New York state, in the fictionalized communities of Scottsville and Auburn. While there is an actual Scottsville and Auburn, New York, they are over away, in the north west Great Lakes and Finger Lakes regions of the state, respectively. The film was primarily shot in and around Margaretville, New York, a village on the border of Catskill Park, in June 1999. While the bank exteriors were filmed at Margaretville's NBT bank, the interiors were filmed in an unrelated bank closer to New York City, since NBT considered interior filming a security risk. The scenes where Rudy Jr. walks home in the rain were filmed with the assistance of the Margaretville Fire Department, which used their trucks and hoses to create the rain. Some outdoor scenes, most notably the fishing trip, were filmed in Phoenicia, New York. The Margaretville cemetery could not be seen from the road, so those scenes were shot at a cemetery outside the village, on Route 30. Home media The film was released on DVD and VHS on June 26, 2001. It comes with commentary from director–writer Lonergan, cast and crew interviews, plus the theatrical trailer Reception On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 85% based on 105 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "You Can Count On Me may look like it belongs on the small screen, but the movie surprises with its simple yet affecting story. Beautifully acted and crafted, the movie will simply draw you in." At Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 85 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Reviewer Stephen Holden described the film as "the perfectly pitched directorial debut of the playwright (This Is Our Youth) and screenwriter (Analyze This) Kenneth Lonergan. Because it arrives near the end of one of the most dismal film seasons in memory, this melancholy little gem of a movie, which won two major awards at the Sundance Film Festival, qualifies as one of the two or three finest American films released this year....You Can Count on Me is an exquisitely observed slice of upstate New York life that reminds us there are still plenty of American communities where the pace is more human than computer-driven. The movie dares to portray small-town middle-class life in America as somewhat drab and predictable. Without ever condescending to its characters, it trusts that the everyday problems of ordinary people, if portrayed with enough knowledge, empathy and insight, can be as compelling as the most bizarre screaming carnival on The Jerry Springer Show." David Edelstein called the film the "best American movie of the year", noting that "[w]hat the film is 'about' can't be summed up in a line: Its themes remain just out of reach, its major conflicts sadly unresolved. But Lonergan writes bottomless dialogue. When his people open their mouths, what comes out is never a definitive expression of character: It's an awkward compromise between how they feel and what they're able to say; or how they feel and what they think they should say; or how they feel and what will best conceal how they feel. The common term for this is "subtext," and You Can Count on Me has a subtext so powerful that it reaches out and pulls you under. Even when the surface is tranquil, you know in your guts what's at stake." Edelstein concludes "Lonergan doesn't yet know how to make the camera show us things that his dialogue doesn't, but when you write dialogue like he does, you can take your time to learn. Hell, he can take another 20 movies to learn." According to Roger Ebert, "Beyond and beneath, that is the rich human story of You Can Count on Me. I love the way Lonergan shows his characters in flow, pressed this way and that by emotional tides and practical considerations. This is not a movie about people solving things. This is a movie about people living day to day with their plans, fears and desires. It's rare to get a good movie about the touchy adult relationship of a sister and brother. Rarer still for the director to be more fascinated by the process than the outcome. This is one of the best movies of the year." In a 2016 BBC poll, You Can Count On Me was voted by four critics as one of the greatest films since 2000. Accolades You Can Count On Me was on the "Top 10 films" lists at the American Film Institute Awards, National Board of Review, Dallas–Fort Worth Film Critics Association Awards and the Southeastern Film Critics Association Awards. 73rd Academy Awards Nominated for Best Actress (Laura Linney) Nominated for Best Original Screenplay AFI Fest (2000) Best New Writer New Directions Award Humanitas Prize (2001) Feature Film Category 16th Independent Spirit Awards Best First Feature Best Screenplay Nominated for Best Female Lead (Laura Linney) Nominated for Best Male Lead (Mark Ruffalo) Nominated for Best Debut Performance (Rory Culkin) Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards (2000) Best Screenplay New Generation Award (Mark Ruffalo) Montreal World Film Festival (2000) Prize of the Ecumenical Jury - Special Mention Best Actor (Mark Ruffalo) National Board of Review of Motion Pictures (2000) Special Achievement Award National Society of Film Critics Awards (2001) Best Screenplay Best Actress (Laura Linney) New York Film Critics Circle Awards (2000) Best Screenplay Best Actress (Laura Linney) Sundance Film Festival Grand Jury Prize, Dramatic (shared with Girlfight) Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award 5th Golden Satellite Awards Best Screenplay, Original Nominated for Best Actress - Drama (Laura Linney) 4th Toronto Film Critics Association Awards Best Actress (Laura Linney) Best Screenplay 53rd Writers Guild of America Awards Best Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen 7th Dallas–Fort Worth Film Critics Association Awards Best Actress (Laura Linney) 7th Screen Actors Guild Awards Nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role 21st Boston Society of Film Critics Awards Best New Filmmaker (Kenneth Lonergan) Nominated for Best Actress (Laura Linney) 55th Bodil Awards Nominated for Best American Film References External links 2000 drama films American drama films Films set in New York (state) Films shot in New York (state) Paramount Vantage films Sundance Film Festival award winners Films with screenplays by Kenneth Lonergan Films directed by Kenneth Lonergan 2000 films American films 2000s English-language films Films scored by Lesley Barber 2000 directorial debut films Films about families Films about siblings

UTC−05:00

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UTC−05:00 is an identifier for a time offset from UTC of −05:00. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, and in the Central Time Zone during the other eight months (see Daylight saving time). The western Caribbean uses it year round. As standard time (Northern Hemisphere winter) Principal cities: New York, Washington, Philadelphia, Boston, Miami, Ottawa, Toronto, Montreal, Havana, Nassau, Port-au-Prince, Cockburn Town, Providenciales North America Canada (Eastern Time Zone) Nunavut Qikiqtaaluk Region except Resolute Ontario East of 90° West Quebec Most of province except easternmost area United States (Eastern Time Zone) Delaware District of Columbia Florida Entire state except the counties of Bay, Calhoun, Escambia, Holmes, Jackson, Okaloosa, Santa Rosa, Walton, and Washington, and northern Gulf county (panhandle) Georgia Indiana Except the northwestern counties of Jasper, Lake, LaPorte, Newton, Porter and Starke, and the southwestern counties of Gibson, Perry, Posey, Spencer, Vanderburgh and Warrick Kentucky Counties located to the east of the counties of Breckinridge, Grayson, Hart, Green, Adair, Russell and Clinton Maryland Michigan Except the western counties of Dickinson, Gogebic, Iron and Menominee New England (states of Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Vermont) New Jersey New York North Carolina Ohio Pennsylvania South Carolina Tennessee The counties of Scott, Morgan, Roane, Rhea, Meigs and Bradley, and all counties to the east of these Virginia West Virginia Caribbean Bahamas Cuba Guantánamo Bay Haiti United Kingdom Turks and Caicos Islands As daylight saving time (Northern Hemisphere summer) Principal cities: Mexico City, Chicago, Dallas, Houston, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Austin, Kansas City, San Antonio, Nashville, Milwaukee, Oklahoma City, Winnipeg North America Canada (Central Time Zone) Manitoba Nunavut All of Kivalliq Region (Coral Harbour) Ontario West of 90° west longitude Mexico All except Baja California, Baja California Sur, Chihuahua, Nayarit, Quintana Roo, Sinaloa and Sonora. United States (Central Time Zone) Alabama Arkansas Florida Illinois Indiana Northwestern counties of Jasper, Lake, LaPorte, Newton, Porter and Starke Southwestern counties of Gibson, Perry, Posey, Spencer, Vanderburgh and Warrick Iowa Kansas Entire state except westernmost counties Kentucky The counties of Breckinridge, Grayson, Hart, Green, Adair, Russell and Clinton, and all counties to the west of these Louisiana Michigan The western counties of Dickinson, Gogebic, Iron and Menominee Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska Central and eastern Nebraska North Dakota Entire state except southwest Oklahoma Entire state except Kenton South Dakota Eastern half Tennessee Counties located to the west of the counties of Scott, Morgan, Roane, Rhea, and Hamilton Texas All except westernmost counties Wisconsin As standard time (year-round) Principal cities: Bogotá, Lima, Kingston, Quito, Panama City, George Town South America Brazil Acre Amazonas (13 western municipalities, approximately marked by a line between Tabatinga and Porto Acre) Colombia – Time in Colombia Ecuador – Time in Ecuador (except Galápagos Islands) Peru – Time in Peru Caribbean Jamaica United Kingdom British Overseas Territories Cayman Islands United States United States Minor Outlying Islands Navassa Island North America Canada – Eastern Time Zone Atikokan and New Osnaburgh/Pickle Lake area Southampton Island Mexico Quintana Roo Panama As daylight saving time (Southern Hemisphere summer) East Pacific Chile Easter Island See also References UTC offsets

Trans-Nzoia County

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Trans-Nzoia County is a county in the former Rift Valley Province, Kenya, located between the Nzoia River and Mount Elgon, 380 km northwest of Nairobi. At its centre is the town of Kitale which is the capital and largest town. The county borders Bungoma to the west, Uasin Gishu and Kakamega to the south, Elgeyo-Marakwet to the east, West Pokot to the north and the republic of Uganda to the Northwest. Trans Nzoia covers an area of 2495.5 square kilometres. Historically the area has been inhabited by the sabaot people. After independence many of the farms vacated by white settlers were bought by individuals from other ethnic groups in Kenya. Kitale, its capital town, is now majorly luhya with inhabits from other tribes in Kenya occupying almost less than 1% of the population. The county is largely agricultural with both large scale and small scale wheat, maize and dairy farming. The county is referred to as the basket of Kenya for its role in food production in the country. The majority of its inhabitants are however generally poor. Subdivisions Electoral constituencies The county has five constituencies (sub-counties): Cherangany Constituency Kwanza Constituency Saboti Constituency Endebess Constituency Kiminini Constituency Climate and weather Situated in the slopes of the mountain, Trans Nzoia has a cool and temperate climate with average annual temperatures ranging between a minimum of 10 °C to a maximum of 27 °C. The county receives annual precipitation ranging between 1000 and 1200mm, with the wettest months being experienced between April and October. Population Religion and culture Majority of people living in Trans Nzoia County are Christians. Prominent churches in the county include Anglican (ACK), Roman Catholic, Friends (Quakers), Seven-Day Adventist (SDA), and Presbyterians. There are numerous evangelical churches among them the Deliverance, African Inland Church (AIC), Africa Gospel Church (AGC),the Redeemed Church, PEFA, Full Gospel and Kenya Assemblies of God (KAG). Other faiths such as Islam and Hinduism are also professed especially in major towns. Jainism is also practiced by Oshwals in Kitale which is a religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings while emphasising spiritual independence and equality. The indigenous Sabaot tribe or the 'Elgon Maasai' live near Mount Elgon and are a Kalenjin sub tribe. They value their culture and guard it with pride. They are traditionally pastoralists. They used to believe that their god lived in elevated places where they couldn't reach such as on top of Mount Elgon or up in the sky. However, due to influence of Christianity, education and intermarriage, most of these traditions have been replaced by modern culture, a reason why the one time pastoralists are now big farmers in the region. Major towns Located between Mt. Elgon and Cherangany Hills, Kitale is the largest town and Trans Nzoia's administrative capital. Mainly an agricultural town, Kitale has recently shown a lot of economic potential, with agribusiness, real estate and commercial businesses booming the most. The town is home to over 220,000 people and as the last stop of the Kenya railway line, it's an important center for movement of goods in the North Rift. It has popular banks, restaurants and supermarkets. Palm Restaurant, Tilja and the rooftop restaurant at Kittony Heights are the most recent hangout joints in Kitale town. Kiminini is a small yet a busy town located some 22 kilometers along Kitale Webuye road. It's a significant agricultural center. St. Brigids National Girls High Schooll is located at this town. Maili Saba means "seven miles" in Swahili. It is located along Kitale-Kapenguria road. Situated at the foot of Mt. Elgon, some 17 kilometers North Western side of Kitale town, Endebess is an important agricultural town, which also serves as a local administrative and commercial center for Kwanza sub county. Kachibora is situated at the junction of Kitale-Ziwa-Eldoret road/Kitale-Kapcherop-Kapsowar road, about 30 kilometres from Kitale town. Kachibora is a fast growing agricultural town. It is the administrative headquarters of the Trans Nzoia East sub county. Economy Trans Nzoia County's arable land makes agriculture the top economic activity, where maize farming is widely practised, and mostly at a commercial level. Tea, coffee, horticulture and commercial businesses are also very significant to the county's economy. There's dairy farming and booming tourism - owing to an array of touring sites and touristic activities within the county. A number of companies such as Kenya Seed company, Elgon Tea Factory, Western Seed Company, K.C.C and various government institutions provide employment to many people living in the urban centers. Health facilities There are about 78 health institutions in Trans Nzoia County - 1 County Referral Hospital, 4 Sub-county Hospitals and 33 Dispensaries. The county has 7 health centers, 28 medical clinics and about 6 nursing homes. Among the notable health facilities include Kitale Referral Hospital, Kapsara sub-county Hospital, Cherangani Sub-county Hospital, Endebess Sub-county Hospital, Mt.Elgon private hospital and Cherangani Nursing Home. Education Currently, there are over 470 primary schools and 120 secondary schools in Trans Nzoia. The elite primary school in the county is Titan Academy in Matisi which features the newest technology and champions “Premier Education for the Next Generation”. Some of the prominent secondary schools include St. Brigids Girls, St. Monica, St. Joseph's Boys, Kitale School, St. Joseph's Girls, St Anthony Boys Hgh (Kitale Day),Kipkeikei boys and Boma Secondary schools. Trans Nzoia has over 20 tertiary institutions, including a university campus, a nursing training college, a teachers’ training college, farmers training institute, youth polytechnic and a number of commercial colleges. Notable personalities Prominent personalities from Trans Nzoia include the former Vice President Michael Kijana Wamalwa, the first vice president to die in office in 2003. Others include Masinde Muliro a central figure in the Kenya's politics, Joseph Magutt, former Kenya envoy to Germany, who declared in 2019 his interest to contest for the position of Governor in Trans Nzoia County, Orie Rogo Manduli, long serving Maendeleo ya Wanawake chair, Milcah Chemos who is a reigning commonwealth games champion, Wesley Korir, a long distance runner who is former Cherangany Member of Parliament, Edwin Kirorei Busienei first KCC director and Kitale show chairman and Tara Mara who is a scholar and entrepreneur. Places of interest Most outstanding places of interest include Mount Elgon National Park, Saiwa Swamp National Park and Kitale Nature Conservancy. Mt. Elgon National Park is located approximately 11 kilometers from Kitale town. Some of the wild animals found here include elephants, buffalos, black and white colobus, giant forest hog and over 420 bird species. Saiwa Swamp National Park is located some 27 kilometers from Kitale town towards Kitale - Kapenguria road and is good for game viewing and camping. Kitale Museum, located in the heart of Kitale town is one of the most interesting places in the county. Apart from hosting varieties of traditional artifacts, the Museum is also home to different snakes’ species as well as having one of the largest crocodile pits in Kenya. Access From Nairobi, Trans Nzoia is accessible by road via Nakuru-Eldoret, a 380 km journey that normally takes 5–6 hours. Trans Nzoia can also be accessed by air through Kitale's small airport located about 7 kilometers from Kitale town. The road from Nairobi to Kitale is tarmacked and smooth. References Counties of Kenya

List of national birds

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This is a list of national birds. Most species in the list are officially designated. Some species hold only an "unofficial" status. National birds See also List of Australian bird emblems List of Indian state birds List of U.S. state birds List of U.S. county birds List of official city birds List of national animals References N Birds

Electrical conduction system of the heart

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The electrical conduction system of the heart transmits signals generated usually by the sinoatrial node to cause contraction of the heart muscle. The pacemaking signal generated in the sinoatrial node travels through the right atrium to the atrioventricular node, along the Bundle of His and through bundle branches to cause contraction of the heart muscle. This signal stimulates contraction first of the right and left atrium, and then the right and left ventricles. This process allows blood to be pumped throughout the body. The conduction system consists of specialised heart muscle cells, and is situated within the myocardium. There is a skeleton of fibrous tissue that surrounds the conduction system which can be seen on an ECG. Dysfunction of the conduction system can cause irregular, fast, or slow heart rhythms. Structure Electrical signals arising in the SA node (located in the right atrium) stimulate the atria to contract. Then the signals travel to the atrioventricular node (AV node), which is located in the interatrial septum. After a delay, the electrical signal diverges and is conducted through the left and right bundle of His to the respective Purkinje fibers for each side of the heart, as well as to the endocardium at the apex of the heart, then finally to the ventricular epicardium; causing its contraction. These signals are generated rhythmically, which in turn results in the coordinated rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart. On the microscopic level, the wave of depolarization propagates to adjacent cells via gap junctions located on the intercalated disc. The heart is a functional syncytium (not to be confused with a true "syncytium" in which all the cells are fused together, sharing the same plasma membrane as in skeletal muscle). In a functional syncytium, electrical impulses propagate freely between cells in every direction, so that the myocardium functions as a single contractile unit. This property allows rapid, synchronous depolarization of the myocardium. While advantageous under normal circumstances, this property can be detrimental, as it has potential to allow the propagation of incorrect electrical signals. These gap junctions can close to isolate damaged or dying tissue, as in a myocardial infarction (heart attack). Development Embryologic evidence of generation of the cardiac conduction system illuminates the respective roles of this specialized set of cells. Innervation of the heart begins with a brain only centered parasympathetic cholinergic first order. It is then followed by rapid growth of a second order sympathetic adrenergic system arising from the formation of the thoracic spinal ganglia. The third order of electrical influence of the heart is derived from the vagus nerve as the other peripheral organs form. Function Action potential generation Cardiac muscle has some similarities to neurons and skeletal muscle, as well as important unique properties. Like a neuron, a given myocardial cell has a negative membrane potential when at rest. Stimulation above a threshold value induces the opening of voltage-gated ion channels and a flood of cations into the cell. The positively charged ions entering the cell cause the depolarization characteristic of an action potential. Like skeletal muscle, depolarization causes the opening of voltage-gated calcium channels and release of Ca2+ from the t-tubules. This influx of calcium causes calcium-induced calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and free Ca2+ causes muscle contraction. After a delay, potassium channels reopen, and the resulting flow of K+ out of the cell causes repolarization to the resting state. There are important physiological differences between nodal cells and ventricular cells; the specific differences in ion channels and mechanisms of polarization give rise to unique properties of SA node cells, most importantly the spontaneous depolarizations necessary for the SA node's pacemaker activity. Requirements for effective pumping In order to maximize efficiency of contractions and cardiac output, the conduction system of the heart has: Substantial atrial to ventricular delay. This will allow the atria to completely empty their contents into the ventricles; simultaneous contraction would cause inefficient filling and backflow. The atria are electrically isolated from the ventricles, connected only via the AV node which briefly delays the signal. Coordinated contraction of ventricular cells. The ventricles must maximize systolic pressure to force blood through the circulation, so all the ventricular cells must work together. Ventricular contraction begins at the apex of the heart, progressing upwards to eject blood into the great arteries. Contraction that squeezes blood towards the exit is more efficient than a simple squeeze from all directions. Although the ventricular stimulus originates from the AV node in the wall separating the atria and ventricles, the Bundle of His conducts the signal to the apex. Depolarization propagates through cardiac muscle very rapidly. Cells of the ventricles contract nearly simultaneously. The action potentials of cardiac muscle are unusually sustained. This prevents premature relaxation, maintaining initial contraction until the entire myocardium has had time to depolarize and contract. Absence of tetany. After contracting, the heart must relax to fill up again. Sustained contraction of the heart without relaxation would be fatal, and this is prevented by a temporary inactivation of certain ion channels. ECG An electrocardiogram is a recording of the electrical activity of the heart. SA node: P wave Under normal conditions, electrical activity is spontaneously generated by the SA node, the cardiac pacemaker. This electrical impulse is propagated throughout the right atrium, and through Bachmann's bundle to the left atrium, stimulating the myocardium of the atria to contract. The conduction of the electrical impulses throughout the atria is seen on the ECG as the P wave. As the electrical activity is spreading throughout the atria, it travels via specialized pathways, known as internodal tracts, from the SA node to the AV node. AV node and bundles: PR interval The AV node functions as a critical delay in the conduction system. Without this delay, the atria and ventricles would contract at the same time, and blood wouldn't flow effectively from the atria to the ventricles. The delay in the AV node forms much of the PR segment on the ECG, and part of atrial repolarization can be represented by the PR segment. The distal portion of the AV node is known as the bundle of His. The bundle of His splits into two branches in the interventricular septum: the left bundle branch and the right bundle branch. The left bundle branch activates the left ventricle, while the right bundle branch activates the right ventricle. The left bundle branch is short, splitting into the left anterior fascicle and the left posterior fascicle. The left posterior fascicle is relatively short and broad, with dual blood supply, making it particularly resistant to ischemic damage. The left posterior fascicle transmits impulses to the papillary muscles, leading to mitral valve closure. As the left posterior fascicle is shorter and broader than the right, impulses reach the papillary muscles just prior to depolarization, and therefore contraction, of the left ventricle myocardium. This allows pre-tensioning of the chordae tendinae, increasing the resistance to flow through the mitral valve during left ventricular contraction. This mechanism works in the same manner as pre-tensioning of car seatbelts. Purkinje fibers/ventricular myocardium: QRS complex The two bundle branches taper out to produce numerous Purkinje fibers, which stimulate individual groups of myocardial cells to contract. The spread of electrical activity through the ventricular myocardium produces the QRS complex on the ECG. Atrial repolarization occurs and is masked during the QRS complex by ventricular depolarization on the ECG. Ventricular repolarization The last event of the cycle is the repolarization of the ventricles. It is the restoring of the resting state. In the ECG, repolarization includes the J point, ST segment, and T and U waves. The transthoracically measured PQRS portion of an electrocardiogram is chiefly influenced by the sympathetic nervous system. The T (and occasionally U) waves are chiefly influenced by the parasympathetic nervous system guided by integrated brainstem control from the vagus nerve and the thoracic spinal accessory ganglia. An impulse (action potential) that originates from the SA node at a relative rate of 60-100 bpm is known as normal sinus rhythm. If SA nodal impulses occur at a rate less than 60 bpm, the heart rhythm is known as sinus bradycardia. If SA nodal impulses occur at a rate exceeding 100bpm, the consequent rapid heart rate is sinus tachycardia. These conditions are not necessarily bad symptoms, however. Trained athletes, for example, usually show heart rates slower than 60bpm when not exercising. If the SA node fails to initialize, the AV junction can take over as the main pacemaker of the heart. The AV junction consists of the AV node, the bundle of His, and the surrounding area; it has a regular rate of 40 to 60bpm. These "junctional" rhythms are characterized by a missing or inverted P wave. If both the SA node and the AV junction fail to initialize the electrical impulse, the ventricles can fire the electrical impulses themselves at a rate of 20 to 40 bpm and will have a QRS complex of greater than 120 ms. This is necessary for the heart to be in good function. Clinical significance Arrhythmia An "arrhythmia" refers to an abnormal rhythm or speed of rhythm of the heartbeat. An abnormal rhythm or speed is defined as one that is not physiological. Speed A resting heart that beats slower than 60 beats per minute, or faster than 100 beats per minute, is regarded as having an arrhythmia. A heartbeat slower than 60 beats per minute is known as bradycardia, and a heartbeat faster than 100 is known as a tachycardia. Physiological Some individuals, for example trained athletes, may have heart beats slower than 60 beats per minute when not exercising. If the SA node fails to initialize, the AV junction can take over as the main pacemaker of the heart. The AV junction "surrounds" the AV node (the AV node is not able to initialize its own impulses) and has a regular rate of 40 to 60 bpm. These "junctional" rhythms are characterized by a missing or inverted P wave. If both the SA node and the AV junction fail to initialize the electrical impulse, the ventricles can fire the electrical impulses themselves at a rate of 20 to 40 bpm and will have a QRS complex of greater than 120 ms. Pacemakers In the event of arrhythmia, a pacemaker may be surgically inserted into the conduction system. See also Intraventricular block References Cardiac electrophysiology

Conifer cone

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A conifer cone (in formal botanical usage: strobilus, plural strobili) is a seed-bearing organ on gymnosperm plants. It is a type of fruit, usually woody, ovoid to globular, including scales and bracts arranged around a central axis, especially in conifers and cycads. The cone of Pinophyta (conifer clade) contains the reproductive structures. The woody cone is the female cone, which produces seeds. The male cone, which produces pollen, is usually herbaceous and much less conspicuous even at full maturity. The name "cone" derives from Greek konos (pinecone), which also gave name to the geometric cone. The individual plates of a cone are known as scales. The umbo of a conifer cone refers to the first year's growth of a seed scale on the cone, showing up as a protuberance at the end of the two-year-old scale. The male cone (microstrobilus or pollen cone) is structurally similar across all conifers, differing only in small ways (mostly in scale arrangement) from species to species. Extending out from a central axis are microsporophylls (modified leaves). Under each microsporophyll is one or several microsporangia (pollen sacs). The female cone (megastrobilus, seed cone, or ovulate cone) contains ovules which, when fertilized by pollen, become seeds. The female cone structure varies more markedly between the different conifer families, and is often crucial for the identification of many species of conifers. Female cone of the conifer families Pinaceae cones The members of the pine family (pines, spruces, firs, cedars, larches, etc.) have cones that are imbricate (that is, with scales overlapping each other like fish scales). These pine cones, especially the woody female cones, are considered the "archetypal" tree cones. The female cone has two types of scale: the bract scales, and the seed scales (or ovuliferous scales), one subtended by each bract scale, derived from a highly modified branchlet. On the upper-side base of each seed scale are two ovules that develop into seeds after fertilization by pollen grains. The bract scales develop first, and are conspicuous at the time of pollination; the seed scales develop later to enclose and protect the seeds, with the bract scales often not growing further. The scales open temporarily to receive pollen, then close during fertilization and maturation, and then re-open again at maturity to allow the seed to escape. Maturation takes 6–8 months from pollination in most Pinaceae genera, but 12 months in cedars and 18–24 months (rarely more) in most pines. The cones open either by the seed scales flexing back when they dry out, or (in firs, cedars and golden larch) by the cones disintegrating with the seed scales falling off. The cones are conic, cylindrical or ovoid (egg-shaped), and small to very large, from 2–60 cm long and 1–20 cm broad. After ripening, the opening of non-serotinous pine cones is associated with their moisture content—cones are open when dry and closed when wet. This assures that the small, windborne seeds will be dispersed during relatively dry weather, and thus, the distance traveled from the parent tree will be enhanced. A pine cone will go through many cycles of opening and closing during its life span, even after seed dispersal is complete. This process occurs with older cones while attached to branches and even after the older cones have fallen to the forest floor. The condition of fallen pine cones is a crude indication of the forest floor's moisture content, which is an important indication of wildfire risk. Closed cones indicate damp conditions while open cones indicate the forest floor is dry. As a result of this, pine cones have often been used by people in temperate climates to predict dry and wet weather, usually hanging a harvested pine cone from some string outside to measure the humidity of the air. Araucariaceae cones Members of the Araucariaceae (Araucaria, Agathis, Wollemia) have the bract and seed scales fully fused, and have only one ovule on each scale. The cones are spherical or nearly so, and large to very large, 5–30 cm diameter, and mature in 18 months; at maturity, they disintegrate to release the seeds. In Agathis, the seeds are winged and separate readily from the seed scale, but in the other two genera, the seed is wingless and fused to the scale. Podocarpaceae cones The cones of the Podocarpaceae are similar in function, though not in development, to those of the Taxaceae (q.v. below), being berry-like with the scales highly modified, evolved to attract birds into dispersing the seeds. In most of the genera, two to ten or more scales are fused together into a usually swollen, brightly coloured, soft, edible fleshy aril. Usually only one or two scales at the apex of the cone are fertile, each bearing a single wingless seed, but in Saxegothaea several scales may be fertile. The fleshy scale complex is 0.5–3 cm long, and the seeds 4–10 mm long. In some genera (e.g. Prumnopitys), the scales are minute and not fleshy, but the seed coat develops a fleshy layer instead, the cone having the appearance of one to three small plums on a central stem. The seeds have a hard coat evolved to resist digestion in the bird's stomach. Cupressaceae cones Members of the cypress family (cypresses, arborvitae, junipers, redwoods, etc.) differ in that the bract and seed scales are fully fused, with the bract visible as no more than a small lump or spine on the scale. The botanical term galbulus (plural galbuli; from the Latin for a cypress cone) is sometimes used instead of strobilus for members of this family. The female cones have one to 20 ovules on each scale. They often have peltate scales, as opposed to the imbricate cones described above, though some have imbricate scales. The cones are usually small, long, and often spherical or nearly so, like those of Nootka cypress, while others, such as western redcedar and California incense-cedar, are narrow. The scales are arranged either spirally, or in decussate whorls of two (opposite pairs) or three, rarely four. The genera with spiral scale arrangement were often treated in a separate family (Taxodiaceae) in the past. In most of the genera, the cones are woody and the seeds have two narrow wings (one along each side of the seed), but in three genera (Platycladus, Microbiota and Juniperus), the seeds are wingless, and in Juniperus, the cones are fleshy and berry-like (known as ). Sciadopityaceae cones The cones and seeds of Sciadopitys (the only member of the family) are similar to those of some Cupressaceae, but larger, 6–11 cm long; the scales are imbricate and spirally arranged, and have 5-9 ovules on each scale. Taxaceae and Cephalotaxaceae cones Members of the yew family and the closely related Cephalotaxaceae have the most highly modified cones of any conifer. There is only one scale in the female cone, with a single poisonous ovule. The scale develops into a soft, brightly coloured sweet, juicy, berry-like aril which partly encloses the deadly seed. The seed alone is poisonous. The whole 'berry' with the seed is eaten by birds, which digest the sugar-rich scale and pass the hard seed undamaged in their droppings, so dispersing the seed far from the parent plant. Cycadaceae cones Though not included under the conifers, this group of cone-bearing plants retains some types of 'primitive' characteristics. Its leaves unfurl, much like ferns. There are three extant families of Cycads of about 305 species. It reproduces with large cones, and is related to the other conifers in that regard, but it does not have a woody trunk like most cone-bearing families. Welwitschiaceae cones Like the Cycads, this unique cone-bearing plant is not considered a conifer, but belongs in the Order Welwitschiales. Welwitschia mirabilis is often called a living fossil and is the only species in its genus, which is the only genus in its family, which is the only family in its Order. The male cones are on male plants, and female cones on female plants. After emergence of the two cotyledons, it sets only two more leaves. Those two leaves then continue to grow longer from their base, much like fingernails. This allows it great drought tolerance, which is likely why it has survived in the desert of Namibia, while all other representatives from its order are now extinct. Location and distribution For most species found in Australia, male and female cones occur on the same plant (tree or shrub), with female usually on the higher branches towards the top of the plant. This distribution is thought to improve chances of cross-fertilization, as pollen is unlikely to be blown vertically upward within the crown of one plant, but can drift slowly upward in the wind, blowing from low on one plant to higher on another plant. In some conifers, male cones additionally often grow clustered in large numbers together, while female cones are more often produced singly or in only small clusters. A further characteristic arrangement of pines is that the male cones are located at the base of the branch, while the female at the tip (of the same or a different branchlet). However, in larches and cedars, both types of cones are always at the tips of short shoots, while both sexes of fir cones are always from side buds, never terminal. There's also some diversity in bearing in Cupressaceae. Some, Cupressus for instance, has little or no differentiation in the positions of male and female cones. Cone crops Cone crop potential can be predicted in various ways. An early indication of a potential crop can be a period of abnormally hot, dry weather at the time of bud differentiation, particularly if the current and preceding cone crops have been poor (Nienstaedt and Zasada 1990). Estimates of cone crop potential can be made by counting female reproductive buds in fall or winter, and an experienced observer can detect the subtle morphological differences and distinguish between reproductive buds and vegetative buds (Eis 1967b). White spruce seed collection is expensive, and collection from cone caches of red squirrels is probably the cheapest method. The viability of seed from cached cones does not vary during current caching, but viability drops essentially to zero after being in caches for 1 or 2 years (Wagg 1964). Collection of cones in seed orchards has been facilitated by the counter-intuitive technique of “topping” and collection of cones from the severed crown tops at one-third the cost of collection from untopped trees and without decreasing cone production (Slayton 1969, Nienstaedt 1981). Pseudocones Norway and Sitka spruce are prone to the formation of Pineapple gall pseudocones caused by the woolly aphid, Adelges abietis. These are not cones, although they closely resemble them. While Alder trees are not conifers, their mature seed bearing structures closely resemble cones. Cultural uses Because of their widespread occurrence, conifer cones have been a traditional part of the arts and crafts of cultures where conifers are common. Examples of their use includes seasonal wreaths and decorations, fire starters, bird feeders, toys, etc. An intriguing derivation of the impossible bottle mechanical puzzle takes advantage of the fact that pine cones open and close based on their level of dryness. In constructing the pine cone in the bottle display, a closed, damp cone of suitable size is inserted into a narrow-mouthed bottle and allowed to open upon drying. Cone cows are traditional homemade toys, made by children using material found in nature. The most common design is a spruce or pine cone with sticks or matches for legs, which can easily be attached by forcing them between the cone scales. Playing with cone cows often includes building an animal enclosure from sticks. For the most part, cone cows have been displaced by manufactured toys, at least in affluent countries, but the creation of cone cows still enjoys some popularity as an outdoor activity for children. Cone cows are a part of children's culture in Finland where they are known as Käpylehmä (plural: Käpylehmät) and Sweden where they are known as kottkor or kottdjur (cone animals). Schools and other institutions teach children how to make cone cows as part of outdoors education on nature and history. In Finland there is a fairground with cone cow sculptures large enough for children to ride on. In Sweden, a video game was released in which the player may build virtual cone cows. Swedish artist Lasse Åberg has created artwork with cone cows, which has been included in an alphabet book and featured on a Swedish postage stamp among other classic toys. Cones are also occasionally used as a charge in heraldic coats of arms. In some parts of Russia and Georgia, immature pine cones are harvested in late spring and boiled to make sweet preserves. Symbolism The pineal gland is named after the pine cone. Pine cones were also used as symbols of fertility in ancient Assyrian art. In Christian symbolism, they are closely related to the tree of life. See also Conifer nuts Strobilus Gallery Visualisation of a Cupressus cone by micro computed tomography References External links Arboretum de Villardebelle Images of various conifer-cones Gymnosperm cone images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu Conifers Plant morphology Articles containing video clips Heraldic charges

List of Family Guy characters

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Family Guy is an American animated comedy series created by Seth MacFarlane for the Fox Broadcasting Company. Characters are only listed once, normally under the first applicable subsection in the list; very minor characters are listed with a more regular character with whom they are associated. Appearances The Griffin family Peter Griffin Justin Peter Löwenbräu Griffin Sr. (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) is the patriarch of the Griffin household, a 45-year-old Irish-American blue-collar worker. For most of the series, Peter is shown as an obese, unintelligent, lazy, outspoken, childish, and eccentric alcoholic. Lois Griffin Lois Patrice Griffin (née Pewterschmidt) (voiced by Alex Borstein) is the matriarch of the Griffin household, Peter's wife, and the mother of Meg, Chris, and Stewie. She is a 43-year-old German-American, and has a Jewish mother who is a Holocaust survivor. Meg Griffin Megan Harvey Oswald "Meg" Griffin (voiced by Lacey Chabert in seasons 1 & 2, Mila Kunis since season 2) is the Griffins' 17-year-old (18 as of "Quagmire and Meg") daughter and eldest child. She is a self-conscious, insecure, and sensitive teenager who is more often than not ridiculed and ignored by the people around her. Chris Griffin Christopher Cross "Chris" Griffin (voiced by Seth Green) is the Griffins' 15-year-old son and middle child. He is a friendly, laid-back, and funny teenager who is a younger version of Peter physically, but intellectually, he often shows more potential, as demonstrated from moments of coherence and articulation within his speech. Stewie Griffin Stewart Gilligan "Stewie" Griffin (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) is the Griffins' infant child, but often behaves in adult ways such as speaking in an affected upper-class British dialect. Brian Griffin Brian Griffin (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) is the family's ten-year-old anthropomorphic talking white Labrador Retriever and the best friend of both Stewie and Peter. Extended family The characters listed below are the extended family of the Griffin family that come from either Peter's side of the family, Lois's side of the family, and the occasional members of Brian's family: Francis Griffin (voiced by Charles Durning) – Peter's grumpy, stubborn and abusive adoptive father, Lois's adoptive father-in-law, and the adoptive paternal grandfather of Meg, Chris, and Stewie. He was once married to Peter's biological mother Thelma Griffin. An obsessively devout Roman Catholic, he hates Lois because she is not a Catholic, and often calls her a "Protestant whore", disapproves of his son's family's lifestyle, and frequently attempts to force his religious views on them. In "Peter's Two Dads", Francis attends Meg's 17th birthday party, and is crushed by a drunk Peter while attempting a unicycle trick to entertain the party guests as "Pee-Pants the Inebriated Hobo Clown." The injuries prove fatal, and as Francis is dying in the hospital, his last words to Peter before his death are, "Peter… you're a fat, stinking drunk." Mickey McFinnigan (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – Peter's biological father, and the biological paternal grandfather of Meg, Chris, and Stewie, and father-in-law of Lois. He lives in Ireland and is regarded as the town drunk (a highly respected position) in his neighborhood. Peter travels to meet him after he learns that Francis, who had just died, was not his biological father. Thelma Griffin (voiced by Florence Stanley in the first appearance, Phyllis Diller in later appearances, Alex Borstein as a young woman in "Don't Be a Dickens at Christmas") – Ex-wife to Francis, mother of Peter, and paternal grandmother of Meg, Chris, and Stewie. She is the mother-in-law of Lois. In "Mom's the Word", it is revealed that Thelma has died of a stroke. Chip Griffin (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – Peter's vestigial twin brother, who appears in "Vestigial Peter". Karen "Heavy Flo" Griffin (voiced by Kate McKinnon) – Peter's older sister, who first appears in "Peter's Sister". She is the paternal aunt of Meg, Chris and Stewie and sister-in-law of Lois. Karen is a professional wrestler. Carter Pewterschmidt (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – Lois's father, Babs's husband, and the maternal grandfather of Meg, Chris, and Stewie, and father-in-law of Peter. He is a 72-year-old billionaire industrialist, shipping mogul, and owner of several major companies. He enjoys seeing Peter in misery as he does not approve of Lois' choice of marriage and thinks Peter is unintelligent. Babs Pewterschmidt (voiced by Alex Borstein) – Carter's wife, the mother of Lois, Carol, and Patrick, and the maternal grandmother of Meg, Chris and Stewie, and mother-in-law to Peter. Carol Pewterschmidt-West (voiced by Carol Kane in the first appearance, Julie Hagerty in later appearances) – Lois' younger sister, the maternal aunt of Meg, Chris and Stewie, and sister-in-law of Peter. She has been married and divorced nine times. Patrick Pewterschmidt (voiced by Robert Downey Jr. in the first appearance, Oliver Vaquer in the second appearance) – The elder brother of Lois and Carol and the maternal uncle of Meg, Chris, and Stewie, and Peter's brother-in-law. His mother and father kept him secret from Lois as he was committed to a mental institution as a result of trauma from witnessing his mother having an affair with Jackie Gleason. After Peter unintentionally causes him to snap, he begins murdering fat men by strangling them and becomes known as "The Fat Guy Strangler". In the episode "Killer Queen", Patrick helps the Griffins track down an assailant who is trying to strangle Chris to death. Jasper (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – Brian's stereotypical flamboyantly homosexual 3-year-old cousin. Brian stays with him in Hollywood in "Brian Does Hollywood". Jasper's partner is a Filipino man named Ricardo, whom he marries in "You May Now Kiss the... Uh... Guy Who Receives". Bertram (voiced by Wallace Shawn) – The infant son of a gym teacher and her partner through artificial insemination. Bertram's biological father is Peter Griffin, and he holds a grudge against his half-brother Stewie. Bertram appears in "Emission Impossible", "Sibling Rivalry" and "The Big Bang Theory", the latter of which sees him traveling back in time to attempt to kill Stewie's ancestor, Leonardo da Vinci; although he succeeds, Stewie kills him and manages to save his own existence, as well as the entire universe (as Stewie became responsible for the Big Bang in the events of the episode). Dylan Flannigan (voiced by Seth Green) – Brian's human son. He first appears in "The Former Life of Brian". His mother Tracy was devastated when Brian left her. After Brian apologizes to Dylan for not being there for him, Brian turns his son's life around, making him into a charming, polite young man. Dylan then decides to leave the Griffin house and change his mother like Brian changed him. In "Brian's a Bad Father", Dylan returns as the star of a Disney Channel show. Biscuit – Brian's deceased mother who appears in a flashback of "Road to Rhode Island". She was stuffed by her owners after her death. Brian would go on to give her a proper burial. Biscuit is also seen during a flashback in "Chris Cross". Coco – Brian's deceased father who has never appeared on screen, but has been mentioned several times by Brian. According to Brian, Coco was racist towards African-Americans, and died after being run over by a milk truck. Spooner Street neighbors Doug (voiced by Chris Parnell) – A smug, refined, and wealthy toddler who lives in the Griffins' neighborhood and attends daycare with Stewie, with whom he shares a rivalry. He was first introduced in "Island Adventure", and in most of his appearances, he usually shows up for the sole purpose of insulting Stewie. In "LASIK Instinct", Doug is hit by Lois' car due to her waning vision, and the men of the Griffin household are tasked with looking after him in his father's absence. Doug eventually reveals that he was faking the list of demands, as his parents are neglectful to both him and each other, and he just wanted to have fun. Stewie agrees to be friends with him privately, so long as they agree to remain rivals in public. During a heart-to-heart in "80's Guy", Doug reveals that he mainly antagonizes Stewie because he's intimidated by his brilliance and envious of his hair. John Herbert (voiced by Mike Henry) – A 97-year-old pederast often referred to solely by his last name, who resides just down the street from the Griffin family and distributes Popsicle ice pops to small children in his basement. He has a particular interest in Chris; in the episode "Play It Again, Brian", Chris finally realizes this and asks Herbert, "Are you a pedophile?", to no onscreen answer. Also, in "Spies Reminiscent of Us", Stewie refers to a "pedophile who lives down the street" about which nobody is taking any action "because he's so funny", clearly talking about Herbert. He has a dog named Jesse, who is also very old and is unable to use his hind legs. He has a high-pitched, very soft effeminate voice and pronounces sibilant consonants with a high-pitched whistle. Herbert is often seen wearing a light blue robe and slippers, walks with a walker and frequently makes inappropriate, sexually tinged comments to teenage boys (in "Road to the North Pole", Herbert wants a little drummer boy for Christmas, while staring at a poster of Nick Jonas). It is revealed later on that he is the eldest member of the Skull and Bones secret society. He was also a corporal in the United States Army and a POW during World War II. Herbert plays Obi-Wan Kenobi in the Star Wars episodes. In "And Then There Were Fewer", he drove an ice cream truck which in past episodes he has used to lure little boys. In "Internal Affairs", Herbert's ice cream truck is hijacked and destroyed during one of Peter and the Giant Chicken's fighting rampages. In an interview, Henry stated that he based Herbert's voice on an old man he used to meet at a grocery store. Before the character was used for the show, Mike would use the Herbert voice to motivate stalled writers at meetings. He also appeared in The Cleveland Show episode "It's the Great Pancake, Cleveland Brown" as Cleveland Jr.'s first house when he was trick or treating. In "Valentine's Day in Quahog", it is revealed that Herbert's first name is John and that he has a grandniece named Sandy. Quagmire family Glenn Quagmire (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – The Griffins' sex-addicted, 61-year-old next-door neighbor and one of Peter's best friends. He is an airline pilot for Spirit Airlines (as revealed at the end of "Passenger Fatty-Seven") and a former member of the US Navy, but is best known for his extreme sexuality and saying "Giggity", "Alright" or yelling "Oh!" after innuendos. Crystal Quagmire (voiced by Alex Borstein in "Fore, Father", Allison Janney in "Quagmire's Mom") – The mother of Glenn and Brenda Quagmire and the wife of Dan. Her first appearance was in "Fore Father" where she is seen in a flashback breastfeeding Glenn. Crystal was once very promiscuous and neglectful of her son, but it is revealed that prior to the events of the episode "Quagmire's Mom", she has become a born-again Christian. Ida Davis (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – Born Daniel "Dan" Quagmire, she is the father of Glenn and Brenda Quagmire and the ex-husband of Crystal Quagmire, first appearing in the episode "Quagmire's Dad" where she undergoes a sex change operation. Like her son, Ida is a military veteran, and was a war hero in the Vietnam War. Brenda Quagmire (voiced by Alex Borstein in "Jerome Is the New Black", Kaitlin Olson in "Screams of Silence: The Story of Brenda Q") – The sister of Glenn Quagmire and the daughter of Dan and Crystal, who used to be in an abusive relationship with a man named Jeff Fecalman, whom Quagmire murders in retribution. Gary Quagmire – A brother of Quagmire that was mentioned in "Jerome Is the New Black" and "Screams of Silence: The Story of Brenda Q". In "Jerome Is the New Black", he is stated to be deaf. Anna Lee (voiced by Mae Whitman) – Quagmire's infant daughter that was revealed in "Quagmire's Baby". She was the result of a one-night stand and was left on his doorstep. Courtney Quagmire (voiced by Mandy Moore) – The biological daughter of Glenn Quagmire as revealed in the episode "No Giggity, No Doubt". She is one of Quagmire's several daughters, like Anna Lee. Brown/Tubbs family Cleveland Brown (voiced by Mike Henry from 1999 to 2021, Arif Zahir from 2021–present) – Peter's mild-mannered mustached friend who formerly owned and ran a deli. He would eventually leave Quahog before the events of the eighth season to live in his hometown of Stoolbend, Virginia, marry his high-school love Donna Tubbs, and have his own family. He would move back to Quahog in the twelfth season and now works as a mailman. Loretta Brown (voiced by Alex Borstein) – Cleveland's late ex-wife, and the mother of Cleveland Brown Jr. She had a liking for cricket and the television program Friends. In The Cleveland Show episode "Gone With the Wind", she dies in a freak accident back in Quahog when Peter accidentally swings a Brontosaurus skeleton found by Brian from a mobile crane into her house, destroying it and causing her to fall from the second floor in her bathtub (in a similar manner to Cleveland in a running gag on Family Guy), only for her neck to snap. Cleveland Brown Jr. (voiced by Mike Henry in earlier appearances, Kevin Michael Richardson in The Cleveland Show and later appearances) – The 14-year-old son of Cleveland and Loretta Brown. As of Season 8, he has undergone a massive change in design and personality, now overweight and less hyperactive. Donna Tubbs-Brown (voiced by Sanaa Lathan) – Cleveland's second and current wife and one of the main characters of The Cleveland Show. She is 42 years old and has two biological children from a previous marriage with Robert named Roberta and Rallo. Roberta Tubbs (voiced by Reagan Gomez-Preston) – Donna's daughter and stepdaughter to Cleveland. She was one of the main characters of The Cleveland Show. As of "He's Bla-ack!", she is now occasionally referred to and less frequently seen on Family Guy. She's also the only member of the Tubbs family that has yet to speak in Family Guy (the video game Family Guy: The Quest for Stuff doesn't count as a speaking role). Rallo Tubbs (voiced by Mike Henry from 2009 to 2021) – Donna's son, stepson to Cleveland and stepbrother to Cleveland Jr. He was one of the main characters of The Cleveland Show and, as of "He's Bla-ack!", he is now an infrequently-appearing cast member of Family Guy. Swanson family Joseph "Joe" Swanson (voiced by Patrick Warburton) – The Griffins' neighbor and Peter's friend. He is a paraplegic 46-year-old police officer who suffers from impotence and incontinence. Joe still proves to be an extremely skilled police officer, as he is constantly seen pursuing criminals or rescuing victims with the aid of his wheelchair and even goes so far as to abandon his wheelchair to complete his work. Bonnie Swanson (voiced by Jennifer Tilly) – Joe's calm and soft-spoken wife who is the mother of Kevin and Susie Swanson. She is pregnant from her first appearance in "A Hero Sits Next Door" in season one until "Ocean's Three and a Half" in season seven. Kevin Swanson (voiced by Seth MacFarlane in early appearances, Scott Grimes in later appearances) – Joe and Bonnie's 25-year-old son, and older brother to Susie Swanson. He was mainly seen in the first three seasons, only making a few occasional appearances after that with no speaking parts. He enlisted in the US Army and served in the Iraq War but after witnessing American treatment of Iraqi civilians he chooses to desert, faking his death after a cellphone bomb attached to a turkey kills his platoon on Thanksgiving. He returns to his parents in episode "Thanksgiving". He is shown to be suffering from depression, behavioral disorders and PTSD. Susie Swanson (inner monologue provided by Patrick Stewart) – Joe and Bonnie's daughter who was born in the episode "Ocean's Three and a Half". Bud Swanson (voiced by Ed O'Neill) – Joe's father, and Kevin and Susie's grandfather, whose first and only appearance so far was in "Papa Has a Rollin' Son". Goldman family Mort Goldman (voiced by Johnny Brennan) – A Jewish pharmacist of Polish-Jewish descent, and one of Peter's friends. He runs Goldman's Pharmacy and was married to Muriel Goldman, with whom he had one son, Neil. Mort's family are stereotypes of American Jews, but Mort is a decent person who gets along well with people in Quahog. He was remarried to a woman named Rachel in Season 19. Neil Goldman (voiced by Seth Green) – Mort's stereotypical nerdy 17-year-old son who is Chris's best friend at James Woods Regional High School, despite differing ages. He is the editor of the school's newspaper, is a member of the A/V Club, and works at his father's pharmacy where he is employee of the month. Muriel Goldman (voiced by Nicole Sullivan) – Mort's wife and Neil's mother, whose physical appearance is very similar to her husband's. She met Mort via a video dating service, and they had their first kiss at age of fourteen while both of them were suffering from a cold. Muriel was killed off in "And Then There Were Fewer", where she is stabbed by Diane Simmons upon becoming a witness to her plot to kill James Woods and frame Tom Tucker. Quahog Channel 5 News Thomas "Tom" Tucker (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – Tucker is the arrogant, baritone, 35-year-old male news anchor at Channel 5. He was also an actor before moving to Quahog. Diane Simmons (voiced by Lori Alan) – The station's 40-year-old former news co-anchor and talk show hostess. In "And Then There Were Fewer", Diane orchestrates a plot to murder James Woods and frame Tom Tucker for the crime; in the process, she also murders Quagmire's date Stephanie (unintentionally), Woods' girlfriend Priscilla, Muriel Goldman (both killed upon becoming witnesses to the plot) and Derek Wilcox (who was killed when trying to call the police). When Lois finds her out, she takes her hostage and attempts to kill her on a cliffside, but she is shot with a sniper rifle by Stewie (insisting he is to be the one who kills Lois) and falls into the river below. Joyce Kinney (voiced by Christine Lakin) – The station's latest news co-anchor who was introduced in the episode "Excellence in Broadcasting" as a successor to the late Diane Simmons. Tricia Takanawa (voiced by Alex Borstein) – Typically referred to as "Asian reporter Tricia Takanawa" by her colleagues, she speaks in a nasal monotone cadence that Borstein has described as "all presentation and no substance", and is 37 years old. She is confirmed as being Japanese in Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story. Oliver "Ollie" Williams (voiced by Phil LaMarr) – The 45-year-old Channel 5 Blaccu-Weather Forecast reporter. Ollie Williams is a fast-talking African-American man who rarely speaks for more than about 1–3 seconds. His news reports are always rapidly spoken and loud. His hyperkinetic style was a result of alcoholism. Ollie has only spoken for longer than a few seconds on two occasions, one in an episode where Ollie and Tom were talking about him stuck in a rainstorm with his umbrella blown away, and in "Lois Kills Stewie" where he recaps the previous episode, "Stewie Kills Lois". Peter's co-workers The following characters have worked with Peter at different jobs: Mr. Jonathan Weed (voiced by Butch Hartman in the pilot pitch, Carlos Alazraqui in the TV series) – The owner of the Happy-Go-Lucky Toy Factory, where Peter originally worked under his supervision. He speaks with a strong Spanish accent and is described as an "effeminate weirdo" by his employees. He disapproves of nearly all of Peter's actions, mainly because most of them are detrimental to the company, and fires or comes close to firing Peter on multiple occasions. In "Mr. Saturday Knight", he is invited to the Griffins' house for dinner. He promotes Peter to head of toy development and minutes later chokes to death on a dinner roll after it was Heimlich maneuvered out of Brian's throat and into Mr. Weed's throat; the half-eaten dinner roll was actually taken into police custody. His video will describes how the factory will be replaced by a children's hospital starting "now", at which point the demolition machinery promptly starts tearing through the factory, endangering everyone present. His great-grandfather's surname was "Bermudagrass" but was changed to Weed at Ellis Island. In the episode "Lois Kills Stewie", Stewie tells Lois, before attempting to shoot her, "Say hello to Cleveland for me, Oh, and Mr. Weed". Santos and Pascoal (voiced by Denis Martell and Mark Peredes) – A pair of Portuguese immigrants who do not speak English. All of their dialogue is subtitled and not understood by the other characters. In "From Method to Madness", they lament leaving Portugal for various low-paying jobs in Quahog such as caterers, fishermen, janitors, and babysitters. Peter treats them poorly. In return, they urinate in his refreshments when the opportunity arises as seen in "The Cleveland-Loretta Quagmire". In this episode, Pascoal saves Joe's life after he nearly drowns by using CPR. This prompts Lois to demand that Peter take CPR classes in order to learn what to do should the situation happen again. Pawtucket Pat (voiced by Michael McKean) – The original Willy Wonka-like owner and mascot of the Pawtucket Patriot Brewery. So far, he has only appear in the season 2 episode "Wasted Talent" and was mentioned in the season 4 episode "Jungle Love" when Peter started working at his brewery stating that Pat sold his brewery. A public statue of his ancestor also called Pawtucket Pat in the eponymous episode "Pawtucket Pat" becomes the center of controversy when it is revealed that he stole the recipe for Pawtucket Patriot Ale from the Narragansett tribe. After debate on whether or not the statue should be torn down, the descendants of the same Native American tribe intervene and their leader gives his say. Following this, the statue is relocated to a museum. Opie (voiced by Mark Hentemann) – A seemingly mentally-challenged and gibberish-speaking co-worker of Peter at the Pawtucket Brewery and ward of the state. He has won "Employee of the Month" at least twenty times and has been promoted ahead of Peter. He appears to have mental retardation and never really does anything about it. He sometimes tells Peter to stick his finger in his mouth, only to bite it. He wears two different shoes on each foot. He once went for a haircut that went horribly awry. No-one other than Angela seems to understand what he is saying. However, Peter has been shown to understand him in some instances such as when he gets fired. In "Whistle While Your Wife Works", Opie was forced to watch Peter and Lois have sex in his office at the brewery. In "Blue Harvest", he played a Tusken Raider. In "New Kidney in Town", Peter sends him a shoutout on The Price is Right. In "It's a Trap!", he plays a small amphibious alien that swallows the door droid, voiced by Consuela, from Jabba the Hutt's (Joe Swanson) palace. In "The Blind Side", Opie is fired from his position for doing something unnecessary that only Peter understood and is replaced by a deaf woman named Stella. He makes a cameo crowd appearance when Peter proposes reinstating the city government in "Tea Peter". Opie can also be seen as Stewie rides through town under Brian's car in "Family Guy Viewer Mail 2". In "The Simpsons Guy", Opie attended the trial in Springfield between Duff Beer and Pawtucket Patriot Ale. In "Underage Peter", it is revealed that Opie is not disabled, but rather he spoke gibberish due to being constantly under the influence of alcohol. Angela (voiced by Carrie Fisher) – Peter and Opie's supervisor who is in charge of the Shipping Department at the Pawtucket Brewery. She likes Opie far better than Peter, and treats Peter very coldly, repeatedly rewarding Opie as employee of the month. However, Angela fires Opie in "The Blind Side". Peter tried to befriend her based on her love of animals, but ended up horrifying her by staging a bloody cockfight in her house. In "Peter-assment", Angela sexually assaults Peter after he comes to work without wearing his glasses (which were broken at the time). After Peter refused to have sex with her and cheat on Lois, she tried to gas herself in her car. After Peter rescued her, it was revealed that she has not dated anyone in ten years. Feeling sorry for her, Peter disguised himself as a stereotypical 1920s New York billionaire and had sex with her. Angela knew it was really Peter, but what she did not know was that Peter, as a means of remaining faithful to Lois, hid Mort Goldman (who did it for $2) in his pants so it was Mort who actually had sex with her, not Peter. In "The Simpsons Guy", Angela attended the trial in Springfield between Duff Beer and Pawtucket Patriot Ale. Following Carrie Fisher's unexpected death on December 27, 2016, Seth MacFarlane revealed that Angela would appear on at least two more episodes that Fisher had already done voiceover work on in season 15, but would not comment on the character's future except by saying that "Family Guy will miss [Fisher] immensely." Her final appearance was during the sixteenth-season episode "Don't Be A Dickens At Christmas" aired on December 10, 2017. The episode "Pawtucket Pete" states that Angela had died after going swimming less than 20 minutes after she had eaten, getting a stomach cramp, and drowning. (Peter mentions to the audience, "That's a real thing kids – listen to your mothers.") Bert and Sheila (voiced by Bryan Cranston and Niecy Nash) – An interracial husband and wife who become the new managers of the Pawtucket Brewery in "Pawtucket Pete" following the death of Angela. They were hired to replace Angela because Paul McCartney and Stevie Wonder's "Ebony and Ivory" was the favorite song of one of the Pawtucket Brewery's shareholders. Hammer (voiced by Damien Fahay) – A stereotypical millennial band member, who is hired by Peter's boss, in order to learn more about millennials and reach their current target demographic. Serving as their head of social media, he has a list of trigger warnings, and just expects good things to happen to him. In "HTTPete", Hammer and Peter have a smoke break. Peter enters a cloud of vape smoke, turning him into a millennial. Whilst texting and simultaneously riding their hoverboards, Hammer gets hit by a bus. His last wish before death was to be turned into street tacos, and for Peter to open an artisanal business. Taye Diggs follows him on Twitter. Fouad (voiced by Mike Henry) – One of Peter Griffin's co-workers at the Pawtucket Brewery. He is a recent immigrant to the United States, apparently of Arab ethnicity. In all his appearances, he has demonstrated that he is extremely earnest in his attempts to learn a Western sense of humor and understand its subtleties, such as the nature of a sarcastic or ironic comment. He laughs in a loud manner at sarcastic or ironic statements before explaining why the joke was funny (for example, "Ahh! Is funny because..."). Peter does not seem to have a strong relationship with Fouad, likely due to his comparatively short time employed at the Pawtucket Brewery, however Peter gets along much better with Fouad than he does with Opie or Angela. Fouad first appears in "Chick Cancer", being introduced by Peter as that foreign guy at work who helped him understand sarcasm. In "Blue Harvest", Fouad plays Lieutenant Shann Childsen on the Death Star prison deck, who laughs when Chewbacca (played by Brian) asks for a cell by the pool, stating that it is funny because prisons do not have luxury areas such as swimming pools. In "Padre de Familia", Peter suspects that Fouad may be an illegal immigrant and is angered because of it. Fouad's voice is also heard off-camera in a DVD exclusive scene in "Three Kings". In "The Shawshank Redemption" segment, Captain Byron Hadley (played by Seamus) yells for lights out calling the inmates "ladies" and Fouad replies that it is funny because they are men. Stella (voiced by Marlee Matlin) – An attractive deaf worker at the Pawtucket Brewery. She debuted in "The Blind Side" as Opie's successor. Members of Adam West High School The following characters make up the school body of Adam West High School (previously named James Woods Regional High School): Principal John Shepherd (voiced by Gary Cole) – The principal of Adam West High School. He was revealed to be Jewish in "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein". In "The Simpsons Guy", Principal Shepherd attended the trial in Springfield between Duff Beer and Pawtucket Patriot Ale where he was placed next to Principal Skinner. In "The Peter Principal", Principal Shepherd had a bitter divorce and suffers a breakdown causing the board of education to put him on an indefinite paid leave. As Vice-Principal Brenda McGuire was found dead in her car, the board of education asks for someone to come forward to be the interim principal until a permanent replacement for Principal Shepherd can be found. When Lois anonymously tipped off the board of education about how Peter was helping Meg and her friends on their revenge on the mean students, the board of education intervenes causing them to fire him and reinstate Principal Shepherd after he recovered from his divorce following his sex trip to Thailand. In "Crimes and Meg's Demeanor", Principal Shepherd is revealed to have the first name with John and lives in an apartment building across from the building that is managed by Lou Spinazola. After a confrontation with Stewie and Brian over what appeared to have been him killing his ex-wife Fiona which ended with Brian falling out of the window, Principal Shepherd admitted to the police and the medic about him living off food taken from the school to make ends meet when the police find the bag that supposedly leaked blood. Mr. Berler (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – Mr. Berler is one of Meg's teachers at James Woods Regional High School. In "The Kiss Seen Around the World", he disagrees with Neil Goldman's selection of James T. Kirk as the better Star Trek captain supporting Captain Jean-Luc Picard as the superior officer. In "The Simpsons Guy", Mr. Berler made a cameo at the trial in Springfield between Duff Beer and Pawtucket Patriot Ale. Connie D'Amico (voiced by Fairuza Balk in "Let's Go to the Hop", Lisa Wilhoit in all subsequent appearances) – The head cheerleader and most popular girl at James Woods Regional High School. Connie is a beautiful yet narcissistic and mean-spirited 17-year-old girl who tends to look down on those who are either socially inept or unpopular and encourages the other popular students who she is friends with to bully them, with Meg being an object of favoritism to this abuse. She is most often seen with her closest friends: Gina, Scott, and Doug. While a bully to most students lacking popularity and confidence, Connie does have a softer side; in "Stew-Roids" – Connie begs Meg for help after she realizes what it is like to be shunned and ridiculed by her classmates. In the same episode, she fell in love with (and dated) Chris when she realized how nice and kind he can be. In "Let's Go to the Hop", she dances with Peter when he went undercover as "Lando Griffin" at the Winter Snowball dance. Gina (voiced by Alex Borstein in earlier appearances, Camille Guaty in later appearances, Nina Dobrev in "Trading Places") – A popular student and cheerleader at James Woods Regional High School who is Connie D'Amico's best friend. Esther (voiced by Tamera Mowry in "Barely Legal" and "Peter's Daughter", Christina Milian in later episodes) – An African-American girl who is one of Meg's friends. Patty (voiced by Alexandra Breckenridge in "Barely Legal", Barclay DeVeau in "Halloween on Spooner Street", Martha MacIsaac in later episodes) – A redheaded girl who is one of Meg's friends. She has two mothers, implying that her biological mother is a lesbian. Brian briefly had a crush on her after realizing she has a more attractive body than she seems. Ruth Cochamer (voiced by Natasha Melnick in earlier appearances, Emily Osment in later appearances) – One of Meg's friends. Her tongue is supposedly cut off during her and Meg's trip to Paris when they are kidnapped in "Leggo My Meg-O". In later episodes however, she converses normally. She has at least once hinted to have a crush on Lois, but tried to keep it under wraps. Other recurring characters Mayor Adam West (voiced by Adam West) – The Mayor of Quahog who is named after the actor who provides his voice. He is a highly odd and delusional politician. He has been shown to be good-natured but generally irresponsible. He also has a love affair with Meg in "Deep Throats". Mayor West played Grand Moff Tarkin in "Blue Harvest". As of "Brothers & Sisters", he marries Lois' sister Carol thus making him Peter and Lois's brother-in-law and the uncle-by-marriage of Meg, Chris and Stewie. In "The Simpsons Guy", Mayor Adam West attended the trial in Springfield between Duff Beer and Pawtucket Patriot Beer where he was sitting next to Mayor Joe Quimby. In "Adam West High", Mayor Adam West has passed away as Brian persuades Principal Shepherd to rename his high school after him. The episode "Wild Wild West" marked the debut of Mayor West's cousin of the same name. Wild Wild West (voiced by Sam Elliott) – Mayor Adam West's country cousin. In his titular debut episode, Peter requests he run for mayor of Quahog following the death of Adam and he chooses to run, defeating his competitor, the librarian Elle Hitler (who claims she is of "no relation"). He offhandedly mentions killing a man twice in his debut and owns a farm where he raises livestock including sentient mustaches. Bruce Straight (voiced by Mike Henry) – A 52-year-old mustached man who speaks effeminately in a calm, drawn-out voice with a slight lisp, as well as occasionally smacking his lips before a sentence. Though he was not given a name until the episode "No Chris Left Behind", he has appeared in several episodes without being named on-screen; however, he is referred to in commentary tracks prior to that episode as "the Performance Artist". He even comments on it the first time his name is spoken in the series. He has several catchphrases, the most notable being "Oh, no!". He first appeared as the clerk of an "exotic entertainment" shop in the season 1 episode "Chitty Chitty Death Bang", and was then seen sitting astride an obese donkey at the Renaissance fair when Peter fought the Black Knight. He has since been seen with a variety of jobs including a deacon, a therapist, a medium, a lawyer, a masseur and a barman. More recently, he was seen working at the bowling alley selling rental shoes as seen in "The Splendid Source", refereeing the boxing match where Lois fought Deirdre Jackson in "Baby, You Knock Me Out", and working at Quahog Laser Tag in "Forget-Me-Not". He has also been seen training to be a police officer, teaching a CPR course, chairing the Quahog Alcoholics Anonymous meetings and entertaining children at the Quahog Library. He is a member of the school board committee of James Woods Regional High School. Although Bruce himself is generally limited to occasional appearances, his voice is lent to a number of anthropomorphic creatures including a large bee, the shark in a parody of Jaws, a Xenomorph from a parody of Aliens, a Tetris block, and a giant mutant rat. In "Blue Harvest", he played the role of Greedo. He makes an appearance as Admiral Piett on the Imperial Star Destroyer in the episode "Something, Something, Something, Dark Side". Bruce is openly gay, although he initially does not want to admit it to his parents, Phil and Candy Straight, who insisted on him meeting a woman. His partner/fiancé is his roommate Jeffrey (in "Road to the North Pole", Bruce states in the song "All I Want for Christmas" that his Christmas wish is a wedding ring from Jeffrey). In the episode "BFFs" of The Cleveland Show, Peter says that Bruce was his therapist and referred to him as "that gay guy who has, like, a thousand jobs". Another character voiced by Mike Henry who was heavily implied to be Jeffrey appeared in both the Family Guy episodes "Friends of Peter G." and "Finders Keepers", and The Cleveland Show episode "Die Semi-Hard" before being confirmed to be Jeffrey in "Underage Peter". He also appeared in a deleted scene of the episode "Stewie is Enceinte", adopting Stewie's human-dog hybrid puppies at an animals shelter with Bruce. Bruce is also noted for his tendency to give unsolicited advice about mundane subjects, often during critical events. This occurs most notably during his training as a 911 operator. When a victim calls to report a man in her home, he provides tips for being a good host to unexpected guests. In "The Simpsons Guy", Bruce attended the trial in Springfield between Duff Beer and Pawtucket Patriot Ale where he was sitting next to Waylon Smithers. In "Meg's Wedding", Bruce briefly had a romantic relationship with Meg. However, they ended it on the wedding day and Bruce finally got engaged to Jeffrey, and they marry in the parking lot outside of the church, since the priest wouldn't allow them to marry in the church. Carl (voiced by H. Jon Benjamin) – The manager of the local gas station and convenience store called the Quahog Mini Mart. He speaks in a calm, monotone voice and shows almost no emotion regarding anything happening around him. Carl is a cinephile, having an obsession with films and attractive actresses. In "Road to the North Pole", he wants a Blu-ray of The Wiz for Christmas. He goes out of his way to discuss exciting movies. He becomes friends with Chris, when Chris worked for him in "Movin' Out (Brian's Song)". Their friendship is based on their mutual interest in movies. He does not get along well with Meg, although he did once hire her to work in the store. In "Friends of Peter G.", it is revealed that the reason that he knows so much about movies is because he is an alcoholic and he spent so much time in his house and watched every film he could get his hands on. In the Star Wars episodes, Carl plays Master Yoda. Consuela (voiced by Mike Henry) – A maid who in one cut-away gag is shown as the head of the Maids' Union. She is Hispanic and speaks broken English. She usually says "No, no, no...", whenever asked to do anything. She first appears in "Believe It or Not, Joe's Walking on Air" demanding Lemon Pledge in a court case. She is seen answering the door as Superman's maid at the Fortress of Solitude in "Stewie Kills Lois" telling Joe and the police officers that Superman is not home. She appears in a cutaway in "Ocean's Three and a Half" on the game show Are You Smarter Than a Hispanic Maid?. In "Dog Gone", she goes to work for the Griffin family, but proves to be so annoying that they drug her with chloroform and leave her with Joe. She has a nephew named Mikey, who sells light-up yo-yos, and a son named Rodrigo, who is in prison. Another of her nephews was molested by James Woods before he committed suicide, as revealed in "And Then There Were Fewer" when she was working as Woods' maid. In "Stewie Goes for a Drive", Stewie runs away from home and ends up in a bad neighborhood. Consuela finds and takes him to her home and puts him in her bathtub, which is also being used to make soup for a Quinceañera celebration being held at her house. Brian tracks Stewie to Consuela's house but she refuses to let him go, claiming that Stewie is her son "Ernesto". Consuela also appears as Darth Vader's maid in "Something, Something, Something, Dark Side", and as the controller of the security system at the palace of Jabba the Hutt in "It's a Trap!". She also appears as Donna's housekeeper in The Cleveland Show season 3 episode "Die Semi-Hard". In "Valentine's Day in Quahog", it is revealed that Consuela has a husband who is still living in Mexico, and to see him annually on Valentine's Day, she crosses the border illegally into Mexico. In "The Simpsons Guy", Consuela attended the trial in Springfield between Duff Beer and Pawtucket Patriot Ale where she was sitting next to Bumblebee Man due to their both being Hispanic. In "Dearly Deported", it is revealed that Consuela has an attractive niece named Isabella who has children of her own. As a result of Mike Henry stepping down from the role of Cleveland Brown, it is as of yet unknown as to whether or not he will continue to voice Consuela, her being another character of color. Death (voiced by Norm Macdonald in the first appearance, Adam Carolla in later appearances) – The Grim Reaper figure in the form of a skeleton in a black robe who seldom removes his hood. Underneath his hood is a human skull with spiders and snakes crawling in and out of the eye sockets, mouth, and ear cavities as seen in "Death Lives". He is present in "Mr. Saturday Knight" when Mr. Weed dies after choking during dinner at the Griffins'. In "I Take Thee Quagmire", it is revealed that anyone who touches his bones dies instantly (though in "Death Is a Bitch" it seems that this is contradicted, but while Stewie rubs his ankle to heal it faster, Death being out of commission, no one at all is able to die). In "Wasted Talent", Death comes to a college campus where a party had taken place and everybody is dead with beer bottles around the room. After doing his deed, he drinks some beer bottles to try to find a silver scroll (for Pawtucket Pat's contest). He ends up getting drunk and crashes his car. In "Friends of Peter G.", Death shows Peter what his life would be like if he continues to drink as much as he does, and if he does not drink at all. Peter learns to control his drinking from this. Death later ends up in a car crash in "Grumpy Old Man", leading him to be taken away by "Super Death" (a larger version of himself) who tells him he was going to be reincarnated as a Chinese child. He disappears only to reappear seconds later as he was reincarnated a Chinese baby girl. In "3 Acts of God", Death takes Peter, Quagmire, Cleveland, and Joe to speak to God. Elle Hitler (voiced by Alex Borstein) – Quahog's local librarian, originally named Joanna. She first makes two minor appearances in "Petergeist" and "Movin' Out (Brian's Song)", before making her first major appearance many seasons later in the episode "Wild Wild West", where this show had her renamed Elle Hitler. She claims to be of no relation to infamous dictator Adolf Hitler; when the townspeople greet her with "Hi, Elle Hitler", it is a homophone of "Heil Hitler". Dr. Elmer Hartman (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – An incompetent doctor who works at Quahog's hospital. Dr. Hartman is generally shown to be an unskilled doctor and his skills fluctuate from episode to episode. In one episode, he mentions his Yale Medical School degree, but then implies it is a product of his calligraphy skills. Occasionally, he seems to know exactly what he is doing and performs great medical feats, such as plastic surgery to restore Peter's face, to other episodes where he does not even understand common medical terminology, or needs a chart to find body parts and lets Meg take care of patients while he is gone, as in "You Can't Do That on Television, Peter". He temporarily loses his medical license in "Stewie Loves Lois" when Peter accuses him of rape (it turns out that Hartman had in fact merely performed a normal prostate exam, though Peter did not understand the procedure). He manages to regain his license after treating Peter's urination problem. In "Believe It or Not, Joe's Walking on Air", Peter brought up the fact that Hartman sounds very similar to Carter Pewterschmidt when he speaks. As a response, Hartman tells Peter that Carter is one of his patients and that there are only so many voices in the world; some are bound to be similar and that he never noticed because they do not talk all that much despite the fact that Carter is in fact a patient of his. This was brought up to turn the scenario that MacFarlane voices both Hartman and Carter into a comical situation. His name comes from MacFarlane's close friend and fellow animator Elmer "Butch" Hartman. In "New Kidney in Town", Hartman gives Peter one of his kidneys because the Griffin family are his last paying customers. Also in the episode, Hartman reveals that while attempting to clone a chicken, he inadvertently created the Giant Chicken where Peter says he is going to want to discuss with Dr. Hartman later. In "Secondhand Spoke", it is revealed that Hartman has a gay son. In "Ratings Guy", it is revealed that Hartman is the worst doctor at Quahog's hospital. In "The Simpsons Guy", Dr. Hartman was among the Quahog citizens to attend the trial between Pawtucket Patriot Ale and Duff Beer in Springfield. He was shown to have been seated next to Dr. Nick Riviera (who was also an incompetent doctor). In "Once Bitten", Dr. Hartman enlisted his dad to get him and Seamus into a movie theater. In "Papa Has a Rollin' Son", it is revealed that Hartman has dyslexia. Hartman is the general doctor for the Griffin family since they usually go to him for emergencies and surgeries. Frank Sinatra Jr. (voiced by himself) – A singer, songwriter and conductor who meets Brian Griffin in "Brian Sings and Swings" following his near-death experience. Frank gives him some words of wisdom before taking the stage at the Quahog Cabana Club. Brian and Frank start to sing together, and eventually Stewie Griffin joins them, forming the "New Rat Pack". In "Tales of a Third Grade Nothing", Frank and Brian purchase the Quahog Cabana Club. When business fails to improve, the two look to Stewie to bring in more customers. Stewie turns the club into a trendy Hollywood style night club called pLace that ultimately fails when Andy Dick shows up to party. The episode "Bookie of the Year" was posthumously Frank Sinatra Jr.'s final role where he was shown helping Brian and Stewie with a restaurant plan. The episode is dedicated to him. God (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – The father of Jesus Christ and the creator of life. He is a central part of the basic tenets in the religion of Christianity. Although the basic concept of God exists in other monotheistic and polytheistic religions, it is the Christian God that serves as the basis for the character in Family Guy. His appearance in the show is the stereotypical appearance of an Abrahamic god in the Western world; a bald-headed Caucasian man with long white hair, a huge white beard and a white robe. Contrary to the widespread belief of a benevolent and pure God, the "God" character in Family Guy has often been shown to have several human flaws, especially being shown as being socially irresponsible and sexually perverted. In the episode "Fifteen Minutes of Shame", he aims a sniper rifle with red dot sight at Meg from the clouds after she says, "Oh God, kill me now", but is interrupted by a phone call before he can complete the task. In the episode "Blind Ambition", God flirts with a woman at the Drunken Clam, and lights her a cigarette with lightning before accidentally vaporizing her and setting the bar on fire, to which he exclaims, "Jesus Christ!" Jesus then arrives, and hastily leaves the area with God in a Cadillac Escalade before they can be caught up in the blaze. In "Untitled Griffin Family History", God asks his roommate Chuggs for a lighter, using it to light a fart. On his second attempt, the lit fart sets in motion the Big Bang that creates the universe. In "The Courtship of Stewie's Father", Joseph quarrels with a teenage Jesus, before Jesus storms out of the room shouting, "You're not my real father!". He then goes on to give God a phone call asking if he can go back to live with him in Heaven, but is rejected. God then turns to a young woman named Janet lying in his bed, hoping to have sex with her. Janet hands him a condom to his disappointment, and asks her to reconsider, saying it is his birthday, but Janet refuses. In "Partial Terms of Endearment", Peter thanks God thinking he is set to participate in a threesome with Lois and her friend Naomi, to which God replies "Don't mention it, Peter". A jingle is then heard singing, "God! He knows what turns you on!" after which God says, "Have fun!" In "Into Fat Air", God and Jesus discuss on how to name a country in the Himalayas. God says that the mountains look like nipples, to which Jesus replies by saying that he cannot just call a country "Nipples". In response, God suggests the name "Nepal" to Jesus' approval. In other episodes, God's serious side has also been shown on occasion such as in "If I'm Dyin', I'm Lyin'" where he curses Peter with six of the 10 plagues after he lied to the people of Quahog about being a healer and is then worshipped as a god. Horace (voiced by Johnny Brennan) – The proprietor and bartender of The Drunken Clam for 30 years. Has been shown to have been working there for at least as long as Peter and his friends have been regulars. Horace has also been shot a handful of times, but has recovered from each incident. In "One If by Clam, Two If by Sea", Horace sold The Drunken Clam following a storm and moved to Florida. He later repurchased it after moving back to Quahog. In "Blind Ambition", Horace's life is saved by Peter (who was blind at the time) when The Drunken Clam was on fire. In "Save the Clam", Horace is accidentally killed when a baseball hit by Jerome hits him during a baseball game between The Drunken Clam and Mort's Pharmacy. His death causes the bank to close The Drunken Clam which was enough for Peter, Joe and Quagmire to protest this until Jerome buys The Drunken Clam to keep Horace's legacy alive. Jake Tucker (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – Tom Tucker's deformed son and Chris' former classmate. Jake's many appearances show him with an "upside-down face"; a mouth near the top of his head and eyes near the bottom. In "It Takes a Village Idiot, and I Married One", he gets a normal face, via toxic waste. Although typically depicted as a demanding and obnoxious brat, Jake craves his father's attention, which he rarely gets. It is also revealed in "Peter Griffin: Husband, Father...Brother?" that he "doesn't have a bottom". Though Tom often neglects him, he often shows that he cares when Brian accused Jake of giving Chris alcohol. However, when Chris gets his own back on Jake by planting drugs in his locker an enraged Tom declares him a "bad boy" and loses faith in him. In "Mother Tucker", Jake is noticeably neglected by Tom when Tom pays more attention to Peter. But Peter then realizes that Tom should pay more attention to Jake. James Woods (voiced by himself) – A 52-year-old actor whose fictional persona becomes a criminal sociopath. In "Peter's Got Woods", he is invited by Peter to help deal with the local high school being named for Woods, i.e. James Woods Regional High School. While Brian's attentions are turned to his girlfriend, Peter becomes friends with Woods. This friendship ends when Woods becomes jealous of Brian. Peter and Brian lure Woods into a crate, forgetting to make holes for air, and ship him off to be studied by "top men". Woods returns in "Back to the Woods", stealing Peter's wallet and assuming his identity. Peter retaliates by assuming Woods' identity and ruining his credibility on the Late Show with David Letterman. When Woods shows up to fight Peter, he is again lured into a crate to be studied by "top men". In "Something, Something, Something, Dark Side", Woods makes an appearance as General Maximilian Veers. In "Brian Griffin's House of Payne", the CBS producers hire Woods to star in Brian Griffin's television show, Woods making multiple changes to Brian's original script that prompt Brian to back out of the project. James Woods reappears in "And Then There Were Fewer" in which he becomes a born-again Christian due to his new relationship with young news intern Priscilla. Woods turns his life over to Jesus wishing to make amends for his sins. Woods is later killed as part of an elaborate murder plot orchestrated by Diane Simmons. In "Tom Tucker: The Man and His Dream", it is revealed that the paramedics who loaded Woods' body into the ambulance recognized him and had his body rushed to a special Hollywood hospital where a teenage girl's life force was drained into Woods which successfully resurrected him. He is still a born-again Christian when he encounters Peter Griffin and Tom Tucker in Hollywood. In "The Simpsons Guy", James Woods was present in Springfield at the trial between Duff Beer and Pawtucket Patriot Ale. During this time, he interacted with his Simpsons counterpart from "Homer and Apu". The episode "Inside Family Guy" had James Woods hosting the behind-the-scenes theme of the episode. Jeffrey (voiced by Mike Henry) – Jeffrey is Bruce's boyfriend and was initially an offscreen character before making his first official appearance in "Underage Peter". In "Meg's Wedding", he and Bruce finally get married. Jerome (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) – A 42-year-old African-American man, who first appeared in "Jerome is the New Black" in which he won the audition as a temporary replacement for Cleveland. It is revealed he was involved with Lois Griffin in their younger days before she met Peter, which made Peter jealous enough to burn down Jerome's house. So Lois invited him to come live with them. Peter believed that Jerome was trying to steal Lois from him and became jealous. He kicked Jerome out of his house, but later apologized to him and they remained friends. Jerome also tells Peter that he had some nasty ass sex with Meg when he was staying with the Griffins although Peter told him that he does not care about that. He returns in "Save the Clam" playing for Mort Goldman's softball team against Peter and his team from The Drunken Clam. He accidentally kills Horace by swinging the ball towards his face. Jerome appears at the funeral where he apologizes for accidentally killing Horace. When it came to the demolition of The Drunken Clam which Peter, Quagmire, and Joe were protesting, Jerome appears and uses his sports earnings from lacrosse (which also happens to be his brother's name) to buy The Drunken Clam in order to keep Horace's legacy alive. In "Baby Got Black", it is revealed that Jerome has a daughter named Pam and at first disapproved of her relationship with Chris. In "Follow the Money", Jerome reveals that he lost both his childhood sweetheart and their daughter shortly after their wedding. In "Pawtucket Pete", it is revealed that Jerome's voice is unaffected by helium as seen when Peter fired a harpoon gun at Brian Griffin's parade balloon. Jesus Christ (voiced by Seth MacFarlane in early episodes, David Goodman in "Stu and Stewie's Excellent Adventure", Seth Green in "The Courtship of Stewie's Father", Alec Sulkin in later episodes) – The central figure of Christianity. Throughout the duration of the series, there has been a running gag that Jesus drives a Cadillac Escalade. This is first seen in the episode "Blind Ambition", in which he uses it to pick up God from the Drunken Clam after He accidentally set the bar on fire. In "North by North Quahog", he is seen in the car in a trailer for the action film The Passion of the Christ 2: Crucify This starring Jim Caviezel as Jesus and Chris Tucker, and directed by Mel Gibson. Jesus Christ's most prominent appearance on the show came in the episode "I Dream of Jesus", where he worked in disguise at a vinyl record store called "Dead Format Records" before being recognized by Peter. After a public display of his powers, including walking on water, he becomes a huge celebrity in Quahog. While having dinner with the Griffins, Jesus proves to Brian that he actually is Jesus Christ by turning their dinners into ice cream sundaes, before immensely enlarging Lois' breasts at Peter's request, to the absolute shock of Brian. As the episode progresses, Jesus lets fame get to his head more and more while becoming more distant from Peter and his family, and ultimately gets himself incarcerated for drug abuse. When Peter visits him in prison, Jesus apologizes for his actions and decides that he probably was not mature enough to return to the world. He then gives Peter another record of "Surfin' Bird" as a gift after the first one he had was destroyed by Brian and Stewie. In "Chitty Chitty Death Bang", he turned water into funk. In the episode "Holy Crap", Francis repeatedly gives Jesus the employee of the week award, and is himself later seen in a golf course going for a fourth birdie. Upon missing his putt, he uses his power to move the ball into the hole. In the episode "And the Wiener is...", Jesus and Moses use guns to defeat the Romans in a film by the National Gun Association. In the episode "Deep Throats", Lois asks "What if Jesus had given up?", after which Jesus is seen in a shabby-looking house sitting lazily in a chair, with several children running around him, and calls out to their mother asking why their ironing board is still out. In "Stu and Stewie's Excellent Adventure", the adult Stewie tells his infant self of a time when he went back in time on vacation to see Jesus, saying that his abilities may have been exaggerated a bit. A cutaway shows adult Stewie and other members of the public watching Jesus perform Art Metrano's "tricks" while humming the song "Fine and Dandy". In "Boys Do Cry", Stewie imagines what it would be like meeting Jesus, and in a cutaway is then seen entering a room in Jesus' house to find him naked washing himself in a tub. Despite noticing Stewie, he carries on. In "Jerome is the New Black", he has an African-American counterpart in "Black Jesus" who is portrayed as a cool laid back character and is seen wearing sunglasses. In "Go, Stewie, Go", he is seen in a dodgeball game on the side of the jocks pelting numerous balls at the nerds. In "Life of Brian", Stewie is seen at the last supper suggesting the idea of rebellion to Judas Iscariot, pointing out that Jesus ordered five margaritas while all Judas had was the salad. In other episodes, Jesus has also been portrayed as a voice of reason, such as in "Family Goy", where he tells Peter about his Jewish identity after Peter and Lois quarreled over whether their family should be Christian or Jewish. However, in response to Peter's question asking which religion his family should follow, Jesus says "6 of 1, they're all complete crap". In "3 Acts of God", it is shown that Jesus is dating Carrie Underwood. In "The 2000-Year-Old Virgin", Jesus has broken up with Carrie Underwood. Jillian Russell-Wilcox (voiced by Drew Barrymore) – Brian's cute, bulimic, and dimwitted ex-girlfriend who is portrayed as a stereotypical blonde. She is quite ignorant; for example, she does not understand that Adolf Hitler died decades ago. She has a close friendship with Peter, who treats her more like a daughter than he does Meg, due to their similar levels of intelligence. The remainder of the Griffin family look on her as a figure of mockery and symbol of Brian's shallowness, although she has affection for them, involving them all in her wedding. She first appeared in "Whistle While Your Wife Works". She is the only girlfriend that Brian has dated for more than one episode, and was a recurring character in season 5. He stays with her purely for sex, though after they split, he felt strong feelings of love for her. In "Prick Up Your Ears", when Brian talks about Jillian's bulimia, he goes on to compare her to Karen from The Carpenters, who succumbed to anorexia in 1983, claiming she "overdid it" but he thinks "Jillian's found a good balance". She breaks up with Brian in "Movin' Out" when it is revealed that Brian did not want a committed relationship with her, and she briefly dated Mayor West. She got married in the episode "We Love You, Conrad". In "And Then There Were Fewer", her husband Derek Wilcox was murdered by Diane Simmons, making Jillian a widow. She is shown dating again in "Tiegs for Two", where Quagmire attempts to date her to make Brian jealous, but she and Cheryl Tiegs leave together when they realize how immature both men are acting. In "Valentine's Day in Quahog", Jillian is among the ex-girlfriends of Brian that Stewie assembles. Jim Kaplan (voiced by Danny Smith) – A con man who tricks Peter into spending money on various useless things on many occasions. He was first introduced as Doug but has been referred to as Jim in later episodes. First appearing in "There's Something About Paulie", he sells a car to Peter that does not have an engine under the hood but rather a picture of one by claiming that the car belonged to James Bond. He later sells Peter volcano insurance in "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein" where Peter paid him with Lois' rainy day money (which she planned to use after Stewie broke Meg's glasses). With help from the accountant Max Weinstein, Peter reclaimed the money. Jim later sells Peter a TiVo in "Bango Was His Name Oh!". In "A Fish out of Water", he gives Peter a loan for Peter's new fishing boat and Peter offers up his house as collateral which later gets taken over by the bank and sold to a fashionable, artsy, neo-hippie-ish new couple named Jim and Abby. In "Hell Comes to Quahog", he sells Peter a tank for Meg at a car dealership for her first car and finally convinces him by saying "Did I mention it's a tank?" Judge Dignified Q. Blackman (voiced by Phil LaMarr) – The African-American judge who presides over trials involving any of this show's characters. His full name was revealed by the bailiff in "Veteran Guy" when Peter, Cleveland, and Joe were on trial for violating the Stolen Valor Act of 2013. Lou Spinazola – The building manager of the seedy apartment building that Brian Griffin resides in from "The D in Apartment 23" to "Crimes and Meg's Demeanor". Lou's one rule in his apartment building is to never kiss the mail carrier. In "Married... with Cancer", Lou allows Brian and his terminal cancer-recovered wife Jess Schlotz to move in while having developed a sitcom catchphrase. Paddy Tanniger – A short red-haired angry man who has been seen as a caddy manager and a Hummer salesman. He generally ends his statements with "Big whoop, wanna fight about it?" He was eventually killed when he was run over by a tank piloted by Brian and Stewie in "Hell Comes to Quahog". It is mentioned on the DVD commentary for "The Perfect Castaway" that the character was disliked by nearly all the writing staff, which led to his death. Rupert (voiced by David Boat in "Stewie Loves Lois", "Stewie Kills Lois, "Lois Kills Stewie", and "Road to the North Pole") – A stuffed teddy bear that belongs to one-year-old Stewie Griffin. Though inanimate, Rupert has become his personal confidant and best friend. Stewie confides all his secrets and machinations in Rupert, and often gets upset when Rupert does not respond. Rupert has been known to double as a pistol when needed "Peter, Peter, Caviar Eater". Rupert has been damaged several times. The first time in a flashback in "Stu & Stewie's Excellent Adventure", Stewie argued with Brian about the economy and Brian decided to eat one of Rupert's legs. Stewie got the leg back after a while. The second time involved encountering an unfamiliar Rottweiler dog in "Stewie Loves Lois". Rupert was torn to shreds but was later sewn back together by Lois. In "A Very Special Family Guy Freakin' Christmas", Stewie tears Rupert in two, after waking up from a Santa Claus-themed nightmare. In "Killer Queen", Stewie shoots Rupert in the head with a gun rather than risk letting him die a worse death when he sees the cover of a Queen album. In "The Man with Two Brians", he is humped by New Brian for two hours. Stewie is then shown dragging a body into the garbage, later revealed to be New Brian. At the end of the episode Stewie is shown crying in the shower and washing Rupert in despair, constantly reassuring him that it was not his fault. In "Chick Cancer", when Stewie married Olivia Fuller, he had Rupert officiate the ceremony. "8 Simple Rules for Buying My Teenage Daughter" had the creation of Stewpert, a being where Stewie and Rupert were fused together after Stewie activated his teleportation device before he realized Rupert was inside, in reference to Brundlefly of The Fly. Stewie had several times referred to him as gay. Stewie accused Rupert of choosing to watch the boys in "Road to Rhode Island" as opposed to watching their bags as Stewie has told him to, much to Stewie's chagrin. In the episode "Road to Rupert". Brian accidentally sells Rupert causing both Brian and Stewie (after Brian confesses to selling Rupert by accident) to head off to the Swiss Alps to retrieve him from the family that he was sold to, eventually challenging the father of the family to a ski race to either get him back or give the family Brian as the stakes, Stewie does not respect the rules and throws hot tea in the other young boy' eyes blinding him long enough to grab Rupert, but Stewie later says that he was through with Rupert and was too old for him, saying "...after all, Brian, I'm nearly one." Stewie has also imagined Rupert as a muscular, human male a few times, including in "Road to the North Pole", where he builds a buff Rupert snowman in the opening credit sequence. However, Rupert retains his Teddy Bear head. In a DVD exclusive scene in "Excellence in Broadcasting", Stewie explores the experience of masturbating and in his fantasy buff Rupert makes out with an equally buff Brian while Stewie is tied to the bed. In the episode "Lois Comes Out of Her Shell", Rupert's head is ripped off by Stewie's evil pet turtle Sheldon who Stewie enters a fight with in return. In "Total Recall", the factory that made Rupert demands all bears are sent back due to them becoming a choking hazard. Lois in shock sends him back and Brian and Stewie go on a life-threatening quest to get him back, only just saving Rupert (and Stewie) from instant death on a furnace. As they return home, Stewie celebrates with Rupert only for Rupert's eye to come off and Stewie to swallow it supposedly killing him with Chris who witnessed the scene casually shouting "Mom, Stewie's dead". In the episode "Quagmire's Quagmire", Stewie must decide whether to "play" with Rupert anymore after Lois finds his newborn plush toy, a blue, scruffy looking, bow-tied teddy bear named Oscar who was apparently given to him by Babs Pewterschmidt (his maternal grandmother) when Stewie was born. This fact is stated by Meg who is in the attic, organizing items from boxes along with Lois. Stewie treats Rupert like a nagging wife juxtaposed to Oscar's imaginary role as the still loved ex-girlfriend. In "The Simpsons Guy", Stewie is seen holding Rupert in court, while sitting next to Mr. Burns, holding his own teddy bear, Bobo. In "Stewie, Chris & Brian's Excellent Adventure", Rupert tells the other stuffed animals that he is straight after Stewie and Brian leave with Chris in the time machine. In "Dog Bites Bear", Brian accidentally destroys Rupert while drunk. He later replaces him with an identical looking bear that Stewie believes to be Rupert having returned from the dead. In the season 19 episode "The Talented Mr. Stewie" Stewie "breaks up" with Rupert after having found out he belonged to Chris before Stewie was born. Stewie then returns Rupert to Chris and in trying to fill the void starts playing with different stuffed animals, but to no avail. Eventually Stewie is driven by jealousy to kill Chris and Rupert. After realizing Chris planned on returning Rupert, Stewie saves a drowning Chris and reconciles with Rupert. Seamus Levine (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – Seamus is a tough fisherman with two peg-legs as well as two peg arms. He wears a black eye-patch over his right eye. He makes his first appearance in the episode "A Fish Out of Water". While spending time with Peter and the gang in a steam room, it is revealed his whole body from the neck down is wood. He tends to warn Peter of danger. Seamus had his own talk show in "Perfect Castaway". In his premiere episode, he jokes that his father was a tree, but in the episode "And Then There Were Fewer" he blames his condition on James Woods. Seamus initially claims that Woods carved him from wood and did not wish hard enough for him to be a real boy, but he later revealed that they both got high on acid one day and Woods ate off Seamus' arms and legs, thinking that he was a steak. In "Ocean's Three and a Half", when Seamus is seen naked, his body is entirely wooden while his head is human, bringing into question how he can sustain life. He played Byron Hadley in the series' portrayal of The Shawshank Redemption which was seen the second of the "Three kings". In a DVD exclusive scene, Seamus tries out for Fox News Channel in "FOX-y Lady". He gets a ship in a bottle for Christmas in "Road to the North Pole". In "Tiegs for Two", he attends Quagmire's class on how to pick up women. In "Cool Hand Peter", Seamus attempts to join in Peter, Joe, Cleveland, and Quagmire's road trip only to be rejected by Peter. In "The Simpsons Guy", Seamus attended the trial in Springfield between Duff Beer and Pawtucket Patriot Ale where he was sitting next to Captain Horatio McCallister. In "Christmas Is Coming" his son Woody was introduced; he also has two peg-legs and two peg arms. Miss Tammy (voiced by Rachael MacFarlane) – Stewie's teacher at Quahog Preschool. Vinny (voiced by Tony Sirico) – A four-year-old talking Italian greyhound whose first appearance in the franchise occurs in "Life of Brian". After Brian is killed in a tragic car accident, the Griffin family decides to find another dog at the pet store to ease their grief. They meet Vinny, a pussyhound (he is 1/16th cat) of Italian descent. Each member of the family (save Stewie) is taken with Vinny, and he is adopted into their family. Stewie, still mourning the death of Brian, rebuffs the hound and makes several attempts to get him out of the family. However, once Stewie learns that Vinny had also undergone a period of mourning when his owner died in a freak yoga accident, he comes to accept the hound as part of the family. His personality is that of a streetwise, "wise guy" Italian American. In "Christmas Guy", Vinny, upon asking around, finds out that Carter Pewterschmidt canceled an event at Quahog Mall, and reports this to the Griffin family. Vinny helps Stewie distract his past self so he can steal the return pad from his backpack and travel back in time to save Brian. Before Stewie goes back in time, he says his goodbyes to Vinny. Just before Stewie travels back in time, Vinny walks off shouting "Georgette, I'm coming home!", at which Stewie questions who "Georgette" is. At the end of "The Boys in the Band", Vinny is seen performing with Olivia Fuller. Gag characters Al Harrington (voiced by Danny Smith) – The owner, president, and CEO of "Al Harrington's Wacky Waving Inflatable Arm-Flailing Tubeman Emporium and Warehouse". Barbershop Quartet (voiced by Jon Joyce, Bob Joyce, Rick Logan, and Randy Crenshaw) – A group of four men that sing close harmony songs in specific episodes. Buzz Killington (voiced by Danny Smith) – A man who dresses and acts as if he is a 19th-century British man of means. Conway Twitty – Usually seen in archival footage of his performances, which are used when one of the characters needs a distraction. Evil Monkey (voiced by Danny Smith) – A 31-year-old monkey living in Chris's closet. The monkey's trademark grimace and pointing was the idea of writer Mike Barker. Ernie the Giant Chicken (voiced by Danny Smith) – An anthropomorphic, human-sized, 32-year-old chicken that often fights violently and suddenly with Peter Griffin, usually interrupting some unrelated event. Fred Flintstone (voiced by Jeff Bergman) – Fred Flintstone is a caveman from The Flintstones who has made various appearances on the show. In "Patriot Games", he warns viewers to "vote no on Indian gaming laws". In "Simpsons Guy", Fred was the judge at the trial between Duff Bear and Pawtucket Patriot Ale. While he finds in favor of Duff Beer, Fred considers both drinks imitations of his beer Bud Rock. The Greased-up Deaf Guy (voiced by Mike Henry) – A naked man covered in grease who first appears in "The Thin White Line". James William Bottomtooth III (voiced by Chris Sheridan) – A character who suffers from a severe underbite (Habsburg jaw), which has given him a comically oversized lower jaw and has made his speech impossible to understand due to his extreme Locust Valley lockjaw accent. Kool-Aid Guy (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – The mascot for the popular drink Kool-Aid is parodied in several episodes. The Muppets – A group of puppet characters created by Jim Henson. Muppets that were featured on this show: Bert and Ernie, Big Bird, Grover, Cookie Monster, Kermit the Frog, Miss Piggy, Statler and Waldorf, Fozzie Bear, Dr. Bunsen Honeydew, Beaker, Swedish Chef, Count von Count, Animal, Dr. Teeth, Janice, Elmo, Scooter, Oscar the Grouch and Herry Monster. Phineas and Barnaby – Two strongmen that usually pursue two goals: working out at the Quahog Gym and riding high-wheel Penny Farthing bicycles of the 1860s–1890s. RJ (voiced by Mike Henry) – His running gag is how he frequently wants to "bone his girlfriend" but due to some circumstance it never happens. Tomik and Bellgarde (voiced by John Viener and Alec Sulkin) – Two foreign guys who have "been living in the United States almost long enough to sound American". Vern and Johnny (Vern is voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – Two Vaudeville characters who appear in cutaways and are dressed in traditional turn-of-the-century outfits. Deaths Six actors who voiced semi-regular Family Guy characters have died: Phyllis Diller (d. 2012), who played Peter's mother, Thelma; Charles Durning (d. 2012), who voiced his father, Francis, and who died after his character had already been killed off in the series; Carrie Fisher (d. 2016), who played Angela, Peter's boss at the brewery; Frank Sinatra Jr. (d. 2016), who appeared in three episodes as himself; Adam West (d. 2017), who voiced Mayor Adam West; Norm MacDonald (d. 2021), who voiced Death in his first appearance. References Animated human characters Lists of characters in American television adult animation

Virginia City, Nevada

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Virginia City is a census-designated place (CDP) that is the county seat of Storey County, Nevada, and the largest community in the county. The city is a part of the Reno–Sparks Metropolitan Statistical Area. Virginia City developed as a boomtown with the 1859 discovery of the Comstock Lode, the first major silver deposit discovery in the United States, with numerous mines opening. The population peaked in the mid-1870s, with an estimated 25,000 residents. The mines' output declined after 1878, and the population declined as a result. As of the 2020 Census, the population of Virginia City was 787.. History Peter O'Riley and Patrick McLaughlin are credited with the discovery of the Comstock Lode. Henry T. P. Comstock's name was associated with the discovery through his own machinations. According to folklore, James Fennimore, nicknamed Old Virginny Finney, christened the town when he tripped and broke a bottle of whiskey at a saloon entrance in the northern section of Gold Hill, soon to become Virginia City. In another story, the Ophir Diggings were named in honor of Finney as he was "one of the first discoverers of that mining locality, and one of the most successful prospectors in that region." Finney "was the best judge of placer ground in Gold Canyon," locating the quartz footwall of the Ophir on 22 February 1858, the placers on Little Gold Hill on 28 January 1859, and the placers below Ophir in 1857. After the discovery of the Comstock Lode in 1859, the town developed seemingly overnight on the eastern slopes of Mount Davidson, perched at a 6200-foot elevation. Below the town were dug intricate tunnels and shafts for silver mining. The Comstock Lode discovery and subsequent growth of Virginia City was unequaled by the history of other precious metal discoveries. Virginia City's silver ore discoveries were not part of the California Gold Rush, which occurred 10 years before. At the time of the discovery of the Comstock Lode, silver was considered the monetary equal of gold, and all production was purchased by the federal government for use in coinage. In 1873, silver was demonetized by the government, in large part due to the flood of silver into international markets from the silver mines of Virginia City. Technical problems plagued the early mining efforts, requiring the development of new mining technology to support the challenge. German engineer Philip Deidesheimer created a timbering system for mining tunnels called square sets, which enabled the retrieval of huge amounts of silver ore in a safe manner. Square set timbering, roots blowers, stamp mills, the Washoe Pan milling process, Cornish pumps, Burleigh machine drills, wire woven rope, miners' safety cages and the safety clutch for those cages; even the Sutro tunnel all had a place in supporting the exploitation of the rich ore body. As technological advancements, these were used many times over in later mining applications. In 1876 one observer reported that in Virginia City, "every activity has to do with the mining, transportation, or reduction of silver ore, or the melting and assaying of silver bullion." By 1876 Nevada produced over half of all the precious metals in the United States. The Comstock produced silver and gold ore valued at hundreds of thousands of dollars annually. The wealth supported the Northern cause during the American Civil War and flooded the world monetary markets, resulting in economic changes. Like many cities and towns in Nevada, Virginia City was a mining boomtown; it developed virtually overnight as a result of miners rushing to the Comstock Lode silver strike of 1859. But, Virginia City far surpassed all others for its peak of population, technological advancements developed there, and for providing the population base upon which Nevada qualified for statehood. The riches of the Comstock Lode inspired men to hunt for silver mines throughout Nevada and other parts of the American West. Virginia City population increased from 4,000 in 1862 to over 15,000 in 1863. It fluctuated depending on mining output. US Census figures do not reflect all of these frequent changes. Nonetheless, Virginia City overnight became one of the largest cities in the American Southwest. For the 1880 United States census, Virginia City was even larger than some of today's largest cities of the entire US, such as Phoenix, San Diego, Jacksonville, and even Dallas. The city included gas and sewer lines, the one hundred room International Hotel with elevator, three theatres, the Maguire Opera House, four churches, and three daily newspapers. Many of the homes and buildings were made of brick. With this center of wealth, many important local politicians and businessmen came from the mining camp. At its peak after the Big Bonanza of 1873 Virginia City had a population of over 25,000 residents and was called the richest city in America. Dominated by San Francisco moneyed interests, Virginia City was heralded as the sophisticated interior partner of San Francisco. "San Francisco on the coast and Virginia City inland" became the mantra of west coast Victorian entrepreneurs. Early Virginia City settlers were in large part the backwash from San Francisco and the California Gold Rush, ten years before. Mine owners who made a killing in the Comstock mines spent most of their wealth in San Francisco. A San Francisco stock market existed for the exploitation of Comstock mining. The Bank of California financed building the financial district of San Francisco with money from the Comstock mines. The influence of the Comstock lode rejuvenated what was the ragged little town of 1860 San Francisco. "Nearly all the profits of the Comstock were invested in San Francisco real estate and in the erection of fine buildings." Thus, Virginia City built San Francisco. The Comstock's success, measured in values of the time period, totaled "about $400 million." Mining and its attraction of population was the economic factor that caused the separation of Nevada territory from Utah, and later justified and supported Nevada statehood. The mining industry dominated Virginia City, making it an industrial center similar to those of the east coast. But the city retained some of its frontier flavor. The social history of the town has emphasized the high number of immigrants among its residents. Miners largely from Cornwall, England, where tin mines had been developed based on hard rock technology, flooded the Comstock. The new English immigrants were one of the largest ethnic groups. Many of the miners who came to the city were Cornish or Irish. In 1870, Asians were 7.6% of the population, primarily Chinese workers who settled in many western towns after they had completed construction of the transcontinental railroad. The Chinese filled niche markets, such as laundry workers and cooks. Through time, the numerous independent Comstock mines became consolidated under ownership of large monopolies. A group called the Bank Crowd, dominated by William Sharon in Virginia City and William Ralston in San Francisco, financed the mines and mills of the Comstock until they had a virtual monopoly. By manipulating stock through rumors and false reports of mining wealth, some men made fortunes from the stocks of Virginia City's mines. When it appeared the Comstock Lode was finished, the city's population declined sharply, with ten thousand leaving in 1864 and 1865. By the late 1860s, a group of Irish investors threatened the Bank Crowd's control. John Mackay and partner James Fair began as common miners, working their way up to management positions in the mines. By purchasing stock in the mines, they realized financial independence. Their partners James Clair Flood and William S. O'Brien stayed in San Francisco and speculated in stock. The Irish Big Four (or Bonanza Kings), as the men were called, eventually controlled the Consolidated Virginia mine where the Big Bonanza was discovered in 1873. The next few years were some of the most profitable on the Comstock, as the Bank Crowd lost control to the Irish Big Four. Population reached 25,000 in 1875. Mining operations were hindered by the extreme temperatures in the mines caused by natural hot springs. In winter the miners would snowshoe to the mines and then have to descend to work in high temperatures. These harsh conditions contributed to a low life expectancy, and earned miners the nickname of Hot Water Plugs. Adolph Sutro built the Sutro Tunnel to drain the hot spring waters to the valley below. But, by the time it was completed in 1879, the mines had substantially passed the intersection level, as their tunnels had been dug ever deeper. In 1879, the mines began to play out and the population fell to just under 11,000. Great Fire of 1875 Between 1859 and 1875, Virginia City had numerous serious fires. The October 26, 1875 fire, dubbed the Great Fire, caused $12 million in damage. "The spectacle beggars description; the world was on fire...a square mile of roaring flames." When a church caught fire, Mackay was heard to say, "Damn the church! We can build another if we can keep the fire from going down these shafts." Though the Con. Virginia and Ophir hoisting works burned, the fire did not penetrate the Con. Virginia shaft and only reached 400 feet into the Ophir shaft. "Railroad car wheels were melted", "brick buildings went down like paper boxes", and two thousand were left homeless. In ensuing months the city was rebuilt. A majority of the area now designated as the National Historic Landmark historic district dates to this later time period. However, the bonanza period was at an end by 1880 Virginia City and Mark Twain The writer and humorist Samuel Clemens, then a reporter on the local Territorial Enterprise newspaper first used the pen name Mark Twain in Virginia City in February 1863 Clemens lived in Virginia City and wrote for the Enterprise from fall 1862 until May 1864. His departure was to avoid a duel with a local newspaper editor upset over Clemens' reporting. Clemens returned to the Comstock region twice on lecture tours, first in 1866 when he was mugged on the Divide. The muggers relieved Clemens of his watch and his money. The robbery turns out to have been a practical joke played on Clemens by his friends. He did not appreciate the joke, but he did retrieve his belongings—particularly his gold watch (worth $300), which had great sentimental value. Clemens' book Roughing It (1872) includes this and other anecdotes about the city. Clemens' second return occurred in 1868 at the time of the hanging of John Millian, who was convicted of murdering the well-liked madam Julia Bulette. Climate Virginia City has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Csa) with warm to hot summers and cooler and rainier winters. Economy In the 21st century, Virginia City's economy is based on tourism. Many residents own and work at the shops in town that cater to tourists, while others seek jobs in the surrounding cities. Virginia City, a National Historic Landmark District, draws more than 2 million visitors per year. It has numerous historic properties that are separately listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The tourism supports an eclectic assortment of fine and casual dining experiences. Many lodging properties offer options to tourists wanting to stay overnight. Several bed and breakfast facilities are based in restored historic homes including: the B Street House Bed and Breakfast, previously the Henry Piper House, which is listed on the National Register; Edith Palmer's Country Inn and Core Restaurant in the restored 1860s Cider factory; and the 1876 Cobb Mansion. Arts and culture Virginia City is home to many interpretive museums and sites, including the Silver Terrace Cemetery, the Fourth Ward School Museum, the Pioneer Cemetery, the Fireman's Museum, the Way It Was Museum, Piper's Opera House, the Police Officer's Museum, St. Mary's Art Center, and numerous exhibits in businesses throughout town. Virginia City also hosts many unique and authentic event celebrations including cook-offs, parades, and Civil War re-enactments. Virginia City Hillclimb There is an annual hillclimb that runs from Silver City to Virginia City via Highway 341 (a truck route) that is put on jointly between the Ferrari Club of America Pacific Region and the Northern California Shelby Club. As of 2013, the event is officially open to performance vehicles of all makes. The event was put on first by Road & Track and the Aston Martin Club, the following year the SCCA took the same route, and later it was picked up by the Ferrari Owners Club. Highway 342 is now the return route for cars that have completed their runs up Highway 341. The hillclimb covers , climbing and passing through 21 corners. Museums and other points of interest Virginia City retains an authentic historic character with board sidewalks, and numerous restored buildings dating to the 1860s and 1870s. Virginia City is home to many charming and informative museums. The Fourth Ward School Museum brings Comstock history to life in interactive displays, and a restored 1876 classroom. The four-story wooden school is the last one of this type left in the United States. Among the attractions on C Street are the Bucket of Blood Saloon, the Delta Saloon with the Old Globe and Suicide table, the Silver Queen, the Brass Rail Saloon, and the Red Dog Saloon, originally the 1875 Comstock House, located at 76 North C Street. The Red Dog Saloon gave many San Francisco rock musicians their start during the summer of 1965. Piper's Opera House occupies the corner of B and Union Streets and is open as a museum when not a host to shows and musical venues of many types. Piper's Corner Saloon was one of the longest continuously operating saloons of the nineteenth century. Points of interest include the Comstock Historic Walking Trail, where hikers can view the Pioneer Cemetery, site of Julia Bulette's grave, the Combination Mine Shaft, and Sugarloaf Mountain. Other attractions include the Silver State Police Officers' Museum in the Storey County Courthouse, complete with jail cells from the 1870s; The Way It Was museum on Sutton and C Streets, the Fireman's Museum with authentic Victorian firefighting equipment on display, the Chollar Mine tour, Ponderosa Mine Tour, Silver Terrace Cemetery, Presbyterian Church dating to 1862, St. Mary's of the Mountain Catholic Church (c. 1876), St. Paul's Episcopal Church, and St. Mary's Art Center, offering lessons and retreats. The restored Virginia and Truckee Railroad horse-drawn carriage tours, trolley tours, walking tours, Storey County Courthouse, Miner's Union Hall, Knights of Pythias Building, numerous historic shops and homes, the Old Washoe Club, and Miner's Park are other attractions. Virginia City was declared a National Historic Landmark district in 1961, and has been carefully preserved to retain its historic character. Also in Virginia City is the Silver Queen Hotel and Wedding Chapel, which is famous for its picture of a woman whose dress is made entirely of silver dollars. The hotel was built in 1876 and includes a saloon. The historic 1864 Union Brewery and saloon on 28 North C Street, frequented by Mark Twain, has been restored and reopened. Education Virginia City has one elementary school (Hugh Gallagher Elementary School), one middle school (Virginia City Middle School), and one high school (Virginia City High School). Infrastructure Railway The Virginia and Truckee Railroad's northern terminus is located at Virginia City. A project was started in 1972 to begin rebuilding one of the nation's "crookedest railroads". The portion of line that has been rebuilt so far stretches south to Carson City and through Gold Hill. The project ran the first steam engine from Carson City on September 5, 2009, and continues to provide tourist excursions between Carson City and Virginia City on weekends. Other trains are pulled by historic locomotives on weekdays between Virginia City and Gold Hill on 35-minute round trips. Notable people Fred B. Balzar, 15th Governor of Nevada from 1927 to 1934; born in Virginia City Lucius Beebe, author, gourmand, photographer, railroad historian, journalist, and syndicated columnist Julia Bulette, English-born prostitute and proprietor of most renowned brothel Charles Clegg, author, photographer, and railroad historian Dan DeQuille, author, journalist, and humorist; wrote History of the Big Bonanza (1876) about the Comstock Lode James Graham Fair, mine owner, partner to John Mackay George Hearst, an early Superintendent of the Gould and Curry in 1860. Hearst made his first fortune at the Ophir mine on the Comstock Lode. Harold A. Henry, Los Angeles City Council president; born in Virginia City John Brayshaw Kaye, poet and politician; worked in the town in the 19th century Richard Kirman Sr., 17th Governor of Nevada from 1935 to 1939; born in Virginia City Ezra F. Kysor, architect in Virginia City from 1865 to 1868 John William Mackay, richest mining millionaire from the Comstock Lode Albert A. Michelson, the first American to receive the Nobel Prize in Physics (1907); grew up in Virginia City where his father was a merchant Ferdinand Schulze, Prussian immigrant who became a member of the Wisconsin State Assembly W. H. C. Stephenson, early African American figure; founded Baptist church and advocated black suffrage W. Frank Stewart, silver mine operator and Nevada state senator from 1876 to 1880 , Frenchwoman who operated a shop selling wines and liquors; arrested in San Francisco in 1871 for being dressed in male clothing Adolph Sutro, industrialist, San Francisco mayor "Professor" Jerry Thomas, legendary bartender, spent about a year (1864) either at the "famous" Delta Saloon or the Spalding Saloon on C Street (or both) Mark Twain, iconic author, journalist, and humorist; worked for the local newspaper; his novel Roughing It is set in and around Virginia City In popular culture Author Louis L'Amour's novel Comstock Lode is set in Virginia City during the silver rush. Virginia City is near the site of the fictitious Ponderosa Ranch on the Western television drama Bonanza. As such, the show's characters made visits to the town regularly. The Virginia City depicted on Bonanza was located at RKO Forty Acres in Hollywood. It was the locale of the 1940 film Virginia City, set during the Civil War, and starring Errol Flynn. The city appears in the 1944 film The Adventures of Mark Twain. The city during its mining boom was the setting for most of the 1946 James M. Cain novel Past All Dishonor. Virginia City und die wahre Geschichte des Wilden Westens ("Virginia City and the True History of the Wild West"), directed by Elmar Bartlmae, is a 2007 German documentary film. "Darcy Farrow", a folk song written by Steve Gillette and Tom Campbell, mentions Virginia City and other places and landmarks in the area (including Yerington, the Carson Valley, and the Truckee River). The most popular version was performed by John Denver. A significant portion of Julie Smith's 1987 novel Huckleberry Fiend, concerning the discovery of a lost section of the manuscript for Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, takes place in Virginia City. The actual missing holograph was located only four years after publication. References Sources Archived at The Library of Congress Archived at The Library of Congress External links Virginia City Tourism Commission Three Historic Nevada Cities: Carson City, Reno, Virginia City, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary City-data.com Piper-Beebe House County seats in Nevada Census-designated places in Storey County, Nevada Mining communities in Nevada Reno, NV Metropolitan Statistical Area History of Storey County, Nevada 1850s in Nevada Populated places established in 1859 1859 establishments in Utah Territory Boot Hill cemeteries

Compulsory figures

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Compulsory figures or school figures were formerly a segment of figure skating, and gave the sport its name. They are the "circular patterns which skaters trace on the ice to demonstrate skill in placing clean turns evenly on round circles". For approximately the first 50 years of figure skating as a sport, until 1947, compulsory figures made up 60 percent of the total score at most competitions around the world. These figures continued to dominate the sport, although they steadily declined in importance, until the International Skating Union (ISU) voted to discontinue them as a part of competitions in 1990. Learning and training in compulsory figures instilled discipline and control; some in the figure skating community considered them necessary to teach skaters basic skills. Skaters would train for hours to learn and execute them well, and competing and judging figures would often take up to eight hours during competitions. Skaters traced compulsory figures, and were judged according to their smoothness and accuracy. The circle is the basis of all figures. Other elements in compulsory figures include curves, change of foot, change of edge, and turns. Skaters had to trace precise circles while completing difficult turns and edges. The simple "figure eight" shape was executed by connecting two circles; other figures included the three turn, the counter turn, the rocker turn, the bracket turn, and the loop. Although few skaters continue to practice compulsory figures, and few coaches still teach them to skaters, some skaters and coaches believe compulsory figures give skaters an advantage in developing alignment, core strength, body control, and discipline. The World Figure Sport Society has conducted festivals and competitions of compulsory figures, endorsed by the Ice Skating Institute, since 2015. History Early history Tracing figures in the ice is the oldest form of figure skating, especially during its first 200 years of existence, when it was a recreational activity practiced mostly by men. Combined skating, or "the sophisticated tracing of geometric figures by groups of skaters", dominated the sport for almost 50 years in England. The Art of Skating, one of the earliest books about figure skating, was written by Robert Jones in 1772 and described five advanced figures, three of which were illustrated with large color plates. Jones' limited body of figures, which emphasized correct technique, were the accepted and basic repertoire of figures in 18th century England. The Edinburgh Skating Club, one of the oldest skating clubs in the world, described combined figures and those done by multiple skaters; interlocking figure eights were the most important. According to writer Ellyn Kestnbaum, the Edinburgh Skating Club required prospective members to pass proficiency tests in what became compulsory figures. The London Skating Club, founded in 1830 in London, also required proficiency tests for members and pioneered combined skating, which contributed to the evolution of school figures. Artistic skating in France, which was derived from the English style of figure skating and was influenced by ballet, developed figures that emphasized artistry, body position, and grace of execution. Jean Garcin, a member of an elite group of skaters in France, wrote a book about figure skating in 1813 that included descriptions and illustrations of over 30 figures, including a series of circle-eight figures that skaters still use today. George Anderson, writing in 1852, described backward-skating figures, including the flying Mercury and the shamrock, as well as the Q figure, which became, in its various forms, an important part of the repertoire of skating movements for the rest of the 1800s. Anderson also described two combined figures, the salutation (already described by Jones) and the satellite. By the 1850s, the most important figures (eights, threes, and Qs) were developed, and formed the basis for figure skating at the time. In 1869, Henry Vandervell and T. Maxwell Witham from the London Skating Club wrote System of Figure Skating, which described variations of the three turn (the only figure known before 1860), the bracket (first done on roller skates), the rocker, the Mohawk, the loop, the Q, and other figures. The Mohawk, a two-foot turn on the same circle, most likely originated in North America. Figure skating historian James Hines called grapevines, which was probably invented in Canada, "the most American of all figures". The Viennese style of figure skating, as described by Max Wirth's book in 1881, described connecting figures, which ultimately led to modern free skating programs. In 1868, the American Skating Congress, precursor to U.S. Figure Skating, adopted a series of movements used during competitions between skaters from the U.S. and Canada. Until 1947, for approximately the first 50 years of the existence of figure skating as a sport, compulsory figures made up 60 percent of the total score at most competitions around the world. Other competitions held in the late 19th and early 20th centuries included special figures, freeskating, and compulsories, most of the points they earned going towards how they performed the same set of compulsory moves. The first international figure skating competition was in Vienna in 1882; according to Kestnbaum, it established a precedent for future competitions. Skaters were required to perform 23 compulsory figures, as well as a four-minute freeskating program, and a section called "special figures", in which they had to perform moves or combinations of moves that highlighted their advanced skills. Compulsory figures were an important part of figure skating for the rest of the 19th century until the 1930s and 1940s. The first European Championships in 1891 consisted of only compulsory figures. In 1896, the newly formed International Skating Union (ISU) sponsored the first annual World Figure Skating Championships in St. Petersburg. The competition consisted of compulsory figures and freeskating. Skaters had to perform six compulsory moves, or figures, so that judges could compare skaters according to an established standard. Compulsory figures were worth 60 percent of the competitors' total scores. Special figures were not included in World Championships, although they were included as a separate discipline in other competitions, including the Olympics in 1908. In 1897, the ISU adopted a schedule of 41 school figures, each of increasing difficulty, which were proposed by the British. They remained the standard compulsory figures used throughout the world in proficiency testing and competitions until 1990, and U.S. Figure Skating continued to use them as a separate discipline in the 1990s. After World War II, more countries were sending skaters to international competitions, so the ISU cut the numbers of figures to a maximum of six due to the extended time it took to judge them all. Demise Compulsory figures began to be progressively devalued in 1967, when the values of both compulsory figures and free skating were changed to 50 percent. In 1973, the number of figures was decreased from six to three, and their overall weight was decreased to 30 percent, to make room for the introduction of the short program. Hines stated that the decrease in the importance of compulsory figures was due to "the unbalanced skating" of women skaters such as Beatrix "Trixi" Schuba of Austria, whom Hines called "the last great practitioner of compulsory figures". Schuba won several medals in the late 1960s and early 1970s based upon the strength of her figures, despite her lower results in free skating. As Hines stated, "she could not be defeated under a scoring system that gave preference to figures". Hines also credited television coverage of figure skating, which helped to increase popularity of the sport, with the eventual demise of compulsory figures. Television audiences were not exposed to the compulsory figures segments of competitions, so they did not understand why results contradicted what they saw in free skating segments. Sports writer Sandra Loosemore agreed, stating that television was "the driving force" for the rule changes regarding figures in 1968 and the years following. Figures were not broadcast on television because they were not exciting enough, so viewers "found it incomprehensible that competitions could be won by skaters who had built up huge leads in the figures portion of the event but gave mediocre performances in the part of the competition shown on TV". In 1973, the ISU lowered the value of compulsory figures from 50% to 40% and decreased the number of figures skaters were required to perform. In 1977, the number of types of figures skaters could choose to perform decreased even more, down to six figures per competition. Loosemore attributed the decrease in the importance of figures to a "lack of public accountability" from the judges of international competitions and other discrepancies in judging, which Loosemore called "dirty judging". She speculated that television coverage of the sport, which brought more attention to how it was judged, was also responsible and "since figures competitions weren't televised, fans could not be certain that the judges were on the level". Loosemore also speculated that "the relative scarcity of rinks and practice ice for figures in Europe as compared to North America" ultimately made the difference in the removal of figures from competitions. Kestnbaum agreed, stating that the elimination of figures was motivated by finances, countries with an affluent middle class or government-supported training for athletes having more of a competitive advantage over less affluent and smaller countries with fewer ice rinks and resources to spend the time necessary to train for proficiency in figures. By the late 1970s and into the 1980s, there were discussions about eliminating them from international competitions. In 1988, the ISU voted to remove compulsory figures from international single skating competitions, for both men and women, starting in the 1990–1991 season. Of 31 voting national associations, only the U.S., Canada, Britain, and New Zealand voted against the decision. The last two seasons that compulsory figures were competed at an international competition were in 1989 and 1990; only two figures were skated and they were worth only 20 percent of the competitors' overall scores. Željka Čižmešija from Yugoslavia skated the last compulsory figure in international competition, at the World Championships in Halifax, Nova Scotia, on 7 March 1990. Compulsory figures have not been a part of any international or most national competitions since 1990. The U.S. was one of the last skating federations to keep figures as a part of skills tests for the lower levels. The last time figures were contested at the U.S. Figure Skating Championships was in 1999. The U.S. created a separate track for figures instead of eliminating them as most other countries did, and finally voted to eliminate them in 1997. Canada also ended proficiency tests in figures in 1997. According to Loosemore, the U.S.' decision to replace the remaining figure proficiency test requirements for competition eligibility in the mid-1990s with moves in the field to test skating proficiency "killed figures as a separate competition discipline". Sports writer Randy Harvey of the Los Angeles Times predicted that the free skate would become the focus in international competitions. Hines, quoting Italian coach Carlo Fassi, predicted in 2006 that the elimination of figures would result in younger girls dominating the sport, a statement Hines called "prophetic". According to Loosemore, after figures were no longer required, most skaters stopped doing them, resulting in rinks cutting back on the amount of time they offered to skaters who wanted to continue to practice them and a reduction in the number of judges capable of scoring them. Despite the apparent demise of compulsory figures from figure skating, coaches continued to teach figures and skaters continued to practice them because figures gave skaters an advantage in developing alignment, core strength, body control, and discipline. Proponents stated that figures taught basic skating skills, insisting that if skaters did not become proficient in figures, they would not be able to perform well-done short and long programs. American champion and figure skating writer John Misha Petkevich disagreed, stating that the skills needed for proficiency in figures were different than what was needed for free skating, and that the turns and edges learned in figures could be learned in free skating as easily and efficiently. The World Figure Sport Society has conducted festivals and competitions of compulsory figures, endorsed by the Ice Skating Institute, since 2015. Execution of figures Compulsory figures, also called school figures, are the "circular patterns which skaters trace on the ice to demonstrate skill in placing clean turns evenly on round circles". Compulsory figures are also called "patch", a reference to the patch of ice allocated to each skater to practice figures. Figure skating historian James Hines reported that compulsory figures were "viewed as a means of developing technique necessary for eliter skaters". He stated, "As scales are the material by which musicians develop the facile technique required to perform major competitions, so compulsory figures were viewed as the material by which skaters develop the facile required for free-skating programs". Hines also stated that although compulsory figures and free skating are often considered as "totally different aspects of figure skating", historically they were not, and insisted that "spirals, spread eagles, jumps, and spins were originally individual figures". Skaters were required to trace these circles using one foot at a time, demonstrating their mastery of control, balance, flow, and edge to execute accurate and clean tracings on the ice. The compulsory figures used by the International Skating Union (ISU) in 1897 for international competitions consisted of "two or three tangent circles with one, one and a half, or two full circles skated on each foot, in some with turns or loops included on the circles". The patterns skaters left on the ice, rather than the shapes the body made executing them, became the focus of artistic expression in figure skating up until the 1930s. Each figure had its own technique skaters had to master while executing geometrically perfect circles, and each figure's name reflected that technique. The highest quality figures had tracings on top of each other; their edges were placed precisely, and the turns lined up exactly. The slightest misalignment or shift of body weight could cause errors in the execution of figures. American figure skating champion Irving Brokaw insisted that form was more essential to the production of figures than the tracings themselves because the skater needed to find a comfortable and natural position in which to perform them. He expected skaters to trace figures without looking down at them because it gave "a very slovenly appearance", and recommended that they not use their arms excessively or for balance like tightrope walkers. Brokaw wanted skaters to remain upright and avoid bending over as much as they could. Brokaw also thought that the unemployed leg, which he called the "balance leg", was as important as the tracing leg because it was used as much in the execution of a figure as the tracing leg. The balance leg also should be bent only slightly, since he believed bending it too much removed its usefulness and appeared clumsy. Writer Ellyn Kestnbaum noted that skaters who were adept at performing compulsory figures had to practice for hours to have precise body control and to become "intimately familiar with how subtle shifts in the body's balance over the blade affected the tracings left on the ice". She added that many skaters found figures and their visible results calming and rewarding. Sports writer Christie Sausa insisted that training in figures "helps create better skaters and instills discipline, and can be practiced over a lifetime by skaters of all ages and abilities". The German magazine Der Spiegel declared in 1983 that compulsory figures stifled skaters' creativity because not much about figures had changed in 100 years of competitions. Figure elements All compulsory figures had the following: circles, curves, change of foot, change of edge, and turns. The circle, the basis of all figures, was performed on both its long and short axes. Skaters had to trace precise circles, while completing difficult turns and edges. Most figures employ "specific one-foot turns not done in combination with other one-foot turns". Each figure consisted of two or three tangent circles. Each circle's diameter had to be about three times the skater's height, and the radii of all half-circles had to be approximately the same length. Half-circles and circles had to begin and end as near as possible to the point in which the long and short axes intersected. The figure's long axis divided it longitudinally into equal-sized halves, and the figure's short axes divided the figures into equal-sized lobes. Curves, which are parts of circles, had to be performed with an uninterrupted tracing and with a single clean edge, with no subcurves or wobbles. Brokaw insisted that curves had to be done on all four edges of the skate – the inside and outside edges while skating both backwards and forwards. He stated, "It is the control of these circles that gives strength and power, and the holding of the body in the proper and graceful attitudes, while it is the execution of these large circles, changes of edges, threes and double-threes, brackets, loops, rockers and counters, which makes up the art of skating". Curves also included the forced turn (or bracket) and the serpentine. A change of foot, which happened during the short time the skater transferred weight from one foot to the other, was allowed in the execution of figures, but had to be done in a symmetrical zone of each side of the long axis. Skaters could choose the exact point in which they placed their foot in this zone, although it typically was just after the long axis, with the full weight of the body on the skate. It was at this point when the tracing began. A change of edge happened at the point in which the long and short axes intersected. Its trace had to be continuously and symmetrically traced and could not be S-shaped. The edge change had to be as short as possible, and could not be longer than the length of the skate blade. Turns were skated with a single clean edge up to and after the turn, but with no double tracings, no skids or scrapes, or no illegal edge change either before, during, or after a turn. The turns' cusps had to be the same size, and the entry into and out of a turn had to be symmetrical. The simple "figure eight" shape was executed by connecting two circles "about three times the height of the skater with one circle skated on each foot". The figure eight has four variations: inside edges, outside edges, backward, and forward. A turn added at the halfway point of each circle increased the level of complexity. Other figures included three-lobed figures with a counter turn or a rocker turn, which were completed at the points where the lobes touched. Counters and rockers had to be executed symmetrically, with no change of edge, with the points of their turns either pointing up or down or lying along the figure's long axis, and could not be beaked or hooked. Brackets, like threes, had to be skated on a circle, their turns' points either pointing up or down or lying along the figure's long axis. Skaters also performed a group of smaller figures called loops. The diameter of the loop's circular shape had to be about the height of the skater, and they could not have any scrapes or points on the ice. The place in which the skater entered into or exited out of the crossing of both the loop tracing and the center of the loop had to sit on the figure's long axis, where the loop was divided into symmetrical halves. The center of the loop figure to the place in which the skater entered into or exited out of the loop's crossing had to measure five-sixths of the circle's diameter. The loop's length had to be about one-third of the distance from the place in which the skater entered into or exited out of the loop's crossing of the loop tracing to the figure's short axis. The loop's width had to be about two-thirds of its length. The Q figure begins at the tail of the figure, on the skater's outside edge. It can also begin on any of the four edges, and the direction in which it can be skated can be reversed. When the circle is skated first, it is called a reverse Q. Altered forms of the Q figure often do not look like the letter "q", but "simply employ a serpentine line and a three turn". United shamrocks, spectacles (shapes that trace the shape of eyeglasses), and united roses are alterations of the basic Q figures. Since the goal of figures is drawing an exact shape on the ice, the skater had to concentrate on the depth of the turn (how much the turn extends into or out of the circle), the integrity of the edges and cusps (round-patterned edges leading into or out of the circle), and its shape. There were three types of three turns: the standard three, the double three, and the paragraph double three. The three turn had to be skated on a circle, its turns' points either pointing up or down or lying along the figure's long axis. For the double three, the points of both threes had to be directed towards the center of each circle, and had to divide the circle into three equal curves. The middle curve had to divide the circles into halves by the figure's long axis. The paragraph double three, which was executed at the highest levels of competition, was done by tracing "two circles with two turns at each circle, all on one foot from one push-off". The paragraph double three was difficult to accomplish because the shape and placement of the turns had to be perfectly symmetrical, the turns had to be done on a true edge with no scrapes on the ice, and the circles had to be the same size and exactly round. All those combined compulsory figures are illustrated below: Judging Der Spiegel compared judging compulsory figures to the work of forensic scientists. After the skaters completed tracing figures, the judges scrutinized the circles made, and the process was repeated twice more. According to Randy Harvey, compulsory figures took five hours to complete at U.S. National Championships and eight hours at World Championships. At the 1983 European Championships, the compulsory segment began at 8 am, and lasted six hours. The ISU published a judges' handbook describing what judges needed to look for during compulsory figure competitions in 1961. Skaters were judged on the ease and flow of their movement around the circles, the accuracy of the shapes of their bodies, and the accuracy of the prints traced on the ice. Judges took note of the following: scrapes, double tracks that indicated that both edges of their blades were in contact with the ice simultaneously, deviations from a perfect circle, how closely the tracings from each repetition followed each other, how well the loops lined up, and other errors. Notes References Works cited Brokaw, Irving (1915). The Art of Skating. New York: American Sports Publishing Company. Retrieved 16 November 2019. Hines, James R. (2006). Figure Skating: A History. Urbana, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. . Hines, James R. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Figure Skating. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. . Kestnbaum, Ellyn (2003). Culture on Ice: Figure Skating and Cultural Meaning. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. . Petkevich, John Misha (1988). Sports Illustrated Figure Skating: Championship Techniques (1st ed.). New York: Sports Illustrated. . . Special Regulations for Figures. U.S. Figure Skating Association. Retrieved 29 May 2021. External links World Figure Sport.org Figure skating elements History of sports

The Lost World: Jurassic Park

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The Lost World: Jurassic Park is a 1997 American science fiction action film. It is the second installment in the Jurassic Park franchise and the second film in the Jurassic Park trilogy. A sequel to 1993's Jurassic Park and loosely based on Michael Crichton's 1995 novel The Lost World, the film was directed by Steven Spielberg and written by David Koepp. The film stars Jeff Goldblum, returning as the eccentric chaos theorist and mathematician Ian Malcolm, as well as Julianne Moore, Pete Postlethwaite, Arliss Howard, Vince Vaughn, and Vanessa Lee Chester. Four years after the original film, John Hammond (Richard Attenborough) sends a team, led by Malcolm, to Isla Sorna, the second island Hammond's company InGen used to make the dinosaurs, to study the animals while coming into conflict with a team led by InGen to bring some of the dinosaurs back to the United States. After the original novel's release and the first film's success, fans pressured Crichton for a sequel. Following the book's publication in 1995, production began on a film sequel. Filming took place from September to December 1996, primarily in California, with a shoot in Kauai, Hawaii, where the first film was shot. The Lost Worlds plot and imagery is substantially darker than Jurassic Park. It makes more extensive use of computer-generated imagery to depict the dinosaurs, along with life-sized animatronics. Released on May 23, 1997, the film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the visuals and action sequences, but criticized the writing and character development. The film was a box office success, grossing over $618 million worldwide, becoming the second-highest-grossing film of 1997. It earned an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects. A sequel, Jurassic Park III, was released on July 18, 2001. Plot Four years after the events on Isla Nublar, a wealthy British family docks their yacht and has come ashore on nearby Isla Sorna, unaware that the island contains genetically engineered dinosaurs. Their daughter wanders off and is attacked by a group of Compsognathus, but is saved by her father and yacht crew. An ailing Dr. John Hammond invites mathematician Dr. Ian Malcolm to his residence to discuss the recent incident. Hammond's company InGen, which created the dinosaurs, is now headed by Hammond's nephew Peter Ludlow, who used the incident to take control of the company from Hammond. Ian learns that InGen originally cloned the dinosaurs on Isla Sorna, but the island was abandoned during a hurricane and the animals were released into the wild to fend for themselves. Ludlow wants to exploit the island's creatures to save InGen from bankruptcy. Hammond asks Ian to join a team who will document the dinosaurs in their natural habitat, in order to encourage a policy of non-interference. Ian's girlfriend, paleontologist Dr. Sarah Harding, was hired and is already on Isla Sorna. Upon hearing this, Ian reluctantly agrees to go to the island, but only to retrieve Sarah. Ian travels there with Eddie Carr, an equipment specialist and engineer, and Nick Van Owen, a video documentarian and activist. They find Sarah amidst a herd of Stegosaurus, but she is insistent on staying to continue her research. Ian is shocked when he discovers that his daughter Kelly has stowed away with the team in a trailer, which serves as their mobile base. Ludlow and a mercenary team arrive on the island to capture dinosaurs, with help from big-game hunters Roland Tembo and Ajay Sidhu, Roland's second-in-command Dieter Stark, and paleontologist Dr. Robert Burke. Malcolm's group realizes that Ludlow and the InGen team are planning to take the captured specimens back to the mainland and to an unfinished Jurassic Park attraction in San Diego, an amphitheater zoo which Hammond abandoned in favor of the park on Isla Nublar. Nick and Sarah free the captured dinosaurs, allowing the animals to wreak havoc across the InGen team's camp. On the way back to the trailer, Nick rescues an injured Tyrannosaurus rex infant that Roland tried to use as bait to hunt its male parent. Nick and Sarah treat the infant for a broken leg, but the Tyrannosaurus adults arrive. They reclaim their infant, destroy the trailer, and devour Eddie during his attempt to rescue the group. Ian, Sarah, Nick, and Kelly are rescued by Ludlow's team, and are forced to work together with them after learning that they've lost all their communicative equipment as well. They elect to walk en masse to a distant abandoned InGen base to call for help. During a break, Stark goes into the wilderness alone to relieve himself and is killed by a group of Compsognathus. After the team sets up a camp for the night, they are ambushed by the Tyrannosaurus adults: Burke is devoured, and everyone else flees into a field of long grass containing a pack of Velociraptors, where Ajay and the others are all killed. Ian, Sarah, Kelly, and Nick manage to reach the InGen base, fight off three Velociraptors, and successfully radio for helicopter extraction. After being rescued, Nick reveals that he stole Roland's ammunition to prevent him from killing his intended trophy, but while passing overhead, they notice that Roland sedated the male Tyrannosaurus. As more InGen personnel arrive on the island to secure the male and the infant, Roland declines a job offer at the San Diego park from Ludlow, reflecting on Ajay's death and the morality of Ludlow's scheme. In San Diego, Ian and Sarah attempt to meet with Ludlow in order to prevent him from unveiling the attraction. Before they can do this, the ship carrying the male Tyrannosaurus suddenly crashes into the docks. The crew is found dead, and the Tyrannosaurus is accidentally released and begins rampaging through the city. Ian and Sarah locate the infant at the attraction and retrieve it, using it to lure the male back to the docks. Ludlow pursues the couple onto the ship, and tries to catch the infant within the cargo hold, but he is cornered by the male, which breaks his leg, incapacitating him before being mauled to death by the infant. Sarah uses a tranquilizer gun to sedate the male, while Ian seals the cargo hold doors. In the aftermath, the dinosaurs are shipped back to Isla Sorna accompanied by a naval escort, while Ian, Sarah and Kelly watch Hammond's announcement that the American and Costa Rican governments have declared the island a nature preserve in a televised interview. Cast Production Pre-production After the release of the novel, Jurassic Park in 1990, Michael Crichton was pressured by fans for a sequel. Having never written one, he initially refused. While shooting the novel's film adaptation, director Steven Spielberg believed that if a sequel were made, it would involve the retrieval of a canister that contained dinosaur DNA lost during the events of the first film. Talk of a sequel film began after the 1993 release of Jurassic Park, which was a financial success. Spielberg held discussions with David Koepp and Crichton, who wrote the previous film, to talk about possible ideas for a sequel. The production schedule for a second Jurassic Park film was dependent on whether Crichton would write a sequel to the first novel. In March 1994, Crichton said there would probably be a sequel to both the novel and film, saying he had a story idea for another novel, which would then be adapted into a film. At the time, Spielberg had not committed to directing the new novel's film adaptation, as he planned to take a year off from directing. In March 1995, Crichton announced that he was nearly finished writing the sequel, scheduled for release later that year, although he declined to specify its title or plot. At the time of this announcement, Spielberg had signed on to produce the film adaptation, with filming to begin in summer 1996 for release in 1997. Spielberg was busy with his new DreamWorks studio and had not decided if he would direct the film, saying, "I'd love to direct it, but I just have to see. My life is changing." A production team was assembled in spring 1995, as Crichton was finishing the second novel, titled The Lost World; simultaneously, Spielberg and Koepp were developing ideas for the screenplay. Crichton's novel was published in September 1995, while Spielberg was announced as director for the film adaptation in November 1995. Spielberg and Crichton agreed to forego upfront fees for a share of the back-end. Koepp's deal was said to be the most lucrative for an adaptation at the time, with a fee in the region of $1.5 to $2 million. Joe Johnston, who offered to direct the film adaptation, eventually directed the following film, Jurassic Park III (2001). The Lost World: Jurassic Park had nearly 1,500 storyboards, which aided in the precise planning needed to shoot scenes involving action, dinosaurs, and special-effects. Writing The plot for Crichton's Lost World novel involves a second island with dinosaurs but no reference to the canister of dinosaur DNA, which was later used as a plot aspect in a rejected early draft for Jurassic Park IV. After the film adaptation of The Lost World was announced, Koepp received letters of advice from children who were interested in the film. According to Koepp, one letter read, "As long as you have the T. rex and the Velociraptor, everything else is fine. But, whatever you do, don't have a long boring part at the beginning that has nothing to do with the island." Koepp retained the letter as "sort of a reminder." Koepp also took a suggestion from the letter to add Stegosaurus into the script. After the novel was finished, Crichton was not consulted about the sequel film, and it was not until he declined to approve certain merchandising rights that he received a copy of the script. Kathleen Kennedy, the film's executive producer, and producer of Jurassic Park, said, "In the same way Michael doesn't see writing as a collaboration, Steven went off and did his own movie. When Michael turned the book over to Steven, he knew his work was finished." By the time Crichton had finished his novel, Spielberg and Koepp had already been discussing ideas for the film for more than a year. For the adaptation, Koepp attempted to combine the ideas that he and Spielberg devised along with those from Crichton's novel. Spielberg said that the middle portion of the novel was lacking in story narrative, but that Crichton's "set-up was excellent, and he certainly put us on the right road." Koepp had a year to write the script before the start of filming. To prepare before writing the script, Spielberg was more insistent that Koepp watch the 1925 film, The Lost World, than he was on having him read Crichton's novel, which Koepp also did. During an early meeting with Koepp, Spielberg determined that while the primary conflict of the original film involved herbivorous dinosaurs vs. carnivorous dinosaurs, the script for the new film should involve humans who are "gatherers" (observers of the dinosaurs) and "hunters" (who capture the dinosaurs for a zoo). Koepp said the plot of the 1962 film Hatari! – about African animals being captured for zoos – had "a big influence" on The Lost Worlds script. Spielberg and Koepp discarded many of the novel's scenes and ideas, choosing instead to devise a new story while including the two ideas from the novel that Spielberg liked: a second island populated with dinosaurs, and a scene where half of a two-part trailer dangles from a cliff after being attacked by T. rexes. Also retained was the idea of parenting and nurturing behavior among dinosaurs, as well as a baby T. rex and a child who stows away in the trailer. The character of Robert Burke is based on paleontologist Robert Bakker, who believes that T. rex was a predator. Rival paleontologist Jack Horner, the film's technical advisor, viewed the dinosaur as being protective and not inherently aggressive. Horner requested that the character of Burke be eaten by the T. rex, although Bakker enjoyed the scene and believed that it vindicated his theory that T. rex was a predator. Crichton's novel revolves around Malcolm's team and a rival team led by InGen's corporate rival, Biosyn, which was written out of the film adaptation in favor of two competing InGen teams. Several characters from the novel were excluded from the film adaptation, including Lewis Dodgson, the leader of the Biosyn team, and field equipment engineer Doc Thorne, whose characteristics were partially implemented in the film's version of Eddie. Two new characters not featured in the novel were Nick and Roland. For these characters, Koepp chose the surnames Tembo and Van Owen as a reference to one of his favorite songs, "Roland the Headless Thompson Gunner", by Warren Zevon. Koepp said "since Roland is a mercenary in the song, that seemed like a good name for the hunter-for-hire in our movie. While I was at it, I thought it would be fun to make his nemesis' last name Van Owen, like in the song." Spielberg regretted excluding a scene from the script that would have depicted characters on motorcycles attempting to flee raptors, similar to a sequence in the novel. An alternate version of the scene was added to the 2015 film, Jurassic World. While Crichton's novel featured two child characters, Kelly and Arby, Koepp combined them into a single character also named Kelly. Arby is a black character, and black actress Vanessa Lee Chester was chosen to play Kelly in the film. Initially, Kelly was to be a student of Ian Malcolm's, although Koepp had difficulty making this idea work, saying that Malcolm "would never teach grade school, so I thought maybe he was tutoring her. Why? Maybe he got a drunk driving ticket, and he had to do community service, so he's tutoring at this inner-city high school." Koepp scrapped this idea because of its similarity to the 1995 film Dangerous Minds. Because the film would deal with dinosaur nurturing, Koepp realized that the parenting element should also extend to the human characters. Spielberg approved Koepp's idea to have Kelly as Malcolm's daughter, although they initially were unsure about a black actress playing the daughter of a white parent. Spielberg has two adopted black children, and he and Koepp soon decided to retain the idea. Koepp wanted to write an explanation into the script about the discrepancy in skin color, but he dropped this idea as he could not think of a way to address it in a simple manner. Koepp referred to Crichton's original Jurassic Park novel for some scenes that would be added into the film adaptation of The Lost World. Dieter's death scene was inspired by John Hammond's death in the first novel, where Procompsognathus kill him. The film's opening scene came from an early chapter in the first novel that was not used in the film adaptation, where a Procompsognathus bites a girl on a beach. The first novel also included a scene where characters hide behind a waterfall from a T. rex; this scene was not used in the first film but was added into The Lost World: Jurassic Park, for the scene in which the T. rex eats Burke. Early scripts had featured two Pteranodon sequences, including one in which Malcolm and his group would escape raptors by hang-gliding off a cliff, only to encounter a Pteranodon. Another sequence, once planned as the film's ending, involved an aerial battle where Pteranodons attack the helicopter trying to escape Isla Sorna. Spielberg also considered having the Pteranodons swoop down and carry off humans and animals in their large beaks, an idea that was rejected by Horner. This version of the story featured a larger worker's village on the island, whereas the final version of the village was only a quarter of what was initially designed. For more than a year, Spielberg and Koepp were unsure whether to include a scene involving a dinosaur in a city. Koepp believed that such a scene would only work for a short period of time before becoming unbelievable. Weeks before filming began, Spielberg decided to change the ending to have the T. rex rampage through San Diego, saying, "We've gotta do it. It's too fun not to." He was interested in seeing dinosaurs attacking the mainland, and he believed that audiences would enjoy the San Diego rampage. Initially, Spielberg wanted such a scene to be saved for a third film but later decided to add it to the second one when he realized he would probably not direct another film in the series. The sequence is similar to an attack scene involving a Brontosaurus in London in the 1925 version of The Lost World, adapted from Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's 1912 novel of the same name, both of which inspired the title for Crichton's novel. For the rampage sequence, Spielberg referenced monster films such as The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms and Gorgo. Koepp's first draft of the new third act was completed a week after talking with Spielberg, although it would continue to go through revisions. Koepp wrote a total of nine drafts for the film. Producers Colin Wilson and Gerald Molen wanted the Pteranodons to remain in the story, but the creatures ultimately received only a small appearance in the film's ending shot. Casting In November 1994, Richard Attenborough said he would reprise his role as John Hammond from the first film. In 1995, Spielberg met Vanessa Lee Chester at the premiere of A Little Princess, in which she appeared. Chester later recalled, "As I was signing an autograph for him, he told me one day he'd put me in a film." Spielberg met with Chester the following year to discuss The Lost World: Jurassic Park before ultimately casting her as Malcolm's daughter, Kelly. Pete Postlethwaite was cast after Spielberg saw his performance in the 1993 film In the Name of the Father. Art Malik turned down a role in the film. In April 1996, Julianne Moore was in discussions to star in the film alongside Jeff Goldblum. Spielberg had admired Moore's performance in The Fugitive. Two months later, Peter Stormare was in final negotiations to join the cast. In August 1996, it was announced Vince Vaughn had joined the cast. Spielberg was impressed with Vaughn's performance in the film Swingers, which he saw after the filmmakers asked his permission to use music from his earlier film, Jaws. After meeting with Spielberg, Vaughn was cast without having to do a screen test. Indian actor M. R. Gopakumar was initially cast as Ajay Sidhu in August 1996, but was unable to participate in the project because of trouble acquiring a work visa in time for filming. He was one of six people considered for the role, which ultimately went to actor Harvey Jason. Filming Production designer Rick Carter traveled to Hawaii, then Puerto Rico, New Zealand, and Australia to scout possible filming locations. Costa Rica and South America were never considered, as filming would have taken place during the local area's rainy season. However, the film ultimately did use tropical sound effects that were recorded in Costa Rica. By February 1996, northern New Zealand had been chosen as a filming location. While the first film had been shot in Kauai, Hawaii, the filmmakers wanted to shoot the sequel in a different location with new scenery. New Zealand was also chosen because it was believed to better represent a real dinosaur environment, although Crichton wanted the film to be shot on Kauai. In August 1996, it was announced that Humboldt County, California, had been chosen instead of New Zealand, where filming would have been too costly. Humboldt County offered financial incentives that would keep the film's production costs lower. Oregon had been considered before Humboldt County was chosen. Filming locations in Humboldt County would include the redwood forests of Eureka, California. This location was picked because research indicated dinosaurs did not inhabit tropical habitats, but forests like the ones in Eureka. Filming began on September 5, 1996, at Fern Canyon, part of California's Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park. Production continued in northern California for two weeks at locations such as Eureka, Sue-meg State Park, and private property in Fieldbrook. Filming in Humboldt County concluded on September 19, 1996. Throughout the fall of 1996, filming continued on sound stages at Universal Studios Hollywood. The Site B workers village was also constructed there and left intact after filming to become a part of the theme park tour. Because of limited stage space in Hollywood, the production crew had to alternate between the different stages at Universal, with stages being redecorated when not in use to prepare for future filming. A 1997 Fleetwood Southwind Storm RV was used to depict the mobile trailer lab. Several trailers were created for filming. Scenes involving the trailer lab were shot in Eureka, followed by filming at Universal. For shots in which half of the trailer dangles from a cliff, a whole mountainside was built over the structure of Universal's parking garage, and the trailer was dangled against the mountainside using a 95-ton crane. Before the trailer is shoved off the cliff, it is attacked by the T. rex adults who slam their heads into the vehicle. Animatronic versions of the adults were used for this scene, and the damage to the trailer was authentically caused by the animatronics rather than through computer effects. Shots involving both the animatronic T. rexes and the trailer together were filmed on Universal's Stage 24. Other shots involving the trailer were filmed on Stage 27. A portion of the trailer scene was filmed in a continuous take using a crane arm. The camera would track actor Richard Schiff as his character travels through part of the trailer to throw rope down to the other characters, who are stuck in the other portion of the trailer as it dangles over the side of the cliff. This shot required precise timing to get right, and a dolly track also had to be built into the stage. While filming inside the trailer, the camera would lose focus because of interference from some piece of the electronic equipment inside the vehicle. After 15 failed takes, the film crew was close to giving up on the shot, until a remote-focus mechanism was mounted onto the camera. Ultimately, the film crew managed to get three good takes over the course of nine hours. Another issue resulted from the scene taking place during a storm, as the artificial rain fogged the camera lens, and the camera's rain deflectors failed. Spielberg did not allow for cast rehearsals, saying, "You want to capture the actors when they taste the words for the first time, when they look at each other for the first time – that's the sort of magic you can only get on a first or second take." Spielberg wanted his long-time cinematographer Dean Cundey to return for The Lost World after working on the previous film, although Cundey was busy preparing to direct Honey, We Shrunk Ourselves, so Spielberg chose Janusz Kamiński instead. Kamiński had worked with Spielberg on Schindler's List, and he gave The Lost World a darker, more artistic look over its predecessor, leading to a "more elegant and rich" approach focused on contrast and shadow. Much of the film takes place at night, and Kamiński looked at the films Alien and Blade Runner for visual reference. Koepp was the film's second unit director, having volunteered for the position in hopes of gaining more directorial experience. Second unit work consisted of establishing shots, such as people marching across Isla Sorna, and helicopter shots. When Spielberg was unavailable for filming because of a family commitment in New York, Koepp also took over the first unit for eight days of filming, during the shoot at Universal's sound stages. Spielberg monitored the filming process through satellite video in New York during his week off. The InGen hunters' base camp was constructed on Stage 12. On Stage 23, a large ravine was constructed for a scene in which a T. rex chases characters into a small cave hidden behind a waterfall. Special-effects expert Michael Lantieri constructed the artificial waterfall, and the scene was shot using a Steadicam. Spielberg estimated that nearly half of the film was shot using Steadicam, as it was useful for the film's abundance of chase scenes. For the scene in which raptors attack the InGen team in a field of long grass, Lantieri and a team started growing real grass a year earlier on eight acres, located in Newhall, California. The acreage allowed for any potential reshoots to be done, as any grass that was flattened during filming would not come back up. The scene was filmed in early November 1996. The T. rex rampage through San Diego was also filmed during November. Although the sequence takes place in San Diego, only one scene was shot there. In it, an InGen helicopter flies over the wharf and banks towards the city. The other sequences were all shot in Burbank, California. An eight-scale dock and miniature ship were created for the scene in which the T. rex arrives in San Diego. One scene has the T. rex ramming into a driving bus which then crashes into a Blockbuster Video. The video store was built as a set on an empty lot in Burbank. The San Diego scenes were shot behind barricades to maintain secrecy; Spielberg noted that, "It looked like road-repair work was going on." Various members of the film crew were featured running from the Tyrannosaurus, with Koepp credited as the "Unlucky Bastard" who is eaten during a scene set in San Diego. Scenes involving Hammond's residence were shot during the final week of filming, at Mayfield Senior School in Pasadena, California. A scene where Vaughn's character emerges from a lake was also shot in Pasadena. In October 1996, it was announced that filming would take place over five days in December at New Zealand's Fiordland National Park, where the film's opening sequence was to be shot. In early December 1996, plans to film in Fiordland were abruptly cancelled. Principal photography concluded ahead of schedule on December 11, 1996. However, in mid-December 1996, plans were approved to shoot the opening sequence on a beach in Kauai after the cancellation of the New Zealand shoot. Filming in Kauai was underway on December 20, 1996, with plans to finish two days later. Although Spielberg was in Kauai at the time, and had visited the production, the opening sequence was filmed by a second unit crew. The film was shot on a budget of $73 million. Creatures on screen While Jurassic Park featured mostly the animatronic dinosaurs built by Stan Winston's team, The Lost World relied more on the computer-generated imagery (CGI) of Industrial Light & Magic (ILM). This meant the film featured larger shots that offered plenty of space for the digital artists to add the dinosaurs. The film features 75 computer-generated shots. A scene in which the hunters round up a group of dinosaurs was made almost entirely with computer-generated creatures. An exception was a handful of Pachycephalosaurus shots. Spielberg followed Horner's advice to help keep the dinosaurs scientifically accurate for the most part, with some exceptions. The Winston design team closely modelled the dinosaurs based on paleontological facts, or theories in certain cases where facts were not definitively known. In addition to animatronics, Winston's team also painted maquettes of dinosaurs that would subsequently be created through CGI. ILM animators went to Marine World/Africa USA to videotape elephants, reptiles, and rhinos, to determine how to make the dinosaurs appear more like living animals. Although technology had not advanced much since the release of the first film, Spielberg noted that "the artistry of the creative computer people" had advanced: "There's better detail, much better lighting, better muscle tone and movement in the animals. When a dinosaur transfers weight from his left side to his right, the whole movement of fat and sinew is smoother, more physiologically correct." All of the dinosaurs used servo control for facial movements. While the first film showed that dinosaurs could be adequately recreated through special effects, the sequel raised the question of what could be done with the dinosaurs. Winston said, "I wanted to show the world what they didn't see in 'Jurassic Park': more dinosaurs and more dinosaur action. 'More, bigger, better' was our motto." Some of the animatronics cost $1 million and weighed nine and a half tons. Lantieri, the special effects supervisor, said, "The big T. rex robot can pull two Gs of force when it's moving from right to left. If you hit someone with that, you'd kill them. So, in a sense, we did treat the dinosaurs as living, dangerous creatures." Compsognathus, nicknamed "Compies" by Winston's crew, are a small carnivorous theropod which attacks in packs. Visual effects supervisor Dennis Muren considered them the most complex digital dinosaur. Their small size meant the Compys had their whole body visible and thus needed a higher sense of gravity and weight. A simple puppet Compsognathus is featured in the opening scene, and the part where Dieter Stark was killed by the pack had Peter Stormare wearing a jacket onto which various rubber Compies were attached. In the film, Burke identifies the dinosaur as Compsognathus triassicus, which in reality is a non-existent species. The name is a combination of Compsognathus longipes and Procompsognathus triassicus. Gallimimus is shown fleeing from the InGen Hunters. Mamenchisaurus is shown on the game trail scene. The Brachiosaurus model from the first film was altered to portray the Mamenchisaurus, which was fully computer-generated. Pachycephalosaurus, a dinosaur standing five feet tall and measuring eight feet long. Three versions of the creature were created for filming: a full hydraulic puppet, a head, and a head-butter. The latter was built to withstand high impact for a scene in which the dinosaur head-butts one of the hunter vehicles. The Pachycephalosaurus puppet, one of the most complex, was used for a scene in which the dinosaur is captured. The legs of the puppet were controlled through pneumatics. Parasaurolophus is shown being hunted down by the InGen hunters. Winston's team was to create a puppet version of the animal for this scene, but ILM ultimately created the animal through CGI instead, basing the design off of a miniature sculpture that Winston's team had created. In addition, an earlier opening scene that was scrapped would have featured a Japanese fishing trawler acquiring a partially decomposed Parasaurolophus in its net, which would break from the weight, allowing the body to sink back into the ocean. Winston's team created a practical Parasaurolophus for the scene before it was scrapped, although the carcass was still used for a scene set in a T. rex nest. Stegosaurus was, according to Spielberg, included "by popular demand". Winston's team built full-sized versions of both the infant and adult Stegosaurus, but Spielberg eventually opted to employ a digital version for the adults so they could be more mobile. The baby Stegosaurus was long and weighed . It was shipped to the redwood forest for on-site filming. The adult stegosaurs were long and tall. Although they were also brought to the forest for filming, they ultimately were not used because of mobility issues and safety concerns. A full-sized Stegosaurus is only shown in a brief shot, in which the animal is caged. Triceratops is shown being hunted down by the InGen hunters. A baby Triceratops was also created by Winston's team, for a shot depicting the animal in a cage. A baby Triceratops had previously been planned for the first film, before being scrapped. Tyrannosaurus is featured as a family, with two adults and an infant. The T. rex animatronic from the first film was used for The Lost World as well, and Winston and his team also built a second adult T. rex for the sequel. Featuring two practical T. rexes required double the work and puppeteers. The adult T. rex animatronics were built from head to mid-body, while full body shots were created through CGI. The animatronics weighed nine tons each and cost $1 million apiece. For the mobile trailer sequence, an track was built into the sound stage floor, allowing the T. rexes to be moved backward and forward. The adult T. rexes could not be moved from their location at Stage 24, so new sets had to be built around the animatronics as filming progressed. Animatronics were primarily used for the scene in which the T. rexes kill Eddie, with the exception of two CGI shots: when the animals emerge from the forest and when they tear Eddie's body in half. Otherwise, the animatronics were used for shots in which the animals tear the vehicle apart to get to Eddie. Filming the scene with the animatronics required close collaboration with a stunt coordinator. An animatronic T. rex was also used in scenes depicting the deaths of Burke and Ludlow. The baby T. rex had two different practical versions, a "fully contained" remote controlled version the actors could carry, and a hybrid operated by both hydraulics and cables which lay on the operating table, and had the added complexity of moving as Vince Vaughn held its head. Velociraptor had a mechanical version which depicted the upper half of its body, and a digital full-motion computer raptor. A "super-raptor" had also been considered for the film, but Spielberg rejected it, saying it was "a little too much out of a horror film. I didn't want to create an alien." Pteranodon makes an appearance at the film's end. Music For the sequel, composer John Williams avoided using most of the previous film's main themes, writing a more action oriented score. The soundtrack was released on May 20, 1997. It, along with the soundtrack to the first movie, was re-released and remastered on November 29, 2016. Release Marketing On February 10, 1997, Universal announced a $250 million marketing campaign with 70 promotional partners. It was even more extensive than that of Jurassic Park. The leading partners were Burger King, whose promotion was concurrent with one for another Universal dinosaur-based franchise, The Land Before Time; JVC and Mercedes-Benz, whose products are featured in the movie; and Timberland Co., making its first film tie-in. Another partner was a then-sister company of Universal under Seagram, Tropicana Products. Other promotional partners included Hamburger Helper and Betty Crocker, while General Mills introduced Jurassic Park Crunch cereal. Derivative works included various video games, including both a pinball machine and an arcade game by Sega, and a four-part comic series released by Topps Comics. Other promotional items included a toy line of action figures by Kenner and remote-controlled vehicles by Tyco, as well as a board game by Milton Bradley Company. Also produced were Hershey's chocolate bars that featured holographic dinosaur patterns. Universal hoped for promotional profits to exceed $1 billion. Inspired by how Jurassic Park featured the Ford Explorer, Mercedes-Benz signed an endorsement deal to use the film to introduce its first sports utility vehicle, the W163. In December 1996, a special version of the film's teaser trailer debuted at 42 theaters in the United States and Canada, at a cost of $14,000 for each theater; the trailer used synchronized strobe lights that mimicked lightning during a rain scene. The film's first trailer was aired on January 26, 1997, during Super Bowl XXXI. A travelling exhibition, The Lost World: The Life and Death of Dinosaurs, went on tour in May 1997, coinciding with the film's release. The exhibit was produced in connection with the film, and its centerpiece was a 70-foot-long recreation of a Mamenchisaurus. A detailed website for the film was also created, and provided backstory for characters and events not referenced in the film. Shortly after the film's release, hackers broke into the website and briefly changed the film's logo to feature a duck instead of a T. rex. The film's title in the logo was also changed to The Duck World: Jurassic Pond. Universal denied that the hacking was a publicity stunt to promote the film, stating that it was traced to a "16-year-old hacker kid from back East." The website was still online as of 2017. Theatrical The Lost World: Jurassic Park premiered on May 19, 1997, at a Cineplex Odeon theater in Universal City, California. The Los Angeles Times called the premiere "low-key". The film opened on May 23, 1997 receiving the widest release for a film to date opening in 3,281 theaters with previews commencing at 10 p.m. the night before. The film expanded to 3,565 theaters in its fourth weekend. It was also the first film to use the 1997-2012 Universal Pictures logo, accompanied by its fanfare by Jerry Goldsmith. Home media The Lost World: Jurassic Park made its VHS debut on November 4, 1997, accompanied by a $50 million promotional campaign. Fox paid $80 million for the broadcasting rights of The Lost World: Jurassic Park, which debuted on November 1, 1998. The television version was expanded with deleted scenes, that included John Hammond's ouster by InGen executives. The Lost World: Jurassic Park was released on a Collector's Edition DVD on October 10, 2000, in both Widescreen (1.85:1) and Full Screen (1.33:1) versions, in a box set with its predecessor Jurassic Park. The films were also featured in a deluxe limited edition box set featuring both DVDs, soundtrack albums, two lenticulars, stills from both films, and a certificate of authenticity signed by the set's producers, inside a collector case. After the release of sequel Jurassic Park III, box sets including all three movies were also made available, as Jurassic Park Trilogy on December 11, 2001, and as the Jurassic Park Adventure Pack on November 29, 2005. The Lost World was first made available on Blu-ray on October 25, 2011, as part of a trilogy release. The entire Jurassic Park film series was released on 4K UHD Blu-Ray on May 22, 2018. Reception Box office The Lost World took in $72.1 million on its opening weekend ($92.7 million for the four-day Memorial Day holiday, including $2.6 million from Thursday night previews) in the U.S., which was the biggest opening weekend up to that point. It held this record for four and a half years, until the release of Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in November 2001. The Lost World broke several other box office records as well. It took the record for highest single-day box office take of $26.1 million on May 25, a record held until the release of Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. It also became the fastest film to pass the $100 million mark, achieving the feat in just six days. However, despite these records, its total box office gross fell below the total of the original film. Ticket sales dropped 62 percent by its second weekend. It ultimately grossed $229.1 million in the U.S. and $389.5 million internationally, for a total of $618.6 million worldwide, becoming the second highest-grossing film of 1997 behind Titanic. The film sold an estimated 49,910,000 tickets in North America. Critical response On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 53% based on 78 reviews, and an average rating of 5.64/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "The Lost World demonstrates how far CG effects have come in the four years since Jurassic Park; unfortunately, it also proves how difficult it can be to put together a truly compelling sequel." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average rating of 59 out of 100, based on 18 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale. Roger Ebert, who gave the first film three stars, gave The Lost World only two, writing, "It can be said that the creatures in this film transcend any visible signs of special effects and seem to walk the earth, but the same realism isn't brought to the human characters, who are bound by plot conventions and action formulas." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune also gave the film two stars and said, "I was disappointed as much as I was thrilled because 'The Lost World' lacks a staple of Steven Spielberg's adventure films: exciting characters. [...] Even in the original 'Jurassic Park,' the dinosaurs – not to mention the human beings – had more distinct personalities than they have here. Save for superior special effects, 'The Lost World' comes off as recycled material." Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times saw improved character development over the original, saying, "It seemed such a mistake in Jurassic Park to sideline early on its most interesting character, the brilliant, free-thinking and outspoken theorist Ian Malcolm (Jeff Goldblum) with a broken leg, but in its most inspired stroke, The Lost World brings back Malcolm and places him front and center," calling it "a pleasure to watch such wily pros as Goldblum and Attenborough spar with each other with wit and assurance". The dinosaurs were even more developed as characters, with Stephen Holden of The New York Times saying, "The Lost World, unlike Jurassic Park, humanizes its monsters in a way that E.T. would understand." Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B grade; he remarked, "Mr. T-Rex was cool in the first Spielberg flick, sure, but it wasn't until [it was in] San Diego that things got crazy-cool. It's the old 'tree falling in the woods' conundrum: Unless your giant monster is causing massive property damage, can you really call it a giant monster?" Spielberg said that during production he became increasingly disenchanted with the film, stating, "I beat myself up... growing more and more impatient with myself... It made me wistful about doing a talking picture, because sometimes I got the feeling I was just making this big silent-roar movie... I found myself saying, 'Is that all there is? It's not enough for me.'" Spielberg regretted that the film characters are aware they are going to an island of dinosaurs, unlike the previous film. Spielberg later said that he knows a major reason why his sequels tend to not live up to the quality of his original films: "My sequels aren't as good as my originals because I go onto every sequel I've made and I'm too confident. This movie made a ka-zillion dollars, which justifies the sequel, so I come in like it's going to be a slam dunk and I wind up making an inferior movie to the one before. I'm talking about The Lost World and Jurassic Park." Later reviews have also been mixed. In 2015, Matt Goldberg of Collider wrote that the film feels "like the work of a Spielberg protégé. All the beats are in place, but it's an imitation". He considered the film inferior to its predecessor. In 2018, Brian Silliman of Syfy Wire cited the film as a rare example of a film adaptation that is better than its novel counterpart. In particular, he praised the addition of Postlethwaite and his character. However, Syfy Wire's Stephanie Williams considered the novel superior, finding it more action-packed and thrilling while also taking its time "to breathe with these majestic creatures", whereas the film has "way more running and screaming". Ebiri Bilge of Vulture reviewed the film in 2020, praising the horror elements and writing that it "might be Spielberg's nastiest film – a truly demented series of mostly wordless action and horror setpieces whose technical proficiency is matched only by their cruelty." However, Jacob Hall of /Film negatively compared it to Spielberg's 1984 film Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, writing that The Lost World transforms "intelligent characters into bumbling idiots", increases "the volume and the chaos while dialing back the mystery and the awe", and replaces "excitement with violence and cruelty." Accolades References External links Jurassic Park & The Lost World official website Jurassic Park films Films about dinosaurs Giant monster films American monster movies 1990s monster movies 1997 films 1990s science fiction adventure films American films American chase films American science fiction adventure films American sequel films English-language films Environmentalism Eco-terrorism in fiction Films about animal rights Films based on works by Michael Crichton Films set in Costa Rica Films set in San Diego Films set on fictional islands Films shot in Hawaii Films shot in California Jungle adventure films Pterosaurs in fiction Amblin Entertainment films Universal Pictures films Films scored by John Williams Films directed by Steven Spielberg Films produced by Gerald R. Molen Films with screenplays by David Koepp Films based on American novels Films based on science fiction novels

The Cell

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The Cell is a 2000 science fiction psychological horror film directed by Tarsem Singh in his directorial debut, and starring Jennifer Lopez, Vince Vaughn, and Vincent D'Onofrio. The film follows scientists as they use experimental technology to enter the mind of a comatose serial killer in order to locate where he has hidden his latest kidnap victim. The film received mixed reviews upon its release, with critics praising its visuals, direction, make-up, costumes and D'Onofrio's performance, while criticizing its Silence of the Lambs-inspired plot, an emphasis on style rather than substance, and masochistic imagery. The film was a box office success, grossing over $104 million against a $33 million budget. Plot Child psychologist Catherine Deane (Jennifer Lopez) is hired to conduct an experimental virtual reality treatment for coma patients: a "Neurological Cartography and Synaptic Transfer System" device managed by doctors Henry West and Miriam Kent (Dylan Baker and Marianne Jean-Baptiste) that allows her to enter a comatose mind and attempt to coax them into consciousness. The technology is funded by the parents of her patient, Edward Baines (Colton James), a young boy left comatose by a viral infection that causes an unusual form of schizophrenia. Despite Deane's lack of progress, West and Kent reject Deane's suggestion to reverse the feed to bring Baines into her mind, fearing the consequences of him experiencing an unfamiliar world. Serial killer Carl Rudolph Stargher (Vincent D'Onofrio) traps his victims in a cell in the form of a glass enclosure that slowly fills with water by means of an automatic timer, then uses a hoist in his basement to suspend himself above their bodies while watching the recorded video of their deaths. He succumbs to the same schizophrenic illness and falls into a coma just as the FBI identifies him, leaving them without any leads as to the location of his latest victim, Julia Hickson (Tara Subkoff). After learning of this experimental technology, Agent Peter Novak (Vince Vaughn) persuades Deane to enter Stargher's mind and discover Hickson's location. Deane enters the dark dreamscape of Stargher's twisted psyche, filled with doll-like versions of his victims. Stargher's innocent side manifests as Young Stargher (Jake Thomas) and leads Deane through his memories of abuse he suffered at the hands of his sadistic father (Gareth Williams). Deane nurtures Young Stargher in hopes of getting Hickson's location but she is thwarted by another manifestation: King Stargher, a demonic idealization of his murderous side that dominates the dreamscape. King Stargher torments Deane until she forgets the world is not real. Dr. West discovers this while monitoring Deane's vitals. He warns that what happens to Deane while she is integrated into Stargher's mindscape will inflict neurological damage on her real body. Novak volunteers to enter Stargher's mind to make Deane remember herself. Inside Stargher's mind, Novak is captured and subjected to King Stargher's torture while Deane looks on as Stargher's servant. Novak reminds Deane of a painful memory to reawaken her awareness that she is in Stargher's mind. Deane breaks free of Stargher's hold and stabs King Stargher to free Novak. During their escape, Novak sees a version of the glass enclosure with the same insignia as the hoist in Stargher's basement. Novak's team discovers that after the hoist's previous owner went bankrupt, the government hired Stargher to seal up his property. Novak races to the property and finds Hickson treading water in the enclosure and breathing through a pipe. Novak breaks the glass wall and rescues Hickson. Deane, now sympathetic to Young Stargher, locks her colleagues out and reverses the feed of the device to pull Stargher's mind into her own. She presents a comforting paradise to Young Stargher but he knows it is only a temporary reprieve from King Stargher. He shifts to Adult Stargher to relate a childhood story of when he drowned an injured bird as a mercy killing to prevent its torture at his father's hands. King Stargher intrudes as a scaly snake-man but this time, Deane is in control and she beats him to a bloody pulp before impaling him with a sword. However, Young Stargher exhibits the same injuries as King Stargher, and killing either manifestation kills Stargher. Adult Stargher reminds her of the story of the bird and implores her to "save" him. Deane carries Young Stargher into a pool, putting him out of his misery as Stargher dies in the real world. In the aftermath, Deane and Novak meet outside of Stargher's house. The FBI has officially excluded the mind technology from their inquiry and Deane has gotten approval to use the reverse feed on Edward Baines. The final scene is of Baines walking to embrace Deane inside the paradise of Deane's mindscape. Cast Production Director Tarsem Singh asked Tara Subkoff, during her interview, if she could swim, to which she responded that she could and that she had been a lifeguard. It turned out that she could not go underwater without holding her nose. Singh would have switched her role with Catherine Sutherland, but it was too late and there was not enough money or time to re-shoot. The scene where the Special Agents are trying to convince Dr. Catherine Deane to enter the killer's mind was recorded at the Barcelona Pavilion in Barcelona, Spain. Artistic influences Some of the scenes in The Cell are inspired by works of art. A scene in which a horse is split into sections by falling glass panels was inspired by the works of British artist Damien Hirst. The film also includes scenes based on the work of other late 20th century artists, including Odd Nerdrum, H. R. Giger and the Brothers Quay. Tarsem—who began his career directing music videos such as En Vogue's "Hold On" and R.E.M.'s "Losing My Religion"—drew upon such imagery for Stargher's dream sequences. In particular, he was influenced by videos directed by Mark Romanek, such as "Closer" and "The Perfect Drug" by Nine Inch Nails, "Bedtime Story" by Madonna, and the many videos that Floria Sigismondi directed for Marilyn Manson. During a scene, Jennifer Lopez falls asleep watching a film; the film is Fantastic Planet. In the scene where Catherine talks with Carl while he is "cleaning" his first victim, the scenery resembles the music video "Losing My Religion" by R.E.M. The scene where Peter Novak first enters the mind of Carl Stargher, and is confronted by three women with open mouths to the sky is based on the painting Dawn by Norwegian painter Odd Nerdrum. The scene when Catherine Deane is chasing Carl through a stone hallway, right before she enters the room with the horse, is based on a painting by H. R. Giger called "Schacht". A psychiatrist entering the dreams of an insane patient in order to take control of the dreams and so to cure the patient's mind (this being a very risky attempt, because the insanity may prevail during such "neuro-participatory therapy") was described in the novella He Who Shapes (1965) by Roger Zelazny, but the film Dreamscape (1984), subsequently developed from Zelazny's basic idea, had a completely different plot. Reception Critical reaction to The Cell has been mixed, with a score of 45% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 165 reviews, and an average rating of 5.6/10 with the site's consensus reporting that "The Cell offers disturbing, stunning eye candy, but its visual pleasures are no match for a confused storyline that undermines the movie's inventive aesthetic." Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 40 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "C+" on scale of A to F. One of the most positive reviews came from Roger Ebert, who awarded the film four stars out of four, writing: "For all of its visual pyrotechnics, it's also a story where we care about the characters; there's a lot at stake at the end, and we're involved. I know people who hate it, finding it pretentious or unrestrained; I think it's one of the best films of the year." Ebert later placed the film on his list of "The Best 10 Movies of 2000", writing: "Tarsem, the director, is a visual virtuoso who juggles his storylines effortlessly; it's dazzling, the way he blends so many notes, styles and genres into a film so original." James Berardinelli gave the film three stars out of four, writing: "The Cell becomes the first serial killer feature in a long time to take the genre in a new direction. Not only does it defy formulaic expectations, but it challenges the viewer to think and consider the horrors that can turn an ordinary child into an inhuman monster. There are no easy answers, and The Cell doesn't pretend to offer any. Instead, Singh presents audiences with the opportunity to go on a harrowing journey. For those who are up to the challenge, it's worth spending time in The Cell." Peter Travers from Rolling Stone wrote that "Tarsem uses the dramatically shallow plot to create a dream world densely packed with images of beauty and terror that cling to the memory even if you don't want them to." Conversely, Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post called it "contrived", "arbitrary", and "overdrawn". Slates David Edelstein panned the film as well, writing: "When I go to a serial-killer flick, I don't want to see the serial killer (or even his inner child) coddled and empathized with and forgiven. I want to see him shot, stabbed, impaled, eviscerated, and finally engulfed—shrieking—in flames. The Cell serves up some of the most gruesomely misogynistic imagery in years, then ends with a bid for understanding." Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader remarked, "There's almost no plot here and even less character—just a lot of pretexts for S&M imagery, Catholic decor, gobs of gore, and the usual designer schizophrenia." Empire Magazine gave the film two stars out of five, stating that "at times beautiful and always disturbing, this is strangely devoid of meaning." The film received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Makeup. Accolades Sequel A sequel was released direct to DVD on June 16, 2009. The story centers on The Cusp, a serial killer who murders his victims, and then brings them back to life, over and over again until they beg to die. Maya (Tessie Santiago) is a psychic investigator and surviving victim of The Cusp, whose abilities developed after spending a year in a coma. Maya must use her powers to travel into the mind of the killer unprotected, in order to save his latest victim. See also Dreamscape (1984 film) Paperhouse (film) References External links 2000 films 2000 horror films 2000 science fiction films 2000s horror thriller films 2000s psychological horror films 2000 psychological thriller films 2000s science fiction horror films 2000s science fiction thriller films 2000s serial killer films American films American horror thriller films American psychological horror films American psychological thriller films American science fiction horror films American science fiction thriller films American serial killer films BDSM in films English-language films English-language German films Films about child abuse Films about nightmares Films about psychopaths Films about telepresence Films directed by Tarsem Singh Films scored by Howard Shore Films shot in Namibia Films with underwater settings German films German horror thriller films German psychological thriller films German science fiction horror films German science fiction thriller films New Line Cinema films 2000 directorial debut films

The Simpsons: Hit & Run

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The Simpsons: Hit & Run is a 2003 action-adventure game developed by Radical Entertainment and published by Vivendi Universal Games. It is based on the American animated sitcom The Simpsons, and is the twenty-second installment in the Simpsons series of video games. The game follows the Simpson family and their friend Apu Nahasapeemapetilon, who witness many strange incidents that occur in Springfield; security cameras, mysterious vans, crop circles, and a "new and improved" flavor of the popular soft drink Buzz Cola that causes insanity. Taking matters into their own hands, they discover numerous shocking secrets, and soon realize these incidents are part of a larger alien conspiracy, caused by Kang and Kodos. The gameplay largely focuses on exploration and missions; players often race enemies and interact with supporting characters on timed quests. The game also features many elements found in role-playing games, such as explorable worlds and side tasks. Beginning in late 2001, the development of The Simpsons: Hit & Run was extensive. The team sought to differentiate the game from The Simpsons: Road Rage, deeming their new entry into the franchise required a different direction. The game was heavily inspired by the Grand Theft Auto series, and the development team re-purposed the open-world design and nuanced character development for the game. This encouraged collaboration with the show's writers and cast, who helped craft the story and dialogue. It was released in September 2003 for the GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Xbox. It was then ported to Microsoft Windows two months later. Upon release, it received positive reviews from video game critics, with praise particularly focused on the interpretation of The Simpsons television series as a video game, its parodical take on Grand Theft Auto III, and graphics, while criticism mostly surrounded some aspects of gameplay, such as bugs and glitches. It is often considered to be the best Simpsons tie-in game and has gained a cult following. The game was also a commercial success, with recorded sales of over 3 million worldwide. It received the award for Fave Video Game at the 2004 Nickelodeon Australian Kids' Choice Awards. On the PlayStation 2, GameCube, and Xbox, it earned Greatest Hits, Player's Choice, and Platinum Hits respectively. Gameplay The Simpsons: Hit & Run features seven levels over three separate maps, each with missions and a sub-plot. The player can control one specific character in each level. The game's playable characters are Homer (played twice), Bart (played twice), Lisa, Marge, and Apu. When travelling on foot, the player character can walk, jump, run, and perform three types of melee attacks: a normal kick, a jumping kick, and a smashing move. To drive, the player can either hitchhike and control the driver in one of the many civilian vehicles that drive endlessly around town, or use a phone booth to select a car. Several hidden vehicles are present in each level and can also be used by the player if found. The game's driving missions are also similar to those of Grand Theft Auto III. In both games, the player races against other characters, collects items before a timer runs out, and wrecks other cars. The game has a sandbox-style format that emphasizes driving, and the player controls their character from a third-person view. The character can perform certain acts of violence, such as attacking pedestrians, blowing up vehicles, and destroying the environment. The Simpsons: Hit & Run has a warning meter that indicates when the police will retaliate for bad behavior. Located in the bottom-right corner of the screen, the circular "hit and run" meter fills up when the character runs people over or destroys objects, and decreases when they cease doing so. When full, several police cars chase the character for the duration of the hit and run. Each level contains items the player can collect, such as coins, which can be gathered by either smashing Buzz Cola vending machines, Buzz Cola boxes or wasp cameras, the latter of which become more elusive as the game progresses. The coins can be used to buy new cars and player outfits, some of which are required to progress through the game. The player can also collect Itchy and Scratchy cards. There are seven cards in each level. When the player collects all seven cards in a level, a racing mini-game called 'Bonus Game' is unlocked. Overall, there are seven racetracks to unlock for the Bonus Game by collecting every card in a level. When all 49 cards are collected in all the levels, the player unlocks a special The Itchy & Scratchy Show video. Several events cause the player to lose coins; because the character cannot die, injuries cause the player to lose coins. If the player is apprehended during a hit and run, they will be fined 50 coins. Plot Mysterious happenings are occurring in Springfield; a horde of robot wasps descend upon the city at the beginning of the game, a new brand of Buzz Cola has been introduced to store shelves, and black vans have begun appearing around town. Homer suspects that a black van that is outside his house is spying on his family, and he takes it upon himself to investigate who it belongs to, with the van eventually stopping in front of Mr. Burns' mansion. After helping Marge destroy numerous copies of Bonestorm 2, Homer accuses Mr. Burns of spying on Springfield, to which Mr. Burns reveals to Homer that the black vans were simply pizza vans. The next day, Bart tries to get a copy of Bonestorm 2, only to find that the game is sold out. After doing odd chores in the hopes of finding a copy, Bart eventually finds out that Professor Frink is using many copies of Bonestorm 2 to help power the Truckasaurus, and Bart agrees to help him build it, as well as set up a safe environment for it to operate in. After escaping Truckasaurus' wrath, a tractor beam abducts Bart outside the stadium. Lisa attempts to find her brother by exploring the town for clues. She learns that black sedans which have been appearing around town are connected to Bart's disappearance. Lisa eventually finds Bart on a ship in Springfield harbor. He appears to have memory loss and is mumbling unintelligibly while occasionally mentioning the sedans and Buzz Cola, the "new and improved" cola drink recently launched by television personality Krusty the Clown. Marge sets out to learn what has affected Bart with the hopes of curing him. As she investigates a crop circle that recently appeared in Cletus Spuckler's crop field, while Abraham Simpson is describing the look of a crop circle, Marge comes to the realization that his description is reminiscent of the Buzz Cola logo. Marge shows a can of the cola to Bart, which snaps him out of his stupor. Bart reveals that the Buzz Cola is a mind-control cola produced by aliens, and that drinking large amounts of it is what caused his stupor. Marge decides to purge Springfield of the cola, but in spite of her valiant efforts, the drink still maintains its presence and popularity. Wracked with guilt upon the realization that he was selling a tainted product, Apu sets out to redeem himself and find out who owns the cola trucks that are supplying Buzz Cola around town. After helping Snake Jailbird with his community service, Apu learns that the cola trucks are registered to the Springfield Museum of Natural History. After acquiring the key from the museum curator, Apu and Bart decide to go inside the museum, where they find a meteor as the source of the cola. After destroying the meteor, they eavesdrop on a conversation between aliens Kang and Kodos, who are masterminding a scheme. Apu and Bart learn that the wasp cameras that were unleashed upon the start of the game are filming the antics of Springfield for Kang and Kodos' struggling intergalactic reality show, Foolish Earthlings. The aliens are using the cola to make people insane, which the aliens intend to exploit by spreading the cola into the town's water supply, by which time Kang and Kodos will distribute laser guns among the populace to drive the town to a violent massacre sure to draw many viewers. Apu is frightened of the aliens and refuses to help any further, so Bart takes it upon himself to foil Kang and Kodos' plan. Bart asks Krusty for help to stop his role in the aliens' plot, but Krusty doesn't believe Bart. Once getting proof of a functional laser gun, Bart once again asks Krusty for help, at which point Krusty informs Bart that he has already helped the Duff Brewery set up free laser gun stands around Springfield, which Bart promptly sets out and destroys. Bart then informs his father of the alien plot, and the duo quickly pursue Kang and Kodos to the brewery in Homer's old sports car. However, the aliens escape, and before departing, they reveal that they have already released Buzz Cola throughout Springfield's water supply. As the cola seeps into the ground, it releases the un-dead from the Springfield Cemetery, who invade Springfield on the night of Halloween. After Homer collects supplies to protect his family and home from the marauding zombies, he decides to pursue an alien probe vehicle to the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant. Upon reaching the power plant, he encounters Professor Frink, who has figured out the weakness of the aliens: nuclear waste. He plans to use the space ship's tractor beam to suck up cars that are loaded with drums of nuclear waste, which has situated itself over the Springfield Elementary School playground. After successfully loading Frink's car into the space ship, Homer gets permission from Mr. Burns to take nuclear waste drums from the power plant to use against the aliens. After loading three more vehicles with nuclear payloads into the space ship, including sacrificing Abraham Simpson, the ship crashes down, with Kang and Kodos later dying from their injuries. The following day, Springfield is returned to normal, while the Foolish Earthlings show reaches peak popularity even on Earth. Homer is hailed as a hero and gained a large following of alien fans that have come to see him. In heaven, Kang and Kodos are happy that they do not have to watch the game's credits, but they do anyway. The game ends with Kang screaming in horror and frustration. Development The developer, Radical Entertainment, received the rights to create games for The Simpsons franchise when they demonstrated a playable prototype. Radical released its first The Simpsons game in 2001, called The Simpsons: Road Rage. After Road Rage was released, the development team for Hit & Run decided not to create a direct sequel to Road Rage; instead, Radical wanted to steer the franchise's video game series in a different direction by giving the game engine a complete overhaul. The developers felt that everything else needed a new approach, while only the driving portion of Road Rage was worth keeping; in Hit & Run, enhanced traffic artificial intelligence is introduced, which makes computer-controlled vehicles react better to the player's driving. The internal development name for The Simpsons: Hit & Run was simply "Simpsons", as referenced by the executable file of the game. They also decided to add an exploration element to the game to make players get out of the car and navigate the area on foot, so that the game offered a better experience of Springfield. When developing the graphics, the team decided to include landmarks from Springfield. The player is able to enter some of them, including the Kwik-E-Mart, Moe's Tavern, Springfield Elementary School, and The Android's Dungeon and Baseball Card Shop. During Hit & Runs development, 20th Century Fox, Gracie Films and Matt Groening, the creator of The Simpsons, played important roles in bringing The Simpsons universe into a 3D environment. All character voices were supplied by the actual cast, and the series' writers wrote the entire story for the game, including dialogue. Voice samples original to the game, as well as one-liners from the show, can be heard in Hit & Run. Some of the dialogue is reused from a previous game The Simpsons: Road Rage. Tim Ramage, the associate producer of the game's publisher, Vivendi Universal Games, considered it a blessing to have the opportunity of working with The Simpsons cast, along with the writers, with Ramage saying "...you have no concerns about quality; you know you’re getting the best there is." The game's soundtrack was primarily composed by Marc Baril, with additional compositions by Jeff Tymoschuk and Allan Levy. The soundtrack includes various arrangements of the original Simpsons theme by Danny Elfman, and features specific melodies for each playable character; for example, Bart's gameplay is accompanied by hard rock, while Lisa has laid-back motifs that Steven Hopper of GameZone compared to beach party films. Reception Over one million copies of the game were sold as of June 2004, and three million as of July 2007. It had sold 500,000 copies in the United Kingdom by January 2004. The game's PlayStation 2 version received a "Diamond" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 1 million copies in the United Kingdom. Hit & Run received "generally favorable" reviews on all platforms according to the review aggregation website Metacritic, and many consider it to be the best Simpsons game to date. Praise focused on the move from the Simpsons television series to the video game format, while criticism targeted some aspects of gameplay. Hit & Run won the award for Fave Video Game at the 2004 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards. A number of reviews complimented the transposition of the Simpsons television series to a video game. Justin Leeper of Game Informer and Alex Navarro of GameSpot commented on how well the game depicted the fictional city of Springfield from the television series, and called it the most accurate representation of Springfield ever put into a game. Official Xbox Magazine said that the game did the show justice, and Play felt that it was "essentially the show in real time", summing up its review by calling the game a "truly great cross-over product". Navarro thought that the humor that the game offered included many excellent self-referential jokes, and Eric Bush of TeamXbox concluded its review by predicting that the game would be extremely appealing to gamers, especially hardcore Simpsons fans. Entertainment magazine Variety surmised that Hit & Run was the first Simpsons game to include humor comparable to what was in the television series. Hit & Runs parodical take on the Grand Theft Auto III video game was praised by several reviewers. Zach Meston of GameSpy considered it to "deftly satirize Grand Theft Auto while being almost as entertaining", and suggested that Hit & Run improved several gameplay aspects that it borrowed from Grand Theft Auto, including instant mission restarts, a superior guidance system, and an easily accessible collection of vehicles. Official Xbox Magazine agreed that Hit & Run was an excellent game in its own right, and found the game to be a "brilliant" clone of Grand Theft Auto. The combination of the Simpsons universe with the gameplay of the Grand Theft Auto series was also praised by Douglass C. Perry of IGN as "pure brilliance". Positive reviews of Hit & Run focused on its graphics and gameplay. Play appreciated the virtual world that the game offered, describing it as "grandiose in its expanse and artistic rendering". Navarro found the gameplay to be very engaging. Meston found the game to be "very fun and very funny", and Leeper called it "nothing short of astonishing". Despite positive reactions, the game also had serious issues that were brought up in several reviews, which focused on the game's bugs and glitches. Both Bush and Mr. Tickle of Game Revolution pointed out that Hit & Run had a few gameplay issues and graphical shortcomings that included strange artificial intelligence behavior and a broken camera system, which they felt hindered the overall experience of the game. Non-video game publications gave positive reception on the game as well. Nick Catucci of The Village Voice gave the Xbox version a score of nine out of ten and stated, "This delightful, deep, and detailed (but unfortunately not cartoon-style cel-shaded) rip on the Grand Theft Auto series critiques itself better than any untenured academic could." Marc Saltzman of The Cincinnati Enquirer gave the game four stars out of five and said that "What it lacks in originality it more than makes up for with its fun and easy-to-pick-up game play that will appeal to fans of the long-running comedy." Geoff Keighley of Entertainment Weekly gave it a B and said, "If some of the missions seem repetitive, others stand out, like the one that has you confiscating copies of a particularly violent videogame (wink, wink) corrupting Springfield's youth." In Japan, Famitsu gave the Xbox version a score of two eights, one seven, and one eight, for a total of 31 out of 40. Notes References External links 2003 video games Action-adventure games Alien invasions in video games Fox Interactive games GameCube games Metafictional video games Multiplayer and single-player video games PlayStation 2 games Radical Entertainment games Hit and Run Video games developed in Canada Video games scored by Jeff Tymoschuk Video games set in the United States Video games about zombies Windows games Xbox games Video games scored by Marc Baril Video games featuring female protagonists

Admiral of the Navy (United States)

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Admiral of the Navy was the highest possible rank in the United States Navy, prior to the creation of fleet admiral in 1944. The rank is considered to be at least equivalent to that of a five-star admiral, with Admiral George Dewey being the only officer to be appointed to the rank. History Post-Spanish American War The rank has only been awarded once, to George Dewey, in recognition of his victory at Manila Bay in 1898. On March 2, 1899, Congress approved the creation of the grade of Admiral of the Navy. On March 3, President McKinley transmitted to the Senate his nomination of Dewey for the new grade, which was approved the same day. But McKinley's nomination had used the term "Admiral in the Navy," while the act creating the new grade had used "Admiral of the Navy." On March 14, 1903, this discrepancy was addressed when President Roosevelt nominated and the Senate approved Dewey to the grade of "Admiral of the Navy," retroactive to March 2, 1899. The Navy Register of 1904 listed Dewey for the first time as "Admiral of the Navy" instead of "Admiral." Though this clarified the grade's unique title, the precedence of the new rank was still considered "four star", equivalent to general in the army, in the US Navy Regulations of 1909. In the U.S. Navy Regulations of 1913, the precedence of Admiral of the Navy had been set at the "five star" level, equivalent to a British field marshal or admiral of the fleet. More four-star officers were appointed after an act authorizing the temporary grade of admiral for three fleet commanders-in-chief was passed in 1915. In terms of insignia, Dewey appears in a photograph soon after his promotion wearing the sleeve stripes last worn by Admiral David Dixon Porter, which are the same as present-day admirals (one two-inch band with three half-inch stripes above). When a new edition of US Navy Uniform Regulations was issued in May 1899, the sleeve insignia for admiral was specified as "two strips of 2-inch gold lace, with one 1-inch strip between, set one-quarter of an inch apart." In the 1905 Uniform Regulations, a similar description was used but with the title "Admiral of the Navy." The collar and shoulder insignia were four silver stars, with gold foul anchors under the two outermost stars. World War II In 1944, with the establishment of the rank of fleet admiral, the Department of the Navy specified in a Bureau of Navigation memo that "the rank of Fleet Admiral of the United States Navy shall be considered the senior most rank of the United States Navy". As Dewey had been deceased for nearly thirty years, no comparison between his rank and that of fleet admiral was made until 1945. At that time, during the preparations for Operation Downfall, the proposed invasion of Japan, the possibility was raised of promoting one of the serving United States Fleet Admirals to "six-star rank" should the Army take a similar measure by promoting Douglas MacArthur to the rank of General of the Armies. As Congress was trying to create the rank of fleet admiral in 1944, the Navy wanted to re-establish and elevate Admiral of the Navy be equivalent to General of the Armies, but they could not legally do so without a congressional act. The Navy's chief of naval personnel, Vice Admiral Randall Jacobs, testified before the Committee on Naval Affairs of the House of Representatives, recommending that the rank of Admiral of the Navy should be made equivalent to General of the Armies, but a previous bill submitted for its re-establishment on February 25, 1944, failed to be passed into law. Congress passed Pub.L. 78-482 on December 14, 1944, creating the rank of fleet admiral, without re-establishing the rank of Admiral of the Navy. As such, the rank continued to cease to exist. By 1955, the Navy concluded that the rank was honorary. And while they held to the belief that it was equivalent to General of the Armies, the Navy amended its regulations to establish fleet admiral as its highest achievable rank, adhering to the standard set by the law. Text of Act The act to create the grade of Admiral of the Navy read as follows: Be it enacted by the Senate and the House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the President is hereby authorized to appoint, by selection and promotion, an Admiral of the Navy, who shall not be placed upon the retired list except upon his own application; and whenever such office shall be vacated by death or otherwise the office shall cease to exist. References External links Admirals Military ranks of the United States Navy Titles held only by one person

Area codes 905, 289, and 365

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Area codes 905, 289, 365, and 742 are telephone area codes in the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) for the Golden Horseshoe region that surrounds Lake Ontario in Southern Ontario, Canada. The numbering plan area (NPA) comprises (clockwise) the Niagara Peninsula, the city of Hamilton, the regional municipalities of Halton, Peel, York, Durham, and parts of Northumberland County, but excludes the City of Toronto. The area codes form an overlay plan for the same geographic region, where area code 905 was established in October 1993 in an area code split from area code 416. When 289 was overlaid on June 9, 2001, all local calls required ten-digit dialing. On April 13, 2010, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) introduced another overlay code, area code 365, which became operational on March 25, 2013. The numbering plan area surrounds the city of Toronto (area codes 416/647/437), leading locals to refer to the primarily suburban cities surrounding Toronto as "the 905" or "905 belt". It is bound by the 519/226/548 overlay area in the west, 705/249/683 in the north, 613/343 in the east, and New York State area code 716 on the eastern prong of the Niagara Peninsula. The incumbent local exchange carrier is Bell Canada. History Area code 905 was once assigned to Mexico City during the time when Mexico was expected to become a member of the North American Numbering Plan. However, Mexico established its own numbering plan within the country code designation of +52. The assignment of 905 was finally officially withdrawn by February 1, 1991. By October 1991, area code 905 had been assigned to relieve exchanges in the Golden Horseshoe, which was and still is Canada's largest toll-free calling zone. The Golden Horseshoe's explosive growth in the second half of the 20th century and the corresponding expansion of telecommunications service would have made another area code necessary in any event. However, the timetable was advanced because Canada's system of number allocation does not use number pooling as a relief measure. Instead, each competitive local exchange carrier (CLEC) is assigned blocks of 10,000 numbers, which correspond to a single three-digit prefix, for every rate centre in which it plans to offer service. Most rate centres do not need that many numbers, but excess numbers cannot be reassigned elsewhere once they are assigned to a rate centre. The problem was not as severe in the Golden Horseshoe as in the rest of Canada since then as now, numbers tended to be used up fairly quickly. However, the number allocation system did not allow number blocks to be reassigned from smaller rate centres to the Toronto rate centre. The proliferation of cell phones, pagers, fax machines, and dial-up Internet connections made it obvious that the Golden Horseshoe needed another area code. Automatic number identification (ANI) in some central office switching systems in the numbering plan area started operation on October 11, 1992. The new area code entered service on October 11, 1993. Permissive dialing of 416 continued across the Golden Horseshoe until January 1, 1994. However, portions of the 905 territory have remained ever since a local call to Toronto. The creation of area code 905 was intended as a long-term solution. However, five years after its introduction, area code 905 was close to exhaustion far sooner than anticipated, again due to the proliferation of cell phones and pagers. By 1999, the CRTC had established an ad hoc committee to study code relief planning for area code 905. A split of the NPA was considered, with various options being presented: a geographic split by municipality (either two-way or three-way) a geographic split of concentric rings around Toronto a realignment of NPA boundaries a distributed overlay The overlay option was chosen because it would cause the least disruption and was supported by all of the carriers. A split would have forced customers to change their numbers for the second time in less than a decade and forced the reassignment of cellphone numbers. For the same reason, Toronto was overlaid with area code 647 (and later 437). The 289 NPA overlay was approved by the CRTC on August 15, 2000 in Order CRTC 2000–772. The order had the CRTC direct Bell Canada to implement a ten-digit local dialing plan. Area code 289 came into service on April 7, 2001, and it had come into full operation by June 9, 2001. Area code 905 was officially exhausted in November 2005, just twelve years after its creation. All new central office prefixes were assigned with NPA 289. Part of the problem stemmed from the creation of single-tier megacities across Ontario at the turn of the millennium. Many of the enlarged cities are split between multiple rate centres, which have never been amalgamated. An example is Hamilton, Canada's tenth-largest city, which is split between nine rate centres. That applies also to newer cities, which were created prior to the introduction of the 905 code. For example, Mississauga, the largest city in the NPA, and the sixth-largest city in Canada, is split between five rate centres even though it has been a single municipality since 1974, but there is a single Mississauga listing in the phone book. Another example is Vaughan, which is split between three rate centres and part of a fourth even though it has been a single municipality since 1971. Unlike Mississauga, Vaughan is not even listed in the phone book, which lists the various rate centres separately. The Golden Horseshoe's continued growth caused area code 365 to be assigned for further relief on March 25, 2013. Also, area code 742 was assigned on October 16, 2021. A numbering plan exhaust analysis of 2020 projected an exhaust date of March 2023 for the numbering plan area. In popular culture The term the 905 or the 905 belt is used to describe the suburban areas of the Greater Toronto Area, while Toronto proper is referred to as the 416. The term 905er is often used pejoratively by Toronto residents to refer to suburban residents outside the city. Canadian rapper Maestro rendered homage to the area code in his song "416/905 (TO Party Anthem)"; "TO" (pronounced "T" "O") is an abbreviation or nickname locals use when referring to the city of Toronto. In June 2015, Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment announced the formation of an NBA Development League team for the Toronto Raptors based in Mississauga called Raptors 905. The term has been used in the context of Canadian politics, where the 416 is a stronghold of Liberals and NDP, whereas the 905 (excluding Hamilton) historically had strong ties to the Progressive Conservative Party. The region has, however, backed opposition parties as a protest vote, including both the NDP in the 1990 provincial election and the Liberals in the 2003 provincial election, as a backlash to the incumbent government. In both cases, the opposition party was elected to government with strong backing of the 905 region. The 2011 federal election saw the 905 region become predominately represented by candidates of the Conservative Party of Canada, while one third of the 416 ridings were won by Conservatives, many through vote splitting between the Liberals and NDP. In the 2019 federal election, the Liberals successfully held all 25 ridings in the 416, which they won in 2015. However, the parties were fighting over control over the 905 as historically, winning the 905 is key to parties forming government. In the end, most 905 ridings were won by the Liberals over the Conservatives. The Liberals ultimately beat the Conservatives and formed a minority government with the support of the 905. Rate centres and central office codes Ajax-Pickering: (289)-200 224 229 255 275 277 314 315 372 387 388 403 417 422 423 460 482 484 533 539 545 591 608 624 631 660 733 734 744 882 892 913 915 923 980 986 987 988, (365)-275 300, (905)-231 239 250 391 409 420 421 422 423 424 426 427 428 492 509 550 619 621 622 626 683 686 706 744 767 831 837 839 903 995 999 Aurora: (289)-221 258 380 466 552 614 648 796 802 840 879 894 984 995, (365)-500, (905)-222 395 503 713 717 726 727 750 751 758 841 900 Beeton: (289)-415 899 970, (365)-560 901, (905)-724 729 748 801 909 Bethesda: (289)-262 615, (365)-501, (905)-504 888 Blackstock: (289)-702, (365)-408, (905)-986 Bowmanville: (289)-223 276 513 626 703, (365)-401, (905)-419 623 697 Bradford: (289)-464 831, (365)-266 900 (905)-551 775 778 Brampton is divided into the following local rate centres: Brampton (289)-201 233 298 323 325 401 406 410 418 498 499 505 541 544 569 632 654 720 747 748 752 764 801 864 889 900 901 946 948, (905)-216 226 230 291 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 463 487 488 494 495 497 499 500 595 598 654 759 781 782 783 789 790 791 792 793 794 796 798 799 840 846 861 863 866 867 872 874 901 965 970 Castlemore: (289)-324 749 916, (365)-201, (905)-200 204 794 913 915 Snelgrove: (289)-954, (365)-203, (905)-843 996 Burlington: (289)-208 230 245 266 288 293 313 337 348 419 427 598 635 636 707 714 741 745 787 798 812 816 828 861 938 962 977 983, (365)-999, (905)-220 315 319 320 331 332 333 335 336 340 407 592 630 631 632 633 634 635 637 638 639 681 802 Caledon: (289)-824 908 961 966, (365)-200, (905)-584 586 587 588 757 838 843 860 996 Bolton: (289)-206 461 487 503 616 651 875 906, (365)-502, (905)-533 857 951 Palgrave: (289)-546 594, (365)-516, (905)-583 880 Victoria: (289)-955 967, (365)-204, (905)-838 998 Caledonia: (289)-284 285 523 528 751 757 960, (905)-765 Campbellville: (289)-458 630 692, (365)-304, (905)-854 Castleton: (905)-344 Cayuga: (289)-370 516 603 736, (905)-772 Claremont: (289)- 462, (365)-503 650, (905)-408 490 649 Cobourg: (289)-215 251 252 435 677 691 771 829, (365)-400, (905)-207 269 372 373 375 376 377 396 Colborne: (289)-265, (905)-355 Cold Springs: (905)-342 Dunnville: (289)-209 330 331 332 369 377 381 433 518 604 738 761 972 973, (365)-651, (905)-229 701 774 Fisherville: (289)-601, (905)-779 Fort Erie is divided into the following local rate centres: Fort Erie (289)-250 303 320 321 322 476 599 762 (365)-801, (905)-871 991 992 993 994 Ridgeway: (289)-876 (905)-894 Stevensville: (289)-397, (905)-382 Garden Hill: (905)-797 Georgetown: (289)-344 349 428 642 694 790 839 890 891 924 935, (365)-302, (905)-702 703 873 877 Gormley: (289)-486 746, (365)-504, (905)-284 400 534 887 927 Grafton: (905)-349 Grimsby: (289)-205 235 336 447 455 493 754 770 797, (905)-309 945 Hagersville: (289)-282 283 524 758 784, (905)-768 Hamilton is divided into the following local rate centres: Ancaster: (289)-204 239 346 443 445 450 495 515 735 739 855 902, (905)-304 648 Binbrook: (289)-286 287 424 522 568 743 756, (905)-692 Dundas: (289)-238 345 446 494 517 737 753 858, (905)-627 628 Freelton: (289)-609 679 693, (365)-301, (905)-659 Hamilton: (289)-237 244 246 253 260 263 308 309 335 339 358 382 389 391 396 408 425 426 439 440 441 442 456 489 492 520 527 551 556 639 659 667 674 678 680 682 683 684 689 698 700 750 755 766 768 769 773 774 775 776 778 779 780 788 799 808 827 860 877 880 887 919 920 921 922 925 931 933 941 949 975 978 994, (365)-317 888, (905)-218 253 296 297 308 312 314 317 318 379 381 383 385 387 388 389 390 393 481 496 512 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 531 536 537 538 540 541 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 560 561 570 572 573 574 575 577 578 581 645 661 667 719 730 741 745 746 769 777 807 818 865 869 870 902 906 912 920 921 923 928 929 961 962 963 966 971 972 973 974 975 977 978 979 981 Mount Hope: (289)-280 281 491 525 759 791 866, (905)-679 Stoney Creek: (289)-203 448 490 526 656 760 765 792 965, (905)-594 636 662 664 930 Waterdown: (289)-352 431 619 718 767 895, (905)-689 690 Winona: (289)-649 794, (905)-643 Hampton: (289)-706, (365)-403, (905)-263 445 Keswick: (289)-528, (365)-505, (905)-476 535 656 700 989 King Township is divided into the following local rate centres: King City: (289)-207 467 530 618 621 874 907, (365)-506, (905)-539 833 Nobleton: (289)-463 542 620 658 664, (365)-514, (905)-558 859 Schomberg: (289)-318 557 592, (365)-520, (905)-590 939 The Town of Lincoln is divided into the following local rate centres: Beamsville: (289)-432 566 602, (905)-563 Vineland: (289)-567 605, (905)-562 Markham is divided into the following local rate centres: Markham: (289)-301 306 307 378 451 469 507 554 661 666 800 818 846 859 872, (365)-509 654 655, (905)-201 202 205 209 294 350 471 472 554 910 Thornhill (partly within the City of Vaughan): (289)-390 459 472 502 510 514 561 588 597 695 807 843 857 982, (365)-523, (905)-326 370 418 482 530 532 593 597 660 669 695 707 709 731 738 739 747 760 761 762 763 764 771 879 881 882 886 889 907 Unionville: (289)-333 392 473 563 577 584 789 806 844 884, (365)-525, (905)-248 258 300 305 307 316 413 415 470 474 475 477 479 480 489 513 604 752 754 917 940 943 944 946 947 948 968 969 Milton: (289)-230 270 350 409 412 429 627 655 670 728 862 851 878 930 971, (365)-303 355, (905)-299 462 514 636 691 693 699 749 805 864 875 876 878 Mississauga is divided into the following local rate centres: Clarkson: (289)-299 326 373 420 628 727 825 826 849 898 945, (905)-254 403 491 822 823 855 916 919 Cooksville: (289)-232 261 327 360 362 374 421 444 454 497 521 565 628 633 722 724 777 785 805 883 951, (905)-206 210 212 214 219 232 238 241 247 267 268 270 272 273 275 276 277 279 281 282 283 290 306 361 366 402 501 502 507 566 568 602 614 615 624 625 629 712 755 756 766 803 804 848 890 896 897 949 Malton: (289)-247 328 359 384 548 562 623 625 721 729 804 865 904 944 988, (905)-234 255 256 293 298 362 364 405 461 564 565 612 670 671 672 673 676 677 678 694 696 698 740 795 908 956 Port Credit: (289)-297 329 643 822 847 953, (365)-202, (905)-221 271 274 278 486 891 990 Streetsville: (289)-290 305 334 375 457 540 652 719 726 814 848 896 914 957 997 998 999, (905)-236 285 286 288 301 302 363 369 412 542 567 569 593 600 601 603 606 607 608 609 785 812 813 814 816 817 819 820 821 824 826 828 858 997 Mount Albert: (289)-465 534 662, (365)-510, (905)-473 557 Newcastle: (289)-629 708, (365)-404, (905)-446 987 Newmarket: (289)-231 264 279 319 338 340 366 383 395 453 470 500 504 535 663 716 730 763 803 841 903 909 926 934, (365)-340 512, (905)-235 251 252 392 657 710 715 716 806 830 836 853 868 895 898 952 953 954 955 960 967 Newtonville: (289)-709 964, (365)-405, (905)-786 Niagara Falls: (289)-248 257 271 292 294 296 302 341 361 402 477 547 932, (365)-666, (905)-262 295 351 353 354 356 357 358 371 374 394 Niagara-on-the-Lake: (289)-272 413 646 672 868, (365)-667, (905)-468 Oakville: (289)-218 219 242 243 259 291 295 300 351 363 386 400 430 529 644 681 715 725 740 772 795 813 815 817 834 835 837 838 856 881 885 888 863 910 936 937 940 952 981 993, (365)-777, (905)-208 257 287 330 334 337 338 339 399 464 465 466 467 469 483 484 510 580 582 599 616 617 618 808 815 825 827 829 842 844 845 847 849 901 Orono: (289)-710, (365)-406, (905)-485 983 Oshawa: (289)-222 240 254 274 312 316 355 356 385 404 405 481 512 600 634 658 671 675 676 685 688 701 712 731 830 869 886 918 927 928 939 943 979 991 992 996, (365)-800, (905)-213 215 233 240 242 243 244 245 259 260 261 404 410 429 431 432 433 434 435 436 438 439 440 441 442 443 447 448 449 498 571 576 579 644 674 675 718 720 721 723 725 728 743 809 914 922 924 925 926 Pelham: (289)-650 897, (905)-892 Port Colborne: (289)-478 836, (905)-834 835 Port Hope: (289)-436, (905)-800 885 Port Perry: (289)-225 354 485 653 713 912, (365)-407, (905)-982 985 Queensville: (289)-549, (365)-529, (905)-478 589 Richmond Hill: (289)-269 317 353 379 399 452 475 496 506 537 538 550 637 666 699 809 819 833 842 867, 870, 947, (905)-224 237 292 508 737 770 780 784 787 881 883 884 918 Oak Ridges: (289)-210 234 471 543 573 665 854, (365)-515, (905)-223 313 398 505 506 559 773 Roseneath: (905)-352 Selkirk: (905)-776 St. Catharines-Thorold: (289)-213 214 219 228 241 267 273 362 364 398 407 434 438 460 479 501 606 668 669 686 687 690 696 697 723 781 782 783 786 929 931 968 969 974 990, (365)-383 653 668 880, (905)-225 227 228 246 280 321 322 323 324 325 327 328 329 341 345 346 347 348 359 360 378 380 397 401 641 646 650 651 658 680 682 684 685 687 688 704 708 931 932 933 934 935 937 938 941 964 980 984 988 Port Robinson: (289)-376, (905)-384 Stouffville: (289)-212 508 558 612 617 853, (365)-521, (905)-591 640 642 Sutton: (289)-559 576 871, (365)-522, (905)-596 722 Toronto (former Pickering Township only): (905)-509 Tottenham: (289)-850, (365)-540 (905)-406 936 Uxbridge: (289)-394 564 595 640 852, (365)-444 526, (905)-852 862 904 Vaughan is divided into the following local rate centres: Kleinburg: (289)-202 216 531 873, (365)-507, (905)-552 893 Maple: (289)-217 304 342 357 463 468 532 553 832 917 963, (365)-508, (905)-303 417 553 585 653 832 Woodbridge: (289)-236 245 256 268 371 393 474 536 596 622 641 657 845, (365)-527, (905)-264 265 266 417 605 652 663 850 851 856 893 553 Wainfleet: (905)-899 Welcome: (905)-753 Welland: (289)-347 414 449 480 488 673 820 821 823, (365)-652, (905)-414 714 732 733 734 735 736 788 West Lincoln: (289)-560 793 956, (905)-957 Whitby: (289)-220 278 483 509 638 717 732 893 985 989, (905)-217 430 444 493 556 665 666 668 Brooklin: (289)-227 645 704, (365)-402, (905)-425 620 655 See also List of North American area codes References External links CNAC Central Office Codes Bellcore informational letter announcing new 905 NPA (PDF; October 1, 1992) Bellcore informational letter (final reminder) announcing termination of 905 code for calls to Mexico (PDF; December 28, 1990) CRTC: Establishment of CISC Ad Hoc Committees for NPA Relief Planning in Canada Telecom Notice of Consultation CRTC 2009-310: Establishment of a CISC ad hoc committee for area code relief planning for area codes 289 and 905 in southern Ontario 905 NPA Relief Industry Meeting (December 16, 1999) NANPA Planning letter 243: Announcement of NPA 289 as an overlay to NPA 905 (PDF; October 25, 2000) Order CRTC 2000-772: New area code overlay to be introduced in 905 region Area Code Map of Canada Telecom Decision CRTC 2010-213: Code relief for area codes 289 and 905 in southern Ontario at the CRTC 905 Communications in Ontario

Lōʻihi Seamount

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Lōʻihi Seamount (also known as Lōihi) is an active submarine volcano about off the southeast coast of the island of Hawaii. The top of the seamount is about below sea level. This seamount is on the flank of Mauna Loa, the largest shield volcano on Earth. Lōʻihi, meaning "long" in Hawaiian, is the newest volcano in the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, a string of volcanoes that stretches about northwest of Lōʻihi. Unlike most active volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean that make up the active plate margins on the Pacific Ring of Fire, Lōʻihi and the other volcanoes of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain are hotspot volcanoes and formed well away from the nearest plate boundary. Volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands arise from the Hawaii hotspot, and as the youngest volcano in the chain, Lōʻihi is the only Hawaiian volcano in the deep submarine preshield stage of development. Lōʻihi began forming around 400,000 years ago and is expected to begin emerging above sea level about 10,000–100,000 years from now. At its summit, Lōʻihi Seamount stands more than above the seafloor, making it taller than Mount St. Helens was before its catastrophic 1980 eruption. A diverse microbial community resides around Lōʻihi's many hydrothermal vents. In the summer of 1996, a swarm of 4,070 earthquakes was recorded at Lōʻihi. At the time this was the most energetic earthquake swarm in Hawaii recorded history. The swarm altered of the seamount's summit; one section, Pele's Vents, collapsed entirely upon itself and formed the renamed Pele's Pit. The volcano has remained relatively active since the 1996 swarm and is monitored by the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory (HUGO) provided real-time data on Lōʻihi between 1997 and 1998. Lōʻihi's last known eruption was in 1996, before the earthquake swarm of that summer. Characteristics Geology Lōʻihi is a seamount, or underwater volcano, on the flank of Mauna Loa, the Earth's largest shield volcano. It is the newest volcano created by the Hawaiʻi hotspot in the extensive Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. The distance between the summit of the older Mauna Loa and the summit of Lōʻihi is about , which is, coincidentally, also the approximate diameter of the Hawaiʻi hotspot. Lōʻihi consists of a summit area with three pit craters, an long rift zone extending north from the summit, and a long rift zone extending south-southeast from the summit. The summit's pit craters are named West Pit, East Pit, and Pele's Pit. Pele's Pit is the youngest of this group and is located at the southern part of the summit. The walls of Pele's Pit stand high and were formed in July 1996 when its predecessor, Pele's Vent, a hydrothermal field near Lōʻihi's summit, collapsed into a large depression. The thick crater walls of Pele's Pit – averaging in width, unusually thick for Hawaiian volcanic craters – suggest its craters have filled with lava multiple times in the past. Lōʻihi's north–south trending rift zones create a distinctive elongated shape, from which the volcano's Hawaiian name, meaning "long", derives. The north rift zone consists of a longer western portion and a shorter eastern rift zone. Observations show that both the north and south rift zones lack sediment cover, indicating recent activity. A bulge in the western part of the north rift zone contains three cone-shaped prominences. Until 1970, Lōʻihi was thought to be an inactive volcano that had been transported to its current location by sea-floor spreading. The seafloor under Hawaii is years old and was created at the East Pacific Rise, an oceanic spreading center where new sea floor forms from magma that erupts from the mantle. New oceanic crust moves away from the spreading center. Over a period of years, the sea floor under Hawaii moved from the East Pacific Rise to its present location west, carrying ancient seamounts with it. When scientists investigated a series of earthquakes off Hawaii in 1970, they discovered that Lōʻihi was an active member of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. Lōʻihi is built on the seafloor with a slope of about five degrees. Its northern base on the flank of Mauna Loa is below sea level, but its southern base is a more substantial below the surface. Thus, the summit is above the seafloor as measured from the base of its north flank, but high when measured from the base of its southern flank. Lōʻihi is following the pattern of development that is characteristic of all Hawaiian volcanoes. Geochemical evidence from Lōʻihi lavas indicates that Lōʻihi is in transition between the preshield and shield volcano stage, providing valuable clues to the early development of Hawaiian volcanoes. In the preshield stage, Hawaiian volcanoes have steeper sides and a lower level of activity, producing an alkali basalt lava. Continued volcanism is expected to eventually create an island at Lōʻihi. Lōʻihi experiences frequent landslides; the growth of the volcano has destabilized its slopes, and extensive areas of debris inhabit the steep southeastern face. Similar deposits from other Hawaiian volcanoes indicate that landslide debris is an important product of the early development of Hawaiian volcanoes. Lōʻihi is predicted to rise above the surface in 10,000 to 100,000 years. Age and growth Radiometric dating was used to determine the age of rock samples from Lōʻihi. The Hawaii Center for Volcanology tested samples recovered by various expeditions, notably the 1978 expedition, which provided 17 dredge samples. Most of the samples were found to be of recent origin; the oldest dated rock is around 300,000 years old. Following the 1996 event, some young breccia was also collected. Based on the samples, scientists estimate Lōʻihi is about 400,000 years old. The rock accumulates at an average rate of per year near the base, and near the summit. If the data model from other volcanoes such as Kīlauea holds true for Lōʻihi, 40% of the volcano's mass formed within the last 100,000 years. Assuming a linear growth rate, Lōʻihi is 250,000 years old. However, as with all hotspot volcanoes, Lōʻihi's level of activity has increased with time; therefore, it would take at least 400,000 years for such a volcano to reach Lōʻihi's mass. As Hawaiian volcanoes drift northwest at a rate of about a year, Lōʻihi was southeast of its current position at the time of its initial eruption. Activity Lōʻihi is a young and fairly active volcano, although less active than nearby Kīlauea. In the past few decades, several earthquake swarms have been attributed to Lōʻihi, the largest of which are summarized in the table below. The volcano's activity is now known to predate scientific record keeping of its activity, which commenced in 1959. Most earthquake swarms at Lōʻihi have lasted less than two days; the two exceptions are the 1990-1991 earthquake, lasting several months, and the 1996 event, which was shorter but much more pronounced. The 1996 event was directly observed by an ocean bottom seismometer (OBS), allowing scientists to calculate the depth of the earthquakes as to below the summit, approximating to the position of Lōʻihi's extremely shallow magma chamber. This is evidence that Lōʻihi's seismicity is volcanic in origin. The low-level seismic activity documented on Lōʻihi since 1959 has shown that between two and ten earthquakes per month are traceable to the summit. Earthquake swarm data have been used to analyze how well Lōʻihi's rocks propagate seismic waves and to investigate the relationship between earthquakes and eruptions. This low level activity is periodically punctuated by large swarms of earthquakes, each swarm composed of up to hundreds of earthquakes. The majority of the earthquakes are not distributed close to the summit, though they follow a north–south trend. Rather, most of the earthquakes occur in the southwest portion of Lōʻihi. The largest recorded swarms took place on Lōʻihi in 1971, 1972, 1975, 1991–92 and 1996. The nearest seismic station is around from Lōʻihi, on the south coast of Hawaii. Seismic events that have a magnitude under 2 are recorded often, but their location cannot be determined as precisely as it can for larger events. In fact, HUGO (Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory), positioned on Lōʻihi's flank, detected ten times as many earthquakes as were recorded by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) seismic network. 1996 earthquake swarm The largest amount of activity recorded for the Lōʻihi seamount was a swarm of 4,070 earthquakes between July 16 and August 9, 1996. This series of earthquakes was the largest recorded for any Hawaiian volcano to date in both amount and intensity. Most of the earthquakes had moment magnitudes of less than 3.0. "Several hundred" had a magnitude greater than 3.0, including more than 40 greater than 4.0 and a 5.0 tremor. The final two weeks of the earthquake swarm were observed by a rapid response cruise launched in August 1996. The National Science Foundation funded an expedition by University of Hawaii scientists, led by Frederick Duennebier, that began investigating the swarm and its origin in August 1996. The scientists' assessment laid the groundwork for many of the expeditions that followed. Follow-up expeditions to Lōʻihi took place, including a series of manned-submersible dives in August and September. These were supplemented by a great deal of shore-based research. Fresh rock collected during the expedition revealed that an eruption occurred before the earthquake swarm. Submersible dives in August were followed by NOAA-funded research in September and October 1996. These more detailed studies showed the southern portion of Lōʻihi's summit had collapsed, a result of a swarm of earthquakes and the rapid withdrawal of magma from the volcano. A crater across and deep formed out of the rubble. The event involved the movement of cubic meters of volcanic material. A region of of the summit was altered and populated by bus-sized pillow lava blocks, precariously perched along the outer rim of the newly formed crater. "Pele's Vents," an area on the southern side, previously considered stable, collapsed completely into a giant pit, renamed "Pele's Pit". Strong currents make submersible diving hazardous in the region. The researchers were continually met by clouds of sulfide and sulfate. The sudden collapse of Pele's Vents caused a large discharge of hydrothermal material. The presence of certain indicator minerals in the mixture suggested temperatures exceeded , a record for an underwater volcano. The composition of the materials was similar to that of black smokers, the hydrothermal vent plumes located along mid-ocean ridges. Samples from mounds built by discharges from the hydrothermal plumes resembled white smokers. The studies demonstrated that the most volcanically and hydrothermally active area was along the southern rift. Dives on the less active northern rim indicated that the terrain was more stable there, and high lava columns were still standing upright. A new hydrothermal vent field (Naha Vents) was located in the upper-south rift zone, at a depth of . Recent activity Lōʻihi has remained largely quiet since the 1996 event; no activity was recorded from 2002 to 2004. The seamount showed signs of life again in 2005 by generating an earthquake bigger than any previously recorded there. USGS-ANSS (Advanced National Seismic System) reported two earthquakes, magnitudes 5.1 and 5.4, on May 13 and July 17. Both originated from a depth of . On April 23, a magnitude 4.3 earthquake was recorded at a depth of approximately . Between December 7, 2005, and January 18, 2006, a swarm of around 100 earthquakes occurred, the largest measuring 4 on the Moment magnitude scale and deep. Another earthquake measuring 4.7 was later recorded approximately midway between Lōʻihi and Pāhala (on the south coast of the Hawaii (Island)). Exploration Early work Lōʻihi Seamount's first depiction on a map was on Survey Chart 4115, a bathymetric rendering of part of Hawaiʻi compiled by the US Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1940. At the time, the seamount was non-notable, being one of many in the region. A large earthquake swarm first brought attention to it in 1952. That same year, geologist Gordon A. Macdonald hypothesized that the seamount was actually an active submarine shield volcano, similar to the two active Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa and Kīlauea. Macdonald's hypothesis placed the seamount as the newest volcano in the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, created by the Hawaiʻi hotspot. However, because the earthquakes were oriented east–west (the direction of the volcanic fault) and there was no volcanic tremor in seismometers distant from the seamount, Macdonald attributed the earthquake to faulting rather than a volcanic eruption. Geologists suspected the seamount could be an active undersea volcano, but without evidence the idea remained speculative. The volcano was largely ignored after the 1952 event, and was often mislabeled as an "older volcanic feature" in subsequent charts. Geologist Kenneth O. Emery is credited with naming the seamount in 1955, describing the long and narrow shape of the volcano as Lōʻihi. The Hawaiian word lōʻihi means "long". In 1978, an expedition studied intense, repeated seismic activity known as earthquake swarms in and around the Lōʻihi area. Rather than finding an old, extinct seamount, data collected revealed Lōʻihi to be a young, possibly active volcano. Observations showed the volcano to be encrusted with young and old lava flows. Fluids erupting from active hydrothermal vents were also found. In 1978, a US Geological Survey research ship collected dredge samples and photographed Lōʻihi's summit with the goal of studying whether Lōʻihi is active. Analysis of the photos and testing of pillow lava rock samples appeared to show that the material was "fresh", yielding more evidence that Lōʻihi is still active. An expedition from October 1980 to January 1981 collected further dredge samples and photographs, providing additional confirmation. Studies indicated that the eruptions came from the southern part of the rift crater. This area is closest to the Hawaiʻi hotspot, which supplies Lōʻihi with magma. Following a 1986 seismic event, a network of five ocean bottom observatories (OBOs) were deployed on Lōʻihi for a month. Lōʻihi's frequent seismicity makes it an ideal candidate for seismic study through OBOs. In 1987, the submersible DSV Alvin was used to survey Lōʻihi. Another autonomous observatory was positioned on Lōʻihi in 1991 to track earthquake swarms. 1996 to present The bulk of information about Lōʻihi comes from dives made in response to the 1996 eruption. In a dive conducted almost immediately after seismic activity was reported, visibility was greatly reduced by high concentrations of displaced minerals and large floating mats of bacteria in the water. The bacteria that feed on the dissolved nutrients had already begun colonizing the new hydrothermal vents at Pele's Pit (formed from the collapse of the old ones), and may be indicators of the kinds of material ejected from the newly formed vents. They were carefully sampled for further analysis in a laboratory. An OBO briefly sat on the summit before a more permanent probe could be installed. Repeated multibeam bathymetric mapping was used to measure the changes in the summit following the 1996 collapse. Hydrothermal plume surveys confirmed changes in the energy, and dissolved minerals emanating from Lōʻihi. Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory, HURL's submersible Pisces V allowed scientists to sample the vent waters, microorganisms and hydrothermal mineral deposits. Since 2006, the Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory (FeMO), funded by the National Science Foundation and Microbial Observatory Program, has led cruises to Lōʻihi investigate its microbiology every October. The first cruise, on the ship R/V Melville and exploiting the submersible JASON2, lasted from September 22 to October 9. These cruises study the large number of Fe-oxidizing bacteria that have colonized Lōʻihi. Lōʻihi's extensive vent system is characterized by a high concentration of CO2 and Iron, while being low in sulfide. These characteristics make a perfect environment for iron-oxidizing bacteria, called FeOB, to thrive in. HUGO (Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory) In 1997, scientists from the University of Hawaiʻi installed an ocean bottom observatory on the summit of Lōʻihi Seamount. The submarine observatory was nicknamed HUGO, (Hawaiʻi Undersea Geological Observatory). HUGO was connected to the shore, away, by a fiber optic cable. It was designed to give scientists real-time seismic, chemical and visual data about the state of Lōʻihi, which had by then become an international laboratory for the study of undersea volcanism. The cable that provided HUGO with power and communications broke in April 1998, effectively shutting it down. The observatory was recovered from the seafloor in 2002. Ecology Hydrothermal vent geochemistry Lōʻihi's mid-Pacific location and its well-sustained hydrothermal system contribute to a rich oasis for a microbial ecosystem. Areas of extensive hydrothermal venting are found on Lōʻihi's crater floor and north slope, and along the summit of Lōʻihi itself. Active hydrothermal vents were first discovered at Lōʻihi in the late 1980s. These vents are remarkably similar to those found at the mid-ocean ridges, with similar composition and thermal differences. The two most prominent vent fields are at the summit: Pele's Pit (formally Pele's Vents) and Kapo's Vents. They are named after the Hawaiian deity Pele and her sister Kapo. These vents were considered "low temperature vents" because their waters were only about . The volcanic eruption of 1996 and the creation of Pele's Pit changed this, and initiated high temperature venting; exit temperatures were measured at in 1996. Microorganisms The vents lie below the surface, and range in temperature from 10 to over . The vent fluids are characterized by a high concentration of (up to 17 mM) and Fe (Iron), but low in sulfide. Low oxygen and pH levels are important factors in supporting the high amounts of Fe (iron), one of the hallmark features of Lōʻihi. These characteristics make a perfect environment for iron-oxidizing bacteria, called FeOB, to thrive in. An example of these species is Mariprofundus ferrooxydans, sole member of the class Zetaproteobacteria. The composition of the materials was similar to that of black smokers, that are a habitat of archaea extremophiles. Dissolution and oxidation of the mineral observed over the next two years suggests the sulfate is not easily preserved. A diverse community of microbial mats surround the vents and virtually cover Pele's Pit. The Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL), NOAA's Research Center for Hawaiʻi and the Western Pacific, monitors and researches the hydrothermal systems and studies the local community. The National Science Foundation (NSF) funded an extremophile sampling expedition to Lōʻihi in 1999. Microbial mats surrounded the vents, and included a novel jelly-like organism. Samples were collected for study at NSF's Marine Bioproducts Engineering Center (MarBEC). In 2001, Pisces V collected samples of the organisms and brought them to the surface for study. NOAA's National Undersea Research Center and NSF's Marine Bioproducts Engineering Center are cooperating to sample and research the local bacteria and archaea extremophiles. The fourth FeMO (Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory) cruise occurred during October 2009. Macroorganisms Marine life inhabiting the waters around Lōʻihi is not as diverse as life at other, less active seamounts. Fish found living near Lōʻihi include the Celebes monkfish (Sladenia remiger), and members of the Cutthroat eel family, Synaphobranchidae. Invertebrates identified in the area include two species endemic to the hydrothermal vents, a bresiliid shrimp (Opaepele loihi) of the family Alvinocarididae (described in 1995), and a tube or pogonophoran worm. Dives conducted after the 1996 earthquake swarms were unable to find either the shrimp or the worm, and it is not known if there are lasting effects on these species. From 1982 to 1992, researchers in Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory submersibles photographed the fish of Lōʻihi Seamount, Johnston Atoll, and Cross Seamount at depths between . A small number of species identified at Lōʻihi were newly recorded sightings in Hawaiʻi, including the Tassled coffinfish (Chaunax fimbriatus), and the Celebes monkfish. See also List of volcanoes in the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain References Further reading Scripps Institution of Oceanography. (2002). Benthic Invertebrate Collection Database. External links Hawaii Center for Volcanology, University of Hawaiʻi. Loʻihi SeamountUSGS website. Loihi Submarine Volcano: A unique, natural extremophile laboratoryNOAA research site. HURL Current Research – Loihi after the July–August event, on the 1996 Lōʻihi Seamount Exploration Recent volcanic activity at Loihi – University of Hawaiʻi Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory Project (FeMO) Webpage – Earthref.org Submarine volcanoes Active volcanoes Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain Seamounts of the Pacific Ocean Volcanoes of Hawaii Hotspot volcanoes Polygenetic volcanoes Holocene volcanoes Cenozoic Hawaii Quaternary Oceania

Shanhai Pass

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Shanhai Pass or Shanhaiguan () is one of the major passes in the Great Wall of China, being the easternmost stronghold along the Ming Great Wall, and commands the narrowest choke point in the Liaoxi Corridor. It is located in Shanhaiguan District, Qinhuangdao, Hebei province, on the east bank of the Shi River between the Yan Mountains and the Liaodong Bay coast. In 1961, the pass was selected as the Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level by the State Council of China, and it was listed as part of the Great Wall as a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 1987. The pass is a popular tourist destination at the eastern terminal point of the Ming dynasty Great Wall. The location where the wall meets the Bohai Sea is nicknamed "Old Dragon's Head" (老龙头). The pass lies nearly east of Beijing and is linked via the Jingshen Expressway , that runs northeastward to Shenyang. Throughout Chinese history, the pass served as a frontline defensive outpost against ethnic groups from Northeast China (Manchuria), including the Khitan, Jurchen and the Manchus. Shanhai Pass is the starting point of the eastern end of the Great Wall, and is the first barrier for guarding the frontier, therefore it is called the "First Pass Under Heaven" (天下第一关). History Located south of Yan Mountain, and north of the Bohai Sea, for centuries the pass guarded the narrow passage between Northeast and Central East China. The Northern Qi Dynasty, Sui Dynasty and the Tang Dynasty constructed passes here. The site was called Yuguan during the Tang period and by 785, a garrison was established there. Eight more garrisons were established from Yuguan to Jinniukou. During the late Tang and Five Dynasties period, the territory was controlled by autonomous governors. No garrisons (except Yuguan) remained by the Five Dynasties period. The area and the passes were then controlled by the Liao Dynasty. The Liao founded Qianmin County east of Yuguan in present day Shanhaiguan. Garrisons were built in the area under the Jin and Yuan Dynasty. In 1381, Ming general Xu Da constructed the present pass, which was named Shanhaiguan (literally "mountain-sea-pass") because of its location between the mountains and the sea. In the late 16th century, Ming general Qi Jiguang began fortification and construction of a military city around the pass, building cities and forts to the east, south and north, making it one of the most heavily fortified passes in China. During the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty, Shanhai Pass became the seat of Linyu County (临榆县城) under the jurisdiction of Yongping Mansion (永平府). In the late Qing Dynasty, many forts were built to strengthen coastal defense. During the period of the Republic of China, the pass was under the control of the Fengtian clique, the National Government of the Republic of China, the Japanese Army, and the Jireliao Military Region (冀热辽军区). It was taken over by the Northeast Field Army on November 27, 1948. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Shanhai Pass was once under the jurisdiction of Liaoxi Province, and later under the jurisdiction of Hebei Province. Today, Shanhai Pass is one of the best preserved passes in the Great Wall. Battle of Shanhai Pass In 1644, Li Zicheng led a rebel army into the Ming dynasty capital of Beijing, marking the official end of the Ming dynasty. After occupying the capital, Li attempted to enlist the support of Ming general Wu Sangui, commander of the powerful Ningyuan garrison north of the Great Wall. Rather than submit to Li, Wu contacted the Manchu Qing dynasty, suggesting that they combine forces to drive the rebels from the capital. Dorgon, regent of the Qing, marched his army to Shanhai Pass to receive Wu's surrender. Together, Wu and the Manchus defeated Li Zicheng's army near the pass, and Li was forced to abandon the capital. The Qing victory enabled their army to enter Beijing unopposed, and established them as the dominant power in China. Later history During the Qing era, the Shanhai Pass, situated between Shenyang and Beijing, was referred to as the "Key to the Capitals". During the Republican era, as well as during the Eight-Nation Alliance and World War II, the pass witnessed many conflicts. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica noted: "SHANHAI-KWAN, a garrison town in the extreme east of the province of Chih-li, China. Pop. about 30,000. It is situated at the point where the range of hills carrying the Great Wall of China dips to the sea, leaving a kwon or pass of limited extent between China proper and Manchuria. It is thus an important military station, and the thoroughfare of trade between Manchuria and the great plain of China. The Imperial Northern railway from Tientsin and Taku, 174 m. from the former, runs through the pass, and skirts the shore of the Gulf of Liao-tung as far as the treaty port of Niu-chwang, where it connects with the railways leading from Port Arthur to the Siberian main line. The pass formed the southern limit of the Russian sphere of influence as defined in the convention between Great Britain and Russia of the 28th of April 1899." In July1900, 15,000 Japanese troops landed at Shanhai Pass, prior to marching on Peking to relieve the siege of the legations by the Boxers. A pre-landing bombardment of the area was unnecessary as few Chinese troops were present. Inter-allied relations were dealt a blow when a drunken fracas occurred at the Shanhai Pass between Japanese and French troops. In the fighting three French and seven Japanese soldiers were killed, and five French and 12 Japanese were wounded. In November 1945, the North Eastern People's Liberation Army (PLA) attempted to hold Shanhaiguan against Kuomintang forces attacking from the south. They sought to keep Chiang Kai-shek out of Manchuria. The PLA forces of 10,000 were under equipped and too few to defend the position and retreated to Siping. Structure The Shanhai Pass is built as a square, with a perimeter of around . The walls reach a height of , and are thick. The east, south and north sides are surrounded by a deep, wide moat with drawbridges over it. In the middle of the pass stands a tall bell tower. All four sides of the Shanhai Pass once possessed a gate or mén (), with the Zhèndōng Gate () in the east wall, the Yíng'ēn Gate () in the west, the Wàngyáng Gate () in the south and the Wēiyuǎn Gate () in the north. Due to lack of repairs over the centuries, only the Zhèndōng Gate remains today. This was the most important gate due to its position, which faces outside the pass towards Beijing. See also Lady Meng Jiang Jiayu Pass Juyong Pass References Bibliography External links Photos of Shanhaiguan Great Wall of China Man made Object Illustrated Atlas of Shanhai, Yongping, Jizhou, Miyun, Gubeikou, Huanghua Zhen and Other Areas Mountain passes of China Great Wall of China Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Hebei Qinhuangdao Landforms of Hebei

Binghamton Rumble Ponies

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The Binghamton Rumble Ponies are an American minor league baseball team based in Binghamton, New York. The team, which plays in the Double-A Northeast, is the Double-A affiliate of the New York Mets major-league club. The Rumble Ponies play in Mirabito Stadium, located in Binghamton. They were previously members of the Eastern League from 1987 to 2020. History In 1976, the franchise played as the Williamsport Bills in Williamsport, Pennsylvania. It played in Jersey City, New Jersey, in 1977 and 1978, then Buffalo, New York, from 1979 through 1984. It returned to Williamsport in 1987. The team was an affiliate of the Cleveland Indians in 1987 and 1988, and of the Seattle Mariners during the 1989 and 1990 seasons. (The Bills franchise was actually two separate franchises. After the 1988 season, the original owners moved the Bills to Hagerstown, Maryland, while the Eastern League franchise based in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, moved back to Williamsport before the 1989 season.) It was purchased by the New York Mets in 1991, and moved to Binghamton in 1992 as the Binghamton Mets. In 2016, the franchise announced a plan to stay in Binghamton for the foreseeable future, and to change the team's name. The team held a name-the-team contest on its website from May 17 to June 1; the finalists were the Bullheads (for the bullhead catfish abundant in the nearby Susquehanna River), Gobblers (for the rich hunting culture of the area, as well as the turkeys in Binghamton), Rocking Horses (for the Triple Cities' nickname as the "Carousel Capital of The World"), Rumble Ponies (also a carousel tribute), Stud Muffins (for the collections of carousel horses in Binghamton), and Timber Jockeys (for everyone who rides the carousels). On November 3, 2016, the team announced that it would be rebranding as the Binghamton Rumble Ponies, and released a new logo. In 2019, Major League Baseball released a proposal to sever ties with 42 minor-league teams, including the Rumble Ponies and fellow Double-A teams such as the Erie SeaWolves and Chattanooga Lookouts, in 2021. On November 10, 2020, the Mets announced they would continue their affiliation with Binghamton, saving the Rumble Ponies from elimination. The team was organized into the Double-A Northeast. Roster Season records (Place indicates finish in Eastern League from 1987 to 1993, in the Northern Division from 1994 to 2009, and in the Eastern Division from 2010 to 2020. Bold indicates League Champion) Williamsport Bills 1987: 60–79 (7th), managers Steve Swisher & Orlando Gomez 1988: 66–73 (6th), manager Mike Hargrove 1989: 63–77 (7th), manager Jay Ward 1990: 61–79 (7th), manager Rich Morales 1991: 60–79 (7th), manager Clint Hurdle Binghamton Mets 1992: 79–59 (2nd), manager Steve Swisher 1993: 68–72 (5th), manager Steve Swisher 1994: 82–59 (1st), manager John Tamargo 1995: 67–75 (4th), manager John Tamargo 1996: 76–66 (2nd), manager John Tamargo 1997: 66–76 (4th), manager Rick Sweet 1998: 82–60 (2nd), manager John Gibbons 1999: 54–88 (6th), manager Doug Davis 2000: 82–58 (1st), manager Doug Davis 2001: 73–68 (4th), manager Howie Freiling 2002: 73–68 (3rd), manager Howie Freiling 2003: 63–78 (5th), manager John Stearns 2004: 76–66 (2nd), manager Ken Oberkfell 2005: 63–79 (6th), manager Jack Lind 2006: 70–70 (3rd), manager Juan Samuel 2007: 61–81 (6th), manager Mako Oliveras 2008: 73–69 (3rd), manager Mako Oliveras 2009: 54–86 (6th), manager Mako Oliveras 2010: 66–76 (5th), manager Tim Teufel 2011: 65–76 (5th), manager Wally Backman 2012: 68–74 (5th), manager Pedro López 2013: 86–55 (2nd), manager Pedro López 2014: 83–59 (1st), manager Pedro López 2015: 77-64 (2nd), manager Pedro López 2016: 63-77 (5th), manager Pedro López Binghamton Rumble Ponies 2017: 85-54 (2nd), manager Luis Rojas 2018: 64-76 (5th), manager Luis Rojas 2019: 67-73 (4th), manager Kevin Boles 2020: Season canceled due to COVID-19 pandemic 2021: 47-60 (4th), manager Lorenzo Bundy Playoffs References External links Statistics from Baseball-Reference Baseball teams established in 1992 Eastern League (1938–2020) teams Sports in Binghamton, New York Professional baseball teams in New York (state) Cleveland Guardians minor league affiliates New York Mets minor league affiliates Companies based in Binghamton, New York 1992 establishments in New York (state) Double-A Northeast teams

Mexico–United States barrier

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The Mexico–United States barrier (), also known as the border wall, is a series of vertical barriers along the Mexico–United States border intended to reduce illegal immigration to the United States from Mexico. The barrier is not a continuous structure but a series of obstructions variously classified as "fences" or "walls". Between the physical barriers, security is provided by a "virtual fence" of sensors, cameras, and other surveillance equipment used to dispatch United States Border Patrol agents to suspected migrant crossings. In May 2011, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) stated that it had of barriers in place. An additional 52 miles of primary barriers were built during Donald Trump's presidency. The total length of the national border is . Description The border between the United States and Mexico traverses a variety of terrains, including urban areas and deserts. The border from the Gulf of Mexico to El Paso, Texas, follows along the Rio Grande forming a natural barrier. The barrier is located on both urban and uninhabited sections of the border, areas where the most concentrated numbers of illegal crossings and drug trafficking have been observed in the past. These urban areas include San Diego, California, and El Paso, Texas. The fencing includes a steel fence (varying in height between 18 and 27 feet) that divides the border towns of Nogales, Arizona, in the U.S. and Nogales, Sonora, in Mexico. 97% of border apprehensions (foreign nationals who are caught being in the U.S. illegally) by the Border Patrol in 2010 occurred at the southwest border. The number of Border Patrol apprehensions declined 61% from 1,189,000 in 2005 to 723,842 in 2008 to 463,000 in 2010. The decrease in apprehensions are the result of numerous factors, including changes in U.S. economic conditions and border enforcement efforts. Border apprehensions in 2010 were at their lowest level since 1972. Total apprehensions for 2017, 2018, and 2019 were 415,517, 521,090, 977,509 respectively. This shows a recent increase in apprehensions. And while the barrier is along the Mexico-United States border, 80% of the apprehended crossers are non-Mexican. As a result of the barrier, there has been a significant increase in the number of people trying to cross areas that have no fence, such as the Sonoran Desert and the Baboquivari Mountains in Arizona. Such immigrants must cross fifty miles (80 km) of inhospitable terrain to reach the first road, which is located in the Tohono O'odham Indian Reservation. Geography The Mexico–United States border stretches from the Pacific Ocean in the west to the Gulf of Mexico in the east. Border states include the Mexican states of Baja California, Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas. U.S. states along the border are California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. History Origins Territorial exchanges in the Mexican-American War (1846-48) and the Gadsden Purchase (1853) would largely establish the current U.S.-Mexico border. The first international bridge was the Brownsville & Matamoros International Bridge built in 1910. The first barrier built by the U.S. was between 1909 and 1911; the first barrier built by Mexico was likely in 1918, and barriers were extended in the 1920s and 1940s. U.S. President George H. W. Bush approved the initial 14 miles of fencing along the San Diego–Tijuana border. In 1993, President Bill Clinton oversaw initial border fence construction which was completed by the end of the year. Starting in 1994, further barriers were built under Clinton's presidency as part of three larger operations to taper transportation of illegal drugs manufactured in Latin America and immigration: Operation Gatekeeper in California, Operation Hold-the-Line in Texas, and Operation Safeguard in Arizona. Clinton signed the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996, which authorized further barriers and the reinforcement of the initial border fence. The majority of the border barriers built in the 1990s were made out of leftover helicopter landing mats from the Vietnam War. Bush administration The Real ID Act, signed into law by President George W. Bush on May 11, 2005, attached a rider to a supplemental appropriations bill funding the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, which went into effect in May 2008:Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the Secretary of Homeland Security shall have the authority to waive all legal requirements such Secretary, in such Secretary's sole discretion, determines necessary to ensure expeditious construction of the barriers and roads. In 2005, there were 75 miles of fencing along the border. In 2005, the border-located Laredo Community College obtained a 10-foot fence built by the United States Marine Corps. The structure led to a reported decline in border crossings on to the campus. U.S. Representative Duncan Hunter of California proposed a plan on November 3, 2005, calling for the construction of a reinforced fence along the entire United States–Mexico border. This would also have included a border zone on the U.S. side. On December 15, 2005, Congressman Hunter's amendment to the Border Protection, Anti-terrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act of 2005 (H.R. 4437) passed in the House, but the bill did not pass the Senate. This plan called for mandatory fencing along 698 miles (1,123 km) of the 1,954-mile (3,145-kilometer)-long border. On May 17, 2006, the U.S. Senate proposed the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006 (S. 2611), which would include of triple-layered fencing and a vehicle fence, but the bill died in committee. Secure Fence Act of 2006 The Secure Fence Act of 2006, signed into law on October 26, 2006, by President George W. Bush authorized and partially funded the potential construction of 700 miles (1,125 km) of physical fence/barriers along the Mexican border. The bill passed with supermajorities in both chambers. Secretary of Homeland Security Michael Chertoff announced that an eight-month test of the virtual fence he favored would precede any construction of a physical barrier. The government of Mexico and ministers of several Latin American countries condemned the plans. Governor of Texas Rick Perry expressed his opposition, saying that the border should be more open and should support safe and legal migration with the use of technology. The barrier expansion was opposed by a unanimous vote by the Laredo, Texas, City Council. Laredo Mayor Raul G. Salinas said that the bill would devastate Laredo. He stated "These are people that are sustaining our economy by forty percent, and I am gonna close the door on them and put [up] a wall? You don't do that. It's like a slap in the face." He hoped that Congress would revise the bill to better reflect the realities of life on the border. Secretary Chertoff exercised his waiver authority on April 1, 2008, to "waive in their entirety" the Endangered Species Act, the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, the National Environmental Policy Act, the Coastal Zone Management Act, the Clean Water Act, the Clean Air Act, and the National Historic Preservation Act to extend triple fencing through the Tijuana River National Estuarine Research Reserve near San Diego. By January 2009, U.S. Customs and Border Protection and Homeland Security had spent $40 million on environmental analysis and mitigation measures aimed at blunting any possible adverse impact that the fence might have on the environment. On January 16, 2009, DHS announced it was pledging an additional $50 million for that purpose, and signed an agreement with the U.S. Department of the Interior for utilization of the additional funding. In January 2009, U.S. Customs and Border Protection reported that it had more than of barriers in place. Obama administration On March 16, 2010, DHS announced that there would be a halt to expand the virtual fence beyond two pilot projects in Arizona. Contractor Boeing Corporation had numerous delays and cost overruns. Boeing had initially used police-dispatching software that was unable to process all of the information coming from the border. The $50 million of remaining funding would be used for mobile surveillance devices, sensors, and radios to patrol and protect the border. At the time, DHS had spent $3.4 billion on border fences and had built of fences and barriers as part of the Secure Border Initiative. In May 2011, President Barack Obama stated that the wall was "basically complete", with of 652 planned miles of barrier constructed. Of this, vehicle barriers comprised and pedestrian fence . Obama stated that:We have gone above and beyond what was requested by the very Republicans who said they supported broader reform as long as we got serious about enforcement. All the stuff they asked for, we've done. But ... I suspect there are still going to be some who are trying to move the goal posts on us one more time. They'll want a higher fence. Maybe they'll need a moat. Maybe they want alligators in the moat. They'll never be satisfied. And I understand that. That's politics. The Republican Party's 2012 platform stated that "The double-layered fencing on the border that was enacted by Congress in 2006, but never completed, must finally be built." The Secure Fence Act's costs were estimated at $6 billion, more than the Customs and Border Protection's entire annual discretionary budget of $5.6 billion. The Washington Office on Latin America noted in 2013 that the cost of complying with the Secure Fence Act's mandate was the reason that it had not been completely fulfilled. A 2016 report by the Government Accountability Office confirmed that the government had completed the fence by 2015. A 2017 report noted that "In addition to the 654 miles of primary fencing, [Customs and Border Protection] has also deployed additional layers of pedestrian fencing behind the primary border fencing, including 37 miles of secondary fencing and 14 miles of tertiary fencing." Trump administration Throughout his 2016 presidential campaign, Donald Trump called for the construction of a much larger and fortified border wall, claiming that if elected, he would "build the wall and make Mexico pay for it". Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto maintained that his country would not pay for the wall. On January 25, 2017, the Trump administration signed Executive Order 13767, which formally directed the US government to begin attempting to construct a border wall using existing federal funding, although construction did not begin at this time because a formal budget had not been developed. Trump's campaign promise has faced a host of legal and logistical challenges since. In March 2018, the Trump administration secured $1.6 billion from Congress for projects at the border for existing designs of approximately 100 miles of new and replacement walls. From December 22, 2018, to January 25, 2019, the federal government was partially shut down because of Trump's declared intention to veto any spending bill that did not include $5 billion in funding for a border wall. On May 24, 2019, federal Judge Haywood Gilliam in the Northern District of California granted a preliminary injunction preventing the Trump administration from redirecting funds under the national emergency declaration issued earlier in the year to fund a planned wall along the border with Mexico. The injunction applies specifically to money the administration intended to allocate from other agencies and limits wall construction projects in El Paso and Yuma. On June 28, Gilliam blocked the reallocation of $2.5 billion of funding from the Department of Defense to the construction of segments of the border wall categorized as high priority by the Trump administration (spanning across Arizona, California and New Mexico). The decision was upheld five days later by a majority in the Ninth Circuit Appeals Court but was overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court on July 26. On September 3, Secretary of Defense Mark Esper authorized the use of $3.6 billion in military construction funding for 175 miles of the barrier. The House and Senate have twice voted to terminate Trump's emergency declaration, but the president vetoed both resolutions. In October, a lawsuit filed in El Paso County produced a ruling that the emergency declaration was unlawful, as it fails to meet the National Emergencies Act's definition of an emergency. On December 10, a federal judge in the case blocked the use of the funding, but on January 8, 2020, a federal appeals court granted a stay of the ruling, freeing $3.6 billion for the wall. , the Trump administration's barrier construction had been limited to replacing sections that were in need of repair or outdated, with 60 miles of replacement wall built in the Southwest since 2017. As of September 12, 2019, the Trump administration plans for "Between 450 and 500 miles (724–806 kilometers) of fencing along the nearly 2,000-mile (3,218-kilometer) border by the end of 2020" with an estimated total cost of $18.4 billion. Privately owned land adjacent to the border would have to be acquired by the U.S. government to be built upon. On June 23, Trump visited Yuma, Arizona, for a campaign rally commemorating the completion of of the wall. U.S. Customs and Border Protection confirmed that almost all of this was replacement fencing. By the end of Trump's term on January 21, 2021, had been built at last report by CBP on January 5th, much of it replacing outdated or dilapidated existing barriers. Contractors and independent efforts As of February 2019, contractors were preparing to construct $600 million worth of replacement barriers along the south Texas Rio Grande Valley section of the border wall, approved by Congress in March 2018. In mid-April 2019, former Kansas Secretary of State Kris Kobach visited Coolidge, Arizona, to observe a demonstration by North Dakota's Fisher Industries of how it would build a border fence. The company maintained that it could erect 218 miles of the barrier for $3.3 billion and be able to complete it in 13 months. Spin cameras positioned atop the fence would use facial-recognition technology, and underground fiber optic cables could detect and differentiate between human activity, vehicles, tunneling, and animals as distant as 40 feet away. The proposed barrier would be constructed with 42 miles near Yuma and 91 miles near Tucson, Arizona, 69 miles near El Paso, Texas, and 15 miles near El Centro, California—reportedly costing $12.5 million per mile. In April 2019, U.S. Senator Bill Cassidy said that he traveled with the group of politicians and administration officials over the Easter recess to Coolidge (120 miles north of the Mexico border) because he felt that insufficient barrier and border enhancements had been erected since Trump became president. U.S. senator Kevin Cramer was also there, promoting Fisher Industries, which demonstrated the construction of a 56-foot fence in Coolidge. A private organization founded by military veteran Brian Kolfage called "We Build the Wall" raised over $20 million beginning in 2018, with President Trump's encouragement and with leadership from Kobach and Steve Bannon. Over the 2019 Memorial Day weekend, the organization constructed a 1/2 to 1-mile "weathered steel" bollard fence near El Paso on private land adjoining the US–Mexico border using $6–8 million of the donated funds. Kolfage's organization says it has plans to construct further barriers on private lands adjoining the border in Texas and California. On December 3, 2019, a Hidalgo County judge ordered the group to temporarily halt all construction because of its plans to build adjacent to the Rio Grande, which a lawyer for the National Butterfly Center argues would create a flooding risk. On January 9, 2020, a federal judge lifted an injunction, allowing a construction firm to move forward with the 3 mile project along the Rio Grande. This ended a month long court battle with both the Federal Government and the National Butterfly Center which both tried to block construction efforts. Biden administration President Joe Biden signed an executive order on his first day of office, January 20, 2021, ordering a "pause" in all construction of the wall no later than January 27. The government was given two months to plan how to spend the funds elsewhere and determine how much it would cost to terminate the contracts. There are no plans to tear down parts of the wall that have been built. The deployment of 3,000 National Guard troops along the border will continue. The Biden administration has continued to seize land for construction of the border wall. By December 2021, many contracts had been cancelled, including one requiring the possession of the land of a family represented by the Texas Civil Rights Project. In June 2021, Texas governor Greg Abbott announced plans to build a border wall in his state, saying that the state would provide $250 million and that direct donations from the public would be solicited. On June 29, the Republican Study Committee organized a group of two dozen Republican House members to visit a gap in the border where Central Americans were crossing into the country. Representative Mary Miller stated that "obviously our president has advertised this and facilitated this invasion". Rep. Jim Banks praised the effectiveness of Trump's wall and said that because of the halted construction, "thousands of migrants [pass] through this area on a regular basis ... because there's an open door that allows them to do that". In reference to wristbands on migrants used by Mexican cartels and smugglers to track them, Rep. Madison Cawthorn stated, "They're basically treating people like Amazon products. ... There is no care that that is a human being, someone who has a soul, someone who has unalienable rights that predate any government." Controversy Effectiveness Research at Texas A&M University and Texas Tech University indicates that the wall, like border walls in general, is unlikely to be effective at reducing illegal immigration or movement of contraband. In mid-April 2019, U.S. Senator Martha McSally said that a barrier will not resolve the border crisis. Authors of books on the effectiveness have said that aside from the human crossings, drugs among other things will still be making their way to the United States illegally. However, US Customs and Border Protection has frequently called for more physical barriers on the Mexico–United States border, citing their efficacy. Smugglers in 2021 used demolition tools and power saws on pieces of wall in Arizona. Divided land Tribal lands of three indigenous nations are divided by a proposed border fence. On January 27, 2008, a Native American human rights delegation in the United States, which included Margo Tamez (Lipan Apache-Jumano Apache) and Teresa Leal (Opata-Mayo) reported the removal of the official International Boundary obelisks of 1848 by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security in the Las Mariposas, Sonora-Arizona sector of the Mexico–U.S. border. The obelisks were moved southward approximately , onto the property of private landowners in Sonora, as part of the larger project of installing the steel barrier wall. The proposed route for the border fence would divide the campus of the University of Texas at Brownsville into two parts, according to Antonio N. Zavaleta, a vice president of the university. There have been campus protests against the wall by students who feel it will harm their school. In August 2008, UT-Brownsville reached an agreement with the U.S. Department of Homeland Security for the university to construct a portion of the fence across and adjacent to its property. On August 20, 2008, the university sent out a request for bids for the construction of a high barrier that incorporates technology security for its segment of the border fence project. The southern perimeter of the UT-Brownsville campus will be part of a laboratory for testing new security technology and infrastructure combinations. The border fence segment on the campus was substantially completed by December 2008. The SpaceX South Texas Launch Site was shown on a map of the Department of Homeland Security with the barrier cutting through the in Boca Chica, Texas. Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge On August 1, 2018, the chief of the Border Patrol's Rio Grande Valley sector indicated that although Starr County was his first priority for a wall, Hidalgo County's Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge had been selected instead for initial construction, because its land was owned by the government. National Butterfly Center The proposed border wall has been described as a "death sentence" for the American National Butterfly Center, a privately operated outdoor butterfly conservatory that maintains a significant amount of land in Mexico. Filmmaker Krista Schlyer, part of an all-woman team creating a documentary film about the butterflies and the border wall, Ay Mariposa, estimates that construction would put "70 percent of the preserve habitat" on the Mexican side of the border. In addition to concerns about seizure of private property by the federal government, center employees have also noted the local economic impact. The center's director has stated that "environmental tourism contributes more than $450m to Hidalgo and Starr counties." In early December 2018, a challenge to wall construction at the National Butterfly Center was rejected by the U.S. Supreme Court. According to the San Antonio Express News, "the high court let stand an appeals ruling that lets the administration bypass 28 federal laws", including the Endangered Species Act, the Safe Drinking Water Act and the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. Mexico's condemnations In 2006, the Mexican government vigorously condemned the Secure Fence Act of 2006. Mexico has also urged the U.S. to alter its plans for expanded fences along their shared border, saying that it would damage the environment and harm wildlife. In 2012, Enrique Peña Nieto was campaigning in Tijuana at the Playas de Monumental, less than from the U.S.–Mexico border adjacent to Border Field State Park. In one of his speeches he criticized the U.S. government for building the barriers and asked for them to be removed, referencing President Ronald Reagan's "Tear down this wall!" speech from Berlin in 1987. Migrant deaths Between 1994 and 2007, there were around 5,000 migrant deaths along the Mexico–United States border, according to a document created by the Human Rights National Commission of Mexico, also signed by the American Civil Liberties Union. Between 43 and 61 people died trying to cross the Sonoran Desert from October 2003 to May 2004; three times that of the same period the previous year. In October 2004, the Border Patrol announced that 325 people had died crossing the entire border during the previous 12 months. Between 1998 and 2004, 1,954 persons are officially reported to have died along the Mexico–U.S. border. Since 2004, the bodies of 1,086 migrants have been recovered in the southern Arizona desert. U.S. Border Patrol Tucson Sector reported on October 15, 2008, that its agents were able to save 443 illegal immigrants from certain death after being abandoned by their smugglers. The agents also reducing the number of deaths by 17% from 202 in 2007 to 167 in 2008. Without the efforts of these agents, hundreds more could have died in the deserts of Arizona. According to the same sector, border enhancements like the wall have allowed the Tucson Sector agents to reduce the number of apprehensions at the borders by 16% compared with 2007. Environmental impact In April 2008, the Department of Homeland Security announced plans to waive more than 30 environmental and cultural laws to speed construction of the barrier. Despite claims from then Homeland Security Chief Michael Chertoff that the department would minimize the construction's impact on the environment, critics in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, asserted that the fence endangered species and fragile ecosystems along the Rio Grande. Environmentalists expressed concern about butterfly migration corridors and the future of species of local wildcats, the ocelot, the jaguarundi, and the jaguar. By August 2008, more than 90% of the southern border in Arizona and New Mexico had been surveyed. In addition, 80% of the California–Mexico border has been surveyed. About 100 species of plants and animals, many already endangered, are threatened by the wall, including the jaguar, ocelot, Sonoran pronghorn, Mexican wolf, a pygmy owl, the thick-billed parrot, and the Quino checkerspot butterfly. According to Scott Egan of Rice University, a wall can create a population bottleneck, increase inbreeding, and cut off natural migration routes and range expansion. In 2008 a resolution "based on sound and accurate scientific knowledge" expressing opposition to the wall and the harmful impact on several rare, threatened, and endangered species, particularly endangered mammals such as the jaguar, ocelot, jaguarondi, and Sonoran pronghorn, was published by The Southwestern Association of Naturalists, an organization of 791 scientists specializing in the zoology, botany, and ecology of southwestern USA and Mexico. A decade later in 2018, well over 2500 scientists from 43 countries published a statement opposing the Border Wall, affirming it will have "significant consequences for biodiversity" and "Already-built sections of the wall are reducing the area, quality, and connectivity of plant and animal habitats and are compromising more than a century of binational investment in conservation." An initial wall for which U.S. funding has been requested on the nearly mile border would pass through the Tijuana Slough National Wildlife Refuge in California, the Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge and Lower Rio Grande Valley National Wildlife Refuge in Texas, and Mexico's Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge and El Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that the U.S. is bound by global treaty to protect. The U.S. Customs and Border Protection plans to build the wall using the Real ID Act to avoid the process of making environmental impact statements, a strategy devised by Chertoff during the Bush administration. Reuters said, "The Real ID Act also allows the secretary of Homeland Security to exempt CBP from adhering to the Endangered Species Act", which would otherwise prohibit construction in a wildlife refuge. See also Mexico–United States border Mexico–United States border crisis List of Mexico–United States border crossings United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints Roosevelt Reservation List of walls Open border Tortilla Wall Border barrier Separation barrier Guatemala–Mexico border Israeli West Bank barrier Egypt–Israel barrier Hungarian border barrier References Footnotes Citations Further reading Chaichian, Mohammad. 2014. Empires and Walls: Globalization, Migration, and Colonial Domination (Brill, pp. 175–235) The High Cost and Diminishing Returns of a Border Wall External links Border Wall System CBP.gov This Is What the U.S.–Mexico Border Wall Actually Looks Like. National Geographic Society US–Mexico Border Barriers, Historical Timeline and Summary Statistics Anti-immigration politics in the United States Border barriers Fortifications in the United States Barrier 1994 establishments in Mexico 1993 establishments in the United States

Macula densa

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In the kidney, the macula densa is an area of closely packed specialized cells lining the wall of the distal tubule, at the point where the thick ascending limb of the Loop of Henle meets the distal convoluted tubule. The macula densa is the thickening where the distal tubule touches the glomerulus. The cells of the macula densa are sensitive to the concentration of sodium chloride in the distal convoluted tubule. A decrease in sodium chloride concentration initiates a signal from the macula densa that has two effects: (1) it decreases resistance to blood flow in the afferent arterioles, which raises glomerular hydrostatic pressure and helps return the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) toward normal, and (2) it increases renin release from the juxtaglomerular cells of the afferent and efferent arterioles, which are the major storage sites for renin. As such, an increase in sodium chloride concentration would result in vasoconstriction of afferent arterioles, and reduced paracrine stimulation of juxtaglomerular cells. This demonstrates the macula densa feedback, where compensatory mechanisms act in order to return GFR to normal. The release of renin is an essential component of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS), which regulates blood pressure and volume. Histology The cells of the macula densa are taller and have more prominent nuclei than surrounding cells of the distal straight tubule (cortical thick ascending limb). The close proximity and prominence of the nuclei cause this segment of the distal tubule wall to appear darker in microscopic preparations, hence the name macula densa. Function Macula densa cells sense changes in sodium chloride level, and will trigger an autoregulatory response to increase or decrease reabsorption of ions and water to the blood (as needed) in order to alter blood volume and return blood pressure to normal. A decrease in afferent arteriole diameter causes a decrease in the GFR (glomerular filtration rate), resulting in a decreased concentration of sodium and chloride ions in the filtrate and/or decreased filtrate flow rate. Reduced blood pressure means decreased venous pressure and, hence, a decreased peritubular capillary pressure. This results in a smaller capillary hydrostatic pressure, which causes an increased absorption of sodium ions into the vasa recta at the proximal tubule. Hence, a decrease in blood pressure results in less sodium chloride present at the distal tubule, where the macula densa is located. The macula densa senses this drop in salt concentration and responds through two mechanisms, both of which are mediated by prostaglandin release. First, prostaglandins preferentially vasodilate the renal afferent arteriole, decreasing afferent arteriole resistance and, thus, offsetting the decrease in glomerular hydrostatic pressure caused by the drop in blood pressure. Second, prostaglandin activates prostaglandin-sensitive specialized smooth muscle cells of the renal afferent arterioles, juxtaglomerular cells (JG cells), to release renin into the bloodstream. The JG cells can also release renin independently of the macula densa. There are stretch-sensitive baroreceptors lining the arterioles that will release renin if a fall in blood pressure (i.e. decreased stretch of arteriole due to less blood flow) in the arterioles is detected. Furthermore, JG cells contain beta-1 adrenergic receptors, and so activation of the sympathetic nervous system will further stimulate renin release. Thus, a drop in blood pressure results in preferential vasodilation of the afferent arterioles, increasing renal blood flow (RBF), renal plasma flow (RPF) and GFR due to greater blood flow to the glomerulus. Note that there is no change in filtration fraction, as both GFR and RPF are increased. It also results in the release of renin, which, through the renin–angiotensin system, causes constriction of the efferent arterioles, which ultimately increases hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus. The process triggered by the macula densa helps keep the GFR fairly steady in response to varying artery pressure. Damage to the macula densa would impact blood flow to the kidneys because the afferent arterioles would not dilate in response to a decrease in filtrate osmolarity and pressure at the glomerulus would not be increased. As part of the body's blood pressure regulation, the macula densa monitors filtrate osmolarity; if it falls too far, the macula densa causes the afferent arterioles of the kidney to dilate, thus increasing the pressure at the glomerulus and increasing the glomerular filtration rate. See also Kidney Juxtaglomerular apparatus Nephron References External links - "Mammal, kidney cortex (LM, Medium)" - "The Nephron: Juxtaglomerular Apparatus" Kidney anatomy

Area codes 613 and 343

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Area codes 613 and 343 are telephone area codes in the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) for Ottawa and surrounding Eastern Ontario, Canada. Area code 613 is one of the 86 original North American area codes assigned in October 1947. Area code 343 was assigned to the same numbering plan area in an overlay plan activated on May 17, 2010. In 2021, the Canadian Numbering Administrator approved area code 753 as an additional overlay code for the numbering plan area to be activated on March 26, 2022. History Area code 613 was originally assigned to a numbering plan area that included all of Ontario with the exception of the Golden Horseshoe, which was assigned the area code 416. The numbering plan area has been split twice. In 1953, the southwestern Ontario portion of 613 was combined with the western portion of 416 to become numbering plan area 519. In 1957, the vast northwestern portion of 613 was combined with the northern portion of 519 to receive area code 705. Since 1957, 613 covers only eastern Ontario, an area extending from Brighton and Deep River eastward to Saint Regis, Quebec. Ottawa and its twin city in Quebec, Gatineau, fall on the boundary between 613 and Quebec's area code 819. However, Ottawa shares a local calling area with the former city of Hull, Quebec (now part of the "megacity" of Gatineau). As a result, for 46 years, a call could be completed between Ottawa and Hull with only seven digits. A similar situation prevailed in the Washington metropolitan area across three jurisdictions – Washington itself and parts of Maryland and Virginia. While there are fewer than two million people in the geographic area covered by 613, the bulk of that population lives in the Ottawa area. To preserve seven-digit dialling between Ottawa and Hull, an exchange code protection scheme was implemented so that the same seven-digit local number could not be assigned on both sides of the National Capital Region. Technically, it was only necessary that no two prefixes within the same local calling area be duplicates, but the code protection as implemented reserved the numbers across both area codes. This meant that if a 1-819 number was being used in Hull, the corresponding 1-613 number could not be used anywhere in eastern Ontario, even in areas a safe distance from the National Capital Region such as Brighton. Similarly, if a 1-613 number was being used in Ottawa–Carleton, the corresponding 1-819 number could not be used anywhere in western Quebec. Federal government offices in Hull duplicated their entire allocation of multiple exchanges worth of numbers available in 613 as part of a "dual dialability" scheme. By the turn of the century, both 613 and 819 were close to exhaustion due to Canada's inefficient number allocation system. Every competitive local exchange carrier received blocks of 10,000 numbers (corresponding to a single prefix) in every rate centre in which it planned to offer local service, no matter how small. A tiny unincorporated village (like Odessa, Ontario, with no telephone central office but still listed as a rate centre) usually received multiple 10,000-number blocks. Once a number is assigned to a rate centre and CLEC, it is unavailable for use elsewhere, even in cases when a rate centre has more numbers than it needs. Larger municipalities have multiple rate centres and multiple competing carriers in each. For instance, even though Ottawa has been a single municipality since merging with the Regional Municipality of Ottawa–Carleton in 2001, it still has 11 rate centres (plus portions of other rate centres primarily located beyond the city limits) – most with very similar local calling areas – which have never been amalgamated. The "Ottawa–Hull" exchange only covers the area that was the city of Ottawa prior to the 2001 amalgamation, plus the former suburbs of Nepean (central part) and Vanier and small sections of other urban communities. Since Canada does not use number pooling as a relief measure, many telephone numbers of the area code remained unused. The proliferation of cell phones and pagers, particularly in the larger cities in the 613 area (Ottawa, Kingston, Belleville, etc.) only magnified the problem. By 2006, the only remaining unassigned exchange prefixes in the entire 819 region were numbers which could not be assigned to the Quebec side of the Ottawa–Hull area without breaking seven-digit dialling between Hull and Ottawa. Ten-digit dialling in 613 and 819 became mandatory on October 21, 2006. Intraprovincial calls from rate centres with no local calling beyond a small fragment of their own area code were returning intercept messages if dialled as seven digits. Exchange protection in the National Capital Region was ended, except for the "dual dialability" scheme for government numbers on both sides of the river. This situation could have been avoided had some 1-613 versions of seven-digit Ottawa-Hull numbers been assigned to areas a safe distance from the National Capital Region years earlier. Within two years, it became apparent that a new area code was necessary due to the continued number allocation problem – an issue exacerbated by the proliferation of cell phones and pagers. A geographic split was quickly ruled out. Local telephone companies did not want the expense and burden of changing existing customers' numbers, which would have required en masse reprogramming of cell phones. As a result, overlay area codes were proposed for both 613 and 819. Area code 343, an overlay proposed in 2007, and approved by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission on September 10, 2008, was activated for the region on May 17, 2010, several years earlier than originally anticipated. On 10 November 2021, the Canadian Numbering Administrator approved an additional overlay code for the numbering plan area 613/343. Area code 753 has been assigned, and will be activated on March 26, 2022.<ref>NANP [https://www.nationalnanpa.com/planning_letters/PL-571.pdf Planning Letter PL-571] (2021-11-10)</ref> Carriers The main incumbent local exchange carrier in area code 613 is Bell Canada, but there are some five independent companies serving rural exchanges: the Lansdowne Rural Telephone Company, serving Lansdowne; the North Frontenac Telephone Company, serving Sharbot Lake and Parham; the North Renfrew Telephone Company, serving Beachburg, Westmeath, and the area outside Pembroke; the Roxborough Telephone Company, serving Moose Creek; and the Westport Telephone Company, serving Westport. Also served by area code 613 and Bell Canada is Saint-Régis, Quebec. The exchange covers the Mohawk nation territory of Akwesasne, which straddles the Ontario–Québec–New York border. Calls from Saint-Régis to Fort Covington, New York, are local although they cross an international border. In the west, Rapides-des-Joachims, Quebec, shares an exchange with the adjacent Rolphton, Ontario. Communities and central office codes Adolphustown (Greater Napanee) – (613): 373 Addington Highlands (township): see Denbigh, Northbrook Alexandria (North Glengarry) – (343): 432 474, (613): 525, 642 For the municipality "Alfred and Plantagenet", see Alfred and Plantagenet Alfred (Alfred and Plantagenet) – (343): 371, 691, 789, (613): 605, 679, 708 Almonte – (343): 372, 760, (613): 256, 461 Arden (Central Frontenac) – (343): 268, (613): 335 Arnprior – (343): 373, 761, (613): 622, 623, 626 Athens – (613): 924, 927 Avonmore (North Stormont) – (343): 433, (613): 346 Bancroft – (343): 269, 357, 401, 476, 943, (613): 202, 303, 318, 332, 334, 412, 442, 553, 630 Barry's Bay – (613): 756 Bath (Loyalist Township) – (613): 351, 352, 881 Beachburg (Whitewater Region) – (613): 582 For the municipality of Belleville, see Belleville and Thurlow (former township now in the city) Belleville – (343): 261, 263, 270, 355, 362, 600, 645, 889, (613): 210, 242, 243, 391, 403, 438, 480, 554, 661, 689, 707, 743, 771, 779, 813, 827, 847, 848, 849, 885, 902, 919, 920, 921, 922, 961, 962, 966, 967, 968, 969, 970 Bloomfield (Prince Edward County) – (613): 393 Bourget – (343): 374, 762, (613): 426, 487, 603 Brighton – (343): 271, (613): 439, 475, 481, 814 Brockville – (343): 225, 264, 300, 320, 327, 480, (613): 213, 246, 340, 341, 342, 345, 349, 423, 498, 499, 556, 640, 704, 802, 803, 865 Calabogie (Greater Madawaska) – (613): 752 Cardiff (Highlands East) – (613): 338 Cardinal (Edwardsburgh/Cardinal) – (613): 655, 657, 671 Carleton Place – (343): 213, 285, 375, 503, 763, (613): 250, 251, 253, 257, 418, 434, 451, 452, 456, 492, 508, 621, 964 Carp – (343): 376, 764, (613): 470, 839 Casselman – (343): 377, 765, (613): 427, 764 Central Frontenac (township): see Arden, Parham Chalk River – (613): 589 Chesterville (North Dundas) – (343): 378, 766, (613): 436, 448 For the city "Clarence-Rockland", see Clarence Creek and Rockland Clarence Creek (Clarence-Rockland) – (343): 379, 767, (613): 420, 488 Cobden – (613): 646, 647 Coe Hill (Wollaston) – (613): 337 Constance Bay (Ottawa) – (343): 380, 768, (613): 578, 832 Cornwall – (343): 288, 301, 330, 356, 370, 431, 444, 475, 585, 885, (613): 209, 330, 360, 361, 362, 363, 505, 551, 571, 577, 662, 703, 861, 870, 930, 931, 932, 933, 935, 936, 937, 938 Crysler (North Stormont) – (343): 381, (613): 987 Cumberland – (343): 382, 769, (613): 467, 517, 573, 833, 892 Deep River – (613): 584 Delta – (613): 616, 928 Denbigh (Addington Highlands) – (613): 333 Deseronto – (343): 265, (613): 309, 396 Douglas (Admaston/Bromley) – (613): 649 East Hawkesbury (township): see St. Eugene Edwardsburgh/Cardinal (township): see Cardinal, Spencerville Eganville – (613): 628 Elgin (Rideau Lakes) – (613): 359 Embrun – (343): 383, 770, (613): 370, 443, 557 Enterprise (Stone Mills) – (613): 358 Finch (North Stormont) – (343): 434, (613): 984 Foymount – (613): 754 Frankford (Quinte West) – (613): 398, 486 For the municipality of Frontenac Islands, see Wolfe Island, Kingston Gananoque – (343): 479, (613): 381, 382, 463, 718, 815 Gilmour (Tudor and Cashel) – (613): 474 Glen Robertson (North Glengarry) – (343): 435, (613): 874 Gloucester (Ottawa) – (343): 384, 771, (613): 425, 455, 502, 822 Golden Lake (North Algona Wilberforce) – (613): 625 For Greater Madawaska (township), see Calabogie For the municipality "Greater Napanee", see Adolphustown, Napanee, Selby Harrowsmith – (613): 372 Hawkesbury – (343): 500, (613): 306, 307, 632, 636 Ingleside (South Stormont) – (343): 436, (613): 522, 537 Inverary (South Frontenac) – (613): 353, 653 Iroquois (South Dundas) – (343): 437, (613): 652, 669 Jockvale (Ottawa) – (343): 212, 303, 385, 772, (613): 440, 459, 512, 823, 825, 843 Kanata–Stittsville (Ottawa) – (343): 359 386 667 690, 773, (613): 254, 270, 271, 280, 287, 383, 435, 457, 509, 519, 576, 591, 592, 595, 599, 609, 663, 801, 831, 836, 886, 895, 963, 974, 977 Kemptville (North Grenville) – (343): 387, 774, (613): 215, 258, 713 Killaloe – (613): 757 Kingston – (343): 266, 290, 302, 333, 344, 358, 363, 364, 422, 477, 884, 989, (613): 214, 217, 305, 328, 329, 331, 344, 384, 389, 417, 449, 453, 483, 484, 507, 514, 530, 531, 532, 533, 536, 539, 540, 541, 542, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, 549, 561, 572, 583, 634, 650, 766, 767, 770, 776, 777, 817, 840, 856, 876, 877, 887, 888, 893, 900, 929, 985 L'Orignal (Champlain Township) – (343): 438, (613): 675 Lanark Highlands (township), see Lanark, McDonalds Corners Lanark – (613): 259 Lancaster (South Glengarry) – (343): 439, (613): 313, 347 Lansdowne (Leeds and the Thousand Islands) – (613): 659 Leeds and the Thousand Islands (township): see Lansdowne, Mallorytown, Seeleys Bay Long Sault (South Stormont) – (343): 440, (613): 534, 550 Loyalist Township, see Bath and Odessa Maberly (Tay Valley) – (613): 268 Madoc – (343): 472, (613): 473, 666 Maitland – (613): 320, 348, 664 Mallorytown – (613): 923, 973 Manotick (Ottawa) – (343): 214, 388, 775, (613): 491, 692, 908 Marmora – (613): 472, 644 Martintown (South Glengarry) – (343): 441, (613): 528 Maxville (North Glengarry) – (343): 442, (613): 527 Maynooth (Hastings Highlands) – (613): 338 McDonalds Corners (Lanark Highlands) – (613): 278 Merrickville (Merrickville-Wolford) – (343) 340 389, (613): 269 Metcalfe (Ottawa) – (343) 390, 776, (613): 574, 821 Mississippi Mills (township): see Pakenham Moose Creek (North Stormont) – (613): 538 Morrisburg – (343): 443, (613): 543, 643 Napanee (Greater Napanee) – (343): 267, 478, (613): 308, 354, 409, 462 Navan (Ottawa) – (343) 391, 778, (613): 429, 835 Newburgh (Stone Mills) – (613): 378 North Algona Wilberforce: see Golden Lake North Augusta – (613): 665, 926 North Dundas (township): see Chesterville, South Mountain and Winchester North Glengarry (township): see Alexandria, Glen Robertson, Maxville North Gower (Ottawa) – (343): 392, 779, (613): 489, 493 North Stormont (township): see Avonmore, Crysler, Finch, Moose Creek Northbrook (Addington Highlands) – (343): 272, 336 Odessa (Loyalist Township) – (613): 386, 896 Orleans (Ottawa) – (343): 221, 393, 780, (613): 424, 458, 510, 590, 824, 830, 834, 837, 841, 845 Osgoode (Ottawa) – (343): 394, 781, (613): 465, 469, 516, 826 In Ontario, the Ottawa–Hull exchange covers the pre-2001 city of Ottawa, from Nepean to Vanier only. For the municipality of Ottawa, see Ottawa–Hull, Constance Bay, Gloucester, Jockvale, Kanata, Manotick, Metcalfe, Navan, North Gower, Orléans, Osgoode. Ottawa–Hull city centre – (343): 200, 201, 203, 244, 262, 291, 292, 360, 488, 540, 541, 542, 666, 688, 689, 700, 777, 882, 883, 887, 888, 925, 988, 998, 999, (613): 203, 204, 212, 216, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 244, 245, 247, 248, 249, 252, 255, 260, 261, 262, 263, 265, 266, 274, 276, 277, 282, 286, 288, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 301, 302, 304, 314, 315, 316, 317, 319, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 327, 350, 355, 356, 357, 364, 366, 368, 369, 371, 380, 400, 402, 404, 406, 407, 408, 410, 413, 415, 416, 421, 422, 437, 447, 454, 462. 482, 500, 501, 513, 514, 515, 518, 520, 521, 523, 526, 552, 558, 560, 562, 563, 564, 565, 566, 567, 569, 580, 581, 593, 594, 596, 597, 598, 600, 601, 604, 606, 607, 608, 612, 614, 615, 617, 618, 619, 620, 627, 656, 660, 667, 668, 670, 680, 683, 686, 688, 690, 691, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 709, 710, 712, 714, 715, 716, 719, 720, 721, 722, 723, 724, 725, 726, 727, 728, 729, 730, 731, 733, 734, 736, 737, 738, 739, 740, 741, 742, 744, 745, 746, 747, 748, 749, 750, 751, 755, 759, 760, 761, 762, 763, 765, 768, 769, 773, 778, 780, 781, 782, 783, 784, 785, 786, 787, 788, 789, 790, 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 796, 797, 798, 799, 800, 804, 805, 806, 807, 808, 809, 816, 818, 820, 828, 829, 842, 844, 850, 851, 852, 853, 854, 857, 858, 859, 860, 862, 863, 864, 866, 867, 868, 869, 875, 878, 880, 882, 883, 884, 889, 890, 891, 894, 897, 898, 899, 901, 903, 904, 907, 909, 910, 912, 913, 914, 915, 916, 917, 934, 940, 941, 943, 944, 945, 946, 947, 948, 949, 951, 952, 953, 954, 956, 957, 960, 971, 978, 979, 981, 983, 986, 990, 991, 992, 993, 994, 995, 996, 997, 998, 999, 934p, 939p, 953p, 956p, 994p, 997p Pakenham (Mississippi Mills) – (343): 395, (613): 624 Palmer Rapids (Brudenell, Lyndoch and Raglan) – (613): 758 Parham (Central Frontenac) – (613): 375 Pembroke independent – (613): 638 Pembroke – (343): 369, 430, 544, (613): 281, 312, 401, 504, 559, 585, 602, 629, 631, 633, 635, 639, 717, 732, 735, 775 Perth – (343): 341, 400, 402, (613): 200, 201, 264, 267, 300, 326, 390, 464, 466, 714, 772, 812 Petawawa – (613): 506, 588, 685, 687 Picton (Prince Edward County) – (343): 222, (613): 471, 476, 503, 645, 654, 846, 906 Plantagenet (Alfred and Plantagenet) – (343): 396, 783, (613): 405, 673 Plevna (North Frontenac) – (343): 273, (613): 479 Portland (Rideau Lakes) – (613): 272, 972 Prescott – (613): 529, 918, 925, 975 For the municipality of Quinte West, see Frankford, Trenton and Wooler Renfrew – (343): 361, (613): 431, 432, 433, 570 For the municipality of Prince Edward County, see Picton, Bloomfield, Wellington Richmond – (343): 200, 397, 784, (613): 444, 838 Rideau Lakes (township): see Elgin, Portland Rockland (Clarence-Rockland) – (343): 200, 398, 785, (613): 419, 446 Rolphton (Laurentian Hills) – (613): 586 Russell – (343): 399, 786, (613): 445, 496 Seeleys Bay (Leeds and the Thousand Islands) – (613): 387 Selby (Greater Napanee) – (613): 388 Sharbot Lake – (613): 279 Smiths Falls – (343): 800, 881, (613): 205, 206, 207, 283, 284, 285, 414, 418, 430, 485, 682, 706, 855, 980, 982, 988 South Dundas (township): see Iroquois, Morrisburg, Williamsburg South Frontenac (township): see Harrowsmith, Inverary, Sydenham, Verona South Glengarry (township): see Lancaster, Martintown South Mountain (North Dundas) – (343): 345, (613): 989 South Stormont (township): see Ingleside, Long Sault Spencerville (Edwardsburgh/Cardinal) – (613): 648, 658 Saint Regis (Akwesasane) – (343): 447, (613): 575 St. Eugene (East Hawkesbury) – (343): 445, (613): 674 St. Isidore – (343): 446, (613): 524 Stirling (Stirling–Rawdon) – (613): 395, 490 Stone Mills (township): see Enterprise, Newburgh, Yarker Sydenham (South Frontenac) – (613): 376 Tamworth – (613): 379 Thurlow (Belleville) – (613): 477, 494 Toledo (Elizabethtown-Kitley) – (613): 275 Trenton (Quinte West) – (613): 208, 392, 394, 495, 651, 681, 955, 965 Tweed – (613): 478 Vankleek Hill – (343): 304, 448, 473 886, (613): 676, 677, 678, 684, 872 Verona (South Frontenac) – (613): 374 Wellington (Prince Edward County) – (613): 399 Westmeath (Whitewater Region) – (613): 587 Westport – (613): 273 Whitewater Region: see Beachburg, Westmeath Whitney (South Algonquin) – (613): 637 Williamsburg (South Dundas) – (343): 449, (613): 535, 641 Winchester (North Dundas) – (343) 346, 787, (613): 441, 774 Wolfe Island (Frontenac Islands) – (613): 385 Wollaston: see Coe Hill Wooler (Quinte West) – (613): 397, 497 Yarker (Stone Mills) – (613): 377 shared-cost service – (613): 310 p = Protected against assignment in both 819 and 613 – Government of Canada offices'' See also List of North American area codes References External links CNA exchange list for area +1-613 CNA exchange list for area +1-343 Relief Planning Area Code Map of Canada 613 Communications in Ontario

Belgium national football team

eng_Latn

The Belgium national football team officially represents Belgium in men's international football since their maiden match in 1904. The squad is under the global jurisdiction of FIFA and is governed in Europe by UEFA—both of which were co-founded by the Belgian team's supervising body, the Royal Belgian Football Association. Periods of regular Belgian representation at the highest international level, from 1920 to 1938, from 1982 to 2002 and again from 2014 onwards, have alternated with mostly unsuccessful qualification rounds. Most of Belgium's home matches are played at the King Baudouin Stadium in Brussels. Belgium's national team have participated in three quadrennial major football competitions. It appeared in the end stages of thirteen FIFA World Cups and five UEFA European Championships, and featured at three Olympic football tournaments, including the 1920 Olympic tournament which they won. Other notable performances are victories over four reigning world champions—West Germany, Brazil, Argentina and France—between 1954 and 2002. Belgium has long-standing football rivalries with its Dutch and French counterparts, having played both teams nearly every year from 1905 to 1967. The squad has been known as the Red Devils since 1906; its fan club is named "1895". During the national player career of forward Paul Van Himst, the most-praised Belgian footballer of the 20th century, Belgium finished in third place as hosts at UEFA Euro 1972. After that, they experienced two golden ages with many gifted players. In the first period, which lasted from the 1980s to the early 1990s, the team finished as runners-up at UEFA Euro 1980 and fourth in the 1986 FIFA World Cup. In the second, under guidance of Marc Wilmots and later Roberto Martínez in the 2010s, Belgium topped the FIFA World Rankings for the first time in November 2015 and finished third at the 2018 FIFA World Cup. To date, Belgium is the only national team in the world to top the FIFA ranking without having won a World Cup or a continental trophy (Spain had topped the ranking in late 2008 without winning the World Cup, but had won the European title in 1964 and 2008). History Belgium was one of the first mainland European countries to play association football. Its practice in Belgium began on 26 October 1863, after an Irish student walked into the Josephites College of Melle with a leather ball. Initially an elitist pastime, during the following decades association football supplanted rugby as Belgium's most popular football sport. On 1 September 1895, ten clubs for football, athletics, cricket and cycling founded the Belgian sports board Union Belge des Sociétés de Sports Athlétiques (UBSSA); a year later UBSSA organised the first annual league in Belgian football. On 11 October 1900, Beerschot AC honorary president Jorge Díaz announced that Antwerp would host a series of challenge matches between Europe's best football teams. After some organisational problems, on 28 April 1901, Beerschot's pitch hosted its first tournament, in which a Belgian A-squad and a Dutch B-team contested the Coupe Vanden Abeele. Belgium won, and beat the Netherlands in all three follow-up matches; FIFA does not recognise these results because Belgium fielded some English players. On 1 May 1904, the Belgians played their first official match, against France at the Stade du Vivier d'Oie in Uccle; their draw left the Évence Coppée Trophy unclaimed. Twenty days later, the football boards of both countries were among the seven FIFA founders. At that time, the Belgian squad was chosen by a committee drawn from the country's six or seven major clubs. In 1906, the national team players received the nickname Red Devils because of their red jerseys, and four years later, Scottish ex-footballer William Maxwell replaced the UBSSA committee as their manager. From 1912, UBSSA governed football only and was renamed UBSFA. During the Great War, the national team only played unrecognised friendlies, with matches in and against France. At the 1920 Summer Olympics, in their first official Olympic appearance, the Red Devils won the gold medal on home soil after a controversial final in which their Czechoslovak opponents left the pitch. In the three 1920s Summer Olympics, they achieved fair results (four wins in seven matches), and played their first intercontinental match, against Argentina. However, over the following decade, Belgium lost all of their matches at the first three FIFA World Cup final tournaments. According to historian Richard Henshaw, "[t]he growth of [football] in Scandinavia, Central Europe, and South America left Belgium far behind". Although World War II hindered international football events in the 1940s, the Belgian team remained active with unofficial matches against squads of other allied nations. Belgium qualified for only one of eight major tournaments during the 1950s and the 1960s: the 1954 World Cup. The day before the tournament began, the RBFA was among the three UEFA founders. Dutch journalists considered the draw of the 1954 Belgian team in their opener against England to be the most surprising result of that match day, even more than Switzerland's victory over the Italian "football stars". However, Belgium were eliminated after a loss to Italy in the second (and last) group match. Two bright spots in these decades were wins against World Cup holders: West Germany in 1954, and Brazil in 1963. Between these, Belgium defeated Hungary's Golden Team in 1956. The combination of failure in competitive matches, and success in exhibition matches, gave the Belgians the mock title of "world champion of the friendlies". The team's performance improved during the early 1970s, under manager Raymond Goethals. Fully dressed in white, as the White Devils, Belgium had their first victories at World and European Championships at the 1970 World Cup and Euro 1972. En route to that Euro appearance, their first, they eliminated reigning European champions Italy by winning the two-legged quarter-final on aggregate. At the end stage, they finished third by winning the consolation match against Hungary. In 1973, the denial of a match-winning goal in their last 1974 FIFA World Cup qualification match for UEFA Group 3 cost Belgium their appearance at the finals, causing Belgium to become the only nation ever to miss a World Cup final round despite not allowing a goal during the qualifiers. The next two attempts to reach a major finals were also fruitless. Beginning with a second-place finish at Euro 1980, the 1980s and the early 1990s are generally considered as Belgium's first golden age. Coached by Guy Thys, they achieved their spot in the 1980 final with an unbeaten record in the group phase; in the final, they narrowly lost the title to West Germany with the score 1–2. Starting with the 1982 World Cup, and ending with the 2002 World Cup, the national team qualified for six consecutive World Cup end stages and mostly progressed to the second round. During this period, managers Guy Thys, Paul Van Himst and Robert Waseige each guided a Belgian selection past the first round. In addition to receiving individual FIFA recognitions, the team reached the semi-finals of the 1986 World Cup. After reaching the Euro 1980 final, they were unsuccessful at subsequent European Championships, with early exits from their appearances in 1984 and in 2000. During the late 1990s, they played three friendly tournaments in Morocco, Cyprus and Japan, sharing the 1999 Kirin Cup with Peru in the latter. The greatest talents of the Belgian team during this golden age were retired from international football by 2000. At the eve of the World Cup in 2002, Belgium defeated reigning world and European champions France. During that World Cup, Belgium defeated Russia and tied with co-hosts Japan and Tunisia to reach the round of 16. After the 2002 World Cup, the team weakened with the loss of more veterans and coach Waseige. They missed out five successive major finals from UEFA Euro 2004 until UEFA Euro 2012, and went through an equal number of head coaches. A 2005 win over reigning European champions Greece meant nothing but a small comfort. In between, a promising new generation was maturing at the 2007 European U-21 Championship; Belgium's squad qualified for the following year's Summer Olympics in Beijing, where the Young Red Devils squad finished fourth. Seventeen of them appeared in the senior national team, albeit without making an immediate impact. Belgium finished in second (and last) place at the Kirin Cup in May 2009, and lost against the 125th FIFA-ranked Armenian team in September 2009. After Georges Leekens' second stint as national manager, his assistant Marc Wilmots became the caretaker in May 2012. After two matches as interim coach, Wilmots agreed to replace Leekens as manager. Following his appointment, the team's results improved, such that some foreign media regarded it as another Belgian golden generation. The young Belgian squad qualified as unbeaten group winners for the 2014 World Cup finals, and earned Belgium's second-ever place in a World Cup quarter-finals with a four-match winning streak. Belgium qualified for UEFA Euro 2016 with a match to spare in October 2015, and took the top spot in the FIFA World Rankings for the first time in November 2015, to stay first for five months. In the following year, Belgium could not confirm their role as outsider at the European Championship with a quarter-final elimination by the 26th FIFA-ranked Welsh team. This prompted the RBFA to dismiss Wilmots. In the 2018 World Cup qualifying allocation, they were seeded first in their group, and made the final tournament under Spanish manager Roberto Martínez, becoming the first European team besides hosts Russia to do so. Belgium was eliminated in the semi-finals by eventual champions France, but won the third place play-off against England. On 16 November 2019, for the first time in its history the team topped the World Football Elo Ratings, after a 1–4 away win over Russia during the Euro 2020 qualifiers. Despite the impressive form in the UEFA Euro 2020 qualifiers as well as being regarded as the biggest contender for the European trophy, the tournament became a complete disappointment for Belgium. Being drawn in Group B alongside Russia, Denmark and Finland, Belgium easily conquered the group with three wins. In the knockout phase, Belgium first faced reigning champions Portugal in the last sixteen and survived the scare with a thunder strike from Thorgan Hazard to give Belgium a 1–0 win. In the quarter-finals, Belgium once again faced old foe Italy, but Belgium failed to take revenge of their 2016 loss when once again falling 1–2, with goal being scored by Romelu Lukaku, ending Belgium's campaign in a sad note. Team image Kits In home matches, the team's outfield players traditionally wear the colours of the Belgian flag: black, yellow and red. Red dominates the strip and is often the sole jersey colour. The away colours are usually white, black or both; in 2014, the squad introduced a third, yellow kit. Their shirts are often trimmed with tricolores at the margins. Since 1981, the RBFA emblem has been the national team's badge; the previous badge was a yellow lion on a black shield, similar to the escutcheon of the national coat of arms. On 8 November 2019, the Royal Belgian Football Association revealed a new logo, which preserved the main elements of the previous one: the royal crown, the wreath and the Belgian tricolor. For their first unofficial match in 1901, the Belgian team wore white jerseys with tricoloured bands on the upper arms. Around their third unofficial match in 1902, the choice was made for a "shirt with national colours ... [that would indicate,] with a stripe, the number of times every player has participated in an encounter". Since 1904, Belgium's classic all-red jersey design has been altered twice. In 1904–05, the squad briefly wore satin shirts with three horizontal bands in red, yellow and black; according to sports journalist Victor Boin, the shirts set "the ugliness record". During the 1970s, manager Raymond Goethals chose an all-white combination to improve the team's visibility during evening matches. Six clothing manufacturers have supplied the official team strip. Adidas is the producer since 2014, and closed a sponsorship deal with the RBFA until 2026; it was also the supplier from 1974 to 1980, and from 1982 to 1991. Former kit manufacturers are Umbro (early 1970s), Admiral (1981–1982), Diadora (1992–1999), Nike (1999–2010) and Burrda (2010–2014). Media coverage The first live coverage of a Belgian sporting event occurred on 3 May 1931, when journalist Gust De Muynck commentated on the football match between Belgium and the Netherlands on radio. Later, football broadcasts were also televised. As 60 per cent of Belgians speak Dutch and 40 per cent French, commentaries for the national team matches are provided in both languages. The matches are not broadcast in German—Belgium's third official language. During Belgium's tournament appearances in the 1980s and the early 1990s, Rik De Saedeleer crowned himself the nation's most famous football commentator with his emotional and humorous reports. Initially the matches were transmitted mainly on public television channels: the former BRTN (now VRT) in Dutch, and the RTBF in French. Since 1994, commercial channels such as vtm and its sister channel Kanaal 2, and VIER in Flanders, have purchased broadcasting rights. The Euro 2016 round-of-16 match against Hungary was the most-watched programme in Belgian television history, with an audience of over four million viewers out of 11.3 million Belgian citizens. In April 2014, the VRT started transmitting a nine-piece, behind-the-scenes documentary about the national team filmed during the 2014 World Cup qualifiers, titled Iedereen Duivel (Everybody Devil). Cable broadband provider Telenet broadcast an eight-part documentary about individual players titled Rode Helden (Red Heroes). Side activities Multiple events were organised for the fans during the squad's peak popularity in the 2010s. During the 2014 World Cup qualifiers, a string of interactive events called the Devil Challenges were organised. The premise was that small groups of international players would do a favour in return for each of the five comprehensive chores their supporters completed ("colour Belgium red", "gather 500,000 decibels", etc.), all of which were accomplished. In June 2013, the Belgian national team's first ever Fan Day attracted over 20,000 supporters; a second was held after the 2014 World Cup. On the days of Belgium's 2014 World Cup group matches, large dance events titled Dance with the Devils took place in three Belgian cities. This type of happening was repeated during Belgium's Euro 2016 group matches. Occasionally, the Belgian team directly supported charity. Between 1914 and 1941 they played at least five unofficial matches of which the returns were for charitable purposes: two against France, and three against the Netherlands. In mid-1986, when the Belgian delegation reached the Mexico World Cup semi-finals, the squad started a project titled Casa Hogar, an idea of delegation leader Michel D'Hooghe. Casa Hogar is a home for street children in the Mexican industrial city of Toluca, to which the footballers donated part of their tournament bonuses. In August 2013, the national team supported four social projects through the charity fund Football+ Foundation, by playing an A-match with a plus sign on the shoulders of their jerseys and auctioning the shirts. In the 21st century, several national team players acted up against discrimination. In 2002, the national squad held its first anti-racism campaign in which they posed with slogans. A home Euro 2012 qualifier was given the theme of respect for diversity in 2010; this UEFA-supported action was part of the European FARE Action Week. Ex-Red Devil Dimitri Mbuyu—the first black Belgium player (in 1987)—was engaged as godfather, and other foreign, current, and former footballers who played in the Belgian top division participated. In 2018, four national team players spoke up against homophobic violence, in a video clip made by organisation Kick It Out. Nickname, logo and mascot After a 1905 match, a Dutch reporter wrote that three Belgian footballers "work[ed] as devils". A year later Léopold FC manager Pierre Walckiers nicknamed the players Red Devils, inspired by their jersey colour, and the achievement of three successive victories in 1906. Because of their white home shirts in the 1970s, they were temporarily known as the White Devils. Since 2012, the team logo is a red trident (or three-pronged pitchfork), an item that is often associated with the devil. Apart from that, the national squad has also had four official anthropomorphous mascots. The first was a lion in team kit named Diabolix, a reference to the central symbol in the Belgian coat of arms that appeared on the team jerseys from 1905 to 1980. In accordance with their epithet, the next mascots were a red super-devil and two fan-made modern devils; the most recent one, since 2018, was named "Red". Supporters Fans of the Belgian national team display the country's tricolour national flag, usually with an emphasis on the red element. In 2012, local supporter clubs merged into one large Belgian federation named "1895" after the foundation year of the RBFA. One year later, 1895 had 24,000 members. The nationwide interest in the football squad has also been reflected by the occasional presence of Belgian monarchs at their matches since 1914. One of the greatest moments for the Belgian team and their 12th man was in mid-1986 when the Belgian delegation at the Mexico World Cup received a warm "welcome home". When the World Cup semi-finalists appeared on the balcony of Brussels Town Hall, the adjoining Grand Place square was filled with an ecstatic crowd that cheered as though their squad had won a major tournament. The team's deterioration after the 2002 World Cup lead to their absence from the end stages of the next five major tournaments, and strained their popularity. Between 2004 and 2010, local journalists called the Belgian footballing nation "mortally ill". Of the fans that kept supporting their squad in bad times, Ludo Rollenberg was one of the most loyal. He attended the team's matches worldwide since 1990, missing only the 1999 Japanese Kirin Cup and two other matches by 2006, and was the only supporter to attend their matches in Armenia in 2009. Just before the kick-off of a 2014 World Cup home qualifier, Belgium's footballers saw a first tifo banner, sized depicting a devil in the national colours. The presence of many Belgian players in top leagues abroad, such as the Premier League, and promising results under Marc Wilmots, increased fans' enthusiasm and belief in a successful World Cup campaign. Because of this popularity peak, two Belgian monuments were decorated in national colours for the 2014 FIFA World Cup event; the Manneken Pis statue received a child-sized version of the new Belgian uniform, and facets of the Atomium's upper sphere were covered in black, yellow and red vinyl. Rivalries Belgium's main football rivals are its neighbors the Netherlands and France, with which it shares close cultural and political relations. The matchup between the Belgian and Dutch team is known as the Low Countries derby, they have played each other in 126 official matches. Belgium won the first four—unofficial—matches against the Netherlands, but lost their first FIFA-recognised contest. The two national teams played each other biannually between 1905 and 1964, except during the World Wars. They have met 18 times in major tournament campaigns, and have played at least 35 friendly cup matches: in Belgium for the Coupe Vanden Abeele, and in the Netherlands for the Rotterdamsch Nieuwsblad-Beker. The overall balance favours the Netherlands, with 55 wins against 41 Belgian victories. The Low Countries' squads co-operated in fundraising initiatives between 1925 and 1941; they played five unofficial matches for charity, FIFA and the Belgian Olympic Committee. The clash between the Belgian and French sides is nicknamed le Match Sympathique in French ("the Friendly Match"); they have contested 74 official matches . The first match between Belgium and France, the Évence Coppée Trophy played in 1904, was the first official match for both teams and the first official football match between independent countries on the European continent. Until 1967, the sides met almost annually. As of September 2020, Belgium have the better record, with 30 wins to France's 25, and France has played most often against Belgium in international football. Stadium Numerous former and current venues in 11 urban areas have hosted Belgium's home matches. Most of these matches have been played in Brussels at the Heysel Plateau, on the site of the present-day King Baudouin Stadium—a multipurpose facility with a seating capacity of 50,122. Its field also hosts the team's final trainings before domestic matches. Since 2007, most physical preparation takes place at the National Football Centre in Tubize, or at Anderlecht's training ground in the Neerpede quarter. Apart from Belgian home friendlies, at the international level Belgium's national stadium has also hosted six European Championship matches. In 1930, for the country's centennial, the venue was inaugurated as the Jubilee Stadium with an unofficial match between Belgium and the Netherlands. At that time, the stadium had a capacity of 75,000. In 1946, it was renamed Heysel Stadium after its city quarter. This new name became associated with the tragedy preceding the 1985 European Cup Final between Juventus and Liverpool; 39 spectators died after riots in the then antiquated building. Three years after the disaster, plans were unveiled for a renovation; in 1995, after two years of work, the modernised stadium was named after the late King Baudouin. In May 2013, the Brussels-Capital Region announced that the King Baudouin Stadium would be replaced by Eurostadium, elsewhere on the Heysel Plateau; in 2018, however, the plans for the new stadium were cancelled definitively. Records and fixtures , the complete official match record of the Belgian national team comprises 798 matches: 348 wins, 167 draws and 283 losses. During these matches, the team scored 1,430 times and conceded 1,270 goals. Belgium's highest winning margin is nine goals, which has been achieved on four occasions: against Zambia in 1994 (9–0), twice against San Marino in 2001 (10–1) and 2019 (9–0), and against Gibraltar in 2017 (9–0). Their longest winning streak is 12 wins, and their highest unbeaten record is 23 consecutive official matches. The entire match record can be examined on the following articles: Results in chronological order lists all individual matches. Record per opponent shows the head-to-head record against other footballing nations. Statistics per manager compiles an overview per managerial period. Upcoming fixtures are listed on the 2020s results page. Results and fixtures 2021 2022 Management Since 1904, the RBFA, 24 permanent managers and two caretaker managers have officially been in charge of the national team; this includes one national footballer selector. , a crew of over 20 RBFA employees guides the player group, including their Spanish manager Roberto Martínez, and goalkeeping coaches Erwin Lemmens and Iñaki Bergara. Under Marc Wilmots, Belgium reached the top FIFA ranking spot in 2015, which earned him the title of Best Coach of the Year at the 2015 Globe Soccer Awards. Under Guy Thys, the squad achieved record results at World and European championships; World Soccer magazine accordingly proclaimed him Manager of the Year in 1986. Rather than developing innovative team formations or styles of play, Belgium's managers applied conventional tactics. At the three 1930s World Cups, the Red Devils were aligned in a contemporary 2–3–5 "pyramid". In 1954, Doug Livingstone's squad played in a 3–2–5 "WM" arrangement during World Cup matches. Throughout most of their tournament matches in the 1970s, the 1980s and the 1990s, the team played in a 4–4–2 formation. Since Raymond Goethals' stint in the 1970s, a key strength of the Belgian squad has been their systematic use of the offside trap, a defensive tactic that was already intensively applied in the 1960s by Anderlecht coach Pierre Sinibaldi. According to football journalist Wim De Bock, "master tactician" Goethals represented the "conservative, defensive football of the Belgian national team"; he added that in the 1970s, the contrast between the Belgian playing style and the Total Football of their Dutch rivals "could not be bigger". In an attempt to win a match at the 1998 World Cup, Georges Leekens chose a 4–3–3 arrangement for Belgium's second and third group matches. Robert Waseige, Belgium coach around 2000, said that "above all, [his] 4–4–2 system [was] holy", in the sense that he left good attackers on the bench to keep his favourite formation. Wilmots opted for the 4–3–3 line-up again, with the intention of showing dominant football against any country. Under Wilmots, Belgium managed to qualify for the 2014 World Cup where the team lost against Argentina in the quarter finals. After another qualification for the 2016 European Championships under Wilmots and a subsequent elimination in the quarter finals against Wales, Wilmots was replaced by Roberto Martinez. Martinez led Belgium during a successful 2018 World Cup, reaching 3rd place overall after being eliminated in the semi finals by France. Coaching staff Players Current squad 29 players were named to the squad for the two remaining matches of the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification competition, on 13 and 16 November against Estonia and Wales respectively. On 9 November, both Youri Tielemans and Toby Alderweireld left the selection due to injuries sustained while playing for their club. After the match against Estonia, with qualification for the 2022 FIFA World Cup now secured, a new selection was released. From the 27 remaining, Thibaut Courtois, Jason Denayer, Eden Hazard, Simon Mignolet and Dennis Praet were dropped, while Thomas Kaminski was added. Information correct , after the match against Wales. Recent call-ups The following footballers were part of a national selection in the past twelve months, but are not part of the current squad. INJ = Withdrew due to injury PRE = Preliminary squad / standby UNF = Deemed unfit RST = Rested SUS = Suspended Notable Between 1904 and 1980, mainly attacking Belgium players were recognised as talented footballers. In the team's first decade, striker Robert De Veen was very productive with 26 goals in 23 international appearances. Richard Henshaw described Alphonse Six as "Belgium's greatest player in the prewar period ... [who] was often called the most skillful forward outside Great Britain". The key player of the victorious 1920 Olympic squad was Robert Coppée, who scored a hat-trick against Spain's Ricardo Zamora, and the penalty in the final. Other outstanding Belgian strikers in the interwar period were former top scorer Bernard Voorhoof and "Belgium's football grandmaster" Raymond Braine, considered "one of the greatest players of the era". Gifted players in the 1940s and the 1950s included centre-back Louis Carré and attackers Jef Mermans, Pol Anoul and Rik Coppens; at the 1954 World Cup, Anoul shone with three goals, and newspaper L'Équipe named Coppens the event's best centre forward. The 1960s and the early 1970s were the glory days of forward and four-time Belgian Golden Shoe Paul Van Himst, later elected Belgian UEFA Golden Player of 1954–2003 and Belgium's Player of the Century by IFFHS. At the 1965 Ballon d'Or, Van Himst ranked fourth, achieving Belgium's highest ever position at the European football election. Decades after Coppens and Van Himst had retired from playing football, a journalist on a Flemish television show asked them "Who [from both of you] was the best, actually?". Coppens replied: "I will ask Paul that ... If Paul says it was me, then he's right". In 1966, striker Raoul Lambert and defending midfielder Wilfried Van Moer joined the national team; while the UEFA praised Lambert for his skills at Euro 1972, Van Moer won three Golden Shoes and equalled Van Himst's fourth rank at the 1980 Ballon d'Or. Belgium has seen two talented waves since 1980, from which several players in defensive positions gained international fame. In the 1980s and the early 1990s, goalkeepers Jean-Marie Pfaff and Michel Preud'homme were elected best custodians at FIFA World Cups, while FIFA recognised midfielders Jan Ceulemans and Enzo Scifo as the propelling forces of Belgium's 1986 FIFA World Cup squad. In 2002, after all players of this generation had retired, Marc Wilmots became Belgium's top scorer at the World Cup with five goals. During the 10 years from 2002 to 2012 in which Belgium failed to qualify for major tournaments, another golden generation matured, many of whom gained both prime individual and team awards in foreign European top clubs and competitions. These include defender Vincent Kompany, midfielder Kevin De Bruyne who is one of the best attacking midfielders in the world and his generation; and winger Eden Hazard, who has been praised as one of Chelsea F.C.'s greatest players ever and one of his era's best footballers in the world, in the team, he is ranked only after Romelu Lukaku on Belgium's all-time scoring leaderboard. Honorable mentions of this golden generation are Thibaut Courtois, Jan Vertonghen, Dries Mertens, and Toby Alderweireld. These players helped Belgium finish at the third place of 2018 FIFA World Cup, the team's best result at the tournament and reach number one on FIFA ranking twice, since 2015. Individual records Most capped players , the RBFA lists 705 players who appeared on the men's senior national team. With 136 caps according to the RBFA, Jan Vertonghen has the most appearances for Belgium. Jan Ceulemans started the most matches as captain (48). Hector Goetinck had the longest career as an international footballer: 17 years, 6 months and 10 days. . The records are collected based on data from FIFA and RSSSF. Statistics include three matches that are unrecognised by FIFA. Players in bold are still active with Belgium. Top goalscorers Romelu Lukaku is the highest-scoring Belgium player with 68 goals. Those who scored the most goals in one match are Robert De Veen, Bert De Cleyn and Josip Weber with 5; De Veen also holds the record for the most hat-tricks with three. Belgium's fastest goal after the initial kick-off was scored by Christian Benteke, 8.1 seconds into the match against Gibraltar on 10 October 2016. . The records are collected based on data from FIFA and RSSSF. Statistics include three matches that are unrecognised by FIFA. Players in bold are still active with Belgium. Competitive record FIFA World Cup Belgium failed to progress past the first round of their earliest five World Cup participations. After two scoreless defeats at the inaugural World Cup in 1930, the team scored in their first-round knockout matches in the 1934 and 1938 editions—but only enough to save their honour. In 1954, they drew with England (4–4 after extra time), and in 1970, they won their first World Cup match, against El Salvador (3–0). From 1982 until 2002, Belgium qualified for six successive World Cups, and in the tournament finals they advanced beyond the first round five times. In the 1982 FIFA World Cup opener, Belgium beat defending champions Argentina 1–0. Their tournament ended in the second group stage, after a Polish hat-trick by Zbigniew Boniek and a 0–1 loss against the Soviet Union. At Mexico 1986, the Belgian team achieved their then best-ever World Cup run at the time. In the knockout phase as underdogs they beat the Soviets after extra time (3–4); the unnoticed offside position of Jan Ceulemans, during the initial ninety minutes, allowed him to equalise (2–2) and force the match into extra time. They also beat Spain, in a penalty shoot-out after a 1–1 draw, but lost to eventual champions Argentina in the semi-final 2–0, and France in the third-place match (4–2). In the 1990 FIFA World Cup, Belgium dominated periods of their second-round match against England; Enzo Scifo and Jan Ceulemans hit the woodwork. David Platt's volley in the final minute of extra time, described as "nearly blind" by Richard Witzig, avoided an apparently goalless draw and led to the sudden elimination of the Belgians. In 1994, a 3–2 defeat to defending champions Germany saw Belgium go out in the second round again. Afterwards, the entire Belgian delegation criticised referee Kurt Röthlisberger for not awarding a penalty for a foul on Belgian Josip Weber. Three draws in the group stage of the 1998 World Cup were insufficient for Belgium to reach the knockout stage. With two draws, the 2002 FIFA World Cup started poorly for Belgium, but they won the decisive group match against Russia 3–2. In the second round, they faced eventual World Cup winners Brazil; Belgium lost 2–0 after Marc Wilmots' headed opening goal was disallowed due to a "phantom foul" on Roque Júnior, as Witzig named it. In 2014, Belgium beat all their group opponents with a single-goal difference. Thereafter, they played an entertaining round of 16 match against the United States, in which American goalkeeper Tim Howard made 15 saves. However, they defeated the United States 2–1 in extra time. In a balanced quarter-final, Argentina eliminated Belgium, after a 1–0 victory. At the 2018 World Cup, Belgium started with five consecutive victories (including group wins over Panama, Tunisia and England). In the fourth, in the round of 16 match against Japan, they suffered a major setback in the second half by being led 0–2. However, Japan which displays a very open and offensive game, does not withdraw sufficiently in defense and leaves a lot of spaces to the Red Devils, which take advantage of this Japanese naivety, as well as their physical and athletic superiority to turn the tide and eventually win (3-2) with goals from Jan Vertonghen and late substitutes Marouane Fellaini and Nacer Chadli, which led to an unlikely and historical comeback. Belgium then defeated World Cup favourites Brazil 2–1 on the back of an early Fernandinho own goal and a goal by Kevin De Bruyne, and reached the semifinals. Belgium lost to France 0–1 in the semi-final, as France displays a style of play opposite to that of Japan by basing themselves above all on a rigorous defense, the possession left to the adversary and fast counter-attacks (which aroused criticisms from certain Belgian players on the French style of play); but rebounded to win 2–0 in their second victory over England in the tournament to secure third place and the best ever World Cup result for the Belgian national team. Some players that notably contributed were captain Eden Hazard, Thibaut Courtois and Romelu Lukaku, who were later recognised by FIFA as the tournament's second best player (Silver Ball), best goalkeeper (Golden Glove) and third top scorer (Bronze Boot), respectively. UEFA European Championship With only six successful qualification campaigns out of sixteen, Belgium's performance in the European Championship does not compare to their World Cup record, yet it holds the highest record compare to their World Cup performance. Belgium has hosted or co-hosted the event twice; they were chosen to accommodate the UEFA Euro 1972 from three candidates, and hosted UEFA Euro 2000 with the Netherlands. At Euro 1972, Belgium finished third after losing 1–2 against West Germany and beating Hungary 2–1. The team's best continental result is their second place at Euro 1980 in Italy. By finishing as group winners, Belgium reached the final, to face West Germany. The West German Horst Hrubesch scored first, but René Vandereycken equalised courtesy of a penalty. Two minutes before the regular playing time ended, Hrubesch scored again denying Belgium a first European title. At Euro 1984, in their last and decisive group match against Denmark, the Belgian team took a 0–2 lead, but the Danes won the match 3–2. Sixteen years later, Belgium automatically reappeared at UEFA's national team tournament as co-hosts. After winning the Euro 2000 opener against Sweden 2–1, two 2–0 losses against eventual runners-up Italy and Turkey eliminated the Belgians from the tournament by the end of the group stage. In spite of winning with broad margins against the Republic of Ireland (3–0) and Hungary (0–4) at Euro 2016, Belgium exited in the quarter-finals. As during the tournament's qualifiers, Wales defeated Belgium. This time by 3–1. Football at the Summer Olympics Football tournaments for senior men's national teams took place in six Summer Olympics between 1908 and 1936. The Belgian squad participated in all three Olympic football tournaments in the 1920s and kept the gold medal at home at the 1920 edition. Apart from the proper national team, two other Belgian delegations appeared at the Olympics. At the 1900 Summer Olympics, a Belgian representation with mainly students won bronze, and at the 2008 edition, Belgium's U-23 selection placed fourth. Belgium's 1920 Olympic squad was given a bye into the quarter-finals, where they won 3–1 against Spain, and reached the semi-finals, where they beat the Netherlands 3–0. In the first half of their final against Czechoslovakia, the Belgians led 2–0. Forward Robert Coppée converted a disputed early penalty, and the action in which attacker Henri Larnoe doubled the score was also a matter of debate. After the dismissal of the Czechoslovak left-back Karel Steiner, the discontented visitors left the pitch in the 40th minute. Afterwards, the away team reported their reasons for protest to the Olympic organisation; these complaints were dismissed and the Czechoslovaks were disqualified. The 2–0 score was allowed to stand and Belgium were crowned the champions. UEFA Nations League FIFA ranking history Source: Belgium's history in the FIFA World Rankings. The table shows the position that Belgium held in December of each year (and the current position as of 2020), as well as the highest and lowest positions annually. Honours FIFA World Cup Third place: 2018 UEFA European Championship Runners-up: 1980 Third place: 1972 Football at the Summer Olympics Gold Medal: 1920 Bronze Medal: 1900 See also Belgium national football team results – unofficial matches Belgian Congo national football team (1948–60) Belgium national football B team Belgium national youth football team (U-15 – U-21 squads) Belgian First Division A Sport in Belgium Footnotes References Bibliography (Unpaginated version consulted online via Google Books; the particular phrase by Pelé can be retrieved with this search.) (Numberless page copy consulted online on 25 June 2014 on GOAAAL! Voetbalvaria (by RBFA)) (Numberless book pages consulted online via Google Books) (Extract consulted online on 30 August 2010 on Beerschot Athletic Club) (Unpaginated version consulted online via Google Books; the particular fact is mentioned in chapter "The Only Time It Happened", section "10. Belgium".) Further reading External links FIFA team profile UEFA team profile ELO team records Belgian national team news website Official supporters' federation 1895 Football in Belgium European national association football teams 1904 establishments in Belgium Articles containing video clips National sports teams established in 1904

Wall Street Journal prime rate

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The Wall Street Journal Prime Rate (WSJ Prime Rate) is a measure of the U.S. prime rate, defined by The Wall Street Journal (WSJ) as "the base rate on corporate loans posted by at least 70% of the 10 largest U.S. banks". It is not the "best" rate offered by banks. It should not be confused with the discount rate set by the Federal Reserve, though these two rates often move in tandem. The print edition of the WSJ is generally the official source of the prime rate. The Wall Street Journal prime rate is considered a trailing economic indicator. Many (if not most) lenders specify this as their source of this index and set their prime rates according to the rates published in the Wall Street Journal. Because most consumer interest rates are based upon the Wall Street Journal Prime Rate, when this rate changes, most consumers can expect to see the interest rates of credit cards, auto loans and other consumer debt change. The prime rate does not change at regular intervals. It changes only when the nation's "largest banks" decide on the need to raise, or lower, their "base rate". The prime rate may not change for years, but it has also changed several times in a single year. Historical data for the WSJ prime rate See also Wall Street Journal Prime rate Federal Reserve References Various editions of the Wall Street Journal External links Money Rates on the Wall Street Journal Banking in the United States Financial economics Interest rates Prime rate

Queen's Official Birthday

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The Queen's Official Birthday is the selected day in the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth realms on which the birthday of the monarch is officially celebrated in those countries. It does not necessarily correspond to the date of the monarch's actual birth. The sovereign's birthday was first officially marked in the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1748, for King George II. Since then, the date of the king or queen's birthday has been determined throughout the British Empire, and later the Commonwealth of Nations, either by royal proclamations issued by the sovereign or viceroy, or by statute laws passed by the local parliament. The date of the celebration today varies as adopted by each country and is generally set around the end of May or start of June, to coincide with a higher probability of fine weather in the Northern Hemisphere for outdoor ceremonies. In most cases, it is an official public holiday, sometimes aligning with the celebration of other events. Most Commonwealth realms release a Queen's Birthday Honours list at this time. Australia Australian states and territories observe the Queen's Birthday on the second Monday in June, except in Western Australia and Queensland. As Western Australia celebrates Western Australia Day (formerly known as Foundation Day) on the first Monday in June, the governor of Western Australia each year proclaims the day on which the state will observe the Queen's Birthday, based on school terms and the Perth Royal Show. There is no firm rule to determine this date, though it is usually the last Monday of September or the first Monday of October. Some regional areas of Western Australia celebrate the Queen's Birthday public holiday on alternative days for locally significant dates or events. In 2012, Queensland celebrated the holiday in October, as the June holiday was reserved to mark Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee as Queen of Australia, after which the holiday then for three years reverted to its traditional date in line with the other eastern Australian states. However, starting in 2016, Queensland celebrates the holiday on the first Monday of October. Norfolk Island celebrates Bounty Day on 8 June, so Queen's Birthday is held on the Monday after the second Saturday in June. Christmas Island has other holidays and does not hold a Queen's Birthday holiday at all. The day has been celebrated since 1788, when Governor Arthur Phillip declared a holiday to mark the birthday of the king of Great Britain. Until 1936, it was held on the actual birthday of the monarch, but, after King George V died, it was decided to keep the date on the second Monday in June. This has more evenly spaced out public holidays throughout the year. While George V's successor, Edward VIII, also celebrated his birthday in June, the two sovereigns since have not: George VI's birthday was in December, very close to public holidays for Christmas, Boxing Day, and New Years, while Elizabeth II's birthday falls shortly after holidays for Good Friday and Easter and very close to ANZAC Day. The Queen's Birthday weekend and Empire Day (24 May) were the traditional times for public fireworks displays in Australia. The sale of fireworks to the public was banned in various states through the 1980s and by the Australian Capital Territory on 24 August 2009. Tasmania is the only state and the Northern Territory the only territory to allow the sale of fireworks to the public. The Queen's Birthday Honours List, in which new members of the Order of Australia and other Australian honours are named, is released around the date of the Queen's Birthday. Canada A royal proclamation issued on 5 February 1957 established the Canadian monarch's official birthday as the last Monday before 25 May. The Sovereign's birthday had been observed in Canada since 1845, when the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada passed a statute to authorize the recognition of Queen Victoria's birthday, 24 May, as a public holiday. Over the ensuing decades after Queen Victoria died in 1901 (and 24 May became Victoria Day, until 1952, when the Monday before 25 May became known by law as Victoria Day), the official date in Canada of the reigning monarch's birthday changed through various Royal Proclamations: for Edward VII it continued by yearly proclamation to be observed on 24 May, but was 3 June for George V and 23 June for Edward VIII (their actual birthdays). Edward VIII abdicated on 11 December 1936, three days before the birthday of his brother and successor, George VI. The new king expressed to his ministers his wish that his birthday not be publicly celebrated, in light of the recent circumstances. But, the prime minister at the time, William Lyon Mackenzie King, the rest of Cabinet, and Lord Tweedsmuir, the governor general, felt otherwise, seeing such a celebration as a way to begin the reign on a positive note. George VI's official birthday in Canada was thereafter marked on various days between 20 May and 14 June. The first official birthday of Elizabeth II, daughter of George VI, was the last to be celebrated in June; the haphazard format was abandoned in 1952, when the governor general-in-Council moved Empire Day and an amendment to the law moved Victoria Day both to the Monday before 25 May, and the monarch's official birthday in Canada was by regular viceregal proclamations made to fall on this same date every year between 1953 and 1957, when the link was made permanent. The two holidays are in law entirely distinct except for being appointed to be observed on the same day; it is a general holiday in Nunavut and New Brunswick (there prescribed as a day of rest on which retail businesses must be closed). The Queen's official birthday is marked by the firing of an artillery salute in the national and provincial capitals and the flying of the Royal Union Flag on buildings belonging to the federal Crown, if there is a second flag pole available. The Canadian monarch has been in Canada for his or her official birthday twice. The first time was 20 May 1939, when King George VI was on a coast-to-coast tour of Canada and his official birthday was celebrated with a Trooping the Colour ceremony on Parliament Hill. The second time was when Queen Elizabeth II was in Canada from 17 – 25 May 2005, to mark the centennial of the entries of Saskatchewan and Alberta into Confederation; no government-initiated events, aside from those dictated by normal protocol, were organized to acknowledge the official birthday. Prince Charles, heir apparent to the throne, and his wife, Camilla, in 2012 attended events in Saint John, New Brunswick, and Toronto, Ontario, marking the Queen's official birthday. In 2014, the couple attended a ceremony in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. New Zealand In New Zealand, Queen's Birthday is a public holiday observed on the first Monday in June. Celebrations are mainly official, including the Queen's Birthday Honours list and military ceremonies. There have been proposals, with some political support, to replace the holiday with Matariki (Māori New Year) as an official holiday. The idea of renaming the Queen's Birthday weekend to Hillary weekend, after mountaineer Sir Edmund Hillary, was raised in 2009. United Kingdom The monarch's birthday has been celebrated in the United Kingdom since 1748, during the reign of King George II. Queen Elizabeth II's Official Birthday was originally celebrated on the second Thursday of June, the same day that her father, King George VI, celebrated his Official Birthday during his reign. However, this was changed in 1959, seven years after she became Queen, and her Official Birthday has since then been celebrated on the second Saturday of June. Edward VII, who reigned from 1901 to 1910 and whose birthday was on 9 November, after 1908 moved the ceremony to summer in the hope of good weather. The day is marked in London by the ceremony of Trooping the Colour, which is also known as the Queen's Birthday Parade. The list of Birthday Honours is also announced at the time of the Official Birthday celebrations. In British diplomatic missions, the day is treated as the National Day of the United Kingdom. Although it is not celebrated as a specific public holiday in the UK, some civil servants are given a "privilege day" at this time of year, which is normally merged with the Spring Bank Holiday (last Monday in May) to create a four-day weekend. The Queen's birthday is the last remaining privilege day, the other 1.5 days having been abolished in 2014. Parts of Scotland also mark Queen Victoria's birthday on the last Monday before or on 24 May. British Overseas Territories The Queen's official birthday is a public holiday in most British overseas territories, including Anguilla, the Cayman Islands, Gibraltar, Montserrat, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha and the Turks and Caicos Islands. Bermuda formerly marked the occasion with a public holiday but in 2008 the government of the territory decided the day would be, beginning the following year, replaced by National Heroes' Day, despite protests from some residents of the island, who signed a petition calling for retention of The Queen's Official Birthday. The Falkland Islands celebrate the actual day of the Queen's birth, 21 April, as a public holiday. Other Commonwealth countries Tuvalu celebrates the Queen's Official Birthday on the second Saturday of June. In Saint Kitts and Nevis, the date of the holiday is set each year. Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands do so on the second Monday of June. Cook Islands, a self-governing country in free association with New Zealand, also celebrates the holiday on the second Monday of June. Despite Fiji abolishing the monarchy in 1987, following a second military coup d'état, the Queen's Birthday continued to be celebrated each 12 June until 2012. That year, the military government of Commodore Frank Bainimarama announced the holiday would be abolished. See also Day of the Sun (North Korea) Grand Duke's Official Birthday (Luxembourg) King's Feast (Belgium) Koningsdag (Netherlands) The Emperor's Birthday (Japan) References External links BBC News article of 2001 about the date of the Queen's Official Birthday in the UK The Queen's Birthday at the Royal Family website Public holidays in Australia Public holidays in Canada Public holidays in New Zealand Annual events in Canada Annual events in the United Kingdom Birthdays of heads of state April observances May observances June observances Types of national holidays Holidays and observances by scheduling (nth weekday of the month) Spring holidays (Northern Hemisphere) Autumn holidays (Southern Hemisphere) British monarchy Commonwealth realms

Hire purchase

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A hire purchase (HP), also known as an installment plan or the never-never, is an arrangement whereby a customer agrees to a contract to acquire an asset by paying an initial installment (e.g., 40% of the total) and repays the balance of the price of the asset plus interest over a period of time. Other analogous practices are described as closed-end leasing or rent to own. The hire purchase agreement was developed in the United Kingdom in the 19th century to allow customers with a cash shortage to make an expensive purchase they otherwise would have to delay or forgo. For example, in cases where a buyer cannot afford to pay the asked price for an item of property as a lump sum but can afford to pay a percentage as a deposit, a hire-purchase contract allows the buyer to hire the goods for a monthly rent. When a sum equal to the original full price plus interest has been paid in equal installments, the buyer may then exercise an option to buy the goods at a predetermined price (usually a nominal sum) or return the goods to the owner. If the buyer defaults in paying the installments, the owner may repossess the goods, a vendor protection not available with unsecured-consumer-credit systems. HP is frequently advantageous to consumers because it spreads the cost of expensive items over an extended time period. Business consumers may find the different balance sheet and taxation treatment of hire-purchased goods beneficial to their taxable income. The need for HP is reduced when consumers have collateral or other forms of credit readily available. These contracts are most commonly used for items such as automobiles and high-value electrical goods where the purchasers are unable to pay for the goods directly. Standard provisions To be valid, HP agreements must be in writing and signed by both parties. They must clearly lay out the following information in a print that all can read without effort: a clear description of the goods the cash price for the goods the HP price (i.e., the total sum that must be paid to hire and then purchase the goods) the deposit the monthly installments (most states require that the applicable interest rate is disclosed and regulate the rates and charges that can be applied in HP transactions) a reasonably comprehensive statement of the parties' rights (sometimes including the right to cancel the agreement during a "cooling-off" period) The right of the hirer to terminate the contract when he feels like doing so with a valid reason The seller and the owner If the seller has the resources and the legal right to sell the goods on credit (which usually depends on a licensing system in most countries), the seller and the owner will be the same person. But most sellers prefer to receive a cash payment immediately. To achieve this, the seller transfers ownership of the goods to a Finance Company, usually at a discounted price, and it is this company that hires and sells the goods to the buyer. This introduction of a third party complicates the transaction. Suppose that the seller makes false claims as to the quality and reliability of the goods that induce the buyer to "buy". In a conventional contract of sale, the seller will be liable to the buyer if these representations prove false. But in this instance, the seller who makes the representation is not the owner who sells the goods to the buyer only after all the installments have been paid. To combat this, some jurisdictions, including Ireland, make the seller and the finance house jointly and severally liable to answer for breaches of the purchase contract. Implied warranties and conditions to protect the hirer The extent to which buyers are protected varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but the following are usually present: the hirer will be allowed to enjoy quiet possession of the goods, i.e. no-one will interfere with the hirer's possession during the term of this contract the owner will be able to pass title to, or ownership of, the goods when the contract requires it that the goods are of merchantable quality and fit for their purpose, save that exclusion clauses may, to a greater or lesser extent, limit the Finance Company's liability where the goods are let by reference to a description or to a sample, what is actually supplied must correspond with the description and the sample. The hirer's rights The hirer usually has the following rights: To buy the goods at any time by giving notice to the owner and paying the balance of the HP price less a rebate To return the goods to the owner With the consent of the owner, to assign both the benefit and the burden of the contract to a third person. The owner cannot unreasonably refuse consent where the nominated third party has good credit rating. Where the owner wrongfully repossesses the goods, either to recover the goods plus damages for loss of quiet possession or to damages representing the value of the goods lost. Each jurisdiction has a different formula for calculating the amount of the rebate. Generally, returning the goods is subject to the payment of a penalty to reflect the owner's loss of profit but subject to a maximum specified in each jurisdiction's law to strike a balance between the need for the buyer to minimize liability and the fact that the owner now has possession of an obsolescent asset of reduced value. The hirer's obligations The hirer usually has the following obligations: to pay the hire installment to take reasonable care of the goods (if the hirer damages the goods by using them in a non-standard way, he or she must continue to pay the installments and if appropriate, recompense the owner for any loss in asset value) to inform the owner where the goods will be kept. A hirer can sell the products if, and only if, he/she has purchased the goods finally or else not to any other third party. The owner's rights The owner usually has the right to terminate the agreement where the hirer defaults in paying the installments or breaches any of the other terms in the agreement. This entitles the owner: to forfeit the deposit to retain the installments already paid and recover the balance due to repossess the goods (which may have to be by application to a Court depending on the nature of the goods and the percentage of the total price paid) to claim damages for any loss suffered In Australia Hire purchases are commonly used by businesses (including companies, partnerships and sole traders) in Australia to fund the purchase of cars, commercial vehicles and other business equipment. Under Australian Taxation Office rules, businesses who account for GST on an accruals basis are entitled to claim an Input Tax Credit for all of the GST contained in the purchase price of the goods on their next Business Activity Statement. Hire purchase is also commonly known as commercial hire purchase and corporate hire purchase (both abbreviated to CHP) in Australia. Hire Purchase was brought to Australia in the early 1960s by Les Meteyard and his business partner (currently unknown). In Malaysia Hire purchases agreement are commonly known as H.P agreement in Malaysia and it is used by financial institutions in Malaysia to fund the purchase of consumer goods, vehicles and other business equipment and industrial machinery. In Malaysia, the legislation governing hire purchase transactions is the Hire Purchase Act 1967, which came into force on 11 April 1968 after hire purchase became popular in the acquisition of expensive consumer goods such as cars, business equipment and industrial machinery. Purchasing cars is the most common type of hire purchase agreement in Malaysia and the repayment could take up to 9 years from the date of agreement been executed. See also Buy now, pay later Chattel mortgage Closed-end leasing Layaway Leasing Personal contract purchase Rent-to-own Vehicle leasing References External links Contract law Sales Renting

Ryan Atwood

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Ryan Francis Atwood (born March 19, 1988) is a fictional character on the FOX television series The O.C., portrayed by Ben McKenzie. A troubled teenager from Chino, California, he is an outcast who is given a second chance when the wealthy Cohen family takes him in. Concept and creation Casting Casting director Patrick Rush found the role of Ryan Atwood particularly hard to cast for The O.C.. Chad Michael Murray turned the role down to play Lucas Scott on One Tree Hill. Rush invited Benjamin McKenzie to audition after Warner Bros. made him aware of the young actor after an unsuccessful audition for a UPN sitcom. McKenzie, who had spent two years in New York and Los Angeles seeking acting work, lacked experience and later described his selection as "a tremendous leap of faith" on the producers' part. Show creator Josh Schwartz said in 2014, "[McKenzie] took it really seriously, and brought just a lot of integrity, and integrity is not always required in a Fox teen drama." Characterization Background Ryan was physically abused by his biological father Frank and some of his mother Dawn's boyfriends. He has a complicated, love-hate relationship with his older brother Trey. Both parents struggled with alcohol – Frank became physically abusive while Dawn neglected and verbally abused him – and it left a deep impression on him, as shown by his aversion to strong alcoholic drinks. By his own statements, Ryan never had a father figure for much of his life, due to Frank being in prison and his mother's revolving door of boyfriends, prior to being adopted by the Cohens. The Atwoods used to live in Fresno but moved to Chino after Frank was imprisoned. In season 4, it is stated that Ryan had not seen Frank in eight years. In regards to his biological family, a major recurring theme was Ryan being abandoned – Dawn abandoned him twice, Trey left for Las Vegas without telling him and their dad left them and their mom "with nothing" after being imprisoned – which contrasts his adopted family, the Cohens, who have stood by him despite his juvenile record, vocal criticisms and disdain from the other "Newpsies" about his adoption and his multiple attempts to run away from them. Although he does not address Sandy and Kirsten as Dad or Mom, he has made it clear that he considers them to be his parents, rather than Frank and Dawn. He generally dislikes speaking about his biological family and has hinted during Christmas and Thanksgiving that the holidays brought up painful memories for him. During his first Chrismukkah in Newport, he tells the Cohens that his holidays mainly consisted of him "getting [his] ass kicked" and sums up his Christmas memories in three words: drinking, crying and cops. Personality Born and raised in a working class family, Ryan knows the lifestyle and attitudes of people from his neighborhood of Chino, California and the dangers that occur if outsiders are influenced by its environment. His abusive past is reflected by the fact that he has an extremely high pain threshold and displays an impassive expression after being physically beat up. He is tough, cynical and quick-tempered, yet compassionate and empathetic toward people in trouble and those less fortunate than himself. During his first months in Newport, he had the tendency to physically express his anger at the incessant teasing from his schoolmates by punching them, which led them intentionally goad him even more, but he gradually calmed down, after some serious lecturing from Sandy and being sent to anger management counseling. He at times appears burdened by an almost-compulsive need to rescue others at the expense of his own well-being, however, and is overly protective of Marissa and Theresa, his main love interests on the show. The product of an abusive household, he has difficulty trusting or getting close to people emotionally, which could also be due to the fact that his mother Dawn refused to get help for her alcoholism and brother Trey continuously broke his promises to stay out of trouble. He is extremely loyal to his family, both biological and adopted, and those he cares about. The fact that he rarely smiles or says much is something of a running joke among other members of the Cohen household; early in the first season when he first moves in with the Cohens, he often looks down and avoids making eye contact, likely a habit of self-preservation born out of his upbringing in an unstable home and would stiffen when hugged; by the final season, he becomes more open to his adoptive family. Despite his reticent nature and emotionless exterior, Ryan can be quite transparent, often "convey[ing] everything with just a look", and is virtually incapable of lying, as Sandy proved in the episode "The O.Sea" when he caught Ryan trying to cover-up for Seth and Ryan's "guilty face" gave it away. Compared to his adoptive brother, Ryan is the opposite of the socially awkward, sheltered and sometimes naïve Seth; he is street-savvy, which often results in him having to constantly bail Seth out of trouble during the first two seasons, athletic and charismatic, albeit in a more understated way. Seth often joked about he had known Summer and Marissa since they were in elementary but they never talked to one another while Ryan was invited to the annual charity fashion by Marissa barely twenty four hours after setting foot in Newport Beach. Inside the classroom, he has been described as highly intelligent despite his history of behavior problems (he was suspended multiple times for fighting and truancy). In the pilot episode, it is revealed that he had taken his SATs despite being only a sophomore and scored in the 98th percentile. According to Dawn, Ryan had always been "the smart one, the good one" in the family. Ryan's favorite fruit is peaches, and his favorite band is Journey. He suffers from acrophobia, the fear of heights. He is athletic and played football (safety) and soccer (striker) in school; a soccer ball is sometimes seen in the Cohens' pool house. Despite the generosity of his adoptive family, Ryan repeatedly demonstrates he can earn his own keep by taking paying jobs around town, such as a busboy at the Crab Shack, a construction worker, an intern at the Newport Group, and a barback position. He used to smoke, like both Frank and Dawn, but stopped after Sandy tells him on the first night that smoking wasn't allowed in the house. Of the characters in the show, Ryan is closest to his adoptive brother Seth, Summer and Marissa – this "core four" group of friends is the basis of Seth's Atomic County comic series. Ryan and Seth are often able to finish each other's sentences, according to Summer, "like they're composing a lie on the spot" and read each other's body language and facial expressions. Character arc Season 1 When Ryan and his brother Trey are caught attempting to steal a car, his mother Dawn kicks him out. His attorney, Sandy Cohen, takes him into his home in Newport Beach, California, despite objections from Sandy's wife, Kirsten. Sandy takes note of Ryan's high test scores in spite of his poor grades, which was more likely due to inconsistent attendance rather than Ryan's lack of intelligence. Initially Kirsten is wary of him and insisted Sandy take him back to juvie but, after witnessing him being physically assaulted in juvie for defending her from an unruly inmate, she takes him home. She subsequently welcomes him to stay permanently upon seeing that Dawn was incapable of adequately caring for Ryan due to her alcohol problem. In the episode "The Debut", Sandy and Kirsten become his legal guardians, after Dawn leaves him at the Cohens' in the previous episode. Ryan becomes part of the Cohen family, living in their pool house, and becomes a brother to Sandy and Kirsten's son, Seth Cohen; even Sandy and Kirsten consider him their second son, referring to him as such rather than the more legally accurate term "ward". However, even though he is accepted by the immediate Cohen family, he still feels like and is seen by other characters as an outsider, a recurring theme throughout the season. In particular, Harbor School dean Dr. Kim, water polo team captain Luke Ward, Kirsten's father Caleb Nichol and the Cohens' neighbor Julie Cooper had reservations about Ryan. Shortly after meeting her, he begins a relationship with Marissa Cooper, Julie's daughter. Initially Ryan has trouble fitting in at Harbor School, the local private school most "Newpsies" attend. He joins the soccer team, only to find that Luke was also on the team. The fact that Luke, his rival for Marissa's affections and the water polo team captain, was there exacerbated the problem. Ryan takes it out on Luke with a rash tackle during soccer practice, earning him a suspension and a stern reminder from Sandy that they (the Cohens) were "always one mistake away from someone taking you from us". He and Luke become friends in the aftermath of the discovery that Luke's father was gay and is the first person Luke vents his frustration and anger to. Luke becomes unlikely friends with Ryan and his circle of "outcasts": Marissa, who was ostracized by other girls following her parents' divorce and suicide attempt, and the socially awkward Seth, whom he and other jocks used to bully. Ryan's relationship with Marissa is interrupted by Oliver Trask, a deeply disturbed boy Marissa meets in therapy who becomes obsessed with her. Ryan becomes suspicious, which brings significant trust issues between the couple, eventually resulting in a breakup, although they remain friends. At the same time, Theresa Diaz, Ryan's childhood sweetheart, comes to Newport, resulting in a rekindled romance between them. However, Theresa leaves Newport after her fiancé Eddie, one of Ryan's friends in Chino, convinces her to return to Chino with him. Ryan and Marissa resume their relationship shortly after, but this is complicated when Theresa returns after suffering domestic abuse by Eddie. Theresa reveals she is pregnant but does not know whether the father is Ryan or Eddie. She decides to keep the baby and return home to Chino to be with her mother. Feeling compelled to help her bring up the child, Ryan decides to go with Theresa, leaving Marissa, the Cohens, and everything else in his life behind. Season 2 Having quit school and working in construction, Ryan lives with Theresa, but she realizes he is unhappy and encourages him to visit Seth in Portland, Oregon, where he ran away following Ryan's departure. He hesitantly goes, hoping to convince his friend to go home to his parents before the fall semester starts, but while he stays in Portland, Theresa notifies him through the telephone she has miscarried. Although Ryan is devastated and wants to return to her, Theresa tells him he needs to go back to Newport with Seth. Ryan returns to school and is still uncertain about his plans beyond high school. By chance, he catches Sandy and Kirsten's contractor cutting corners and quickly points out discrepancies in the floor plan and finished product. The school counselor discovers some technical drawings and sketches of the lower floor of the Cohens' home in his notebook and advises him to consider architecture as a career. As part of Seth's idea of a reunion of the "Fab Four" (consisting of Ryan, Marissa, Seth and his girlfriend Summer Roberts), Ryan and Marissa are pulled closer together. When he overhears Marissa admitting to Summer that Ryan is the only one she ever loved and she misses him every day, he confesses his own lingering feelings for her. The two get back together, just as Ryan's brother Trey is released from jail. Ryan, along with the Cohens and Marissa, attempts to get Trey back onto his feet. However, during his trip to Florida with Sandy and Seth to pay Sandy's mother a visit, Trey tries to rape Marissa while intoxicated on drugs. Marissa does not tell anyone, causing tension with Ryan, who suspects she cheated on him with Trey. After he questions his brother, who hides at a bar in Chino and blames a drunken Marissa, Ryan bumps into Theresa and confides his problems. She tells him that out of the two, Marissa would never hurt him and she would be the one to trust. Following Theresa's advice, Ryan makes up with Marissa. Meanwhile, Sandy becomes concerned with Kirsten's alcoholism and decides to stage an intervention. Ryan reassures Sandy he is doing the right thing. Ryan takes part, stating that, having lost his mother to alcoholism, he would not be able to bear it if he lost someone else he loved to the bottle. Following similar statements of love from the rest of the Cohens, Kirsten gives in and checks herself into rehab. When Marissa tells Summer about Trey's attempted rape, Summer informs Seth. Seth, knowing he cannot lie to Ryan, tells him, who prompts a confrontation with his brother. The brothers fight, and Trey almost kills Ryan. Marissa turns up and shoots Trey in the back with his own gun. Season 3 Trey survives the gunshot but remains in a coma. When he regains consciousness, Marissa's mother Julie blackmails him to place the blame on Ryan so Marissa's innocence will clear her reputation in society, but following Ryan's initial arrest, Marissa convinces him to tell the truth. With Ryan's charges dropped, Trey flees Newport, leaving Marissa expelled from Harbor High to instead attend public school. When she befriends amateur surfer Johnny Harper, Ryan becomes suspicious of their closeness, fueling their on and off relationship. After Johnny dies in an accident, Ryan questions Marissa's true feelings towards Johnny, ending their relationship. Following their split, Marissa begins spiraling down a disastrous relationship with Kevin Volchok, Johnny's former surfing rival, while Ryan develops his own rivalry against Volchok, including instances of blackmail, extortion and violence. In the season finale, Ryan, Marissa, Seth and Summer graduate from high school, following their prospective futures. Ryan became the first in his family to graduate from high school and is accepted by the University of California, Berkeley, Sandy and Kirsten's alma mater. Volchok attempts to blackmail Ryan, threatening to inform the authorities of Ryan's earlier involvement in a robbery which he was forced to assist him with. In an effort to fulfill Volchok's ransom, Marissa gives Ryan her mother's graduation gift: pearls he can pawn for the money. Volchok doesn't accept the money, demanding more, including a talk with Marissa, which she refuses, instead staying with Ryan. While Ryan drives Marissa to the airport, Volchok, drunk and furious, attempts to crash Ryan's car. In a blind rage, he sideswipes Ryan's vehicle, knocking it over a barrier to roll down an embankment. Ryan manages to pull an unconscious Marissa out of the wreckage before the car exploded due to the leaking gas tank. Marissa dies of her injuries in his arms minutes later. Season 4 Following Marissa's death, Ryan moves into a storage closet at a bar where he works while avoiding the Cohens and starts cage fighting, which becomes an outlet for his anger and grief. The Cohens repeatedly call him up to check up on him and ask him to come over for dinner and Sandy even goes to the bar to look for Ryan himself but Ryan continues to elude them on purpose. Meanwhile, a desperate Seth calls Summer, who is away at Brown University in Rhode Island, to come back and hopefully convince Ryan to return home with the Cohens. Sandy, Kirsten and Seth finally convince him to return home after they reveal to him, through Seth's Atomic County comic strips, how he has changed their family for the better. Julie, finding any way necessary to cope with her grief, hires a private investigator to dig up evidence of Volchok's whereabouts, in hopes of exacting her revenge. She passes the information to Ryan, the only person who can truly understand the pain she feels, and suggests he do with Volchok whatever he wishes, as giving the police the information is too valuable a deal to pass up. Ryan heads to Mexico to finish the job, but Seth tags along to ensure Ryan doesn't ruin his life by committing murder. Seth calls Sandy and Kirsten, who have driven to Mexico to find the boys, then warns Volchok to leave town before Ryan gets to him and advises that he take advantage of his lawyer father. His plan fools Ryan, who returns home; his relationship with Seth is severely compromised, however. Heeding Seth's advice, Volchok contacts Sandy to be his defense attorney, although Ryan discovers it. Sandy, knowing Ryan would never kill anyone, drives him to the hotel where he's housed Volchok. Inside, Ryan puts a broken bottle against Volchok's throat; he spares Volchok's life, however, leaving him for the police. Ryan settles back down to life in Newport, determined to have an uneventful summer, until Taylor Townsend returns from France trapped in a loveless marriage, seeking a divorce. Ryan is reluctantly drawn in and, during a heart-to-heart conversation with Sandy, he is reminded that he's always been the one to help people when they need it the most. Ryan kisses Taylor in front of her husband's lawyer, who can grant a divorce only if one member was unfaithful and agrees that their kiss was heartfelt. Seth warns Ryan that Taylor is unstable and clings to anyone who shows her kindness; while Ryan appreciates the notion, he admits that he is not yet over Marissa and decides to confront Taylor; she initially denies her own feelings but later confesses that she is attracted to him. Following a second kiss, the idea being to discover if it sparks any feelings, he admits he does like her, except that he does not want anything too serious. During Chrismukkah (a combination of Christmas and Hanukkah celebrated at the Cohen house), Ryan discovers a letter in the mail from Marissa but gets distracted by Kirsten. While he's hanging decorations on the house roof, Taylor arrives with her gift to him; he is preoccupied by Marissa's letter, however, and acts coldly towards her. When she climbs the ladder he's working on to angrily give him his present, the ladder falls, along with the two of them, knocking them both unconscious. While in the hospital, Ryan and Taylor dream of being in an alternate dream universe of Newport, as if Ryan had never been adopted by the Cohen family. When Taylor misunderstands a conversation with a housekeeper from this world, she informs Ryan that Marissa is alive; Ryan says he never wants to wake up so he can be with her again. When he finds out about her arrival at an airport from Berkeley and goes to meet her, he finds this world's version of Marissa's sister Kaitlin, who tells him that Marissa had died of the overdose he had saved her from. In the real world, Kirsten shows Julie Marissa's letter to Ryan, which she had written to Ryan before she left for Greece. In the letter, Marissa states that she had to leave because, even though she still loved him, they could not be together. After Julie sets the note beside an unconscious Ryan, it appears for him to read in his dream, during which he realizes he has to forgive himself for Marissa's death and to move on. Moments later, he regains consciousness. He finally gathers the courage to visit Marissa's grave, where he bumps into Julie, who consoles him with the knowledge that at least Marissa did not die alone. Since her daughter's death, Julie has softened towards Ryan after realizing that he sincerely cared for Marissa. Days later, Ryan finds out from Sandy that his biological father, Frank Atwood, is out of jail and wishes to see him. Ryan is hesitant, recalling the abuse he suffered at Frank's hands, but Frank convinces him by claiming that he has lung cancer. However, following dinner with the Cohens, an already-suspicious Sandy reveals that Frank lied about the cancer after checking up with his contacts in the prison system. Frank leaves Newport, although he returns apologetically and with help from Taylor forms a tentative relationship with his son. The situation becomes even more awkward when Frank begins dating Julie and stays at her house. They remain on friendly terms but Ryan has made it clear that even though he addresses Frank as "dad", he considers Sandy to be his father figure. Meanwhile, Taylor's ex-husband Henri-Michel comes to Newport on a book tour for his best-selling novel about their marriage. Feeling insecure about Taylor's exotic life in France, Ryan breaks up with her, claiming they are "too different". A week later, Ryan decides he was wrong but discovers it might be too late as Taylor is already considering a reconciliation with Henri, who still loves her. Ryan upstages a poetry reading by Henri at a book store with a poem of his own, where he confesses he can grow to love Taylor, given time. Series finale To make up for giving a pocket dictionary for her nineteenth birthday, Ryan gives Taylor his original present of a bound book full of love poems that she translated. He admits he loves her, but as they reconcile, an earthquake hits Newport. The two survive, but Ryan is injured while protecting Taylor and is brought to the hospital for recovery. Six months later, Ryan and Taylor spend time together before she leaves Newport for college in Paris. Ryan thanks her for saving him from self-destruction, and he and the Cohens depart from their Newport home, damaged beyond repair, to Sandy and Kirsten's old home in Berkeley, California, while Seth leaves for RISD. In a flashforward, Ryan attends UC Berkeley, where Sandy is now a law professor. At Seth and Summer's wedding, he is best man and shares a smile with Taylor, the maid of honor (their relationship status is left ambiguous). Ryan achieves his dream of becoming an architect. As he walks away from a construction site, he notices a teenager down on his luck, seemingly in the same situation Ryan was when he was kicked out of his home. As he offers the youth help, Ryan's story comes full circle. References The O.C. characters Adoptee characters in television Fictional architects Fictional kickboxers Fictional characters from Orange County, California Television characters introduced in 2003 Teenage characters in television American male characters in television pl:Lista postaci serialu Życie na fali#Ryan Atwood

Bent Pyramid

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The Bent Pyramid is an ancient Egyptian pyramid located at the royal necropolis of Dahshur, approximately 40 kilometres south of Cairo, built under the Old Kingdom Pharaoh Sneferu (c. 2600 BC). A unique example of early pyramid development in Egypt, this was the second pyramid built by Sneferu. The Bent Pyramid rises from the desert at a 54-degree inclination, but the top section (above 47 metres) is built at the shallower angle of 43 degrees, lending the pyramid a visibly 'bent' appearance. Overview Archaeologists now believe that the Bent Pyramid represents a transitional form between step-sided and smooth-sided pyramids. It has been suggested that due to the steepness of the original angle of inclination the structure may have begun to show signs of instability during construction, forcing the builders to adopt a shallower angle to avert the structure's collapse. This theory appears to be borne out by the fact that the adjacent Red Pyramid, built immediately afterwards by the same pharaoh, was constructed at an angle of 43 degrees from its base. This fact also contradicts the theory that at the initial angle the construction would take too long because Sneferu's death was nearing, so the builders changed the angle to complete the construction in time. In 1974, Kurt Mendelssohn suggested the change of the angle to have been made as a security precaution in reaction to a catastrophic collapse of the Meidum Pyramid while it was still under construction. The reason why Sneferu abandoned the Meidum Pyramid and its Step Pyramid may have been a change in ideology. The royal tomb was no longer considered as a staircase to the stars; instead, it was served as a symbol of the solar cult and of the primeval mound from which all life sprang. It is also unique amongst the approximately ninety pyramids to be found in Egypt, in that its original polished limestone outer casing remains largely intact. British structural engineer Peter James attributes this to larger clearances between the parts of the casing than used in later pyramids; these imperfections would work as expansion joints and prevent the successive destruction of the outer casing by thermal expansion. The ancient formal name of the Bent Pyramid is generally translated as (The)-Southern-Shining-Pyramid, or Sneferu-(is)-Shining-in-the-South. In July 2019, Egypt decided to open the Bent Pyramid for tourism for the first time since 1965. Tourists are able to reach two 4600-year-old chambers through a 79-metre narrow tunnel built from the northern entrance of the pyramid. The 18-metre-high "side pyramid", which is assumed to have been built for Sneferu's wife Hetepheres will also be accessible. It is the first time this adjacent pyramid has been opened to the public since its excavation in 1956. Interior passages The Bent Pyramid has two entrances, one fairly low down on the north side, to which a substantial wooden stairway has been built for the convenience of tourists. The second entrance is high on the west face of the pyramid. Each entrance leads to a chamber with a high, corbelled roof; the northern entrance leads to a chamber that is below ground level, the western to a chamber built in the body of the pyramid itself. A hole in the roof of the northern chamber (accessed today by a high and rickety ladder long) leads via a rough connecting passage to the passage from the western entrance. The western entrance passage is blocked by two stone blocks which were not lowered vertically, as in other pyramids, but slid down 45° ramps to block the passage. One of these was lowered in antiquity and a hole has been cut through it, the other remains propped up by a piece of ancient cedar wood. The connecting passage referenced above enters the passage between the two portcullises. Causeway A causeway leads from the Bent Pyramids' northeast toward the pyramid with the valley temple. The causeway was paved with limestone blocks and had a low limestone wall on each side. In fact, there may have been a second causeway that lead down to a dock or landing stage, but there is no excavation that can prove this assumption yet. Pyramid temple On the east side of the pyramid there are the fragmentary remains of the pyramid temple. Like the pyramid temple of the Meidum pyramid, there are two stelae behind the temple, though of these only stumps remain. There is no trace of inscription to be seen. The temple remains are fragmentary but it is presumed to be similar to that of the Meidum temple. Satellite pyramid A satellite pyramid, suggested by some Egyptologists to have been built to house the pharaoh's ka, is located 55 metres south of the Bent Pyramid. The satellite pyramid originally measured 26 metres in height and 52.80 metres in length, with faces inclining 44°30'. The structure is made of limestone blocks, relatively thick, arranged in horizontal rows and covered with a layer of fine limestone from Tura. The burial chamber is accessible from a descending corridor with its entrance located 1.10 metres above the ground in the middle of the north face. The corridor, inclined at 34°, originally measured 11.60 metres in length. A short horizontal passage connects the corridor with an ascending corridor, inclined at 32° 30', leading up to the chamber. The design of the corridors is similar to the one found in the Great Pyramid of Giza, where the Grand Gallery takes up the place of the ascending corridor. The corridor leads up to the burial chamber (called this despite that it most probably never contained any sarcophagus). The chamber, located in the center of the pyramid, has a corbel vault ceiling and contains a four metres deep shaft, probably dug by treasure hunters, in the southeast part of the chamber. Like the main pyramid, the satellite had its own altar with two stelae located at the eastern side. Man-made landscape As the first geometrically "true" pyramid in the world, the Bent Pyramid shows its uniqueness not only from the method of construction but also manifests through the surrounding landscape. Nicole Alexanian and Felix Arnold, two distinguished German archeologists, provided a new insight toward the meaning and function for the Bent Pyramid in their book named The complex of the Bent Pyramid as a landscape design project. They noticed that the sites of the Bent Pyramid sits aside in the middle of a pristine desert area instead of fertile area near the Nile River like all the other pyramids. After a long period detailed investigation, they believed the landscape surrounding the Bent Pyramid is in fact man-made. When the archaeologists observed the landscape closely, the plateau of the pyramid seemed leveled artificially and nearby escarpment and trenches were all made by human beings. Moreover, there were a few traces left indicating a build-up of garden enclosure. The impact of humans on the landscape is also represented by the presence of a wadi channel connecting the Bent Pyramid to a harbor, which shows a distinct difference between the southern and northern side of the channel. It shows a substantial difference in level with regards to the finding. The slope of southern wadi channel seemed to have been rectified when the archaeologists compared it to the natural and twisted northern side. Arne Ramisch supported this idea by providing evidence that displays a low correlation of fraternal patterns of channel and natural topography in the environs, which is southern side of wadi, of the Bent Pyramid. The purpose of this man-made construction might hold mythical meaning and ritual function. Based on available evidence, garden enclosure and water basins both are the counterparts of funeral rites which indicates a regular practice of rituals at Dahshur. However, there is also another implication states that the garden closure helping to create satisfactory living environment in the desert. Other than that, the leveled plateau, the quarrying trenches on the western and southern sides of the pyramid, and the nearby smaller tombs cooperate together to emphasize the monumentality of the Bent Pyramid, aiding by its long distance from the surrounding structures. These features represent the imprinting social hierarchy in the creation of this landscape, which furthermore represents the power of Egyptian King at that time. Alexanian and Arnold describes this construction in a concise phrase: an artificial mountain erected within an artificial landscape. Gallery See also List of Egyptian pyramids List of megalithic sites Red Pyramid Pyramid of Amenemhat III (Dahshur) Notes Footnotes References External links Inside the Bent Pyramid Buildings and structures completed in the 26th century BC Former world's tallest buildings Dahshur Pyramids of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Sneferu

Chop Suey! (song)

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"Chop Suey!" is the first single from Armenian-American heavy metal band System of a Down's second album Toxicity. The single was released in August 2001 and earned the band its first Grammy nomination in 2002 for Best Metal Performance. Loudwire included the song in its list of The Best Hard Rock Songs Of The 21st Century, where it was ranked at number one. "Chop Suey!" is often seen as the band's signature song. Overview In an interview, Daron Malakian explained, "The song is about how we are regarded differently depending on how we pass. Everyone deserves to die. Like, if I were now to die from drug abuse, they might say I deserved it because I abused dangerous drugs. Hence the line, 'I cry when angels deserve to die.' The lyrics for the midsection ("Father into your hands I commend my spirit") were randomly picked out by Tankian from Rubin's book collection after Tankian was struggling for ideas. Song title The song was originally titled "Suicide" but Columbia Records forced the band to change it to avoid controversy. The song title is therefore a wordplay: "Suey" is "suicide", "chopped" in half. However, the band members claim this change was not caused by pressure from their record company; Odadjian said the band simply chose their battles carefully. Most pressings of the album include an intro to the track where lead singer Serj Tankian can faintly be heard saying "we're rolling 'Suicide while drummer John Dolmayan is counting the band in. Music video The music video was the band's first collaboration with the acclaimed director Marcos Siega, and is set in the car park of the Oak Tree Inn motel in Los Angeles, hometown of the band. The members are performing the song on stage, surrounded by approximately 1,500 fans. Editing devices are used to create the effect of the band members "walking through" one another and teleporting on and off the stage, an effect similar to one used in the Red Hot Chili Peppers video "Around the World". One scene briefly shows Tankian eating chop suey with some fans, the only reference to the title dish in either the song or the video. The video makes use of the SnorriCam technique, in which an actor will have a camera attached to them with a harness, making it appear as though the background is moving and the actor is stationary. In the middle of the video the Flag of Armenia can be seen. The video has been viewed over one billion times on YouTube, making it the first metal music video to do so (shortly followed by Nothing Else Matters by Metallica). Controversy "Chop Suey!" is the first single of Toxicity, an album that was number one on the charts during the week of the September 11, 2001 attacks. A controversy surrounding the popular single, especially the line 'I don't think you trust in my self-righteous suicide', at the time led to Clear Channel Radio placing the song on a list of post-9/11 inappropriate titles. Although it was never actually banned completely from the air, Clear Channel Radio stations were advised against playing any of the songs on the list. Track listing Chart positions "Chop Suey!" was a moderate success on the charts around the world. In Australia, after hitting No. 3 on the Triple J Hottest 100 of 2001, with virtually no airplay on commercial radio, it debuted and peaked at No. 14 in February 2002. It is System of a Down's highest charting single in Australia. In the United States, the song peaked at No. 76, making it the band's lowest peaking song on the Hot 100 due to the fact it was taken off the radio for its political lyrics. On the Modern Rock Tracks, "Chop Suey!" peaked at No. 7, becoming the band's first top ten single. In the UK Singles Chart, it debuted and peaked at No. 17. Weekly charts Certifications References External links System of a Down songs Songs written by Daron Malakian Songs written by Serj Tankian 2001 singles Songs about suicide Music videos directed by Marcos Siega Song recordings produced by Rick Rubin 2001 songs

Free Willy 2: The Adventure Home

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Free Willy 2: The Adventure Home is a 1995 American family film and the sequel to the 1993 film Free Willy as well as the second installment in the Free Willy film series distributed by Warner Bros. under their Warner Bros. Family Entertainment label. It is directed by Dwight Little from a screenplay by Karen Janszen, Corey Blechman and John Mattson. Jason James Richter, Jayne Atkinson, August Schellenberg, Mykelti Williamson and Michael Madsen reprise their roles from the first film. New cast members include Jon Tenney and Elizabeth Peña. Unlike the previous film where Keiko played Willy, a robotic double created by Edge Innovations was used to play the eponymous whale while the Free Willy Keiko Foundation devised a plan to bring Keiko to the Oregon Coast Aquarium where he would be rehabilitated from poor health. Filming commenced in Astoria, Oregon and the San Juan Islands between April and August of 1994 with additional filming taking place in California. The film opened to mixed reviews from critics. And despite underperforming at the box office, a third film Free Willy 3: The Rescue was subsequently released in 1997. Plot It's been two years since Jesse (Jason James Richter) saved and freed his orca friend, Willy. Jesse, now 14 years old, has since been adopted by his foster parents, Glen and Annie Greenwood (Michael Madsen and Jayne Atkinson). Jesse and his adoptive parents are preparing to go on a family camping trip to the Pacific Northwest. Glen has been trying to teach Jesse to drive their motorboat named Little Dipper, but Jesse is more interested in girls. However, before they leave town, Dwight (Mykelti Williamson), Jesse's former social worker, shows up to inform them that they have found Jesse's biological mother, who abandoned him 8 years ago in New York City. Jesse's mother has died and left behind another son, Jesse's younger half-brother named Elvis (Francis Capra). Jesse is devastated about this news, but comes to terms, after talking his feelings out with Glen. When Elvis arrives, he is morose, overly talkative and mischievous, and he is also prone to telling lies and easily gets on Jesse's nerves. He is invited on their trip to San Juan Island so that he and Jesse might get to know each other. At the environmental institute, Jesse reunites with his old Native American friend, Randolph Johnson (August Schellenberg) whom Jesse met at the Northwest Adventura Park when he met Willy years back. Jesse quickly becomes smitten with Randolph's attractive and kindly goddaughter, Nadine (Mary Kate Schellhardt). Jesse also tracks down and reunites with Willy one night. Jesse cautiously begins to show his interest in Nadine, and as the awkward teenagers grow closer, Jesse helps Nadine befriend Willy, and his two younger siblings, Luna and Littlespot. Elvis spies on the two, forming his own bond with the young, playful Littlespot, and lies to Glen and Annie telling them that Jesse kissed Nadine. Glen talks to Jesse who says that he didn't kiss Nadine, and Glen locks Elvis in his tent. As the Greenwoods continue to enjoy their camping trip, the Dakar runs aground on lawson reef and spills oil into the ocean due to an engine malfunction, trapping Willy, Luna and Littlespot in a small cove. When word gets out that the orcas are trapped and Luna is dying from the oil in her lungs having swam through the oil when the oil tanker ran aground, Benbrook Oil CEO John Milner (Jon Tenney) arrives and announces a plan to move the orcas into captivity where they can recover from their injuries. Jesse challenges this, making Milner promise to do whatever he can, to get the whales safely back to their mom or else he'll be blamed for Luna's death, to which Milner seemingly agrees. With Luna's condition worsening despite receiving treatment from marine biologist Kate Haley (Elizabeth Peña), Randolph and Jesse eventually use an old Indian remedy that they administer to Luna, who recovers the next morning. Elvis, who runs away believing that Jesse is more important and after Annie breaks her promise to allow him to help the whales, overhears Milner and whaler Bill Wilcox (M. Emmet Walsh) discussing their real plan to sell the orcas to marine mammal parks and rushes back to camp. Shortly afterwards, with the oil spill reaching dangerous proximity to the cove, Benbrook Oil and the whalers boom it off despite Jesse, Randolph and Nadine's objections and begin extracting the whales. As the extraction of Littlespot commences, Elvis returns in time to warn Jesse and the brothers expose Milner's plot which lead to them knocking Milner and his assistant (Paul Tuerpe) into the water for breaking their promise, while Haley and the others laugh at them struggling to swim to the dock. With the help of a distraction by Jesse and Elvis, Willy manages to rescue his little brother by tipping Wilcox's boat. With time running out before the oil reaches the cove, Jesse, Elvis and Nadine hijack Little Dipper to lead the whales to safety. On Jesse's signal, Willy is able to break the boom and leads his siblings out of the cove. However, an explosion on the tanker, due to fuel vapors igniting after trying to start the tanker's generator, results in the crude oil in the water catching fire. Despite the danger, the three whales are able to swim under the flaming oil to safety. Having followed the whales to ensure they got safely past the oil, Jesse, Nadine and Elvis fall into danger when they take Little Dipper into another cove to avoid the flaming oil, but the fogginess from the smoke causes Jesse to hit a rock and the boat begins to sink while the flames seal off the cove. At the same time, Glen, Annie and Randolph search for the three in the latter's boat, Natselane, with him sending a distress signal that summons the Coastal Marine Patrol to the trio's aid. A search and rescue helicopter locates them, and Elvis and Nadine are retracted to safety. However, the Little Dipper then submerges completely, leaving Jesse struggling in the oily water, and unable to secure himself sufficiently in the harness. He ultimately slips out and falls back into the ocean, just inches away from the helicopter and, due to smoke choking the helicopter's engine, it is forced to leave Jesse behind even though a backup ship is called in. Jesse nearly drowns but is rescued by Willy who returns for his friend. Willy is able to carry him safely under the fire to the Natselane, where Glen and Annie pull Jesse to safety. Though Jesse was curious as to why Willy won't leave, it was revealed through Randolph that the signal must be performed. An emotional Jesse does it, and he and the Greenwoods say goodbye to Willy before he departs back to his family. Shortly after, the Coastal Marine Patrol drop off Nadine and Elvis to the Nastelane. Elvis gives Jesse an old picture of him and their mother, and explains that he once ripped it up out of anger, but taped it back together for him. He also tells Jesse that their mother always talked about him and that she felt bad about abandoning him. Jesse thanks him for the picture and hugs him, finally able to put his past at rest. Glen and Annie decide to keep the brothers together. When asked by Elvis about Littlespot's whereabouts, Jesse tells him that Willy and his siblings are back with their mom. He then says the same Haida prayer to himself after knowing that they are all free. Sometime later with the oil spill cleaned up, Willy, Luna and Littlespot reunite with Catspaw. Cast Jason James Richter as Jesse Francis Capra as Elvis Mary Kate Schellhardt as Nadine August Schellenberg as Randolph Johnson Michael Madsen as Glen Greenwood (credited as "Glenn") Jayne Atkinson as Annie Greenwood Mykelti Williamson as Dwight Mercer Elizabeth Peña as Dr. Kate Haley Jon Tenney as John Milner Paul Tuerpe as Milner's assistant M. Emmet Walsh as Wilcox John Considine as Commander Blake Steve Kahan as Captain Nilson Neal Matarazzo as Helmsman Kelly Al Sapienza as Engineer Basil Wallace as Reporter Marguerite Moreau as Julie Scott Stuber as Policeman Joan Lunden as herself Reception Free Willy 2 grossed $30 million in the United States and Canada and $68 million worldwide on a $31 million budget. It received mixed reviews from critics, though many were impressed with the film's subtle approach to pollution and other environmental issues, while focusing on family values. The film holds a 50% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 26 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads "Good-natured yet utterly unsurprising, Free Willy 2: The Adventure Home will strike all but the youngest of viewers as a poorly orca-strated sequel.” Accolades The movie was nominated for Worst Sequel and The Sequel Nobody Was Clamoring For at the 1995 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards, but lost to Ace Ventura: When Nature Calls and Halloween 6: The Curse of Michael Myers, respectively. Willy won Favorite Animal Star at the 1996 Kids' Choice Awards. Soundtrack Released through MJJ Music in association with 550 Music and Epic Soundtrax in 1995, the soundtrack contained most of the songs from the film plus two additional tracks from Brownstone, whose song "Sometimes Dancin'" first appeared on their debut album From the Bottom Up, and 3T. The only song not included is "My Spirit Calls Out" that Randolph performed when he treated Luna. Basil Poledouris returned to compose new music and also incorporated several scoring elements from the previous film. Michael Jackson continued his affiliation with the Free Willy franchise with producing and performing the song "Childhood" that first appeared in HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I as a double A-side single for lead single "Scream". An instrumental version of Nathan Cavaleri's song "Lou's Blues", made exclusively for the soundtrack, was used to dub Jesse's offscreen guitar playing. Two renditions of Bob Dylan's "Forever Young" are featured in the movie. While a version from Michael Jackson's sister Rebbie was heard during the scene where Elvis and Wilcox attend a donut shop, the end credits used The Pretenders' version the band previously recorded for the film With Honors and was also included on their album Last of the Independents. Track listing Title On early UK home video promotions, the movie was titled simply "Willy 2: The Adventure Home", presumably because the film's premise, unlike its predecessor's, does not involve Willy being freed. References External links 1995 films 1995 children's films 1990s children's films 1990s disaster films American films American children's films American disaster films American sequel films English-language films Fictional killer whales Works about petroleum Films about orphans Films about children Films about dolphins Films about whales Films about animals Films about brothers Films about animal rights Films about friendship Films about families Films about siblings Films about adoption Films about seafaring accidents or incidents Films about marine biology Films about vacationing Films about Native Americans Films directed by Dwight H. Little Films produced by Lauren Shuler Donner Films scored by Basil Poledouris Films set on ships Films set in Washington (state) Films shot in Washington (state) Films shot in Los Angeles County, California Films shot in California Films set in Astoria, Oregon Films shot in Astoria, Oregon Films shot in Oregon Films set in Oregon Films set in the United States Films shot in the United States Environmental films Films with underwater settings Films featuring underwater diving Films featuring puppetry Regency Enterprises films StudioCanal films Warner Bros. films Free Willy (franchise)

Great Mosque of Djenné

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The Great Mosque of Djenné () is a large brick or adobe building in the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style. The mosque is located in the city of Djenné, Mali, on the flood plain of the Bani River. The first mosque on the site was built around the 13th century, but the current structure dates from 1907. As well as being the centre of the community of Djenné, it is one of the most famous landmarks in Africa. Along with the "Old Towns of Djenné" it was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988. History The first mosque The actual date of construction of the first mosque in Djenné is unknown, but dates as early as 1200 and as late as 1330 have been suggested. The earliest document mentioning the mosque is Abd al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan which gives the early history, presumably from the oral tradition as it existed in the mid-seventeenth century. The Tarikh states that a Sultan Kunburu became a Muslim and had his palace pulled down and the site turned into a mosque. He built another palace for himself near the mosque on the east side. His immediate successor built the towers of the mosque while the following Sultan built the surrounding wall. There is no other written information on the Great Mosque until the French explorer René Caillié visited Djenné in 1828, years after it had been allowed to fall into ruin, and wrote "In Jenné is a mosque built of earth, surmounted by two massive but not high towers; it is rudely constructed, though very large. It is abandoned to thousands of swallows, which build their nests in it. This occasions a very disagreeable smell, to avoid which, the custom of saying prayers in a small outer court has become common." Seku Amadu's mosque Ten years before René Caillié's visit, the Fulani leader Seku Amadu had launched his jihad and conquered the town. Seku Amadu appears to have disapproved of the existing mosque and allowed it to fall into disrepair. This would have been the building that Caillié saw. Seku Amadu had also closed all the small neighbourhood mosques. Between 1834 and 1836, Seku Amadu built a new mosque to the east of the existing mosque on the site of the former palace. The new mosque was a large, low building lacking any towers or ornamentation. French forces led by Louis Archinard captured Djenné in April 1893. Soon after, the French journalist Félix Dubois visited the town and described the ruins of the original mosque. At the time of his visit, the interior of the ruined mosque was being used as a cemetery. In his 1897 book, Tombouctou la Mystérieuse (Timbuktu the mysterious), Dubois provides a plan and a drawing as to how he imagined the mosque looked before being abandoned. Present mosque In 1906, the French administration in the town arranged for the original mosque to be rebuilt and at the same time for a school to be constructed on the site of Seku Amadu's mosque. The rebuilding was completed in 1907 using forced labour under the direction of Ismaila Traoré, head of Djenné's guild of masons. From photographs taken at the time, it appears the position of at least some of the outer walls follows those of the original mosque but it is unclear as to whether the columns supporting the roof kept to the previous arrangement. What was almost certainly novel in the rebuilt mosque was the symmetric arrangement of three large towers in the qibla wall. There has been debate as to what extent the design of the rebuilt mosque was subject to French influence. Dubois revisited Djenné in 1910 and was shocked by the new building. He believed that the French colonial administration were responsible for the design and wrote that it looked like a cross between a hedgehog and a church organ. He thought that the cones made the building resemble a baroque temple dedicated to the god of suppositories. By contrast, Jean-Louis Bourgeois has argued that the French had little influence except perhaps for the internal arches and that the design is "basically African." French ethnologist Michel Leiris, in his account of travelling through Mali in 1931, states that the new mosque is indeed the work of Europeans. He also says that local people were so unhappy with the new building that they refused to clean it, only doing so when threatened with prison. Jean-Louis Bourgeois however, recorded that the rebuilt mosque was constructed by Djenné's traditional local guild of masons, traditionally responsible for the building and maintenance of the town's original mosque and of Djenné's other buildings, using traditional techniques and with minimal French involvement. The terrace in front of the eastern wall includes two tombs. The larger tomb to the south contains the remains of Almany Ismaïla, an important imam of the 18th century. Early in the French colonial period, a pond located on the eastern side of the mosque was filled with earth to create the open area that is now used for the weekly market. Electrical wiring and indoor plumbing have been added to many mosques in Mali. In some cases, the original surfaces of a mosque have even been tiled over, destroying its historical appearance and in some cases compromising the building's structural integrity. While the Great Mosque has been equipped with a loudspeaker system, the citizens of Djenné have resisted modernization in favor of the building's historical integrity. Many historical preservationists have praised the community's preservation effort, and interest in this aspect of the building grew in the 1990s. In 1996, Vogue magazine held a fashion shoot inside the mosque. Vogue's pictures of scantily-dressed women outraged local opinion, and as a result, non-Muslims have been banned from entering the mosque ever since. The Mosque is seen in the 2005 film Sahara. Design The walls of the Great Mosque are made of sun-baked earth bricks (called ferey), and sand and earth based mortar, and are coated with a plaster which gives the building its smooth, sculpted look. The walls of the building are decorated with bundles of rodier palm (Borassus aethiopum) sticks, called toron, that project about from the surface. The toron also serve as readymade scaffolding for the annual repairs. Ceramic half-pipes also extend from the roofline and direct rain water from the roof away from the walls. The mosque is built on a platform measuring about that is raised by above the level of the marketplace. The platform prevents damage to the mosque when the Bani River floods. It is accessed by six sets of stairs, each decorated with pinnacles. The main entrance is on the northern side of the building. The outer walls of the Great Mosque are not precisely orthogonal to one another so that the plan of the building has a noticeable trapezoidal outline. The prayer wall or qibla of the Great Mosque faces east towards Mecca and overlooks the city marketplace. The qibla is dominated by three large, box-like towers or minarets jutting out from the main wall. The central tower is around 16 meters in height. The cone shaped spires or pinnacles at the top of each minaret are topped with ostrich eggs. The eastern wall is about a meter (3 ft) in thickness and is strengthened on the exterior by eighteen pilaster like buttresses, each of which is topped by a pinnacle. The corners are formed by rectangular shaped buttresses decorated with toron and topped by pinnacles. The prayer hall, measuring about , occupies the eastern half of the mosque behind the qibla wall. The mud-covered, rodier-palm roof is supported by nine interior walls running north–south which are pierced by pointed arches that reach up almost to the roof. This design creates a forest of ninety massive rectangular pillars that span the interior prayer hall and severely reduce the field of view. The small, irregularly-positioned windows on the north and south walls allow little natural light to reach the interior of the hall. The floor is composed of sandy earth. In the prayer hall, each of the three towers in the qibla wall has a niche or mihrab. The imam conducts the prayers from the mihrab in the larger central tower. A narrow opening in the ceiling of the central mihrab connects with a small room situated above roof level in the tower. In earlier times, a crier would repeat the words of the imam to people in the town. To the right of the mihrab in the central tower is a second niche, the pulpit or minbar, from which the imam preaches his Friday sermon. The towers in the qibla wall do not contain stairs linking the prayer hall with the roof. Instead there are two square towers housing stairs leading to the roof. One set of stairs is located at the south western corner of the prayer hall while the other set, situated near the main entrance on the northern side, is only accessible from the exterior of the mosque. Small vents in the roof are topped with removable inverted kiln-fired bowls, which when removed allow hot air to rise out of the building and so ventilate the interior. The interior courtyard to the west of the prayer hall, measuring , is surrounded on three sides by galleries. The walls of the galleries facing the courtyard are punctuated by arched openings. The western gallery is reserved for use by women. Though it benefits from regular maintenance, since the facade's construction in 1907 only small changes have been made to the design. Rather than a single central niche, the mihrab tower originally had a pair of large recesses echoing the form of the entrance arches in the north wall. The mosque also had many fewer toron with none on the corner buttresses. It is evident from published photographs that two additional rows of toron were added to the walls in the early 1990s. Cultural significance The entire community of Djenné takes an active role in the mosque's maintenance via a unique annual festival. This includes music and food, but has the primary objective of repairing the damage inflicted on the mosque in the past year (mostly erosion caused by the annual rains and cracks caused by changes in temperature and humidity). In the days leading up to the festival, the plaster is prepared in pits. It requires several days to cure but needs to be periodically stirred, a task usually falling to young boys who play in the mixture, thus stirring up the contents. Men climb onto the mosque's built-in scaffolding and ladders made of palm wood and smear the plaster over the face of the mosque. Another group of men carries the plaster from the pits to the workmen on the mosque. A race is held at the beginning of the festival to see who will be the first to deliver the plaster to the mosque. Women and girls carry water to the pits before the festival and to the workmen on the mosque during it. Members of Djenné's masons guild direct the work, while elderly members of the community, who have already participated in the festival many times, sit in a place of honor in the market square watching the proceedings. In 1930, an inexact replica of the Djenné Mosque was built in the town of Fréjus in southern France. The imitation, the Missiri mosque, was built in cement and painted in red ochre to resemble the colour of the original. It was intended to serve as a mosque for the Tirailleurs sénégalais, the West African colonial troops in the French Army who were posted to the region during the winter. The original mosque presided over one of the most important Islamic learning centers in Africa during the Middle Ages, with thousands of students coming to study the Quran in Djenné's madrassas. The historic areas of Djenné, including the Great Mosque, were designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988. While there are many mosques that are older than its current incarnation, the Great Mosque remains the most prominent symbol of both the city of Djenné and the nation of Mali. On 20 January 2006 the sight of a team of men hacking at the roof of the mosque sparked a riot in the town. The team were inspecting the roof as part of a restoration project financed by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture. The men quickly disappeared to avoid being lynched. In the mosque the mob ripped out the ventilation fans that had been presented by the US Embassy at the time of the Iraq War and then went on a rampage through the town. The crowd ransacked the Cultural Mission, the mayor's home, destroyed the car belonging to the imam's younger brother and damaged three cars belonging to the Imam himself. The local police were overwhelmed and had to call in reinforcements from Mopti. One man died during the disturbances. On Thursday 5 November 2009, the upper section of the southern large tower of the qibla wall collapsed after 75 mm (3 in.) of rain had fallen in a 24-hour period. The Aga Khan Trust for Culture funded the rebuilding of the tower. The mosque features on the coat of arms of Mali. 3D documentation with laser-scanning The 3D documentation of the Djenné Mosque was carried out in 2005 using terrestrial laser-scanning. This formed part of the Zamani Project that aims to document cultural heritage sites in 3D to create a record for future generations. In popular culture In the map Savannah Citadel in the 2008 game Sonic Unleashed, the architecture resembles the great mosque. The 4X video game Sid Meier's Civilization V features the mosque as a buildable wonder. See also Lists of mosques List of mosques in Africa List of mosques in Egypt African Architecture Islamic architecture Islam in Mali Notes References . . . Google Books: Volume 1, Volume 2. . . . Reproduces postcards and photographs dating from the early years of the 20th century. . . . Further reading External links Archnet Digital Library: Djenné Great Mosque Restoration Islamic Architecture in Mali Adobe Mosques of Mali by Sebastian Schutyser Djenné Religious organizations established in the 13th century Mosques in Mali Mosques completed in 1907 Massina Empire Sudano-Sahelian architecture 13th-century mosques

Judi Evans

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Judi Evans (also credited as Judi Evans Luciano, born July 12, 1964) is an American actress. Her career began in 1983 when she was cast as Beth Raines on Guiding Light. After her exit in 1986, she joined the cast of Days of Our Lives as Adrienne Johnson Kiriakis. In 1991, she exited the role and was subsequently cast as Paulina Cory Carlino on Another World. Her other daytime roles include Maeve Stone on As the World Turns and Bonnie Lockhart on Days of Our Lives. Career In June 2009, it was reported that Evans would be joining the cast of As the World Turns as Maeve, a new character on the show, scheduled to air in August 2009. The announcement ended speculation that Evans would be returning yet again to Days of our Lives, this time with former on-screen husband Wally Kurth. Evans was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award in 2008 for Days of our Lives, 24 years after her first nomination and win for her role on Guiding Light. Filmography Awards Daytime Emmy Awards (1984) Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for Guiding Light (Won) (2008) Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for Days of our Lives (Nominated) Soap Opera Digest Awards (1986) Soap Opera Digest Award Outstanding Daytime Supercouple on a Daytime Serial for Guiding Light (shared with Vincent Irizarry) (Nominated) (1993) Soap Opera Digest Award Hottest Female Star for Another World (Nominated) (1998) Soap Opera Digest Award Outstanding Supporting Actress for Another World (Won) (2005) Soap Opera Digest Award Favorite Return for Days of our Lives (Won) Personal Evans was born in Montebello, California. Since 1993, she has been married to Michael Luciano. They had only one son, named Austin Michael Luciano, who died suddenly in late 2019 at age 23. In 2020, nearly six months after losing her son, Evans contracted COVID-19 while at the hospital recovering from an accidental injury she incurred during horseback riding. Doctors considered amputating both her legs as part of her treatment. References External links 1964 births Living people 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses American soap opera actresses Actresses from California Daytime Emmy Award winners Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series winners Pasadena City College alumni People from Montebello, California

Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron

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Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron (also known as Spirit) is a 2002 American animated Western film produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by DreamWorks Pictures. The film is directed by Kelly Asbury and Lorna Cook (in their feature directional debuts) from a screenplay by John Fusco. The film follows Spirit, a Kiger Mustang stallion (voiced by Matt Damon through inner dialogue), who is captured during the American Indian Wars by the United States Cavalry; he is freed by a Native American man named Little Creek who attempts to lead him back into the Lakota village. In contrast to the way animals are portrayed in an anthropomorphic style in other animated features, Spirit and his fellow horses communicate with each other through non-linguistic sounds and body language like real horses. Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron was released in theaters on May 24, 2002, and earned $122 million on an $80 million budget. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. The film also launched a media franchise using computer animation, with a Netflix spin-off television series Spirit Riding Free premiering on May 5, 2017, followed by a spin-off of the original film, titled Spirit Untamed, released in June 2021. Plot In the 19th-century American West, a young Kiger Mustang colt, Spirit, is born to a herd of wild horses. Spirit grows into a stallion and assumes the leadership of the herd. One night, upon following a strange light near his herd, Spirit finds horses kept in chains and their wranglers sleeping around a campfire. They awake and, seeing him as a magnificent specimen, seize him, taking him to a US cavalry fort. In captivity, Spirit encounters "The Colonel", who orders the mustang tamed; however, Spirit fends off all attempts to tame him. To weaken Spirit, the Colonel orders him tied to a post for three days without food or water. Meanwhile, a Lakota Native American named Little Creek is also brought into the fort and held captive. Spirit is later supposedly tamed by the Colonel, who speaks his idea of how any wild horse can be tamed. Spirit gets a second wind and finally throws him off. Humiliated, the Colonel attempts to shoot him before Little Creek (who frees himself from his bonds with a knife) saves Spirit from being shot as they escape from the post. Little Creek's mare, Rain, meets them along with other natives, who promptly recapture Spirit. After returning to the Lakota village, Little Creek attempts to tame Spirit with kindness, but Spirit is unwilling. Little Creek ties Spirit and Rain together, hoping she can discipline him. Spirit falls in love with Rain in the process. Meanwhile, a cavalry regiment led by the Colonel attacks the village. During the battle, the Colonel attempts to shoot Little Creek, but Spirit tackles the Colonel and his horse, deflecting the shot. Rain is instead shot and thrown into a river. Spirit runs after Rain but they both plummet over a waterfall. Spirit rescues Rain and stays by her side until the cavalry recaptures him. Little Creek then tends to Rain and vows to free Spirit. Spirit is forced to work on the transcontinental railroad, where he is pulling a steam locomotive. Sensing that the track will infringe on his homeland, Spirit breaks free from the sledge and breaks the chains of other horses. They escape, and the locomotive falls off its wooden sledge and slams into another locomotive, causing an explosion that sets the forest ablaze. Spirit is trapped when the chain around his neck snags on a fallen tree. Little Creek intervenes, and together they jump safely into a river. The next morning, the Colonel and his cavalry find Spirit and Little Creek and a chase ensues through the Grand Canyon, where they are trapped by a gorge. Taking a risk, Spirit makes a leap of faith across the gorge. Spirit's bold move amazes the Colonel; he humbly accepts defeat, and leaves them be. Little Creek returns to the Lakota village with Spirit and finds Rain nursed back to health. Little Creek names the stallion the "Spirit-Who-Could-Not-Be-Broken". Spirit and Rain are then set loose by Little Creek, bidding them farewell. They depart to Spirit's homeland, where they eventually integrate into Spirit's herd. A bald eagle (seen at various points throughout the story) reappears and soars into the horse-shaped clouds. Cast Matt Damon as Spirit, a Kiger Mustang Horse James Cromwell as The Colonel, leader of a cavalry of soldiers. He is based on the real-life George Armstrong Custer. Daniel Studi, son of Wes Studi, as Little Creek, a Lakota Native American that Spirit befriends Chopper Bernet as Sgt. Adams, a cavalry sergeant under the Colonel Jeff LeBeau as Murphy, a soldier under the Colonel bent on taming Spirit into joining the cavalry Jeff LeBeau also voices a Railroad Foreman Richard McGonagle as Bill, a wrangler Matt Levin as Joe, one of the wranglers Robert Cait as Jake, one of the wranglers Charles Napier as Roy, one of the wranglers Zahn McClarnon as Little Creek's Friend Michael Horse as Little Creek's Friend Donald Fullilove as Train Pull Foreman Frank Welker as Bald eagle Mickie McGowan as Female Horse 1 Sherry Lynn as Female Horse 2 Jennifer Darling as Female Horse 3 Lorna Cook (uncredited) as Female Horse 4/Little Creek's Horse Production Development Writer John Fusco, best known for his work in the Western and Native American genres (such as the films Young Guns and Young Guns II), was hired by DreamWorks Animation to create an original screenplay based on an idea by Jeffrey Katzenberg. Fusco began by writing and submitting a novel to the studio and then adapted his own work into screenplay format. He remained on the project as the main writer over the course of four years, working closely with Katzenberg, the directors, and artists. Animation and design Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron was made over the course of four years using a conscious blend of traditional hand-drawn animation and computer animation. James Baxter said that the animation was the most difficult piece of production he worked on for a movie: "I literally spent the first few weeks with my door shut, telling everyone, 'Go away; I've got to concentrate.' It was quite daunting because when I first started to draw horses, I suddenly realized how little I knew." The team at DreamWorks, under his guidance, used a horse named "Donner" as the model for Spirit and brought the horse to the animation studio in Glendale, California for the animators to study. Sound designer Tim Chau was dispatched to stables outside Los Angeles to record the sounds of real horses; the final product features real hoof beats and horse vocals that were used to express their vocalizations in the film. None of the animal characters in the film speak English beyond occasional reflective narration from the protagonist mustang, voiced by Matt Damon in the film. Many of the animators who worked on Spirit would later work on Shrek 2, as their influence can be seen for the character Donkey. The production team, consisting of Kelly Asbury, Lorna Cook, Mireille Soria, Jeffrey Katzenberg, Kathy Altieri, Luc Desmarchelier, Ron Lukas, and story supervisor Ronnie del Carmen took a trip to the western United States to view scenic places they could use as inspiration for locations in the film. The homeland of the mustangs and Lakotas is based on Glacier National Park, Yellowstone National Park, Yosemite National Park, and the Teton mountain range; the cavalry outpost was also based on Monument Valley. Music The instrumental score was composed by Hans Zimmer with songs by Bryan Adams in both the English and French versions of the album. The opening theme song for the film, "Here I Am" was written by Bryan Adams, Gretchen Peters, and Hans Zimmer. It was produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. Another song, not included in the film itself (although it can be heard in the ending credits), is "Don't Let Go", which is sung by Bryan Adams with Sarah McLachlan on harmonies and piano. It was written by Bryan Adams, Gavin Greenaway, Robert John "Mutt" Lange, and Gretchen Peters. Many of the songs and arrangements were set in the American West, with themes based on love, landscapes, brotherhood, struggles, and journeys. Garth Brooks was originally supposed to write and record songs for the film but the deal fell through. The Italian versions of the songs were sung by Zucchero. The Spanish versions of the tracks on the album were sung by Erik Rubín (Hispanic America) and Raúl (Spain). The Brazilian version of the movie soundtrack was sung in Portuguese by Paulo Ricardo. The Norwegian versions of the songs were sung by Vegard Ylvisåker of the Norwegian comedy duo Ylvis. Release Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron was released in theaters on May 24, 2002. Home media Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron was released on VHS and DVD on November 19, 2002. It was re-released on DVD on May 18, 2010. The film was released on Blu-ray by Paramount Home Entertainment on May 13, 2014. Reception Critical response On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron holds an overall approval rating of 69% based on 127 reviews, with an average rating of 6.40/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "A visually stunning film that may be too predictable and politically correct for adults, but should serve children well." Review aggregator Metacritic gives the film a weighted average score of 52 out of 100, based on 29 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale. Critic Roger Ebert gave the film three stars out of four and said in his review, "Uncluttered by comic supporting characters and cute sidekicks, Spirit is more pure and direct than most of the stories we see in animation – a fable I suspect younger viewers will strongly identify with." Leonard Maltin of Hot Ticket called it "one of the most beautiful and exciting animated features ever made". Clay Smith of Access Hollywood considered the film "An Instant Classic". Jason Solomons described the film as "a crudely drawn DreamWorks animation about a horse that saves the West by bucking a US Army General". USA Todays Claudia Puig gave it 3 stars out of 4, writing that the filmmakers' "most significant achievement is fashioning a movie that will touch the hearts of both children and adults, as well as bring audiences to the edge of their seats." Dave Kehr of the New York Times criticized the way in which the film portrayed Spirit and Little Creek as "pure cliches" and suggested that the film could have benefited from a comic relief character. The film was screened out of competition at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival. Rain was the first animated horse to receive an honorary registration certificate from the American Paint Horse Association (APHA). Box office When the film opened on Memorial Day Weekend 2002, the film earned $17,770,036 on the Friday-Sunday period, and $23,213,736 through the four-day weekend for a $6,998 average from 3,317 theaters. The film overall opened in fourth place behind Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones, Spider-Man, and Insomnia. In its second weekend, the film retreated 36% to $11,303,814 for a $3,362 average from expanding to 3,362 theaters and finishing in fifth place for the weekend. In its third weekend, the film decreased 18% to $9,303,808 for a $2,767 average from 3,362 theaters. The film closed on September 12, 2002, after earning $73,280,117 in the United States and Canada with an additional $49,283,422 overseas for a worldwide total of $122,563,539, against an $80 million budget. Accolades Expanded franchise Video games Two video games based on the film were released on October 28, 2002, by THQ: the PC game Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron — Forever Free and the Game Boy Advance game Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron — Search for Homeland. A third game "Lucky's Big Adventure" was released in 2021 based on the "Untamed" film sequel below. Spin-off television series A computer-animated spin-off television series based on the film, titled Spirit Riding Free, premiered on Netflix on May 5, 2017. The series follows all the daring adventures when Spirit, who is the offspring of the original, meets a girl named Lucky whose courage matches his own. Spin-off film A computer-animated film, titled Spirit Untamed, was released on June 4, 2021 by Universal Pictures. It is a film adaptation of the spin-off series Spirit Riding Free as well as a spin-off of the original film. See also List of animated feature films Kiger Mustang, the horse breed of Spirit, the protagonist of the story References External links 2002 films 2002 animated films 2000s adventure films 2000s American animated films 2000s coming-of-age films 2002 Western (genre) films American films American adventure films American coming-of-age films American Western (genre) films English-language films Animated adventure films Animated coming-of-age films Western (genre) animated films Annie Award winners DreamWorks Animation animated films DreamWorks Pictures films Animated films about horses Films about Native Americans Films adapted into television shows Films directed by Kelly Asbury Films produced by Jeffrey Katzenberg Films set in North America Films set in the 19th century Films scored by Hans Zimmer Films with screenplays by John Fusco Animated films about friendship 2002 directorial debut films 2000s children's animated films Fiction about animal cruelty Animated films about trains

Leader of the Opposition (India)

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The Leaders of the Opposition of India (IAST: ) are the politicians who leads the official opposition in either House of the Parliament of India. The Leader of the Opposition is the parliamentary chairperson of the largest political party in their respective legislative chamber that is not in government. While the position also existed in former Central Legislative Assembly of British India, and holders of it there included Motilal Nehru, it received statutory recognition through the Salary and Allowances of Leaders of Opposition in Parliament Act, 1977 which defines the term "Leader of the Opposition" as that member of the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha who, for the time being, is the Leader of that House of the Party in Opposition to the Government having the greatest numerical strength and recognised, as such, by the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha or the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. As per the Salary and Allowances of Leaders of Opposition in Parliament Act, 1977 by which the post has got official and statutory status, the majority required is decided by the heads of the houses, that is speaker and chairman as the case may be. Clause 4 of The Central Vigilance Commission Act, 2003, provides for the leader of the largest opposition party to be inducted as a member of the selection committee in a scenario where the lower house of parliament does not have a recognised leader of the opposition. See also Leader of the Opposition in Rajya Sabha Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha References India Parliament of India Leaders of the Opposition

Top Thrill Dragster

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Top Thrill Dragster is a steel accelerator roller coaster located at Cedar Point in Sandusky, Ohio, United States. Manufactured by Intamin, it was the sixteenth roller coaster to be built at the park since Blue Streak in 1964. It opened in 2003 as the tallest roller coaster in the world and the first full-circuit roller coaster to exceed in height. Its height record was later surpassed by Kingda Ka at Six Flags Great Adventure in 2005. Top Thrill Dragster, along with Kingda Ka, are the only strata coasters in existence. It was the second hydraulically launched roller coaster built by Intamin, following Xcelerator at Knott's Berry Farm. The tagline for Top Thrill Dragster is "Race for the Sky". History According to Rob Decker, Vice President of Planning and Design, the park began working on a new project shortly after the debut of Millennium Force in 2000. After the 2001 season ended, a Dodgem ride across from Magnum XL-200's entrance was relocated to Michigan's Adventure to clear the way for the new ride. In April 2002, work began on the concrete foundation. The concrete footings were kept hidden behind a fence when the park opened for the 2002 season. In August 2002, an informal announcement from Cedar Point confirmed the park was building a new ride for the 2003 season. Track pieces identified as Intamin were previously spotted near Mean Streak. Vertical construction by Martin & Vleminckx began in the fall of 2002, months before the formal announcement. By October, the roller coaster had reached in height, and the highest peak was topped off in December. To construct the roller coaster, the park used five cranes, two of which were tall. At the time, only four such cranes in the United States were tall enough to handle construction of the 420-foot tower section. An official announcement revealing details on the new ride was made the following month on January 9, 2003. Officials for the park stated the goal was to build "the tallest and fastest roller coaster on earth", reaching in height and accelerating up to in 4 seconds. The large investment tied it with Millennium Force as being the most expensive in park history. The structure was built by Intamin's subcontractor Stakotra, and was completed shortly after the announcement. In March 2003, Cedar Fair registered a trademark for the name "Top Thrill Dragster". Top Thrill Dragster's media day was held on May 1, 2003, and it officially opened to the public three days later. It became the tallest and fastest roller coaster in the world, overtaking the height record from Steel Dragon 2000 at Nagashima Spa Land, built three years earlier, and the speed record from Dodonpa at Fuji-Q Highland, which opened in late 2001. It lost both records to Kingda Ka at Six Flags Great Adventure in May 2005. Intamin designed both Kingda Ka and Top Thrill Dragster, and the two share a similar design and layout that differs primarily by theme and an additional hill featured on Kingda Ka. Shortly after it opened, a faulty valve on the hydraulic system caused a short-term closure. The ride continued to experience a variety of issues dealing with its hydraulic system and launch cable, which frequently led to downtime early on in its tenure. During the 2017 season's opening weekend, Cedar Point temporarily renamed the ride "Top Thrill Cubster", referencing a lost wager with Six Flags Great America over the World Series. In 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, timed boarding passes called "Access Passes" were used temporarily to comply with social distancing guidelines. In August 2021, Top Thrill Dragster experienced a "serious accident" that resulted in an injury to a guest waiting in line for the attraction. The ride was closed for the remainder of 2021 while an investigation took place to determine the cause of the accident. Cedar Point and its officials were cleared of any wrongdoing by the Ohio Department of Agriculture in February 2022; however, they are required to perform a list of repairs, including repairing damaged track sections and replacing "different or improper grade" bolts before ODA will certify the attraction to reopen. Upon the release of ODA's investigation, Cedar Point announced that the attraction would remain closed for the entirety of the 2022 season while its future is evaluated. Ride experience Layout After leaving the station, the train enters the launch area. To the left of the launch area is a "Christmas tree" light, similar to those employed at the starting line of a drag strip. A brief message is played to the riders before the launch: "Keep arms down, head back, and hold on." Once the train is prepared to launch, a motor revving sound effect is played and its magnetic braking fins are lowered from the launch track. It then launches, accelerating to a speed of in 3.8 seconds. Shortly after reaching its maximum velocity, the catch car disengages, and the train begins its ascent up a 90-degree incline, twisting 90 degrees clockwise before climbing over the top hat. Upon descending, the track twists 270 degrees before leveling out, allowing the train to be stopped by the magnetic brakes. Station, theme, and trains The roller coaster is themed to Top Fuel drag racing, a category of motor racing that involves the world's fastest accelerating cars. An actual Top Fuel dragster weighs approximately one ton, while each train on the coaster weighs 15 tons. Originally, the design called for five cars on each train, but when the ride first opened, there were only four. A fifth car was added to each by midseason. Each dragster-themed train was also decorated with a spoiler, a set of tires, and an engine at the rear of each train, but these were removed after the fifth car was added to allow an extra row of seats to take their place. Each train is painted in a different color: Red, blue, purple, orange, maroon or green. Rollbacks Occasionally, a train is launched without sufficient speed to reach the top of the tower and rolls back onto the launch track, hence the term "rollback". This typically happens in cool, wet, or breezy weather, or when the wind is working against it. The launch track is equipped with retractable magnetic braking fins which are raised after each launch in order to slow the train down in case it does not reach the top of the tower. On very rare occasions, a combination of the weight distribution of the train, the force of the launch, and the wind can stall a train on the top of the tower. When this happens, a mechanic takes the elevator to the top and pushes the train down the hill. World records When Top Thrill Dragster debuted, it set four new records: World's tallest complete circuit roller coaster World's tallest roller coaster World's tallest roller coaster drop World's fastest roller coaster It became the fastest roller coaster in the world with a maximum speed of . It was the fourth roller coaster to exceed , preceded by Tower of Terror II at Dreamworld, Superman: Escape from Krypton at Six Flags Magic Mountain and Dodonpa at Fuji-Q Highland. Dodonpa held the record previously with a top speed of . Top Thrill Dragster also broke the height record, standing at , which was previously held by Superman: Escape from Krypton at . Kingda Ka opened two years later at Six Flags Great Adventure and broke both of Top Thrill Dragster's records, boasting a height of and a top speed of . The speed record was again broken in 2010 by Formula Rossa at Ferrari World, which reaches a maximum speed of . , Top Thrill Dragster has the second tallest height, the third fastest speed, and the second-highest drop among steel roller coasters in the world. Incidents On July 14, 2004, four people were struck by flying debris while riding the coaster. Reports indicated that a metal cable frayed during launch, shearing off shards of metal that struck the riders. The injuries were mainly arm abrasions, with one passenger experiencing cuts to the face. They were treated at the park's first aid station, and two later sought further medical attention. On August 7, 2016, two people were treated for minor injuries when the launch cable detached from the ride. The ride was closed for the following day while the park and Ohio state officials investigated the incident. In September 2017, a report with photos surfaced that the braking system on the launch side of the track may have been damaged, causing the ride to close indefinitely. Cedar Point did not acknowledge the incident and stated the closure was for maintenance reasons. On August 15, 2021, a guest waiting in line was struck by a small metal piece that dislodged from a train as it was nearing the end of its run. Described as a "serious accident", the guest was taken to a nearby hospital, with no indication on the severity of the injury. Cedar Point announced that the coaster would be closed for the remainder of the season. The piece was later determined to be a flag plate – an L-shaped bracket that signals the train's location to sensors positioned along the track. An investigation by the Ohio Department of Agriculture (ODA) determined that half of the bolts securing the plate dislodged. The ODA mandated the closure of Top Thrill Dragster during the investigation and subsequent reinspections. As a result of its investigation, ODA established there was “insufficient evidence to find the action or inactions of Cedar Point violated any of the laws" and closed its investigation in February 2022. Awards Records References External links Cedarpoint.com - Top Thrill Dragster Official page Roller Coaster Philosophy review of Top Thrill Dragster Video of how Top Thrill Dragster works Construction photos video Top Thrill Dragster Photo Gallery at The Point Online Roller coasters operated by Cedar Fair Cedar Point Roller coasters introduced in 2003 Roller coasters in Ohio

Mehran Karimi Nasseri

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Mehran Karimi Nasseri ( pronounced ; born 1946), also known as Sir Alfred Mehran, is an Iranian refugee who lived in the departure lounge of Terminal One in Charles de Gaulle Airport from 26 August 1988 until July 2006, when he was hospitalized. His autobiography was published as a book, The Terminal Man, in 2004. Nasseri's story inspired the 2004 film The Terminal. Early life Nasseri was born in the Anglo-Persian Oil Company settlement located in Masjed Soleiman, Iran. His father was an Iranian doctor working for the company. Nasseri stated that his mother was a nurse from Scotland working in the same place. He arrived in the United Kingdom in September 1973, to take a three-year course in Yugoslav studies at the University of Bradford. Life in Terminal 1 Nasseri alleges that he was expelled from Iran in 1977 for protests against the Shah and after a long battle, involving applications in several countries, was awarded refugee status by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in Belgium. This allegedly permitted residence in many other European countries. However, this claim has been disputed, with investigations showing that Nasseri was never expelled from Iran. Having one British parent, he decided in 1986 to settle in the UK, but en route there in 1988, his papers were lost when his briefcase was allegedly stolen. (Others indicate that Nasseri actually mailed his documents to Brussels while onboard a ferry to Britain, lying about them being stolen.) Despite this setback, he boarded the plane for London but was promptly returned to France when he failed to present a passport to British immigration officials. He was initially arrested by the French, but then released as his entry to the airport was legal and he had no country of origin to be returned to; thus began his residence at Terminal 1. His case was later taken on by French human rights lawyer Christian Bourget. In 1992, a French court ruled that, having entered the country legally, he could not be expelled from the airport, but it could not grant him permission to enter France. Attempts were then made to have new documents issued from Belgium, but the authorities there would do so only if Nasseri presented himself in person. In 1995, the Belgian authorities granted permission for him to travel to Belgium, but only if he agreed to live there under supervision of a social worker. Nasseri refused this on the grounds of wanting to enter the UK as originally intended. Both France and Belgium offered Nasseri residency, but Nasseri refused to sign the papers as they listed him as being Iranian (rather than British) and did not show his preferred name, "Sir Alfred Mehran". His refusal to sign the documents was much to the frustration of his lawyer, Bourget. When contacted about Nasseri's situation, his family stated that they believed he was living the life he wanted. In 2003, Steven Spielberg's DreamWorks production company paid US$250,000 to Nasseri for the rights to his story, but ultimately did not use his story in the subsequent film, The Terminal. Nasseri's stay at the airport ended in July 2006 when he was hospitalized and his sitting place dismantled. Towards the end of January 2007, he left the hospital and was looked after by the airport's branch of the French Red Cross; he was lodged for a few weeks in a hotel close to the airport. On 6 March 2007, he was transferred to an Emmaus charity reception-centre in Paris's 20th arrondissement. Since 2008, he has continued to live in a Paris shelter. During his 18-year-long stay at Terminal 1 in the Charles de Gaulle Airport, Nasseri had his luggage at his side and spent his time reading, writing in his diary or studying economics. He received food and newspapers from employees of the airport, visits from journalists eager to hear his story and letters of support. Autobiographical book The Terminal Man In 2004 Nasseri's autobiography, The Terminal Man, was published. It was co-written by Nasseri with British author Andrew Donkin and was reviewed in The Sunday Times as being "profoundly disturbing and brilliant". Documentaries and fictionalizations Nasseri's story provided the inspiration for the 1994 French film Tombés du ciel, starring Jean Rochefort, internationally released under the title Lost in Transit. The short story "The Fifteen-Year Layover", written by Michael Paterniti and published in GQ and The Best American Non-Required Reading, chronicles Nasseri's life. Alexis Kouros made a documentary about him, Waiting for Godot at De Gaulle (2000). Flight Nasseri's story was the inspiration for the contemporary opera Flight by British composer Jonathan Dove, and was premiered at the Glyndebourne Opera House in 1998. Flight would go on to win the Helpmann Awards at the Adelaide Festival Theatre in March 2006. Sir Alfred of Charles De Gaulle Airport Glen Luchford and Paul Berczeller made the Here to Where mockumentary (2001), also featuring Nasseri. Hamid Rahmanian and Melissa Hibbard made a documentary called Sir Alfred of Charles De Gaulle Airport (2001). The Terminal Nasseri was reportedly the inspiration behind the character Viktor Navorski (Tom Hanks), from the 2004 Steven Spielberg film The Terminal; however, neither publicity materials, nor the DVD "special features" nor the film's website mentions Nasseri's situation as an inspiration for the film. Despite this, in September 2003, The New York Times noted that Steven Spielberg had bought the rights to his life story as the basis for The Terminal. The Guardian indicates that Spielberg's DreamWorks production company paid US$250,000 to Nasseri for rights to his story and report that, as of 2004, he carried a poster advertising Spielberg's film draping his suitcase next to his bench. Nasseri was reportedly excited about The Terminal, but it was unlikely that he would ever have had a chance to see it in cinemas. See also List of people who have lived in airports Statelessness References External links , 26 July 2004, / 📷 1946 births Stateless people Alumni of the University of Bradford Living people Iranian refugees People from Masjed Soleyman

Real versus nominal value (economics)

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In economics, nominal value is measured in terms of money, whereas real value is measured against goods or services. A real value is one which has been adjusted for inflation, enabling comparison of quantities as if the prices of goods had not changed on average. Changes in value in real terms therefore exclude the effect of inflation. In contrast with a real value, a nominal value has not been adjusted for inflation, and so changes in nominal value reflect at least in part the effect of inflation. Commodity bundles, price indices and inflation A commodity bundle is a sample of goods, which is used to represent the sum total of goods across the economy to which the goods belong, for the purpose of comparison across different times (or locations). At a single point of time, a commodity bundle consists of a list of goods, and each good in the list has a market price and a quantity. The market value of the good is the market price times the quantity at that point of time. The nominal value of the commodity bundle at a point of time is the total market value of the commodity bundle, depending on the market price, and the quantity, of each good in the commodity bundle which are current at the time. A price index is the relative price of a commodity bundle. A price index can be measured over time, or at different locations or markets. If it is measured over time, it is a series of values over time . A time series price index is calculated relative to a base or reference date. is the value of the index at the base date. For example, if the base date is (the end of) 1992, is the value of the index at (the end of) 1992. The price index is typically normalized to start at 100 at the base date, so is set to 100. The length of time between each value of and the next one, is normally constant regular time interval, such as a calendar year. is the value of the price index at time after the base date. equals 100 times the value of the commodity bundle at time , divided by the value of the commodity bundle at the base date. If the price of the commodity bundle has increased by one percent over the first period after the base date, then P1 = 101. The inflation rate between time and time is the change in the price index divided by the price index value at time : expressed as a percentage. Real value The nominal value of a commodity bundle tends to change over time. In contrast, by definition, the real value of the commodity bundle in aggregate remains the same over time. The real values of individual goods or commodities may rise or fall against each other, in relative terms, but a representative commodity bundle as a whole retains its real value as a constant from one period to the next. Real values can for example be expressed in constant 1992 dollars, with the price level fixed 100 at the base date. The price index is applied to adjust the nominal value of a quantity, such as wages or total production, to obtain its real value. The real value is the value expressed in terms of purchasing power in the base year. The index price divided by its base-year value gives the growth factor of the price index. Real values can be found by dividing the nominal value by the growth factor of a price index. Using the price index growth factor as a divisor for converting a nominal value into a real value, the real value at time t relative to the base date is: Real growth rate The real growth rate is the change in a nominal quantity in real terms since the previous date . It measures by how much the buying power of the quantity has changed over a single period. where is the nominal growth rate of , and is the inflation rate. For values of between −1 and 1 (i.e. ±100 percent), we have the Taylor series so Hence as a first-order (i.e. linear) approximation, Real wages and real gross domestic products The bundle of goods used to measure the Consumer Price Index (CPI) is applicable to consumers. So for wage earners as consumers, an appropriate way to measure real wages (the buying power of wages) is to divide the nominal wage (after-tax) by the growth factor in the CPI. Gross domestic product (GDP) is a measure of aggregate output. Nominal GDP in a particular period reflects prices that were current at the time, whereas real GDP compensates for inflation. Price indices and the U.S. National Income and Product Accounts are constructed from bundles of commodities and their respective prices. In the case of GDP, a suitable price index is the GDP price index. In the U.S. National Income and Product Accounts, nominal GDP is called GDP in current dollars (that is, in prices current for each designated year), and real GDP is called GDP in [base-year] dollars (that is, in dollars that can purchase the same quantity of commodities as in the base year). Example Real interest rates As was shown in the section above on the real growth rate, where is the rate of increase of a quantity in real terms, is the rate of increase of the same quantity in nominal terms, and is the rate of inflation, and as a first-order approximation, In the case where the growing quantity is a financial asset, is a nominal interest rate and is the corresponding real interest rate; the first-order approximation is known as the Fisher equation. Looking back into the past, the ex post real interest rate is approximately the historical nominal interest rate minus inflation. Looking forward into the future, the expected real interest rate is approximately the nominal interest rate minus the expected inflation rate. Cross-sectional comparison Not only time-series data, as above, but also cross-section data which depends on prices which may vary geographically for example, can be adjusted in a similar way. For example, the total value of a good produced in a region of a country depends on both the amount and the price. To compare the output of different regions, the nominal output in a region can be adjusted by repricing the goods at common or average prices. See also Aggregation problem Classical dichotomy Constant Item Purchasing Power Accounting Cost-of-living index Deflation Financial repression Fisher equation Index (economics) Inflation Inflation accounting Inflation hedge Interest Money illusion National accounts Neutrality of money Numéraire Real interest rate Real prices and ideal prices Template:Inflation – for price conversions in Wikipedia articles Notes References (Adam Smith's early distinction vindicated) External links DataBasics: Deflating Nominal Values to Real Values from Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas CPI Inflation Calculator from U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Inflation Valuation (finance)

FIFA World Rankings

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The men's FIFA World Ranking is a ranking system for men's national teams in association football, currently led by Belgium. The teams of the men's member nations of FIFA, football's world governing body, are ranked based on their game results with the most successful teams being ranked highest. The rankings were introduced in December 1992, and eight teams (Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain) have held the top position, of which Brazil have spent the longest ranked first. A points system is used, with points being awarded based on the results of all FIFA-recognised full international matches. The ranking system has been revamped on several occasions, generally responding to criticism that the preceding calculation method did not effectively reflect the relative strengths of the national teams. Since 16 August 2018, the current version of the ranking system has adopted the Elo rating system used in chess and Go. The ranking is currently sponsored by Coca-Cola; as such, The FIFA/Coca-Cola World Ranking name is also used. Coca-Cola also sponsors its women's counterpart. History In December 1992, FIFA first published a listing in rank order of its men's member associations to provide a basis for comparison of the relative strengths of these teams. From the following August, this list was more frequently updated, to be published most months. Significant changes were implemented in January 1999 and again in July 2006, as a reaction to criticisms of the system. Historical records of the rankings, such as listed at FIFA.com, reflect the method of calculation in use at the time, as the current method has not been applied retrospectively to rankings before July 2006. Membership of FIFA has expanded from 167 to 211 since the rankings began; 210 members are currently included in the rankings. The Cook Islands are the sole unranked FIFA member association, having been removed from the ranking in September 2019 after not playing any fixtures in the previous four years. 1993–1998 calculation method The ranking formula used from August 1993 until December 1998 was very simplistic and quickly became noticed for its lack of supporting factors. When the rankings were initially introduced, a team received one point for a draw or three for a victory in FIFA-recognised matches – much the same as a traditional league scoring system. This was a quite simplistic approach, however, and FIFA quickly realised that there were many factors affecting international matches. 1999–2006 calculation method In January 1999, FIFA introduced a revised system of ranking calculation, incorporating many changes in response to criticism of inappropriate rankings. For the ranking all matches, their scores and importance were all recorded, and were used in the calculation procedure. Only matches for the senior men's national team were included. Separate ranking systems were used for other representative national sides such as women's and junior teams, for example the FIFA Women's World Rankings. The women's rankings were, and still are, based on a procedure which is a simplified version of the Football Elo Ratings. The major changes were as follows: the point ranking was scaled up by a factor of ten the method of calculation was changed to take into account factors including: the number of goals scored or conceded whether the match was played at home or away the importance of a match or competition regional strength a fixed number of points were no longer necessarily awarded for a victory or a draw match losers were able to earn points Two new awards were introduced as part of the system: Team of the Year Best Mover of the Year The changes made the ranking system more complex, but helped improve its accuracy by making it more comprehensive. 2006–2018 calculation method FIFA announced that the ranking system would be updated following the 2006 World Cup. The evaluation period was cut from eight to four years, and a simpler method of calculation was used to determine rankings. Goals scored and home or away advantage were no longer taken into account, and other aspects of the calculations, including the importance attributed to different types of match, were revised. The first set of revised rankings and the calculation methodology were announced on 12 July 2006. This change was rooted at least in part in widespread criticism of the previous ranking system. Many football enthusiasts felt it was inaccurate, especially when compared to other ranking systems and that it was not sufficiently responsive to changes in the performance of individual teams. 2018 ranking system update In September 2017, FIFA announced they were reviewing the ranking system and would decide after the end of the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification if any changes are to be made to improve the ranking. FIFA announced on 10 June 2018 that the ranking system would be updated following the 2018 World Cup finals. The calculation method to be adopted will be closely modelled after the Elo rating system and rankings of its member associations will be updated on a game-by-game basis. The weighting designated for each confederation for ranking purposes will be abolished. However, the new methodology does not account for home or away games and margin of the victory, as Elo rankings. FIFA had intended to introduce the new ranking system in July 2018, but with no matches scheduled between the July and August ranking dates, delayed until August 2018. There was speculation from football journalists such as ESPN's Dale Johnson that this was because projections of the new rankings had seen relatively little change in positions, with Germany – who had been eliminated in the first round of the World Cup – remaining as the top ranked team. FIFA had originally planned to use existing world ranking points from June 2018 as the start value, but when the August rankings appeared, the starting points had been changed to an equal distribution of points between 1600 (Germany, as the previously top ranked team) and 868 (Anguilla, Bahamas, Eritrea, Somalia, Tonga and Turks and Caicos Islands, which had 0 points in June), according to the formula: , where R is the rank in June 2018. When two or more teams had equal ranks, the following team received the next immediate rank possible, e.g. if two teams had R=11, the following team had R=12, not 13. Then the rating changes according to the games played after previous release were calculated. This produced a more dramatically altered ranking table, with Germany falling to 15th and 2018 World Cup champions France moving to the top of the ranking. 2021 alteration Starting with the April 2021 rankings, the teams' points are now rounded to two decimal points, instead of being rounded to the nearest integer. Men's rank leaders FIFA World Men's Ranking Leaders When the system was introduced, Germany debuted as the top-ranked team following their extended period of dominance in which they had reached the three previous FIFA World Cup finals, winning one of them. Brazil took the lead in the run up to the 1994 FIFA World Cup after winning eight and losing only one of nine qualification matches, while on the way scoring twenty goals and conceding just four. Italy then led for a short time on the back of their own equally successful World Cup qualifying campaign, after which the top place was re-claimed by Germany. Brazil's success in their lengthy qualifying campaign returned them to the lead for a brief period. Germany led again during the 1994 World Cup, until Brazil's victory in that competition gave them a large lead that would stand up for nearly seven years, until they were surpassed by a strong France team that captured both the 1998 FIFA World Cup and the 2000 European Football Championship. Success at the 2002 FIFA World Cup restored Brazil to the top position, where they remained until February 2007, when Italy returned to the top for the first time since 1993 following their 2006 FIFA World Cup win in Germany. Just one month later, Argentina replaced them, reaching the top for the first time, but Italy regained its place in April. After winning the Copa América 2007 in July, Brazil returned to the top, but were replaced by Italy in September and then Argentina in October. In July 2008, Spain took over the lead for the first time, having won UEFA Euro 2008. Brazil began a sixth stint at the top of the rankings in July 2009 after winning the 2009 Confederations Cup, and Spain regained the title in November 2009 after winning every match in qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. In April 2010, Brazil returned to the top of the table. After winning the 2010 World Cup, Spain regained the top position and held it until August 2011, when the Netherlands reached the top spot for the first time, only to relinquish it the following month. In July 2014, Germany took over the lead once again, having won the 2014 FIFA World Cup. In July 2015, Argentina reached the top spot for the first time since 2008, after reaching both the 2014 FIFA World Cup Final, as well as the 2015 Copa America Final. In November 2015, Belgium became the leader in the FIFA rankings for the first time, after topping their Euro 2016 qualifying group. Belgium led the rankings until April 2016, when Argentina returned to the top. On 6 April 2017, Brazil returned to the No. 1 spot for the first time since just before the 2010 World Cup, but Germany regained the top spot in July after winning the Confederations Cup. In the summer of 2018, FIFA updated their rating system by adopting the Elo rating system. The first ranking list with this system, in August 2018, saw France retake the top spot for the first time after nearly 16 years, having won the 2018 FIFA World Cup. One month later, for the first time, two teams were joint leaders as Belgium reached the same ranking as France. This lasted only one month as Belgium regained sole possession of the top spot in September 2018 and, , retains it. Uses of the rankings The rankings are used by FIFA to rank the progression and current ability of the national football teams of its member nations, and claims that they create "a reliable measure for comparing national A-teams". They are used as part of the calculation, or the entire grounds to seed competitions. In the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification tournament, the rankings were used to seed the groups in the competitions involving CONCACAF members (using the May rankings), CAF (with the July set of data), and UEFA, using the specially postponed November 2007 ranking positions. The October 2009 ranking was used to determine the seeds for the 2010 FIFA World Cup final draw. The March 2011 ranking was used to seed the draw for the 2012 CAF Men's Pre-Olympic Tournament second qualifying round. The rankings are also used to determine the winners of the two annual awards national teams receive on the basis of their performance in the rankings. The (English) Football Association uses the average of the last 24 months of rankings as one of the criteria for player work permits. Special releases To determine the seeding of teams in certain instances like FIFA World Cup qualification, FIFA occasionally releases a list of special rankings for a particular confederation to determine the seeding of the teams. For instance, the seeding for the third round draw for AFC qualifiers was based on a special release of the FIFA World Rankings for Asian teams on 18 June 2021. Criticism Since their introduction in 1992, the FIFA World Rankings have been the subject of much debate, particularly regarding the calculation procedure and the resulting disparity between generally perceived quality and world ranking of some teams. The perceived flaws in the FIFA system have led to the creation of a number of alternative rankings from football statisticians. The initial system was very simple, with no weighting for the quality of opponent or importance of a match. This saw Norway reach second in October 1993 and July–August 1995, a ranking that was criticised at the time. The rankings were adapted in 1999 to include weightings based on the importance of the match and the strength of the opponent. A win over a weak opponent resulted in fewer points being awarded than a win over a much stronger one. Further adaptations in 2006 were made to reduce the number of years' results considered from 8 to 4, with greater reliance on matches from within the previous 12 months. Still, criticisms of the rankings remained, with particular anomalies being noted including: the United States rise to fourth in 2006, to the surprise of even their own players; Israel's climb to 15th in November 2008, which surprised the Israeli press; and Belgium's rank of world number 1 in November 2015, even though Belgium had only played in one tournament final stage in the past 13 years. Further criticisms of the 2006-2018 formula included the inability of hosts of major tournaments to retain a high place in the rankings, as the team participated in only lower-value friendly matches due to their automatic qualification for the tournament. For example, 2014 FIFA World Cup hosts Brazil fell to a record low ranking of 22nd in the world before that tournament, at which they then finished fourth. 2018 FIFA World Cup hosts Russia had the lowest ranking (70th) at the tournament, where they reached the quarter-finals before bowing out to eventual finalists Croatia on penalties. In the 2010s, teams realised the ranking system could be 'gamed', specifically by avoiding playing non-competitive matches, particularly against weaker opponents. This was because the low weighting of friendlies meant that even victories could reduce a team's average score: in other words, a team could win a match and lose points. Before the seeding of the 2018 World Cup preliminary draw, Romania even appointed a ranking consultant, playing only one friendly in the year before the draw. Similar accusations had been made against Switzerland, who were a seeded team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup having played only three friendly matches in the previous year, and Poland before the 2018 FIFA World Cup. The use of regional strength multiplier in the ranking formula before 2018 was also accused of further reinforcing and perpetuating the bias for and against certain regions. Current calculation method On 10 June 2018, the new ranking system was approved by the FIFA Council. It is based on the Elo rating system and after each game points will be added to or subtracted from a team's rating according to the formula: where: Pbefore – the team's number of points before the game I – the importance coefficient: 05 – friendlies played outside the International Match Calendar windows 10 – friendlies played within the International Match Calendar windows 15 – Nations League matches (group stage) 25 – Nations League matches (play-offs and finals), Confederations' final competitions qualifiers, FIFA World Cup qualifiers 35 – Confederations' final competitions matches (before quarter-finals) 40 – Confederations' final competitions matches (quarter-finals and later) 50 – FIFA World Cup matches (before quarter-finals) 60 – FIFA World Cup matches (quarter-finals and later) W – the result of the game: 0 – loss after regular or extra time 0.5 – draw or loss in a penalty shootout 0.75 – win in a penalty shootout 1 – win after regular or extra time. If a game ends with a winner, but still requires a penalty shoot-out (PSO) (i.e. in the second game of a two-legged tie), it is considered as a regular game and the PSO is disregarded. We – the expected result of the game: where dr is the difference between two teams' ratings before the game. Negative points in knockout stages of final competitions will not affect teams' ratings. Awards Each year FIFA hands out two awards to its member nations, based on their performance in the rankings. They are: Team of the Year Team of the Year is awarded to the team that finishes top of the FIFA World Ranking. Belgium are the most recent Team of the Year for the fourth time in the 28-year history of the rankings. Brazil hold the records for most consecutive wins (seven, between 1994 and 2000) and most wins overall (twelve). The table below shows the three best teams of each year. Performances by countries Best Mover of the Year The Best Mover of the Year was awarded to the team who made the best progress up the rankings over the course of the year. In the FIFA rankings, this is not simply the team that has risen the most places, but a calculation is performed in order to account for the fact that it becomes progressively harder to earn more points the higher up the rankings a team is. The calculation used is the number of points the team has at the end of the year (z) multiplied by the number of points it earned during the year (y). The team with the highest index on this calculation received the award. The table below shows the top three best movers from each year. The award has not been an official part of the awards since 2006. While an official award has not been made for movements since 2006, FIFA has released a list of the 'Best Movers' in the rankings since 2007. An example of the informal on-going "Mover of the Year" award is the recognition made by FIFA to Colombia in 2012 in an official press release. However, the calculation methodology had changed to the difference in ranking points over the course of the year (rather than the methodology used in the official award from 1993 to 2006). The results for latter years are based on a similar methodology. Ranking schedule Rankings are published with respect to defined FIFA international windows. As of February 2022, release dates for the second half of the year are to be announced. See also FIFA Women's World Rankings World Football Elo Ratings Statistical association football predictions References External links FIFA rankings: A Guide to the very first '93 revision (RSSSF) How the FIFA men's rankings are calculated Interactive world map of the FIFA rankings World Rankings Association football rankings Sports world rankings

Lilo & Stitch: The Series

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Lilo & Stitch: The Series (or simply known as Lilo & Stitch on its title card) is an American animated television series produced by Walt Disney Television Animation. It premiered on September 20, 2003 on ABC as part of ABC Kids, with a delayed premiere on Disney Channel on October 12, 2003. The series ended on July 29, 2006 after airing 65 episodes in two seasons. A sequel spin-off of the 2002 feature film of the same name, and the follow-up to the August 2003 direct-to-video pilot Stitch! The Movie, it was the first of three television series produced in the Lilo & Stitch franchise, and the only one to retain the same setting as the original film. It was aired on Disney Channel worldwide, but has only been released on DVD in full in Japan, in four box sets. On November 12, 2019, the series was made available to stream on Disney+. Plot Continuing where Stitch! The Movie left off, Lilo and Stitch are given the task of collecting the rest of Jumba's missing experiments, changing them from bad to good, and finding the one place where they truly belong. Meanwhile, the former Captain Gantu and his reluctant partner, Experiment 625 (later named Reuben), try to capture the experiments for the imprisoned Dr. Hämsterviel. Running for two seasons, it had a total of 65 episodes. The storyline of the series concluded with the Disney Channel broadcast of the television finale Leroy & Stitch on June 23, 2006. Episodes Crossover episodes During its second season, Lilo & Stitch: The Series had crossovers with four other shows from Walt Disney Television Animation, three of which were airing during its run and one of which had already ended. According to executive producer Jess Winfield, these episodes were inspired by the four "Inter-Stitch-ial" teaser trailers that were made for the original Lilo & Stitch film, which featured Stitch invading scenes in various Disney Renaissance films. "Morpholomew" (season 2, episode 13) features American Dragon: Jake Long. "Spats" (season 2, episode 14) features The Proud Family. "Rufus" (season 2, episode 20) features Kim Possible. "Lax" (season 2, episode 21) features the kids from Recess. Characters Main Stitch (voiced by Chris Sanders) Also known as Experiment 626, he is one of the two lead characters. After finding out about his 625 other experiment "cousins", he and Lilo set out to find them, reform them to good, and have them join their ever-expanding ohana. He also learns more about life on Earth along the way. Lilo Pelekai (voiced by Daveigh Chase) The other lead character, she is Stitch's owner and best friend. She assists Stitch in finding his "cousins", naming them, and finding them a "one true place" where they can use their abilities for good. Dr. Jumba Jookiba (voiced by David Ogden Stiers) The creator of the many genetic experiments, which includes Stitch and Reuben, he lives with the Pelekai ohana after being exiled to Earth in the original film alongside Pleakley. He plays the role of Lilo and Nani's "uncle" in the ohana and wears a human disguise in public. He frequently assists Lilo and Stitch in capturing the experiments, usually by providing them with various tools he creates. Pleakley (voiced by Kevin McDonald) A former agent for the United Galactic Federation, he lives with the Pelekai ohana after being exiled to Earth in the original film alongside Jumba. He plays the role of Lilo and Nani's "aunt" in the ohana and frequently cross-dresses in the role. He also assists Lilo and Stitch in capturing the experiments, but to a lesser extent. He normally helps Nani out in maintaining the household. In the episode "Fibber", it was revealed that his first name is Wendy. Nani Pelekai (voiced by Tia Carrere) Lilo's older sister and legal guardian, and caretaker of the household that they live in. She is usually busy and stressed out, and frequently has to deal with Lilo and Stitch's antics. Dr. Jacques von Hämsterviel (voiced by Jeff Bennett) He is Jumba's former lab partner who seeks to capture the genetic experiments he helped to create through financing, hiring Gantu for help. He works from his "prison cell" which he set up as a laboratory. His name is usually mispronounced much to his chagrin, usually as "Hamsterwheel" or "Hamsterveal". Gantu (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) Forcibly retired from his position as captain of the Galactic Armada at the end of the original film, he serves as Hämsterviel's henchman. He fights against Lilo and Stitch in capturing the experiments but is usually defeated due to his arrogance, bad luck, and the abilities of Stitch. X-625/Reuben (voiced by Rob Paulsen) Gantu's sidekick in capturing experiments. He is a genetic experiment who has all the abilities of Stitch (plus a greater fluency in English). However, he is a lazy coward who prefers to make sandwiches rather than fight. Although he is now known as "Reuben", he was not given this name until Leroy & Stitch, and was referred to by his experiment number throughout The Series, although Lilo called him "Sandwich Boy" once in the episode "627". Recurring Mertle Edmonds (voiced by Liliana Mumy) – Lilo's classmate and rival. She appeared in many episodes of the series, usually causing conflicts for the title duo in the episodes she appeared in. David Kawena (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) – Nani's boyfriend who is a local surfer and fire performer, and is aware of the existence of aliens. He appeared in "Richter", "Cannonball", "Yin-Yang", "Splodyhead", "Fibber", "Amnesio", "Poxy", "Hunkahunka", and "Wishy-Washy". X-624/Angel (voiced by Tara Strong) – Stitch's main love interest. Angel is a pink female experiment who was designed to turn the good experiments evil with a siren song. She was caught by Gantu at the end of her episode and was later rescued in "Snafu". She only appeared in those two episodes along with a cameo in "Remmy". X-007/Gigi (voiced by Tress MacNeille) – Mertle's pet. Gigi is a Shih-Tzu like experiment and her "one true place" is with Mertle as her pet. She first appeared in "Yapper" (which focused on her and is named after the nickname Lilo gave her) and later appeared in "Amnesio" and "PJ". X-221/Sparky (voiced by Frank Welker) – The first of Stitch's cousins that Stitch met. Sparky is a yellow experiment designed to create electric energy. His place where he truly belongs is in the old lighthouse to utilize his electric skills to generate light. He appeared in "Elastico", "The Asteroid", "Angel", "Skip", "Checkers", "Ploot", "Remmy", and "Snafu". Cobra Bubbles (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) – A mysterious government agent who is working as a social worker and the only known human aside from Lilo's family who is aware of the aliens and experiments. He appeared in "Amnesio", "The Asteroid", and "Shush", while the title experiment of the episode "Spooky" (Experiment 300) changed into Bubbles to trick and frighten Nani (Ving Rhames, who played Cobra in the original film and Stitch! The Movie, was also credited in this episode alongside Richardson). Elena, Teresa and Yuki – Mertle's possé consists of Elena (voiced by Jillian Henry), Teresa (voiced by Kali Whitehurst) and Yuki (voiced by Lili Ishida). Classmates of Mertle and Lilo, they usually travel in a group and seldom say anything other than a sarcastic "Yeah!" in unison when agreeing with Mertle on something. They appeared in several episodes of The Series. Mr. Wong (voiced by Clyde Kusatsu) – The owner of the rental hut on Lahui Beach and Nani's employer in early season one. He appears in "Richter" and "Holio", and is mentioned in "Cannonball". Mrs. Edmonds (voiced by April Winchell) – Mertle's mother, who is kinder than her daughter. She appeared in "Clip", "Holio", "Houdini", "Finder", "Bonnie & Clyde", "Spike", "Belle", and "Shush". Grand Councilwoman (voiced by Zoe Caldwell) – The leader of the United Galactic Federation, she is the one who banished Stitch in the first film. She later agrees to let Lilo and Stitch become official experiment hunters in order to retrieve all of the remaining experiments. She only appeared in "Finder". Keoni Jameson (voiced by Shaun Fleming) – Keoni is a young, laid-back boy on whom Lilo has a crush. Lilo constantly tries to vie for his affections. He had a crush on Pleakley, whom he knows as Lilo's 'aunt', in the episode "Hunkahunka", but in "Nosy" he stated that he only had the crush for that one week. His father owns several businesses on Kauai. He has a friend who just happens to be a girl (not a girlfriend, though). He also appeared in "Kixx", "Amnesio", "Swirly", "Melty", "Sinker", and "Morpholomew". Mr. Jameson (voiced by Bryan Cranston) – Mr. Jameson is the father of Keoni and, on several occasions, Nani's employer. He owns several businesses around Kauai, including the Birds of Paradise Hotel. He appeared in "Cannonball", "Melty", "Nosy", "Babyfier", "Checkers", and "Link". Moses Puloki (voiced by Kunewa Mook) – The hula teacher of Lilo's hālau hula, where he teaches Lilo, Victoria, Mertle, Yuki, Elena, and Teresa how to hula. He is very patient with his students and tolerates their antics. Lilo and her friends often call Moses, "Kumu", Hawaiian for teacher. He appeared in several episodes of The Series. Officer Kahiko – Officer Kahiko is a police officer who knows Lilo well and occasionally tries to keep her out of trouble when she isn't accompanied by Nani. He appeared in the episodes "Holio", "Bonnie & Clyde", "Snooty", and "Shush". Victoria (voiced by Alyson Stoner) – Lilo's new (human) best friend in the second season, whom she meets in the episode "Swapper". Throughout the episode, Lilo tries to prove to her she wasn't weird. However, Victoria reveals she likes weird stuff so she and Lilo become best friends. Victoria is also in Lilo's hula class and owns Snooty (Experiment 277) as a pet. She appeared in "Swapper", "Snooty", "Slick", "Remmy", and "Wishy-Washy". Mrs. Lynne Hasagawa (voiced by Amy Hill) – A little old lady who owns Kokaua Town's fruit stand. As seen in the first segment of "Mrs. Hasagawa's Cats/Ace", several experiments live with her. She appeared in several episodes of The Series. Ice Cream Man (voiced by Frank Welker) – This unnamed character is a running gag throughout the Lilo & Stitch franchise. Whenever he appears, he drops his ice cream (usually a mint-flavored ice cream, presumably from its color) from its cone before he can finish it. This character has no speaking parts in The Series except saying "Whoa!" when he tripped over a pod. He also cries after suffering from X-151 (Babyfier)'s effects. His real eyes can be seen in the episode "Swirly". Various characters (voiced by Michael Yingling) Production In July 2002, Thomas Schumacher, then-president of Walt Disney Feature Animation, announced that Disney was developing a television series sequel to the film for Disney Channel in fall 2003 under the working title of Stitch! The TV Series. The series was announced alongside the direct-to-video film, Stitch! The Movie. Television animation directors Tony Craig and Bobs Gannaway, who both worked on Disney animated series such as House of Mouse and The Lion King's Timon & Pumbaa, and television screenwriter Jess Winfield, who wrote for Teacher's Pet and Buzz Lightyear of Star Command, served as executive producers of the show. Victor Cook and Don MacKinnon directed for the show's first 39 episodes, which comprised the first season. For the remaining 26 episodes, which comprised the second season, Rob LaDuca replaced MacKinnon as the other main director alongside Cook, while Craig directed two episodes, "Spike" and "Shoe". Release Home media Only a few episodes of Lilo & Stitch: The Series were released on home media in the United States. The episodes "Clip" and "Mr. Stenchy" were bonus features for a DVD board game called Lilo & Stitch's Island of Adventures that was released on November 11, 2003. Another two episodes, "Slushy" and "Poxy", were released on separate Game Boy Advance Video compilations of Disney Channel series. Finally, the final episode "Link" was a bonus feature on the Leroy & Stitch DVD that was released on June 27, 2006, a month before the episode aired on television. Streaming Lilo & Stitch: The Series was available on the now-defunct DisneyLife streaming service in the United Kingdom. The first American digital streaming release for The Series was via the TV Everywhere service DisneyNow in 2018, while the show reran on Disney XD, although it was later removed from the service in August that year. It was later made digitally available in the United States again and in other countries on Disney+ when that service launched on November 12, 2019, alongside all four feature-length Lilo & Stitch films. For unknown reasons, Disney+'s listing claims The Seriess original run ended in 2004 rather than 2006. Reception In a review for finale film Leroy & Stitch, AllMovie's Skyler Miller called Lilo & Stitch: The Series a "high quality" television series, stating that it "was a pleasant surprise to fans of the 2002 film, continuing its good-natured, offbeat spirit while introducing the ingenious plot device of having the titular duo capture and rehabilitate Stitch's 625 'cousins.'" Betsy Wallace of Common Sense Media gave the show's quality 3 out of 5 stars, applicable for ages 6 and above. Wallace noted that "Lilo frequently demonstrates compassion to creatures," but ultimately deemed the series's humor to be its "strong point", pointing out that the show "even makes fun of [its own] scant educational content." Awards and nominations Daytime Emmy Awards 2005 Outstanding Music Direction and Composition Michael Tavera (Nominated) Motion Picture Sound Editors 2004 Best Sound Editing in Television Animation: Music Jason Oliver & Steve Dierkens for episode "Sprout" (Nominated) See also Stitch!, an anime series that serves as the second television series in the Lilo & Stitch franchise, taking place years after Lilo & Stitch: The Series Stitch & Ai, a Chinese animated series that serves as the third television series in the franchise, which was partially worked on by some of the same production crew as Lilo & Stitch: The Series Notes References External links Lilo & Stitch (franchise) 2000s American animated television series 2000s American comic science fiction television series 2003 American television series debuts 2006 American television series endings ABC Kids (TV programming block) American children's animated action television series American children's animated adventure television series American children's animated comic science fiction television series American children's animated science fantasy television series Crossover animated television series Disney Channel original programming English-language television shows Animated television shows based on films Television series based on Disney films Television series by Disney Television Animation Television shows set in Hawaii Animated television series about children Animated television series about extraterrestrial life American sequel television series

East Hampton (town), New York

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The Town of East Hampton is located in southeastern Suffolk County, New York, United States, at the eastern end of the South Shore of Long Island. It is the easternmost town in the state of New York. At the time of the 2020 United States Census, it had a total population of 28,385. The town includes the village of East Hampton, as well as the hamlets of Montauk, Amagansett, Wainscott, and Springs. It also includes part of the incorporated village of Sag Harbor. East Hampton is located on a peninsula, bordered on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, to the east by Block Island Sound and to the north by Gardiners Bay, Napeague Bay and Fort Pond Bay. To the west is western Long Island, reaching to the East River and New York City. The Town has eight state parks, most located at the water's edge. The town consists of and stretches nearly , from Wainscott in the west to Montauk Point in the east. It is approximately six miles (10 km) wide at its widest point and less than one mile at its narrowest. The town has jurisdiction over Gardiners Island, which is one of the largest privately owned islands in the United States. The town has of shoreline. Climate East Hampton has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) which predominates in most of the coastal Mid-Atlantic states. East Hampton has chilly, wet winters and very warm, dry summers due to the moderating influence of the ocean which suppresses thunderstorm development and moderates summer temperatures. Thus, the summers have very warm, sunny, and stable weather, whereas the winters are often stormy due to coastal storms which bring rain (but little snow) to the region, which averages only about of snow annually. History Native-American history This area had been inhabited for thousands of years by wandering tribes of indigenous peoples. At the time of European contact, East Hampton was home to the Pequot people, part of the culture that also occupied territory on the northern side of Long Island Sound, in what is now Connecticut of southern New England. They belong to the large Algonquian-speaking language family. Bands on Long Island were identified by their geographic locations. The historical people known to the colonists as the Montaukett, who were Pequot, controlled most of the territory at the east end of Long Island. Indians inhabiting the western part of Long Island were part of the Lenape nation, whose language is also in the Algonquian family. Their territory extended to lower New York, western Connecticut and the mid-Atlantic coastal areas into New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Their bands were also known by the names of their geographic locations but did not constitute distinct peoples. In the late-17th century Chief Wyandanch of the Montaukett negotiated with English colonists for the land in the East Hampton area. The differing concepts held by the Montaukett and English about land and its use contributed to the Montaukett losing most of their lands over the ensuing centuries. Wyandanch's elder brother, the grand sachem Poggaticut, sold an island to English colonist Lion Gardiner for "a large black dog, some powder and shot, and a few Dutch blankets." The next trade involved the land extending from present-day Southampton to the foot of the bluffs, at what is now Hither Hills State Park, for 24 hatchets, 24 coats, 20 looking glasses and 100 muxes. In 1660 Chief Wyandanch's widow signed away the rest of the land from present-day Hither Hills to the tip of Montauk Point for 100 pounds, to be paid in 10 equal installments of "Indian corn or good wampum at six to a penny". The sales provided that the Montaukett were permitted to stay on the land, to hunt and fish at will, and to harvest the tails and fins of whales that beached on the East Hampton shores. Town officials who bought the land filed for reimbursement from the colony for the rum with which they had plied the tribe during negotiations. Gradually, however, colonists stopped the Montaukett using the land by preventing them from hunting and fishing. They were said to interfere with the crops on their farms, in a conflict similar to the later farmer-rancher arguments of the Old West. Many of the Montaukett died during the 17th and 18th centuries from epidemics of smallpox, a Eurasian disease carried by some English and Dutch colonists and endemic in their communities, to which the Indians had no immunity. After the American Revolution, some Montaukett relocated with Shinnecock to Oneida County in western upstate New York, led by the Mohegan missionary Samson Occom, to try to escape the settlers' civilization. They formed the Brothertown Indians with other Indians from New England, and gave up some of their traditions. In 1831-1836, the Brothertown Indians migrated to Wisconsin, where they founded the settlement of Brothertown. Some Montaukett continued to live on Long Island. In the mid to late nineteenth century, their most well-known member was Stephen Talkhouse. Their area on Lake Montauk was called Indian Fields until 1879. With their population reduced, over the years the Montaukett intermarried with other peoples of the area, but brought up many of their descendants as Montaukett in their culture. When Arthur W. Benson brought a government auction of Montauk, New York, in which he bought nearly the entire east end of the town, he evicted the Montaukett. They relocated to Freetown, a community established by free people of color on the northern edge of East Hampton Village. The tribe made several attempts to get the courts to declare the evictions illegal, but the court ruled in favor of the evictions. Since the 1990s, the Montaukett have pressed for formal recognition as a tribe. The Shinnecock Indian Nation, many of whom had continued to occupy a portion of land on the South Shore and claimed it as their reservation, received federal recognition in 2010 as a tribe and also have state recognition. Historically both groups were part of the larger Pequot people. Montaukett artifacts and sweat lodges are visible from trails at Theodore Roosevelt County Park. The park was formerly called Montauk County Park. Anglo-European settlement East Hampton was the first English settlement in the state of New York. In 1639 Lion Gardiner purchased land, what became known as Gardiner's Island, from the Montaukett people. In 1648 a royal British charter recognized the island as a wholly contained colony, independent of both New York and Connecticut. It kept that status until after the American Revolution, when it came under New York State and the Town of East Hampton authority. On June 12, 1640, nine Puritan families from Lynn, Massachusetts landed at what is now known as Conscience Point, in Southampton; some later migrated to present-day East Hampton. Among the first English settlers in East Hampton were John Hand, Thomas Talmage, Daniel Howe, Thomas Thomson, John Mulford, William Hedges, Ralph Dayton, Thomas Chatfield and Thomas Osborn. The Mulford Farmhouse, on James Lane, is the best-preserved 17th-century English colonial house in East Hampton. The barn dates to 1721, and the complex is operated as a living museum. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The house was built in 1680 for Josiah Hobart, a prominent early settler, named in the first formal deed of conveyance of East Hampton. This was known as the East-Hampton or Dongan Patent. The 1686 instrument granting the Town of East Hampton to its new proprietors was signed by Thomas Dongan, then Governor of New York. The patent named Capt. Hobart one of "Trustees of the freeholders and commonalty of the town of East-Hampton". Sons of Rev. Peter Hobart, founding minister of Old Ship Church in Hingham, Massachusetts, Josiah Hobart and his brother Joshua both migrated to Long Island with their families. Josiah Hobart settled in East Hampton, where he served as High Sheriff of Suffolk County. His brother Joshua, a minister, went to Southold, where he served the town for 45 years. East Hampton was the third Connecticut settlement on the East end of Long Island. East Hampton formally united with Connecticut in 1657. Long Island was formally declared to be part of New York (and also subject to English law) by Charles II of England after four British frigates captured what is today New York City, releasing East Hampton from its Connecticut governance. East Hampton was first called Maidstone, after Maidstone, Kent, England. The name was later changed to "Easthampton", reflecting the geographic names of its neighbors, Southampton and Westhampton. In 1885 the name was split into two words, after the local newspaper the East Hampton Star began using the two-word name. "Maidstone" is frequently used in place names throughout the town, including the Maidstone Golf Club. Deep Hollow Ranch, established in 1658 in Montauk, is the oldest continuously operating cattle ranch in the United States. Gallery Whaling While East Hampton was developed originally for agriculture, the settlers soon discovered that whales frequently beached along the South shore of the town. The whales could be carved up for food and oil. Town laws were written to regulate the proper handling of such carcasses. As the demand for whale products grew, residents became more aggressive in their harvesting techniques. No longer content to settle for harvesting beached whales, they began harvesting live whales that were coming near shore. Northwest Harbor, located at Northwest Landing on Gardiner's Bay, was the town's first harbor. The harbor turned out to be too shallow for large ships, so a larger port was developed two miles (3 km) West, at Sag Harbor. Some accounts say that it was named because of its relation to the settlement of Sagaponack, New York in the Town of Southampton. At the peak of the whaling industry, in 1847, some 60 whale ships were based in Sag Harbor, employing 800 men in related businesses. Herman Melville made numerous references to this village in his novel, Moby-Dick. The port rivaled that of New York. After 1847 the whaling industry dropped off dramatically because of the rise of alternative fuel products. Among the sea captains of Sag Harbor were ancestors of politician Howard Dean, who was born in East Hampton. The most famous voyages out of Sag Harbor were those by Mercator Cooper. In 1845 he was on an American ship that picked up shipwrecked Japanese sailors in the Bonin Islands and returned them to Tokyo. In 1853 Cooper traveled with an expedition to the far South, where he broke through the ice shelf to become the first person to touch East Antarctica. The Town of East Hampton is still highly influenced by maritime businesses, including tourism. It attracts large summer crowds of residents and tourists. Montauk is New York state's largest fishing port. The Town is famed for its commercial sports fishing, made particularly famous by Frank Mundus. One of the largest buildings in the town is the Promised Land fish meal factory at Napeague. Presidents and First Ladies First Ladies Julia Gardiner Tyler and Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy Onassis spent their childhoods there. Theodore Roosevelt was briefly quarantined in Montauk, at Camp Wyckoff, after returning from the Spanish–American War. Bill and Hillary Clinton spent week-long summer vacations in 1998 and 1999. Julia Gardiner Tyler Julia Gardiner was born on Gardiners Island and her father had a house in East Hampton village. On February 28, 1844, she and her father, David Gardiner, were part of the Presidential party aboard the when a malfunctioning cannon exploded. Her father and two Cabinet officers were killed. According to legend Julia fainted into the arms of President John Tyler (who had earlier lost his first wife). They married four months later, creating a national scandal, since there was a 30-year difference in their ages. Although Tyler was a member of the wealthy Gardiner family and a former First Lady of the United States, she had economic problems after the American Civil War. She and her husband had supported the Confederate States of America. She is buried with the President in Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia, the Confederate capital during the war and the capital of Virginia. Her father and one of her sons are buried in the South End Burial Ground in East Hampton. Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy Onassis Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis was born at Southampton Hospital on July 28, 1929. She would have been born in New York City but she was six weeks late. Her parents, Janet Norton Lee and John Vernou Bouvier III, known as "Black Jack," were staying at Lasata, the East Hampton home of her paternal grandfather, Major John Vernou Bouvier Jr.. Her parents had been married at St. Philomena's Catholic Church in East Hampton on July 7, 1928. The reception was held at the East Hampton village home of her maternal grandparents, James T. Lee and Margaret Lee, located on Lily Pond. Her family were members of the Maidstone Club. She and her younger sister, Lee Bouvier, spent their summers at the house in East Hampton until she was 10, when her parents divorced. Her connection to East Hampton received renewed national attention in the 1970s. It was covered in news reports following the release of the 1975 documentary Grey Gardens, which explored the lives of her aunt, Edith Ewing Bouvier Beale, and cousin, Edith Bouvier Beale. They were revealed to be living in poverty in a mansion of that name. Jacqueline and her husband Aristotle Onassis donated money to improve the lives of her relatives. (The documentary was adapted as a Broadway musical of the same name. A documentary on the estate was released in 2006.) Jacqueline's aunt and uncle, Winifred Lee and Franklin d'Olier, continued to own the Lily Pond Lane home of her maternal grandparents until 2002. The Bouvier family cemetery plot is at Most Holy Trinity Catholic Cemetery on Cedar Street. Jackie's father, maternal grandmother, paternal grandparents, and paternal great-grandparents, as well as various relatives, including Edith Ewing Bouvier Beale, are buried in the cemetery. Bill and Hillary Clinton In 1998 and 1999 as talk surfaced that Hillary Clinton was considering a Senate run from New York, they began summering in East Hampton, where they stayed at the Georgica Pond home of Steven Spielberg. Clinton gave a Saturday radio chat from the Amagansett fire station. In June 2008, at the conclusion of Hillary Clinton's Presidential bid, she stayed at the Wiborg Beach home of Thomas H. Lee in East Hampton Village. African-American history East Hampton has played an important role in African-American history. After the American Revolutionary War, New York passed a gradual abolition law, making children free who were born to slave mothers. But the last slaves were not freed until 1827. During the War of 1812, the Gardiners used slaves to transport supplies back and forth to Gardiner's Island. According to the Gardiners, slaves were easier to pass through British blockades since it was "obvious" that they were "owned." During this period Sag Harbor rose to a port status, rivaling New York, due to its whale oil trade. Many slaves worked on the docks in connection with shipping and the whale trade. After slavery had ended, Gardiner's former slaves developed small houses in Freetown (East Hampton), just north of East Hampton village. Sag Harbor's freedmen developed the Eastville community in Sag Harbor. In 1808 the United States and Great Britain cooperated in ending the African slave trade, but Spain continued to transport slaves to its Caribbean and Latin American colonies. On August 26, 1839, crew from La Amistad, an illegal slave ship that had been commandeered by its captives off Cuba, dropped anchor at Culloden Point and came ashore at Montauk to get supplies. The slaves, who were inexperienced navigators, thought they were on course to Africa. Members of the U.S. Navy ship USS Washington, seeing the slaves on shore, arrested them and took them to Connecticut. This was an international case, with Spain arguing for the return of the ship and slaves (or compensation). The United States had its own laws to interpret. The Mende people who had been illegally taken argued for their freedom. Amistad case was ultimately decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1841. John Quincy Adams argued for the Africans. The court decided in their favor, opining that the initial capture of the Mende by the Spanish was illegal, so they were classified as free men defending their freedom and were not charged under slave law with mutiny or revolt. East Hampton film director Steven Spielberg popularized the slave revolt and Supreme Court case in the 1997 film Amistad. One of the Amistad former slaves stayed in the United States after the trial. He worked as a valet for President John Tyler. He was killed aboard USS Princeton along with David Gardiner and two Cabinet officers, when one of the cannons exploded during a demonstration. In 1845 African-American sailor Pyrrhus Concer of Sag Harbor was aboard the Manhattan, a ship captained by Mercator Cooper, which picked up shipwrecked Japanese sailors in the Bonin Islands. The ship was allowed to enter Tokyo Bay under escort to return the sailors. As Japan had been closed to foreign shipping, it was the first American ship to visit Tokyo. Concer was the first African American the Japanese had seen. He is depicted in their drawings of the event. Playground for the rich East Hampton from its earliest days with the settlement of Gardiners Island has had a reputation as being a home for the wealthy especially after the Gardiners married into almost all the wealthy New York City families. More than one hundred fifty miles from Manhattan, East Hampton remained largely undeveloped until 1880 when Austin Corbin extended the Long Island Rail Road from Bridgehampton to Montauk. As part of the development, Arthur W. Benson forced an auction and paid US$151,000 for 10,000 acres (40 km2) around Montauk. He forced the eviction of the Montaukket Native Americans there. Benson brought in architect Stanford White to design six "cottages", mansions near Ditch Plains in Montauk. They formed the Montauk Association to govern their exclusive neighborhood. With new access to the village of East Hampton from New York, wealthy families ventured east from Southampton and built mansions in East Hampton. The Maidstone Golf Club opened in 1891. Among the early "cottages" was Tick Hall, later owned in the late 20th century by TV figure Dick Cavett. It burned in 1993, but Cavett had it restored. He had the process filmed for a television documentary. Corbin had industrial ambitions associated with extending the train to Montauk. He thought a new port city would develop around the train station on Fort Pond Bay, and that oceangoing ships from Europe would dock there. Passengers could take the train into New York City–thus saving a day in transit. The grand plans for Montauk did not pan out. The land was sold to the United States Army. Theodore Roosevelt made a much publicized visit to Camp Wyckoff there at the end of the Spanish–American War. In 1926, Carl G. Fisher intended to revive the dream of an urban Montauk, with plans to develop it as a destination, the Miami Beach of the north. He bought the former Benson property for $2.5 million (it was sold as surplus government property following the end of World War I). He built the six-story Montauk Improvement Building in downtown Montauk (which is still the town's tallest occupied structure—as subsequent zoning has forbidden highrise structures), the Montauk Manor (which was a luxury hotel), dredged Lake Montauk and opened it to Block Island Sound to support his Montauk Yacht Club and the associated Star Island Casino, as well as the Montauk Downs golf club. Fisher lost his fortune in the Stock Market Crash of 1929. The land was sold back to the military in World War II. During World War II, the Army developed its land for Army, Navy and Air Force bases. Through the year,s East Hampton's wealth has evolved. The village has grown, and former farmland dominated by potato fields has been developed for residential housing. The village of East Hampton is considered to have the most dazzling row of mansions, located along Further Lane and Lily Pond Lane parallel to the ocean. While ostentatious displays of wealth occurred near the ocean ("south of the Montauk Highway"), much simpler houses and bungalows have been built in such areas as Springs and Montauk. In the 1950s and 1960s, following the Kitchen Debate between Nikita Khrushchev and Richard Nixon, more cheap affordable prefabricated homes called Leisurama were built as second homes in Montauk at Culloden Point. In November 2006, the median price of a house in the Town was US $895,000 compared with a national median for the U.S. of $225,000. Several houses in East Hampton now sell for prices in the tens of millions of dollars. Living in East Hampton is relatively expensive, in 2007 the cost of living was 168% of the national average. Service community A portion of the community consists of working people who provide services to the wealthy community. The service community within the town of East Hampton is centered in Springs which contains the more modest housing available. Artists' colony East Hampton's reputation as an artists' colony began with painter Jackson Pollock, who resided in Springs, New York in the 1940s and 1950s, with Lee Krasner, at what is now known as the Pollock-Krasner House and Studio. Many of his most famous paintings were painted in the barn, which he had converted into a studio. The property is now open to the public for tours, by appointment. It is now owned by Stony Brook University with scheduled appointments to view his studio, which was left unchanged after his death. Among the other artists who popularized East Hampton as an artists' colony were Willem de Kooning, Mark Rothko, Franz Kline, Ian Hornak, Larry Rivers, Alfonso Ossorio, Robert Motherwell, Andy Warhol, John Ferren, Thomas Moran, Louis Schanker, and Charlotte Park as well as art dealers Leo Castelli and Ileana Sonnabend. Pollock died in 1956 while driving with his mistress, Ruth Kligman, and a friend of hers, on Springs Fireplace Road, after picking them up at the Long Island Railroad station in East Hampton. Pollock and Krasner are buried in Green River Cemetery, in Springs, along with many of the artists of their generation. Pollock's influence continues to be felt in the community. Marcia Gay Harden won a 2000 Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for portraying Krasner in Pollock, which was shot in East Hampton as the dream project of Ed Harris, who was also nominated for Best Actor. An ongoing debate rages over whether 24 paintings and drawings found in a Wainscott locker in 2003 are Pollock originals. Physicists have argued over whether fractals can be used to authenticate the paintings. The debate is still inconclusive. Andy Warhol and his longtime collaborator, Paul Morrissey, had a large, waterfront estate in Montauk called Eothen. Among their guests were Jacqueline Onassis, Lee Radziwill, the Rolling Stones, Bianca Jagger, Jerry Hall, Liza Minnelli, Elizabeth Taylor, John Lennon, John Phillips, and Halston. In 1993, the Andy Warhol Foundation donated of the estate to the Nature Conservancy for the Andy Warhol Visual Arts Preserve, which is run in conjunction with Art Barge in nearby Napeague. Natural disasters Two major natural disasters that affected East Hampton include the Hurricane of 1938 and Hurricane Carol, in 1954, both of which found the Atlantic Ocean splitting the town in two at Napeague. The 1938 storm also washed up so much sand that the Cedar Point Lighthouse, which had been on an island, became connected to the mainland. The 1954 storm also toppled the MacKay Radio towers at Napeague. East Hampton does not have the barrier beaches that run almost the entire length of the south shore of Long Island from Coney Island to Southampton. East Hampton's ocean beaches are connected to the mainland, which prevents them from being washed over in storms. Due to storms on Fort Pond Bay, the hamlet of Montauk was actually moved by the Navy at the end of World War II. The hamlet was originally located at the train station, but was constantly being flooded. East Hampton is regularly hit by hurricanes and Nor'easters. Given the town's generally flat topography, water often accumulates on town roads stranding motorists in heavy rains. The town's most serious environmental problem is beach erosion. The town has severely restricted development on ocean front property, thus limiting impact. The Montauk Lighthouse, which used to be almost from the cliffs is now from the cliffs. The most threatened areas now are in the hamlet of Montauk, which is the only community in the town with its business district next to the ocean, as are the oceanfront estates of East Hampton. At Georgica Pond the United States Corps of Engineers built Groynes to protect the mansions. The construction is a source of friction with Southampton, which says the jetties interrupt the longshore drift, greatly increasing beach erosion there. The lack of beach front development, including the fact there are no boardwalk promenades, which are features of many developed beach communities, has contributed to East Hampton beaches being listed among the best beaches in the country. Military history While East Hampton is considered almost exclusively a residential community, it has been the home of United States Navy, United States Army, and United States Air Force bases, the last of which closed in the 1980s. It currently has a United States Coast Guard headquarters. Skirmishes and military incidents took place in the town from the 17th century through World War II. Massacre Valley The biggest recorded loss of life in the various skirmishes and conflicts in East Hampton was "Massacre Valley" in 1653 in Montauk when 30 members of the Montaukett tribe were killed by members of the Narragansett tribe at the foot of what is now Montauk Manor. The Montauketts had a thriving wampum (made from whelk shells on the East Hampton beaches) trade Connecticut tribes. The arrangements were disrupted in 1637 by the Pequot War which was to solidify English domination of New England and change the balance of power among Native American tribes. The Pequot War was to contribute to the Montauketts selling Gardiners Island, East Hampton and Southampton to the English with the understanding the English would protect the Montauketts from attacks from Connecticut. However a war broke out between the Montauketts and the Narragansett, the nominal Native American victors in Pequot War. In 1653 the Narragansetts under Ninigret attacked and burned the Montaukett village, killed 30 and captured one of Wyandanch's daughters. The daughter was ransomed with the aid of Lion Gardiner (who in turn was to get large portion of Smithtown, New York in appreciation). The Montauketts temporarily moved closer to East Hampton village and the English ordered ships in Long Island Sound to sink Narragansett canoes. The skirmishes were to end in 1657. Captain Kidd East Hampton had pirates on its waterways in the 17th century and early 18th century, the most notable of which was Captain Kidd who was hanged after his booty on Gardiners Island was introduced at his trial. Kidd is said to have buried treasure all over Long Island. He parted ways after his east indian adventures with his quartermaster, Hendrick van der Heul, at Little Northwest Creek, near Sag Harbor in 1699 after dividing up the booty from the voyage. Money Ponds at the Montauk Lighthouse are named because of treasure reported to have been left there. In June 1699 Kidd was stopped on the island while sailing to Boston to try to clear his name. With the permission of the proprietor, Mrs. Gardiner, he buried $30,000 in treasure in a ravine between Bostwick's Point and the Manor House. For her troubles he gave her a piece of gold cloth (a piece of which is now at the East Hampton library) that was captured from a Moorish ship off Madagascar, as well as a bag of sugar. Kidd warned that if it was not there when he returned he would kill Gardiner. Kidd was tried in Boston and Gardiner was ordered to deliver the treasure as evidence. The booty included gold dust, bars of silver, Spanish dollars, rubies, diamonds, candlesticks and porringers. Gardiner kept one of the diamonds, which he gave his daughter. A plaque on the island marks the spot, but it's on private property. American Revolution In 1775 the British first ventured toward Long Island at Fort Pond Bay at Montauk during the Siege of Boston. John Dayton, who had limited troops at his disposal, feigned that he had more by walking them back and forth across a hill turning their coats inside out to make it look like there more of them (a tactic referred to as Dayton's Ruse). The British would not formally attack Long Island until 1776. After the fall of Long Island during the Battle of Long Island, the East Hampton ports of Northwest and Sag Harbor were blockaded by the British and the British used Gardiner's Island for a hunting preserve. The first American victory in New York after the Battle of Long Island was Meigs Raid on Sag Harbor (sometimes called the Battle of Sag Harbor) when continentals from Connecticut raided the British earth works in the village and burned the ships and wharfs on the East Hampton side of the village. The Americans killed six and transported 90 British prisoners back to Connecticut without losing a single soldier. A story often circulated is the story of Isaac Van Scoy who had a farm in Northwest. According to the tales the British raided his farmhouse and he killed one soldier with a pitchfork. Van Scoy was reported to have eventually been captured and taken to a prison ship in Sag Harbor where he escaped. The earthen remains of Van Scoy's house are still visible in the Northwest Preserve where he is buried (American flags mark his grave on holidays). His name is applied to various placenames in the area including Van Scoy Pond. The manor house on Gardiners Island had just been built in 1774 and members of the British forces were to use it throughout the war – with or without permission. Among the British guests were Henry Clinton and John André. At one point Major Andre and Gardiner son Nathaniel Gardiner, who was a surgeon for the New Hampshire Continental Infantry, exchanged toasts on the island. Gardiner would later be the American surgeon who attended to Andre when he was executed after being caught spying with Benedict Arnold. The British fleet used East Hampton waters for blockading Connecticut and planning for a new offense to retake New England (that never took place). One of the ships, , ran aground at what is now called Culloden Point in Montauk during a winter storm on January 24, 1781. The ship was scuttled and burned. In the 1970s remains of the ship were discovered and is now Long Island's only underwater park. Remains of the ship can be seen at the East Hampton Marine Museum in Amagansett. After the war, Gardiners Island which had been considered an independent colony was officially added to New York and East Hampton. George Washington was to authorize construction of the Montauk Point Lighthouse. War of 1812 During the War of 1812 British frigates once again controlled the northern bays of East Hampton with frigates headquartered in Gardiners Bay particularly harassing ships going into Sag Harbor. Sag Harbor had a fort manned by 3,000 troops on Turkey Hill. July 11, 1813 One hundred British Marines raided the wharf but were driven back after setting fire to one sloop by Americans led by Capt. David Hand. During the War of 1812 a British fleet of seven ships of the line and several smaller frigates anchored in Cherry Harbor and conducted raids on American shipping Long Island Sound. Crews would come ashore for provisions which were purchased at market prices. During one of the British excursions, Americans captured some of the crew. The British came to arrest then Lord of the Manor John Lyon Gardiner. Gardiner, who was a delicate man, adopted the "green room defense" where he stayed in a bed with green curtains surrounded by medicine to make him look feeble. The British, not wanting a sick man on board, let him be. The British were to bury several personnel on the island. Some of the British fleet that burned Washington assembled in the harbor in 1814. Gardiner's supply boats were manned by slaves during the war and this made it easier for them to pass through British lines. Many of the Gardiner slaves were to live in the Freetown (East Hampton), just north of East Hampton (village), New York. American Civil War During the American Civil War, some of the Sag Harbor whaling ships were scuttled in Charleston, South Carolina harbor to blockade the city. The USS Montauk, a monitor which was constructed at the Continental Iron Works in Greenpoint, Brooklyn, saw considerable action throughout the war. In 1865 the ship, docked at the Washington Navy Yard, was used as the prison for accused Abraham Lincoln assassination conspirators and the autopsy and identification of the body of assassin John Wilkes Booth. Spanish–American War During the Spanish–American War, the Army built Fort Tyler on Gardiners Point Island in an attempt to protect Long Island. A more important fort was the massive Camp Wickoff (also called Wyckoff) which stretched from the current Montauk Long Island Railroad station to the Montauk Point Lighthouse. The area was used to quarantine soldiers coming from the conflict. The most prominent group among the 20,000 soldiers who passed through the base were Theodore Roosevelt and his Rough Riders. The tented camp became a national scandal over the poor treatment of troops (256 died there) and President William McKinley visited to emphasize improvements. Exhibits and artifacts from the camp are at Theodore Roosevelt County Park. World War I During World War I, the E.W. Bliss Company of Brooklyn, New York tested torpedoes in the harbor, a half mile north of Sag Harbor. As part of the process, Long Wharf in Sag Harbor was reinforced with concrete and rail spurs built along the wharf as the torpedoes were loaded onto ships for testing. They were shipped via the Long Island Road, along the Sag Harbor to the wharf which was owned by the railroad at the time. Among those observing the tests was Thomas Alva Edison. Most of the today's buildings on the wharf, including the Bay Street Theatre, were built during this time. The torpedoes, which did not have exploding warheads, are occasionally found by divers on the bay floor. World War II During World War II, coastal fortifications were set up along the eastern tip of Long Island at Montauk. A concrete observation tower as built next to the Montauk Lighthouse. 16 inch naval guns were placed in adjacent bunkers at Camp Hero. The observation tower is still next to the lighthouse and the additional bunkers are visible at Camp Hero State Park as well as Shadmoor State Park. On June 13, 1942, as part of Operation Pastorius four German agents led by George John Dasch were landed by U202 at what is now Atlantic Avenue Beach (sometimes called Coast Guard Beach) in Amagansett. Confronted by Coast Guardsman John C. Cullen, they said they were Southampton fishermen. When one of the four said something in a foreign tongue, they offered him $300 to keep quiet. The agents disappeared into the night after he sought out his supervisor. When reinforcements arrived they discovered German cigarettes on the beach along with four heavy, waterproof oaken boxes buried in the sand filled with brick-sized blocks of high explosives, bombs disguised as lumps of coal, bomb-timing mechanisms of German make, and innocent-looking “pen-and-pencil sets” that were actually incendiary weapons. The agents rode the Long Island Railroad into New York City and were ultimately captured along with four others who had come ashore at Jacksonville, Florida. Six of the agents were to be executed. In May 2007 the original Coast Guard station was moved to the property at the Town Marine Museum in Amagansett across the dunes from its original Atlantic Avenue beach location. The station was moved in 1966 to private property to save it from demolition by Joel Carmichael The Marine Museum itself was the former barracks for the Coast Guard. The Navy appropriated almost all of Montauk during the war for facilities including Montauk Manor which was used as a dormitory. Torpedoes were tested in Lake Montauk. Ships and dirigibles docked on Navy Road on Fort Pond Bay. The Navy was to find Fort Pond inhospitable since it was shallow. Dredging was to contribute to problems with flooding. After the war the Navy moved the residential section of Montauk which had been on the bay by the Long Island Rail station a mile to the south to get away from the flooding. One of the biggest legacies of the Navy presence was to be the dredging of Lake Montauk so that it replaced Fort Pond as Montauk's dock. The Coast Guard is now headquartered there on Star Island. Cold War After the war, most of the military property was disposed of as surplus, except for gun emplacements at Camp Hero next to the Montauk Point Lighthouse. The camp was designated as an Air Force Base supporting a -wide radar (AN/FPS-35) in the early 1960s to detect potential bombers headed for New York City. The massive radar and supporting state-of-the-art computers quickly became obsolete. While the other radars in this category were torn down, the one on Montauk, was saved largely because it served as a better landmark than did the lighthouse for sailors and ships on Long Island Sound. The base was officially decommissioned in the 1980s. The support buildings now form a ghost town. The radar structure has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1992, Long Island residents Preston B. Nichols and Peter Moon published a science fiction book, The Montauk Project: Experiments in Time. They suggested that the radar was used by the government to conduct time travel experiments. Some readers believe their sci-fi account is true. The base has become of cult interest among conspiracy buffs. It was featured in a segment of The X-Files. Government The town has two governments, which sometimes are in conflict. The most visible town government is the elected Town Board, which consists of five people, including its head, the Town Supervisor. They are responsible for managing the taxes, roads, police, parks, zoning and general governance of the town. The Town Board was stablished by the State of New York in 1788. The government operates from a campus on Pantigo Road. The historic, original Town government is known as the Trustees of the Freeholders and Commonalty of the Town of East Hampton. Today it is formally responsible for day-to-day decisions related to common property in the town. The Trustees derive their power from the Dongan Patent of December 9, 1686, which set up self-governance for the town. The patent (a land grant) establishing the trustees was an act by Thomas Dongan, the Royal Governor of New York. Among the common properties which the trustees operate is Georgica Pond; they decide when the tidal pond is to be drained and filled. These actions often make headlines as they sometimes cause the flooding of basements of neighboring properties owned by celebrities. In 1998, the pond was drained a few days before President Bill Clinton was to spend his summer vacation at the home of Steven Spielberg. Since the late 20th century, the Town has often approved progressive social initiatives, including domestic partnership registration. In 1999, it imposed a 2 percent tax on residential real estate sales in excess of $250,000 for the purpose of buying open space for preservation. The money has been used in part to the Town's establishing more than of trails, including the Paumanok Path. Between 2002 and 2005, the tax raised $71 million. In 2006, the Town adopted a dark skies ordinance, which is now being considered as a model for wider use in New York State to cut down on light pollution at night. Despite East Hampton's great wealth, its fire department and ambulance are both volunteer services, dependent on local full-time residents. In August 1998, President Bill Clinton was to give his weekend radio address from the Amagansett Volunteer Fire Station during his vacation. Although residences in the town are often featured in architectural magazines, the town offices have been housed for years in several double wide trailers on a lot, hidden from the street by a nondescript flat-roofed building. In 2006, the Town announced plans to convert its campus by adapting a collection of historic East Hampton buildings that had been moved over the course of 30 years to the Further Lane home of Adelaide de Menil, heiress to the Schlumberger oil fortune. In 2006 it was announced that the new Town complex was to be designed by internationally known architect Robert A.M. Stern (who designed the East Hampton Library in 1997). The transfer of the historic houses to the Town government site was part of the sale of the de Menil to financier Ron Baron for $103 million; in 2007 this was reported as the highest price ever paid for a single residence in United States history. The township has aggressively pursued zoning ordinances to protect its residential and rural character. It has no chain fast food restaurants and or big box stores (unlike Southampton, which has numerous fast food chains and stores such as K-Mart). The village of East Hampton formerly also exercised a "no chain" rule. Since the mid-1990s, a Starbucks franchise site has opened (currently there is only one in the whole town) and a branch of Tiffany & Co.. Tiffany & Co. closed its store in 2014. Police The East Hampton Town Police Department, commonly referred to as EHTPD, is a professional police organization responsible for primary jurisdictional law enforcement for the town. The headquarters are located at 131 Wainscott Northwest Road, Wainscott, NY 11975 (631) 537-7575. The East Hampton Town Police Department is headed by Chief Michael Sarlo Demographics Demographics in East Hampton were skewed by the fact that more than half the houses were owned as second homes (among the owners were some of the wealthiest people in the country). The East Hampton economy was based on retail and services to support the residential community. As of the census of 2010, there were 21,457 people and 21,038 households residing in East Hampton. The population density was 290.0 people per square mile (111.5/km2). There were 2,251 housing units at an average density of 403.6 per square mile (155.8/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 84.81% White, 26.38% Hispanic or Latino of any race, 3.36% Black or African American, 0.60% Native American, 1.32% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 8.33% from other races, and 1.50% from two or more races. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,445 households, out of which 27.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.2% were married couples living together, 12.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.0% were non-families. 31.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 3.07. As of the census of 2010, in the town the population was spread out, with 19.9% under the age of 18, 2.2% from 18 to 20, 5.1% from 20 to 24, 11.3% from 25 to 34, 21.5% from 35 to 49, 22.5% from 50 to 64, and 17.6% who were 65 years of age or older. For every 100 females, there were 101.5 males. As of the census of 2000, the median income for a household in the town was $52,201, and the median income for a family was $55,357. Males had a median income of $38,566 versus $29,750 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $25,725. 12.2% of the population and 10.3% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 20.5% of those under the age of 18 and 4.2% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. Special events One of the highlights of the summer is East Hampton Fire Department fireworks display at Main Beach, usually held the Saturday night closest to July 4. The fireworks displays have generated controversy since 2005, when they were postponed because they were considered disruptive to the nearby nesting of the endangered piping plover. In 2005, 2007, and 2008 the fireworks were postponed until Labor Day weekend to protect the birds' nesting season. The village administration has since postponed the fireworks display to Labor Day weekend indefinitely. A big draw in the summer had also been the shark fishing tournaments in Montauk. Since 2007, the Humane Society and other animal welfare groups have protested that the tournaments are cruel to the sharks, as they are not being caught for food. Each summer, the Artists and Writers Softball Game, a charity benefit, is held. Past players have included John Irving, Norman Mailer, Kurt Vonnegut, Dustin Hoffman, President Bill Clinton, and singer Paul Simon. Every October the town hosts the Hamptons International Film Festival, an event screening independent films in several local theaters. It has a fairly large draw from the New York City crowd. Barefoot Contessa, a Food Network original show, is shot in East Hampton. Communities and locations Villages (incorporated) East Hampton Sag Harbor, shared with the Town of Southampton Hamlets (unincorporated) Amagansett Montauk Napeague Springs Wainscott Census-designated places In addition to the above, the United States Census has two locations using terms that are usually used by residents of the town: East Hampton North – the area just north of the village, known locally as Freetown, as it was founded in the 19th century by free people of color, including some of Montaukett descent. Northwest Harbor – this area northwest of the village that is usually referred to locally as "Northwest" or "Northwest Woods." It has a harbor. State parks Amsterdam Beach State Park Camp Hero State Park Hither Hills State Park Montauk Downs State Park Montauk Point State Park Napeague State Park Sag Harbor State Golf Course Shadmoor State Park Suffolk County parks Cedar Point County Park Theodore Roosevelt County Park Education East Hampton does not have any colleges. The now disbanded Clinton Academy on Main Street was the first chartered Academy authorized by the New York State Board of Regents in 1784. Three high schools are in the Town: East Hampton High School, part of the East Hampton Union Free School District, and the principal school for the entire town outside of Sag Harbor. There were 920 enrolled students in grades 9-12 for the 2019–2020 school year. Its mascot is the Bonackers, which derives its name from Accabonac Harbor in the nearby Springs. Pierson Middle-High School, part of the Sag Harbor Union Free School District, is physically in East Hampton and serves Sag Harbor (which is partially within the town of Southampton). There were 535 enrolled students in grades 6-12 for the 2019–2020 school year. Its mascot is the Whalers. Ross School – The largest private school on the East End, the Ross School educates students from pre-school through 12th grade. American educator Catharine Beecher was born in East Hampton. Television stations in East Hampton WVVH-CD Hamptons TV, UHF Channel 50, the largest FCC licensed TV station in Suffolk County. It broadcasts from the East Hampton Airport industrial park in Wainscott. Local-access television broadcasts the two public access channels in East Hampton town, Ch 20 public access, and Ch 22 government and education. They are located at the LTV Studios in Wainscott. Radio stations in East Hampton East Hampton WEHM 96.9 FM Montauk WELJ 104.7 FM WEER 88.7 FM WEGB 90.7 FM WJJF 94.9 FM WBLQ 1230 AM Transportation Railroad lines The Long Island Rail Road's sole line in the Town of East Hampton is the Montauk Branch, which includes stations in East Hampton, Amagansett, and Montauk. Bus service The Town of East Hampton is served primarily by Suffolk County Transit bus routes, although Hampton Jitney buses are available for trips to New York City. Major roads New York State Route 27 New York State Route 114 County Route 38 County Route 79 County Route 113 Airports The town of East Hampton contains the East Hampton Airport along the Southampton-East Hampton town line, and Montauk Airport on the northeastern corner of Lake Montauk. Ferries The sole ferry in the Town of East Hampton is a passenger ferry taking people across the Block Island Sound between Montauk Harbor and either Block Island, New London, or Oak Bluffs on Martha's Vineyard. See also National Register of Historic Places listings in East Hampton (town), New York South Fork Wind Farm References External links Towns in Suffolk County, New York Towns on Long Island Towns in New York (state) Towns in the New York metropolitan area Populated coastal places in New York (state)

Moomba

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Moomba (also known as the Moomba Festival) is held annually in Melbourne, Australia. Run by the City of Melbourne, it is Australia's largest free community festival. The Melburnian tradition is celebrated over four days, incorporating the Labour Day long weekend, from Friday to the second Monday in March. Moomba is culturally important to Melbourne, having been celebrated since 1955, and regularly attracts up to a million people, with a record attendance of 3.8 million (2.3 million tourists) set in 2018. In 2003, the event was renamed Melbourne Moomba Waterfest and is centred on the Yarra River. Traditional events include the Moomba parade, crowning of Moomba monarchs, fireworks displays, carnivals in the gardens along the river, river activities including watersports, water floats and the Birdman Rally, as well as live music and bands. In 2021 the usual Moomba was cancelled by Melbourne City Council, for the first time ever, due to events and issues related to the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia. However "Moomba 2.0" events will be held on 5–8 March. Origins In 1951, Australia celebrated fifty years of Federation with a parade and the staging of the theatre production An Aboriginal Moomba: Out of the Dark. In 1954, Queen Elizabeth II visited the city for the first time as reigning monarch, and the City Development Association and the Melbourne City Council proposed an autumn carnival to be known as "Moomba". A committee was formed in July, 1954 to organise and fund the event, successfully allocating £10,000 to its inaugural running. Before the event's first year, controversy was created when Labor Councillor Frank Williams resigned from the committee, branding the planned carnival as a "Bourke street joke for the benefit of shopkeepers". A promotional theme song "Come to Melbourne for the Moomba" was written by Jack O'Hagan. Etymology The festival was originally named Moomba by organisers in the belief it was a native word meaning 'let's get together and have fun.' Credit is usually given to Bill Onus, a unionist and member of the Australian Aborigines' League for proposing the term, which he used in a play, Aboriginal Moomba in 1951. In 1969 Luise Hercus glossed the word mum (rhyming with 'vroom') as meaning 'bottom, rump', and suggested mum-ba meant something like 'bottom and..', and had been introduced from Healesville usage as a joke. In 1981 Barry Blake analysed the word as combining as mum (anus) and –ba, a locative suffix meaning 'at, in, on'. This would give the sense of 'up your bum/arse'. Onus himself, according to his daughter-in-law, who said she had heard the story from Onus's wife Mary, had picked up the word from a word list of indigenous terms. Some say he did it to get back at the city council for having deliberately upstaged the traditional Labour Day march with a popular carnival. Lin Onus, his son, stated that indeed his father had intended to play a prank in passing on the word with this sense. Event history The first Moomba was a 15-day festival officially opened on 12 March 1955 by the State Governor, Sir Dallas Brooks. The inaugural programme included a fireworks display, parade, vintage car display, Henley rowing regatta, river floats including a "Lord Mayor's houseboat", cycling race, tennis at Kooyong, concerts including performances by the Victorian Symphony Orchestra and Royal Philharmonic choir, crowning of the Queen of Moomba and riverside carnival. 25,000 turned out to watch the inaugural Moomba parade down Swanston Street. The first Moomba was heavily criticised by Melbourne's conservative establishment, including the Anglican Church, which at the time claimed it was hedonistic and embodying social decay. Council responded to the criticism citing that Moomba was intended to be a festival for families and as such is reinforcing family values in society. One of the popular events associated with Moomba was the Herald Sun Outdoor Art Show in the Treasury Gardens. After the 2016 Moomba festival fireworks there was a large-scale brawl in and around Federation Square in Melbourne's Central Business District, largely between members of two gangs, Apex and Islander 23. 2021 – Moomba 2.0 In 2021 the usual Moomba events were cancelled by Melbourne City Council, for the first time ever, due to COVID-19 restrictions and Victoria's third lockdown in February. The Moomba Parade and the Birdman Rally were already cancelled. Instead of the normal festival attractions, Lord Mayor Sally Capp said Moomba 2.0 will be: "... a series of fun, family friendly events and attractions across the city that will help bring the buzz back to Melbourne." There will be ticketing and COVID-safe marshals across all sites. Moomba 2.0 will be a COVID-safe event. Events Parade and floats A parade (or "procession") and floats through the streets of Melbourne have been a key part of the Moomba festival since its beginning. Each year it attracts over 100,000 people to Melbourne's city centre as well as being shown on free-to-air television in Melbourne. The first Moomba procession was held in 1955. It was first televised in 1957, the year after the Melbourne 1956 Olympics. The floats have an annual theme, usually an elaboration on "Let's get together and have fun", the avowed mission and vision statement of Moomba and are usually from sister cities (of which Melbourne has six), schools and community groups. They also promote some aspect of the arts, like singing, dancing, or design. Swanston Street is the traditional home of the floats and spine of the city and horse- or tractor-drawn floats use the tram tracks. Decorated trams are sometimes also featured. In 2001, the parade came under media controversy when a French Troupe and Melbourne's Snuff Puppets had floats with naked people covered in body paint. Moomba monarchs The Moomba monarchy has been one of the most celebrated and controversial components of the festival over the years. In 1999 the tradition ended when clowns Zig and Zag were appointed. After it was revealed that, years before, Zig (Jack Perry) had pleaded guilty to child molestation, they were dethroned. In 2010 the tradition was finally restored after 11 years with Molly Meldrum and Kate Ceberano being named King and Queen of Moomba Queen of Moomba (1955 to 1987) from Beverley Stewart to Marita Jones. Won by a beauty pageant competition. 1966 Moomba Queen Erica McMillan was killed in a car accident seven weeks after the festival, in the car which she had received as a prize for being voted Queen. Queen of the Pacific (1967–1977) from Betty Lim Saw Yim (as Princess of Malaysia) to Lei Maa (Princess of Hawaii). King of Moomba (1967 to 1987): British actor Robert Morley (1967), British actor Alfred Marks (1968), Italian opera singer Tito Gobbi (1969), featherweight boxing champion Johnny Famechon (1970), Russian clown Oleg Popov (1971), pop singer Johnny Farnham (1972) with Collingwood footballer Lou Richards as his Jester, indigenous Pastor Sir Douglas Nicholls (1973), ballet dancer Sir Robert Helpmann (1974), entertainer Rolf Harris (1975), entertainer Barry Crocker (1976), Disney character Mickey Mouse as King of Moomba and TV Personality Ugly Dave Gray as a Jester (1977), first Melbourne born king, entertainer Bert Newton (1978), entertainer Graham Kennedy (1979), TV actor Paul Cronin (1980), Lou Richards again but this time as King (1981), film, TV and stage actor Frank Thring (1982), TV Personality Daryl Somers (1983), footballer Kevin Bartlett (1984), TV Personality Ian "Molly" Meldrum (1985), motor racing driver Peter Brock (1986) and champion doubles tennis player Paul McNamee (1987). Another source lists Gobbi (1968), Marks (1969) and Richards as Jester (1971). Young Ambassador (2003–2009): Carrie Stoney, Sam Quinn, Alan Wu, Natalie Bassingthwaighte and Trisha Broadbridge. From approximately 19811988 there were also instances where Moomba included a Prince and Princess of Moomba designation consisting of two children chosen through a competition held by local radio station 3KZ. Fireworks Fireworks are a big part of the Moomba festival and large displays occur on every night of the festival. The fireworks are above the Yarra river. Carnival A traditional carnival including a ferris wheel are held in the Alexandra Gardens along the river bank. In recent years, the carnival has extended to Birrarung Marr across the river. It is popular with children, and dagwood dogs and doughnut stands line the paths. River activities Moomba particularly celebrates the Yarra River, which has been much maligned during the history of the city until the last few decades. Water skiing Water skiing in the Yarra was introduced to Moomba in 1959. The tournament has both Junior and Open divisions, with the finals crowning the Moomba Masters Champions on Moomba Monday. River floats The festival has featured Chinese dragon boats and the Moomba Showboat. Birdman rally Among the more popular events is the Birdman Rally, begun in 1976,which is traditionally held at the Swan Street bridge over the Yarra River. However it has been held only intermittently during Moomba's history. It was stopped for a number of years due to high levels of E. coli contamination of the Yarra. Subsequent clean-ups reduced pollution to acceptable levels and 2004 saw its return. In 2005 the rally was held in the new inner city park, Birrarung Marr, close to its traditional location. Music and live bands Moomba's performers have included international musical acts such as ABBA, Neil Diamond and AC/DC as well as a number of smaller local acts. In 2012, performers included Tex Perkins and Daryl Braithwaite. Citations References Other reading Eckersley, M. 2012. 'Australian Indigenous Drama'. Tasman Press. Altona. External links Melbourne City Council's Moomba page Social history of Moomba, on Culture Victoria Snopes.com entry on the word "Moomba" Also see the official Moomba history book written by Dr Craig Bellamy et al. (2006) Festivals in Melbourne 1955 establishments in Australia Music festivals established in 1955

Path dependence

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Path dependence is when the decisions presented to people are dependent on previous decisions or experiences made in the past. Path dependence exists when a feature of the economy (institution, technical standard, pattern of economic development etc.) is not based on current conditions, but rather has been formed by a sequence of past actions each leading to a distinct outcome. In economics and the social sciences, path dependence refers to either the outcomes at a single point in time, or to long-run equilibria of a process. In common usage, the phrase implies either: In the first usage, (A), "history matters" is true in many contexts; everything has causes, and sometimes different causes lead to different outcomes. This can more simply be explained as "the future development of an economic system is affected by the path it has traced out in the past". However, in these contexts the direct influence of earlier states may not be notable as contemporary conditions override past processes, unlike "path-dependent" options in finance, where the influence of history can be non-standard. It is the narrow concept (B), that has the most explanatory force. Positive feedback mechanisms, like bandwagon and network effects, are at the origin of path dependence. They lead to a reinforcing pattern, in which industries 'tip' towards one or another product design. Uncoordinated standardisation can be observed in many other situations. Commercial examples Videocassette recording systems The videotape format war is a key example of path dependence. Three mechanisms independent of product quality could explain how VHS achieved dominance over Betamax from a negligible early adoption lead: A network effect: videocassette rental stores observed more VHS rentals and stocked up on VHS tapes, leading renters to buy VHS players and rent more VHS tapes, until there was complete vendor lock-in. A VCR manufacturer bandwagon effect of switching to VHS-production because they expected it to win the standards battle. Sony, the original developer of Betamax, didn't let pornography companies license their technology for mass production, which meant that nearly all pornographic motion pictures released on video used VHS format. An alternative analysis is that VHS was better-adapted to market demands (e.g. having a longer recording time). In this interpretation, path dependence had little to do with VHS's success, which would have occurred even if Betamax had established an early lead. QWERTY keyboard The QWERTY Keyboard is a prominent example of path dependence due to the widespread emergence and persistence of the QWERTY keyboard. QWERTY has persisted over time despite more efficient keyboard arrangements being developed - QWERTY vs. Dvorak is an example of this. However, there is still an ongoing debate about the validity of this being a true example of path dependence. Railway track gauges The standard gauge of railway tracks is another example of path dependence which explains how a seemingly insignificant event or circumstance can change the choice of technology over the long run despite contemporary knowhow showing such a choice to be inefficient. More than half the world's railway gauges are , known as standard gauge, despite the general consensus among engineers being that wider gauges have increased performance and speed. The path to the adoption of the standard gauge began in the late 1820s when George Stephenson, a British engineer, began work on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. His experience with primitive coal tramways resulted in this gauge width being copied by the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, then the rest of Great Britain, and finally by railroads in Europe and North America. There are tradeoffs involved in the choice of rail gauge between the cost of constructing a line (which rises with wider gauges) and various performance metrics, including maximum speed, low center of gravity (desirable, especially in double-stack rail transport) and the smoothness or bumpiness of the ride. While the attempts with Brunel gauge, a significantly broader gauge failed, the widespread use of Iberian gauge, Russian gauge and Indian gauge, all of which are broader than Stephenson's choice, show that there is nothing inherent to the 1435 mm gauge that led to its global success. Similarly, narrow gauge lines were often built in mountainous areas or where passenger and freight revenue wasn't expected to be sufficient to cover the cost of a mainline railway built to more expensive standards. Some countries have or had all or most of their railway network built to narrow gauges, including Japan (cape gauge), parts of the Balkans (Bosnian gauge), South Africa (cape gauge) or Bolivia (meter gauge). In the 20th and 21st centuries when the break of gauge problem was seen as increasingly undesirable, several countries regauged existing railways, but in the biggest project of this nature, Project Unigauge in India, it was decided that several breaks of gauge within India during conversion were a bigger problem than a handful of breaks of gauge at the connection points between Indian gauge and standard gauge lines outside India and thus - mostly due to path dependence - it was decided to regauge narrow gauge lines to Indian gauge rather than 1435 mm gauge. In constructing high speed rail, Japan decided to ignore its existing Cape gauge network and build an entirely new network in standard gauge ("Shinkansen" is Japanese for "New trunk line"). Part of the reason for that decision was that Cape gauge doesn't support the speeds the "bullet trains" run at. This precedent was later followed by Spain, which built a high speed rail network in standard gauge in order to enable a high speed connection to France. Russia meanwhile decided to keep Russian gauge for its Saint Petersburg–Moscow railway upgraded to 250 km/h maximum speeds. Several tramway systems have unique or rare gauges (for example, Dresden tramway is the only 1450 mm gauge rail system in the world) and despite the disadvantage of having to order modifications to rolling stock compared to the standard offerings of major manufacturers, the cost premium for each individual order is orders of magnitude lower than the cost of regauging the entire network. Economics Path dependence theory was originally developed by economists to explain technology adoption processes and industry evolution. The theoretical ideas have had a strong influence on evolutionary economics. There are many models and empirical cases where economic processes do not progress steadily toward some pre-determined and unique equilibrium, but rather the nature of any equilibrium achieved depends partly on the process of getting there. Therefore, the outcome of a path-dependent process will often not converge towards a unique equilibrium, but will instead reach one of several equilibria (sometimes known as absorbing states). This dynamic vision of economic evolution is very different from the tradition of neo-classical economics, which in its simplest form assumed that only a single outcome could possibly be reached, regardless of initial conditions or transitory events. With path dependence, both the starting point and 'accidental' events (noise) can have significant effects on the ultimate outcome. In each of the following examples it is possible to identify some random events that disrupted the ongoing course, with irreversible consequences. Economic development In economic development, it is said (initially by Paul David in 1985) that a standard that is first-to-market can become entrenched (like the QWERTY layout in typewriters still used in computer keyboards). He called this "path dependence", and said that inferior standards can persist simply because of the legacy they have built up. That QWERTY vs. Dvorak is an example of this phenomenon, has been re-asserted, questioned, and continues to be argued. Economic debate continues on the significance of path dependence in determining how standards form. Economists from Alfred Marshall to Paul Krugman have noted that similar businesses tend to congregate geographically ("agglomerate"); opening near similar companies attracts workers with skills in that business, which draws in more businesses seeking experienced employees. There may have been no reason to prefer one place to another before the industry developed, but as it concentrates geographically, participants elsewhere are at a disadvantage, and will tend to move into the hub, further increasing its relative efficiency. This network effect follows a statistical power law in the idealized case, though negative feedback can occur (through rising local costs). Buyers often cluster around sellers, and related businesses frequently form business clusters, so a concentration of producers (initially formed by accident and agglomeration) can trigger the emergence of many dependent businesses in the same region. In the 1980s, the US dollar exchange rate appreciated, lowering the world price of tradable goods below the cost of production in many (previously successful) U.S. manufacturers. Some of the factories that closed as a result, could later have been operated at a (cash-flow) profit after dollar depreciation, but reopening would have been too expensive. This is an example of hysteresis, switching barriers, and irreversibility. If the economy follows adaptive expectations, future inflation is partly determined by past experience with inflation, since experience determines expected inflation and this is a major determinant of realized inflation. A transitory high rate of unemployment during a recession can lead to a permanently higher unemployment rate because of the skills loss (or skill obsolescence) by the unemployed, along with a deterioration of work attitudes. In other words, cyclical unemployment may generate structural unemployment. This structural hysteresis model of the labour market differs from the prediction of a "natural" unemployment rate or NAIRU, around which 'cyclical' unemployment is said to move without influencing the "natural" rate itself. Types of path dependence Liebowitz and Margolis distinguish types of path dependence; some do not imply inefficiencies and do not challenge the policy implications of neoclassical economics. Only "third-degree" path dependence—where switching gains are high, but transition is impractical—involves such a challenge. They argue that such situations should be rare for theoretical reasons, and that no real-world cases of private locked-in inefficiencies exist. Vergne and Durand qualify this critique by specifying the conditions under which path dependence theory can be tested empirically. Technically, a path-dependent stochastic process has an asymptotic distribution that "evolves as a consequence (function of) the process's own history". This is also known as a non-ergodic stochastic process. In The Theory of the Growth of the Firm (1959), Edith Penrose analyzed how the growth of a firm both organically and through acquisition is strongly influenced by the experience of its managers and the history of the firm's development. Conditions which give rise to path dependence Path dependence may arise or be hindered by a number of important factors, these may include Durability of capital equipment Technical interrelatedness Increasing returns Dynamic increasing returns to adoption Imperfect foresight and inefficiency History Recent methodological work in comparative politics and sociology has adapted the concept of path dependence into analyses of political and social phenomena. Path dependence has primarily been used in comparative-historical analyses of the development and persistence of institutions, whether they be social, political, or cultural. There are arguably two types of path-dependent processes: One is the critical juncture framework, most notably utilized by Ruth and David Collier in political science. In the critical juncture, antecedent conditions allow contingent choices that set a specific trajectory of institutional development and consolidation that is difficult to reverse. As in economics, the generic drivers are: lock-in, positive feedback, increasing returns (the more a choice is made, the bigger its benefits), and self-reinforcement (which creates forces sustaining the decision). The other path-dependent process deals with reactive sequences where a primary event sets off a temporally-linked and causally-tight deterministic chain of events that is nearly uninterruptible. These reactive sequences have been used to link such things as the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. with welfare expansion, or the industrial revolution in England with the development of the steam engine. The critical juncture framework has been used to explain the development and persistence of welfare states, labor incorporation in Latin America, and the variations in economic development between countries, among other things. Scholars such as Kathleen Thelen caution that the historical determinism in path-dependent frameworks is subject to constant disruption from institutional evolution. Kathleen Thelen has criticized the application of QWERTY keyboard-style mechanisms to politics. She argues that such applications to politics are both too contingent and too deterministic. Too contingent in the sense that the initial choice is open and flukey, and too deterministic in the sense that once the initial choice is made, an unavoidable path inevitably forms from which there is no return. Social sciences Paul Pierson's influential attempt to rigorously formalize path dependence within political science, draws partly on ideas from economics. Herman Schwartz has questioned those efforts, arguing that forces analogous to those identified in the economic literature are not pervasive in the political realm, where the strategic exercise of power gives rise to, and transforms, institutions. The path-dependence of emergent strategy has been observed in behavioral experiments with individuals and groups. In the social sciences, especially sociology and organizational theory, a distinct yet closely related concept to path dependence is the concept of imprinting which captures how initial environmental conditions leave a persistent mark (or imprint) on organizations and organizational collectives (such as industries and communities), thus continuing to shape organizational behaviours and outcomes in the long run, even as external environmental conditions change. Other examples A general type of path dependence is a typological vestige. In typography, for example, some customs persist, although the reason for their existence no longer applies; for example, the placement of the period inside a quotation in U.S. spelling. In metal type, pieces of terminal punctuation, such as the comma and period, are comparatively small and delicate (as they must be x-height for proper kerning.) Placing the full-height quotation mark on the outside protected the smaller cast metal sort from damage if the word needed to be moved around within or between lines. This would be done even if the period did not belong to the text being quoted. Evolution is considered by some to be path-dependent: mutations occurring in the past have had long-term effects on current life forms, some of which may no longer be adaptive to current conditions. For instance, there is a controversy about whether the panda's thumb is a leftover trait or not. In the computer and software markets, legacy systems indicate path dependence: customers' needs in the present market often include the ability to read data or run programs from past generations of products. Thus, for instance, a customer may need not merely the best available word processor, but rather the best available word processor that can read Microsoft Word files. Such limitations in compatibility contribute to lock-in, and more subtly, to design compromises for independently developed products, if they attempt to be compatible. Also see embrace, extend and extinguish. In socioeconomic systems, commercial fisheries' harvest rates and conservation consequences are found to be path dependent as predicted by the interaction between slow institutional adaptation, fast ecological dynamics, and diminishing returns. In physics and mathematics, a non-holonomic system is a physical system in which the states depend on the physical paths taken. See also Critical juncture theory Imprinting (organizational theory) Innovation butterfly Historicism Network effect Opportunity cost Ratchet effect Tyranny of small decisions Notes References Arrow, Kenneth J. (1963), 2nd ed. Social Choice and Individual Values. Yale University Press, New Haven, pp. 119–120 (constitutional transitivity as alternative to path dependence on the status quo). Arthur, W. Brian (1994), Increasing Returns and Path Dependence in the Economy. University of Michigan Press. , in P. Garrouste and S. Ioannides (eds), Evolution and Path Dependence in Economic Ideas: Past and Present, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, England. Hargreaves Heap, Shawn (1980), "Choosing the Wrong 'Natural' Rate: Accelerating Inflation or Decelerating Employment and Growth?" Economic Journal 90(359) (Sept): 611–20 (ISSN 0013-0133) Stephen E. Margolis and S.J. Liebowitz (2000), "Path Dependence, Lock-In, and History" Nelson, R. and S. Winter (1982), An evolutionary theory of economic change, Harvard University Press. Pdf. Penrose, E. T., (1959), The Theory of the Growth of the Firm, New York: Wiley. Pierson, Paul (2000). "Increasing Returns, Path Dependence, and the Study of Politics". American Political Science Review, June. _ (2004), Politics in Time: Politics in Time: History, Institutions, and Social Analysis, Princeton University Press. Puffert, Douglas J. (1999), "Path Dependence in Economic History" (based on the entry "Pfadabhängigkeit in der Wirtschaftsgeschichte", in the Handbuch zur evolutorischen Ökonomik) _ (2001), "Path Dependence in Spatial Networks: The Standardization of Railway Track Gauge" _ (2009), Tracks across continents, paths through history: the economic dynamics of standardization in railway gauge, University of Chicago Press. Schwartz, Herman. "Down the Wrong Path: Path Dependence, Increasing Returns, and Historical Institutionalism"., undated mimeo Shalizi, Cosma (2001), "QWERTY, Lock-in, and Path Dependence", unpublished website, with extensive references Vergne, J. P. and R. Durand (2010), "The missing link between the theory and empirics of path dependence", Journal of Management Studies, 47(4):736–59, with extensive references Competition (economics) Theories of history Market failure Markov models Decision theory

Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed

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Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed (also referred to as Scooby-Doo 2) is a 2004 American live-action/computer-animated horror comedy film based on the animated television franchise Scooby-Doo. It is the second installment in the Scooby-Doo live-action film series and a sequel to 2002's Scooby-Doo, and was directed by Raja Gosnell, written by James Gunn, and released by Warner Bros. Pictures. The film stars Freddie Prinze Jr., Sarah Michelle Gellar, Linda Cardellini, Matthew Lillard, Seth Green, Tim Blake Nelson, Peter Boyle and Alicia Silverstone, with Neil Fanning reprising his role as the voice of Scooby-Doo. The film was released on March 26, 2004. Like the first film, it received generally negative reviews from critics and grossed $181 million, considerably less than its predecessor. The reception resulted in a third film, set to be written and directed by Gunn, being cancelled. However, two telefilms featuring a new cast and taking place in a different continuity aired on Cartoon Network in 2009 and 2010, respectively. Plot Some time after their adventures in Spooky Island, Fred, Daphne, Velma, Shaggy and Scooby-Doo attend the opening of an exhibition at the Coolsonian Criminology Museum, which commemorates their past mysteries with displays of each culprit's monster costume. However, an individual known as the Evil Masked Figure interrupts the event, stealing two costumes using a reanimated version of the Pterodactyl Ghost. Journalist Heather Jasper Howe ridicules the entire gang, starting a smear campaign against them, taking their spoken words out of context. Concluding that an old vengeful enemy is the mastermind, the gang begins revisiting old cases. Dismissing the former Pterodactyl Ghost, Doctor Jonathan Jacobo, due to his presumed death during a failed prison escape three years ago, they suspect Jeremiah Wickles, the Black Knight Ghost and Jacobo's recently-released cellmate. Scooby and Shaggy, after overhearing the others criticizing their tendency to bungle every operation and especially their most recent failure to secure the Pterodactyl Ghost at the museum, resolve to better themselves and act like real detectives. Going to Wickles' residence, the group falls through a trapdoor and into a cage targeting unwelcome callers, but escape due to Daphne's cosmetics. Inside, the gang find an ancient Celtic text that serves as an instruction manual on how to create monsters by combining magic and science. Scooby and Shaggy find a note inviting Wickles to visit the Faux Ghost nightclub and are attacked by the Black Knight Ghost, but escape after fending it off. Before fleeing, the rest of the gang had previously discovered through the book found in Wickles' mansion that the key ingredient to creating the monsters was a substance called "randomonium", the byproduct of certain silver mines such as Coolsville's old mining town. Daphne, Velma, and Fred go to the museum accompanied by curator Patrick Wisely, but discover that the rest of the costumes have been stolen. Heather Jasper Howe turns the city against them. Following the lead from Wickles' note, Scooby and Shaggy don disguises and sneak into the Faux Ghost, only to discover it's a hangout for all the villains Mystery Inc. had previously unmasked. After speaking to Wickles, they learn that he has abandoned his criminal ways. The duo are eventually discovered and they escape through a garbage chute. On their way out, they spot Patrick uncharacteristically threatening someone who appears to be a member of his staff, ordering him to find out who vandalized his museum. Escaping an awkward interaction with Patrick, Scooby and Shaggy spot Wickles leaving the club and follow him. Daphne, Velma, and Fred go to the mines, finding Wickles presenting plans to turn it into a summer camp for children to a group of investors. When they confront Wickles, he states that he and Jacobo hated each other for various petty reasons and that he has no connection to the museum robberies. The gang then finds a secret laboratory where the costumes are vitalized as real supernatural creatures. Shaggy and Scooby play around with the machine's control panel, inadvertently bringing several costumes to life, and the gang flees with the panel as the Evil Masked Figure terrorizes the city. Escaping to their old high school clubhouse, the gang realizes they can reverse the control panel's power by altering its wiring, consequently destroying the monsters. However, Captain Cutler emerges from the nearby lake, forcing the gang to retreat to the mines, encountering the various monsters along the way. When Velma tries to give Scooby and Shaggy the control panel, they refuse to take it, believing that they will once again ruin everything and admit their feelings of inadequacy compared to the rest of the gang. Velma convinces them they are fine as they are and that they have both been heroes in their own way all along. After escaping the Skeleton Men, Velma finds a shrine dedicated to Jacobo built by Patrick. Eventually, Patrick finds her and proves his innocence by helping her after a catwalk gives way underneath her, but he is captured by the Pterodactyl Ghost. The gang finally confronts the Evil Masked Figure as the Tar Monster captures everyone except Scooby, who uses a fire extinguisher to freeze its body. He reconnects the control panel and activates it, turning the monsters back into their original forms. The gang takes the Evil Masked Figure to the authorities and he is revealed to be Howe. When asked about Howe's reason for committing her crimes, Velma suddenly pulls her face off, revealing her to actually be Jonathan Jacobo, alive and well. Velma explains that she realized Jacobo was still alive after finding a newspaper clipping showing him in front of the museum, the construction of which had begun a year after his apparent death. Having miraculously survived his prison escape, Jacobo sought to get revenge on the gang by discrediting them using his Heather Jasper Howe persona and later ultimately defeat them with his newfound way to create the monsters. Jacobo is soon arrested once again alongside his cameraman accomplice, Ned, and the gang are praised as heroes once more and celebrate their victory at the Faux Ghost with Wickles and the reformed criminals. Cast Live action Freddie Prinze Jr. as Fred Jones Ryan Vrba as Young Fred Sarah Michelle Gellar as Daphne Blake Emily Tennant as Young Daphne Matthew Lillard as Shaggy Rogers Cascy Beddow as Young Shaggy Nazanin Afshin-Jam as Shaggy Chick Linda Cardellini as Velma Dinkley Lauren Kennedy as Young Velma Seth Green as Patrick Wisely Peter Boyle as Jeremiah Wickles Tim Blake Nelson as Dr. Jonathan Jacobo Alicia Silverstone as Heather Jasper Howe Karin Konoval as Aggie Wilkins Joe MacLeod as Skater Dude No. 1 Brandon Jay McLaren as Skater Dude No. 2 Rasmus Nøhr as Skater Dude No. 3 Calum Worthy as Kid on Bike Stephen E. Miller as C.L. Magnus Zahf Paroo as Ned Christopher R. Sumpton as Zombie C. Ernst Harth as Miner 49er Kevin Durand as Black Knight Ghost Voice cast Neil Fanning as Scooby-Doo and Tasmanian Devil J. P. Manoux as Scooby Brainiac Scott McNeil as Evil Masked Figure Dee Bradley Baker as the voice of Pterodactyl Ghost, Zombie , and Red-Eyed Skeleton Bob Papenbrook as the voice of Black Knight Ghost Michael Sorich as the voice of Tar Monster and Cotton Candy Glob Terrence Stone/Dee Bradley Baker as the voice of 10,000 Volt Ghost Wally Wingert as the voice of Green-Eyed Skeleton Cameos Pat O'Brien Neil Fanning Tasmanian Devil Ruben Studdard Kester Moorhouse Big Brovaz Production In June 2002, at the time of the release of Scooby-Doo, Dan Fellman, the president of Warner Bros., confirmed that a sequel was in the works, and was slated for a 2004 release. In March 2003, it was announced that Freddie Prinze Jr., Sarah Michelle Gellar, Neil Fanning, Matthew Lillard and Linda Cardellini would reprise their roles in the sequel. In April 2003, the next month, filming for the sequel began in Vancouver, with Seth Green joining the cast. Reception Box office Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed opened March 26, 2004, and grossed $29.4 million (over 3,312 theaters, $8,888 average) during its opening weekend, ranking No. 1. It grossed a total of $84.2 million in North America, and went on to earn $181.5 million worldwide, more than $90 million less than the $275.7 million worldwide Scooby-Doo grossed two years earlier. It was the twenty eighth most successful film of 2004, and ranks as the sixth highest-grossing film featuring a dog as a major character. The film was released in the United Kingdom on April 2, 2004, and topped the country's box office for the next three weekends, before being dethroned by Kill Bill: Volume 2. Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed holds a rating of 22% based on 119 reviews and an average rating of 4.3/10. The site's consensus reads: "Only the very young will get the most out of this silly trifle." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 34 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale, an improvement over the previous film's "B+". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Times gave the film two stars out of four, stating, "This is a silly machine to whirl goofy antics before the eyes of easily distracted audiences, and it is made with undeniable skill." Dave Kehr of The New York Times gave the film a negative review, saying, "In the strictly secular-humanist world of Scooby-Doo, there are no real ghosts, but only humans desperate for attention who disguise themselves as supernatural figures." Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave the film a two out of five stars, stating, "it's straight down the line family fare, nothing inspired, nothing objectionable: a few funny lines." Nick DeSemlyn of Empire Magazine also gave the film two out of five stars, saying, "This sequel is a step up from the first. Scooby's animation is improved, there are some fun action sequences and a smattering of amusing moments. But the same manic mugging that spoiled the original mars this movie, and the result is a film only a six year-old on a sugar rush could love" Common Sense Media gave the film two out of five stars, saying, "Sequel is milder than original; potty humor, peril, violence." The film won the Razzie Award for Worst Remake or Sequel. Home media Warner Home Video released the film on DVD and VHS on September 14, 2004, in both full-screen and widescreen editions. The DVD included deleted scenes from the film's production and other special features, such as two music videos, a "making of" and trailers. On November 9, 2010, Warner Bros. released both the film and its predecessor as a double feature Blu-ray. Video games Two video games loosely following the plot of the film were released in 2004 to coincide with the film's release; a 3D point and click adventure on the PC and a 2D beat 'em up platformer on the Game Boy Advance. In both games, one ending could only be seen by entering a code displayed at the end of the film after the credits. Soundtrack A soundtrack was released on March 23, 2004, on compact disc and cassette tape. "Don't Wanna Think About You" by Simple Plan (Simple Plan had also performed the titular theme song) "You Get What You Give" by New Radicals "Boom Shack-A-Lak" by Apache Indian "Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin)" by Big Brovaz "The Rockafeller Skank" by Fatboy Slim "Wooly Bully" by Bad Manners "Shining Star" by Ruben Studdard "Flagpole Sitta" by Harvey Danger "Get Ready for This" by 2 Unlimited "Play That Funky Music" by Wild Cherry "Here We Go" by Bowling for Soup "Love Shack" by The B-52's "Friends Forever" by Puffy AmiYumi "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You?" by MxPx Cancelled theatrical sequel In October 2002, during the filming of Scooby-Doo 2, Warner Bros. approved production of a third film. Dan Forman and Paul Foley were hired to write the script for Scooby-Doo 3. In August 2004, Matthew Lillard said in an interview that the third Scooby-Doo film was canceled because the second had not done as well as expected, which he attributed to Warner Bros. releasing it at an inappropriate time. In a 2019 interview, James Gunn revealed that he was set to write and direct but the film did not happen due to the financial disappointment of the previous film, stating, "although it did well, it didn't do well enough to warrant a third, so the movie was never made." Gunn tweeted the plot for the canceled film that "The Mystery Inc. gang are hired by a town in Scotland who complain they are being plagued by monsters but we discover throughout the film the monsters are actually the victims. Scooby and Shaggy have to come to terms with their own prejudices and narrow belief systems." References External links 2004 films 2000s adventure comedy films 2000s buddy films 2000s fantasy-comedy films 2000s ghost films 2000s monster movies 2000s comedy mystery films American adventure comedy films American buddy films American children's adventure films American children's comedy films American comedy horror films American detective films American fantasy adventure films American fantasy-comedy films American films American monster movies American sequel films Children's horror films Films with live action and animation English-language films Films about dogs American films about revenge Films directed by Raja Gosnell Films featuring the Tasmanian Devil (Looney Tunes) Films produced by Charles Roven Films produced by Richard Suckle Films scored by David Newman Films set in fictional populated places Films set in mining communities Films set in museums Films set in Ohio Films shot in Vancouver Films shot in Winnipeg Films with screenplays by James Gunn Hanna-Barbera animated films Scooby-Doo live-action films Scooby-Doo (film series) Warner Bros. films American children's animated comedy films 2004 comedy films Films produced by James Gunn Films shot at Village Roadshow Studios Golden Raspberry Award winning films

Perennial plant

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A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term (per- + -ennial, "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also widely used to distinguish plants with little or no woody growth (secondary growth in girth) from trees and shrubs, which are also technically perennials. Perennialsespecially small flowering plantsthat grow and bloom over the spring and summer, die back every autumn and winter, and then return in the spring from their rootstock or other overwintering structure, are known as herbaceous perennials. However, depending on the rigours of local climate (temperature, moisture, organic content in the soil, microorganisms), a plant that is a perennial in its native habitat, or in a milder garden, may be treated by a gardener as an annual and planted out every year, from seed, from cuttings, or from divisions. Tomato vines, for example, live several years in their natural tropical/subtropical habitat but are grown as annuals in temperate regions because their above-ground biomass doesn't survive the winter. There is also a class of evergreen, or non-herbaceous, perennials, including plants like Bergenia which retain a mantle of leaves throughout the year. An intermediate class of plants is known as subshrubs, which retain a vestigial woody structure in winter, e.g. Penstemon. The symbol for a perennial plant, based on Species Plantarum by Linnaeus, is represented by the symbol: , which is also the astronomical symbol for the planet Jupiter. Life cycle and structure Perennial plants are most commonly: Herbaceous - plants that have foliage and stems that die to the ground at the end of the growing season and which show only primary growth. Woody - plants with persistent above grounds stems that survive from one growing season to the next, with primary and secondary growth, or growth in width protected by an outer cortex. Evergreen - with persistent foliage without woody stems. They can be short-lived (only a few years) or long-lived. They include a wide assortment of plant groups from non-flowering plants like ferns and liverworts to the highly diverse flowering plants like orchids, grasses, and woody plants. Plants that flower and fruit only once and then die are termed monocarpic or semelparous, these species may live for many years before they flower, for example, century plant can live for 80 years and grow 30 meters tall before flowering and dying. However, most perennials are polycarpic (or iteroparous), flowering over many seasons in their lifetime. Perennials invest more resources than annuals into roots, crowns, and other structures that allow them to live from one year to the next. They often have a competitive advantage because they can commence their growth and leaf out earlier in the growing season, and can grow taller than annuals, in doing so they can better compete for space and collect more light. Perennials typically grow structures that allow them to adapt to living from one year to the next through a form of vegetative reproduction rather than seeding. These structures include bulbs, tubers, woody crowns, rhizomes and turions. They might have specialized stems or crowns that allow them to survive periods of dormancy over cold or dry seasons during the year. Annuals, by contrast, produce seeds to continue the species as a new generation. At the same time, the growing season is suitable, and the seeds survive over the cold or dry period to begin growth when the conditions are again suitable. Many perennials have specialized features that allow them to survive extreme environmental conditions. Some have adapted to hot or dry conditions and others to cold temperatures; they tend to invest resources into their adaptations and often do not flower and set seed until after a few years of growth. In climates that are warm all year long, perennials may grow continuously. In seasonal climates, their growth is limited by temperature or moisture to a growing season. Some perennials retain their foliage year-round; these are evergreen perennials. Deciduous perennials shed all their leaves part of the year, they include herbaceous and woody plants; herbaceous plants have stems that lack hard, fibrous growth, while woody plants have stems with buds that survive above ground during dormancy, some perennials are semi-deciduous, meaning they lose some of their leaves in either winter or summer. Deciduous perennials shed their leaves when growing conditions are no longer suitable for photosynthesis, such as when it is too cold or dry. In many parts of the world, seasonality is expressed as wet and dry periods rather than warm and cold periods, and deciduous perennials lose their leaves in the dry season. Some perennial plants are protected from wildfires because they have underground roots that produce adventitious shoots, bulbs, crowns, or stems; other perennials like trees and shrubs may have thick cork layers that protect the stems. Herbaceous perennials from temperate and alpine regions of the world can tolerate the cold during winters. Perennial plants may remain dormant for long periods and then recommence growth and reproduction when the environment is more suitable, while most annual plants complete their life cycle during one growing period, and biennials have two growing periods. The meristem of perennial plants communicates with the hormones produced due to environmental situations (i.e., seasons), reproduction, and stage of development to begin and halt the ability to grow or flower. There is also a distinction between the ability to grow and the actual task of growth. For example, most trees regain the ability to grow during winter but do not initiate physical growth until the spring and summer months. The start of dormancy can be seen in perennials plants through withering flowers, loss of leaves on trees, and halting of reproduction in both flowering and budding plants. Perennials species may produce relatively large seeds that have the advantage of generating larger seedlings that can better compete with other plants. Perennials also produce seeds over many years. Cultivation Perennials that are cultivated include: woody plants like fruit trees grown for their edible fruits; shrubs and trees grown as landscaping ornamentals; herbaceous food crops like asparagus, rhubarb, strawberries; and subtropical plants not hardy in colder areas such as tomatoes, eggplant, and coleus (which are treated as annuals in colder areas). Perennials also include plants grown for their flowering and other ornamental value including: bulbs (like tulips, narcissus, and gladiolus); and lawn grass, and other groundcovers, (such as periwinkle and Dichondra). Each type of plant must be separated differently; for example, plants with fibrous root systems like daylilies, Siberian iris or grasses can be pried apart with two garden forks inserted back to back, or cut by knives. However, plants such as bearded irises have a root system of rhizomes; these root systems should be planted with the top of the rhizome just above ground level, with leaves from the following year showing. The point of dividing perennials is to increase the amount of a single breed of plant in your garden. In the United States more than 900 million dollars worth of potted herbaceous perennial plants were sold in 2019. Benefits in agriculture Although most of humanity is fed by the re-sowing of the seeds of annual grain crops, (either naturally or by the manual efforts of man), perennial crops provide numerous benefits. Perennial plants often have deep, extensive root systems which can hold soil to prevent erosion, capture dissolved nitrogen before it can contaminate ground and surface water, and out-compete weeds (reducing the need for herbicides). These potential benefits of perennials have resulted in new attempts to increase the seed yield of perennial species, which could result in the creation of new perennial grain crops. Some examples of new perennial crops being developed are perennial rice and intermediate wheatgrass. The Land Institute estimates that profitable, productive perennial grain crops will take at least 25 years to achieve. Location Perennial plants dominate many natural ecosystems on land and in fresh water, with only a very few (e.g. Zostera) occurring in shallow sea water. Herbaceous perennial plants are particularly dominant in conditions too fire-prone for trees and shrubs, e.g., most plants on prairies and steppes are perennials; they are also dominant on tundra too cold for tree growth. Nearly all forest plants are perennials, including the trees and shrubs. Perennial plants are usually better long-term competitors, especially under stable, resource-poor conditions. This is due to the development of larger root systems which can access water and soil nutrients deeper in the soil and to earlier emergence in the spring. Annual plants have an advantage in disturbed environments because of their faster growth and reproduction rates. Types Examples of evergreen perennials include Begonia and banana. Examples of deciduous perennials include goldenrod and mint. Examples of monocarpic perennials include Agave and some species of Streptocarpus. Examples of woody perennials include most vines shrubs and trees, maple, pine, and apple trees. Examples of herbaceous perennials used in agriculture include alfalfa, Thinopyrum intermedium, and Red clover. List of perennials Perennial flowers Perennials grown for their decorative flowers include very many species and types. Examples include Dahlia Kniphofia Hollyhock Lupin Perennial fruits The majority of fruit bearing plants are perennial even in temperate climates. Examples include Apple Blackcurrant Blueberry Blackberry Currant Grape Pear Plum Raspberries Strawberry Perennial herbs Many herbs are perennial including these examples: Fennel Mint Rosemary Sage Thyme Grains Perennial vegetables Many vegetable plants can grow as perennials in tropical climates, but die in cold weather. Examples of some of the more completely perennial vegetables are: Asparagus Chives Globe artichoke Jerusalem artichoke Leek New Zealand spinach Rhubarb Sorrel Rakkyo Sea kale Kale Sweet potato See also Annual plant Biennial plant Herbaceous Herbchronology Perennial grain Notes References External links USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map Gardening with Perennials Edible Aroids Plants for a Future Garden plants

The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement

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The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement is a 2004 American romantic comedy film and the sequel to 2001's The Princess Diaries. Unlike the first film, this film is not based on any of the books. Most of the cast returned from the first film, including Julie Andrews, Anne Hathaway, Héctor Elizondo, Heather Matarazzo, and Larry Miller. Garry Marshall returned to direct and Debra Martin Chase and Whitney Houston to produce. New characters include Viscount Mabrey (John Rhys-Davies), Lord Nicholas Devereaux (Chris Pine, his film debut), and Andrew Jacoby (Callum Blue). Despite not being critically successful, the film had a worldwide box office of $134.7 million. Plot Five years after the first film, Mia Thermopolis graduates from Princeton University, returning to Genovia. There, she awaits her grandmother, Queen Clarisse's, abdication. Dancing with all eligible bachelors at her 21st birthday party to find a husband, she meets a dashing young gentleman named Nicholas, and the two become mutually attracted. During the evening, Mia's tiara falls off, caught by Member of Parliament (MP), Viscount Mabrey, who secretly plans to steal the crown. During the Parliamentary session the next morning, Mia hears Mabrey revealing his nephew, Lord Devereaux, to be the next male heir to the throne. By law, Mia can only be Queen if she marries within the month. Clarisse invites Lord Devereaux to stay at the palace, and Mia is shocked to discover he is Nicholas. Her best friend, Lilly Moscovitz, surprises her with a visit. Together, they look through potential husbands. Mia eventually chooses Andrew Jacoby, Duke of Kenilworth, and days later, they are engaged. Mabrey plans to have Nicholas seduce Mia so the engagement will fail. Joe tries to persuade Clarisse to publicly pursue their feelings for each other as her reign as queen is coming to an end. Mia has to ride sidesaddle for a ceremony but is inexperienced, so Queen Clarisse provides an ancestral wooden leg decoy so it seems she's doing so. When Mabrey spooks Mia's horse with a rubber snake, Joe inadvertently tears off the wooden leg. Humiliated, she flees to the stables, where Nicholas fails to comfort her. At a garden party, Mia and Nicholas quarrel about her relationship with Andrew. As they argue, he kisses her. At first, she kisses him back but then backs away. Pursuing her, they fall into a fountain. Queen Clarisse tells Mia that her behavior with Nicholas has to stop. At the Genovian Independence Day parade, seeing some boys harassing a little girl, Mia abruptly halts the parade to help. Learning the girl, Carolina, and the others are orphans, she has a vendor give them all tiaras and lets them walk with them in the parade. Everyone is impressed, while Mabrey sees it as a political maneuver. Nicholas is also struck by Mia's care for Genovia and begins doubting taking over the throne. Mia later declares the conversion of a royal palace into a temporary children's center. At Mia's bachelorette slumber party, princesses attend from around the world. They mattress surf and sing karaoke. Meanwhile, Nicholas tries to stop his uncle from pursuing the throne as Mia is doing well as a ruler. Mabrey realizes Nicholas has fallen for her, but believes Mia will never love him. Mabrey encourages him to pursue her, later revealing to his surly and mistreated housekeeper Gretchen he plans to let this ruin Mia's chances of becoming queen. Manipulating Nicholas, he makes him believe it was his late father's wish for him to become king. Nicholas helps Mia succeed at hitting the target as she is practicing for her coronation rites. He tells her he is leaving, but asks to see her once more before he goes. She declines, as she is under close guard. That night, Nicholas convinces Mia outside her window, to sneak out. By a lake, they share secrets, dance, and eventually fall asleep. They awaken to find a man filming them. Mia thinks Nicholas set her up, while he insists he had no idea. The scandalous footage is already being broadcast before she returns. Disappointed, Andrew kisses Mia to see if there is a romantic spark between them. There isn't, but do not call off the wedding for the good of Genovia. The wedding is the following day, and Mia's mother, Helen, comes with her new husband and their newborn son. Nicholas decides against attending, until Gretchen tells him Mabrey engineered the televised scandal. Before the wedding, Joe tells Mia Nicholas is innocent. Walking down the aisle, she suddenly stops and runs out of the church. Queen Clarisse follows and Mia says she doesn't want to be forced to marry. Clarisse encourages her to follow her heart, something she never did, costing her Joe, the love of her life. In the church, Mia points out her unmarried grandmother has ruled Genovia for many years, asking the members of parliament to reconsider the law, asking them if they would force the significant women in their lives to marry without love. Mabrey again suggests his nephew be named King, but Nicholas appears, refusing. Mia proposes the law on royal marriages be abolished, and the Parliament unanimously assents. Clarisse proposes to Joe and they are promptly married. A week later, Mia is preparing for her coronation when Nicholas arrives. Professing his love on bended knee, they kiss. The next day, Queen Clarisse steps down, and Mia is crowned "Her Majesty Amelia Mignonette Thermopolis Renaldi, Queen of Genovia", with all in attendance in the palace. An epilogue shows the Genovian Parliament now allows female members, one of whom is Charlotte (Clarisse's lady-in-waiting). In a final scene, Queen Mia officially opens a new children's home with Carolina. Cast Anne Hathaway as Mia Thermopolis Julie Andrews as Queen Clarisse Renaldi Héctor Elizondo as Joe John Rhys-Davies as Viscount Mabrey Heather Matarazzo as Lilly Moscovitz Chris Pine as Nicholas Deveraux Callum Blue as Andrew Jacoby Caroline Goodall as Helen Thermopolis Kathleen Marshall as Charlotte Kutaway Tom Poston as Lord Palimore Raven-Symoné as Princess Asana Larry Miller as Paolo Matthew Walker as Captain Kip Kelly Shea Curry as Brigitte Anna A. White as Brigitta Cassie Rowell as Olivia Erik Bragg as Lionel Sean O'Bryan as Patrick O'Connell Scott Marshall as Shades Abigail Breslin as Carolina Stan Lee in a cameo appearance Jonny Blu as himself Spencer Breslin as Prince Jacques Reception The film opened in 3,472 theaters in North America and grossed $23 million in its opening weekend. It grossed $134.7 million worldwide—$95.2 million in North America and $39.6 million in other territories. Critical response Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 26% of 120 critic reviews are "fresh" (positive), and the average rating is 4.57/10. The site's critical consensus is that "Anne Hathaway and Julie Andrews bring charm and elegance to the movie, but there's not enough material for them to work with in this sequel." At Metacritic, the film has an average score of 43/100 from the 31 reviews, which indicates "mixed or average reviews". The film's writer, Shonda Rhimes, later said that she treasured the experience if for nothing else – the opportunity to work with its star, Julie Andrews. Andrews was later cast as the voice of Lady Whistledown in Rhimes' 2020 series, Bridgerton. Soundtrack The song, "Your Crowning Glory", a duet between Queen Clarisse (Julie Andrews) and Princess Asana (Raven-Symoné) was the first time Andrews had sung in public or on screen since she had throat surgery in 1997. Possible sequel In March 2016, Garry Marshall announced plans for a third Princess Diaries film, with Hathaway reprising her role. When Marshall died in July 2016, the project had been shelved indefinitely. In August of the same year, Hector Elizondo discussed development of the third installment stating, "I know Anne would like to do it. I know Julie would like to do it. I would like to do it. So we're on board, it's a question of when and a question of getting a good story. I'm ready! It's time to go back to Genovia!" In May 2018, Anne Hathaway stated that she would still like to appear in a third Princess Diaries film. By January 2019, she confirmed that a script is completed and that she and Andrews are currently on board to co-star in the film and producer Debra Martin Chase will return. She further stated that the film will not enter production until "it's perfect". References External links The Princess Diaries 2004 films 2004 romantic comedy films American films American romantic comedy films American sequel films 2000s English-language films Films about princesses Films about weddings Films directed by Garry Marshall Films scored by John Debney Films set in Europe Films set in palaces Films shot in Los Angeles Films shot in Wiltshire Walt Disney Pictures films

Indian Museum, Kolkata

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The Indian Museum in Central Kolkata, West Bengal, India, also referred to as the Imperial Museum at Calcutta in colonial-era texts, is the ninth oldest museum in the world, the oldest and largest museum in India. It has rare collections of antiques, armour and ornaments, fossils, skeletons, mummies and Mughal paintings. It was founded by the Asiatic Society of Bengal in Kolkata (Calcutta), India, in 1814. The founder curator was Nathaniel Wallich, a Danish botanist. It has six sections comprising thirty five galleries of cultural and scientific artifacts namely Indian art, archaeology, anthropology, geology, zoology and economic botany. Many rare and unique specimens, both Indian and trans-Indian, relating to humanities and natural sciences, are preserved and displayed in the galleries of these sections. In particular the art and archaeology sections hold collections of international importance. It is an autonomous organization under Ministry of Culture, Government of India. The present Director of the Indian Museum is Shri Arijit Dutta Choudhury who is also the Director General, NCSM and having the additional charge of Director General of National Library. Administrative control of the Cultural sections, viz. Art, Archaeology and Anthropology rests with the Board of Trustees under its Directorate, and that of the three other science sections is with the geological survey of India, the zoological survey of India and the Botanical survey of India. The museum Directorate has eight co-ordinating service units: Education, preservation, publication, presentation, photography, medical, modelling and library. This multipurpose institution with multidisciplinary activities is being included as an Institute of national importance in the seventh schedule of the Constitution of India. History The Indian Museum originated from the Asiatic Society of Bengal which was created by Sir William Jones in 1784. The concept of having a museum arose in 1796 from members of the Asiatic Society as a place where man-made and natural objects collected could be kept, cared for and displayed. The objective began to look achievable in 1808 when the Society was offered suitable accommodation by the Government of India in the Chowringhee-Park Street area. On February 2, 1814, Nathaniel Wallich, a Danish botanist, who had been captured in the siege of Serampore but later released, wrote to the council of the Asiatic Society for the formation of a museum out of his own collection and that of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta, volunteering his service as a Curator wherein he proposed five sections—an archaeological, ethnological, a technical section and a geological and zoological one. The council readily agreed and the Museum was created, with Wallich named the Honorary Curator and then Superintendent of the Oriental Museum of the Asiatic Society. Wallich also donated a number of botanical specimens to the museum from his personal collection. In 1815, Mr William Lloyd Gibbons, Asst Secretary and Librarian, was appointed Joint Secretary of the Museum. After the resignation of Wallich, curators were paid salaries by the Asiatic Society ranging from Rs 50 to Rs 200 a month. However, in 1836, when the bankers of the Asiatic Society (Palmer and Company) became insolvent, the Government began to pay the salary of the Curator from its public funds since a large part of the collection was that of the surveyors of Survey of India. A temporary grant of Rs 200 per month was sanctioned for maintenance of the museum and library, and J. T. Pearson of the Bengal Medical Service was appointed curator, followed shortly by John McClelland and, after the former's resignation, by Edward Blyth. In 1840, the Government took a keen interest in geology and mineral resources, and this led to an additional grant of Rs 250 per month for the geological section alone. In 1851 when the Geological Survey of India came into being with the advent of Sir Thomas Oldham, a rented building at 1, Hastings Road now K N Roy Road, the present site of the New Secretariat became its office. The geological collection of the Government of India 'Museum of Economic Geology' at the Asiatic Society, were then transferred to this site in 1856. The Asiatic Society geological collection were however held back with the condition that it would be handed over to the GSI once a Museum for all its collection came into being. It was way back in 1837 that Sir James Princeps, then-Secretary of the Asiatic Society, had written to the Government asking for a Museum paid for by the state. A movement for a full-fledged Museum was thereafter keenly pursued over a decade, and later, with Sir Thomas Oldham, then Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India, at the helm, it gained momentum. The thrust for a full-fledged Museum was held up due to the intervention of the revolt of the sepoys of the East India Company. The matter was pursued again, once things settled down after India came under the Crown. Thereafter the First Indian Museum Act was passed in 1866 and the foundation of the Indian Museum at its present site laid in 1867. In 1875 the present building on Chowringee Road, presently Jawaharlal Nehru Road, designed by W L Granville in consultation with Sir Thomas Holland, on Chowringee was completed. In 1877 after the retirement of Sir Thomas Oldham in 1876 the Geological Survey of India including the Museum of Economic Geology shifted here from its rented accommodation on 1 Hastings Road. This building had been designated as the site the for not just the Asiatic Societies, Oriental Museum's collection and the Economic Geology collection of the Geological Survey of India but also to hold the offices of both. The Asiatic Society however relinquished its rights preferring to maintain its autonomy from the government. The Geological Survey of India is till date headquartered at the buildings of the Indian Museum Complex and holds exclusive rights over the Geological galleries of the Indian Museum. The building parallel to Sudder Street commenced in 1888 and occupied in 1891. The next building block at right angle to Sudder Street was erected in 1894. Half of this building was consigned to the Geological Survey of India but by 1912 it was wholly transferred to it. The Zoological and Anthropological sections of the museum gave rise to the Zoological Survey of India in 1916, which in turn gave rise to the Anthropological Survey of India in 1945. The Scottish anatomist and zoologist John Anderson took up the position of curator in 1865, and catalogued the mammal and archaeology collections. The English zoologist James Wood-Mason worked at the museum from 1869 and succeeded Anderson as curator in 1887. The museum was closed to visitors for restoration and upgrades from September 2013 to February 2014. Collections Egyptian It currently occupies a resplendent mansion, and exhibits among others: an Egyptian mummy. The mummy is being restored. Indian The large collection of ancient and medieval Indian artifacts include the complete railings and gateways of the Buddhist stupa from Bharhut (the bare stupa is still at Bharhut, near Satna, MP). The Bharhut panels are unique in that they are properly labelled in the Brahmi script. Are preserved are Buddha's relics, a copy of the Lion Capital of Ashoka from an Ashoka pillar (original in the Sarnath Museum) whose four-lion symbol became the official emblem of the Republic of India, fossil skeletons of prehistoric animals, an art collection, rare antiques, and a collection of meteorites. The Indian Museum is also regarded as "the beginning of a significant epoch initiating the socio-cultural and scientific achievements of the country. It is otherwise considered as the beginning of the modernity and the end of medieval era" by UZER Places. Natural History The museum has four galleries dedicated to natural history, namely the botanical, insect, mammal and bird galleries. It also contains prehistoric artifacts such as the huge skeleton of a dinosaur. Museum gallery References External links History of Indian Museum Indian Museum Kolkata at Google Cultural Institute Don Bosco Museum The Indian Museum Completes 200 Years by Shakunt Pandey Publications of the Indian Museum 1814 establishments in British India National museums of India Art museums and galleries in India Archaeological museums in India Natural history museums in India Museums established in 1814 Museums in Kolkata World's fair sites in India

Saint Louis Art Museum

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The Saint Louis Art Museum is one of the principal U.S. art museums, with paintings, sculptures, cultural objects, and ancient masterpieces from all corners of the world. Its three-story building stands in Forest Park in St. Louis, Missouri, where it is visited by up to a half million people every year. Admission is free through a subsidy from the cultural tax district for St. Louis City and County. In addition to the featured exhibitions, the museum offers rotating exhibitions and installations. These include the Currents series, which features contemporary artists, as well as regular exhibitions of new media art and works on paper. History The museum was founded in 1879 as the Saint Louis School and Museum of Fine Arts, an independent entity within Washington University in St. Louis. It was housed in a building commissioned by Wayman Crow as a memorial to his son, Wayman Crow Jr., and designed by Boston architects Peabody and Stearns for 19th and Lucas Place (now Locust Street). The school, led by director Halsey Ives, educated two generations of St. Louis artists and craftspeople, and offered studio and art history classes supported by a museum collection. After the closing of the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition, the museum and school moved from downtown to one of the few permanent remnants of the fair, the Palace of Fine Arts. The building was designed by Cass Gilbert, who took inspiration from the Baths of Caracalla in Rome, Italy. Ives introduced a bill into the General Assembly for an art tax to support the maintenance of the museum. The bill was approved by the citizens of Saint Louis by a nearly 4-to-1 margin. However, the city's controller refused to distribute the tax to the museum's board of control, as it was not a municipal entity and so had no right to tax money. The controller's position was upheld in 1908 by the Missouri Supreme Court. This caused the formal separation of the museum from the university in 1909, a split which was the beginning of three civic institutions: a newly created, public City Art Museum, to remain in the Palace of Fine Arts, the organization which evolved into the Saint Louis Art Museum; an organizing board was assigned to take control in 1912. the Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum affiliated with the private Washington University, whose collection was lent to the City Art Museum for several years, and now part of the Sam Fox School of Design & Visual Arts the St. Louis School of Fine Arts, also part of Washington University. In 1905 Ives had been immediately succeeded as director by Edmund H. Wuerpel; as of September 1909 Wuerpel advertised classes at Skinker and Lindell. Wuerpel remained director until his retirement in 1939. The school is now also part of the Sam Fox School of Design & Visual Arts. The building at 19th and Lucas Place fell into disrepair, and was eventually demolished in 1919. During the 1950s, the museum added an extension to include an auditorium for films, concerts and lectures. In 1971, efforts to secure the museum's financial future led voters in St. Louis City and County to approve the creation of the Metropolitan Zoological Park and Museum District (ZMD). This expanded the tax base for the 1908 tax to include St. Louis County. In 1972, the museum was again renamed, to the Saint Louis Art Museum. Today, the museum is supported financially by the tax, donations from individuals and public associations, sales in the Museum Shop, and foundation support. Expansion Plans to expand the museum, which existed in the 1995 Forest Park Master Plan and the museum's 2000 Strategic Plan, began in earnest in 2005, when the museum board selected the British architect Sir David Chipperfield to design the expansion; Michel Desvigne was selected as landscape architect. The St. Louis-based firm, Hellmuth, Obata, and Kassabaum (HOK) was the architect of record to work with the construction team. On November 5, 2007, museum officials released the design plans to the public and hosted public conversations about those plans. A model of the new building was displayed in the museum's Sculpture Hall throughout the construction project. In 2008, citing the declining state of the economy, the museum announced that it would delay the start of the expansion, whose cost was then estimated at $125 million. Construction began in 2009; the museum remained open. The expansion added more than of gallery space, including an underground garage, within the lease lines of the property. Money for the project was raised through private gifts to the capital campaign from individuals, foundations and corporations, and from proceeds from the sale of tax-exempt bonds. The fundraising campaigned covered the $130-million cost of construction and a $31.2 million increase to the museum's endowment to support incremental costs of operating the larger facility. The expanded facility opened in the summer of 2013. Collection The collection of the Saint Louis Art Museum contains more than 34,000 objects dating from antiquity to the present. The collection is divided into nine areas: American Ancient and Egyptian Africa, Oceania, Americas Asian Decorative Arts and Design European to 1800 Islamic Modern and Contemporary Prints, Drawings, and Photographs The modern art collection includes works by the European masters Matisse, Gauguin, Monet, Picasso, Corrado Giaquinto, Giambattista Pittoni and Van Gogh. The museum's particularly strong collection of 20th-century German paintings includes the world's largest Max Beckmann collection, which includes Christ and the Woman Taken in Adultery. In recent years, the museum has been actively acquiring post-war German art to complement its Beckmanns, such as works by Joseph Beuys, Gerhard Richter, Martin Kippenberger, Sigmar Polke, and Anselm Kiefer. The collection also includes Chuck Close's Keith (1970). The collections of Oceanic and Mesoamerican works, as well as handwoven Turkish rugs, are among the finest in the world. The museum holds the Egyptian mummy Amen-Nestawy-Nakht, and two mummies on loan from Washington University. Its collection of American artists includes the largest U.S.-museum collection of paintings by George Caleb Bingham. The collection contains at least six pieces that Nazis confiscated from their own museums as degenerate. These include Max Beckmann’s “Christ and the Woman Taken in Adultery” which came to the museum through a New York art dealer, Curt Valentin, who specialized in Nazi confiscations, and Matisse's “Bathers with a Turtle” which Joseph Pulitzer purchased at the Galerie Fischer auction held in the Grand Hôtel National, Lucerne, Switzerland, June 30, 1939. In the context of the museum's 2013 expansion, British artist Andy Goldsworthy created Stone Sea, a site-specific work for a narrow space between the old and new buildings. Twenty-five tightly packed, ten-foot-high arches made of native limestone rise in a sunken courtyard. The artist was inspired by the fact that the sedimentary rock was formed when the region was a shallow sea in Prehistoric times. In 2021, the museum received a promised gift of 22 paintings and sculptures from the collection of the American curator and philanthropist Emily Rauh Pulitzer, the widow of the media heir Joseph Pulitzer Jr. The donation includes works by 17 European and American artists, including Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, Constantin Brâncuși, Joan Miró, Philip Guston, Ellsworth Kelly and others. Exhibitions 2020 (November 20, 2020 – May 31, 2021) Buzz Spector: Alterations (September 17, 2019 – October 11, 2020) The Shape of Abstraction: Selections from the Ollie Collection (December 13, 2019 – November 22, 2020) Javanese Batik Textiles (July 31, 2020 – January 31, 2021) Currents 118: Elias Sime (August 7–November 15, 2020) New Media Series—Martine Syms (February 16–September 7, 2020) Millet and Modern Art: From Van Gogh to Dalí (January 24–August 2, 2020) New Media Series–Sky Hopinka 2019 (November 15, 2019 – March 8, 2020) Currents 117: Dave Hullfish Bailey (November 1, 2019 – January 19, 2020) New Media Series–Clarissa Tossin (October 20, 2019 – January 12, 2020) Dutch Painting in the Age of Rembrandt from the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (July 21–September 15, 2019) Paul Gauguin: The Art of Invention (May 31–October 27, 2019) The Bauhaus and its Legacy: Oskar Schlemmer's Triadic Ballet (May 24–December 1, 2019) Printing the Pastoral: Visions of the Countryside in 18th-Century Europe (April 26–August 25, 2019) Poetics of the Everyday: Amateur Photography, 1890–1970 (March 17–June 9, 2019) Rachel Whiteread (February 22–May 27, 2019) New Media Series–Oliver Laric (February 22–May 27, 2019) Currents 116: Oliver Laric 2018 (December 14, 2018 – May 5, 2019) Southwest Weavings: 800 Years of Artistic Exchange (November 30, 2018 – March 31, 2019) Printing Abstraction (November 11, 2018 – February 3, 2019) Graphic Revolution: American Prints 1960 to Now (October 19, 2018 – February 10, 2019) Kehinde Wiley: Saint Louis (October 5, 2018 – February 17, 2019) New Media Series–Renée Green (June 15–November 25, 2018) Balance and Opposition in Ancient Peruvian Textiles (April 20–July 15, 2018) Currents 115: Jennifer Bornstein (April 20–September 30, 2018) New Media Series: Cyprian Gaillard (March 25–September 9, 2018) Sunken Cities: Egypt’s Lost Worlds (March 30–September 30, 2018) Chinese Buddhist Art, 10th–15th Centuries 2017 (December 22–May 28, 2018) Greek Island Embroideries (November 5–January 21, 2018) Thomas Struth: Nature & Politics (November 17, 2017 – February 4, 2018) Currents 114: Matt Saunders (November 17–April 15, 2018) New Media Series—Ben Thorp Brown (September 15–March 25, 2018) Fired Up: Ink Painting and Contemporary Ceramics from Japan (August 11, 2017 – January 28, 2018) A Century of Japanese Prints (July 14–November 12, 2017) New Media Series: Amy Granat (June 25–September 17, 2017) Reigning Men: Fashion in Menswear, 1715-2015 (May 26–November 26, 2017) Cross-Pollination: Flowers in 18th-Century European Porcelain and Textiles (April 1–June 25, 2017) Currents 113: Shimon Attie Lost in Space (After Huck) (April 21–September 4, 2017) The Hats of Stephen Jones (March 24–June 25, 2017) New Media Series: Shimon Attie (March 3–July 30, 2017) Learning to See: Renaissance and Baroque Masterworks from the Phoebe Dent Weil and Mark S. Weil Collection (March 10–September 4, 2017) In the Realm of Trees: Photographs, Paintings, and Scholar’s Objects from the Collection (February 12–May 7, 2017) Degas, Impressionism, and the Paris Millinery Trade 2016 (December 16–March 19, 2017) New Media Series: Rodney McMillian (October 16, 2016 – January 8, 2017) Conflicts of Interest: Art and War in Modern Japan (September 2–December 11) New Media Series: Dara Birnbaum (September 9–April 30, 2017) Textiles: Politics and Patriotism (August 5, 2016 – February 12, 2017) Impressions of War (August 19, 2016 – February 12, 2017) Japanese Painting and Calligraphy: Highlights from the Collection (June 19–September 11, 2016) Self-Taught Genius: Treasures from the American Folk Art Museum (April 1–August 21, 2016) From Caravans to Courts: Textiles from the Silk Road (March 6–May 8, 2016) The Carpet and the Connoisseur: The James F. Ballard Collection of Oriental Rugs (March 24–June 19, 2016) Currents 112: Andréa Stanislav: Convergence Infinité (March 11–August 14, 2016) Real and Imagined Landscapes in Chinese Art (January 29–July 17, 2016) A Decade of Collecting Prints, Drawings, and Photographs 2015 (September 18, 2015 – March 20, 2016) Blow-Up: Graphic Abstraction in 1960s Design (November 8, 2015 – January 31, 2016) St. Louis Modern (November 6, 2015 – March 13, 2016) New Media Series—Ana Mendieta: Alma, Silueta en Fuego (October 23, 2015 – February 14, 2016) Currents 111: Steven and William Ladd: Scouts or Sports? (September 4, 2015 – March 6, 2016) Journey to the Interior: Ink Painting from Japan (July 17–November 1, 2015) New Media Series—Alex Prager: Face in the Crowd (July 31, 2015–January 3, 2016) The Artist and the Modern Studio (June 28–September 27, 2015) Senufo: Art and Identity in West Africa (April 8–July 12, 2015) Currents 110: Mariam Ghani (April 17–July 19, 2015) Beyond Bosch: The Afterlife of a Renaissance Master in Print (March 20–September 7, 2015) Adorning Self and Space: West African Textiles (February 22–May 17, 2015) Navigating the West: George Caleb Bingham and the River (February 27–August 30, 2015) Creatures Great and Small: Animals in Japanese Art (February 7–September 20, 2015) Thomas Cole’s Voyage of Life 2014 (December 12, 2014–May 10, 2015) Vija Celmins: "Intense Realism" (November 21, 2014 – April 5, 2015) Scenic Wonder: An Early American Journey Down the Hudson River (November 21, 2014 – April 5, 2015) Nicholas Nixon: 40 Years of The Brown Sisters (October 12, 2014 – January 5, 2015) Atua: Sacred Gods from Polynesia (October 31, 2014 – March 8, 2015) Currents 109: Nick Cave (September 12, 2014 – February 22, 2015) Calligraphy in Chinese and Japanese Art (August 1–October 19, 2014) New Media Series—Janaina Tsch¨pe: The Ocean Within (August 29–November 2, 2014) Louis IX: King, Saint, Namesake (July 4, 2014–February 22, 2015) Facets of the Three Jewels: Tibetan Buddhist Art from the Collections of George E. Hibbard and the Saint Louis Art Museum (June 20–December 7, 2014) Brett Weston: Photographs (May 24–September 14, 2014) Tragic and Timeless: The Art of Mark Rothko (April 11–July 27, 2014) Currents 108: Won Ju Lim (March 16–July 14, 2014) Impressionist France: Visions of Nation from Le Gray to Monet (March 28–September 7, 2014) Sight Lines: Richard Serra’s Drawings for Twain (February 26–August 10, 2014) Anything but Civil: Kara Walker’s Vision of the Old South (February 7–September 7, 2014) Flowers of the Four Seasons in Chinese and Japanese Art (January 10–March 30, 2014) New Media Series — Marco Brambilla: Evolution (Megaplex) (January 24–June 15, 2014) Life Cycles: Isabella Kirkland’s Taxa (January 21–June 22, 2014) Mother Earth, Father Sky: Textiles from the Navajo World 2013 (November 8, 2013 – February 16, 2014) The Weight of Things: Photographs by Paul Strand and Emmet Gowin (October 4, 2013 – February 2, 2014) Chiura Obata: Four Paintings, Four Moods (September 27, 2013 – January 5, 2014) Currents 107: Renata Stih & Frieder Schnock (June 29–September 2, 2013) Yoko Ono: Wish Tree (June 29, 2013 – January 19, 2014) Encounters Along the Missouri River: the 1858 Sketchbooks of Charles Ferdinand Wimar (June 29, 2013 –January 26, 2014) Postwar German Art in the Collection (June 29, 2013 – January 26, 2014) A New View: Contemporary Art (May 3–September 8, 2013) New Media Series—Hiraki Sawa: Migration (April 26–October 27, 2013) Mantegna to Man Ray: Six Explorations in Prints, Drawings, and Photographs (March 5, 2013 – January 12, 2014) Highlights of the Textile Collection (February 8–April 28, 2013) New Media Series—William E. Jones: "Killed" (January 18–June 14, 2013) Focus on the Collection—Edward Curtis: Visions of Native America 2012 (November 2, 2012 – January 27, 2013) New Media Series—James Nares: Street (October 21, 2012 – January 20, 2013) Federico Barocci: Renaissance Master (September 14, 2012 – January 13, 2013) Focus on the Collection: Drawn in Copper, Italian Prints in the Age of Barocci (July 13–October 21, 2012) New Media Series—Laleh Khorramian: Water Panics in the Sea (June 8–September 3, 2012) Restoring an American Treasure:The Panorama of the Monumental Grandeur of the Mississippi Valley (June 15–December 31, 2012) Plants and Flowers in Chinese Paintings and Ceramics (May 4–August 26, 2012) Harper’s Pictorial History of the Civil War, (Annotated) by Kara Walker (April 6–July 1, 2012) Currents 106: Chelsea Knight (February 19–May 13, 2012) An Orchestrated Vision: The Theater of Contemporary Photography (January 13–March 25, 2012) New Media Series—Teresa Hubbard/Alexander Birchler: Single Wide (January 13–April 8, 2012) At the Crossroads: Exploring Black Identity in Contemporary Art (January 20–April 29, 2012) The First Act: Staged Photography Before 1980 2011 (October 2, 2011 – January 22, 2012) Monet’s Water Lilies (October 14, 2011 – January 15, 2012) Focus on the Collection: Expressionist Landscape (September 9, 2011 – January 8, 2012) New Media Series—Guido van der Werve: Number Twelve: Variations on a Theme (July 15–October 9, 2011) Focus on the Collection: Francesco Clemente’s High Fever (June 12–August 21, 2011) Restoring an American Treasure: The Panorama of the Monumental Grandeur of the Mississippi Valley (June 17–September 5, 2011) New Media Series—Martha Colburn: Triumph of the Wild (April 8–July 31, 2011) Currents 105: Ian Monroe (April 15–July 10, 2011) Focus on the Collection: Engraving in Renaissance Germany (February 13–May 8, 2011) Fiery Pool: The Maya and the Mythic Sea (February 25–June 19, 2011) Visual Musing: Prints by William Kentridge (January 14–April 10, 2011) Aaron Douglas (January 14–April 10, 2011) Glimpsing History through Art: Selections from the Charles and Rosalyn Lowenhaupt Collection of Japanese Prints (January 28–June 5, 2011) New Media Series—William Kentridge: Two Films 2010 (October 10, 2010 – January 2, 2011) Joe Jones: Painter of the American Scene (October 22, 2010 – January 16, 2011) New Media Series—Pae White: Dying Oak (September 24, 2010 – January 9, 2011) Portrait of Depression-Era America (July 16–October 17, 2010) New Media Series—Laurent Grasso, The Birds (June 20–September 6, 2010) Bill Viola: Visitation (June 20–September 6, 2010) The Mourners: Tomb Sculptures from the Court of Burgundy (June 25–September 19, 2010) Form in Translation: Sculptors Making Prints and Drawings (April 9–July 11, 2010) Currents 104: Bruce Yonemoto (March 12–June 20, 2010) Lee Friedlander (February 5–April 4, 2010) New Media Series | Marc Swanson & Neil Gust, Dark Room (February 14–May 9, 2010) African Ceremonial Cloths: Selections from the Collection Services Art classes for children, adults, and teachers. Each costs about $10–$200. Richardson Memorial Library, one of the largest centers for the history and documentation of art in the Midwest, holding more than 100,000 volumes and the museum's archives. Both can be searched through their online catalog. Resource Center, a loan collection of educational materials circulated through the museum's nine satellite resource centers in Missouri. Free guided tours for groups led by trained docents. References More information Saint Louis Art Museum 2004, Saint Louis Art Museum Handbook of the Collection, Saint Louis Art Museum, Saint Louis, Mo. Saint Louis Art Museum 1987, Saint Louis Art Museum, An Architectural History, Fall Bulletin, Saint Louis Art Museum, Saint Louis, MO. Stevens, Walter B. (ed.) 1915, Halsey Cooley Ives, LL.D. 1847–1911; Founder of the St. Louis School of Fine Arts; First Director of the City Art Museum of St. Louis, Ives Memorial Society, Saint Louis, MO Visitor Guide (brochure), Saint Louis Museum of Art, 2005. Washington University of Saint Louis, Student Life, 2006, Buried Treasure:University Owned Mummy Kept at Saint Louis Museum. External links Museum Building Archive Museum Expansion Museums in St. Louis Art museums and galleries in Missouri Cass Gilbert buildings Landmarks of St. Louis Museums of American art St. Louis World's Fair FRAME Museums World's fair architecture in Missouri Art museums established in 1881 1881 establishments in Missouri Art Museum Asian art museums in the United States Egyptological collections in the United States Mesoamerican art museums in the United States Art Museum Institutions accredited by the American Alliance of Museums David Chipperfield buildings 1904 establishments in Missouri African art museums in the United States

Timeline of computer animation in film and television

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This is a chronological list of films and television programs that have been recognized as being pioneering in their use of computer animation. 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s See also Animation List of computer-animated films List of computer-animated television series References External links CG101: A Computer Graphics Industry Reference Unique and personal histories of early computer graphics production, plus a comprehensive foundation of the industry for all reading levels. CG production companies and CGI in the movies - detailed historical information Milestones in Film History: Greatest Visual and Special Effects Visual effects CGI in movies Film Television technology Lists of films and television series

AT&T Center

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The AT&T Center is a multi-purpose indoor arena on the east side of San Antonio, Texas, United States. It is the home of the San Antonio Spurs of the National Basketball Association. The arena seats 18,418 for basketball, and 19,000 for concerts or gatherings, and contains 2,018 club seats, 50 luxury suites and 32 bathrooms. It was opened in 2002 as the SBC Center, at a cost of US$175 million, financed by county-issued bonds, which were supported by a hotel-occupancy and car-rental tax increase and an additional contribution of $28.5 million from the Spurs. SBC Communications, Inc., purchased the naming rights to the facility under a 20-year, $41 million naming rights agreement with Bexar County, the San Antonio Spurs, and the San Antonio Stock Show & Rodeo in July 2000. SBC Communications changed its name to AT&T Inc. in November 2005. The arena officially changed its name to AT&T Center in January 2006. On July 02, 2021, it was announced that AT&T will not renew its contract for the name at the venue, meaning that a new name could come soon as the deals ends in fall 2022 From 2003 to 2017, the arena was home to the San Antonio Stars of the Women's National Basketball Association. It was the home of the San Antonio Rampage of the American Hockey League from 2002 until 2020. Alamodome Previously, the Spurs played at the Alamodome, a multi-purpose facility with a configuration that allowed half the floor space to be used for basketball. Although the Alamodome was still relatively new (opening in 1993), it had become clear over the years that the Spurs were using it for most of the year, making it difficult to schedule contiguous dates for conventions or even a regular-season football schedule. The Alamodome's seating capacity could be expanded to 35,000 for popular regular-season opponents, and attracted nearly 40,000 for a 1999 NBA Finals game. Although it had been designed with the Spurs in mind, the Spurs and their fans grew increasingly dissatisfied with the facility because of its poor sight lines and cavernous feel. The Alamodome's basketball configuration had the basketball court at one end of where the football field would have been, leaving almost half of the stadium curtained off. Being primarily a football stadium differentiated the Alamodome from most other NBA facilities, including the Spurs' previous home, HemisFair Arena. Additionally, since the Alamodome opened, there had been a plethora of new arena construction including facilities such as Conseco Fieldhouse (now Gainbridge Fieldhouse), which, in addition to offering an intimate atmosphere, offered teams several new revenue generating opportunities, including suites located on the lower levels and large club level seating areas. New facility The Spurs campaigned for several years for a new facility. The Spurs and the city had come to an agreement to build a new facility adjacent to the Alamodome, but in a last-minute reversal, the team partnered with Bexar County to construct a new arena adjacent to the Freeman Coliseum. As a part of the agreement, the facility would be home to the Spurs, a new ice hockey team (what became the Rampage), and the San Antonio Stock Show & Rodeo event. The facility would be funded through an increase of hotel and car rental taxes, and Bexar County voters approved the plan in November 1999. Coincidentally, the election was held on the same day the Spurs received their NBA Championship rings for their first NBA championship. Rick Pych is the Chief Development Officer of the AT&T Center and led the Spurs franchise through its development, construction and opening in 2002. Unlike most arenas that can accommodate basketball and ice hockey, AT&T Center was primarily designed for basketball. Nevertheless, it can accommodate an NHL-sized ice hockey rink, but it can only accommodate a maximum of 16,151 people for ice hockey since the seating arrangement for ice hockey is asymmetrical. There are only a few permanent rows of seating on the lower level of the west end, and all of the upper-level sets on the west end of the arena have obstructed views. This would result in poor sightlines. However, the seating capacity for Rampage games is under 7,000 people, making the upper level not necessary for those events. In 2012, the Rampage renamed the press box to the "Jessica Redfield Press Box" after Jessica Redfield, an aspiring news broadcaster and a former team intern who was killed in the Aurora theater shooting. Construction After the arena referendum passed, planning quickly began for construction on the new facility. Naming rights were obtained in July 2000 when an agreement was reached with San Antonio-based SBC Communications to name the new arena the SBC Center. The agreement was reported to be for a total of $41 million over 20 years. Ground was officially broken on the facility in August 2000. The arena's basic design was similar to many of the other newer arenas in the NBA, thanks to the choice of Minneapolis-based Ellerbe Becket as the primary architects. A nationally recognized, local architecture firm, Lake/Flato, was teamed with Ellerbe Becket to work on the design of the structure. Lake/Flato is responsible for introducing a South Texas vernacular to the overall look of the arena. Ellerbe Becket was responsible for designing the Gainbridge Fieldhouse in Indianapolis and Capital One Arena in Washington, D.C. Renovations On December 9, 2014, the Bexar County Commissioners Court gave Spurs Sports and Entertainment permission to begin up to $101.5 million in renovations to the AT&T Center. The renovations started in the summer of 2015, when the San Antonio Spurs ended the 2015 season. They are planned to include a new scoreboard, updated televisions inside and outside of the arena, a new state of the art sound system, and improved WIFI that will cover about 90% of the venue. Expansions to the fan shop and other major parts of the AT&T Center are also in the plans. The renovations were funded by a 2008 tax increase for improvements to the Tobin Center, parts of the Mission Reach expansion, and the rodeo grounds located next to the AT&T Center. Notable events In addition to many local community and sporting events, the center hosts San Antonio Sports Car Association autocross competitions in the parking lot each month. The Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association holds the San Antonio Stock Show & Rodeo and an Xtreme Bulls tour event annually there. The Rodeo is held in February, necessitating the Spurs and Rampage to make long road trips during this time (commonly referred to as the "Rodeo Road Trip"). On the weekend of August 1–2, 2009, the Professional Bull Riders hosted a Built Ford Tough Series event there (an event previously held at the Alamodome in 2007 and 2008). Since May 2013, the venue has also hosted the annual Bud Light River City Rockfest. On October 1, 2016, the arena hosted the Kellogg's Tour of Gymnastics Champions. The arena has also hosted many WWE events including numerous episodes of WWE Raw and WWE SmackDown and the following pay-per views: Royal Rumble (2007), TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs (2009), Vengeance (2011), and Hell in a Cell (2018). In 2014, UFC Fight Night: Swanson vs. Stephens was held at the arena. Black Sabbath played their final show in the United States here on November 12, 2016. On July 20, 2019, UFC on ESPN: dos Anjos vs. Edwards was held at the AT&T Center. The event was tied for most bouts ending in a decision in a single night, it also broke the record for most decisions in a row on one fight card. References Further reading Transforming San Antonio. Nelson W. Wolff (Trinity University Press, 2008). External links AT&T Center Home Page AT&T Center at SeatGeek AT&T Indoor ice hockey venues in the United States Basketball venues in Texas Gymnastics venues in Texas Mixed martial arts venues in Texas National Basketball Association venues Event venues established in 2002 San Antonio Rampage San Antonio Stars venues San Antonio Spurs venues Sports venues in San Antonio 2002 establishments in Texas Indoor arenas in Texas Sports venues completed in 2002 Rodeo venues in the United States Spurs Sports & Entertainment

Baseball color line

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The color line, also known as the color barrier, in American baseball excluded players of black African descent from Major League Baseball and its affiliated Minor Leagues until 1947 (with a few notable exceptions in the 19th century before the line was firmly established). Racial segregation in professional baseball was sometimes called a gentlemen's agreement, meaning a tacit understanding, as there was no written policy at the highest level of organized baseball, the major leagues. But a high minor league's vote in 1887 against allowing new contracts with black players within its league sent a powerful signal that eventually led to the disappearance of blacks from the sport's other minor leagues later that century, including the low minors. After the line was in virtually full effect in the early 20th century, many black baseball clubs were established, especially during the 1920s to 1940s when there were several Negro leagues. During this period Native Americans, and native Hawaiians (e.g. Prince Oana) were able to play in the Major Leagues. The color line was broken for good when Jackie Robinson signed with the Brooklyn Dodgers organization for the 1946 season. In 1947, both Robinson in the National League and Larry Doby with the American League's Cleveland Indians appeared in games for their teams. By the late 1950s, the percentage of black players on Major League teams matched or exceeded that of the general population . Origins Formal beginning of segregation followed the baseball season of 1867. On October 16, the Pennsylvania State Convention of Baseball in Harrisburg denied admission to the "colored" Pythian Baseball Club. Major League Baseball's National League, founded in 1876, had no black players in the 19th century, except for a recently discovered one, William Edward White, who played in a single game in 1879 and who apparently passed as white. The National League and the other main major league of the day, the American Association, had no written rules against having African American players. In 1884, the American Association had two black players, Moses Fleetwood Walker and, for a few months of the season, his brother Weldy Walker, both of whom played for the Toledo Blue Stockings. The year before, in 1883, prominent National League player Cap Anson had threatened to have his Chicago team sit out an exhibition game at then-minor league Toledo if Toledo's Fleet Walker played. Anson backed down, but not before uttering the word nigger on the field and vowing that his team would not play in such a game again. In 1884, the Chicago club made a successful threat months in advance of another exhibition game at Toledo, to have Fleet Walker sit out. In 1887, Anson made a successful threat by telegram before an exhibition game against the Newark Little Giants of the International League that it must not play its two black players, Fleet Walker and pitcher George Stovey. The influence of players such as Anson and the general racism in society led to segregation efforts in professional baseball. On July 14, 1887, the high-minor International League voted to ban the signing of new contracts with black players. By a 6-to-4 vote, the league's entirely white teams voted in favor and those with at least one black player voted in the negative. The Binghamton, New York, team, which had just released its two black players, voted with the majority. Right after the vote, the sports weekly Sporting Life stated, "Several representatives declared that many of the best players in the league are anxious to leave on account of the colored element, and the board finally directed Secretary [C.D.] White to approve of no more contracts with colored men." On the afternoon of the International League vote, Anson's Chicago team played the game in Newark alluded to above, with Stovey and the apparently injured Walker sitting out. Anson biographer Howard W. Rosenberg, concluded that, "A fairer argument is that rather than being an architect [of segregation in professional baseball, as the late baseball racism historian Jules Tygiel termed Anson in his 1983 Baseball's Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy], that he was a reinforcer of it, including in the National League – and that he had no demonstrable influence on changing the course of events apart from his team's exhibition-game schedule." The year 1887 was also the high point of achievement of black players in the high minor leagues, and each National League team that year except for Chicago played exhibition games against teams with black players, including against Newark and other International League teams. Some of Anson's notoriety stems from a 1907 book on early black players in baseball by black minor league player and later black semi-professional team manager Sol White, who was elected to the Hall of Fame in 2006. White claimed that, "Were it not for this same man Anson, there would have been a colored player in the National League in 1887." After the 1887 season, the International League retained just two black players for the 1888 season, both of whom were under contracts signed before the 1887 vote, Frank Grant of the Buffalo Bisons and Moses Fleetwood Walker of the Syracuse franchise, with Walker staying in the league for most of 1889. In September 1887, eight members of the St. Louis Browns of the then-major American Association (who would ultimately change their nickname to the current St. Louis Cardinals) staged a mutiny during a road trip, refusing to play a game against the New York Cuban Giants, the first all-black professional baseball club, and citing both racial and practical reasons: that the players were banged up and wanted to rest so as to not lose their hold on first place. At the time, the St. Louis team was in Philadelphia, and a story that ran in the Philadelphia Times stated that "for the first time in the history of base ball the color line has been drawn." Black players were gone from the high minors after 1889 and a trickle of them were left in the minor leagues within a decade. Besides White's single game in 1879, the only black players in major league baseball for around 75 years were Fleet Walker and his brother Weldy, both in 1884 with Toledo. A big change would take place starting in 1946, when Jackie Robinson played for the Montreal Royals in the International League. Covert efforts at integration While professional baseball was formally regarded as a strictly white-men-only affair, the racial color bar was directed against black players exclusively. Other races were allowed to play in professional white baseball. One example was Charles Albert Bender, a star pitcher for the Philadelphia Athletics in 1910. Bender was the son of a Chippewa mother and a German father and had the inevitable nickname "Chief" from the white players. As a result of this exclusive treatment of black players, deceptive tactics were used by managers to sign African Americans, including several attempts, with the player's acquiescence, to sign players who they knew full well were African American as Native Americans despite the ban. In 1901, John McGraw, manager of the Baltimore Orioles, tried to add Charlie Grant to the roster as his second baseman. He tried to get around the Gentleman's Agreement by trying to pass him as a Cherokee named Charlie Tokohama. Grant went along with the charade. However, in Chicago Grant's African American friends who came to see him try out gave him away and Grant never got an opportunity to play ball in the big leagues. On May 28, 1916, Canadian-American Jimmy Claxton temporarily broke the professional baseball color barrier when he played two games for the Oakland Oaks of the Pacific Coast League. Claxton was introduced to the team owner by a part-Native American friend as a fellow member of an Oklahoma tribe. The Zee-Nut candy company rushed out a baseball card for Claxton. However, within a week, a friend of Claxton revealed that he had both Negro and Indigenous Canadian ancestors, and Claxton was promptly fired. It would be nearly thirty more years before another black man, at least one known to be black, played organized white baseball. There possibly were attempts to have people of African descent be signed as Hispanics. One possible attempt may have occurred in 1911 when the Cincinnati Reds signed two light-skinned players from Cuba, Armando Marsans and Rafael Almeida. Both of them had played "Negro Baseball", barnstorming as members of the integrated All Cubans. When questions arose about them playing the white man's game, the Cincinnati managers assured the public that "...they were as pure white as Castile soap." The African American newspaper New York Age had this to say about the signings: The Negro leagues The Negro National League was founded in by Rube Foster, independent of the National Baseball Commission (1903–1920). The NNL survived through 1931, primarily in the midwest, accompanied by the major Eastern Colored League for several seasons to 1928. "National" and "American" Negro leagues were established in 1933 and 1937 which persisted until integration. The Negro Southern League operated consecutively from 1920, usually at a lower level. None of them, nor any integrated teams, were members of Organized Baseball, the system led by Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis from 1921. Rather, until professional baseball in the United States was played in two racially segregated league systems, one on each side of the so-called color line. Much of that time there were two high-level "Negro major leagues" with a championship playoff or all-star game, as between the white major leagues. MLB influencers Bill Veeck The only serious attempt to break the color line during Landis's tenure came in , when Bill Veeck tried to buy the then-moribund Philadelphia Phillies and stock them with Negro league stars. However, when Landis got wind of his plans, he and National League president Ford Frick scuttled it in favor of another bid by William D. Cox. In his 1962 autobiography, Veeck, as in Wreck, in which he discussed his abortive attempt to buy the Phillies, Veeck also stated that he wanted to hire black players for the simple reason that in his opinion the best black athletes "can run faster and jump higher" than the best white athletes. The authors of a controversial article in the 1998 issue of SABR's The National Pastime argued that Veeck invented the story of buying the Phillies, claiming Philadelphia's black press made no mention of a prospective sale to Veeck. Subsequently, the article was strongly challenged by the historian Jules Tygiel, who refuted it point-by-point in an article in the 2006 issue of SABR's The Baseball Research Journal, and in an appendix, entitled "Did Bill Veeck Lie About His Plan to Purchase the '43 Phillies?", published in Paul Dickson's 2012 biography, Bill Veeck: Baseball's Greatest Maverick. Joseph Thomas Moore wrote in his 1988 biography of Doby, "Bill Veeck planned to buy the Philadelphia Phillies with the as yet unannounced intention of breaking that color line." The Phillies ended up being the last National League team, and third-last team in the majors, to integrate, with John Kennedy debuting for the Phillies in 1957, 15 years after Veeck's attempted purchase. Branch Rickey In 1945, Branch Rickey, General Manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, was anticipating the integration of black players into Major League Baseball. Rickey, along with Gus Greenlee who was the owner of the original Pittsburgh Crawfords, created the United States League (USL) as a method to scout black players specifically to break the color line. It is unclear if the league actually played the 1945 season or if it was only used as a pretense for integration. Jackie Robinson and Larry Doby The color line was breached when Rickey, with the support of new commissioner Happy Chandler, signed the African American player Jackie Robinson in October , intending him to play for the Dodgers. Chandler later wrote in his biography that although he risked losing his job as commissioner, he could not in good conscience tell black players they could not play with white players when they had fought alongside them in World War II. After a year in the minor leagues with the Dodgers' top minor-league affiliate, the Montreal Royals of the International League, Robinson was called up to the Dodgers in . He endured epithets and death threats and got off to a slow start. However, his athleticism and skill earned him the first ever Rookie of the Year award, which is now named in his honor. Less well-known was Larry Doby, who signed with Bill Veeck's Cleveland Indians in 1947 to become the American League's first African American player. Doby, a more low-key figure than Robinson, suffered many of the same indignities that Robinson did, albeit with less press coverage. As baseball historian Daniel Okrent wrote, "Robinson had a two year drum roll, Doby just showed up." Both men were ultimately elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame on the merits of their play. Willard Brown played briefly in 1947 for the St. Louis Browns and was the first African American player to hit a home run in the American league. He too was elected to the Hall of Fame based on his career in the Negro leagues. Due to their success, teams gradually integrated African Americans on their rosters. Prior to the integration of the major leagues, the Brooklyn Dodgers led the integration of the minor leagues. Jackie Robinson and Johnny Wright were assigned to Montreal, but also that season Don Newcombe and Roy Campanella became members of the Nashua Dodgers in the class-B New England League. Nashua was the first minor-league team based in the United States to integrate its roster after . Subsequently, that season, the Pawtucket Slaters, the Boston Braves' New England League franchise, also integrated its roster, as did Brooklyn's class-C franchise in Trois-Rivières, Quebec. With one exception, the rest of the minor leagues would slowly integrate as well, including those based in the southern United States. The Carolina League, for example, integrated in when the Danville Leafs signed Percy Miller Jr. to their team. The exception was the Class AA Southern Association. Founded in 1901 and based in the Deep South, it allowed only one black player, Nat Peeples of the 1954 Atlanta Crackers, a brief appearance in the league. Peeples went hitless in two games played and four at bats on April 9–10, 1954, was demoted one classification to the Jacksonville Braves of the Sally League, and the SA reverted to white-only status. As a result, its major-league parent clubs were forced to field all-white teams during the 1950s. By the end of the 1950s, the SA also was boycotted by civil rights leaders. The Association finally ceased operation after the 1961 season, still a bastion of segregation. Its member teams joined the International, Sally and Texas leagues, which were all racially integrated. Resistance by the Boston Red Sox The Boston Red Sox were the last major league team to integrate, holding out until 1959, a few months after the Detroit Tigers. This was due to the steadfast resistance provided by team owner Tom Yawkey. In April 1945, the Red Sox refused to consider signing Jackie Robinson (and future Boston Braves outfielder Sam Jethroe) after giving him a brief tryout at Fenway Park. The tryout, however, was a farce chiefly designed to assuage the desegregationist sensibilities of Boston City Councilman Isadore H. Y. Muchnick, who threatened to revoke the team's exemption from Sunday blue laws. Even with the stands limited to management, Robinson was subjected to racial epithets. Robinson left the tryout humiliated. Robinson would later call Yawkey "one of the most bigoted guys in baseball". On April 7, 1959, during spring training, Yawkey and general manager Bucky Harris were named in a lawsuit charging them with discrimination and the deliberate barring of black players from the Red Sox. The NAACP issued charges of "following an anti-Negro policy", and the Massachusetts Commission Against Discrimination announced a public hearing on racial bias against the Red Sox. Thus, the Red Sox were forced to integrate, becoming the last pre-expansion major-league team to do so when Harris promoted Pumpsie Green from Boston's AAA farm club. On July 21, Green debuted for the team as a pinch runner, and would be joined later that season by Earl Wilson, the second black player to play for the Red Sox. In the early to mid 1960s, the team added other players of color to their roster including Joe Foy, José Tartabull, George Scott, George Smith, John Wyatt, Elston Howard and Reggie Smith. The 1967 Red Sox went on to win the "Impossible Dream" pennant but lost to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games in that year's World Series. Tom Yawkey died in 1976, and his widow Jean Yawkey eventually sold the team to Haywood Sullivan and Edward "Buddy" LeRoux. As chief executive, Haywood Sullivan found himself in another racism controversy that ended in a courtroom. The Elks Club of Winter Haven, Florida, the Red Sox spring training home, did not permit black members or guests. Yet the Red Sox allowed the Elks into their clubhouse to distribute dinner invitations to the team's white players, coaches, and business management. When the African-American Tommy Harper, a popular former player and coach for Boston, then working as a minor league instructor, protested the policy and a story appeared in The Boston Globe, he was promptly fired. Harper sued the Red Sox for racial discrimination and his complaint was upheld on July 1, 1986. Professional baseball firsts Listed chronologically Player, professional: Bud Fowler, 1878. Fowler never played in the major leagues. Player, major leagues: Moses Fleetwood Walker, debut game May 1, 1884, catcher for Toledo at Louisville All-black team, openly professional: Cuban Giants, 1885 Integrated professional league in the U.S.: California Winter League, 1910 Pitcher, major leagues: Dan Bankhead, debut game August 26, 1947, for Brooklyn at home World Series player, major leagues: Jackie Robinson, Dan Bankhead for Brooklyn, 1947 All-Star selection, major leagues: Roy Campanella, Larry Doby, Don Newcombe, Jackie Robinson, 1949 MLB Most Valuable Player: Jackie Robinson, 1949 National Baseball Hall of Fame, Jackie Robinson, Coach, major leagues: Buck O'Neil, Chicago Cubs, 1962 Field manager, Triple-A level: Héctor López, 1969 Nine-man starting lineup, major leagues: Pittsburgh Pirates, September 1, 1971, at Three Rivers Stadium Field manager, major leagues: Frank Robinson, debut game April 8, 1975, for the Cleveland Indians at home General manager, major leagues: Bill Lucas, 1976 with the Atlanta Braves World Series-winning manager: Cito Gaston with the Toronto Blue Jays, 1992. He repeated the next season. World Series walk-off home run: Joe Carter, for the Toronto Blue Jays, 1993 National League pennant-winning manager: Dusty Baker with the San Francisco Giants, 2002 The Sporting News contemporaneously reported it as "the first all-Negro starting lineup"; later sources state Black and Latino or "all-minority". A case has been made for Ernie Banks as the de facto first black manager in the major leagues. On May 8, 1973, Chicago Cubs manager Whitey Lockman was ejected from a 12-inning game against the San Diego Padres. Coach Banks filled in as manager for the final two innings of the 3–2 Cubs win. Prior to the next season, the Official Baseball Guide published by The Sporting News stated, "he [Banks] became the major leagues' first black manager—but only for a day". The other two regular coaches on the team (Pete Reiser and Larry Jansen) were absent that day, opening this door for Banks for the one occasion, but Banks never became a manager on a permanent basis. See also History of baseball in the United States Negro league baseball Jim Crow laws#African-American life List of first black Major League Baseball players Race and ethnicity in the NBA Racial issues faced by black quarterbacks List of black quarterbacks List of African-American sports firsts References Further reading Gordon, Patrick. Octavius Catto & the Pythian Baseball Club: The beginnings of black baseball. Philadelphia Baseball Review. March 2008. Gordon, Patrick. On the field, the Pythian Club was rivaled by few: Catto led a stellar organization. Philadelphia Baseball Review. April 2008. Heaphy, Leslie A. The Negro Leagues 1869–1960. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. 2003. Lamb, Chris. Conspiracy of Silence: Sportswriters and the Long Campaign to Desegregate Baseball. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 2012. Lanctot, Neil. Negro League Baseball: The Rise and Ruin of a Black Institution. Philadelphia: U. of Penn. Press. 2004. McNeil, William F. Black Baseball Out of Season: pay for play outside of the Negro Leagues. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. 2007. Olsen, Jack. The Black Athlete: A Shameful Story; The Myth of Integration in American Sport. Time-Life Books. 1968. Rhoden, William C. $40 Million Slaves: The Rise, Fall, and Redemption of the Black Athlete. Crown Publishers. 2006. External links Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Playing for Keeps: Philadelphia's Pythian Base Ball Club. Color line Color line Jackie Robinson Color line African-American sports history African-American segregation in the United States Racism in sport

Bangladesh national cricket team

eng_Latn

The Bangladesh men's national cricket team (), popularly known as The Tigers, is administered by the Bangladesh Cricket Board (BCB). It is a Full Member of the International Cricket Council (ICC) with Test, One-Day International (ODI) and T20 International (T20I) status. It played its first Test match in November 2000 against India with a 10 wicket loss in Dhaka, becoming the tenth Test-playing nation. Bangladesh became an associate member of the ICC in 1977, and competed in six ICC Trophies, the leading ODI competition for non-Test playing nations. Bangladesh's first official foray into international cricket came in the 1979 ICC Trophy in England. On 31 March 1986, Bangladesh played its first ODI match, against Pakistan in the Asia Cup. For a long time, football was the most popular sport in Bangladesh, but cricket gradually became very popular – particularly in urban areas – and by the late 1990s had surpassed football. In 1997, Bangladesh won the ICC Trophy in Malaysia and thus qualified for its first Cricket World Cup to participate in England in 1999. There, it defeated Pakistan – causing much upset – and also Scotland. On 26 June 2000, Bangladesh was granted full ICC membership. Bangladesh holds the record for most consecutive losses in Tests (21, between 2000 and 2002) and ODIs (23, between 2001 and 2004). After gaining Full Member status with the ICC, Bangladesh had to wait until 2004 for its first ODI win since the 1999 World Cup. The team on the losing side on that occasion was Zimbabwe, who also participated in Bangladesh's maiden Test victory in 2005; by securing a draw in the second match, Bangladesh won their first Test series. In 2009 Bangladesh toured the West Indies for two Tests and by winning both secured their first overseas Test series victory. They then came back to the Caribbean in 2014 for another 2 match test series and the West Indies claimed revenge on Bangladesh for that 2-test series loss that they gave them 5 years earlier by defeating in both test matches. As of 5 January 2022, Bangladesh has played 128 Tests, winning 16. Its first victory was against Zimbabwe, and the next two came against the West Indies. Results have improved predominantly at home with draws earned against Pakistan, India and South Africa and wins against England, Sri Lanka, New Zealand and Australia. They played their 100th Test when they toured Sri Lanka in March 2017 which they won by 4 wickets. As of 28 February 2022, the team has been more successful in ODIs, having won 138 of its 391 matches. They played their 100th ODI when India toured Bangladesh in December 2004 which they won, 200th ODI when Bangladesh toured West Indies in 2009 which they won and 300th ODI in the quarter-final of the 2015 ICC Cricket World Cup against India. They got their 100th ODI win when Afghanistan toured Bangladesh in October 2016. Bangladesh have also played 123 T20Is, winning 43. They played their 100th T20I against Zimbabwe in July 2021 which they won. Results have improved with wins against Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Australia, New Zealand and West Indies. Bangladesh's major achievements include reaching the quarter-finals in 2015 ICC Cricket World Cup, being runners up in three Asia Cup (in 2012, 2016 and 2018) and in 2018 Nidahas Trophy and winning 2019 Ireland Tri-Nation Series which was Bangladesh's first ever multi-team ODI tournament final win. As of 23 February 2022, Bangladesh is ranked 9th in Tests, 7th in ODIs and 9th in T20Is by the ICC. History 20th century Several East Pakistan-based sides played in Pakistani domestic cricket prior to Bangladesh's declaration of independence of 1971—the East Pakistan cricket team fielded three players who later played ICC Trophy matches. In 1977, Bangladesh became an Associate member of the International Cricket Council (ICC). Bangladesh was one of fifteen teams to take part in the inaugural ICC Trophy. Held in 1979, it gave non-Test playing countries the opportunity to qualify for that year's World Cup. Bangladesh, under the captaincy of Raqibul Hasan, won two matches and lost two, but failed to progress beyond the first round. Victory in the South-East Asian Cricket Conference Tournament in February 1984 ensured Bangladesh qualified for the 1986 Asia Cup. On 31 March 1986, Bangladesh played their first One Day International against a Full Member of the ICC. Captained by Gazi Ashraf, Bangladesh were dismissed for 94 and Pakistan reached their target for victory with seven wickets in hand. They lost their second ODI, which was against Sri Lanka, finishing last in the three-team tournament. Bangladesh qualified for the 1988 Asia Cup, this time hosting the tournament; it was the first time ODIs had been staged in the country. Although they lost all their matches, Bangladesh's fixtures were retrospectively awarded ODI. Floods in the preceding months meant the tournament was in doubt, but it went ahead as planned. A charity match raised $70,000 for the flood victims. Bangladesh added a black mark in 1986 ICC Trophy with only 2 wins. Bangladesh took part in the 1990 Austral-Asia Cup, the Asia Cup in 1990–91, 1995, 1997, and several other triangular tournaments, but it was not until 1998 that they won their first ODI. Their 22-match losing streak since their first ODI was at the time a record. Bangladesh posted its first ODI win against Kenya, in India thanks largely to Mohammad Rafique, who contributed a fiery 77 runs and took 3 wickets. Put on 137 for the first wicket with Athar Ali Khan whose own contribution was 47. In October 1998, Bangladesh hosted (but did not participate in) the first ICC KnockOut Trophy ever held (the event later became the ICC Champions Trophy), a knock-out ODI tournament featuring all the Test playing nations. Bangladesh took part in each of the 1979, 1982, 1986, 1990, and 1994 editions of the ICC Trophy, and won the trophy in 1997, in the process qualified for the 1999 World Cup. The then General Secretary of Bangladesh Cricket Board, Aminul Huq Moni took the initiative to install Astro Turf in Abahani Cricket Ground and Bangabandhu National Stadium, so that the local players had two full seasons to prepare on the type of pitch they would playing in ICC Trophy in 1997. Bangladesh also became a regular ICC member with the right to play ODIs and started hosting bilateral and triangular ODI tournaments. Earlier, in February Dhaka hosted the third and final SAARC cricket tournament. Bangladesh played in its first World Cup in England in 1999 and recorded their first win in a World Cup match against Scotland. Later Bangladesh created an enormous upset by beating Pakistan by 62 runs in the group match at Northampton. Bangladesh made 9/223 from its full 50 overs, and in reply, Pakistan could only manage 161 due to timely run-outs by wicket-keeper Khaled Mashud and some tight bowling by Khaled Mahmud, who took 3/31 from 10 overs. Mahmud was judged the man of the match. Bangladesh did not qualify for the Super Six round due to defeats in three of its five matches. However, the win over Pakistan, who finished runners-up to Australia, helped Bangladesh to gain Test playing status the following year. Bangladesh had sacked coach Gordon Greenidge, who had steered the team through the 1997 ICC Trophy and into the 1999 World Cup on the morning of the match. Former South Africa Test cricketer Eddie Barlow became Bangladesh's coach in 1999. In preparation for becoming a Test playing country, Bangladesh established its own first-class competition in 1999–2000, although the matches were not given first-class status until the 2000–2001 season. The lack of an established first-class structure in the country until shortly before Bangladesh played its debut Test has been cited as one of the reasons the side struggled to adapt to the longer format of the game. The West Indies toured Bangladesh in October, winning both matches in the ODI series. After suffering a stroke in April 2000, Barlow vacated the position of coach and Sarwar Imran was handed the coaching job. In May and June 2000, Bangladesh hosted the Asia Cup; Bangladesh lost all three of their matches and playing against Pakistan Bangladesh recorded the heaviest defeat in ODIs, a margin of 233 runs at the time. Bangladesh participated in the 2000 ICC KnockOut Trophy in October; their only match ended in defeat by England. First years as a Test team (2000–2003) On 13 November 2000, Bangladesh played their inaugural Test match, hosting India in Dhaka. The first Test run in the history of Bangladesh Cricket came from the bat of Mehrab Hossain, who also scored the first ODI hundred by an individual player for Bangladesh in 1999. Captained by Naimur Rahman, Bangladesh lost by nine wickets, although Wisden noted that they "surpassed all expectations by matching their neighbours, and at times even enjoying the upper hand". Aminul Islam Bulbul scored 145 in the first innings, becoming the third person to have scored a century in their team's first Test; Rahman took six wickets for 132 runs, the second-best bowling figures in a country's maiden Test. In March 2001, former Australian Test cricketer Trevor Chappell was appointed coach. The following month Bangladesh embarked on a tour of Zimbabwe to play two Tests and three ODIs. Zimbabwe, who at the time were ranked ninth out of the ten Test teams, won all five matches. Bangladesh took part in the 2001–02 Asian Test Championship, the second and final time the championship was held and the first the team had been eligible to play in. They lost both their matches by an innings. Mohammad Ashraful made his debut in the series and became the youngest player to score a Test century in his first match. In November, Bangladesh hosted Zimbabwe for two Tests and three ODIs. The opening Test was curtailed by bad weather and ended in a draw; after losing their first five Tests, it was the first time Bangladesh had avoided defeat. Zimbabwe won all the remaining matches. After the Test series wicketkeeper Khaled Mashud replaced Rahman as captain. The following month Bangladesh toured New Zealand for two Test matches. Bangladesh's batsmen struggled in unfamiliar conditions and the team slumped to two innings defeats. In January 2002, Bangladesh hosted Pakistan for two Tests and three ODIs where Bangladesh lost all the matches. At this point, they had lost ten of their first eleven Tests; only South Africa had struggled as much in their introduction to Test cricket, also losing ten of their first eleven matches. Chappell blamed Bangladesh's batsmen for the loss, saying "they commit the same mistakes again and again, and need to learn to apply themselves, to bat in sessions". In April, former Pakistan Test cricketer Mohsin Kamal replaced Chappell as coach. When Bangladesh toured Sri Lanka in July and August they were on the receiving end of Sri Lanka's largest margin of victory in Test cricket: an innings and 196 runs. Bangladesh lost both Tests and all three ODIs on the tour, recording their 50th defeat in 53 ODIs. Repeated poor performances prompted people to question whether Bangladesh had been granted Test status too soon. Two defeats against Australia and New Zealand in pool matches knocked Bangladesh out of the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy. In October, Bangladesh got whitewashed in both Test and ODI series against in South Africa.Wisden noted that "Time and again ... came the mantra that [Bangladesh] would learn from the experience, that they could only improve by playing against the best, that there was genuine talent in the squad. But it wore thin." The final defeat set a record for most consecutive losses in ODIs (23), beating the previous record, which was also held by Bangladesh. When West Indies toured in November and December, Bangladesh lost both Test and two out of the three ODIs, and one ended in no result. Bangladesh hit several new lows on the third day of the first Test: their lowest innings total (87), their lowest match aggregate (226), and the biggest defeat in their 16 Tests (by an innings and 310 runs). South Africa hosted the 2003 World Cup in February and March. Bangladesh lost five of their six matches (one ended in no result), including fixtures against Canada, who hadn't played international cricket since the 1979 World Cup, and Kenya, who eventually made the semi-finals of the tournament. In the aftermath of Bangladesh's World Cup campaign, Habibul Bashar replaced Khaled Mashud as captain, and Kamal was sacked as coach with Dav Whatmore taking over the role. Whatmore was not able to begin the job immediately, so Sarwar Imran acted as interim coach during TVS Cup and South Africa's tour of Bangladesh in April and May. Bangladesh lost all four ODIs by large margins and two Tests by innings. Under Dav Whatmore (2003–2007) Bangladesh played two Test and three ODI matches on a mid-year tour of Australia in 2003.They lost every single match on that tour. In August 2003, Bangladesh toured Pakistan to play three Tests and five ODIs matches. This was Bangladesh's second tour to Pakistan, with the first occurring in 2001–02, when the teams played one Test match.Both series ended in whitewash, with Pakistan winning the test series 3 – 0 and the ODI series 5 – 0. In the first test match of that series, Alok Kapali became the first Bangladesh player to take a hat-trick in Test cricket, dismissing Shabbir Ahmed, Danish Kaneria, and Umar Gul. However, in the third test match of that series, Bangladesh came very close to its first Test victory, when it lost to Pakistan by only one wicket. It was just the tenth time in Test history that a team had lost by a single wicket. In September–October 2003, England played 2 Tests and 3 ODIs against Bangladesh. England won both the Test matches and won all three ODIs by 7 wickets. Bangladesh's captain, Mahmud, was booed. Ahead of Bangladesh's tour of Zimbabwe in February and March the next year, he was dropped from the squad and batsman Habibul Bashar was granted the captaincy. At the time, Zimbabwe were without many of their senior players. Bangladesh lost the Test series 1–0, and the ODI series 2–1. The second Test was drawn after 3 days of no play due to heavy rains and brought an end to their run of 21 consecutive defeats dating back to November 2001, a world record in Test cricket. The solitary ODI victory was Bangladesh's first international win since defeating Pakistan in the 1999 World Cup. Bangladesh's next matches were against the West Indies in May and June. Bangladesh lost the ODI series 3–0 and the Test series 1–0; by securing a hard-fought draw in the first match, Bangladesh managed to avoid defeat for just the third time in 29 Tests. Bangladesh participated 2004 Asia Cup and 2004 ICC Champions Trophy winning only one match against Hong Kong. In the following months, Bangladesh suffered heavy defeats in Tests and in ODIs against touring New Zealand and India. However, in December, India toured Bangladesh in December 2004.In 2nd ODI of the series, Bangladesh defeated India in its hundredth ODI, this being only the third time that it had won against a Test playing nation. In January 2005, Zimbabwe toured Bangladesh for two Tests and five ODIs. The touring Zimbabwe side had suffered due to player disputes which in 2004 had led to the country's temporary suspension from Test cricket. Of Zimbabwe's 16-man squad, only their captain had played more than nine Tests; Bangladesh was the more experienced team. In the first match, Bangladesh secured their maiden victory in Test cricket. Bangladesh's batsmen secured a draw in the second Test by batting out the final five session after coach Dav Whatmore had opined that "Zimbabwe will win, unless our batsmen do something special". In the match – which helped secure a historic first series victory for Bangladesh – Enamul Haque Jr broke his own bowling record for best figures in an innings for Bangladesh by taking 7 wickets for 95 runs, and secured the best figures in a match for Bangladesh: 12 wickets for 200 runs and captain Habibul Bashar hit half centuries in both innings. In the ODI series that followed, Zimbabwe won the opening two contests, and Bangladesh won the final three to take the ODI series. After their maiden Test victory, Bangladesh embarked on its first tour of England in May and June 2005. The team faced unfamiliar conditions and the batsmen struggled against seam bowling. Bangladesh lost both matches in the Test series by an innings; the second Test was the 22nd time it had happened in 38 Tests. Pundits Mike Atherton and Richie Benaud criticised the team's performances and suggested Bangladesh was not yet suited to Test cricket. A triangular ODI series with England and Australia followed. Bangladesh won just one match out of six, but their solitary victory was against an Australian side that at the time were world champions in what Wisden described as "the greatest upset in 2,250 one-day internationals". Mohammad Ashraful scored his first century in that match with a score of exactly 100, which was enough to take the team to victory and then played a blistering knock of 94 off 53 balls against England the following match. Bangladesh's next fixture was in Sri Lanka in September for two Tests and three ODIs. After the one-off victory against Australia in England, Bangladesh was a more confident team; however, Sri Lanka won all five matches by large margins. Captain Habibul Bashar lamented his side's defeat, describing it as "the worst tour since I took over the captaincy". The home season of 2006 began with the series against Sri Lanka, which registered its first win against Sri Lanka ever in the second match of the ODI series. However Bangladesh lost both ODI and Test series 2–1 and 2–0 respectively. At the end of March, Bangladesh played four ODIs against Kenya, winning all. In April, Australia toured for a 2-match test series and 3-match odi series. Bangladesh came very close to beating Australia in a Test match, taking a first-innings lead of 158, and eventually losing by only three wickets. However, Bangladesh lost the second Test by an innings and three ODIs by huge margins. At the end of July, Bangladesh toured Zimbabwe as the ODI series as favourites but lost 3–2. In August, Bangladesh toured Kenya for a 3-match ODI series and eventually won all matches. India hosted the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy in October and November. Bangladesh failed to progress beyond the group stages, losing two of their three matches. Their only victory came against Zimbabwe. In November, Zimbabwe toured Bangladesh for a T20 and a 5-match ODI series. Bangladesh won their inaugural T20I match against Zimbabwe in front of the home crowd. Bangladesh subsequently went on to whitewash the same opponent in the five match ODI series. Bangladesh capped year 2006 with two more ODI victories over Scotland. That year, Shahriar Nafees became the first Bangladeshi to score over a thousand runs (which included three centuries) in a calendar year, while Mashrafe Mortaza became the leading wicket-taker in the world in ODIs staged in 2006 with 49 wickets. Ahead of the World Cup Bangladesh faced Zimbabwe in four ODIs, and Bermuda and Canada one each; of those matches, Bangladesh lost a single ODI to Zimbabwe. Australia, Bangladesh, India and Pakistan were the only teams to win both of their warm-up games. On 17 March, in their first match of the 2007 World Cup, hosted by the West Indies, Bangladesh secured a five-wicket win over India; the surprise result triggered late night partying in Bangladesh despite government bans on public gatherings. In their remaining group matches Bangladesh lost to Sri Lanka and defeated Bermuda, which was enough to secure qualification for the second round while India was knocked out. Bangladesh's only victory in the Super Eights was against South Africa, losing to everyone else including Ireland, a team mostly made up of amateur cricketers. In April 2007, after four years as coach Whatmore chose not to extend his contract, but agreed to remain in charge until the end of May, to allow the BCB to find and appoint his successor and also to guide the side through the two Tests and three ODIs at home against India. After Bangladesh had helped knock India out of the tournament, the series was seen as an opportunity for India to exact revenge. India won the three match ODI series 2–0, one being washed out. Bangladesh had not played Test cricket since April 2006. The first Test was shortened due to rain and drawn, but India won the second by their largest margin ever (by an innings and 239 runs). In the aftermath Habibul Bashar, who had previously resigned as ODI captain, was replaced as captain by 22-year-old Mohammad Ashraful in all forms of the game. Mashrafe Mortaza was appointed vice-captain. Under Shaun Williams (2007) BCB appointed their Under-19 coach Shaun Williams as the Bangladesh's interim coach, until they find Whatmore's long term successor. Mohammad Ashraful was appointed Test & ODI captain in June 2007. Ashraful's first series in charge was a tour of Sri Lanka in June and July. Bangladesh suffered heavy defeats in each of the three Tests; losing by an innings on every occasion, and three ODIs. In the first innings of the second Test, Bangladesh was bundled out for their lowest total (62) at that time. Prior to the World T20, Bangladesh played two T20Is in Kenya. Here, they enjoyed victory over Kenya, but lost to Pakistan. South Africa hosted the 2007 ICC World Twenty20 in September. Bangladesh defeated the West Indies at the group stage to progress to the Super 8 stage of the tournament. However, it was the only match they won in the tournament, losing next four matches. During the Super 8 match against Bangladesh, Australian fast bowler Brett Lee took the first Twenty20 International (T20I) hat-trick ever achieved. Under Jamie Siddons (2007–2011) In late October, BCB appointed Jamie Siddons, an Australian cricketer, as their head coach. At the end of 2007, Bangladesh toured New Zealand. They were soundly beaten 3–0 in the one-dayers. Bangladesh started the new year with the Test leg of the tour. These matches were also one-sided, where Bangladesh lost the series 2–0. In February–March 2008, South Africa clean-swept Bangladesh across formats. The tour included two Tests and three ODIs. However, in the 1st Test, Bangladesh secured a first innings lead of 22 runs after restricting South Africa for 170. Bangladesh then defeated non-Test-playing Ireland 3–0 in an ODI series at home in the same month, ending a run of 14 losses. Pakistan hosted Bangladesh for 5 ODIs and a T20I in April. It was a miserable tour for Bangladesh where they lost all games. Bangladesh lost both first-round games against Pakistan and India at a triangular ODI tournament held in Bangladesh in June. At the 2008 Asia Cup held in Pakistan, Bangladesh won their first group stage game against associate UAE. Even though they lost to Sri Lanka in the next group stage match, Bangladesh reached the super four stage, before losing the next three games against India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. They were later got whitewashed 0–3 in the ODIs during their tour to Australia in August–September. In October, New Zealand toured Bangladesh for three ODIs and two Tests. Shortly before the tour, fourteen Bangladesh players left to play in the Indian Cricket League and were subsequently banned for ten years. Six of the players were centrally contracted, including former captain Habibul Bashar. With a less experienced team than usual and a poor record against New Zealand, Bangladesh was expected to lose heavily. After winning the opening ODI (their first ODI victory ever over New Zealand), Bangladesh went on to lose series 2–1. New Zealand won the first Test by three wickets in what their coach, John Bracewell, described as "one of the great character wins". The second Test ended up in a rain curtailed draw, sealing the series victory for New Zealand (1–0). But in the process Shakib Al Hasan emerged as an all-rounder. Having previously been selected primarily as a batsman, he went on to take the best bowling figures in an innings for a Bangladesh player, 7 wickets for 36 runs, beating the record set by Enamul Haque Jr three years earlier. In November, Bangladesh toured South Africa. They lost all their matches, including the only T20I match, two of the three ODIs (the third being washed out due to rain) and both Tests by innings. In December, however, Bangladesh bounced back from the previous lackluster performances by threatening to win the first Test match against Sri Lanka at home by chasing down the highest fourth innings total of 513. Though they fell 107 runs short, their performances were praised. But in the second test match of this home series in January, Bangladesh succumbed to a 465 runs defeat, conceding the series 2–0 to Sri Lanka. Then Zimbabwe joined the hosts and the Lankan team for a tri-series ODI tournament, which proved to be more evenly matched than was expected. In the first match, Zimbabwe defeated Bangladesh by an excellent performance, but then was defeated by Sri Lanka by a huge margin, leaving Bangladesh needing to win with a bonus point against the Lankans in the last group match to go through to the finals to join the Lankans. In a reduced match due to rain interruptions Bangladesh recorded their second ODI win over Sri Lanka to reach the finals. However at the Finals, they were beaten by the Lankans who claimed the Series. Later in the same month the three match ODI series against Zimbabwe at home was won by Bangladesh 2–1. At the 2009 ICC World Twenty20 held in England, Bangladesh crashed out of the tournament at the group stage after losing both games against India and associate Ireland. Aftermath of the losses at the global event, the selectors appointed Mashrafe Mortaza as the new captain of the team for the tour to the West Indies so that Ashraful could focus on his batting. The two Test series was played amidst controversy when a pay dispute between the West Indian players and the West Indies Cricket Board led a number of West Indian players boycotting the series, which forced the West Indies to select a number of inexperienced players as replacements. Bangladesh went on to win both of the Tests, winning the first Test by 95 runs and the second by four wickets. In the process they achieved their first overseas Test series victory. In the ODI series which followed, Bangladesh secured their first ODI win against the West Indies at the 14th attempt. Bangladesh won the series 3–0, but lost the only Twenty20 match. Bangladesh emerged victorious 4–1 and 4–1 in back to back five match ODI series against Zimbabwe away (in August) and home (in October–November). In November, Shakib was named The Wisden Cricketer's "Test Player of the Year". In January 2010, Bangladesh hosted a tri-series ODI tournament with India and Sri Lanka. They failed to win a match (in 4 matches) and went out of the tournament. That was followed by a two-match Test series against India at home, which Bangladesh lost 2–0. During full away tour in February 2010 against New Zealand, Bangladesh lost all matches (only T20I, three ODIs and only Test). In February–March 2010, England visited Bangladesh to play three ODIs and two Test matches. Bangladesh lost all their ODIs and Tests in the series. In May, Bangladesh took part in the 2010 World Twenty20. They lost all their matches at group stage (against Pakistan and Australia) and failed to progress to the Super Eights stage. In May and June, Bangladesh played two Test matches against England away, losing both, although Tamim Iqbal scored two centuries in the series. Between the Tests and ODIs against England, Bangladesh took part in the 2010 Asia Cup during June, but lost all their matches vs India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. In the ODI series, England comfortably won the first match. However, in the second match at Bristol, Bangladesh beat England for the first time in international cricket (England were the only Test playing nation yet to be beaten by Bangladesh), bowling England out in the final over to win by five runs. However England won the third ODI at Birmingham and sealed the series 2–1. Bangladesh extended this tour in Europe to play a 2-match ODIs series against Ireland. The series was shared (1–1). The one-off ODI against Scotland was abandoned due to heavy rains. Later Netherlands won the last one-off ODI of the tour. In October New Zealand went to Bangladesh for five ODIs. Mortaza suffered an injury in the first match and Shakib took over as captain. Under his leadership Bangladesh won the series 4–0 (2nd ODI was abandoned due to rain), securing their first series victory against a full strength ICC Full Member nation. Although unable to play against New Zealand due to injury, while the series was in progress Tamim Iqbal was named The Wisden Cricketer's "Test Player of the Year". In December Bangladesh hosted Zimbabwe for five ODIs. After losing the opening match, Bangladesh went on to win the next three complete matches, with 4th ODI called off due to rain, to beat Zimbabwe 3–1. In February and March 2011, Bangladesh co-hosted the World Cup with India and Sri Lanka. Bangladesh lost the tournament opener against India, before the win against Ireland. The next match was won by West Indies after dismissing Bangladesh for 58 runs, the team's lowest score in ODIs and a record low for a Full Member at the World Cup. The West Indies and Bangladesh team buses were stoned as they left the ground, and so was Shakib's house. In the match against England, Bangladesh's score was at one point 169/8 but tail ender 58 run partnership brought victory for the team. Bangladesh's win in this match was only their second against England in a total of 15 ODIs. Bangladesh later defeated the Netherlands, making their final match of the group stage a must-win contest. Against South Africa, Bangladesh succumbed to their second-largest defeat in ODIs and became the first Full Member team to be bowled out for under 100 twice in World Cups, thereby failing to progress to the knockout stage of the tournament. Then Australia complete a 3–0 sweep in ODIs against Bangladesh when they visited the country in April. Middle of the Australian visit, BCB confirmed that Siddons unlikely to win a contract extension from the moment his team failed to meet lofty home expectations during the 2011 World Cup. Under his mentorship, Bangladesh won 2 Tests (in 19), 31 ODIs (in 84). They did not win any T20Is (in 8) during this period. First overseas Test series victory, first Test match and series victories over West Indies, first ODI wins against New Zealand, West Indies and England, clean sweeps in ODIs against West Indies (away) and New Zealand (home), reaching the final of a triangular tournament where all participants are ICC full members, consistent wins in bilateral ODI series against Zimbabwe (4) were the highlights for Siddons as the Bangladesh head coach. During his three-and-a-half-year tenure as coach Siddons introduced a full coaching staff for the first time, including coaches for bowling, strength and conditioning, and fielding. Under Siddons Bangladesh's reliance on spin bowlers continued, partly because pitches in the country encourage spin bowlers, and frequently only two seam bowlers were used in a match. Siddons was credited with helping the team improve mentally. Under Stuart Law (2011–2012) A lengthy hunt for a head coach, followed Siddons' exit encountering the names of Vincent Barnes and Stuart Law as possible appointees. Law, who at the time was the interim head coach of Sri Lanka following Trevor Bayliss' departure, was named Bangladesh's new head coach starting from 1 July 2011. Bangladesh toured Zimbabwe in August 2011 for a one-off Test and five ODIs. The Test marked Zimbabwe's return to the longest-format of the game, after a self-imposed withdrawal in January 2006 as the sport in the country was in a state of disarray. Bangladesh lost the match by 130 runs. Though they were expected to do well with the Test and the ODIs, Bangladesh lost the subsequent one-day series 3–2. In the aftermath of the series, captain Shakib Al Hasan and vice captain Tamim Iqbal were sacked from their leadership roles, with a BCB representative citing their poor leadership. Later that month, wicket-keeper Mushfiqur Rahim was named captain, with all-rounder Mahmudullah as his deputy. Bangladesh's struggles at the international level have been epitomised by the ineffectiveness of their fast bowlers. Between January 2010 and August 2011, they took 37 wickets in 8 Tests at an average of 67.67, the worst out of the nine teams playing regular Test cricket in this period. Though Bangladesh won Rahim's first match in charge, the only T20I against West Indies at home in October, the team lost the subsequent ODI series 2–1 and the two-match Test series 1–0. Pakistan toured in December, and during the first of three ODIs Bangladesh were dismissed for their 13th score of less than 100 in the format, overtaking Zimbabwe's record of 12 times. Bangladesh got whitewashed comprehensively across formats, 0–1 (T20I), 0–3 (ODIs) and 0–2 (Tests). In March Bangladesh hosted in the 2012 Asia Cup featuring India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Bangladesh entered the tournament with just two wins from 29 Asia Cup matches. Victories against India and Sri Lanka saw Bangladesh face Pakistan in the final, only the second time the team had reached the final of a multi-national competition. Though Pakistan won the final by two runs, Bangladesh had exceeded expectations. During the tournament, Tamim Iqbal became the first Bangladeshi player to score four consecutive fifties in ODIs. Shakib Al Hasan was named man of the series after contributing with both the bat and the ball, making 237 runs and taking 6 wickets respectively. The following month Law announced he would be stepping down as coach in June when his contract was due to expire for personal reasons. Bangladesh had not won any Tests (in 5) under Law. Further they only won 5 ODIs (in 15) and 1 T20I (in 2) during this period. Reaching the finals of Asia Cup 2012 was the pinnacle of Law's tenure as Bangladesh coach. Under Richard Pybus (2012) In May 2012 Bangladesh appointed England born Richard Pybus as their new head coach for two-years, replacing Stuart Law who stepped down from the post in April. In July, Bangladesh toured Ireland and Netherlands. Bangladesh clean swept the three-match T20I series becoming no. 4 in T20I rankings surpassing Pakistan and Australia. In the same month, Bangladesh lost a T20I against Scotland and shared the two-match T20I series against Netherlands by 1–1. Bangladesh crashed out of the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 by losing to New Zealand and Pakistan in the first round. After only four months at the helm, Pybus notified the BCB of his unwillingness to continue due to issues with his contract and interference from administration. Under him Bangladesh won 4 T20Is (in 8). Under Shane Jurgensen (2012–2014) The team's bowling coach and Australian Shane Jurgensen was appointed as the interim Bangladesh coach for the series against West Indies at home in November–December 2012. The home side lost the two Tests, but won the ODI series 3–2, before losing the only T20I. In February 2013, BCB announced that Jurgensen will continue as Bangladesh's head coach for the rest of the year. Bangladesh toured Sri Lanka in March 2013 for a full series. In the 1st Test at Galle Mushfiqur Rahim scored the first double century for Bangladesh in test cricket, and Mohammad Ashraful chipped in with a handy 190. They were able to draw the 1st Test against Sri Lanka, the first time ever against the island nation. Sri Lanka won the 2nd Test by 7 wickets and the two match test series 1–0. The three match ODI series was shared 1–1 since the 2nd ODI being washed out. Bangladesh lost the only T20I too. Then they toured Zimbabwe from April–May. Bangladesh lost the 1st Test by 335 runs, which marked Zimbabwe's biggest win. Later they won the 2nd Test by 173 runs to share the series with Zimbabwe (1–1). Bangladesh lost the ODI series (1–2) before sharing the T20I series (1–1). Later in October–November 2013, New Zealand toured Bangladesh for a full series. Bangladesh achieved a new feat sharing the two-match test series (0–0) on home soil against New Zealand, the first against the country. This was followed by 3–0 series whitewash win for Bangladesh in ODIs, before losing the only T20I. Sri Lanka toured Bangladesh for full series from January–February 2014. Bangladesh slip to their fourth-heaviest defeat in their Test history after losing the 1st Test by an innings and 248 runs. The 2nd test was a high scoring draw and Bangladesh lost the series (0–1). Later they got whitewashed in the T20I (0–2) and the ODI (0–3) series. That was followed up by a series of defeats (0–4) against Asian Cricketing nations (India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) at the league stage of 2014 Asia Cup conducted on their home soil and Bangladesh finished at the bottom of the table. Associate Afghanistan's win against Bangladesh was their first ODI victory against a Test-playing nation. Bangladesh ended their 11-match win-less run in 2014 defeating two associates (Afghanistan and Nepal) in consecutive T20Is at the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 Group stage. Their loss to another associate, Hong Kong, did not prevent them reaching the Super 10 stage. However at the Super 10 stage, Bangladesh lost all (0–4) their matches against West Indies, India, Pakistan and Australia. The coach resigned from his position less than a month after the World T20, where the team won just two out of seven matches. Under Jurgensen, Bangladesh won 1 Test (in 10), 8 ODIs (in 21) and 3 T20Is (in 14). Highlights of his tenure were the Test win after 4 years (against Zimbabwe), shared two-test series against New Zealand at home, 3–0 ODI clean sweep against New Zealand at home and securing 2 draws in Tests against Sri Lanka (away and home). Under Chandika Hathurusingha (2014–2017) The BCB appointed Chandika Hathurusingha, a former Sri Lanka batsman, as Bangladesh's head coach for a two-year period. The first series under the new coach was against India at home. Bangladesh lost the first & second ODI comprehensively and the 3rd was washed out and lost the series 2–0. In August 2014, Bangladesh toured West Indies for a full series. West Indies beat Bangladesh 3–0 in the ODI series extending Bangladesh's win-less ODI run for 13 matches. In the 2nd ODI Bangladesh was bundled out for 70 which is the 3rd lowest total for Bangladesh. Bangladesh lost the match by 177 Runs. Only the T20I match was abandoned. Further, West Indies white-washed Bangladesh in the Test series 2–0, defeating Bangladesh by 10 wickets in the 1st Test and by 296 runs in the 2nd Test respectively. Bangladesh finally emerged victorious during the Zimbabwe tour in Bangladesh whitewashing the visitors 3–0 during the Test series. Bangladesh claimed No. 9 ranking with the series victory pushing Zimbabwe to No. 10. In the ODI series, Bangladesh whitewashed Zimbabwe 5–0. 2015: The Rise in ODI At the turn of the new year, Bangladeshi all-rounder Shakib Al Hasan emerged as the number one all-rounder in all formats of the game. This was the first time that any player ever achieved such a feat, after the ICC introduced ranking system. During the group stage of the 2015 Cricket World Cup, Bangladesh defeated Afghanistan in their first game where Shakib Al Hasan became the first Bangladeshi cricketer to reach 4,000 ODI runs and their next match against Australia was Washed Out. They lost their next game to Sri Lanka by 92 runs. Following that, they achieved their highest successful run-chase in an ODI, when they chased down Scotland's 318, Bangladesh later qualified for the second quarterfinal in the 2015 world cup, by defeating England. At the second quarter-final, India comprehensively defeated Bangladesh by 109 runs, knocking them out of the 2015 World Cup. After a successful world cup campaign, reaching the quarter final for the first time, the whole team was given a grand reception at the Airport on 22 March. In April–May 2015, Pakistan was in Bangladesh for a full series. Bangladesh won the ODI series 3–0 recording their first series victory over Pakistanis. The only T20I was also won by Bangladesh. However Pakistan claimed the Test series victory (1–0), by drawing the first test and winning the second test by 328 runs. A full strength Indian team arrived in Bangladesh in June 2015, for a one-off Test and 3 ODIs, where the Indians were expected to win comfortably. During the Test, the Indian team was too strong for Bangladesh where they were enforced to follow on. But the heavy rain interruptions denied a decisive result (only 184.2 overs were played). However excellent performances by the batsmen and ODI debutant bowler Mustafizur Rahman had the tables turned over as Bangladesh convincingly won the first two ODIs and for the first time, won a bilateral series against India by a margin of 2–1. During July 2015 South Africa visited Bangladesh for 2 T20Is, 3 ODIs and 2 Tests. South Africa whitewashed Bangladesh in the T20I series (2–0) and took the lead of ODI series winning the first match. However Bangladesh came back strongly and completely dominated South Africa in the following two matches, showing excellent performance in all three departments where none of the team in any match could reach 200 runs in an innings in the whole ODI series, to win the series by a margin of 2–1, which marked the first series win ever against South Africa. Two match test series was shared (0–0) after heavy monsoon rains curtailed both games (played 221 and 88.1 overs respectively). Strong performances shown by Bangladesh in ODIs since the ICC Cricket World Cup 2015, winning ODI series against Pakistan, India and South Africa, helped it jump from ninth to seventh in the ODI Team Rankings. Since they were ranked No. 7 in ODIs on 30 September 2015 which was the cut-off date, they have qualified for the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy replacing West Indies. In November 2015, The Zimbabwean cricket team toured in Bangladesh. The tour consisted of three One Day Internationals (ODIs), two Twenty20 Internationals (T20Is). Bangladesh won the ODI series 3–0 and shared the T20I series 1–1. 2016: The Rise in T20I In January 2016, Zimbabwe toured Bangladesh for another T20I series consisting of 4 games. Again the series was shared 2–2. The golden run continued to Bangladesh when they became runner up of 2016 Asia Cup, played on home soil. They lost the first match at group stage to India. Then they won against UAE and then Sri Lanka (reigning World T20 champions and Asian champions at that time). They also beat Pakistan to reach the Asia Cup final for the second time. However they were again comprehensively beaten by India in the final. However Bangladesh did not have a significant success during the 2016 ICC World Twenty20 held in India in March–April 2016. Wins against two associates (Netherlands and Oman) and the washed out game against another associate (Ireland) at the group stage saw them reach the Super 10. In the group stage match against Oman, Tamim Iqbal became first Bangladeshi batsman to score a T20I century and at least a century in all formats. They returned home losing all four games at the Super 10 stage against full members Pakistan, Australia, India and New Zealand. In September 2016, Afghanistan toured Bangladesh for an ODI series. Bangladesh emerged victorious in another home ODI series by 2–1. This was followed by the England tour of Bangladesh, where Bangladesh lost the ODI leg by 2–1. But they secured a historic Test win (by 108-runs) against England, their first win in 10 attempts, and sharing the two-match test series 1–1, after losing the first test narrowly by 22-runs. Bangladesh toured New Zealand for a complete series in December 2016. Bangladesh started the tour with a 3–0 whitewash defeat in ODI series and the dawn of new year 2017 saw a similar 3–0 whitewash defeat in T20I series. Further, Bangladesh lost the Test series 2–0. However they broke the 123 years old record for the Highest first innings total in tests to lose during the 1st Test vs New Zealand by scoring 595/8 dec. They finished the tour losing all the games 8–0. Then Bangladesh toured India in February 2017 for the historical first Test match between two countries on Indian soil. India won the game comprehensively by 208 runs, having declared in both innings. The next assignment for Bangladesh was another full away tour in Sri Lanka in March–April 2017. Bangladesh were comprehensively beaten by 259 runs in the first Test. However, they were able draw the Test series 1–1, by winning the second test by four-wicket. That meant Bangladesh won their 100th Test match becoming one of the four teams to achieve that feat. Further this was Bangladesh's first test match victory against Sri Lanka. Bangladesh led the ODI series after two games 1–0, since winning the first ODI by 90 runs and the second ODI being washed away by rain. However Sri Lanka won the third ODI by 70 runs, levelling the ODI series 1–1. The T20I series was also shared 1–1. In May 2017, Bangladesh finished second at the 2017 Ireland Tri-Nation Series held in Ireland, winning 2 (vs New Zealand and Ireland), losing 1 (vs New Zealand) and 1 washed out (vs Ireland) games. Bangladesh moved to sixth place in the ICC ODI Rankings for the first time following its five wickets victory over fourth-ranked New Zealand. This is also the first time Bangladesh has been ranked ahead of three former world champions - Sri Lanka, Pakistan, the West Indies – and Zimbabwe. Bangladesh started the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy campaign with a defeat in the series opener against England. However, a washout against Australia and a famous win against New Zealand in Cardiff helped them to reach the semi-finals for the first time in Bangladesh cricket history. Finally they were knocked out of the tournament after losing to India by 9 wickets in the semi-finals. Australia toured Bangladesh in August–September 2017 for a two-match Test series. Host Bangladesh registered their first test match win ever over Australia when they defeated the touring team by 20 runs during the first Test. However Bangladesh was unable to secure the series victory, since Australia won the second Test by 7 wickets and the series was shared 1–1. In September–October 2017, Bangladesh toured South Africa to play 2 Tests, 3 ODIs and 2 T20Is where Bangladesh was whitewashed 0–7 across formats. Team South Africa was too strong for Bangladesh and these games were extremely one-sided, creating several new team and personal records. Bangladesh lost two test by 333 runs and by an innings and 254 runs respectively. The latter being the biggest Test win ever for South Africa. South Africa won the 1st ODI by 10 wickets which registered the highest target (279) chased down without losing a wicket in ODIs. In last two ODIs Bangladesh lost comprehensively by 104 and by 200 runs. Later Bangladesh also lost the 2 T20Is by 20 runs and 83 runs. During the 2nd T20I David Miller scored the fastest T20I century ever recorded. However, during the middle of this tour Bangladesh was qualified for the 2019 Cricket World Cup since they were at No. 7 of ICC ODI rankings by 30 September 2017 cut-off date. On 9 November 2017, BCB president Nazmul Hassan announced that Hathurusingha submitted resignation from the post of Bangladesh head coach during the team's tour of South Africa. During his tenure, Bangladesh won 6 Tests (in 21), 25 ODIs (in 52) and 10 T20Is (in 29) which is arguably the most successful era of Bangladesh Cricket. Further, under his wings Bangladesh reached quarter finals of 2015 Cricket World Cup, qualified and later reached semi-finals of 2017 ICC Champions Trophy, qualified for 2019 Cricket World Cup, became runner up of 2016 Asia Cup, defeated India, Pakistan and South Africa in home bilateral series, climbed up to No. 6 of ODI rankings, registered their first Test wins against England, Sri Lanka and Australia. He was instrumental in Bangladesh beginning to actively picking more pace bowlers in their attack. Shakib Al Hasan had replaced Mushfiqur Rahim as Bangladesh's Test captain, starting with the Sri Lanka's tour in January 2018. Mahmudullah took over the vice-captaincy from Tamim Iqbal while the BCB was set to announce a new coach. Under Richard Halsall (2018) BCB chairman announced that their assistant coach Richard Halsall, will be in charge of coaching the side ahead of the Tri-nation ODI series held in January 2018 at home. Convincing wins against low ranked opponents, Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe, in the first three group games saw Bangladesh reach the finals. Bangladesh recorded their biggest win in ODI cricket (won by 163 runs) against Sri Lanka during the process. However Bangladesh were bowled out for 82 (which was their ninth-lowest ODI total) and lost by 10 wickets in the last group game against Sri Lanka. They met Sri Lanka in the finals and lost the match by 79 runs, extending their win-less run in tournament finals. The 1st Test against Sri Lanka was a high scoring draw. Later, Bangladesh lost the 2nd Test by 215 runs inside 3 days, conceding the Test series 1–0. Bangladesh also lost the T20I series 3–0. Under Courtney Walsh (2018) Courtney Walsh acted as the interim coach for 2018 Nidahas Trophy, a triangular T20I series held in Sri Lanka in March. Bangladesh lost the tournament final against India, after reaching there defeating Sri Lanka twice in group matches. On 1 May 2018, Bangladesh broke into the top eight of the Test rankings for the first time, as a result of the ICC's annual update to the rankings. Bangladesh got whitewashed in a 3 match T20I series against Afghanistan in India, losing their matches by 45 runs, by 6 wickets and by 1 run respectively. This recorded Bangladesh's first T20I match loss ever and their first T20I series loss against Afghans as well. Under Steve Rhodes (2018–2019) BCB appointed former England wicketkeeper Steve Rhodes the Bangladesh head coach in early March ahead of West Indies tour. Bangladesh hit an all-time low when they were dismissed for 43 (their lowest score in Tests) during the 1st Test against West Indies at North Sound and eventually lost the test by an innings and 219 runs. Later Bangladesh lost the 2nd Test by 166 runs and lost the series 2–0. Later they performed well in limited overs formats and eventually ended up the tour by winning the three match ODI and T20I series by 2–1 margin each. Bangladesh started their Asia Cup 2018 campaign with a win over Sri Lanka by 137 runs, which was their biggest win, by runs in ODIs away from home. Even though they faced a heavy loss in their next match at group stage against Afghanistan, (lost by 136 runs – Bangladesh's biggest loss, by runs in ODIs against Afghanistan), they have progressed to the Super Four stage. Bangladesh lost to India by 7 wickets, narrowly won against Afghanistan by 3 runs and defeated Pakistan by 37 runs at the Super Four stage to reach the Final of the Asia Cup. At the Final, they lost to India by 3 wickets, extending their win-less record in tournament Finals. In October–November, Bangladesh hosted a three-match ODI and two-match test series against Zimbabwe. Bangladesh won the ODI series 3–0 while they drew the test series 1–1, losing the first test of the series at Sylhet which was the inaugural test of the venue. West Indies toured Bangladesh for a full series in November–December. Bangladesh won the 2 match test series 2–0. By defeating West Indies in the 2nd test by an innings and 184 runs, Bangladesh recorded their first innings victory in Test cricket. Bangladesh also won the 3 match ODI series by 2–1 margin. But lost the T20I series by 2–1 margin. Bangladesh toured New Zealand in February–March 2019. Bangladesh got whitewashed in the 3 match ODI series. Bangladesh lost the first Test at Hamilton by an innings and 52 runs. Later they have lost the second Test at Wellington by an innings and 12 runs even after the first two days play were abandoned due to rain. The third test was canceled following the Christchurch mosque shootings, which the team narrowly escaped. Bangladesh won their first ever multi-team ODI tournament final at Dublin on 17 May 2019 defeating West Indies by 5 wickets (D/L method) at the 2019 Ireland Tri-Nation Series. Bangladesh reached the finals defeating West Indies twice and Ireland once during league phase and the other league match against Ireland was washed out due to rain. Even though they entered the 2019 Cricket World Cup with high expectations, Bangladesh finished 8th at the group stage and was unable to reach the semi-finals, after winning only three of their nine matches. In July 2019, Rhodes' contract with the BCB was terminated, following the team's eighth-place finish in the tournament. Under Khaled Mahmud (2019) Khaled Mahmud, who played for Bangladesh in the 1999 Cricket World Cup, was subsequently appointed as interim coach after Steve Rhodes's contract being terminated. His first assignment in charge was Bangladesh's three-match ODI tour of Sri Lanka, from 26 to 31 July 2019, which Bangladesh received a whitewash losing the series 0–3. Under Russell Domingo (2019–present) BCB appointed Russell Domingo as the head coach for the national team for a 2-year contract on 17 August 2019. In his first assignment as coach Bangladesh lost to Afghanistan in one-off Test match at Chittagong in September 2019. But in the tri-series, comprising Afghanistan and Zimbabwe, Bangladesh reached to final winning 3 of their 4 group matches. But the final match with Afghanistan was washed away and two teams shared the trophy. Bangladesh then toured India in October–November to play 3 T20Is and 2 test matches. Bangladesh started their World Test Championship campaign with this test series. Just before few days of the tour Bangladesh's regular Test and T20I captain Shakib Al Hasan was banned for 2 years by ICC after accepting three charges under ICC Anti-Corruption Code. Subsequently, Mominul Haque was given the charge of test captaincy and Mahmudullah as T20I captain. Bangladesh won the first match of the tour, the first T20I at Delhi by 7 wickets and lost the remaining 2 matches by 8 wickets and 30 runs respectively losing the series 1–2. Bangladesh lost both the test matches by innings margin as their batsmen failed to capitalize. Whereas the second test was the first-ever Day/night test match played by both teams. In January and February 2020, Bangladesh toured Pakistan to play one Test match and three Twenty20 International (T20I) matches. Pakistan won the T20I series by 2–0, with the third match abandoned due to rain. The Test match was played as part of the inaugural 2019–21 ICC World Test Championship. Bangladesh lost the Test by an innings and 44 runs. In February 2020, Zimbabwe toured Bangladesh to play one Test, three ODI and two T20I matches. Bangladesh won the one-off test match by an innings and 106 runs, which was Bangladesh's first test win since Domingo took charge as the head coach of the team as well as it was their only second test match win by an innings margin. Ahead of the tour, the BCB announced that it would be Mashrafe Mortaza's last series as captain of the ODI team. Prior to the third ODI, Mortaza confirmed that he would be stepping down as Bangladesh's ODI captain after the series. Bangladesh won the ODI series 3–0, with Mortaza recording his 50th win in an ODI match as captain with victory in the third match. In an attempt to mitigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the BCB restricted ticket sales for the first T20I match to one per person. Bangladesh won the T20I series 2–0, to win all six international fixtures against Zimbabwe in the series. It was the first time that Bangladesh had whitewashed a team in a single series across all three formats of international cricket. In January 2021, Bangladesh played their first international series after the COVID-19 pandemic against West Indies at home.The ODI matches were part of the inaugural ICC Cricket World Cup Super League. Bangladesh won the ODI series by 3–0. The two Test matches was played as part of the inaugural 2019–21 ICC World Test Championship. West Indies won the first test by 3 wickets chasing 395, which was the highest successful run chase in Asia and overall fifth highest run chase in test cricket. They also went onto win the 2nd test by 17 runs, thus whitewashed Bangladesh in test at home since 2012–13. In March 2021, Bangladesh toured New Zealand to play 3 match ODI series and a 3 match T20I series. They lost both the ODI series and T20I series by 3–0. The ODI matches were part of the inaugural ICC Cricket World Cup Super League. In April 2021, Bangladesh toured Sri Lanka for a 2 match test series. The Test matches were played as part of the inaugural 2019–21 ICC World Test Championship. The 1st Test was a high-scoring draw which helped Bangladesh register points in the 2019–2021 ICC World Test Championship League Table. But Bangladesh lost the second test by 209 runs losing the test series 1–0. Sri Lanka toured Bangladesh, in May 2021 for a 3-match ODI series. These ODI matches were played as part of the inaugural 2020–2023 ICC Cricket World Cup Super League. Bangladesh won the 1st ODI by 33 runs and the 2nd ODI by 103 runs, eventually winning their maiden ODI series against Sri Lanka. However, Bangladesh lost the 3rd ODI by 97 runs. In July 2021, Bangladesh toured Zimbabwe to play one Test, three ODI and five T20I matches. Bangladesh clinched huge 220 runs win over Zimbabwe in the one-off Test match, with Mehidy Hasan picking up a five wicket and four wicket haul in the first and second innings respectively. This was Bangladesh's first win in the year of 2021. The match also saw three centurions, Mahmudullah, Shadman Islam and Najmul Hossain Shanto, with Mahmudullah top-scoring with an unbeaten 150 runs. During the one-off Test match, Mahmudullah announced his retirement from Test cricket. Bangladesh also won the ODI series by 3–0 margin, first time they whitewashed the opponent in away series since 2009. In the first ODI, they defeated Zimbabwe by 155 runs, while Shakib Al Hasan became the leading wicket-taker for Bangladesh in ODIs, taking his 270th dismissal. They won the 2nd and 3rd ODI by 3 and 5 wickets respectively. In the 3-match T20I series, the first T20I was the 100th Twenty20 International match played by Bangladesh, which they went onto win by 8 wickets, becoming the only third team after Australia and Pakistan to win their 100th match in all three formats. Though Bangladesh lost the second match, but winning the third T20I, they swept the series by 2–1 margin. This is the first instance of Bangladesh winning all three series of a tour, having won the one-off test and then 3-match ODI series by 3–0 and 3-match T20I series by 2–1 margin. T20I series wins against Australia and New Zealand at home In August 2021, Australia toured Bangladesh for a five-match T20I series.In the first T20I, Bangladesh beat Australia for the first time in that format by 23 runs. Bangladesh went on to beat Australia in the next two matches, by 5 wickets and 10 runs respectively taking an unassailable lead. This was first time Bangladesh beating Australia in consecutive matches in any format. However, Bangladesh lost the 4th T20I by 3 wickets. In the final T20I Australia was restricted to 62 runs in their innings, which is the lowest score by any team against Bangladesh in T20Is and lowest total in for Australia in T20Is. Bangladesh won the match Bangladesh by 60 runs. Eventually, Bangladesh won the series by 4–1 margin. In September 2021, Bangladesh hosted New Zealand for a 5-match T20I series. Bangladesh won the first T20I by 7 wickets after restricting New Zealand for 60 runs, which was the lowest total by any team against Bangladesh. This is Bangladesh's first-ever T20I victory over New Zealand. Bangladesh won the second match by 4 runs, but lost the third T20I by 52 runs. Bangladesh completed their first-ever T20I series win against New Zealand by winning the fourth match by 6 wickets. Later they lost the fifth and final game of the series by 27 runs. Eventually, Bangladesh won the series 3–2. Disappointing 2021 T20 World Cup Campaign Ahead of ICC T20 World Cup 2021 Bangladesh announced their squad on 9 September 2021. Rubel Hossain and Aminul Islam were named as travelling reserves. However, on 10 October 2021, Aminul Islam withdrew himself from the squad and returned home. Bangladesh played two warm-up matches before the First Round, one against Sri Lanka which they lost by 4 wickets and another against Ireland which they lost by 33 runs. Bangladesh started off their world cup campaign with a loss where Scotland defeated Bangladesh by 6 runs. And so Bangladesh is yet to win a T20I match against associate Scotland. Later they won against other two associates (Oman and Papua New Guinea) in their qualifying group and qualified for the Super 12 stage of the tournament. However Bangladesh were unable to register a single win as they lost all five matches in Super 12 stage against any of the Full member nations : Sri Lanka (by 5 wickets), England (by 8 wickets), West Indies (by 3 runs), South Africa (by 6 wickets), and Australia (by 8 wickets) and were knocked out of the tournament even before they play their last group match. In their last two matches they were unable to cross 85 runs. Home series losses against Pakistan Pakistan toured Bangladesh in November and December 2021 to play two Test and three Twenty20 International (T20I) matches. The Test series was part of the 2021–2023 ICC World Test Championship. Bangladesh received a 0-3 whitewash from Pakistan in T20I series. Bangladesh won all three tosses and elected to bat first. However, they were unable to post competitive totals in any of the matches and thus Pakistan comprehensively chased the targets winning the games by 4 wickets, 8 wickets, and 5 wickets respectively. Bangladesh then lost both Test matches that were played at Chattogram by 8 wickets and an innings & 8 runs respectively. Bangladesh's first-innings total, 87 is the joint-lowest in Bangladesh in Test cricket. Test series in New Zealand Bangladesh toured New Zealand in January 2022 to play two Test matches. The Test series will form part of the 2021–2023 ICC World Test Championship. Ahead of the Test series, two tour matches were scheduled to be played. However, the first match was cancelled due to an increase in quarantine requirements for the Bangladesh team in New Zealand. The only tour match ended in a draw. On Day 1 of the 1st test Devon Conway who returned from injury struck his second century in Test cricket, on his home debut in the format. New Zealand, as a result, finished ahead of Bangladesh on the first day going to stumps 258 for 5 on New Year's Day. On Day 2 New Zealand finished of their first-innings with score of 328, their lowest at home against Bangladesh. Then Bangladesh ended the day with 175–2 with Najmul Hossain Shanto and Mahmudul Hasan Joy bringing up half-centuries as Bangladesh became only the second visiting team in the last eight years to bat more than 50 overs for the first two wickets in New Zealand. On Day 3,Bangladesh went to stumps on 401 for 6, leading by 73 runs, the first time they have done batting second outside Asia and also the first time each of Bangladesh's top six batters faced more than 50 balls in an away Test innings. On Day 4 Bangladesh finished on 458 of 176.2 overs, their second longest Test innings and the most number of overs bowled by New Zealand in 12 years. New Zealand went to stumps on 147 for 5, just ahead by 17 runs. Governing body The Bangladesh Cricket Board (BCB) is the governing body for the Bangladeshi cricket team and the sport in the country. The BCB is responsible for maintaining grounds and promoting the sport. It was founded in 1972 as the Bangladesh Cricket Control Board. Its first constitution was drafted in 1976. The board changed its name, dropping "control" from its title, in January 2007. The president of the BCB is appointed by the government of Bangladesh. The board also controls the team's sponsorship. Since 2003 telecommunications company Grameenphone has sponsored the men and women's national teams. Between 2007 and 2011 they invested in developing sport in the country. In 2006 the Board established an academy to encourage the development of young and inexperienced players. The Board issues central contracts to the national players and issuing match fees. In 2005 players were given about $1,000 for each Test they played and $500 per ODI. International grounds Updated: 5 January 2022 Fan following Before Bangladesh had even secured Test status, cricket fans in the country took the game seriously; when the team lost an ODI against Kenya in March 1999, several hundred fans protested outside the offices of the Bangladesh Cricket Board (BCB). On learning of Bangladesh's promotion to Test status, thousands of people celebrated on the streets. Then Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina remarked that "I can't express my joy in words at this happiest hour of the nation". At the time cricket was the second-most popular sport in the country behind football. When Bangladesh began its first Test match on 10 November 2000 at Bangabandhu National Stadium in Dhaka, the stadium was nearly full on the first day as around 40,000 people watched the team take on India. As the match partly overlapped with the festival of Shab-e-Barat, numbers attending declined as the match progressed. In 2011, Bangladeshi politician Saber Hossain Chowdhury opined that "In Bangladesh cricket is not simply a game, it is a symbol of national unity", and in the words of AHM Mostofa Kamal, president of the BCB in 2011, "People of Bangladesh take cricket religiously". The people of Bangladesh are referred as "the most passionate cricket fans" among the cricket world. When Bangladesh are victorious, the fans sometimes take to the streets in celebration. When Bangladesh defeated India in the 2007 World Cup, thousands of people celebrated into the night on the streets of Dhaka despite there being a ban on public gatherings at the time. Although fans are jubilant in victory, they can also be vocal in defeat. When Bangladesh lost to England in an ODI in November 2003, the then captain Khaled Mahmud was booed off the field. During the 2011 World Cup, Bangladesh succumbed to a record defeat against West Indies, registering the team's lowest score in ODIs. Bangladeshi fans booed and stoned the buses of both teams (Bangladesh's intentionally, West Indies' mistakenly), as was Shakib Al Hasan's house. Team colours In Test cricket, Bangladesh wears cricket whites, with the BCB logo on the left chest and the sponsor's logo on the right chest. Fielders wear a dark green cap or a white wide brim sunhat. The helmets are also dark green. In limited overs cricket, Bangladesh wears a green uniform with red being the secondary colour and the BCB logo on chest and the sponsor's logo on the centre and "BANGLADESH" written underneath in red letters, with the fielders wearing a green baseball cap with red accents or a green wide-brimmed hat. During ICC tournaments, the sponsor's logo is placed on the left sleeve. In the 1999 Cricket World Cup, Bangladesh wore an olive green uniform with yellow accents and a horizontal stripe with tiger-stripe motif on the chest. On 6 September 2018 Uniliver Bangladesh became the team sponsor for the period of 2018 to 2020. Players Current squad In August 2021, BCB published a 24-players list for the central contract for the 2021 season (from May to December). This time, the board rescinded its red-ball and white-ball based contract system, which was introduced in the last season, instead introduced three different contract system for three formats. Only five players were given contracts for all three format, while 3 players for Test and ODI, 4 players for ODI and T20I, 6 players for only Test and 6 players for only T20I. Key The BCB awards central contracts to its players, its pay graded according to the importance of the player. Players' salaries are as follows: Grade A+ : per annum Grade A : per annum Grade B : per annum Grade C : per annum Grade D : per annum In addition to this, Mushfiqur Rahim is given bonus for playing more matches than others. Match fees In January 2020, BCB increased test match fees by 70% in test cricket as well as ODI and T20I match fees. Players who are in the playing XI get paid for each test while they are paid for each ODI and for each T20I. Coaching staff Tournament history A red box around the year indicates tournaments played within Bangladesh ICC World Test Championship ICC Cricket World Cup ICC Champions Trophy Known as the "ICC Knockout" in 1998 and 2000 ICC T20 World Cup Asian Test Championship ACC Asia Cup Austral-Asia Cup ICC Trophy/ICC Cricket World Cup Qualifier Known as the 'ICC Trophy' from 1979 to 2005. List A, T20 cricket Commonwealth Games Asian Games ACC Trophy Records Players listed in bold are still playing. International match summary – Bangladesh Test matches Highest team total: 638 v. Sri Lanka, 8–12 March 2013 at Galle Lowest team total : 43 v. West Indies, 4–8 July 2018 at North Sound Highest individual score: 219*, Mushfiqur Rahim v. Zimbabwe, 12 November 2018 at Dhaka Most individual runs in a match: 281, Mominul Haque (176 and 105) v. Sri Lanka, 2018 at Chittagong Best individual bowling figures in an innings: 8/39, Taijul Islam v. Zimbabwe, 25–27 October 2014 at Dhaka Best individual bowling figures in a match: 12/117, Mehedi Hasan Miraz (7/59 and 5/58) v. West Indies, 30 November- 2 December 2018 at Dhaka Most Test runs for Bangladesh Most Test wickets for Bangladesh Test record versus other nations One-Day Internationals Highest team total: 333/8 v. Australia, 20 June 2019 at Nottingham Lowest team total: 58 v. West Indies, 4 March 2011 at Dhaka and v. India, 17 June 2014 in Dhaka Highest individual score: 176, Liton Das v. Zimbabwe, 6 March 2020 at Sylhet Best individual bowling figures: 6/26, Mashrafe Mortaza v. Kenya, 15 August 2006 at Nairobi (Gymkhana) and Rubel Hossain v. New Zealand, 29 October 2013 at Dhaka Most ODI runs for Bangladesh Most ODI wickets for Bangladesh ODI record versus other nations Twenty20 Internationals Highest team total: 215/5 v. Sri Lanka, 10 March 2018 at Colombo Highest individual score: 103*, Tamim Iqbal v. Oman, 13 March 2016 at Dharamsala Best individual bowling figures: 5/13, Elias Sunny v. Ireland, 18 July 2012 at Belfast Most T20I runs for Bangladesh Most T20I wickets for Bangladesh T20I record versus other nations World records As a team Most consecutive Test defeats : 21 (2001–2004). Most consecutive Test series defeats : 16 (2000/01–2004–05). Most consecutive ODI defeats : 23 (1999–2002). Most consecutive ODIs without victory : 47 (1999–2003). Only 3rd country to win their 100th match in Tests, ODIs and T20Is. Only test playing country in the world to lose its 1st Test against each opponent. Only test playing country to not get involved in any tied match in any format. Only Test side which have lost the first ODI they have played against five non-Test sides (Canada 2003, Kenya 2003, Ireland 2007, Netherlands 2010 and Afghanistan 2014). The highest innings total in a losing cause 595/8 dec vs New Zealand in 2017. Bangladesh has taken 16 years and 12 days—the least time among all 10 Test-playing countries—to reach the landmark figure of playing 100 tests. By Bangladeshi players Aminul Islam became the third cricketer to score a century on their country's inaugural test in 2000 against India. He achieved this feat after Charles Bannerman (Australia) and Dave Houghton (Zimbabwe) while Irish cricketer Kevin O'Brien was the latest and the fourth member to join this elite club. Mohammad Ashraful holds the record for the youngest cricketer to make a Test century. He was 17 years and 61 days old when he made 114 against Sri Lanka at Colombo on 8 September 2001, during his Test debut. In 2005 against Zimbabwe, Enamul Haque Jr. became the youngest bowler ever to take a 10 wicket haul in Tests at the age of 18 years 40 days. Mashrafe Mortaza was the leading wicket-taker in ODIs in 2006, with 49 wickets in 27 matches. On 21 November 2012, Abul Hasan became only the second Test cricketer in history to make a century at number 10 on debut, against the West Indies at Khulna. On 13 October 2013, against New Zealand at Chittagong, Sohag Gazi became the first cricketer ever to score a century and take a hat-trick in the same Test match. In 2014, Shakib Al Hasan became only third cricketer after Ian Botham (England) and Imran Khan (Pakistan) to score a century and to pick up 10 wickets in same test. Shakib Al Hasan became the first player in history to hold the number 1 positions in all three formats of cricket, in the all-rounder category on 12 January 2015. On 1 December 2014, in the 5th ODI against Zimbabwe, Taijul Islam became the first bowler in ODI history to claim a hat-trick on debut. Mustafizur Rahman became the first cricketer ever to take 11 wickets in his first two ODIs when he took 5/50 against India on 18 June 2015 and then 6/43 against the same team three days later. Both matches were played at Dhaka. Until 25 July 2015, Elias Sunny was the only player to be nominated as the Man of the match in two formats of the international cricket as a debutant. He made it in Test(v West Indies in 2011) & T20I(v Ireland in 2012). Mustafizur Rahman, being only second to Elias Sunny, did it in ODI(v India) and in Test(v South Africa) both in 2015. On 7 June 2018 in the 3rd T20I against Afghanistan by taking the wicket of Najibullah Zadran, Shakib Al Hasan became the quickest All-rounder to achieve the double of 10,000 runs and 500 wickets in 302 international matches and became only 3rd cricketer to do so following Jacques Kallis and Shahid Afridi. In August 2021, against Australia, Shakib Al Hasan became the first cricketer to take 100 wickets and score 1,000 runs in T20Is. See also Bangladesh Premier League Bangladesh national women's cricket team List of Bangladesh national cricket captains Notes References External links Cricket in Bangladesh Bangladesh Cricket Bangladesh in international cricket

Glow-in-the-dark

eng_Latn

Glow-in-the-dark may refer to: Science Bioluminescence, the production and emission of light by a living organism Chemiluminescence, the emission of light (luminescence) with limited emission of heat Phosphorescence, a specific type of photoluminescence related to fluorescence (as seen in "glow in the dark" toys and materials) Radioluminescence, production of luminescence in a material by the bombardment of ionizing radiation Music "Glow in the Dark" (song), a 2014 single by The Wanted Glow in the Dark Tour, a 2008 concert tour by Kanye West Glow in the Dark (book), a 2009 biographical photo essay about the Kanye West tour Glow in the Dark (album), a 2009 live album by Roger Clyne and the Peacemakers Glow in the Dark (Buckethead album) "Glow in the Dark" (Iggy Pop song) "Glow in the Dark" (Skepta song)

Local government in Australia

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Local government is the third level of government in Australia, administered with limited autonomy under the states and territories, and in turn beneath the federal government. Local government is not mentioned in the Constitution of Australia, and two referendums in 1974 and 1988 to alter the Constitution relating to local government were unsuccessful. Every state/territory government recognizes local government in its own respective constitution. Unlike the two-tier local government system in Canada or the United States, there is only one tier of local government in each Australian state/territory, with no distinction between counties and cities. The Australian local government is generally run by a council, and its territory of public administration is referred to generically by the Australian Bureau of Statistics as the local government area or LGA, each of which encompasses multiple suburbs or localities often of different postcodes; however, stylized terms such as "city", "borough" and "shire" also have a geographic or historical interpretation. The council board members are generally known as councillors, and the head councillor is called the mayor. As of August 2016, there were 547 local councils in Australia. Despite the single tier of local governance in Australia, there are a number of extensive regions with relatively low populations that are not a part of any established LGA. Powers of local governments in these unincorporated areas may be exercised by special-purpose governing bodies established outside of the local legislation, as with Victoria's alpine resorts; or directly administered by state/territory governments, such as the entirety of the Australian Capital Territory. The administrative area covered by local government councils in Australia ranges from as small as for the Shire of Peppermint Grove in metropolitan Perth, to as big as for the Unorganized Government Area in South Australia's Coober region, which covers a geographical area larger than Egypt or Pakistan. Types of local government Local governments are subdivisions of the six federated states as well as the Northern Territory. The Australian Capital Territory has no separate local government, and municipal functions in Canberra and the surrounding regions (normally performed by local governments in other states) are performed by the ACT territorial government. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), however, considers the entire ACT as an "unincorporated" local government area, even though it is technically a state-level administrative region. Although all essentially identical in functions and jurisdictions, Australian local governments have a variety of different titles. The term "local government area" (LGA) is used by the ABS to collectively refer to all local government administrative zones regardless of the varying designations, whilst the local governing legislature itself is generally known as a council. In general, an urban/suburban LGA is called a "city", as in the City of Melbourne, City of Canada Bay and City of Bunbury; while an exurban/rural LGA covering a larger agricultural/natural area is usually called a "shire", as in Shire of Mornington Peninsula, Shire of Banana and Lachlan Shire. Sometimes designations other than "city" or "shire" are used in the names of LGAs, and today the stylized titles of "town", "borough", "municipality", "district", "region", "community government", "Aboriginal council/shire" and "island" are used in addition. The word "municipality" occurs in some states with differing meanings: in New South Wales it is typically used for older urban areas, and the word is used for some rural towns in South Australia. Larger towns and small metropolitan exurban centres in Queensland and Western Australia simply use the term "town", while in Victoria they are designated as "rural city". Historically, the word "borough" was common for small towns and suburban centers in Victoria, but nowadays only the Borough of Queenscliffe remains as the one and only borough in the entire country. New South Wales and Queensland have also introduced a new term "region" for outback LGAs formed by the amalgamation of smaller shires and rural cities. In New South Wales, where the Local Government Act does not mandate adopting a designation, some local government areas are legally known simply as "council", such as Port Macquarie-Hastings Council, Inner West Council and Federation Council. Some rural areas in South Australia are known as "district council", and all the LGAs in Tasmania that were previously municipalities have been renamed "council". Almost all local councils have the same administrative functions and similar political structures, regardless of their naming, and retain a particular designation ("shire", "borough", "town", "city") for historical reasons only. They will typically have an elected council and usually a mayor or shire president responsible for chairing meetings of the council. In some councils, the mayor is a directly elected figure, but in most cases the mayor is elected by the board of fellow councillors. The powers of mayors vary as well; for example, mayors in Queensland have broad executive functions, whereas mayors in New South Wales are essentially ceremonial figureheads who can only exercise power at the discretion of the council. Most of the capital city LGAs administer only the central business districts and nearby central suburbs. A notable exception is the City of Brisbane, the most populous LGA in the country, which administers a significant part of the Brisbane metropolitan area. In most cases, when a city's population statistics are used, it is the statistical division population rather than the local government area. Local governments by type and state The following table provides a summary of local government areas by states and territories by local government area types as of January 2017: Classification The Australian Classification of Local Governments (ACLG) categorises local governing authorities using the population, the population density and the proportion of the population that is classified as being urban for the council. The classification, at the two-digit level, is: RA Rural Agricultural RS Rural Significant RT Rural Remote UC Urban Capital UD Urban Developed UF Urban Fringe UR Urban Regional Powers and functions All local governments are approximately equal in their theoretical powers, although LGAs that encompass large cities such as Brisbane and the Gold Coast command more resources due to their larger population base. Unlike local governments in many other countries, services such as police, fire protection and schools are provided by state or territory government rather than by local councils. The councils' chief responsibility in the first half of the 20th century was the provision of physical infrastructure such as roads, bridges and sewerage. From the 1970s the emphasis changed to community facilities such as libraries and parks, maintenance of local roads, town planning and development approvals, and local services such as waste disposal. Child care, tourism and urban renewal were also beginning to be part of local governments' role. These are financed by collection of local land taxes known as "rates," and grants from the state and Commonwealth governments. They are caricatured as being concerned only with the "three Rs": Rates, Roads and Rubbish. However, the roles of local government areas in Australia have recently expanded as higher levels of government have devolved activities to the third tier. Examples include the provision of community health services, regional airports and pollution control as well as community safety and accessible transport. The changes in services has been described as a shift from 'services to property' towards 'services to people'. Community expectations of local government in Australia has risen in the 21st century partly as a result of wider participation in decision making and transparent management practices. Recent years have seen some State governments devolving additional powers onto LGAs. In Queensland and Western Australia LGAs have been granted the power to independently enact their own local subsidiary legislation, in contrast to the previous system of by-laws. Councils also have organised their own representative structures such as Local Government Associations and Regional Organisations of Councils. Doctrines of new public management have shaped state government legislation towards increased freedoms aiming to allow greater flexibility on the part of local governments. History There is no mention of local government in the Constitution of Australia, though it is mentioned several times in the Annotated Constitution of Australia. "Municipal institutions and local government" appears in Annotation 447, and "Power of the Parliament of a Colony" appears under "Residuary Legislative Powers" on pages 935 and 936. The first official local government in Australia was the Perth Town Trust, established in 1838, only three years after British settlement. The Adelaide Corporation followed, created by the province of South Australia in October 1840. The City of Melbourne and the Sydney Corporation followed, both in 1842. All of these early forms failed; it was not until the 1860s and 1870s that the various colonies established widespread stable forms of local government, mainly for the purpose of raising money to build roads in rural and outer-urban regions. Council representatives attended conventions before Federation, however local government was unquestionably regarded as outside the Constitutional realm. In the 1970s, the Whitlam Government expanded the level of funding to local governments in Australia beyond grants for road construction. General purpose grants become available for the first time. Reforms Significant reforms took place in the 1980s and 1990s in which state governments used metrics and efficiency analysis developed within the private sector in the local government arena. Each state conducted an inquiry into the benefits of council amalgamations during the 1990s. In the early 1990s, Victoria saw the number of local councils reduced from 210 to 78. South Australia, Tasmania and Queensland saw some reductions in the number of local governments while Western Australia and New South Wales rejected compulsory mergers. New South Wales eventually forced the merging of some councils. The main purpose of amalgamating councils was for greater efficiency and to improve operations, but forced amalgamation of councils is sometimes seen as a dilution of representative democracy. An increase in the range of services offered by councils, but only minor cost savings of less than 10% have been noted by academics as outcomes after mergers. The council mergers have resulted in widespread job losses and lingering resentment from some whose roles have experienced a larger workload. The growth of the Regional Organisations of Councils has also been a factor in local government reform in Australia. In 1995, there were 50 such agreements across the country. A 2002 study identified 55 ROCs with the largest involving 18 councils. Constitutional position Local government powers are determined by state governments, and states have primary responsibility for funding and exclusive responsibility for supervision of local councils. Local government is mentioned in the annotated Australian constitution, as a department of the State Governments, and they are mentioned in the constitutions of each of the six states. Under the Constitution, the federal government cannot provide funding directly to local governments; a 1974 referendum sought to amend the Constitution to authorise the federal government to directly fund local governments, but it was defeated. A 1988 referendum sought to explicitly insert mention of local government in the federal constitution but this was comprehensively defeated. A further referendum was proposed in 2013, but was cancelled due to the change in the election date. Federal government interaction with local councils happens regularly through the provision of federal grants to help fund local government managed projects. State/territory control Local government in Australia has very limited legislative powers and no judicial powers, and executive-wise is subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of the state/territory it belongs to. The functions and practices of local councils are mostly centered around managing public services and land uses at the community level, and are similar throughout Australia, but can vary to some degree between jurisdictions. State departments oversee the activities of local councils and may intervene in their affairs when needed, subject to relevant legislation. For more details in each state and territory, see the following : Local government areas of New South Wales Local government areas of the Northern Territory Local government in Queensland and Local government areas of Queensland (list) Local government areas of South Australia Local government areas of Tasmania Local government in Victoria and Local government areas of Victoria (list) Local government areas of Western Australia The Australian Capital Territory is not divided into local government areas, although it is regarded as a single "unincorporated" local government area during censusing. Unincorporated areas Unlike many other countries, Australia has only one level of local government immediately beneath state and territorial governments. Aside from very sparsely populated areas and a few other special cases, almost all of Australia is part of a local government area. Unincorporated areas are often in remote locations, cover vast areas or have very small populations. Australian Capital Territory The Australian Capital Territory has no municipalities and is in some sense an unincorporated area. The ACT government is directly responsible for matters normally carried out by a local government. Many Canberra districts have community organisations called "community councils", but these are not part of the government (though they generally receive government funding). They do not have the power to change laws or policies, and their role is limited to advising government. They are effectively residents' associations. New South Wales New South Wales has 2 unincorporated areas: Unincorporated Far West Region, covering the western one third of the state (other than the City of Broken Hill). This area is sparsely populated. Local Government functions in this area are managed directly by the state government and its agencies. Lord Howe Island. Northern Territory In the Northern Territory, 1.45% of the total area and 4.0% of the population are in unincorporated areas, including Unincorporated Top End Region (Finniss-Mary, the largest), areas covered by the Darwin Rates Act—Nhulunbuy, Alyangula on Groote Eylandt in the northern region, and Yulara in the southern region. South Australia In South Australia, 60% of the state's area is unincorporated and communities located within receive municipal services provided by a state agency, the Outback Communities Authority. Victoria Victoria has 10 unincorporated areas, which are either ski resorts or small islands: Falls Creek Alpine Resort French Island and Sandstone Island Elizabeth Island Gabo Island Lady Julia Percy Island Lake Mountain Alpine Resort Mount Baw Baw Alpine Resort Mount Buller Alpine Resort Mount Hotham Alpine Resort Mount Stirling Alpine Resort Western Australia Western Australia has 3 unincorporated areas: Abrolhos Islands, which are officially uninhabited and controlled by the WA Department of Fisheries. A-class natural reserves either in, or close to, the Perth metropolitan area, namely: Rottnest Island (controlled by the Rottnest Island Authority) Kings Park (Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority) See also Government of Australia Australian Local Government Association List of the 25 largest Local Government Areas by population Australian Local Government Fossil Fuel Divestment References External links July 2008 maps, Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005 – Spreadsheet of population data for local government areas in the 2006 and 2011 Australian census Australian Government australianpolitics.com Local Government Focus (newspaper) Local Government and Planning Ministers' Council Local Government & Municipal Knowledge Base Politics of Australia Subdivisions of Australia Local Government Areas Australia 2

The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory

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The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory (commonly shortened to The 7 Day Theory or Makaveli) is the fifth studio album and first posthumous album by American rapper Tupac Shakur, credited as the alias Makaveli. It was released on November 5, 1996, almost two months after his death, and was released through Death Row Records, Makaveli Records and Interscope Records. It is his only album released under a new alternative stage name, Makaveli, and it is the last Tupac album released with his creative input. The album features guest appearances from rap group Outlawz and rapper Bad Azz, as well as R&B singers Aaron Hall, Danny Boy, K-Ci and JoJo and Val Young, along with reggae musician Prince Ital Joe. The album peaked at number one on the Billboard 200, selling 664,000 copies within its first week. By 1999, it was certified 4× Platinum by the Recording Association Industry of America (RIAA). The album was supported by three singles: "Toss It Up", "To Live & Die in L.A" and "Hail Mary". Background The album was completely finished in seven days during the first week of August 1996. The lyrics were written and recorded in only three days and mixing took an additional four days. These are the last songs Shakur recorded before he was shot on September 7, 1996. The album's preliminary title was "The 3 Day Theory", (originally consisted of around 14 tracks). E.D.I. Mean of the Outlawz and Ronald "Riskie" Brent revealed in an August 2014 interview that the official name of the album was mixed up in the rush to release the album following Tupac's death. Tupac wanted the album to be called; Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory, with Makaveli the Don as the artist name. Ronald "Riskie" Brent is the creator of The 7 Day Theory cover painting. The album cover, which features Shakur on the cross in an attempt to convey his crucifixion by the media, was created in mid-August 1996. George "Papa G" Pryce, former head of publicity for Death Row, claimed that "Makaveli which we did was a sort of tongue-in-cheek, and it was not ready to come out, [but] after Tupac was murdered, it did come out... Before that, it was going to be a sort of an underground [release]." Recording and production Many of Shakur's usual producers were not involved in the project. The only producer with whom Shakur had worked prior to this album was QD3, the son of Quincy Jones and half-brother of Shakur's girlfriend Kidada Jones. Shakur also co-produces four tracks on the album. The other two producers were Hurt-M-Badd and Darryl "Big D" Harper. E.D.I. Mean of the Outlawz recalls: "At the time Hurt-M-Badd, who was just an up-and-coming producer at Death Row, and Darryl Harper, who was an R&B producer – Suge had him working on all the R&B projects – they had a green room up in Can-Am [Studios] which everybody around Death Row called the 'wack room' because they said 'Ain't nothing but wack shit come out of there.' But we was up in the studio one day and we trying to get music done – ain't none of us producers – we see them two niggas in the 'Wack room' and 'Pac like, 'Go get them niggas.' So niggas go bring them, 'Pac just putting niggas to work like, 'I need a beat here, I need y'all to do this, do that.' And these are niggas that nobody at Death Row was fucking with. They'll tell you themselves." The album was recorded at Can-Am Studios in Tarzana during August 1996. During those days 21 songs were completed, 12 of which made the final product. The album did not feature the star-studded guest list that All Eyez on Me did. Most of the guest verses are supplied by Shakur's group the Outlawz. The only verse that was not from one of the Outlawz was from Bad Azz. Young Noble of the Outlawz recalled: We had started writing the shit and we was taking long. 'Pac was like, "Who got something? Bad Azz you got something?" and it fit perfect, so it was meant for Bad Azz to be on that song. We had already been on a million 'Pac songs. That was his way of motivating us like, "If y'all ain't ready, then you don't make the song." Lyrical themes While All Eyez on Me was considered by Shakur "a celebration of life", The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory is much darker. Shakur's rapping is still emotional, but is intensified throughout. Some songs on the album contain both subtle and direct insults to Shakur's rivals at the height of the East Coast–West Coast feud. Rappers insulted include The Notorious B.I.G., Junior M.A.F.I.A., Puff Daddy, De La Soul, Jay-Z, Mobb Deep, Nas, Xzibit and former Death Row label mate Dr. Dre, as well as New York hip hop executives Jimmy "Henchman" Rosemond, Jacques "Haitian Jack" Agnant and Walter "King Tut" Johnson, accused of being associates of Puff Daddy and Bad Boy Records in orchestrating the 1994 Quad Studio assault. Although Shakur insulted Nas on "Intro/Bomb First (My Second Reply)" and "Against All Odds", rapper Young Noble, who appeared on several songs on The 7 Day Theory, stated in an interview that Nas's "I Gave You Power" was the main inspiration for Shakur's "Me and My Girlfriend". Shakur and Nas squashed their beef at the 1996 MTV Video Music Awards, days before Shakur was murdered. They were scheduled to meet in Las Vegas, but never got the chance. Death Row associate Kurt Kobane revealed in an interview in 2016 that Shakur was listening to Nas' It Was Written the day he got shot – September 7, 1996 – on his way to Vegas. Album cover The album cover for The Don Killuminati was done by Compton based artist Ronald "Riskie" Brent, known artistically as "Riskie Forever." According to Riskie, Death Row Records C.E.O Marion "Suge" Knight introduced Riskie to Tupac on the set of the California Love (Remix) video shoot in Compton, California. Riskie, while in Tupac's trailer showed him his art portfolio, impressing Tupac with his artwork. Upon seeing his artwork Tupac agreed that Riskie had good artistic talent and requested for Riskie to do his next album cover. Riskie received a phone call from the then President of Death Row Norris Anderson with Tupac's request that he be drawn on a cross for his next album cover. The Don Killuminati album cover draws on Renaissance portrayals of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Tupac is by himself in the image with his head tilted to the side, possessing the classic wound in his right side similar to the wound of Jesus as depicted in the accounts of his crucifixion. There is a bandana covering the head of Tupac and barbed-wire covering both his hands and his feet. Absent from the painting is Tupac's iconic "Thug Life" tattoo as it is covered up by the parental advisory sticker. On the cross of Tupac there is a map connecting various cities from across the country. The cities listed have large African-American populations, including the major urban centers of the East, West, and Southern parts of the United States. The color pattern of the cultural production is a gloomy red and black. The only light in the artistry is the moon and the few beams of light that emerge from the cracks on the cross. Near the bottom of the image is a written disclaimer: "In no way is this portrait an expression of disrespect for Jesus Christ. —Makaveli" There are many interpretations of this album cover, the primary theme communicates that through depiction, Tupac is highlighting what he perceives to be his being vilified by the media and left alone to suffer his fate. The parental advisor sticker could be a reference to both what he perceived to be his demonization due to his promiscuous lifestyle, but also and most importantly, it could be a reference to his conviction of sexual assault, a charge in which he maintained his innocence against. The names of the cities that are on the album cover may be a representation of Tupac's belief that he represents the entirety of the African-American community in his public vilification, that he, like African-American people as a whole, is on display to be gazed upon and judged through the Euro-American racial prism. Furthermore, this theme of representation is also connected to the political commitments of Tupac Shakur as he was in the midst of deepening his political activity in the form of the creation of a Hip-Hop political party prior his murder. Singles The first two singles, "Toss It Up" and "To Live & Die in L.A" were released on September 26 and November 16, 1996. Dr. Dre's former Death Row colleagues, including Shakur, recorded and attempted to release "Toss It Up", containing numerous insults aimed at Dr. Dre, and using a deliberately similar instrumental to "No Diggity", but were forced to replace the production after Blackstreet issued the label with a cease and desist order stopping them from distributing the song. The "Toss It Up" music video features Shakur, Danny Boy, K-Ci & JoJo, and Aaron Hall, and was directed by Lionel C. Martin. According to Death Row Records, it was the last music video Shakur filmed. The video also includes an appearance from actress LisaRaye McCoy. An unreleased version of the video was leaked some years later, known as the "Toss It Up Beach Version". "To Live & Die in L.A" was produced by QDIII who was the only outside Death Row producer on the album besides Demetrius Shipp who did "Toss It Up". QDIII was one of Shakur's favorite producers. QDIII told XXL Magazine: A music video for "To Live & Die in L.A" was shot in July 1996. It features Shakur working at a fruit stand, driving around Los Angeles in a car filled with women, and also features various scenes and pictures of notable places and events in Los Angeles. It was the first video shot for the album. The album's final single, "Hail Mary" was released, February 11, 1997. The videos for "Hail Mary" and "To Live & Die in L.A can be found on the DualDisc of The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory. Critical reception The album has retrospectively been met with critical acclaim. "The tracks are fat with funky menace…" observed Rolling Stone, "and the choral-vocal effect in many of the raps has a street-corner, pass-the-bottle charge. Alas, the record – issued just two months after 2Pac's murder – merely perpetuates Los Angeles hip-hop gangland stereotypes, in particular the East Coast/West Coast feud that has gone beyond pointless all the way to deadly." Writing for The New York Times, Neil Strauss commented on the album saying, "as Mr. Shakur's last stand, The Don Killuminati fares a lot more poorly than his previous album, All Eyez on Me, does. This one was clearly meant as filler, a way to burn off creative energy, put down his rivals at Bad Boy Entertainment and tide fans over until the next album. AllMusic's Thomas Erlewine gave the album 2.5 out of 5 stars saying: Everything about The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory smacks of exploitation. Released only eight weeks after Tupac Shakur died from gunshot wounds, Death Row released this posthumous album under the name of Makaveli, a pseudonym derived from the Italian politician Niccolo Machiavelli, who advocated using deception and fear on one's enemies. Naturally, the appearance of Don Killuminati so shortly after Tupac's death led many conspiracy theorists to surmise the rapper was still alive, but it was all part of a calculated marketing strategy by Death Row – the label needed something to sustain interest in the album, since the music here is so shoddy. All Eyez on Me proved that Tupac was continuing to grow as a musician and a human being, but Don Killuminati erases that image by concentrating on nothing but tired G-funk beats and back-biting East Coast/West Coast rivalries. Los Angeles Times critic Cheo Hodari Coker said, "While there are moments of power and poignancy in The Don Killuminati, it lacks the full ambition and range of Shakur's epic All Eyez on Me and Me Against the World packages. It's in those albums – and songs such as "Brenda's Got a Baby", "Lord Knows" and "Only God Can Judge Me" – that the legacy of this tortured, talented artist will be best found." In a negative review from People, they commented saying: "In light of how he died, all the bloodletting seems both preordained and sad. At the same time, Don Killuminati may be seen as Tupac's last grand artistic statement. Quite frankly, the CD is not that good." Retrospect The emotion and anger and eerie nature showcased on the album has been admired by a large part of the hip-hop community, including other rappers. "There are a lot of 2Pac records I like," said 50 Cent, "but this is consistent all the way through. You could put this on and clean your whole house." Rapper J. Cole named it one of his favorite albums of all time, he commented on the album saying, "Collectively, from 'Hail Mary' to 'Krazy' to 'Against All Odds,' it's deep. This album gets better for me as time goes on. Me Against the World is like that too, but Makaveli is really the one where the older I get, the more of it I get. Every year that I get older, I hear this album differently. I know more about life, so I'm like, 'Oh shit, this is what he meant.' So Makaveli is super special." Commercial performance The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, selling 664,000 copies in its first week, becoming the second-highest first week sales of the year. On June 15, 1999, the album was certified quadruple platinum for sales of over four million copies in the United States. Track listing Credits adapted from album booklet. Notes signifies a co-producer "Blasphemy" features vocals by Prince Ital Joe & JMJ "Life of an Outlaw" features vocals by Bo-Roc "Me and My Girlfriend" features vocals by Virginya Slim Personnel Credits for The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day of Theory adapted from AllMusic. 2Pac, Makaveli – primary artist, producer, executive producer Suge Knight, Simon – executive producer Tommy D. Daugherty – chief engineer, mixing, additional production Lance Pierre – engineer, mixing, additional production Justin Isham – digital editing Ronald "Riskie" Brent – paintings Yaki Kadafi – featured artist Kastro – featured artist E.D.I. – featured artist Young Noble – featured artist Cedric "K-Ci" Hailey – featured artist Joel "JoJo" Hailey – featured artist Aaron Hall – featured artist Danny Boy – featured artist Val Young – featured artist Bad Azz – featured artist Outlawz – featured artist Hurt-M-Badd – producer/featured artist Darryl Harper – producer Reggie Moore – producer Demetrius Shipp – mixing, producer Troy Staton – mixing, producer Guy Snider – engineer, track engineer Scott Gutierrez – associate engineer John Morris – associate engineer Don Smartt - associate engineer Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications See also List of number-one albums of 1996 (U.S.) List of number-one R&B albums of 1996 (U.S.) List of number-one R&B albums of 1997 (U.S.) References Tupac Shakur albums 1996 albums Albums produced by Hurt-M-Badd Albums published posthumously Death Row Records albums Interscope Records albums Horrorcore albums

Maria von Trapp

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Baroness Maria Augusta von Trapp DHS (; 26 January 1905 – 28 March 1987) was the stepmother and matriarch of the Trapp Family Singers. She wrote The Story of the Trapp Family Singers, which was published in 1949 and was the inspiration for the 1956 West German film The Trapp Family, which in turn inspired the 1959 Broadway musical The Sound of Music and its 1965 film version. Biography Early life Maria was born on 26 January 1905 to Augusta (née Rainer) and Karl Kutschera. She was delivered on a train heading from her parents' village in Tyrol to a hospital in Vienna, Austria. Her mother died of pneumonia when she was two. Her father, grief-stricken, left Maria with his cousin (her foster mother) who had cared for Maria's half-brother after his mother died. Maria's father then traveled the world, although Maria would visit him upon occasion at his apartment in Vienna. When she was nine, her father died. Her foster mother's son-in-law, Uncle Franz, then became her guardian. Uncle Franz did not treat Maria well and punished her for things she did not do. (He later was found to be mentally ill.) This changed Maria from the shy child she was and, as a teenager, she became the "class cut-up", figuring she may as well have fun if she was going to get in trouble either way. Despite this change, Maria continued to get good grades. After graduating from high school at 15, Maria ran away to stay with a friend with the intent to become a tutor for children staying at nearby hotels. As she looked so young, no one took her seriously. Finally, a hotel manager asked her to be the umpire for a tennis tournament. Although she did not know what an umpire was and had never played tennis, she took the job. From this job, she saved enough money to enter the State Teachers College for Progressive Education in Vienna, where she also received a scholarship. She graduated from there at age 18, in 1923. In 1924, she entered Nonnberg Abbey, a Benedictine monastery in Salzburg, as a postulant intending to become a nun. Marriage Maria was asked to teach one of the seven children (Maria Franziska) of widowed naval commander Georg von Trapp in 1926, while she was still a schoolteacher at the abbey. His wife, Agathe Whitehead, had died in 1922 from scarlet fever. Eventually, Maria began to look after the other children (Rupert, Agathe, Werner, Hedwig, Johanna and Martina), as well. Captain von Trapp saw how much she cared about his children and asked her to marry him, although he was 25 years her senior. She was frightened and fled back to Nonnberg Abbey to seek guidance from the mother abbess, who advised her that it was God's will that she should marry him. She then returned to the family and accepted the proposal. She wrote in her autobiography that she was very angry on her wedding day, both at God and at her husband, because what she really wanted was to be a nun. "I really and truly was not in love. I liked him but didn't love him. However, I loved the children, so in a way I really married the children. I learned to love him more than I have ever loved before or after." They were married on 26 November 1927 and had three children together: Rosmarie (born 1929), Eleonore ("Lorli") (born 1931) and Johannes (born 1939). Medical problems The Von Trapps loved to hike and on one trip, they spent a night at a farmer's house. It was the next morning before the farmer informed them that two of his daughters had scarlet fever. Unfortunately, Georg's children Maria, Johanna, and Martina all caught it. They all recovered, but Maria's case, due to lack of hydration, resulted in more serious issues. She began experiencing aches in her lower back and her doctor informed her that she had kidney stones and required an operation. Her stepmother Maria accompanied her to Vienna for the operation, which was a success. Nineteen stones were removed, but Maria's kidneys were a lifelong problem for her. Financial problems The family met with financial ruin in 1935. Georg had transferred his savings from a bank in London to an Austrian bank run by a friend named Frau Lammer. Austria was experiencing economic difficulties during a worldwide depression because of the Crash of 1929 and Lammer's bank failed. To survive, the Trapps discharged most of their servants, moved into the top floor of their home and rented out the other rooms. The archbishop sent Father Franz Wasner to stay with them as their chaplain and this began their singing career. Early musical career and departure from Austria Soprano Lotte Lehmann heard the family sing, and she suggested they perform at concerts. When the Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg heard them over the radio, he invited them to perform in Vienna. After performing at a festival in 1935, they became a popular touring act. They experienced life under the Nazis after the annexation of Austria by Germany in March 1938. Life became increasingly difficult as they witnessed hostility toward Jewish children by their classmates, the use of children against their parents, the advocacy of abortion both by Maria's doctor and by her son's school and finally by the induction of Georg into the German Navy. They visited Munich in the summer of 1938 and encountered Hitler at a restaurant. In September, the family left Austria and traveled to Italy, then to England and finally the United States. The Nazis made use of their abandoned home as Heinrich Himmler's headquarters. Initially calling themselves the "Trapp Family Choir", the von Trapps began to perform in the United States and Canada. They performed in New York City at The Town Hall on 10 December 1938. The New York Times wrote: There was something unusually lovable and appealing about the modest, serious singers of this little family aggregation as they formed a close semicircle about their self-effacing director for their initial offering, the handsome Mme. von Trapp in simple black, and the youthful sisters garbed in black and white Austrian folk costumes enlivened with red ribbons. It was only natural to expect work of exceeding refinement from them, and one was not disappointed in this. Charles Wagner was their first booking agent, then they signed on with Frederick Christian Schang. Thinking the name "Trapp Family Choir" too churchy, Schang Americanized their repertoire and, following his suggestion, the group changed its name to the "Trapp Family Singers". The family, which by then included ten children, was soon touring the world giving concert performances. Alix Williamson served as the group's publicist for over two decades. After the war, they founded the Trapp Family Austrian Relief fund, which sent food and clothing to people impoverished in Austria. Move to the United States In the 1940s, the family moved to Stowe, Vermont, where they ran a music camp when they were not touring. In 1944, Maria Augusta, Maria Franziska, Johanna, Martina, Hedwig and Agathe applied for U.S. citizenship, whereas Georg never applied to become a citizen. Rupert and Werner became citizens by serving during World War II, while Rosmarie and Eleonore became citizens by virtue of their mother's citizenship. Johannes was born in the United States in Philadelphia on the 17th January 1939 during a concert tour. Georg von Trapp died in 1947 in Vermont after suffering lung cancer. The family made a series of 78-rpm records for RCA Victor in the 1950s, some of which were later issued on RCA Camden LPs. There were also a few later recordings released on LPs, including some stereo sessions. In 1957, the Trapp Family Singers disbanded and went their separate ways. Maria and three of her children became missionaries in Papua New Guinea. In 1965, Maria moved back to Vermont to manage the Trapp Family Lodge, which had been named Cor Unum. She began turning over management of the lodge to her son Johannes, although she was initially reluctant to do so. Hedwig returned to Austria and worked as a teacher in Umhausen. Death Maria von Trapp died of heart failure on 28 March 1987 at 82 in Morrisville, Vermont, three days following surgery. She is interred in the family cemetery at the lodge, along with her husband and five of her step-children. Decorations and awards The family has won the following awards: 1949 – Benemerenti Medal (Pope Pius XII), in recognition of the benefits of the Trapp Family Austrian Relief for needy Austrians 1952 – Dame of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre (Vatican-Pope Pius XII) 1956 – Catholic Mother of the Year in the United States. Women receive this honorary title, to recognise exemplary behavior 1957 – Decoration of Honour in Gold for Services to the Republic of Austria 1962 – Siena Medal – an award given by Theta Phi Alpha women's fraternity to "an outstanding woman to recognize her for her endurance and great accomplishment." The medal is the highest honor the organization bestows upon a non-member and is named after Saint Catherine of Siena. 1967 – Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class 2007 – The von Trapp Family received the Egon Ranshofen Wertheimer Prize in Braunau am Inn 2012 – Naming of Maria Trapp-Platz in Donaustadt (22nd District of Vienna) Children Adaptations of the autobiography Maria von Trapp's book, The Story of the Trapp Family Singers, published in 1949, was a best-seller. It was made into two successful German / Austrian films: The Trapp Family (1956) The Trapp Family in America (1958) The book was then adapted into The Sound of Music, a 1959 Broadway musical by Rodgers and Hammerstein, starring Mary Martin and Theodore Bikel. It was a success, running for more than three years. The musical was adapted in 1965 as a motion picture of the same name, starring Julie Andrews. The film version set US box office records, and Maria von Trapp received about $500,000 ($ today) in royalties. Maria von Trapp made a cameo appearance in the movie version of The Sound of Music (1965). For an instant, she, her daughter Rosmarie, and Werner's daughter Barbara can be seen walking past an archway during the song, "I Have Confidence", at the line, "I must stop these doubts, all these worries / If I don't, I just know I'll turn back." Maria von Trapp sang "Edelweiss" with Andrews on The Julie Andrews Hour in 1973. In 1991, a 40 episode anime series, titled Trapp Family Story aired in Japan, her character referred to by her maiden name (Maria Kutschera), voiced by Masako Katsuki. She was portrayed in the 2015 film The von Trapp Family: A Life of Music by Yvonne Catterfeld. Writings The Story of the Trapp Family Singers (1949) Around the Year with the Trapp Family (1955) A Family on Wheels: Further Adventures of the Trapp Family Singers (c. 1959) Yesterday, Today and Forever: The Religious Life of a Remarkable Family (1952) Maria (1972) When the King was Carpenter, Harrison, AR: New Leaf (1976) References External links History of the von Trapp Family (from the Trapp Family Lodge website) Site regarding the von Trapp descendants Maria von Trapp interview on BBC Radio 4 Desert Island Discs, 29 December 1983 1905 births 1987 deaths Musicians from Vienna 20th-century Austrian women singers Austrian emigrants to the United States Austrian baronesses Austrian Roman Catholics Austrian anti-fascists Musical theatre characters Emigrants from Austria after the Anschluss People from Stowe, Vermont Maria Austrian governesses Recipients of the Benemerenti medal Recipients of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria Recipients of the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class Burials in Vermont Musicians from Vermont

Fort Clatsop

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Fort Clatsop was the encampment of the Lewis and Clark Expedition in the Oregon Country near the mouth of the Columbia River during the winter of 1805–1806. Located along the Lewis and Clark River at the north end of the Clatsop Plains approximately southwest of Astoria, the fort was the last encampment of the Corps of Discovery, before embarking on their return trip east to St. Louis. The Lewis and Clark Expedition wintered at Fort Clatsop before returning east to St. Louis in the spring of 1806. It took just over 3 weeks for the Expedition to build the fort, and it served as their camp from December 8, 1805 until their departure on March 23, 1806. The site is now protected as part of the Lewis and Clark National Historical Park, part of which was formerly known as Fort Clatsop National Memorial until 2004. The original Fort Clatsop decayed in the wet climate of the region but was reconstructed for the sesquicentennial in 1955 from sketches in the journals of William Clark. The replica lasted for fifty years, but was severely damaged by fire in early October 2005, weeks before Fort Clatsop's bicentennial. A new replica, more rustic and rough-hewn, was built by about 700 volunteers in 2006; it opened with a dedication ceremony that took place on December 9. The site is currently operated by the National Park Service. Background In 1803, Thomas Jefferson completed the Louisiana Purchase from France. As much of the area had not been explored by whites, Jefferson commissioned an expedition to be led by his secretary, Meriwether Lewis, along with William Clark. Jefferson set a number of goals for the expedition, most notably to determine what the land contained, including plants, animals, and natural resources. Jefferson also wanted to establish good relations with the Native Americans of the area. Additionally, Jefferson was very interested in finding a water route to the Pacific Ocean, which would have cut the travel time from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean considerably. Locating and building the fort In late November 1805, after spending a number of days in what is today the state of Washington, Lewis and Clark proposed that the Corps of Discovery move to a location along the Columbia River, based on a recommendation of the local Clatsop Indians. The group decided to vote on the matter, with everyone, including the young Native American female Sacagawea and African American slave York, participating. The group was given three choices: stay on the Washington side of the Columbia River, and be subjected to diets of fish and rainy weather, move upriver, or take the advice of the Clatsop Indians and explore the area to the south of the River. The expedition overwhelmingly decided to take the advice of the local Indians to explore the idea of spending the winter on the southern shore of the River. Lewis decided to explore the area before moving the entire group. He and five men left to scout the area, leaving Clark and the rest of the group behind. Lewis became frustrated when he could not find the abundant elk that the Clatsop had talked about. In the meantime, Clark had not heard from his companion in a number of days and became increasingly worried. During Lewis' absence, the group performed a number of housekeeping tasks, including fixing their clothes from the wear they had suffered during the long and arduous journey. Finally, Lewis returned with the news that he had found an adequate location in which to winter. On December 7, 1805, the Corps of Discovery began the short journey to the location chosen by Lewis. Upon arrival, the men split into different groups: Clark led a party to the Pacific Ocean in search of salt, while Lewis split the remaining men into two groups. One group was in charge of hunting, while the other was in charge of cutting down trees to be used in the construction of the fort. Construction of the fort was slow, due to the incessant precipitation and unyielding wind that made working conditions less than ideal. On December 23, people started to move into the dwelling, even though it didn't yet have a roof. The next day, Christmas Eve, everyone moved in. On Christmas Day it was named "Fort Clatsop" in reference to the local Indian tribe. The structures of Fort Clatsop were relatively simple, consisting of two buildings surrounded by large walls. All of the men lived in one structure, while Lewis, Clark, Sacagawea, her husband Toussaint Charbonneau, and their son, Jean Baptiste, stayed in the other. Winter activities The winter of 1805–1806 was very long and rainy, leading to boredom and restlessness for the Corps of Discovery. They passed the time with various activities, including hunting the abundant deer and elk in the region. The deer and elk meat spoiled quickly, but the skins were used to make clothing and moccasins. Realizing the importance of their trip, Lewis spent most of his time at Fort Clatsop documenting the journey, taking notes on the wildlife, terrain, and other features. Lewis also made maps of the area, which would be especially helpful to future settlers of the Pacific Northwest. Finally, Lewis and Clark occasionally traded with the Clatsop Indians, a tribe they had come to dislike, viewing them as untrustworthy and prone to theft. Ultimately, the group's time along the Columbia River merely served as a place to spend the winter and recoup. The men were suffering from a number of different illnesses and conditions, including venereal diseases and respiratory problems, and felt that departing would make them all feel better. Departure Toward the end of the monotonous winter they spent at Fort Clatsop, the men were desperate to return east. Everyone was sick and quite restless, and the steady diet of elk was becoming unbearable. Moreover, even the elk were becoming more difficult to find. Originally, Meriwether Lewis determined the departure date would be April 1, but it was later moved up to March 20. Ultimately, they didn't leave until two days after that due to poor weather. In order to travel back up the Columbia and reach the mountains, the group was desperately in need of canoes. The Clatsops had a number of them, but refused to trade with Lewis and Clark. Eventually, an agreement was reached for one canoe, but Lewis decided they had no choice but to steal a second one, since they couldn't all travel without at least two boats. On March 22, the Corps of Discovery began the long journey back to St. Louis. Lewis decided not to send any of the men back with a copy of his notes by sea, as was usually customary, because of the small number of people in the group. Instead, Lewis decided that the group would travel two different routes, in order to see as much of the territory as possible on the way back to St. Louis. Later use As a parting gift, Lewis gave Fort Clatsop to Coboway, the chief of the Clatsops. Lewis and Clark had no use for the fort, as they were returning east with no plans to revisit the fort in the near future. Because of the heavy rainfall of the region, the original Fort Clatsop had rotted away by the middle of the 19th century. The Clatsops used the fort as a useful base for security and other purposes, though they did strip away part of the wood for other uses. The area soon became a very important site for the fur trade in the Pacific Northwest. The location of the fort near the Pacific Ocean and the Columbia River made it a natural site for the fur trade, which expanded rapidly in the years after Lewis and Clark left. Numerous fur trading companies, including the American Fur Company and the Hudson's Bay Company, constructed headquarters in the region. Since then, there have been two reconstruction efforts. The first, in 1955, lasted for 50 years until a fire destroyed the entire structure in the late evening of October 3, 2005. Federal, state, and community officials immediately pledged to rebuild it. A 9-1-1 operator's insistence that the fire was no more than fog over the nearby Lewis and Clark River delayed firefighters’ arrival by about 15 minutes, possibly impacting their ability to save part of the structure. Investigators found no evidence of arson. The fire started in one of the enlisted men's quarters, where earlier in the day there had been an open hearth fire burning. It took 18 months to build the 1955 reconstruction, much longer than the 3.5 weeks it took to build the original. Shortly after the fire, a second replica was built and finished in 2006. In spite of the loss, the fire renewed archaeological interest in the site, as excavations had not been possible while the replica was standing. Additionally, the new replica was built utilizing information on the original fort that was not available for the 1955 replica. The 2006 replica also features a fire detection system. The replica of the fort isn't in the exact location of the original, as no remains of the original fort have been found. However, it is thought to be quite close to the exact location. See also Timeline of the Lewis and Clark Expedition References Further reading External links Lewis and Clark National Historical Park - National Park Service History of Fort Clatsop - National Park Service Fort Clatsop & N. Oregon coast - The Seattle Times - Travel - 05-April-2007 The Lewis & Clark Expedition: Documenting the Uncharted Northwest Name, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan Clatsop Oregon Country Lewis and Clark Expedition Museums in Astoria, Oregon Military and war museums in Oregon History museums in Oregon Forts on the National Register of Historic Places in Oregon Parks in Clatsop County, Oregon 1805 establishments in Oregon Fur trade

Sewanee: The University of the South

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Sewanee: The University of the South, commonly known as Sewanee (), is a private Episcopal liberal arts college in Sewanee, Tennessee. It is owned by 28 southern dioceses of the Episcopal Church and its School of Theology is an official seminary of the church. The university's School of Letters offers graduate degrees in American Literature and Creative Writing. The campus (officially called "The Domain" or, affectionately, "The Mountain") consists of of scenic mountain property atop the Cumberland Plateau, with the developed portion occupying about . History On July 4, 1857, delegates from ten Southern dioceses of the Episcopal Church in the United States—Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas—were led up Monteagle Mountain by Bishop Leonidas Polk for the founding of their denominational college for the region. The goal was to create a Southern university free of Northern influences. As one of its co-founders, Bishop James Otey of Tennessee, put it: the new university will "materially aid the South to resist and repel a fanatical domination which seeks to rule over us." Another of the co-founders was John Armfield, at one time co-owner of Franklin and Armfield, "the largest and most prosperous slave trading enterprise in the entire country." His promise of $25,000 per year far exceeded any other donations and was considered a "princely offer" by a Nashville newspaper. The majority of the land for the university was donated by the Sewanee Mining Company on the condition that a university "be put in operation within ten year". Today, according to Steven Deyle, "[d]espite his central role in its establishment, Armfield's contributions to the University of the South, an institution that supposedly symbolized southern ideals, have all but been forgotten ...The initial reports and histories of the university barely mention him, and except for a bluff named in his honor, there is no other commemoration for Armfield on the campus today." The six-ton marble cornerstone, laid on October 10, 1860, and consecrated by Bishop Polk, was blown up in 1863 by Union soldiers; many of the pieces were collected and kept as keepsakes by the soldiers. A few were donated back to the university, and a large fragment was eventually installed in a wall of All Saints' Chapel. Several figures later prominent in the Confederacy, notably Bishop-General Leonidas Polk, Bishop Stephen Elliott, Jr., and Bishop James Hervey Otey, were significant founders of the university. Generals Edmund Kirby Smith, Josiah Gorgas and Francis A. Shoup were prominent in the university's postbellum revival and continuance. Because of the damage and disruptions during the Civil War, construction came to a temporary halt. Polk died in action during the Atlanta campaign. He is remembered always through his portrait Sword Over the Gown, painted by Eliphalet F. Andrews in 1900. After the original was vandalized in 1998, a copy by Connie Erickson was unveiled on June 1, 2003. In 1866, building was resumed, and this date is sometimes used as the re-founding of the university and the year from which it has maintained continuous operations (though official materials and anniversary celebrations still use 1857). The university's first convocation was held on September 18, 1868, with nine students and four faculty members present. Presiding was the Rt. Rev. Charles Todd Quintard, vice chancellor (chief academic officer) of the university, Second Bishop of Tennessee and "Chaplain of the Confederacy" (compiler of the Confederate Soldiers' Pocket Manual of Devotions, 1863). He attended the first Lambeth Conference in England (1868) and received financial support from clergy and laity of the Church of England for rebuilding the school. Quintard is known as the "Re-Founder" of the University of the South. During World War II, the University of the South was one of 131 tertiary institutions nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program, which offered students a path to a Navy commission. Schools of dentistry, engineering, law, medicine, and nursing once existed, and a secondary school was part of the institution into the second half of the 20th century. However, for financial reasons it was eventually decided to focus on the college and the School of Theology. In June 2006, Sewanee opened its School of Letters, a second graduate school. The School of Letters offers a Master of Arts in American Literature and a Master of Fine Arts in Creative Writing. 2004 name change The institution has combined its two historical names in all university publications that are not official documents and bills itself as "Sewanee: The University of the South". Version three of the university's style guide, a document reflecting the official policies of the university with respect to its public image following the name change, stated in part: When this naming system was proposed in 2004, it was misinterpreted by some alumni to reflect a change in the official name of the university. A minor scandal ensued, with more conservative commentators insinuating that the change was intended to "distance" the university from its historic association with Southern culture. "Some alumni were also angered by a report commissioned by the university last year [2004] by a marketing firm from Chicago that said that the word 'South' often had negative connotations for students around the country; the weaker the connection between the South and the university's name, the better, the consultants said." 2018 Charlie Rose controversy In the wake of several women coming forward with allegations of sexual harassment against television personality Charlie Rose, many educational institutions revoked honorary degrees bestowed on him. Sewanee's board of regents initially declined to do so, citing a desire to "not condemn the individual". However, due to particular backlash originating from student members of the board of trustees and faculty in the university's school of theology, the board of regents reversed their original decision and rescinded Rose's honorary doctorate. Ties to slavery and the Roberson Project In September 2020, the board released a statement acknowledging for the first time that the University "was long entangled with, and played a role in, slavery, racial segregation, and white supremacy". It added that the university "categorically rejects its past veneration of the Confederacy and of the “Lost Cause” and wholeheartedly commits itself to an urgent process of institutional reckoning ...". The university announced that it will utilize the findings of its Roberson Project on Slavery, Race, and Reconciliation (which began in 2017) to guide their current discussions and path forward. Campus The Sewanee campus overlooks the Tennessee Valley, consisting of 13,000 acres on the Cumberland Plateau. It includes many buildings constructed of various materials faced with local stone, most done in the Gothic style. In September 2011, it was named by Travel + Leisure as one of the most beautiful college campuses in the United States. All Saints' Chapel was originally designed by Ralph Adams Cram and began construction in 1904 (replacing the smaller, wooden St. Augustine's Chapel which stood nearby), but the Panic of 1907 left the university without the funds to complete it. It was completed in 1959 to a design by Vice Chancellor Edward McCrady. McCrady was also responsible for the connection of the buildings of the original quadrangle with cloisters. During his tenure as vice chancellor, the Jessie Ball duPont Library was constructed. McCrady was determined to fill the plain windows of All Saints' Chapel with stained glass, though many remained without for several years. After his death, a new stained glass window, which includes his image, was dedicated in his memory. The final window was installed in 2004, nearly 100 years after construction began on the chapel. St. Luke's Chapel, designed by the architect Charles C. Haight and built in 1904, is one of three chapels on the campus (All Saints, Chapel of The Apostles, St. Luke's). St. Luke's is located next to St. Luke's Hall (1887) which formerly housed the School of Theology. The Chapel itself is used in various capacities over the academic year, including hosting services in the Taize style of worship. The Fowler Center is located on Texas Avenue and is the recreation center for the university. It houses swimming pools, basketball courts, a running track, and weight rooms and group exercise rooms. Many of the trophies from Sewanee's athletic history are also located in this building. Bishop's Commons is located near the Jessie Ball duPont Library and serves as the student union building. The Sewanee Outing Program is housed there along with The Student Post office, commonly referred to as "The SPO". The Tiger Bay Pub is also located in this building. The Chapel of the Apostles was designed by the Arkansas architectural firm of the late E. Fay Jones and Maurice J. Jennings for the School of Theology and was dedicated and consecrated in October 2000. Primarily used as the worship center for the School of Theology, the chapel hosts services Monday through Friday during sessions. The Daily Office is prayed daily along with celebrations of the Eucharist. McClurg Dining Hall is located adjacent to All Saints' Chapel and is the main dining hall on campus. The School of Theology is located on Tennessee Avenue near Gorgas and Quintard residence halls and houses the School of Theology, its faculty, its classrooms, and the Beecken Center, and administrative offices for the Education for Ministry program. Prior to 1981, the building housed the Sewanee (Military) Academy, now part of St. Andrew's-Sewanee School nearby. Spencer Hall houses the chemistry, biology, and biochemistry departments, as well as components of environmental science. Its completion in late August 2008 provided an additional to the existing Woods Lab science building. Sustainable building practices and technology were incorporated into Spencer Hall. Snowden Hall houses the Department of Forestry and Geology and components of environmental science. A new addition and remodeling of the building was completed in 2010, making this the university's first LEED Gold–certified building. of solar panels provide about a third of the building's electricity needs, and a bioswale filters runoff from the roof top. Rankings Literary associations The Sewanee Review, founded in 1892, is the oldest continuously-published literary magazine in the United States, and has published many distinguished authors. Its success has helped launch the Sewanee Writers' Conference, held each summer. The School of Letters, offering an M.A. in English and M.F.A. in Creative Writing, was established in 2006. The current editor is Adam Ross (author). Sewanee and its environs have been the (temporary or full-time) residence of authors such as Allen Tate, Andrew Lytle, William Alexander Percy, Walker Percy, Shelby Foote, Caroline Gordon, and Robert Lowell. In 1983 playwright and Pulitzer Prize winner Tennessee Williams left his literary rights to the University of the South. Royalties have helped build the Tennessee Williams Center, a performance venue and teaching facility, and to create the Tennessee Williams teaching fellowships, which bring well-known figures in the arts to the campus. "", the university's motto, is taken from the opening of Psalm 133: "Behold how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity." Environmental sustainability Since Fall 2008, the university has held an annual Sustainability Week, which featured speakers, feasts of local foods, and environmentally themed documentaries. The campus is also home to an environmental sustainability house, The Green House, and residence halls have environmental sustainability representatives. In 2007, the university became a signatory to the President's Climate Commitment. As of 2011, the university received a "B" on the College Sustainability Report Card. Institutional traditions The school is rich in distinctive traditions, many of which are tied to Southern culture. For example, male students have historically worn coats and ties to classes—this tradition has generally been continued, though the coat and tie are often combined with casual pants and sometimes shorts. However, this tradition is currently in decline. Faculty and student members of the primary honor society and main branch of student government, the Order of Gown (changed after controversy surrounding the exclusivity of the title "order of the gownsmen), may wear academic gowns to teach or attend class—one of the last vestiges of this historically English practice in North America. Furthermore, the Order is charged with the maintenance of this and other traditions of the university. Similarly, both genders enjoy drinking societies and secret societies and the ribbon societies continue to thrive. At major events, members of the former two groups display their distinctive ceremonial garb, kilts and capes. There are the Red Ribbon and Green Ribbon Societies for men (including membership in the faculty) and the Pink Ribbon and White Ribbon for women. While most drinking societies will accept sophomores, the Ribbons are for juniors and seniors. In addition to the more established societies, there are numerous drinking societies and secret societies that exist in the college. The vice-chancellor on formal occasions assumes the cappa clausa (cope) as the vice-chancellor at Cambridge University still does. The university's honor code is one of the most cherished traditions since the university's inception. The honor code states that "I will not lie, cheat, or steal" along with a number of amended premises such as a toleration clause for academic offenses (it is a violation of the honor code to not report cheating), and other specifics meant to guide the student body. Each new student entering the university must sign the honor code at a formal service in All Saints Chapel. The honor code and system is administered by a student-run, student-elected honor council. Only the vice-chancellor (president of the university) may overturn a decision through an appeals process. Although the honor council was once governed by the Order of Gown, the honor council is now an independent body, whose procedures and rules are the sole governance. The associate dean of the college is the faculty adviser to the council as well as the university's general counsel. In the early 2000s, some alumni and students expressed a concern that the school was trying to downplay the university's traditions, particularly its historical and cultural ties with Southern culture. As a result, some traditions came under special scrutiny. Greek life The university saw the installation of its first fraternity in 1877 with the founding of the Tennessee Omega chapter of Alpha Tau Omega. In 1880, that chapter became the first of any fraternity in the South to have its own chapter house or lodge, which belonged to the fraternity until its closure in 2021. Around 80% of students are pledged to one of the 11 fraternities or 9 sororities on campus. Mace controversy The university mace, an unsolicited gift dedicated to early Ku Klux Klan leader Nathan Bedford Forrest, which prominently featured a Confederate battle flag, has been a point of interest in the debate over the university's identity, because of its association with Forrest and its implications for attitudes toward African Americans. Forrest had no connection with the university; the mace had been commissioned in 1964 by Louise Claiborne-Armstrong, whose brother attended the university. (A portrait of her by Amanda Brewster Sewell is in the University Art Gallery.) It was given to the university in 1965 and was carried by the president of the Order of Gownsmen at academic processions until it disappeared in 1997. Upon its rediscovery, various alumni offered to pay for the mace's repair but the university declined their offer. Festival of Lessons and Carols Each year around the second week of Advent on the church calendar, the university choir, along with other members of the Sewanee community, holds the Festival of Lessons and Carols at All Saints' Chapel. Based on a service originally offered at King's College Chapel in Cambridge, England in 1918, the service combines readings about the Christmas story from prophecy of a messiah to the fulfillment of the prophecy in the gospel texts. The service is also punctuated with traditional Anglican hymns and music. Sewanee has been holding this event for over 50 years. Athletics Sewanee was a charter member of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association in 1894. The Sewanee Tigers were pioneers in American intercollegiate athletics and possessed the Deep South's preeminent football program in the 1890s. The 1899 football team had perhaps the best season in college football history, winning all 12 of their games, 11 by shutout, and outscoring their opponents 322-10. Five of those wins, all shutouts, came in a six-day period while on a trip by train. In 2012, the College Football Hall of Fame held a vote of the greatest historic teams of all time, where the 1899 Iron Men beat the 1961 Alabama Crimson Tide as the greatest team of all time. Sewanee was also a charter member of the Southeastern Conference upon its formation in 1932. By this time, however, its athletic program had declined precipitously and Sewanee never won a conference football game in the eight years it was an SEC member. The Tigers were shut out 26 times in their 37 SEC games, and were outscored by a combined total of 1163–84. When vice chancellor Benjamin Ficklin Finney, who had reportedly objected to Sewanee joining the SEC, left his position in 1938, the leading candidate was Alexander Guerry, a former president of the University of Chattanooga. According to a university historian, Guerry agreed to come to Sewanee only if the school stopped awarding athletic scholarships. In 1940, two years after Guerry's arrival, Sewanee withdrew from the SEC and subsequently deemphasized varsity athletics. Guerry's stance is sometimes credited as an early step toward the 1973 creation of NCAA Division III, which prohibits athletic scholarships. Sewanee went on to become a charter member of the College Athletic Conference in 1962. The conference, now the Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference (SCAC), consists of small, academically-focused private liberal arts colleges such as Sewanee. Sewanee is now a member of the Southern Athletic Association (SAA), offering 11 varsity sports for men and 13 for women. As is the case for all of its previous conferences, Sewanee is a charter member of its current conference—it was one of the seven SCAC members that announced their departure from that conference at the 2011 annual meeting of SCAC presidents. The seven were joined by Berry College, another small private school in Georgia. Noted alumni and faculty Sewanee has over 12,000 alumni from all 50 states and 40 countries and has produced 26 Rhodes Scholars—a number that puts Sewanee in the top four nationally among American liberal arts colleges—as well as 34 NCAA Postgraduate Fellows, 46 Watson Fellowships, and dozens of Fulbright Scholars. The School of Theology's alumni include countless bishops, including three of the last five presiding bishops of the Episcopal Church. Local Reputation Locals in the surrounding area often refer to the students at Sewanee as Sewaneesians. This term is occasionally used with a negative connotation due to the area's socioeconomic diversity and the school's reputation as a party school. See also St. Andrew's-Sewanee School Cordell-Lorenz Observatory Sewanee Perimeter Trail References External links Sewanee Athletics website Sewanee, Tennessee Anglican seminaries and theological colleges Liberal arts colleges in Tennessee Private universities and colleges in Tennessee Schools in Franklin County, Tennessee Seminaries and theological colleges in Tennessee Universities and colleges affiliated with the Episcopal Church (United States) Episcopal Church in Tennessee Leonidas Polk Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Buildings and structures in Franklin County, Tennessee Education in Franklin County, Tennessee Educational institutions established in 1857 1857 establishments in Tennessee Former Southeastern Conference schools Former Southern Conference schools Former Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference schools Lost Cause of the Confederacy

Dramatic structure

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Dramatic structure (also known as dramaturgical structure) is the structure of a dramatic work such as a book, play, or film. There are different kinds of dramatic structures worldwide which have been hypothesized by critics, writers and scholars alike over time. This article covers the range of dramatic structures from around the world. How the acts are structured, what the center of the story is supposed to be about widely varies by region and time period. By region Africa and African diaspora Caribbean Kwik Kwak The structure is: Tell riddles to test the audience. Audience becomes a chorus and comments on the story. Usually there is a ritual ending. West Africa Griot A story structure commonly found in West Africa told by Griot storytellers, who tells their stories orally. Famous stories from this tradition include Anansi folktales. This storytelling type had influence on later African American, Creole, and Caribbean African diaspora stories. The story structure is as follows: Opening formula-includes jokes and riddles to engage audience participation Story telling events, done seriously. the body/expository section- narration of the tale, setting up the characters and the events, defining the conflict. the conclusive formula- closure of the story and the moral. The central driver of the story is memory. Indigenous peoples of America and Latin America Central America Robleto Robleto is a story form that originates from Nicaragua. It’s named after Robert Robleto, though the structure is much older than him and discovered by Cheryl Diermyer, an outsider, in 2010. It’s mostly under in the farming community. It is made of: Line of Repetition Introduction Climax Journeys Close South America Harawi Harawi is an ancient traditional genre of Andean music and also indigenous lyric poetry. Harawi was widespread in the Inca Empire and now is especially common in countries that were part of it, mainly: Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia. Typically, harawi is a moody, soulful slow and melodic song or tune played on the quena (flute). The words of harawi speak of love (often unrequited), plight of ordinary peasant, privations of orphans, etc. Melodies are mainly in minor pentatonic scale. Asia East Asia Dream record This is a story type that starts with a dream. It was invented in the Ming Dynasty and exported to Korea. The structure deals mainly with a character either reflecting on their life or telling another dead character about their life. It often reflects regret from the characters about their life choices and helps them to either move on or accept their reality. It was never imported into Japan because Japan had an anti-Chinese sentiment in the Tokugawa era starting in the 1600s and the collapse of the Ming empire was in 1618. Dream record (Japan) Dream record or Dream diaries (夢の樹) is separate from the Dream record above and was started by Buddhist monks in 13th-century Japan, who recorded their dreams in diaries. These dreams were often recorded, shared and viewed. East Asian 4-act This dramatic structure started out as a Chinese poetry style called qǐ chéng zhuǎn hé (起承转合) and then was exported to Korea as gi seung jeon gyeol (Hangul: 기승전결; Hanja: 起承轉結) and Japan as Kishotenketsu (起承転結). Each country has adapted their own take on the original structure. It is notable as one of the story structures that emphasizes no conflict. Eight-legged essay The eight-legged essay () was a style of essay in imperial examinations during the Ming and Qing dynasties in China. The eight-legged essay was needed for those test takers in these civil service tests to show their merits for government service, often focusing on Confucian thought and knowledge of the Four Books and Five Classics, in relation to governmental ideals. Test takers could not write in innovative or creative ways, but needed to conform to the standards of the eight-legged essay. Various skills were examined, including the ability to write coherently and to display basic logic. In certain times, the candidates were expected to spontaneously compose poetry upon a set theme, whose value was also sometimes questioned, or eliminated as part of the test material. This was a major argument in favor of the eight-legged essay, arguing that it were better to eliminate creative art in favor of prosaic literacy. In the history of Chinese literature, the eight-legged essay is often said to have caused China's "cultural stagnation and economic backwardness" in the 19th century. Jo-ha-kyū is a concept of modulation and movement applied in a wide variety of traditional Japanese arts. Roughly translated to "beginning, break, rapid", it essentially means that all actions or efforts should begin slowly, speed up, and then end swiftly. This concept is applied to elements of the Japanese tea ceremony, to kendō and other martial arts, to dramatic structure in the traditional theatre, and to the traditional collaborative linked verse forms renga and renku (haikai no renga). The concept originated in gagaku court music, specifically in the ways in which elements of the music could be distinguished and described. Though eventually incorporated into a number of disciplines, it was most famously adapted, and thoroughly analysed and discussed by the great Noh playwright Zeami, who viewed it as a universal concept applying to the patterns of movement of all things. West Asia Chiastic structure A kind of structure found in the Torah, Bible and Quran using a form of repetition. Hakawati A Palestinian form of literature which includes 1001 Arabian Nights. This structure also includes are many religious works, including the Torah, Bible, and Quran. Karagöz Karagöz (literally Blackeye in Turkish) and Hacivat (shortened in time from "Hacı İvaz" meaning "İvaz the Pilgrim", and also sometimes written as Hacivad) are the lead characters of the traditional Turkish shadow play, popularized during the Ottoman period and then spread to most nation states of the Ottoman Empire. It is most prominent in Turkey, Greece, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Adjara (autonomous republic of Georgia). In Greece, Karagöz is known by his local name Karagiozis; in Bosnia and Herzegovina, he is known by his local name Karađoz. Karagöz plays are structured in four parts: Mukaddime: Introduction. Hacivat sings a semai (different at each performance), recites a prayer, and indicates that he is looking for his friend Karagöz, whom he beckons to the scene with a speech that always ends "Yar bana bir eğlence" ("Oh, for some amusement"). Karagöz enters from the opposite side. Muhavere: dialogue between Karagöz and Hacivat Fasil: main plot Bitiş: Conclusion, always a short argument between Karagöz and Hacivat, always ending with Hacivat yelling at Karagöz that he has "ruined" whatever matter was at hand and has "brought the curtain down," and Karagöz replying "May my transgressions be forgiven." Sources:Emin Senyer, Parts of Turkish Shadow Theatre Karagoz , karagoz.net. Accessed online 22 October 2007. Ta'zieh Ta'zieh or Ta'zïye or Ta'zīya or Tazīa or Ta'ziyeh (, , ) means comfort, condolence or expression of grief. It comes from roots aza (عزو and عزى) which means mourning. Depending on the region, time, occasion, religion, etc. the word can signify different cultural meanings and practices: In Persian cultural reference it is categorized as Condolence Theatre or Passion Play inspired by a historical and religious event, the tragic death of Hussein, symbolizing epic spirit and resistance. In South Asia and in the Caribbean it refers specifically to the Miniature Mausoleums (imitations of the mausolems of Karbala, generally made of coloured paper and bamboo) used in ritual processions held in the month of Muharram. Ta'zieh, primarily known from the Persian tradition, is a shi'ite Muslim ritual that reenacts the death of Hussein (the Islamic prophet Muhammad's grandson) and his male children and companions in a brutal massacre on the plains of Karbala, Iraq in the year 680 AD. His death was the result of a power struggle in the decision of control of the Muslim community (called the caliph) after the death of Muhammad. Europe and the European diaspora Aristotle's analysis Many scholars have analyzed dramatic structure, beginning with Aristotle in his Poetics (c. 335 BCE). In his Poetics, a theory about tragedies, the Greek philosopher Aristotle put forth the idea the play should imitate a single whole action and does not skip around (Such as flashbacks and the like). "A whole is what has a beginning and middle and end. A beginning is that which is not a necessary consequent of anything else but after which something else exists or happens as a natural result. An end on the contrary is that which is inevitably or, as a rule, the natural result of something else but from which nothing else follows; a middle follows something else and something follows from it. Well constructed plots must not therefore begin and end at random, but must embody the formulae we have stated." (1450b27). He split the play into two acts: δέσις (desis) and λύσις (lysis) which roughly translates to binding and unbinding, though contemporary translation is "complication" and "dénouement". He mainly used Sophicles to make his argument about the proper dramatic structure of a play. He argues that for a proper tragedy the plot should be simple: a man moving from prosperity to tragedy and not the reverse. It should excite pity or fear, to shock the viewer. He also states that the man needs to be well-known to the audience. The tragedy should come about because of a flaw in the character. He ranked the order of importance of the play to be: Chorus, Events, Diction, Character, Spectacle. And that all plays should be able to be performed from memory, long and easy to understand. He was against character-centric plots stating “The Unity of a Plot does not consist, as some suppose, in its having one man as its subject.” He was against episodic plots. He held that discovery should be the high point of the play and that the action should teach a moral that is reinforced by pity, fear and suffering. The spectacle, not the characters themselves would give rise to the emotions. The stage should also be split into “Prologue, Episode, Exode, and a choral portion, distinguished into Parode and Stasimon...“ Unlike later, he held that the morality was the center of the play and what made it great. Unlike popular belief, he did not come up with the three act structure popularly known. One-Act Play Said to be innovated by Euripides for his play Cyclops, it wasn't wildly popular until the late 19th century with the rise of film. Alice Guy-Blaché made a comment about it in the documentary Be Natural: The Untold Story of Alice Guy-Blaché, where she commented that many of the films of the time required a quick punchline at the end. It is still used today, but fell out of popular favor for films around the late 1930s to 1940s, when the runtime for an average film became longer. (See Kenneth Rowe and Lajos Egri.) Horace's analysis The Roman drama critic Horace advocated a 5-act structure in his Ars Poetica: "Neue minor neu sit quinto productior actu fabula" (lines 189–190) ("A play should not be shorter or longer than five acts"). He also argued for a Chorus, "The Chorus should play an actor’s part, energetically," and the center of the play should be morality as Aristotle did. "It should favour the good, and give friendly advice, Guide those who are angered, encourage those fearful Of sinning: praise the humble table's food, sound laws And justice, and peace with her wide-open gates: It should hide secrets, and pray and entreat the gods That the proud lose their luck, and the wretched regain it." He did not specify the contents of the acts. Aelius Donatus The fourth-century Roman grammarian Aelius Donatus in his criticism of Terence's plays Adelphoe and Hecyra in the book Aeli Donati qvod fertvr Commentvm Terenti: Accendvnt Evgravphi Volume 2 and in his review of Terence's Play Andria in P. Terentii Afri comoediae sex used the terms prologue (prologus), protasis, epitasis and catastropha. He often uses the original Greek letters, but does not define these as specific acts, but as parts of the play as having different emotional qualities. For example for Terence's play Adelphoe he comments, "in hac prologus aliquanto lenior indictur; magis etiam in se purgando quam in aduersariis laendendis est occupatus. πρόγαδις turbulenta est. ὲπίτασις clamosa, lenior χαταστροφή. quarum partium rationem diligentus in proincipio proposuimus, cum de comoedia quaedam dicremus." which roughly translates to, "In this the prologue is somewhat milder; he is more engaged in clearing himself than in injuring his opponents. Protasis is turbulent. The epitasis is loud and gentler catastropha." He further adds that Hecyra, "In hac prologus est et multiples et rhectoricus nimis propterea quod saepe exclsa haec comoedia diligentissima defensione indigebat. atque in hac πρόγαδις turbulenta est, ὲπίτασις mollior, lenis χαταστροφή." which roughly translate to, "In this the prologue is both multiple and overly rhetorical, because oftentimes this comedy is excluded because it needs a very careful defense. And in this the protasis is turbulent, the milder the epithasis, the softer the catastropha." However, he also argues that Latins have a five act chorus, which distinguishes Latins from Greeks, "hoc etiam ut cetera huiusmodi poemata quinque actus habaeat necesse est choris diusos a Graecis poetis." which roughly translates to, "In order to have other poems of this kind, it is necessary to have five acts of choruses, distinguished from the Greek poets." making it fairly clear that though he used the Greek for these divisions of play, he did not think of them as part of the overall act structure. No definitive translation of this work has been made into English. Picaresque novel First developed in Spain in 1554, the term was not coined until 1810. A picaresque novel is written in first person, with a character who is of low social status, and there is little to no plot or character development, but told with realism. Satire is often deployed. A famous example is Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote. Shakespeare William Shakespeare did not invent the five-act structure. The five-act structure was made by Freytag, in which he used Shakespeare as an example. There are no writings from Shakespeare on how he intended his plays to be. There is some thought that people imposed the act structure after his death. During his lifetime, the four-act structure was also popular and used in plays such as Fortunae Ludibrium sive Bellisarius. Freytag made claims in his book that Shakespeare should have used his 5 act structure, but it did not exist at the time period of Shakespeare. Bildungsroman The term was coined in the 1819 by Karl Morgenstern, but the birth of the Bildungsroman is normally dated to the publication of Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in 1795–96, or, sometimes, to Christoph Martin Wieland's Geschichte des Agathon of 1767. The plot requires a young or innocent protagonist who goes on to learn about the world, and learns how to enter it. The central goal is maturity of the protagonist which may be done through discovery, conflict or other means. Freytag's pyramid The German playwright and novelist Gustav Freytag wrote Die Technik des Dramas, a definitive study of the five-act dramatic structure, in which he laid out what has come to be known as Freytag's pyramid. Under Freytag's pyramid, the plot of a story consists of five parts: Exposition (originally called introduction) Rise Climax Return or Fall Catastrophe, denouement, resolution, or revelation or "rising and sinking". Freytag is indifferent as to which of the contending parties justice favors; in both groups, good and evil, power and weakness, are mingled. A drama is then divided into five parts, or acts, which some refer to as a : introduction, rise, climax, return or fall, and catastrophe. Freytag extends the five parts with three moments or crises: the exciting force, the tragic force, and the force of the final suspense. The exciting force leads to the rise, the tragic force leads to the return or fall, and the force of the final suspense leads to the catastrophe. Freytag considers the exciting force to be necessary but the tragic force and the force of the final suspense are optional. Together, they make the eight component parts of the drama. In making his argument, he attempts to retcon much of the Greeks and Shakespeare by making opinions of what they meant, but didn't actually say. He argued for tension created through contrasting emotions, but didn't actively argue for conflict. He argued that character comes first in plays. He also sets up the groundwork for what would later in history be called the inciting incident. Overall, Freytag argued the center of a play is emotionality and the best way to get that emotionality is to put contrasting emotions back to back. He laid some of the foundations for centering the hero, unlike Aristotle. He is popularly attributed to have stated conflict at the center of his plays, but he argues actively against continuing conflict. Introduction The setting is fixed in a particular place and time, the mood is set, and characters are introduced. A backstory may be alluded to. Introduction can be conveyed through dialogues, flashbacks, characters' asides, background details, in-universe media, or the narrator telling a back-story. Rise An exciting force begins immediately after the exposition (introduction), building the rise in one or several stages toward the point of greatest interest. These events are generally the most important parts of the story since the entire plot depends on them to set up the climax and ultimately the satisfactory resolution of the story itself. Climax The climax is the turning point, which changes the protagonist's fate. If things were going well for the protagonist, the plot will turn against them, often revealing the protagonist's hidden weaknesses. If the story is a comedy, the opposite state of affairs will ensue, with things going from bad to good for the protagonist, often requiring the protagonist to draw on hidden inner strengths. Return or Fall During the Return, the hostility of the counter-party beats upon the soul of the hero. Freytag lays out two rules for this stage: the number of characters be limited as much as possible, and the number of scenes through which the hero falls should be fewer than in the rise. The return or fall may contain a moment of final suspense: Although the catastrophe must be foreshadowed so as not to appear as a non sequitur, there could be for the doomed hero a prospect of relief, where the final outcome is in doubt. Catastrophe The catastrophe ("Katastrophe" in the original) is where the hero meets his logical destruction. Freytag warns the writer not to spare the life of the hero. Despite Denouement (, ; being attested as first appearing in 1752, it was not used to refer to dramatic structure until the 19th century. Selden Lincoln Whitcomb In 1905, Selden Lincoln Whitcomb published The Study of a Novel, and suggested that graphical representation of a novel was possible."The general epistolary structure may be partially represented by a graphic design." For which he posts a proposed design for Miss. Burney Evelina on page 21. He expounds this idea on Page 39 with "The Line of Emotion" where he proposes how one feels about emotion can be drawn graphically. However, he makes a careful distinction between author, character and reader. "The fact that the author presents a character moved by fear does not necessarily mean that the author or the reader experiences that emotion. Nor does a mere discussion of emotion, whether by the author or a character such as one should notice in the study of subject-matter, belong to the line of emotion." He argued that this line of emotion should be calculated for the reader. He draws a diagram for Silas Marner Chapter XIII to illustrate his point. He does not prescribe a certain formula for the structure, but instead introduces various kinds of vocabulary for various points along the emotional line. His work was then used in Joseph Berg Esenwein to describe short stories for the line of emotion, though his name is misspelled in Esenwein's work. His diagram specifically for Silas Marner was plagiarized later by Kenneth Rowe, though he drew other diagrams for other novels and forms, such as Pride and Prejudice on page 58, the Epistolary Form p 21, Simple narratives p 56, and so on. Joseph Berg Esenwein Joseph Berg Esenwein in 1909 published, "Writing the short-story; a practical handbook on the rise, structure, writing, and sale of the modern short-story." In it he outlines the following plot elements and ties it to a drawing, following Whitcomb's prescriptions: Incident, emotion, crisis, suspense, climax, denouement, conclusion. He does not make an accompanying diagram with any of these elements, but does argue that the line of emotion is important to stories on page 198. He also lists types of plots on page 76 as: Surprise, Problem, Mystery, Mood or Emotion or Sentiment, Contrast and Symbolism. He does not argue one to be superior to the other. He cautions multiple times in his text that his prescriptions are only for short stories such as pages 30-32. Chapter X, Part 5. Climax he defines here as, "the apex of interest and emotion; it is the point of the story." when quoting "Short Story Writing 1898, Charles Raymond Barrett, p 171" but further expounds here as, "rise of interest and in power to its highest point." He argues the highest point is always along emotional lines on page 187 stating, "The big thing--at once the basic and the climacteric thing--in the short story is human interest, and there can be no sustained human interest without emotion. The whole creation is a field for its display, and since fiction assumes to be a microcosm, fiction, short and long must deal intimately with emotion, from its gentler to its extreme manifestations." The definitions he used would later influence the vocabulary for the Hollywood Formula. Early Hollywood films were short. For example In Old California published in 1910 is 17 minutes long. Clayton Hamilton Clayton Hamilton, in A Manual of The Art of Fiction (1918), stated that a proper plot outline is, "A plot, therefore, in its general aspects, may be figured as a complication followed by an explication, a tying followed by an untying, or (to say the same thing in French words which are perhaps more connotative) a nouement followed by a dénouement." He does not state the center of stories is conflict, but rather on page 3 that, "The purpose of fiction is to embody certain truths of human life in a series of imagined facts." and centers on the debate of the time between romanticism and realism. The complication is what Lajos Egri later called the premise and it was later pushed to be part of the inciting incident. The explication was put first and then explained to be the introduction in the contemporary vocabulary. The dénouement would be split later into falling action and conclusion. Confessional writing Sprung originally from Christianity, it is often an account of a person's life that was first secularized by Jean Jacques Rousseau and then popularized in 1919 with the magazine True Story. The confessions don't really have to be valid, though an account of someone's life needs to be included. Such confessions magazines were chiefly aimed at an audience of working-class women. Their formula has been characterized as "sin-suffer-repent": The heroine violates standards of behavior, suffers as a consequence, learns her lesson, and resolves to live in light of it, not embittered by her pain. Percy Lubbock Percy Lubbock wrote "Craft of Fiction", which was published in 1921. The aim of Lubbock is to give a shape or a formula to books, because he states: "We hear the phrase on all sides, an unending argument is waged over it. One critic condemns a novel as 'shapeless,' meaning that its shape is objectionable; another retorts that if the novel has other fine qualities, its shape is unimportant; and the two will continue their controversy till an onlooker, pardonably bewildered, may begin to suppose that "form" in fiction is something to be put in or left out of a novel according to the taste of the author. But though the discussion is indeed confusingly worded at times, it is clear that there is agreement on this article at least—that a book is a thing to which a shape is ascribable, good or bad." He also argued for "Death of the Author" somewhat in his work, "The reader of a novel—by which I mean the critical reader—is himself a novelist; he is the maker of a book which may or may not please his taste when it is finished, but of a book for which he must take his own share of the responsibility. The author does his part, but he cannot transfer his book like a bubble into the brain of the critic; he cannot make sure that the critic will possess his work. The reader must therefore become, for his part, a novelist, never permitting himself to suppose that the creation of the book is solely the affair of the author." He is the first to make a concentrated effort at looking at conflict as the center of "drama" and therefore stories, "What is the story? There is first of all a succession of phases in the lives of certain generations; youth that passes out into maturity, fortunes that meet and clash and re-form, hopes that flourish and wane and reappear in other lives, age that sinks and hands on the torch to youth again—such is the substance of the drama. The book, I take it, begins to grow out of the thought of the processional march of the generations, always changing, always renewed; its figures are sought and chosen for the clarity with which the drama is embodied in them." He directly mentions conflict when referring to the plot of "War and Peace" with analyzing Madame Bovary and so on. The book was wildly, popular, but Virginia Woolf privately wrote of the work that, "This is my prime discovery so far; & the fact that I've been so long finding it, proves, I think, how false Percy Lubbock's doctrine is--that you can do this sort of thing consciously." in November 1923. She went back and forth on the work throughout her life. Kenneth Thorpe Rowe In 1939, Kenneth Thorpe Rowe published Write That Play in which he outlined what he thought of his ideal play structure. He did not cite any sources, though there looks to be some influence from Freytag's Pyramid. The parts are: Introduction, Attack, Rising Action, Crisis, Falling Action, Resolution, Conclusion. The attack would be relabeled later as the "Inciting Incident" and the "Crisis" would be relabeled as "Climax" and the "conclusion" as the "Denouement" by Syd Field. The resolution as a turning point was also taken out. The center of the play should be, according to him, conflict as this will excite the most emotion. He acknowledges other people have used climax, but does not cite who, but objects to the term "climax" because, "Climax is misleading because it might with equal fitness be applied to the resolution. Climax applied to the turning point suggests increasing tension up to that point, and relaxation following it. What actually happens is that the tension continues to increase in a well con-structured play from the turning point to the resolution, but is given a new direction and impetus at the turning point." Despite this being his ideal shape for a play, he suggests that this can be modified to include more complications on the Rising action or the Falling action. He further suggests that the play structure doesn't need a conclusion. However, if there is a conclusion, he suggests making it shorter than the Introduction and it can either be flat or acute in angle. This story structure, as suggested, had a strong influence on Arthur Miller (All My Sons, Death of a Salesman). Lajos Egri In his book The Art of Dramatic Writing, published 1946, Lajos Egri argued for more look inside of character's minds and that character generates conflict, which generates events. He cites Moses Louis Malevinsky's The Science of Playwriting and The Theory of Theater by Clayton Hamilton. Unlike previous works he cites from, he emphasized the importance of premise to a play. He is also far more interested in looking at character creating conflict and events, than events shaping characters. He states this by arguing for different kinds of conflict: Static, jump and rise. These in turn can also be an attack or counterattack. He argues that Rising conflict is the best at revealing character. He also examines character through the lens of physiology, sociology and psychology. His work influenced Syd Field, who went onto make the 3-act Hollywood formula. Syd Field Syd Field in 1979 published Screenplay: The Foundations of Screenwriting. He outlined that the structure of the play should be: Act I contains the setup. It is approximately the first quarter of a screenplay, and reveals the main character, premise, and situation of the story. Act II contains the confrontation. It lasts for the next two quarters of the screenplay, and clearly defines the main goal of the protagonist. Act III contains the resolution. This is the final quarter of the screenplay. This answers the question as to whether or not the main character succeeded in his or her goal. He outlined in the 2005 edition of his book Foundations of a Screenplay, that he wanted to give a more set structure to the work that Lajos Egri had laid out. He was the first to really coin the Three Act model as a formal model for screenplays. Theatre of the Absurd Critic Martin Esslin coined the term in his 1960 essay "The Theatre of the Absurd", which begins by focusing on the playwrights Samuel Beckett, Arthur Adamov, and Eugène Ionesco. Esslin says that their plays have a common denominator — the "absurd", a word that Esslin defines with a quotation from Ionesco: "absurd is that which has not purpose, or goal, or objective." The French philosopher Albert Camus, in his 1942 essay "Myth of Sisyphus", describes the human situation as meaningless and absurd. Plot-wise it often undercuts the conflict in the story and mocks the human condition. It often lacks any formal plot structure. Often nothing really gets resolved. Television Story Arcs Television multiple-episode story arcs were not popular until 1981, with the introduction of Hill Street Blues. Prior to that, episodes could be shifted in order without audience confusion. Multiple-episode story arcs took off in the 1990s, with many of the popular television shows employing them. Xena: Warrior Princess, Hercules: The Legendary Journeys, Boy Meets World, and Batman: The Animated Series all had story arcs. Northrop Frye's dramatic structure The Canadian literary critic and theorist Northrop Frye analyzes the narratives of the Bible in terms of two dramatic structures: (1) a U-shaped pattern, which is the shape of a comedy, and (2) an inverted U-shaped pattern, which is the shape of a tragedy. A U-shaped pattern "This U-shaped pattern…recurs in literature as the standard shape of comedy, where a series of misfortunes and misunderstandings brings the action to a threateningly low point, after which some fortunate twist in the plot sends the conclusion up to a happy ending." A U-shaped plot begins at the top of the U with a state of equilibrium, a state of prosperity or happiness, which is disrupted by disequilibrium or disaster. At the bottom of the U, the direction is reversed by a fortunate twist, divine deliverance, an awakening of the protagonist to his or her tragic circumstances, or some other action or event that results in an upward turn of the plot. Aristotle referred to the reversal of direction as peripeteia or peripety, which depends frequently on a recognition or discovery by the protagonist. Aristotle called this discovery an anagnorisis—a change from "ignorance to knowledge" involving "matters which bear on prosperity or adversity". The protagonist recognizes something of great importance that was previously hidden or unrecognized. The reversal occurs at the bottom of the U and moves the plot upward to a new stable condition marked by prosperity, success, or happiness. At the top of the U, equilibrium is restored. A classic example of a U-shaped plot in the Bible is the Parable of the Prodigal Son in Luke 15:11–24. The parable opens at the top of the U with a stable condition but turns downward after the son asks the father for his inheritance and sets out for a "distant country" (Luke 15:13). Disaster strikes: the son squanders his inheritance and famine in the land increases his dissolution (Luke 15:13–16). This is the bottom of the U. A recognition scene (Luke 15:17) and a peripety move the plot upward to its denouement, a new stable condition at the top of the U. An inverted U-shaped structure The inverted U begins with the protagonist's rise to a position of prominence and well-being. At the top of the inverted U, the character enjoys good fortune and well-being. But a crisis or a turning point occurs, which marks the reversal of the protagonist's fortunes and begins the descent to disaster. Sometimes a recognition scene occurs where the protagonist sees something of great importance that was previously unrecognized. The final state is disaster and adversity, the bottom of the inverted U. Contemporary Contemporary dramas increasingly use the fall to increase the relative height of the climax and dramatic impact (melodrama). The protagonist reaches up but falls and succumbs to doubts, fears, and limitations. The negative climax occurs when the protagonist has an epiphany and encounters the greatest fear possible or loses something important, giving the protagonist the courage to take on another obstacle. This confrontation becomes the classic climax. In her 2019 book Meander, Spiral, Explode: Design and Pattern in Narrative novelist and writing teacher Jane Alison criticized the conflict-climax-resolution structure of narrative as "masculo-sexual," and instead argues that narratives should form around various types patterns, for example found in nature. See also Eight-legged essay Frame story Harawi Jo-ha-kyū – dramatic arc in Japanese aesthetics. Karagöz Kishōtenketsu – a structural arrangement used in traditional Chinese, Korean and Japanese narratives. Narrative transportation Scene and sequel Sonata form Ta'zieh – A form found in Iran and other Islamic countries. Three-act structure Notes References External links Another view on dramatic structure What's Right With The Three Act Structure by Yves Lavandier, author of Writing Drama Fiction Plot (narrative) Narratology

ICC Champions Trophy

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The ICC Champions Trophy is a One-Day International (ODI) cricket tournament organised by the International Cricket Council. The 2013 tournament was intended to be the final edition of the Champions Trophy, but it was extended to 2017 due to its widespread popularity. In 2018, the ICC decided to replace the tournament with the World Twenty20 championship to be held every two years, and no Champions Trophy was contested in 2021. However, as part of the 2021 Future Tour Programme, the event was reinstated for the 2025 cycle onwards. In November 2021, the ICC confirmed the tournament would next take place in 2025 in Pakistan, with India hosting the tournament in 2029. History It was inaugurated as the ICC KnockOut Tournament in 1998 and has been played approximately every four years since. Its name was changed to the Champions Trophy in 2002. The ICC conceived the idea of the Champions Trophy – a short cricket tournament to raise funds for the development of the game in non-test playing countries, with the first tournaments being held in Bangladesh and Kenya. Due to its massive commercial success, the tournament has been held in nations like India and England as a revenue generator for the ICC, and the number of teams has been reduced to eight. The tournament, later dubbed as the mini-World Cup as it involved all of the full members of the ICC, was planned as a knock-out tournament so that it was short and did not reduce the value and importance of the World Cup. However, from 2002, the tournament has had a round-robin format, followed by a few knockout games but the tournament still takes places over a short period of time – about two weeks. The number of teams competing has varied over the years; originally all the ICC's full members took part, and from 2000 to 2004 associate members were also involved. Since 2009, the tournament has only involved the eight highest-ranked teams in the ICC ODI Rankings as of six months prior to the beginning of the tournament. The tournament has been held in 7 different countries since its inception, with England hosting it thrice. A total of thirteen teams competed in the eight editions of the tournament, with eight competing in the last edition in 2017. ICC Champions Trophy was scrapped keeping in line with ICC's goal of having only one pinnacle tournament for each of the three formats of international cricket. Australia and India have won the tournament twice each (India's 2002 win was shared with Sri Lanka due to the final being washed out twice), while South Africa, New Zealand, Sri Lanka (shared with India), West Indies and Pakistan have won it once each. No non-full member team has ever crossed the first round of the Champions Trophy. Format Up to 2006 the Champions Trophy was held every two years. The tournament had been scheduled to be held in Pakistan in 2008 but was moved to South Africa in 2009 due to security reasons. From then on it has been held every four years like the World Cup. The Champions Trophy differs from the World Cup in a number of ways. The matches in the Champions Trophy are held over a period of around two and a half weeks, while the World Cup can last for over a month. The number of teams in the Champions Trophy are less than the World Cup, with the latest edition of the World Cup having 10 teams whereas the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy had 8 teams. For 2002 and 2004, twelve teams played a round-robin tournament in four pools of three, with the top team in each pool moving forward to the semi-final. A team would play only four games (two in the pool, semi-final and final) to win the tournament. The format used in the Knock Out tournaments differed from the formats used in the Champions Trophy. The competition was a straight knock out, with no pools and the loser in each game being eliminated. Only eight games were played in 1998, and 10 games in 2000. Since 2006, eight teams have played in two pools of four in a round-robin format, with the top two teams in each pool playing in the semi-finals. Losing a single match potentially means elimination from the tournament. A total of 15 matches are played in the present format of the tournament, with the tournament lasting about two and a half weeks. Results Tournament summary Thirteen nations have qualified for the Champions Trophy at least once. Seven teams have competed in every finals tournament. Seven different nations have won the title. South Africa won the inaugural tournament, India and Australia have each won twice, while New Zealand, Sri Lanka, West Indies and Pakistan have each won once. Australia (2006, 2009) is the only nation to have won consecutive titles. Bangladesh, Zimbabwe and England are the only Test playing nations not to win the Champions Trophy. England has reached the final twice, but lost both times (2004, 2013), Bangladesh reached the semi-finals in 2017, while Zimbabwe has never got past the first round. The highest rank secured by a non-Test playing nation is the 9th rank achieved by Kenya in 2000. Sri Lanka was the first and only host to win the tournament, in 2002, but they were declared co-champions with India as the final was twice washed out. England is the only other host to have made the final. It has achieved this twice – in 2004 and 2013. Bangladesh is the only host who did not take part in the tournament while hosting it, in 1998. Kenya in 2000, India in 2006, and South Africa in 2009 have been the only host teams that were eliminated in the first round. Teams' performances Comprehensive results for all teams participating in all tournaments for the ICC Champions Trophy is given below. For each tournament, the number of teams in each finals tournament (in brackets) are shown. Legend – Champions – Runners-up – Semi-finalists 5th-8th – Quarter-finalists (ICC KnockOut Trophy 1998-2000) 5th-12th – Group Stage (ICC Champions Trophy 2002-2004) 5th-8th – Group Stage (ICC Champions Trophy 2006-2017) 9th – Pre Quarter-finalist (ICC KnockOut Trophy 1998) 9th-11th – Pre Quarter-finalists (ICC KnockOut Trophy 2000) 9th and 10th – Preliminary qualification stage (ICC Champions Trophy 2006) Q – Qualified Apps – Appearances Notes The first two tournaments, in 1998 and 2000, were intended to raise the profile of the game in the host nations, Bangladesh and Kenya. India and Sri Lanka were declared co-champions in 2002. Overview The table below provides an overview of the performances of teams over past ICC Champions Trophy. Teams are sorted by best performance, then by appearances, total number of wins, total number of games, and alphabetical order respectively. The win percentage excludes matches with no result and counts ties as half a win. 1998 ICC Knock Out tournament Won by All of the matches in the 1998 tournament were played in Bangladesh at Bangabandhu National Stadium in Dhaka. The tournament was won by South Africa who beat West Indies in the final. Philo Wallace of West Indies was the leading run scorer in the tournament of scoring 221 runs. This was the first and till date the only ICC event won by South Africa. 2000 ICC Knock Out tournament Won by All of the matches in the 2000 tournament were played at Gymkhana Club Ground in Nairobi, Kenya. All the test playing nations participated in the tournament along with the finals, involving Kenya, India, Sri Lanka, West Indies, Bangladesh and England. The tournament was won by New Zealand who beat India in the final. Indian skipper Sourav Ganguly (348) was the leading run scorer in this tournament. Venkatesh Prasad (8) was the leading wicket taker. This was the first ICC event won by New Zealand. It was also their only ICC trophy till 2021. 2002 ICC Champions Trophy Won by / (Declared Co-Champions) The 2002 ICC Champions Trophy was held in Sri Lanka, and included the 10 ICC Test playing nations including the newly appointed full member Bangladesh, Kenya (ODI status) and the 2001 ICC Trophy winners Netherlands. The final between India and Sri Lanka was washed out due to rain twice to leave no result. First, Sri Lanka played 50 overs and then India played two overs before the rain caused interruption. The next day, Sri Lanka again played 50 overs and India played eight overs. In the end India and Sri Lanka were declared joint winners. The teams played 110 overs, but there was no result. Virender Sehwag (271) had the highest number of runs in the tournament and Muralitharan (10) had the highest number of wickets. 2004 ICC Champions Trophy Won by ICC CT 2004 was held in England and the nations competing included the ten ICC Test nations, Kenya (ODI status), and – making their One Day International debut – the United States who qualified by winning the recent 2004 ICC Six Nations Challenge. The completion was more like a knockout series where teams losing even one game at the group stage were out of the tournament. The 12 teams were divided into 4 groups and the table topper from each group played semi finals. ENG defeated AUS in the 1st semi-final to make their 4th appearance in final of an ICC event. PAK lost to WI in the second semi final, which was a low scoring game. In the final game the WI team under Lara's leadership won a tense match with the help of wicket keeper C Browne and tailender Ian Bradshaw. 2006 ICC Champions Trophy Won by The 2006 ICC Champions Trophy was held in India with the final on 5 November 2006. A new format was used. Eight teams were competing in the group phase: the top six teams in the ICC ODI Championship on 1 April 2006, plus two teams chosen from the other four Test-playing teams Sri Lanka, West Indies, Bangladesh and Zimbabwe, chosen from a pre-tournament round robin qualifying round. West Indies and Sri Lanka qualified ahead of Bangladesh and Zimbabwe. The eight teams were then split into two groups of four in a round robin competition. While Australia and West Indies qualified from Group A, South Africa and New Zealand qualified from Group B for the semifinals. Australia and West Indies reached the final defeating New Zealand and South Africa, respectively. In the final, Australia beat West Indies by 8 wickets to win the trophy for the first time. The venues for the tournament were Mohali, Ahmedabad, Jaipur and Mumbai. 2009 ICC Champions Trophy (postponed from 2008) Won by In 2006, the ICC selected Pakistan to host the 2008 ICC Champions Trophy. On 24 August 2008 it was announced that the 2008 ICC Champions Trophy in Pakistan has been postponed to October 2009 as several countries were reluctant to visit Pakistan for security reasons. However, due to the crowded international schedule around that date, and concerns about whether the security situation would have changed by that time, there was widespread scepticism whether it would actually take place in 2009. On 16 March 2009, an announcement was made that the ICC has recommended that the 2009 ICC Champions Trophy be moved from Pakistan to South Africa. On 2 April 2009, Cricket South Africa confirmed that it would host the 2009 ICC Champions Trophy from 24 September to 5 October. The Board accepted recommendations from the ICC that Liberty Life Wanderers (Johannesburg) and Supersport Park (Centurion) be the host venues. The details of SA's hosting of the Champions Trophy were ironed out at a meeting between CSA's CEO Gerald Majola and ICC general manager – Commercial, Campbell Jamieson. Majola confirmed that the six warm-up games will be played at Benoni's Willowmoore Park, and Senwes Park in Potchefstroom. Australia beat England by 9 wickets in the 1st semi-final, and New Zealand beat Pakistan by 5 wickets in the 2nd semi-final, to set up a final that saw Australia beat New Zealand by 6 wickets, in 45.2 overs. 2013 ICC Champions Trophy Won by England and Wales hosted the 2013 Champions Trophy. England became the only country to host the Champions Trophy twice. Australia failed to win a single game in their group, and were knocked out along with New Zealand in Group A. Pakistan lost all three games in Group B and were knocked out along with West Indies. England and Sri Lanka from Group A, and India and South Africa from Group B, made it to the semi-finals. India and England won their respective games against Sri Lanka and South Africa comprehensively and the final between the two took place on 23 June 2013. India beat England by 5 runs at Edgbaston, winning their second title, although their first title, in 2002, was shared with Sri Lanka due to the final being washed out. Ravindra Jadeja was adjudged man of the match and he also received the "Golden Ball" for taking the most wickets in the tournament. Shikhar Dhawan received the "Golden Bat" for scoring the most runs in the series and was also adjudged the Man of the Series for his consistent outstanding performances. MS Dhoni became the first captain in history to win all three major ICC trophies – World Cup in 2011, World T20 in 2007 and this edition of the Champions Trophy. 2017 ICC Champions Trophy Won by In the lead-up to the 2013 tournament, the ICC announced that the 2013 Champions Trophy was to be the last, with its place in the cricketing calendar to be taken by a new ICC World Test Championship. However, in January 2014, that decision was reversed, due to the massive success of the 2013 edition, with the ICC confirming that the 2017 Champions Trophy tournament would take place and the proposed Test Championship was cancelled. England and Wales hosted the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy. England became the only country to host the Champions Trophy thrice, and England and Wales became the only countries to host the ICC Champions Trophy consecutively, also hosting the 2013 edition. Bangladesh replaced the West Indies, who finished outside the top eight in ninth position, in the ICC ODI Team Rankings on the cut-off date. Bangladesh returned to the ICC Champions Trophy for the first time since 2006, and, for the first time, the West Indies failed to qualify. Security around the tournament was increased following the Ariana Grande concert attack in Manchester, just before the start of the competition. The International Cricket Council (ICC) announced that they would review security concerns. The 15 games played in the tournament were held across three venues – The Oval in London, Edgbaston Cricket Ground in Birmingham and Sophia Gardens in Cardiff. India did not announce their squad by the 25 April deadline due to what it described as "operational" reasons, although this was widely seen as a protest by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) in an ongoing disagreement with the ICC over finance and governance. After interference from senior officials, the Indian squad was finally named on 8 May 2017. Pakistan's Shoaib Malik played in his sixth consecutive Champions Trophy. Rain and poor weather affected 5 of the 15 matches played in the tournament. The top two teams in the ICC ODI Rankings at the time (South Africa and Australia) were knocked out in the group stage, with Australia not winning a single game out of their three. 2015 World Cup finalists New Zealand were also knocked out in the group stage, also not winning a single game. Thus, England and Bangladesh from Group A, and India and Pakistan from Group B qualified for the semi-finals. Pakistan beat England comfortably in the first semi-final, winning by 8 wickets with almost 13 overs to spare to make their first final ever in the Champions Trophy. India beat Bangladesh in the second semi-final, also winning comfortably by 9 wickets, in what was Bangladesh's first semi-final in an ICC tournament. Arch-rivals India and Pakistan took each other on in the final of a tournament for the first time since 2007, with the final taking place at The Oval in London. It was India's fourth appearance and Pakistan's maiden appearance in a Champions Trophy final. Pakistan beat India comfortably by 180 runs, outclassing them across all three departments-batting, bowling and fielding. Pakistan, the lowest-ranked team in the competition, won their first Champions Trophy title and became the seventh nation to win it. Fakhar Zaman of Pakistan received the Man of the Match award for scoring 114. Shikhar Dhawan of India received the "Golden Bat" award for scoring 338 runs while Hasan Ali of Pakistan received the "Golden Ball" award for taking 13 wickets; he was also adjudged the Man of the Series for his outstanding contribution towards Pakistan's first ICC ODI tournament title since 1992. The prize money for the 2017 edition of the ICC Champions Trophy was increased by half a million dollars from 2013 to a total of $4.5 million. The winning team got a cheque of $2.2 million and the runner-up got $1.1 million. The other two semifinalists earned $450,000 each. Teams finishing third in each group took home $90,000 each, while the teams finishing last in each group got $60,000 each. 2021 ICC Champions Trophy In the lead-up to the 2017 tournament, the ICC had proposed starting an ODI League in 2019, which will most likely lead to the Champions Trophy getting scrapped. Following the 2017 Champions Trophy, David Richardson (the ICC CEO) stated that the future status of the Champions Trophy was undecided, with both a possible Test league and an additional World T20 putting additional pressure of fixtures. In December 2017, the ICC's Future Tours Programme listed the 2021 edition taking place in India. However, in April 2018, the ICC announced that the tournament was scrapped, with the possibility of a T20 World Cup tournament replacing it. 2021 ICC T20 World Cup was originally due to be hosted in India, however, it was moved to UAE due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 2025 ICC Champions Trophy On 16 November 2021, it was announced that the 2025 ICC Champions Trophy will be held in Pakistan. Debut of teams Team appearing for the first time, in alphabetical order per year. Tournament Records Records Summary Batting Most tournament runs Highest individual score Bowling Most tournament wickets Best figures in an innings By tournament References Champions Trophy One Day International cricket competitions Recurring sporting events established in 1998 Recurring sporting events disestablished in 2017

List of French Open women's singles champions

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The French Open, known originally as the Internationaux de France, is an annual tennis tournament created in 1891 and played on outdoor red clay courts at the Stade Roland Garros in Paris, France. The women's singles event began in 1897. History The French Open is played during two weeks in late May and early June, and has been chronologically the second of the four Grand Slam tournaments of the tennis season since 1987. The event was not held from 1915 to 1919 because of World War I, and after a one-year lapse in 1940, was unofficially held from 1941 to 1945 because of World War II. The national body that organizes this event is the French Tennis Federation (FFT). The Racing Club de France and the Stade Français of Paris alternated hosting the event before the competition was moved in 1928 to the newly built Stade Roland Garros, where it has been played since. The tournament was reserved for members of French tennis clubs until the first edition open to international players took place in 1925. From 1941 to 1944, the tournament took place under Vichy regime, won two times by Alice Weiwers and once by Simone Iribarne Lafargue, and Raymonde Jones Veber. Those editions are not counted by the FFT in the tournament's history, and were retroactively named Tournoi de France. In 1945, under the Provisional Government of the French Republic, the champion was Lolette Payot. Even if it was organised by the French Lawn Tennis Federation, the 1945 event is also not counted by the FFT in the tournament's history. The women's singles rules have undergone several changes since the first edition. The event has always been contested in a knockout format. Records show that matches have always been played as the best-of-three sets format. The lingering death best-of-twelve points tie-break was introduced in 1973 for the first two sets. The champion receives a miniature replica of the Coupe Suzanne Lenglen (Suzanne Lenglen Cup), named after Suzanne Lenglen. In 2010, the winner received prize money of €1,120,000. In the French National Championship, which was when the tournament was reserved to members of French tennis clubs and French nationals, Adine Masson (1897–1899, 1902–1903) holds the record for most titles in women's singles with five victories. The record for most consecutive titles is four by Jeanne Matthey (1909–1912) and Lenglen (1920–1923), all of whose titles came during the club-members-only era. In the French International Championships, that came after the tournament opened to international competitors but before the open era, Helen Wills Moody (1928–1930, 1932) holds the record for most titles at four. The record for most consecutive titles during this period is three by Wills Moody (1928–1930) and Hilde Krahwinkel Sperling (1935–1937). During the French Open, since the inclusion of the professional tennis players, the record for most titles is held by Chris Evert with seven (1974–1975, 1979–1980, 1983, 1985–1986). The record for most consecutive titles during the Open Era is three by Monica Seles (1990–1992) and Justine Henin (2005–2007). This event has been won without losing a set in the Open Era by Evonne Goolagong in 1971, Billie Jean King in 1972, Evert in 1974, Steffi Graf in 1988, Arantxa Sánchez Vicario in 1994, Henin in 2006 and 2007, and Iga Świątek in 2020. Champions French Championships French Open Statistics Multiple champions Champions by country Notes See also French Open other competitions List of French Open men's singles champions List of French Open men's doubles champions List of French Open women's doubles champions List of French Open mixed doubles champions Grand Slam women's singles List of Australian Open women's singles champions List of Wimbledon ladies' singles champions List of US Open women's singles champions List of Grand Slam women's singles champions References General Specific External links Internationaux de France de Roland-Garros – French Open official website women French Open women's singles champions Fre

Animal Crossing: Wild World

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is a 2005 social simulation video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld game console. It was released in Japan in November 2005, in North America and Australia in December 2005, and in Europe in March 2006. It is the second installment in the Animal Crossing series, and the sequel to Animal Crossing on the GameCube. Wild World focuses on living in a remote village populated with anthropomorphic animals, where the player character is encouraged to perform any number of tasks, such as collecting and planting. Like all Animal Crossing titles, the game is synced to the console's clock and calendar, allowing the game to be played in real-time, which affects the occurrence of in-game events based on the current time of day or season. Wild World utilized Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, which allowed players to travel and visit the villages of other players via online play, until the service was shut down in May 2014. The game received positive reviews upon release, garnering aggregate scores of 86/100 on Metacritic and GameRankings. Wild World is the ninth best-selling game on the Nintendo DS with 11.75 million copies sold worldwide as of March 31, 2016. It was additionally re-released on the Wii U Virtual Console in October 2016. Gameplay Like all the games in the Animal Crossing series, Wild World is an open-ended game in which the player assumes the role of a human who has moved into a village populated with anthropomorphic animals. During their time spent in the village, the player is able to perform a number of various activities, such as collecting items, fish and insects, or socializing with the village's residents. The game is synchronized with the Nintendo DS clock and calendar, allowing the game to be played in real-time. For example, both daytime and night will occur in the village depending on the current hour, and snow will fall during the cold months. Different events occur at particular times of the year, such as holidays and the variation of collectible fauna depending on the month or season. Wild World features a high level of customization. The player character's appearance can be modified to the player's preference: it can be dressed from a large selection of available clothes and accessories, or players can design new clothing patterns from scratch with help from the village tailor, Able Sisters. The environment itself can be modified: trees can be grown or chopped down in any part of the village, and the players share a house that can be furnished with collected furniture and items. Wild World adds the ability to draw constellations that are visible in the night sky. Wild World utilizes the two screens of the Nintendo DS in various ways. The game allows players to interact via the system's touch screen, which is used to manage inventory, write messages, draw designs for clothes, or control the player character. Unlike the previous iteration which had used a top-down perspective, Wild World allows both the ground and sky to be visible at the same time on each of the screens, allowing the players to view events occurring in the sky without needing to switch perspectives. This is done by using a "rolling log" effect, in which the terrain seems to bend and roll beneath the player's feet when travelling about the village. Online connectivity Wild World is the first game in the Animal Crossing series to feature online play and was the second game to utilize Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, with which players can visit other villages. Because players are required to exchange and register Friend Codes prior to visiting, connection to random players is not possible. Up to four players can explore the same village simultaneously. Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection can be used to exchange items and custom-designed patterns between players, as well as receiving exclusive gifts from Nintendo while connected. Wild World is compatible with its Wii successor, Animal Crossing: City Folk. Players are able to transfer their player character from Wild World to City Folk via a wireless connection between the two consoles. As of May 20, 2014, online functionality offered through Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection is no longer accessible. The discontinued services include online play, matchmaking and leaderboards in which Animal Crossing: Wild World, as well as many other online DS and Wii games, are affected. Development The game was announced at E3 2004 under the tentative title Animal Crossing DS, where it was revealed to utilize the Nintendo DS touch screen and implement multiplayer capabilities. When development on Animal Crossing: Wild World began, it was decided that nothing was going to be region-specific in order to make the game easier to localize. Therefore, certain events that were originally observed in Animal Crossing, such as those based on Halloween, Christmas, and the Japanese Cherry Blossom Festival, are not observed in Wild World. This rule was applied to the variety of fish and insects the player is able to collect. Technical issues On January 26, 2006, a blank letter was sent to a number of players connected to Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection that contained a glitch item called "Red Tulips" that was able to corrupt saved game data. If placed on the floor inside the player's house, the item would create an invisible and indelible "wall" that rendered the spot in which it was positioned useless. Nintendo issued an official statement regarding the glitch, telling players that the bug was not caused by a hacker but was due to an internal error with the upload tool used to send exclusive gifts to players, and recommended that users who received the letter delete it whenever possible. In 2008, journalists who were sent copies of Animal Crossing: City Folk for review were also sent copies of Wild World that contained existing save data to demonstrate the game's ability to transfer a player's inventory from Wild World to City Folk. On December 3, it was reported that one of the animal characters in the modified copies of Wild World had its customizable catchphrase set to "Ñiggá". The edited slur had not been caught by the game's profanity detection system, which prevents players from setting character dialogue to anything deemed distasteful. Nintendo issued an official apology and recalled the modified copies, stating that the incident was caused by a wireless function that automatically transfers catchphrases between games. Reception Animal Crossing: Wild World received positive reviews, gaining an aggregate score of 86 out of 100 on Metacritic. Some reviews felt that Wild World did not entirely expand upon what Animal Crossing had to offer, referring to the changes as incremental. While some reviews liked the implementation of using either the Nintendo DS buttons or the touch screen for game control, Nintendo World Report felt that using the touch screen for controlling the player character was "imprecise," and IGN felt that "Nintendo did not take the [game] down a path that takes advantage of this touch screen control." The absence of familiar holidays, which were removed to ease the localization process, was also criticized. The addition of online play was praised by many critics. Computer and Video Games felt that the online play "extends the experience into true social gaming," and IGN stated that "Nintendo gave us everything we were asking for when playing the GameCube version: a much more intuitive way of trading items and enjoying other players' creations. And, at the very least, the company succeeded." However, multiplayer was also criticized for its tedious implementation and questionable restrictions, specifically the requirement of Friend Codes and the inability to send mail to other players unless he or she was visiting that person's village. Other online oddities mentioned include the disappearance of all animal residents during the visit and the fact that North American and European players are unable to connect with Japanese players. Wild World producer Katsuya Eguchi stated that these limitations were due to hardware and memory constraints. Sales On December 1, 2005, Media Create stated that Animal Crossing: Wild World sold 325,460 copies in Japan in its first week of availability, beating the previous mark set by Jump Super Stars and becoming the best-selling title for the Nintendo DS until the release of Brain Age 2. It was the 29th best-selling game in Japan as of 2008, selling 4.7 million copies by July that year. It received a "Double Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 600,000 copies in the United Kingdom. As of March 31, 2016, Wild World has sold 11.75 million copies worldwide. Legacy Elements from Wild World are featured in the 2008 crossover fighting game Super Smash Bros. Brawl for the Wii, such as a stage based on a village from the game named "Smashville", which changes its scenery in accordance to the console's system clock, and several remixes of music tracks. Notes References External links Animal Crossing: Wild World at Nintendo.com (archives of the original at the Internet Archive) 2005 video games Multiplayer online games Social simulation video games Multiplayer and single-player video games Animal Crossing video games Nintendo DS games Life simulation games Virtual Console games Virtual Console games for Wii U Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection games Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development games Video games about raccoons Video games featuring protagonists of selectable gender Video games scored by Kazumi Totaka Video games developed in Japan Games with Wii-DS connectivity nn:Animal Crossing#Animal Crossing: Wild World

The Bridges of Madison County

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The Bridges of Madison County (also published as Love in Black and White) is a 1992 best-selling romance novella by American writer Robert James Waller that tells the story of a married Italian-American woman (WW2 ‘War bride’) living on a Madison County, Iowa, farm in the 1960s. While her husband and children are away at the State Fair, she engages in an affair with a National Geographic photographer from Bellingham, Washington, who is visiting Madison County to create a photographic essay on the covered bridges in the area. The novel is presented as a novelization of a true story, but it is in fact entirely fictional. The novel is one of the bestselling books of the 20th century, with 60 million copies sold world-wide. It has also been adapted into a feature film in 1995 and a musical in 2013. Background Without expecting to, Robert James Waller conceived of The Bridges of Madison County in the early 1990s. On leave from his teaching job at the University of Northern Iowa, Waller was photographing the Mississippi River with a friend when he decided to photograph the covered bridges of Madison County, Iowa. This event, alongside a song Waller wrote years earlier about "the dreams of a woman named Francesca", gave him the idea for the novella, which he completed in eleven days. After he had written Bridges, Waller came to believe that he had based the character of Francesca Johnson on his wife, Georgia, whom Francesca physically resembles. Analysis According to Marc Eliot, Waller's novella is a modernization of the Noël Coward play Still Life (1934), which was adapted into David Lean's film Brief Encounter (1945). Still Life is about "the desperation, guilt, and temptations of two married people who meet, fall in love, commit adultery, and then separate forever". In The New York Times, Brigitte Weeks said that Bridges had appealed to "middle-aged, world-weary people" in a manner similar to the writings of James A. Michener, though it features more sexuality than Michener's books. The Bridges of Madison County received multiple comparisons to Erich Segal's Love Story (1970) for its plot and prose. For Rolling Stone, Peter Travers said that Waller's prose was modeled on Walt Whitman's work, but instead resembled a greeting card. Travers also said that Bridges exists within a tradition of "great romantic crocks" like Pat Conroy's The Prince of Tides (1986). The New York Times Magazine found the novella's prose comparable to that of Jonathan Livingston Seagull (1970) by Richard Bach. The Independent Nicolette Jones found the novella reminiscent of the books published by Mills & Boon, while Owen Gleiberman found it more similar to an anecdote than to a regular narrative. Reception Orlando Sentinel Publishers Weekly found The Bridges of Madison County "Quietly powerful and thoroughly credible". L.S. Klepp of Entertainment Weekly called Bridges "a short, poignant story, moving precisely because it has the ragged edges of reality". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times praised the novella's "compelling" story for "elevating to a spiritual level the common fantasy in which a virile stranger materializes in the kitchen of a quiet housewife and takes her into his arms." The book debuted on the New York Times bestseller list in August 1992 and slowly climbed to number 1, and remained on the list for over three years (164 consecutive weeks), through October 8, 1995. Film adaptation The Bridges of Madison County was made into a 1995 film of the same name, adapted by Richard LaGravenese and directed by Clint Eastwood. It stars Eastwood and Meryl Streep. Musical adaptation The Bridges of Madison County was adapted into a Tony Award-winning musical with music and lyrics by Jason Robert Brown and the book by Marsha Norman. The musical premiered at the Williamstown Theatre Festival on August 1, 2013. Directed by Bartlett Sher, the cast featured Elena Shaddow as Francesca and Steven Pasquale. The musical began previews on Broadway at the Gerald Schoenfeld Theatre on January 17, 2014 and officially opened on February 20, 2014 with Kelli O'Hara as Francesca and Steven Pasquale as Robert Kincaid. Directed by Bartlett Sher, the sets are by Michael Yeargan, costumes by Catherine Zuber, and lighting by Donald Holder. Hunter Foster played the role of Bud Johnson, the husband of Francesca. It closed in May of the same year after 100 performances. Theatre In 2018, the Argentine theatrical director Luis "Indio" Romero directed the actors Facundo Arana and Araceli González in a Spanish version of the work. References Bibliography External links Study of reader response to the novel 20th-Century American Bestsellers entry 1992 American novels American novels adapted into films Novels set in Iowa Madison County, Iowa Novels about photographers American novellas American romance novels 1992 debut novels

Jaime Pressly

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Jaime Elizabeth Pressly (born July 30, 1977) is an American actress, fashion designer and model. Best known for her role as Joy Turner on the NBC sitcom My Name Is Earl, she won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series and garnered nominations for a Golden Globe Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award. She has appeared in films including Not Another Teen Movie (2001), Joe Dirt (2001), I Love You, Man (2009) and A Haunted House 2 (2014). For her portrayal of Jill Kendall on the CBS sitcom Mom (2014–2021), she was nominated for the Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. Early life and modeling Pressly was born in Kinston, North Carolina, the daughter of Brenda Sue (née Smith), a dance instructor, and James Liston Pressly, a car salesman. In 1992, she moved with her family to Costa Mesa, California, where she spent the first semester of her high school sophomore year. She spent her childhood and early teenage years training as a gymnast, which led her to modeling jobs. At age 14, she appeared on her first cover, Teen Magazine, and became the spokesmodel for the International Cover Model Search. At 15, she dropped out of school and went to Japan on a modeling contract. She succeeded in having herself legally emancipated from her parents at 15 so she could travel to Japan, as neither of her parents could make the trip. Acting career Early roles, 1997–2004 After making an uncredited appearance in Baywatch in 1995, followed by filming a cameo in the film Mercenary in 1996, Pressly starred as Violet, a vengeful seductress, in the 1997 direct-to-DVD film Poison Ivy: The New Seduction, the third installment of the Poison Ivy series. Television appearances followed, with guest-roles in the short-lived Push and Mortal Kombat: Conquest. She went on to play one of the leads in Jack and Jill, which aired for two seasons, from September 26, 1999, to April 15, 2001, on the WB Network. Pressly headlined the independent film Poor White Trash (2000), playing scheming gold-digger Sandy Lake, and appeared in three 2001 theatrical releases aimed at a teenage audience, which despite varying degrees of success, helped her receive more exposure. The parody film Not Another Teen Movie, most notably, featured her as Priscilla, a high school cheerleader, while she took on the roles of a teen wife in the sex comedy Tomcats and that of a Southern love interest in the comedy Joe Dirt, opposite David Spade. In 2002, Pressly starred as a college student trapped in a haunted island in the independent horror film Demon Island. Felix Vasquez of Cinema Crazed regarded it as a guilty pleasure and stated: "[She] does what she can with her character and comes off as a rather charming character". She next portrayed a crazed, motorcycle-riding criminal in the action thriller Torque (2004), alongside Ice Cube. In a profile, The New Yorker, describing this phase of her career, asserted: "She is typically cast on the strength of her looks and her Southern sassiness, and she has had girlfriend roles in several forgettable teensploitation flicks". Breakthrough, 2005–2009 Between 2005 and 2009, Pressly played Joy Turner, the pessimistic, cold-hearted, stubborn and vain ex-wife of a small-time thief, in the NBC sitcom My Name Is Earl, which was a success with critics and audiences. She garnered nominations for a Golden Globe and a Screen Actor Guild Award, and in 2007, she won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for her work on the show. Pressly once called her role her "greatest release" and thanked creator Greg Garcia for restoring her faith in the business. She remarked: "[The series] came at a time when I was questioning whether this was the path I wanted to continue following. I was tired of living out of my suitcase, coming and going all the time. I wanted a little normalcy in my life." During the early run of My Name is Earl, Pressly produced and took on the role of a homicidal magazine editor in the independent film Death to the Supermodels (2005), a role she compared to that of Reese Witherspoon in Election. In his review for the film, Scott Weinberg of DVDTalk.com, wrote: "Jaime Pressly is a funny, funny woman. To those of you My Name is Earl fans who are just now discovering the juicy talents of the perpetually sneering, eye-rolling, attitude machine known as Jaime Pressly, I'd recommend you check out her work in flicks like Ringmaster, Tomcats, Joe Dirt, Torque, and Not Another Teen Movie. Basically, if we were giving out an award for "the consistently best thing in a series of generally atrocious comedies," Jaime would be walking home with that prize, no sweat. Regardless of how bad the movie is [...] Jaime always seems like a kooky and kinetic cartoon character who somehow figured out how to become flesh & blood. Yes, she's sexy and all that, but Jaime Pressly is also funny, and that just amplifies all her other assets". In DOA: Dead or Alive (2006), a British-German-American martial arts action film, Pressly starred as one of four female fighters working together to uncover the secret that the organizer of an invitational martial arts contest is trying to hide. While the film was relatively successful on some markets, it only found a limited audience in North America. In 2006, she also hosted the first annual VH1 Rock Honors, and an episode of Saturday Night Live, and guest-starred on MADtv, playing Hillary Clinton in a parody of My Name Is Earl, "My Name Is Dubya", in which George W. Bush (Frank Caliendo) makes a list of all the bad things he has done in the past and rectifies them one by one. She voiced a bird in the computer-animated comedy hit Horton Hears a Who! (2008), featuring Jim Carrey, Steve Carell, Will Arnett, among others. In I Love You, Man (2009), Pressly starred opposite Paul Rudd and Jason Segel, as the best friend of a bride-to-be and one half of a volatile married couple. The film received critical acclaim and was a box office success, grossing US$92 million worldwide. Rolling Stone found her "terrific" in her role, asserting: "Her battles with [her on-screen husband] have genuine comic bite". 2010–present The ABC Family television film Beauty & the Briefcase (2010), co-starring Hilary Duff, featured Pressly as a primary editor at Cosmopolitan magazine. The premiere received 2.4 million viewers attracting a strong female audience that drove the network to an all-time high in viewers. Smoke Screen, another 2010 television film, saw her star as a reporter finding herself in the middle of a murder investigation when she wakes up next to a dead body. In 2010, Pressly also guest-starred in two episodes of the CBS comedy Rules of Engagement, as a possible surrogate mother for Jeff and Audrey (Patrick Warburton and Megyn Price). In 6 Month Rule (2011), an independent film released for limited theaters and digital markets, Pressly played what was described as a "harridan of an ex-fiancée" by the New York Times. She appeared in the interactive educational children's musical comedy The Oogieloves in the Big Balloon Adventure (2012), as a flamenco dancer riding a giant flying sombrero. Budgeted at US$20 million, the film only made US$445,000 in more than 2,000 screens during its opening weekend. Pressly next had regular roles in two short-lived series. The Fox sitcom I Hate My Teenage Daughter (2011–2012) saw her portray a mother fearing her daughter is turning into the kind of girl who tormented her in high school, while the TV Land comedy Jennifer Falls (2014) featured her as a single mother, who after being fired from a high-paying job, becomes a waitress in her brother's bar. Pressly obtained leading roles in three 2014 film releases. In A Haunted House 2, Pressly starred as a mother of two and one half of an interracial couple, alongside Marlon Wayans. She had known Wayans for 15 years prior filming and the project marked the first time they worked together. Describing the process, she said: "It was a match made in heaven. It really was. We're both high energy, and we both like to do something new every take, and when you do comedy like this, where you get to improv the majority of the time, it’s about trying to one-up each other, and that makes for a really great comedy". The film was panned by critics, but was a decent box office success. She starred opposite singer Robin Thicke in the romantic comedy Making the Rules, which was filmed in 2012. Finders Keepers, a television horror film, saw Pressley play a divorced mother whose life is thrown into turmoil when her young daughter becomes obsessed with an evil doll left behind by the previous owners. Since 2014, Pressly has portrayed Jill Kendall, a wealthy socialite and alcoholic, in the CBS sitcom Mom. Other ventures Fashion In 2003, Pressly launched a lingerie line, J'aime by Jaime Pressly, and expanded it to clothing and sleepwear. In 2007, People magazine called her spring/summer clothing line a "sophisticated and star-studded fashion show" and "one of the biggest shows of L.A. Fashion Week." In spring 2008, she launched a second clothing line, J'aime Collection. "I've always had an interest in design, and I have always loved creating things," Pressly said in an interview with Redbook in 2008. She ended her clothing lines in September 2008. In the media In a 2008 interview with Redbook magazine, Pressly credited her success for "lifelong willingness to defy convention." Pressly's appearance has often been the subject of media attention. She has appeared on several lists for world's most beautiful or sexiest women. Her changing looks and style have received noteworthy praise from periodicals such as InStyle. In 2000, she became a spokesmodel for Liz Claiborne Cosmetics and advertised the company's fragrance "Lucky You". In 2008, she appeared in an infomercial for Susan Lucci's "Youthful Essence" personal microdermabrasion kit, and an advertisement for Axe in 2010. She has graced the covers of numerous magazines, including InStyle Weddings, Ocean Drive, Health, Esquire, Redbook, Shape, Stuff, Maxim and Playboy. Personal life Pressly has revealed in interviews that she briefly struggled with bulimia as a teenager. In 1996, she met DJ Eric Calvo, and they started dating in 2004. On May 11, 2007, in Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Pressly gave birth to their son, Dezi James Calvo. In November 2008, the couple announced their separation. Nine months later, in July 2009, Pressly announced her engagement to entertainment lawyer Simran Singh. They wed on September 26, 2009, at the Dick Clark estate, on a bluff overlooking the Pacific Ocean. On January 21, 2011, Pressly filed for divorce from Singh, citing irreconcilable differences. On January 5, 2011, two weeks before filing for divorce, Pressly was arrested in Santa Monica, California, for suspicion of driving under the influence. She eventually pleaded no contest and received three years of informal probation. On June 7, 2017, Pressly announced she was expecting twins with longtime boyfriend Hamzi Hijazi. They had twin sons, Leo and Lenon. Filmography Film Television Video games Music videos Awards and nominations References External links Jaime Pressly credits at the American Film Institute About.com interview (December 2001) Jaime Pressly at Emmys.com 1977 births American female models American film actresses American television actresses Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners Living people Actresses from California Actresses from North Carolina Female models from California People from Costa Mesa, California People from Kinston, North Carolina 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses Female models from North Carolina

The Donna Reed Show

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The Donna Reed Show is an American sitcom starring Donna Reed as the middle-class housewife Donna Stone. Carl Betz co-stars as her pediatrician husband Dr. Alex Stone, and Shelley Fabares and Paul Petersen as their teenage children, Mary and Jeff. The show originally aired on ABC from September 24, 1958, to March 19, 1966. Background The series was created by William S. Roberts and developed by Reed and her then husband, producer Tony Owen. Episodes revolved around typical family problems of the period such as firing a clumsy housekeeper, throwing a retirement bash for a colleague, and finding quality time away from the children. Themes such as women's rights and freedom of the press were occasionally explored. The show had an uncertain start in the ratings and was almost cancelled, but fared better when it was moved from Wednesday to Thursday nights. In the show's middle seasons, Fabares sang what became a #1 teen pop hit "Johnny Angel", and Petersen had above average success with the song "My Dad", also introduced during the course of the series. The Donna Reed Show was one of television's top 20 shows in 1963–1964. Reed was repeatedly nominated for Emmy Awards between 1959 and 1962, and won a Golden Globe as Best Female TV Star in 1963. She eventually grew tired of the workaday grind involved in the program, and it was cancelled in 1966 after 275 episodes. The series was sponsored by Campbell Soup Company, with Johnson & Johnson as the principal alternate sponsor (succeeded in the fall of 1963 by The Singer Company). Following first-run, the show entered daytime reruns on ABC and then syndication on Nick at Nite and TV Land for several years. It is currently shown on Decades. The first five seasons have been released on DVD. This show was the first TV family sitcom to feature the mother as the center of the show. Reed's character, Donna Stone, is a loving mother and wife, but also a strong woman, an active participant in her community, a woman with feelings and a sense of humor. According to many of Reed's friends and family, Reed shared many similarities to the character that she portrayed on screen, implying that the fictional Donna Stone was a near-identical copy of Reed herself. In a 2008 interview, Paul Petersen (Jeff Stone) stated: [The Donna Reed Show] depicts a better time and place. It has a sort of level of intelligence and professionalism that is sadly lacking in current entertainment products. The messages it sent out were positive and uplifting. The folks you saw were likable, the family was fun, the situations were familiar to people. It provided 22-and-a-half-minutes of moral instructions and advice on how to deal with the little dilemmas of life. Jeff and Mary and their friends had all the same problems that real kids in high school did. Petersen continued, That's what the show was really about, the importance of family. That's where life's lessons are transmitted, generation to generation. There's a certain way in which these are transmitted, with love and affection. Plot Episodes revolve around the lightweight and humorous sorts of situations and problems a middle-class family experienced in the late 1950s and the early 1960s set in fictional Hilldale, state never mentioned. Donna, for example, would sometimes find herself swamped with the demands of community theatricals and charity drives; Mary had problems juggling boyfriends and finding dresses to wear to one party or another; and Jeff was often caught in situations appropriate to his age and gender such as joining a secret boys' club, avoiding love-smitten classmates, or bidding at auction on an old football uniform. Alex was the family's Rock of Gibraltar, but often found himself in situations that tested his patience: in one episode, Donna volunteered him as the judge of a baby contest, and, in another episode, Mary insisted her gawky, geeky boyfriend was the spitting image of her father. Very occasionally eccentric relatives would descend on the Stones to complicate the household situation. Production David Tucker writes in The Women Who Made Television Funny that most family sitcoms of the 1950s such as Father Knows Best, The Life of Riley, and The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet focus on the father figure with the mother as "adjunct". He points out however that The Donna Reed Show "established the primacy of the mother on the domestic front" and notes that Mother Knows Better was even briefly considered as the show's title. Though The Donna Reed Show did sometimes use recycled Father Knows Best scripts that had been slightly altered, such as character name changes. The series was created by William Roberts and developed by Reed and her then husband, producer Tony Owen (the production company "Todon" is an amalgamation of their first names.) Roberts intended the show to respectfully picture the many demanding roles a stay-at-home woman was expected to master – wife, mom, companion, housekeeper, cook, laundress, seamstress, PTA officer, choir singer, scout leader, etc. – all the while being "effervescent, immaculate, and pretty." Reed stated, "We started breaking rules right and left. We had a female lead, for one thing, a strong, healthy woman. We had a story line told from a woman's point of view that wasn't soap opera." In addition, Reed described her show, accordingly: "I would call The Donna Reed Show a realistic picture of small-town life – with an often humorous twist. Our plots revolve around the most important thing in America – a loving family." In its first year on the struggling ABC network, the show was up against Milton Berle's popular Texaco Star Theater and Reed ratings were low. ABC nearly cancelled the show, but it was renewed and ratings improved when the show was moved from Wednesday to Thursday nights. The series flourished for the next seven years, ranking #30 in 1961–1962 and #16 in 1963–1964. In a 1964 interview, Reed said, "We have proved on our show that the public really does want to see a healthy woman, not a girl, not a neurotic, not a sexpot...I am so fed up with immature 'sex' and stories about kooky, amoral, sick women." The opening credits showed Reed coming down the stairs to answer the telephone. She hands the receiver to Alex, then goes to the front door to hand the children their bag lunches and schoolbooks as they leave for school. Alex then leaves, kissing his wife good-bye. On some opening themes, he forgets to kiss Donna good-bye, but returns as she closes the door to give her a quick kiss. She closes the door and smiles happily. A late series variant showed Donna departing after her husband, possibly for shopping, church or community matters, or some other concern. Reed brought personal friends Esther Williams, Jimmy Hawkins, and Buster Keaton to the program in guest spots. On February 1, 1962, Fabares debuted her single "Johnny Angel" in the episode "Donna's Prima Donna". It rose to #1 and sold over a million copies. Petersen introduced his single "My Dad" eight months later on October 25, 1962. It peaked at #6. By 1962 Reed felt the writers were running out of fresh ideas and had exhausted plot devices. She also wanted to spend more time with her family and was worn out from producing nearly 30 episodes a year. To coincide with Fabares's plans to leave at the end of season 5 (1962–1963), Reed and her husband decided to end the show. Since the series was still very popular ABC offered Reed a more lucrative contract with an extension of three seasons, to which she agreed. Their new contract called for fewer episodes and other incentives to allow Reed more personal time. In addition, Shelley Fabares agreed to return to the show as an occasional guest in which her character of Mary would come home from college for a visit. In the last three years of the series, Fabares would make seven appearances. Beginning in Season 6 there was a reduction in the number of episodes produced, and work hours were shortened to please Reed. In the spring of 1966, Reed had grown tired of the weekly grind and wanted to retire. The program was rated #89 during its final season. After 275 episodes and eight seasons on ABC, The Donna Reed Show ended its prime-time run. Reed expressed no interest in taking on another series, declined television guest appearances, and shunned films because she thought their depictions of women vapid. She did express interest in a television reunion for the Stone family at one point, but the concept was discarded after Carl Betz's death in 1978. Tucker writes that women's lib supporters of the 1970s targeted the Donna Stone character as an unrealistic portrait of a modern woman and a stereotype of the impossibly perfect wife and mother. He believes that Reed "gave motherhood a tinge of glamour it usually lacked on TV". Cast changes In season 5, (1963) Mary departed for college, reducing Fabares's appearances, something which continued yearly with her role becoming a minor character. Fabares left the full-time cast to pursue opportunities in films. She eventually returned seven times for guest appearances (Season 6 episodes 8, 11, 14; Season 7 episodes 5, 15, 30; Season 8 episode 13). Following Fabares's departure, Petersen's real-life sister Patty Petersen joined the show as Trisha, a runaway orphan eventually adopted by the Stones. The program achieved its highest Nielsen ratings in Season 6, reaching #16 after Fabares' departure. A possible reason for higher ratings was the addition of new characters, Ann McCrea and disc jockey-turned actor Bob Crane as the Stones' neighbors, Midge and Dave Kelsey. This not only provided both Donna and Alex with best friends, but co-conspirators, as well. So popular were their roles that by the fall of 1964, both McCrea and Crane began receiving billing in the opening credits of the program. Crane left the series in 1965 to star in the CBS sitcom Hogan's Heroes. As a result, he was written out of the show although his character continued to be referred to and McCrea's character remained with the program. Also, towards the end of the series, actor Darryl Richard was regularly featured as Jeff Stone's best friend, Morton "Smitty" Smith. Richard first appeared in 1962 and "Smitty" became a major character after Season 6. Janet Landgard was a series regular from 1963 to 1965 as Karen Holmby. Characters and cast Main Donna Stone (Donna Reed) is the idealized middle class housewife to Alex, and the mother of Mary and Jeff. She grew up on a farm and became a nurse. She sometimes works as a nurse on the show. Donna was married to Alex when she was 18 and the couple live in fictional Hilldale. She participates in community activities such as charity campaigns and amateur theatricals. Like several television wives and mothers of the 1950s, she inexplicably wears heels, pearls, and chic frocks to do the housework. (Note: In one episode, it is revealed that Donna Stone's maiden name, like Donna Reed, is Donna Belle Mullenger and she is also from Denison, Iowa.) Alex Stone (Carl Betz) is a pediatrician. Like most television couples of the 1950s, Alex and Donna sleep in twin beds. The two show a physical affection for each other slightly more intense than other television couples of the period. Mary Stone (Shelley Fabares) is 14 "almost fifteen" and a freshman in high school when the show opens. She has a few boyfriends during the course of the show with Jimmy Hawkins as Scotty being a regular. Mary plays the piano like a professional and studies ballet. She leaves the show to attend college. Jeff Stone (Paul Petersen) is "almost twelve" when the show opens. He is a typical American boy; he plays sports, likes to eat, and teases his older sister. Jeff is a complex character: he champions the underdog at school but cheats at board games. Atypical for the fictional children in 1960s sitcoms, Jeff and Mary often get away with "talking back" to their parents. Trisha (Patty Petersen) is a runaway orphan the age of eight whom the Stones adopt after Mary leaves for college. She remained for the duration of the program. Secondary Dr. Dave Kelsey (Bob Crane) and his wife Midge (Ann McCrea) are friends of the Stones. Dave, Alex's colleague, appeared for the first time on March 14, 1963, in the episode "The Two Doctor Stones". Dave continued on the series until 1965; Midge appeared from 1963 to 1966. Crane's character was written out of the show at the end of season 7 when he was cast in the CBS series, Hogan's Heroes. McCrea remained with the show until its conclusion. David Barker (Charles Herbert) – a young military school student who the Stones look after in many episodes. David is very disobedient and troubled in the beginning but the Stone family soon grow to love and reform him. Uncle Bo (Jack Kelk) is Dr. Boland, Alex's bachelor colleague and friend in the first season. Morton "Smitty" Smith (Darryl Richard) is Jeff's best friend and first appeared on the show in 1962. Zachary Blake (Stephen Pearson) is Jeff's friend in the early seasons. Herbie Bailey (Tommy Ivo) is Mary's fairly regular boyfriend. Scotty (Jimmy Hawkins) is another of Mary's boyfriends. He appeared in two first-season episodes as her boyfriend 'George Haskell'. Hawkins' character returned to the show in season 3 as 'Scotty', one of Mary's dates (for seasons 3–4) then as 'Jerry' for seasons 7 & 8 (his last appearance was in December, 1965). Roger (Jan Stine) is Mary's boyfriend in several third-season episodes. Angie (Candy Moore) is Jeff's girlfriend in several fourth season episodes. Moore returned to the program during season 8 as Jeff's 'new' girlfriend Bernice/Bebe, in episodes 3, 12, 16, & 19. Moore had just finished 3 seasons playing Lucille Ball's teenaged daughter Chris on The Lucy Show. Moore was written out after season 3 (1965). Moore had acted on the program from 1962 to 1965. 'The Lucy Show' was her last acting assignment as a major character on a regular network program. Babs (Melinda Plowman) is Mary's first season best girlfriend. Mr. and Mrs. Wilgus (Howard McNear and Kathleen Freeman) are busybody Stone neighbors in season one. Lydia Langley (Mary Shipp) is Donna's snobbish acquaintance in the early seasons. Guest stars The Donna Reed Show featured several celebrity guest stars appearing as themselves during its eight-year run. Baseball player Don Drysdale appeared in four episodes while Willie Mays appeared in three episodes and Leo Durocher once. Musician Harry James and singers Tony Martin and Lesley Gore appeared as themselves. Gore was featured in the series' finale, "By-Line--Jeff Stone", on March 19, 1966. Lassie and film director George Sidney appear as themselves in the 1961 episode "The Stones Go To Hollywood". The episode plugged Sidney's then current feature film, Pepe, in which Reed made a cameo appearance. Teen heartthrob James Darren guest starred as a pop singer with the measles. Silent film comedian Buster Keaton guest starred in two episodes, "A Very Merry Christmas" (December 24, 1958) as Charlie, a hospital janitor who brings gifts to the children's ward, and as an auto mechanic in "Now You See It, Now You Don't" (1965). Child actor Charles Herbert also had a recurring guest role in four episodes as David Barker, a runaway child whom the Stones assist. In the 1960 crossover episode "Donna Decorates", Jay North appeared with his Dennis the Menace co-star, Joseph Kearns as Mr. George Wilson. Esther Williams guest starred as Molly, a fashion designer and friend of Donna's who is herself about to marry a doctor in "The Career Woman" (1960). In real life, Williams and Reed had been close friends since the early 1940s, when they were rising MGM contract stars. Several actors guest starred numerous times in different roles including Richard Deacon, Gale Gordon, Harvey Korman, Miyoshi Umeki, Doodles Weaver, and Dick Wilson. As Fabares co-starred in the Mickey Mouse Club serial Annette before the Donna Reed Show, four other Annette co-stars (Deacon, Cheryl Holdridge, Doreen Tracey & Mary Wickes) would also make respective guest appearances on this show. Other notable guest stars include: Lee Aaker Jack Albertson John Astin Binnie Barnes Raymond Bailey Bobby Buntrock Bobby Burgess Harry Cheshire Dabney Coleman Hans Conried Richard Conte Ellen Corby Johnny Crawford Esther Dale Kim Darby Margaret Dumont Stuart Erwin Tiger Fafara Jamie Farr Florida Friebus Harold Gould George Hamilton Arte Johnson DeForest Kelley Ted Knight Sheila James Kuehl Charles Lane Cloris Leachman Alice Pearce Gigi Perreau Marion Ross William Schallert Hal Smith James Stacy Tisha Sterling Olive Sturgess Stephen Talbot Marlo Thomas Mary Treen Jesse White Rhys Williams William Windom Estelle Winwood Will Wright Episodes Season 1 (1958–59) Season 2 (1959–60) Season 3 (1960–61) Season 4 (1961–62) Season 5 (1962–63) Season 6 (1963–64) Season 7 (1964–65) Season 8 (1965–66) Syndication The series was originally syndicated by Screen Gems, and, later, Columbia Pictures Television and Sony Pictures Television. In 2008, Sony lost the full rights to the estates of Donna Reed and Tony Owen. Reruns aired on Nick at Nite from 1985 through 1994 and on TV Land from 2002 through 2004. MeTV began airing reruns of the show (seasons 1 through 5) starting in September 2011. In 2017 Decades began airing the show as part of their daytime "Through The Decades" lineup. As at 2018, the first five seasons of the show are available on Amazon Prime Video in the US and Canada and on Tubi. Home media For a limited time in 2004, General Mills offered a DVD of two episodes inside boxes of Total cereal and Oatmeal Crisp. Virgil Films and Entertainment (under license from the estates of Donna Reed and Tony Owen) released the first three seasons of the show on DVD in Region 1. Virgil also released a four-episode "best of" DVD on April 13, 2010. On December 17, 2010, it was announced that MPI Home Video had acquired the rights to release seasons 4 and 5 of The Donna Reed Show. Season 4 was subsequently released on December 20, 2011, and Season 5 was released on December 4, 2012. On September 30, 2014, MPI Home Video re-released the first season on DVD. Season 2 was re-released on March 24, 2015. Season 3 was re-released on June 30, 2015. The show's sixth, seventh, and eighth (the final) seasons are yet to be released on DVD. Awards and nominations In popular culture In Gilmore Girls season 1 episode 14 "That Damn Donna Reed", Rory and her boyfriend Dean have a disagreement about women's roles after watching an episode of the show. The episode involved Reed's character making a lot of food. Later, Rory dresses up in a dress like Donna Reed and serves Dean a steak dinner. In the movie Major Payne, the theme song to the show plays as Payne fantasizes about an idyllic family life with Emily and Tiger. References External links 1958 American television series debuts 1966 American television series endings 1950s American sitcoms 1960s American sitcoms American Broadcasting Company original programming Black-and-white American television shows English-language television shows Television series about families Television series by Screen Gems

Adobe Photoshop Elements

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Adobe Photoshop Elements is a graphics editor for photographers, image editors and hobbyists. It contains most of the features of the professional version but with fewer and simpler options. The program allows users to create, edit, organize and share images. It is a successor of Adobe Photoshop (Limited Edition). Originally introduced alongside Adobe Photoshop version 6, Photoshop Elements targets photography enthusiasts and thus lacks many features that make it useful in a proper print production environment. For example, Photoshop Elements cannot export files in the CMYK color mode, supports a simplified color management system, and excludes detailed soft-proofing. It also includes a limited set of Photoshop plugins, and instead has a number of features aimed at non-experts (such as removing the red-eye effect or changing the skin tone in a picture). An example of a redesigned feature is the Variations correction dialog. Some versions can, however, open, edit, and save PDFs. The Mac version does not allow keyboard shortcuts to be added through the Mac System Preferences, as can be done with virtually all other programs for Mac. Version 13 no longer supports the Windows XP platform. While Adobe no longer sells earlier XP-compatible versions on its site, users can still register and use retail packaged editions of earlier versions that may still be available in retail outlets. Adobe has improved performance and also added new features and tools over the years, like the new AI powered one-click subject selection, new home screen, content-aware crop, automatic image colorization and skin smooth. In this new version users now can add facial expressions to the images with the power of Adobe Sensei machine learning AI, which was introduced in 2017. Batch Editing and adding slideshows, filters and effects to the images were also possible with the recent versions. Photoshop Elements is available for Windows and macOS. It is not available as part of a creative cloud subscription, but rather as a single purchase or upgrade purchase. Additionally, a bundle of Photoshop Elements and Premiere Elements is available for purchase. Versions Note: Adobe Photoshop Elements on macOS is available in many languages including English, Japanese, etc. See also Adobe Photoshop Express Adobe Photoshop Album Adobe Photoshop Lightroom Adobe Premiere Elements References External links Elements Adobe Photoshop Elements Classic Mac OS software Windows graphics-related software MacOS graphics-related software 1999 software Proprietary software that uses Qt Shareware Software that uses Qt

Thembu people

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The Thembu (abaThembu ababhuzu-bhuzu, abanisi bemvula ilanga libalele) are part of the Xhosa-speaking people. According to tradition, the Thembu migrated along the east coast of Southern Africa before settling in KwaZulu-Natal. The earliest known Thembu ancestor is Mbulali, whose grandson (named Thembu), led his people from what became the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal to Dedesi in the present-day Transkei region of South Africa. The Thembu emerged as a unified people during the reign of Ngubengcuka, who united clans living in Thembuland into a single political entity, owing allegiance to the Thembu royal family, or "Hala Mvelase." Famous Thembus include Nelson Mandela, whose father was a reigning nobleman from a junior branch of the Madiba clan of kings, and Walter Sisulu. Name In Xhosa, the name is abaThembu, (aba- is a common prefix implying "people"). The territory of the Thembu state was historically known as Thembuland. In the 19th century, Thembu were frequently known as the "Tamboekie" or "Tambookie" people. This name was originally the Khoisan language term specifically for the followers of Chief Maphasa who moved into the area west of the Great Kei River in the 1820s. However, Europeans used these terms as a synonym for "Thembu" for much of the 19th century. History Prior to the British conquest in the 19th century, the Thembu had an independent kingdom. The Xhosa clan name of the Thembu kings is Ntlazi aNkosiyane. Recent kings, including Sabata Jonguhlanga Dalindyebo, took the surname Dalindyebo, after a 19th-century king. After conquest, the Thembu came under the government of the Cape Colony as part of Transkei. With the exception of a few missionaries and traders, Transkei was a Bantustan. The Transkei remained a bantustan under apartheid, and was along with Ciskei regarded as the homeland of the Xhosa people. King Buyelekhaya Dalindyebo, son of Sabata Jonguhlanga Dalindyebo, became the Thembu king in May 1989; his praise name is Zwelibanzi. Sabata deposed Kaiser Matanzima, whom the government had installed and who advocated against South African liberation movements. In December 2009, King Buyelekhaya was convicted of offenses including culpable homicide, kidnapping, arson and assault. In response, he proposed secession from South Africa, and later demanded that the government pay Dalindyebo R900 million and the tribe a further R80 billion in compensation for the humiliation caused by his criminal trial. Dalindyebo was imprisoned in December 2015. He was customarily dethroned and was expected to be administratively dethroned. Prince Azenathi Dalindyebo, Buyelekhaya's heir, has served as the acting king of the tribe since 2016. On 23 December 2019, following president Cyril Ramaphosa's Day of reconciliation speech, the Abathembu King was released from prison after serving one-third of his sentence. Lineage Ndala 1800 - 10 Aug 1830 Vusani Ngubengcuka Aa! Ndaba! Mthikrakra Ngangelizwe Dalindyebo Sampu Dalindyebo Aa! Jongilizwe! Sabata Dalindyebo Aa! Jonguhlanga! May 1989 - present Buyelekhaya Dalindyebo Aa! Zwelibanzi! Thembu Kingship line {{chart|||||||Mnguti||||||Mnguti=Mnguti | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | See also Xhosa clan names References External links Royal lineage at worldstatesmen.org Nguni languages Ethnic groups in South Africa

Domino's Pizza

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Domino's Pizza, Inc., doing business as Domino's, is an American multinational pizza restaurant chain founded in 1960 and led by CEO Richard Allison. The corporation is Delaware domiciled and headquartered at the Domino's Farms Office Park in Ann Arbor, Michigan. As of 2018, Domino's had approximately 15,000 stores, with 5,649 in the U.S., 1,500 in India, and 1, 249 in the U.K. Domino's has stores in over 83 countries and 5,701 cities worldwide. History 1960s–2010s In 1960, Tom Monaghan and his brother, James, took over the operation of DomiNick's, an existing location of a small pizza restaurant chain that had been owned by Dominick DeVarti, at 507 Cross Street (now 301 West Cross Street) in Ypsilanti, Michigan, near Eastern Michigan University. The deal was secured by a $500 down payment, then the brothers borrowed $900 to pay for the store. The brothers planned to split the work hours evenly, but James did not want to quit his job as a full-time postman to keep up with the demands of the new business. Within eight months, James traded his half of the business to Tom for the Volkswagen Beetle they used for pizza deliveries. By 1965, Tom Monaghan had purchased two additional pizzerias; he now had a total of three locations in the same county. Monaghan wanted the stores to share the same branding, but the original owner forbade him from using the DomiNick's name. One day, an employee, Jim Kennedy, returned from a pizza delivery and suggested the name "Domino's". Monaghan immediately loved the idea and officially renamed the business Domino's Pizza, Inc. in 1965. The company logo originally had three dots, representing the three stores in 1965. Monaghan planned to add a new dot with the addition of every new store, but this idea quickly faded, as Domino's experienced rapid growth. Domino's Pizza opened its first franchise location in 1967 and by 1978, the company had expanded to 200 stores. In 1975, Domino's faced a lawsuit by Amstar Corporation, the maker of Domino Sugar, alleging trademark infringement and unfair competition. On May 2, 1980, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals in New Orleans found in favor of Domino's Pizza. In 1998, after 38 years of ownership, Domino's founder Tom Monaghan announced his retirement, sold 93 percent of the company to Bain Capital, Inc. for about $1 billion, and ceased being involved in day-to-day operations of the company. A year later, the company named Dave Brandon as its CEO. International expansion On May 12, 1983, Domino's opened its first international store, in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. That same year, Domino's opened its 1000th store, its first in Vancouver, Washington. In 1985, the chain opened their first store in the United Kingdom in Luton. Also, in 1985, Domino's opened their first store in Tokyo, Japan. In 1993, they became the second American franchise to open in the Dominican Republic and the first one to open in Haiti, under the direction of entrepreneur Luis de Jesús Rodríguez. By 1995, Domino's had expanded to 1,000 international locations. In 1997, Domino's opened its 1,500th international location, opening seven stores in one day across five continents. By 2014, the company had grown to 6,000 international locations and was planning to expand to pizza's birthplace, Italy; this was achieved on October 5, 2015, in Milan, with their first Italian location. CEO Patrick Doyle, in May 2014, said the company would concentrate on its delivery model there. In February 2016, Domino's opened its 1,000th store in India. Outside the United States, India has the largest number of Domino's outlets in the world. In 1995, Domino's Pizza entered China through the Pizza Vest Fast Food Group, which also owned the rights to operate Domino's Pizza in 11 Southeast Asian countries. China The Chinese subsidiary is known as Domino's Pizza China (simplified Chinese: 达美乐; pinyin: Dá Měi Lè). As of October 2019, Domino's Pizza China has about 250 stores in nine cities: Beijing (about 75 stores), Shanghai (about 100 stores), Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Tianjin, Nanjing, Suzhou, Wuxi, and Hangzhou. The 200th store in Shenzhen, was also the 10,000th Domino's store internationally. The first mainland China store was located in the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone 4 and the first Beijing location opened in Haidian District in May 1997. In December 2006, Taiwan's Jinghua Hotel Group invested NT$500 million to acquire the rights for Domino's Pizza in Taiwan and Beijing. In 2017, Dash Brands Ltd., a foreign investment company specializing in restaurant chains, obtained the exclusive rights for Hong Kong and Macau. In China over 90% of orders are placed online. Orders can be made in the stores and on the company website, via app, and through the messaging app WeChat. Despite insisting that its own distribution system has greater advantages in safeguarding service quality and data retention, Domino's has already opened up a model of cooperation with third-party take-out platforms such as Ele.me and Meituan. Domino's Pizza China has offered American style potato bacon pizza, crayfish crispy and tender chicken pizza, durian pulp pizza, and salted egg yolk pizza, as well as Sichuan pepper flavor tender chicken drumsticks. Present In 2004, after 44 years as a privately held company, Domino's began trading common stock on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol "DPZ". Industry trade publication Pizza Today magazine named Domino's Pizza "Chain of the Year" in 2003, 2010, and 2011. In a simultaneous celebration in January 2006, Domino's opened its 5,000th U.S. store in Huntley, Illinois, and its 3,000th international store in Panama City, Panama, making 8,000 total stores for the system. In August 2006, the Domino's location in Tallaght, Dublin, Ireland, became the first store in Domino's history to hit a turnover of $3 million (€2.35 million) per year. , Domino's has 8,200+ stores worldwide, which totaled $1.4 billion in gross income. In August 2012, Domino's Pizza changed their name to simply Domino's. At the same time, Domino's introduced a new logo that removed the blue rectangle and text under the domino in the logo, and changed the formerly all-red domino to be blue on the side with two dots and red on the side with one dot. This was done because the company wanted to "expand" menu choices rather than simply rely on their traditional pizza. Products The Domino's menu varies by region. The current Domino's menu in the United States features a variety of Italian-American main and side dishes. Pizza is the primary focus, with traditional, specialty, and custom pizzas available in a variety of crust styles and toppings. In 2011, Domino's launched artisan-style pizzas. Additional entrees include pasta, bread bowls, and oven-baked sandwiches. The menu offers chicken and bread sides, as well as beverages and desserts. From its founding until the early 1990s, the menu at Domino's Pizza was kept simple relative to other fast food restaurants, to ensure efficiency of delivery. Historically, Domino's menu consisted solely of one style of pizza crust in two sizes (12-inch and 16-inch), 11 toppings, and Coca-Cola as the only soft drink option. The first menu expansion occurred in 1989, with the debut of Domino's deep dish. Its introduction followed market research showing that 40% of pizza customers preferred thick crusts. The new product launch cost approximately $25 million, of which $15 million was spent on new sheet metal pans with perforated bottoms. Domino's started testing extra-large size pizzas in early 1993, starting with the 30-slice, yard-long "The Dominator". Domino's tapped into a market trend toward bite-size foods with spicy Buffalo Chicken Kickers, as an alternative to Buffalo Wings, in August 2002. The breaded, baked, white-meat fillets, similar to chicken fingers, are packaged in a custom-designed box with two types of sauce to "heat up" and "cool down" the chicken. In August 2003, Domino's announced its first new pizza since January 2000, the Philly Cheese Steak Pizza. The product launch also marked the beginning of a partnership with the National Cattlemen's Beef Association, whose beef Check-Off logo appeared in related advertising. Domino's continued its move toward specialty pizzas in 2006, with the introduction of its Brooklyn Style Pizza, featuring a thinner crust, cornmeal baked in to add crispness, and larger slices that could be folded in the style of traditional New York-style pizza. In 2008, Domino's once again branched out into non-pizza fare, offering oven-baked sandwiches in four styles, intended to compete with Subway's toasted submarine sandwiches. Early marketing for the sandwiches made varied references to its competition, such as offering free sandwiches to customers named "Jared", a reference to Subway's spokesman of the same name. The company introduced its American Legends line of specialty pizzas in 2009, featuring 40% more cheese than the company's regular pizzas, along with a greater variety of toppings. That same year, Domino's began selling its BreadBowl Pasta entree, a lightly seasoned bread bowl baked with pasta inside, and the Lava Crunch Cake dessert, composed of a crunchy chocolate shell filled with warm fudge. Domino's promoted the dessert by flying in 1,000 cakes to deliver at Hoffstadt Bluffs Visitor Center near Mount St. Helens in Washington state. In 2010, shortly after the company's 50th anniversary, Domino's changed its pizza recipe "from the crust up", making significant changes in the dough, sauce, and cheese used in their pizzas. Their advertising campaign admitted to earlier problems with the public perception of Domino's product due to taste issues. In September 2012, Domino's announced it was introducing pan pizza to the menu on September 24, 2012, and the original Deep Dish pizza introduced 23 years prior was discontinued in favor of the new pan pizza. In December 2013, Domino's Pizza in Israel unveiled its first vegan pizza, which uses a soy-based cheese substitute supplied by the UK company VBites. After a stock low point in late 2009, the company's stock had risen 700 percent in the five years preceding February 2016. Corporate governance Domino's management is led by CEO Richard Allison. Previous chief executive Dave Brandon remains chairman. Among 11 executive vice presidents are Jeffrey Lawrence, CFO; Tom Curtis, Team USA; Scott Hinshaw, Franchise Operations and Development; and Kevin Morris, General Counsel. Domino's operations are overseen by a board of directors led by Brandon. Other members of the board are Allison, Andy Ballard, Andrew Balson, Diana Cantor, Richard Federico, James Goldman, Corie Sue Barry and Patricia Lopez. On July 1, 2018, Allison, the previous president of international business for Domino's, replaced Doyle as CEO. Franchises Domino's Pizza, as of September 2018, has locations in the United States (including the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands), in 83 other countries, including overseas territories such as the Cayman Islands and states with limited recognition such as Kosovo and Northern Cyprus. It has its stores in 5,701 cities worldwide (2,900 international and 2,800 in the U.S.) In 2016, Domino's opened its 1,000th store in India. As of the first quarter of 2018, Domino's had approximately 15,000 stores, with 5,649 in the U.S., 1,232 in India, and 1,094 in the U.K. In Israel, there are 4 kosher franchises. In most cases, Domino's has master franchise agreements with one company per country, but three companies have acquired multiple master franchise agreements, covering multiple countries: The rights to own, operate, and franchise branches of the chain in Australia, Denmark, New Zealand, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Monaco are currently owned by Australian Domino's Pizza Enterprises, having bought the master franchises from the parent company in 1993 (Australian and New Zealand franchises) and 2006 (European franchises). The master franchises for the UK and Ireland were purchased in 1993 by the British publicly listed Domino's Pizza Group (DPG), which acquired the master franchise for Germany in 2011 and Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and Luxembourg in August 2012 by buying the Swiss master franchise holder, with an option to acquire the Austrian master franchise as well. DPG opened its first Swedish location near the Mobilia shopping mall in Malmö in December 2016; three years later, in 2019, they announced however that they would sell all their current business in the country. The master franchises for India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka are currently owned by the Indian company Jubilant FoodWorks. India is the largest international market for Domino's outside its home market, being the only country to have over 1,000 Domino's outlets. The company operates 1,362 stores across 264 Indian cities as of 2018. In Bangladesh, the franchises for Domino's Pizza are co-owned by Jubilant FoodWorks and Golden Harvest Limited forming 'Domino's Pizza Bangladesh Limited'. In this entity, Jubilant FoodWorks is the majority shareholder and owns 51% of the company, while the rest of the share is owned by Golden Harvest Limited. The first store in Bangladesh opened in February 2019. As of July 27, 2020, Domino's Pizza opened in downtown Zagreb, Croatia. As of 2020, Domino's Pizza opened 550 stores in Turkey. Sales There are currently 6,157 total Dominos units in the US, and of those 5,815 of those are franchised units. In 2018, the Average Weekly Unit Sales (AWUS) for franchised units was $22,045, showing a consistent increase over the past five years. Per year, this amounts to an average of over a million dollars in sales. Domino's EBITDA was 15.0% for stores making more than $25,000. The vast majority of stores fell under this category, over 1,500 units. According to Domino's 2019 income statement, their net income was just over $400,000. The initial franchise fee for a Domino's franchise is $10,000, the royalty fee is 5.5% of the store's weekly sales, and the advertising payment is 4% of the store's weekly sales. Advertising In late 1986, Domino's was well known for its advertisements featuring a character called the Noid, created by Group 243 Inc. who hired Will Vinton Studios to produce the television commercials that featured the character. The catchphrase associated with the commercials was "Avoid the Noid". The Noid was discontinued after Kenneth Lamar Noid, believing the mascot to be an imitation of him, held two Domino's employees hostage in Chamblee, Georgia. The employees escaped while Noid ate a pizza he had ordered. Noid was eventually diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and acquitted due to insanity, and later committed suicide. The Noid was briefly brought back for a week in 2011 in an arcade-style game on the Domino's Facebook page. The person with the top score received a coupon for a free pizza. Due to a glitch on the Domino's website, the company gave away nearly 11,000 free medium pizzas in March 2009. The company had planned the campaign for December 2008 but scrapped the idea and never promoted it. The redemption code to receive the pizzas was never deactivated, however, and resulted in the free giveaway of the pizzas across the United States after someone discovered the promotion on the website by typing in the word "bailout" as the redemption code and then shared it with others on the Internet. Domino's deactivated the code on the morning of March 31, 2009, and promised to reimburse store owners for the pizzas. Domino's sponsored CART's Doug Shierson Racing, which was driven by Arie Luyendyk and won the 1990 Indianapolis 500. In 2003, Domino's teamed up with NASCAR for a multi-year partnership to become the "Official Pizza of NASCAR". Domino's also sponsored Michael Waltrip Racing and driver David Reutimann during the 2007 season in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. In June 2018, Domino's announced that it had started a project to pave over cracks and potholes on roads in the United States called "Paving for Pizza" to prevent their pizzas from being ruined, giving cities and towns grants for road repairs. The company had reached an agreement with four cities and towns, including Burbank, California; Bartonville, Texas; Athens, Georgia; and Milford, Delaware to pave their roads. The paved sections feature the Domino's logo along with the slogan "OH YES, WE DID". 30-minute guarantee Beginning in 1973, Domino's Pizza offered a guarantee to customers their pizza would be delivered within 30 minutes of placing an order or they would receive the pizza free. This guarantee was changed to $3 off in 1987. In 1992, the company settled a lawsuit brought by the family of an Indiana woman who had been killed by a speeding Domino's delivery driver, paying the family $2.8 million. In another 1993 lawsuit, brought by a woman who was injured when a Domino's delivery driver ran a red light and collided with her vehicle. The woman was awarded nearly $80 million by a jury, but accepted a payout of $15 million. The half-hour guarantee was dropped that year because of the "public perception of reckless driving and irresponsibility", according to then-CEO Tom Monaghan. In December 2007, Domino's introduced a new slogan, "You Got 30 Minutes", alluding to the earlier pledge, but stopping short of promising delivery in half an hour. The company continues to honour the 30-minute guarantee for orders placed in its stores located in Colombia, Vietnam, Mexico, China, and India. The 30-minute guarantee is subject to the terms and conditions applied in the respective country. Marketing In 2001, Domino's launched a two-year national partnership with the Make-A-Wish Foundation of America. That same year, company stores in New York City and Washington, D.C. provided more than 12,000 pizzas to relief workers following the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center and The Pentagon. Through a matching funds program, the corporation donated $350,000 to the American Red Cross' disaster relief effort. In 2004, Domino's began a partnership with St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, participating in the hospital's "Thanks and Giving" campaign since the campaign began in 2004, and raising $5.2 million in 2014. In 2007, Domino's introduced its Veterans Delivering the Dream franchising program and also rolled out its online and mobile ordering sites. In 2008, Domino's introduced the Pizza Tracker, an online application that allows customers to view the status of their order in a real time progress bar. Since 2005, the voice of Domino's Pizza's US phone ordering service has been Kevin Railsback. In a 2009 survey of consumer taste preferences among national chains by Brand Keys, Domino's was last — tied with Chuck E. Cheese's. In December that year, Domino's announced plans to entirely reinvent its pizza. It began a self-critical ad campaign in which consumers were filmed criticizing the then-current pizza's quality and chefs were shown developing a new pizza. The new pizza was unveiled that same month. The following year, 2010 and Domino's 50th anniversary, the company hired J. Patrick Doyle as its new CEO and experienced a 14.3% quarterly gain. While admitted not to endure, the success was described by Doyle as one of the largest quarterly same-store sales jumps ever recorded by a major fast-food chain. In 2011, Domino's launched a billboard advertising in New York's Times Square which displayed real time comments from customers, including good, neutral and bad comments. In 2015, Domino's unveiled a "pizza car" that can carry 80 pizzas, sides, 2-liter bottles of soda, and dipping sauces. It also has a 140-degrees Fahrenheit oven on board and is more fuel efficient than a standard delivery car. Officially named the Domino's DXP, the car is a Chevrolet Spark customized by Roush Performance. Once each car reaches 100,000 miles, it will be retired and returned to Roush, where it will be returned to stock form. In 2016, Domino's cooperated with Starship Technologies and applied self-driving robots to deliver pizzas in specific German and Dutch cities. In 2016, Domino's in New Zealand delivered the world's first pizza delivery by unmanned aerial vehicle using the DRU Drone by Flirety. In February 2017, Domino's launched a wedding registry with gifts delivered in the form of Domino's eGift cards. Domino's also worked with Gugu Guru to create a pizza-themed baby registry. Customers have the option of signing up for Domino's pizza package to be served for the event. In June 2018, Domino's began repairing potholes in America as part of its "Paving for Pizza" initiative to prevent its pizzas from being damaged in transit. In June 2019, Domino's announced a partnership with robotics company Nuro. The service is slated to launch in Houston, Texas with Nuro's custom, self-driving vehicle, R2. In 2021, the company began offering "surprise frees," or complementary items as part of a delivery process, of up to $50 million. The move was made to distinguish the company from delivery apps that charged fees. See also List of pizza chains List of pizza chains of the United States List of pizza franchises List of pizza varieties by country References External links Domino's Pizza history and success story by Tom Monaghan 1960 establishments in Michigan 2004 initial public offerings Companies based in Ann Arbor, Michigan Companies based in Metro Detroit Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange Fast-food chains of the United States Fast-food franchises Pizza chains of the United States Pizza franchises Restaurant chains in the United States Restaurants established in 1960

Climate of India

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The Climate of India consists of a wide range of weather conditions across a vast geographic scale and varied topography, making generalizations difficult. Also, based on the Köppen system, India hosts six major climatic sub types, ranging from arid deserts in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rain forests in the southwest and the island territories. Many regions have starkly different microclimates, making it one of the most climatically diverse countries in the world. The country's meteorological department follows the international standard of four seasons with some local adjustments: winter (January and February), summer (March, April and May), monsoon (rainy) season (July to August), and a post-monsoon period (October to December). India's geography and geology are climatically pivotal: the Thar Desert in the northwest and the Himalayas in the north work in tandem to create a culturally and economically important monsoonal regime. As Earth's highest and most massive mountain range, the Himalayas bar the influx of frigid katabatic winds from the icy Tibetan Plateau and northerly Central Asia. Most of North India is thus kept warm or is only mildly chilly or cold during winter; the same thermal dam keeps most regions in India hot in summer. Climate in South India is generally hotter and more humid due to its coasts. Though the Tropic of Cancer—the boundary that is between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the bulk of the country can be regarded as climatically tropical. As in much of the tropics, monsoonal and other weather patterns in India can be strongly variable: epochal droughts, heat waves, floods, cyclones, and other natural disasters are sporadic, but have displaced or ended millions of human lives. Such climatic events are likely to change in frequency and severity as a consequence of human-induced climate change. Ongoing and future vegetative changes, sea level rise and inundation of India's low-lying coastal areas are also attributed to global warming. Paleoclimate History During the Triassic period of some 251–199.6 Ma, the Indian subcontinent was the part of a vast supercontinent known as Pangaea. Despite its position within a high-latitude belt at 55–75° S—latitudes now occupied by parts of the Antarctic Peninsula, as opposed to India's current position between 8 and 37° N—India likely experienced a humid temperate climate with warm and frost-free weather, though with well- defined seasons. India later merged into the southern super continent Gondwana, a process beginning some 550–500 Ma. During the Late Paleozoic, Gondwana extended from a point at or near the South Pole to near the equator, where the Indian craton (stable continental crust) was positioned, resulting in a mild climate favorable to hosting high-biomass ecosystems. This is underscored by India's vast coal reserves—much of it from the late Paleozoic sedimentary sequence—the fourth-largest reserves in the world. During the Mesozoic, the world, including India, was considerably warmer than today. With the coming of the Carboniferous, global cooling stoked extensive glaciation, which spread northwards from South Africa towards India; this cool period lasted well into the Permian. Tectonic movement by the Indian Plate caused it to pass over a geologic hotspot—the Réunion hotspot—now occupied by the volcanic island of Réunion. This resulted in a massive flood basalt event that laid down the Deccan Traps some 60–68 Ma, at the end of the Cretaceous period. This may have contributed to the global Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which caused India to experience significantly reduced insolation. Elevated atmospheric levels of sulphur gases formed aerosols such as sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid, similar to those found in the atmosphere of Venus; these precipitated as acid rain. Elevated carbon dioxide emissions also contributed to the greenhouse effect, causing warmer weather that lasted long after the atmospheric shroud of dust and aerosols had cleared. Further climatic changes 20 million years ago, long after India had crashed into the Laurasian landmass, were severe enough to cause the extinction of many endemic Indian forms. The formation of the Himalayas resulted in blockage of frigid Central Asian air, preventing it from reaching India; this made its climate significantly warmer and more tropical in character than it would otherwise have been. More recently, in the Holocene epoch (4,800–6,300 years ago), parts of what is now the Thar Desert were wet enough to support perennial lakes; researchers have proposed that this was due to much higher winter precipitation, which coincided with stronger monsoons. Kashmir's erstwhile subtropical climate dramatically cooled 2.6–3.7 Ma and experienced prolonged cold spells starting 600,000 years ago. Regions India is home to an extraordinary variety of climatic regions, ranging from tropical in the south to temperate and alpine in the Himalayan north, where elevated regions receive sustained winter snowfall. The nation's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. The Himalayas, along with the Hindu Kush mountains in Pakistan, prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes. Simultaneously, the Thar Desert plays a role in attracting moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall. Four major climatic groupings predominate, into which fall seven climatic zones that, as designated by experts, are defined on the basis of such traits as temperature and precipitation. Groupings are assigned codes (see chart) according to the Köppen climate classification system. Tropical wet A tropical rainy climate governs regions experiencing persistent warm or high temperatures, which normally do not fall below . India hosts two climatic subtypes- tropical monsoon climate, tropical wet and dry climate that fall under this group. 1) The most humid is the tropical wet climate—also known as tropical monsoon climate—that covers a strip of southwestern lowlands abutting the Malabar Coast, the Western Ghats, and southern Assam. India's two island territories, Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, are also subject to this climate. Characterised by moderate to high year-round temperatures, even in the foothills, its rainfall is seasonal but heavy—typically above per year. Most rainfall occurs between May and November; this moisture is enough to sustain lush forests, swampy areas and other vegetation for the rest of the mainly dry year. December to March are the driest months, when days with precipitation are rare. The heavy monsoon rains are responsible for the exceptional biodiversity of tropical wet forests in parts of these regions. 2) In India a tropical wet and dry climate is more common. Noticeably drier than areas with a tropical monsoon type of climate, it prevails over most of inland peninsular India except for a semi arid rain shadow east of the Western Ghats. Winter and early summer are long and dry periods with temperatures averaging above . Summer is exceedingly hot; temperatures in low-lying areas may exceed during May, leading to heat waves that can each kill hundreds of Indians. The rainy season lasts from June to September; annual rainfall averages between across the region. Once the dry northeast monsoon begins in September, most significant precipitation in India falls on Tamil Nadu and Puducherry leaving other states comparatively dry. The Ganges Delta lies mostly in the tropical wet climate zone: it receives between of rainfall each year in the western part, and in the eastern part. The coolest month of the year, on average, is January; April and May are the warmest months. Average temperatures in January range from , and average temperatures in April range from . July is on average the coldest and wettest month: over of rain falls on the delta. Arid and semi-arid regions A tropical arid and semi-arid climate dominates regions where the rate of moisture loss through evapotranspiration exceeds that from precipitation; it is subdivided into three climatic subtypes: tropical semi-arid steppe, arid climate, tropical and sub-tropical steppe climate. 1) A tropical semi-arid steppe climate (Hot semi-arid climate) predominates over a long stretch of land south of Tropic of Cancer and east of the Western Ghats and the Cardamom Hills. The region, which includes Karnataka, inland Tamil Nadu, western Andhra Pradesh, and central Maharashtra, gets between annually. It is drought-prone, as it tends to have less reliable rainfall due to sporadic lateness or failure of the southwest monsoon. Karnataka is divided into three zones – coastal, north interior and south interior. Of these, the coastal zone receives the heaviest rainfall with an average rainfall of about 3,638.5 mm per annum, far in excess of the state average of 1,139 mm (45 in). In contrast to norm, Agumbe in the Shivamogga district receives the second highest annual rainfall in India. North of the Krishna River, the summer monsoon is responsible for most rainfall; to the south, significant post-monsoon rainfall also occurs in October and November. In December, the coldest month, temperatures still average around . The months between March to May are hot and dry; mean monthly temperatures hover around 32 °C, with precipitation. Hence, without artificial irrigation, this region is not suitable for permanent agriculture. 2) Most of western Rajasthan experiences an arid climatic regime (Hot desert climate). Cloudbursts are responsible for virtually all of the region's annual precipitation, which totals less than . Such bursts happen when monsoon winds sweep into the region during July, August, and September. Such rainfall is highly erratic; regions experiencing rainfall one year may not see precipitation for the next couple of years or so. Atmospheric moisture is largely prevented from precipitating due to continuous downdrafts and other factors. The summer months of May and June are exceptionally hot; mean monthly temperatures in the region hover around , with daily maxima occasionally topping . During winters, temperatures in some areas can drop below freezing due to waves of cold air from Central Asia. There is a large diurnal range of about during summer; this widens by several degrees during winter. There is a small desert area in the south near Adoni in Andhra Pradesh, the only desert in South India, experiencing maximum temperatures of 47 degrees celsius in summers and 18 degrees celsius in winters. To the west, in Gujarat, diverse climate conditions prevail. The winters are mild, pleasant, and dry with average daytime temperatures around 29 °C (84 °F) and nights around 12 °C (54 °F) with virtually full sun and clear nights. Summers are hot and dry with daytime temperatures around 41 °C (106 °F) and nights no lower than 29 °C (84 °F). In the weeks before the monsoon temperatures are similar to the above, but high humidity makes the air more uncomfortable. Relief comes with the monsoon. Temperatures are around 35 °C (95 °F) but humidity is very high; nights are around 27 °C (81 °F). Most of the rainfall occurs in this season, and the rain can cause severe floods. The sun is often occluded during the monsoon season. 3) East of the Thar Desert, the Punjab-Haryana-Kathiawar region experiences a tropical and sub-tropical steppe climate. Haryana's climate resembles other states of the northern plains: extreme summer heat of up to 50 °C and winter cold as low as 1 °C. May and June are hottest; December and January are coldest. Rainfall is varied, with the Shivalik Hills region being the wettest and the Aravali Hills region being the driest. About 80% of the rainfall occurs in the monsoon season of July–September, which can cause flooding. The Punjabi climate is also governed by extremes of hot and cold. Areas near the Himalayan foothills receive heavy rainfall whereas those eloigned from them are hot and dry. Punjab's three-season climate sees summer months that span from mid-April to the end of June. Temperatures typically range from–2 °C to 40 °C, but can reach 47 °C (117 °F) in summer and −4 °C in winter. Most part of the nation doesn't experience temperatures below 10 °C (50 °F) even in winter. The zone, a transitional climatic region separating tropical desert from humid sub-tropical savanna and forests, experiences temperatures that are less extreme than those of the desert. Average annual rainfall is , but is very unreliable; as in much of the rest of India, the southwest monsoon accounts for most precipitation. Daily summer temperature maxima rise to around ; this results in natural vegetation typically comprising short, coarse grasses. Subtropical humid Most of Northeast India and much of North India are subject to a humid subtropical climate and a subtropical highland climate. Though they experience warm to hot summers, temperatures during the coldest months generally fall as low as . Due to ample monsoon rains, India has two subtropical climate subtypes under the Köppen system: Cwa and Cwb. In most of this region, there is very little precipitation during the winter, owing to powerful anticyclonic and katabatic (downward-flowing) winds from Central Asia. Humid subtropical regions are subject to pronounced dry winters. Winter rainfall—and occasionally snowfall—is associated with large storm systems such as "Nor'westers" and "Western disturbances"; the latter are steered by westerlies towards the Himalayas. Most summer rainfall occurs during powerful thunderstorms associated with the southwest summer monsoon; occasional tropical cyclones also contribute. Annual rainfall ranges from less than in the west to over in parts of the northeast. As most of this region is far from the ocean, the wide temperature swings more characteristic of a continental climate predominate; the swings are wider than in those in tropical wet regions, ranging from in north-central India to in the east. Mountain India's northernmost areas are subject to a montane, or alpine, climate. In the Himalayas, the rate at which an air mass's temperature falls per kilometre (3,281 ft) of altitude gained (the dry adiabatic lapse rate) is 9.8 °C/km. In terms of environmental lapse rate, ambient temperatures fall by for every rise in altitude. Thus, climates ranging from nearly tropical in the foothills to tundra above the snow line can coexist within several hundred metres of each other. Sharp temperature contrasts between sunny and shady slopes, high diurnal temperature variability, temperature inversions, and altitude-dependent variability in rainfall are also common. The northern side of the western Himalayas, also known as the trans-Himalayan belt, has a cold desert climate. It is a region of barren, arid, frigid and wind-blown wastelands. Areas south of the Himalayas are largely protected from cold winter winds coming in from the Asian interior. The leeward side (northern face) of the mountains receives less rain. The southern slopes of the western Himalayas, well-exposed to the monsoon, get heavy rainfall. Areas situated at elevations of 1,070–2,290 metres (3,510–7,510 ft) receive the heaviest rainfall, which decreases rapidly at elevations above . Most precipitation occurs as snowfall during the late winter and spring months .The Himalayas experience their heaviest snowfall between December and February and at elevations above . Snowfall increases with elevation by up to several dozen millimetres per 100 metre (~2 in; 330 ft) increase. Elevations above never experience rain; all precipitation falls as snow. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) designates four climatological seasons: Winter, occurring from December to February. The year's coldest months are December and January, when temperatures average around in the northwest; temperatures rise as one proceeds towards the equator, peaking around in mainland India's southeast. Summer or pre-monsoon season, lasting from March to May. In western and southern regions, the hottest month is April and the beginning of May and for northern regions of India, May is the hottest Month. In May, Temperatures average around in most of the interior. Monsoon or rainy season, lasting from June to September. The season is dominated by the humid southwest summer monsoon, which slowly sweeps across the country beginning in late May or early June. Monsoon rains begin to recede from North India at the beginning of October. South India typically receives more rainfall. Post-monsoon or autumn season, lasting from October to November. In the northwest of India, October and November are usually cloudless. Tamil Nadu receives most of its annual precipitation in the northeast monsoon season. The Himalayan states, being more temperate, experience an additional season, spring, which coincides with the first weeks of summer in southern India. Traditionally, North Indians note six seasons or Ritu, each about two months long. These are the spring season (), summer (grīṣma), monsoon season (varṣā), autumn (śarada), winter (hemanta), and prevernal season (śiśira). These are based on the astronomical division of the twelve months into six parts. The ancient Hindu calendar also reflects these seasons in its arrangement of months. Winter Once the monsoons subside, average temperatures gradually fall across India. As the Sun's vertical rays move south of the equator, most of the country experiences moderately cool weather. December and January are the coldest months, with the lowest temperatures occurring in the Indian Himalayas. Temperatures are higher in the east and south. In northwestern India region, virtually cloudless conditions prevail in October and November, resulting in wide diurnal temperature swings; as in much of the Deccan Plateau, they register at 16–20 °C (29–36 °F). However, from January to February, "western disturbances" bring heavy bursts of rain and snow. These extra-tropical low-pressure systems originate in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. They are carried towards India by the subtropical westerlies, which are the prevailing winds blowing at North India's range of latitude. Once their passage is hindered by the Himalayas, they are unable to proceed further, and they release significant precipitation over the southern Himalayas. There is a huge variation in the climatic conditions of Himachal Pradesh due to variation in altitude (450–6500 metres). The climate varies from hot and subtropical humid (450–900 metres) in the southern low tracts, warm and temperate (900–1800 metres), cool and temperate (1900–2400 metres) and cold glacial and alpine (2400–4800 meters) in the northern and eastern elevated mountain ranges. By October, nights and mornings are very cold. Snowfall at elevations of nearly 3000 m is about 3 m and lasts from December start to March end. Elevations above 4500 m support perpetual snow. The spring season starts from mid February to mid April. The weather is pleasant and comfortable in the season. The rainy season starts at the end of the month of June. The landscape lushes green and fresh. During the season streams and natural springs are replenished. The heavy rains in July and August cause a lot of damage resulting in erosion, floods and landslides. Out of all the state districts, Dharamshala receives the highest rainfall, nearly about . Spiti is the driest area of the state, where annual rainfall is below 50 mm. The five Himalayan states (Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir in the extreme north, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh in far east) and Northern West Bengal experience heavy snowfall, Manipur and Nagaland are not located in the Himalayas but experience occasional snowfall; in Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir, blizzards occur regularly, disrupting travel and other activities. The rest of North India, including the Indo-Gangetic Plain and Madhya Pradesh almost never receives snow. Temperatures in the plains occasionally fall below freezing, though never for more than one or two days. Winter highs in Delhi range from . Nighttime temperatures average . In the plains of Punjab, lows can fall below freezing, dropping to around in Amritsar. Frost sometimes occurs, but the hallmark of the season is the notorious fog, which frequently disrupts daily life; fog grows thick enough to hinder visibility and disrupt air travel 15–20 days annually. In Bihar in middle of the Ganges plain, hot weather sets in and the summer lasts until the middle of June. The highest temperature is often registered in May which is the hottest time. Like the rest of the north, Bihar also experiences dust-storms, thunderstorms and dust raising winds during the hot season. Dust storms having a velocity of are most frequent in May and with second maximum in April and June. The hot winds (loo) of Bihar plains blow during April and May with an average velocity of . These hot winds greatly affect human comfort during this season. Rain follows. The rainy season begins in June. The rainiest months are July and August. The rains are the gifts of the southwest monsoon. There are in Bihar three distinct areas where rainfall exceeds . Two of them are in the northern and northwestern portions of the state; the third lies in the area around Netarhat. The southwest monsoon normally withdraws from Bihar in the first week of October. Eastern India's climate is much milder, experiencing moderately warm days and cool nights. Highs range from in Patna to in Kolkata (Calcutta); lows average from in Patna to in Kolkata. In Madhya Pradesh which is towards the south-western side of the Gangetic Plain similar conditions prevail albeit with much less humidity levels. Capital Bhopal averages low of and high of . Frigid winds from the Himalayas can depress temperatures near the Brahmaputra River. The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan plateau by preventing frigid and dry Arctic winds from blowing south into the subcontinent, which keeps South Asia much warmer than corresponding temperate regions in the other continents. It also forms a barrier for the monsoon winds, keeping them from travelling northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the Terai region instead. The Himalayas are indeed believed to play an important role in the formation of Central Asian deserts such as the Taklamakan and Gobi. The mountain ranges prevent western winter disturbances in Iran from travelling further east, resulting in much snow in Kashmir and rainfall for parts of Punjab and northern India. Despite the Himalayas being a barrier to the cold northerly winter winds, the Brahmaputra valley receives part of the frigid winds, thus lowering the temperature in Northeast India and Bangladesh. The Himalayas, which are often called "The Roof of the World", contain the greatest area of glaciers and permafrost outside of the poles. Ten of Asia's largest rivers flow from there. The two Himalayan states in the east, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, receive substantial snowfall. The extreme north of West Bengal centred on Darjeeling experiences snowfall, but only rarely. In South India, particularly the hinterlands of Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, somewhat cooler weather prevails. Minimum temperatures in western Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh hover around ; in the southern Deccan Plateau, they reach . Coastal areas—especially those near the Coromandel Coast and adjacent low-elevation interior tracts—are warm, with daily high temperatures of and lows of around . The Western Ghats, including the Nilgiri Range, are exceptional; lows there can fall below freezing. This compares with a range of on the Malabar Coast; there, as is the case for other coastal areas, the Indian Ocean exerts a strong moderating influence on weather. The region averages Summer Summer in northwestern India starts from April and ends in July, and in the rest of the country from March to May. The temperatures in the north rise as the vertical rays of the Sun reach the Tropic of Cancer. The hottest month for the western and southern regions of the country is April; for most of North India, it is May. Temperatures of and higher have been recorded in parts of India during this season. Another striking feature of summer is the Loo (wind). These are strong, gusty, hot, dry winds that blow during the day in India. Direct exposure to the heat that comes with these winds may be fatal. In cooler regions of North India, immense pre-monsoon squall-line thunderstorms, known locally as "Nor'westers", commonly drop large hailstones. In Himachal Pradesh, Summer lasts from mid April till the end of June and most parts become very hot (except in alpine zone which experience mild summer) with the average temperature ranging from to . Near the coast, the temperature hovers around , and the proximity of the sea increases the level of humidity. In southern India, the temperatures are higher on the east coast by a few degrees compared to the west coast. By May, most of the Indian interior experiences mean temperatures over , while maximum temperatures often exceed . In the hot months of April and May, western disturbances, with their cooling influence, may still arrive, but rapidly diminish in frequency as summer progresses. Notably, a higher frequency of such disturbances in April correlates with a delayed monsoon onset (thus extending summer) in northwest India. In eastern India, monsoon onset dates have been steadily advancing over the past several decades, resulting in shorter summers there. Altitude affects the temperature to a large extent, with higher parts of the Deccan Plateau and other areas being relatively cooler. Hill stations, such as Ootacamund ("Ooty") in the Western Ghats and Kalimpong in the eastern Himalayas, with average maximum temperatures of around , offer some respite from the heat. At lower elevations, in parts of northern and western India, a strong, hot, and dry wind known as the loo blows in from the west during the daytime; with very high temperatures, in some cases up to around ; it can cause fatal cases of sunstroke. Tornadoes may also occur, concentrated in a corridor stretching from northeastern India towards Pakistan. They are rare, however; only several dozen have been reported since 1835. Monsoon The southwest summer monsoon, a four-month period when massive convective thunderstorms dominate India's weather, is Earth's most productive wet season. A product of southeast trade winds originating from a high-pressure mass centred over the southern Indian Ocean, the monsoonal torrents supply over 80% of India's annual rainfall. Attracted by a low-pressure region centred over South Asia, the mass spawns surface winds that ferry humid air into India from the southwest. These inflows ultimately result from a northward shift of the local jet stream, which itself results from rising summer temperatures over Tibet and the Indian subcontinent. The void left by the jet stream, which switches from a route just south of the Himalayas to one tracking north of Tibet, then attracts warm, humid air. The main factor behind this shift is the high summer temperature difference between Central Asia and the Indian Ocean. This is accompanied by a seasonal excursion of the normally equatorial intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), a low-pressure belt of highly unstable weather, northward towards India. This system intensified to its present strength as a result of the Tibetan Plateau's uplift, which accompanied the Eocene–Oligocene transition event, a major episode of global cooling and aridification which occurred 34–49 Ma. The southwest monsoon arrives in two branches: the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. The latter extends towards a low-pressure area over the Thar Desert and is roughly three times stronger than the Bay of Bengal branch. The monsoon typically breaks over Indian territory by around 25 May, when it lashes the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. It strikes the Indian mainland around 1 June near the Malabar Coast of Kerala. By 9 June, it reaches Mumbai; it appears over Delhi by 29 June. The Bay of Bengal branch, which initially tracks the Coromandal Coast northeast from Cape Comorin to Orissa, swerves to the northwest towards the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Arabian Sea branch moves northeast towards the Himalayas. By the first week of July, the entire country experiences monsoon rain; on average, South India receives more rainfall than North India. However, Northeast India receives the most precipitation. Monsoon clouds begin retreating from North India by the end of August; it withdraws from Mumbai by 5 October. As India further cools during September, the southwest monsoon weakens. By the end of November, it has left the country. Monsoon rains impact the health of the Indian economy; as Indian agriculture employs 600 million people and constitutes 20% of the national GDP, good monsoons correlate with a booming economy. Weak or failed monsoons (droughts) result in widespread agricultural losses and substantially hinder overall economic growth. Yet such rains reduce temperatures and can replenish groundwater tables, rivers. Post-monsoon During the post-monsoon or autumn months of October to December, a different monsoon cycle, the northeast (or "retreating") monsoon, brings dry, cool, and dense air masses to large parts of India. Winds spill across the Himalayas and flow to the southwest across the country, resulting in clear, sunny skies. Though the India Meteorological Department (IMD) and other sources refers to this period as a fourth ("post-monsoon") season, other sources designate only three seasons. Depending on location, this period lasts from October to November, after the southwest monsoon has peaked. Less and less precipitation falls, and vegetation begins to dry out. In most parts of India, this period marks the transition from wet to dry seasonal conditions. Average daily maximum temperatures range between in the Southern parts. The northeast monsoon, which begins in September, lasts through the post-monsoon seasons, and only ends in March. It carries winds that have already lost their moisture out to the ocean (opposite from the summer monsoon). They cross India diagonally from northeast to southwest. However, the large indentation made by the Bay of Bengal into India's eastern coast means that the flows are humidified before reaching Cape Comorin and rest of Tamil Nadu, meaning that the state, and also some parts of Kerala, experience significant precipitation in the post-monsoon and winter periods. However, parts of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Mumbai also receive minor precipitation from the north-east monsoon. Statistics Shown below are temperature and precipitation data for selected Indian cities; these represent the full variety of major Indian climate types. Figures have been grouped by the four-season classification scheme used by the Indian Meteorological Department; year-round averages and totals are also displayed. Temperature Precipitation Disasters Climate-related natural disasters cause massive losses of Indian life and property. Droughts, flash floods, cyclones, avalanches, landslides brought on by torrential rains, and snowstorms pose the greatest threats. Other dangers include frequent summer dust storms, which usually track from north to south; they cause extensive property damage in North India and deposit large amounts of dust from arid regions. Hail is also common in parts of India, causing severe damage to standing crops such as rice and wheat. Floods and landslides In the Lower Himalayas, landslides are common. The young age of the region's hills result in labile rock formations, which are susceptible to slippages. Short duration high intensity rainfall events typically trigger small scale landslides while long duration low intensity rainfall periods tend to trigger large scale catastrophic landslides. Rising population and development pressures, particularly from logging and tourism, cause deforestation. The result, denuded hillsides, exacerbates the severity of landslides, since tree cover impedes the downhill flow of water. Parts of the Western Ghats also suffer from low-intensity landslides. Avalanches occur in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. Floods are the most common natural disaster in India. The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, the floods can kill thousands and displace millions. Excess, erratic, or untimely monsoon rainfall may also wash away or otherwise ruin crops. Almost all of India is flood-prone, and extreme precipitation events, such as flash floods and torrential rains, have become increasingly common in central India over the past several decades, coinciding with rising temperatures. Mean annual precipitation totals have remained steady due to the declining frequency of weather systems that generate moderate amounts of rain. Tropical cyclones Tropical cyclones, which are severe storms spun off from the Intertropical Convergence Zone, may affect thousands of Indians living in coastal regions. Tropical cyclogenesis is particularly common in the northern reaches of the Indian Ocean in and around the Bay of Bengal. Cyclones bring with them heavy rains, storm surges, and winds that often cut affected areas off from relief and supplies. In the North Indian Ocean Basin, the cyclone season runs from April to December, with peak activity between May and November. Each year, an average of eight storms with sustained wind speeds greater than form; of these, two strengthen into true tropical cyclones, which sustain gusts greater than . On average, a major (Category 3 or higher) cyclone develops every other year. During summer, the Bay of Bengal is subject to intense heating, giving rise to humid and unstable air masses that morph into cyclones. The 1737 Calcutta cyclone, the 1970 Bhola cyclone, and the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone rank among the most powerful cyclones to strike India, devastating the coasts of eastern India and neighbouring Bangladesh. Widespread death and property destruction are reported every year in the exposed coastal states of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. India's western coast, bordering the more placid Arabian Sea, experiences cyclones only rarely; these mainly strike Gujarat and Maharashtra, less frequently in Kerala. The 1999 Odisha cyclone was the most intense tropical cyclone in this basin and also the most powerful tropical cyclone to make landfall in India. With peak winds of , it was the equivalent of a Category 5 hurricane. Almost two million people were left homeless;another 20 million people lives were disrupted by the cyclone. Officially, 9,803 people died from the storm; unofficial estimates place the death toll at over 10,000. Droughts Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on the monsoon as a source of water. In some parts of India, the failure of the monsoons results in water shortages, resulting in below-average crop yields. This is particularly true of major drought-prone regions such as southern and eastern Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Western Orissa, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. In the past, droughts have periodically led to major Indian famines. These include the Bengal famine of 1770, in which up to one third of the population in affected areas died; the 1876–1877 famine, in which over five million people died; the 1899 famine, in which over 4.5 million died; and the Bengal famine of 1943, in which over five million died from starvation and famine-related illnesses. All such episodes of severe drought correlate with El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. El Niño-related droughts have also been implicated in periodic declines in Indian agricultural output. Nevertheless, ENSO events that have coincided with abnormally high sea surfaces temperatures in the Indian Ocean—in one instance during 1997 and 1998 by up to —have resulted in increased oceanic evaporation, resulting in unusually wet weather across India. Such anomalies have occurred during a sustained warm spell that began in the 1990s. A contrasting phenomenon is that, instead of the usual high pressure air mass over the southern Indian Ocean, an ENSO-related oceanic low pressure convergence centre forms; it then continually pulls dry air from Central Asia, desiccating India during what should have been the humid summer monsoon season. This reversed air flow causes India's droughts. The extent that an ENSO event raises sea surface temperatures in the central Pacific Ocean influences the extent of drought. Heat waves A study from 2005 concluded that heat waves significantly increased in frequency, persistence and spatial coverage in the decade 1991–2000, when compared to the period between 1971–80 and 1981–90. A severe heat wave in Orissa in 1998 resulted in nearly 1300 deaths. Based on observations, heat wave related mortality has increased in India prior to 2005. The 2015 Indian heat wave killed more than 2,500 people. Extremes Extreme temperatures: low India's lowest recorded temperature was in Dras, Ladakh. However, temperatures on Siachen Glacier near Bilafond La () and Sia La () have fallen below , while blizzards bring wind speeds in excess of , or hurricane-force winds ranking at 12—the maximum—on the Beaufort scale. These conditions, not hostile actions, caused more than 97% of the roughly 15,000 casualties suffered among Indian and Pakistani soldiers during the Siachen conflict. Extreme temperatures: high The highest temperature ever recorded in India occurred on 19 May 2016 in Phalodi, Jodhpur District, Rajasthan at . Before this, the highest reliable temperature reading was in Alwar, Rajasthan in 1955. The India Meteorological Department doubts the validity of readings reported in Orissa during 2005. Rain The average annual precipitation of in the village of Mawsynram, in the hilly northeastern state of Meghalaya, is the highest recorded in Asia, and possibly on Earth. The village, which sits at an elevation of , benefits from its proximity to both the Himalayas and the Bay of Bengal. However, since the town of Cherrapunji, to the east, is the nearest town to host a meteorological office—none has ever existed in Mawsynram—it is officially credited as being the world's wettest place. In recent years the Cherrapunji-Mawsynram region has averaged between of rain annually, though Cherrapunji has had at least one period of daily rainfall that lasted almost two years. India's highest recorded one-day rainfall total occurred on 26 July 2005, when Mumbai received ; the massive flooding that resulted killed over 900 people. Snow Remote regions of Jammu and Kashmir such as Baramulla district in the east and the Pir Panjal Range in the southeast experience exceptionally heavy snowfall. Kashmir's highest recorded monthly snowfall occurred in February 1967, when fell in Gulmarg, though the IMD has recorded snowdrifts up to in several Kashmiri districts. In February 2005, more than 200 people died when, in four days, a western disturbance brought up to of snowfall to parts of the state. Climate change Atmospheric pollution Thick haze and smoke originating from burning biomass in northwestern India and air pollution from large industrial cities in northern India often concentrate over the Ganges Basin. Prevailing westerlies carry aerosols along the southern margins of the sheer-faced Tibetan Plateau towards eastern India and the Bay of Bengal. Dust and black carbon, which are blown towards higher altitudes by winds at the southern margins of the Himalayas, can absorb shortwave radiation and heat the air over the Tibetan Plateau. The net atmospheric heating due to aerosol absorption causes the air to warm and convect upwards, increasing the concentration of moisture in the mid-troposphere and providing positive feedback that stimulates further heating of aerosols. See also Geography of India Borders of India Extreme points of India Exclusive economic zone of India List of disputed territories of India Outline of India Notes Citations References Articles Books Items Other Further reading External links General overview Maps, imagery, and statistics Forecasts India

Alison Arngrim

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Alison Margaret Arngrim (born January 18, 1962) is an American actress and author. Beginning her television career at the age of twelve, Arngrim is a Young Artist Award–Former Child Star "Lifetime Achievement" Award honoree, best known for her portrayal of Nellie Oleson on the NBC television series Little House on the Prairie from 1974 to 1981. Early life Arngrim's father, Thor Arngrim, was a Canadian-born Hollywood manager. Her mother, Norma MacMillan of Vancouver, British Columbia, was an actress who provided the voices for characters as Casper on Casper the Friendly Ghost, as Gumby on Gumby, as Davey on Davey and Goliath, and Sweet Polly Purebred on Underdog, as well as other animated children's programs. Her brother, Stefan (b. 1955) was also a child actor, perhaps best known for his role as Barry Lockridge on the Irwin Allen science fiction television series, Land of the Giants. Arngrim has claimed that her brother sexually molested her from age six until nine. Acting career After beginning a career as a child model and actress in television commercials, Arngrim rose to fame as a child star in 1974, portraying the role of Nellie Oleson on the NBC television series Little House on the Prairie. She originally auditioned for the role of Laura Ingalls and, later, Mary Ingalls, but was instead cast in the role of antagonist Nellie Oleson. Arngrim would play the role of Nellie for seven seasons and her portrayal became a cultural reference and camp archetype for the spoiled "bad girl" throughout the 1970s. Years later, in one of her stand-up routines, Arngrim described playing Nellie on Little House on The Prairie as "like having PMS for seven years." In 2002, she was honored by the Young Artist Foundation with its Former Child Star "Lifetime Achievement" Award for her work as a child actress on Little House. At the 2006 TV Land Awards, Arngrim tied with Danielle Spencer ('Dee' on What's Happening!!) as the "Character Most in Need of a Time-out" for her role as Nellie. In addition to her role on Little House, Arngrim also recorded the comedy record album, Heeere's Amy, in which she portrayed first daughter Amy Carter. Her mother, who voiced the Kennedy children on the comedy albums of Vaughn Meader, also guest starred on the album. After leaving Little House, Arngrim appeared in guest-starring roles on such television series as The Love Boat and Fantasy Island. She was also a frequent panelist on the short-lived NBC game show Match Game-Hollywood Squares Hour. Since 2006, she's developed a successful career on stage in France, with her friend, author/director/comedian Patrick Loubatière. Philanthropy In addition to performing, Arngrim also devotes her time to charitable organizations. One of her inspirations for her charity work is the memory of her friend and fellow actor Steve Tracy, who played the role of Nellie Oleson's husband, Percival Dalton, on Little House on the Prairie. Tracy died from complications of AIDS in 1986, after which Arngrim set her sights on becoming an activist for AIDS awareness including the organization ACT UP and working at AIDS hotline. She also focuses on other issues, such as child abuse, speaking frequently for and lobbying with the group PROTECT. In 2004, Arngrim revealed on Larry King Live that she herself was an incest survivor. Author In 2010, Arngrim authored an autobiography titled Confessions of a Prairie Bitch: How I Survived Nellie Oleson and Learned to Love Being Hated. In the book she, for the first time, publicly identified her childhood abuser, though the book is mostly light-hearted and received critical praise for her ability to mix humor and personal tragedy. She wrote and performed a stage version, which premiered at Club Fez in New York. She later performed this one-person show at Parliament House, a gay resort in Orlando, Florida. Filmography Awards Wins 2002 – Young Artist Award: Former Child Star Lifetime Achievement Award for (Little House on the Prairie) 2006 – TV Land Award: for "Character Most Desperately in Need of a Timeout" (Little House on the Prairie) Nominations 1981 – Young Artist Award: for Best Young Comedienne (Little House on the Prairie) 2008 – TV Land Award: for "Siblings That Make You Grateful for Your Own Crazy Family" (Little House on the Prairie) References Other sources Further reading Dye, David. Child and Youth Actors: Filmography of Their Entire Careers, 1914-1985. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 1988, p. 7. External links Official website (in French) 1962 births Living people American autobiographers American television actresses American child actresses American women activists HIV/AIDS activists Actresses from New York (state) American people of Canadian descent Women autobiographers 21st-century American women

Doctor Who in Canada and the United States

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Doctor Who in Canada and the United States refers to the broadcast history of the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who in those countries. History The beginning Doctor Who had an early Canadian connection. The series was conceived by Canadian expatriate Sydney Newman while he was the BBC's Head of Drama. The series may have been inspired by a short-lived segment (canceled because parents complained that it was "too frightening" for their children) on the Canadian version of Howdy Doody. The segment featured a character surprisingly similar to the Doctor, a puppet called Mr. X who traveled through time and space in his "Whatsis Box" teaching children about history. Newman oversaw this series while working as head of programming for the CBC. Newman maintained a guiding influence over Doctor Who until he left the BBC in 1967 and was in talks with the BBC in 1986, when the show was foundering, to reformat the show and take the role of executive producer. The series made its North American premiere in January 1965 on CBC with the broadcast of William Hartnell's first 26 episodes, fourteen months following their first airing on the BBC. The CBC did not renew the program and it would not reappear on the network for 40 years. The 1970s: Doctor Who sold to the United States The BBC series was originally sold to television stations in the United States in 1972, with Time-Life Television syndicating selected episodes of Jon Pertwee's time as the Doctor. The series did not do well, despite an interesting write-up some years earlier in TV Guide. Apparently, program directors of the commercial television stations that picked up the Jon Pertwee series did not know that the program was an episodic serial, and so it was constantly being shuffled about in the programming schedules. In 1978, Tom Baker's first four seasons as the Doctor were sold to PBS stations across the United States. This time, though, Time-Life was ready to have the Doctor poised for American consumption, by having stage and screen actor Howard Da Silva read voiceover recaps of the previous episode and teasers for the next one which would inform the viewer as to what was going on. To accommodate the teasers up to three minutes of original material was cut from each episode. PBS program planners took the show at face value, but it soon achieved cult status. A few commercial stations including WOR-TV in New York City and KVOS-TV in Bellingham, Washington also aired the show for a few years. Return to Canada: TVOntario and CPN In Canada, TVOntario aired the program starting in 1976 with The Three Doctors and continued with the rest of the original series on a weekly basis until 1990 with series airing two to three years behind the BBC. TVO was also available to many viewers in the United States living in states bordering the Great Lakes. In order to fulfill the network's originally strict mandate as an educational broadcaster, TVO's transmissions of the Third Doctor's stories were hosted by Dr. Jim Dator, a futurist teaching to the University of Toronto, while the first three seasons of Fourth Doctor stories were hosted by science fiction writer Judith Merril, who called herself the "UnDoctor". Both hosts would fill out the show's half-hour time slot through introductions and longer extros which would analyze and discuss the episode critically for several minutes often explaining how a story was at variance with scientific concepts, how it related to science fiction genres, or putting the episodes in a socio-political context. Afterward, this broadcast requirement was relaxed and the extra time was used for the network's standard short subject programming such as Eureka!. TVO continued to broadcast Doctor Who until it lost the rights to the programme in 1990. Meanwhile, in other parts of Canada, Doctor Who became accessible again in the late 1970s as cable television provided many areas with PBS stations piped in from the US, and thus that network's broadcasts of Doctor Who. There were also some local broadcasts of the series outside Ontario: for example, between November 1978 and February 1979 a Saskatchewan-based pay-cable provider, the Co-operative Programming Network (CPN), aired Doctor Who episodes on its Just for Kids channel. 1980s In the mid-1980s, as more stations began to show the existing 1960s episodes, Lionheart (the program's American distributor in the 1980s) dispensed with the older Time-Life tapes containing the Howard Da Silva narrations. Lionheart also offered stations the choice between the standard 25-minute episodes, or a longer version that some stations termed Whovies. These "omnibus editions", or, "movie versions" as they were also known, edited multi-part serials into a single, feature-length film, by cutting out the opening and closing credits, as well as the recap of the cliffhanger, between episodes. (Some edits were clumsy, particularly during Davison-era stories that frequently would have scenes interrupted by partial credit sequences, or feature the sudden appearance of the "electronic scream" sound effect that usually accompanied cliffhangers). This was the most common format used for PBS broadcasts of the series in the 1980s and 1990s. The shortest of these, representing two-episode serials, ran approximately 45 minutes. The longest "Whovie" release, a compilation of the 10-episode The War Games serial, ran for an uninterrupted four hours, though it was more often shown in two two-hour segments; the 14-episode The Trial of a Time Lord was, however, broadcast as four parts, divided, as with the novelisations of this story, into the serial's four major plot lines. This practice carried into the earliest VHS releases in the U.S. and the UK, particularly the first release of The Brain of Morbius which was considerably truncated. It was roundly disliked by many fans and the practice was dropped by the early 1990s. Success of the program in America was sealed by personal appearances of cast members and production staff at science fiction conventions, and by the national airing on PBS of the 20th anniversary special The Five Doctors two days before the BBC. In November 1983, on the weekend after the airing of The Five Doctors, four actors who played the Doctor (Patrick Troughton, Jon Pertwee, Peter Davison and Tom Baker) and many of those who played the Doctor's companions over the series' first two decades on television appeared at a standing-room-only event in Chicago, the start of a Thanksgiving Day weekend celebration that continues annually (Chicago TARDIS). In 1986, BBC Enterprises organised the Doctor Who USA Tour, a two-year travelling exhibition of props and memorabilia from the program, showcased in a 48-foot trailer decorated with alien landscapes from the show, police box entrances, and a mock-up of the TARDIS interior. Many tour stops included guest appearances from cast members. The statewide PBS chain New Jersey Network was enthusiastic on the series, scheduling pre-1970 serials as well as being the first to broadcast the new season of the program in 1985. NJN staff member Eric Luskin hosted and produced three documentaries on the series, the latter a "behind the scenes" look at the production of the 25th anniversary story Silver Nemesis. On 22 November 1987, during a broadcast of the serial Horror of Fang Rock on Chicago, Illinois PBS affiliate WTTW-TV an unknown hacker wearing a Max Headroom mask jammed WTTW's broadcast signal and replaced it with their own audio and video for 88 seconds, concluding with the masked man being hit on his bare butt with a fly swatter. This incident was investigated by the Federal Communications Commission but the culprit's identity was never determined. Once the series ceased production in 1989, the number of stations carrying Doctor Who naturally dropped, although the program's popularity had been waning in the United States for some years. As most stations were in the practice of purchasing the omnibus "movie versions" of the series rather than the fourteen episodes produced annually in its last four years, stations only received four feature-length stories each January. Meanwhile, Iowa Public Television (IPTV), the statewide PBS network for the state of Iowa, saw increased interest in Doctor Who, which was aired on a Friday late-night science fiction marathon alongside Red Dwarf and other British science fiction pieces. IPTV is the only television network (or station, or channel) in the world to have aired Doctor Who virtually continuously from its introduction in 1974 until the present. This totals 35 out of 40 years as of 2014, due to one break of about five years between 1979 and 1984, with other breaks of only a few months or weeks. Proposed Nelvana animated series In 1990, following the cancellation of the live action series, the BBC approached the Canadian animation house Nelvana to propose an animated continuation of the show. The cartoon series was to feature an unspecified Doctor incorporating elements of various BBC series Doctors and was not to be oriented to an audience younger than that of the live action series but was intended to be a continuation of the cancelled series but in animated form in order to save costs but with design elements that would promote merchandise sales. According to Nelvana's Ted Bastien: "We went through a lot of development on it, then we were scripting and storyboarding it and about 4 scripts had been written. It happened really fast". Concept art was prepared depicting several possible versions of the Doctor modelled on actors such as Peter O'Toole, Jeff Goldblum and Christopher Lloyd with elements of the wardrobes of previous Doctors. and new versions of allies such as K-9 and enemies such as the Daleks and Cybermen. The Master was to be " half-man, half robot with a cybernetic bird accessory and a face modelled after Sean Connery." The show was also to feature female companions from Earth, and space battles which the BBC would not have been able to afford for the live action series. The series would have been Nelvana's biggest show to date, however, according to Bastien, "it was pulled out from under us" after a British animation studio told the BBC that it could do what Nelvana intended for a much lower price. The project did not proceed further and no pilot was produced. Later years 1996 television movie National awareness of Doctor Who temporarily increased when the Fox network broadcast a new television movie on 14 May 1996. The movie, a co-production between the BBC and Universal Pictures, received a moderate amount of publicity in U.S. media, including a prominent story in TV Guide. The producers of the movie had hoped that it might serve as a "backdoor pilot" for a new series of Doctor Who, but sub-par ratings in the U.S. prevented this hope from being realised. Many reasons are given for the ratings failure of the TV movie, most of which focus on strong, "sweeps" competition from programs on other channels, including a pivotal episode of the popular sitcom Roseanne. However, it failed not just against its competition on the night, but against other movies broadcast in the same time slot in other weeks. It netted about a 5.5 rating, or about a 9-share. Fox's Tuesday Night Movie slot was generally garnering an 11-share during this period. At the same time, Fox was also broadcasting the dimension-hopping science fiction series Sliders which was facing its own struggles for renewal following average to middling ratings. Coincidentally, Sliders was owned by Universal Pictures, but when it came to supporting one series or another, the studio predictably backed the one that it wholly owned rather than the one for which it was merely a co-production partner. As a result, when the new Fall schedule was announced, Doctor Who was not on the list. Universal did try to find Doctor Who a home on another broadcast or cable network, but were unsuccessful by the time their relationship expired with the BBC on 31 December 1997. The TV movie was the first time a Doctor Who adventure was broadcast across the United States at the same time. The movie was filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia, though it was set in San Francisco, and is to date the only Doctor Who story to be filmed in Canada. The film had its world premiere on CITV-TV in Edmonton, Alberta on 12 May 1996, two days before it aired on The Fox Network in the United States, and fifteen days before airing in The U.K. on the BBC. It is the only Doctor Who story to have had its premiere in Canada. Later syndication of the original series The first Canadian cable network to air Doctor Who was YTV which, from 1989 to the mid-1990s, aired all existing episodes of the series up to Season 26 in a weekday afternoon timeslot. The final two Sylvester McCoy seasons were aired in a separate evening time slot. The original Hartnell and Troughton-era episodes aired daily on the Canadian science-fiction channel Space (now known as CTV Sci-Fi Channel) following the channel's launch in late 1997; however the black and white episodes did not attract the hoped for viewership and were dropped after a year. In the 1990s, fewer PBS stations carried Doctor Who, although a few continued to broadcast the series. In the mid-1990s WXEL in West Palm Beach, Florida aired several episodes never before broadcast in America. By the early 2000s, only a small percentage of the 1980s-era tally of PBS stations still carried the program. In late 2004, the BBC began to stop sending any more episodes to PBS stations and not to renew current contracts as they expired. According to a report by the BBC, this was due to negotiations with commercial U.S. networks to broadcast the new series of Doctor Who. This meant that PBS stations had only their in-house libraries of Doctor Who stories to draw on, and several public television stations stopped broadcasting the programme altogether. By early 2006, only Maryland Public Television and Iowa Public Television still aired the classic series. After it became clear that the Sci Fi Channel would not be purchasing the rights to the classic series, BBC Worldwide offered the show to American broadcast channels again. KBTC & KCKA in Washington State began broadcasting the show again in June 2006. On 19 December 2006 it was announced that BBC Worldwide and Vuze, Inc., a peer-to-peer technology firm, had a content agreement and that legal copies of several BBC series; including Doctor Who are to be distributed by Azureus' Zudeo software to its U.S. users sometime in the future. At present it is unclear whether the series covered by this agreement is the 'Classic' series, the 2005 series, or both. The classic series ran on the Canadian digital channel BBC Kids from 2001 until 2010 showing episodes from Jon Pertwee through Sylvester McCoy. American digital broadcast network Retro Television Network announced that they would begin airing the classic series weeknights from 8-9 PM ET beginning 4 August 2014. The new series 2005–06: Series 1 In 2005, media reports suggested that the Sci Fi Channel had expressed interest in the picking up the 2005 series revival, but ultimately did not do so that year. The CBC subsequently became the only North American broadcaster carrying the program that year, debuting it on 5 April 2005 to strong ratings. The Canadian broadcasts are formatted slightly differently than the UK version, with the addition of commercial breaks, introductions specially recorded by Christopher Eccleston (Billie Piper also recorded an additional one for the Christmas special) and behind-the-scenes footage during the closing credits (mostly taken from Doctor Who Confidential) in order to pad the 45-minute instalments to fill a 60-minute time-slot. Initially, the Region 1 DVD release announced for 14 February 2006 was limited to Canada, with the US release delayed until a broadcaster could be found. When none seemed forthcoming, BBC Worldwide announced that the US DVD release would be available at the same time as the Canadian one. In the interim, however, Series 1 was picked up by Sci Fi, so while the Canadian DVD release went ahead as scheduled the US DVD release was pushed back to 4 July 2006. Series 1 began airing on Sci Fi on 17 March 2006. In the Sci Fi Channel's broadcasts of Series 1, the episodes (which appear to run off the same master tapes used in Canada) were edited for time, and for added commercial breaks, although the cuts made for US broadcast appear to differ from those made for Canadian television. With commercials, the total runtime per episode is one hour. In addition, the "Next Time" trailers are edited out in favour of original Sci Fi teasers run on the right two-thirds of the screen while the original credits are "crushed" to the left. The initial Sci Fi Channel broadcasts of Series 1 attained an average Nielsen Rating of 1.3, representing 1.5 million viewers in total. Although these ratings were less than those reached by Sci Fi's original series Battlestar Galactica, Stargate SG-1 and Stargate Atlantis, they reflect a 44% increase in ratings and a 56% increase in viewership over the same timeslot in the second quarter of 2005, as well as increases of 56% and 57% in two key demographics. 2006–08: Series 2-4 "The Christmas Invasion" aired on the Sci Fi Channel on 29 September 2006, along with the first episode of Series 2, New Earth. They were subsequently followed by the rest of season two, which completed airing on 22 December 2006. The second series did not fare quite as well in the ratings, averaging a 1.05 household Nielsen rating. The third season began airing on the Sci Fi Channel on 6 July 2007. The first two episodes of season three, "The Runaway Bride" and "Smith and Jones", earned 0.9 Nielsen ratings. Later episode "The Lazarus Experiment" earned a 0.8 rating, but the last two episodes and of the season, "The Sound of Drums" and "Last of the Time Lords" both earned 1.0 ratings. The third season averaged 1.3 million viewers. CBC Television aired the fourth series beginning on 19 September 2008 and repeated the first three series on its digital channel bold. CBC was not given an "in association with..." screen credit during the closing credits of season four episodes, unlike its credit during the first three series. On 12 December 2008, CBC aired the season 4 finale episode "Journey's End" in an extremely edited version that removed approximately 20 minutes of story in order to fit the episode into a standard 60-minute time slot with commercials. The Sci Fi Channel began airing season four on 18 April 2008. The season four premiere episode, "Voyage of the Damned", earned a 1.1 rating and captured 1.48 million viewers, making it the best-rated season premiere since the pilot and the episode with the most viewers since 2006. The season finale, broadcast in a special 90-minute time slot, earned a 1.0 rating and 1.26 million viewers. Season four as a whole was rated 25% higher than season three in household ratings, and 17% higher in number of viewers. The cable/satellite network BBC America began re-airing the entire 2005 series in the US on 21 November 2006. In December of the same year it was announced that US PBS station KTEH 54, which services San Jose, California, had acquired the rights to broadcast the 2005 episodes, making it the first public television station to publicise this acquisition of the new series. This news was shortly followed by a press release from CET, another PBS station this time servicing Cincinnati, Ohio, that they too had acquired the Eccleston episodes for broadcast. On 20 February, Outpost Gallifrey reported that another 38 PBS broadcasters, in total 40, have announced that they have acquired the rights to the Eccleston episodes and that they could begin to broadcast them as early as 1 March. On 3 March 2007, KERA-TV, the PBS station in Dallas, Texas, aired the episodes "Rose" and "The End of the World", as well as the episode "Bringing Back the Doctor" of Doctor Who Confidential: Cut Down. In addition, WTTW 11 in Chicago, Illinois has been airing repeats of the new series. Episodes typically air on Saturday evenings at 10:00 pm. Further PBS stations have acquired the rights and begun airing the series at various times. 2008–10: First set of specials and Series 5 The CBC did not broadcast either the 2007 Christmas special, Voyage of the Damned or the 2008 follow-up, The Next Doctor and did not broadcast the 2009–2010 specials. After airing the 2009–2010 specials BBC America also acquired the American television rights to the 5th season in 2009. BBC America began airing this season on 17 April 2010. Series five is being aired on the Canadian cable channel Space. The channel aired the second series of Torchwood after CBC dropped the show after season one and the channel aired Torchwood: Children of Earth in July 2009. Space also began airing Doctor Who specials in 2009. The Next Doctor aired on 14 March 2009 and Planet of the Dead aired on 25 July 2009, Waters of Mars aired later in the year and "The End of Time" two-parter aired 2 January 2010. BBC America aired these two specials on 27 June 2009 and on 26 July 2009. respectively. Space aired Voyage of the Damned in April 2010. BBC America's airing of The Waters of Mars on 19 December 2009 earned the channel 1.1 million views, its highest ever prime-time ratings to that date. Part one of "The End of Time" aired on 26 December 2009 with part two airing 2 January 2010. The Sarah Jane Adventures aired on the Canadian digital channel BBC Kids. BBC America aired A Christmas Carol on Christmas Day, 2010, making this the first episode of the revived series to be aired in North America on the same day as in the UK. 2011: Series 6 The first part of the sixth series of Doctor Who was broadcast on BBC America in the U.S. and Space in Canada on the same day as it was in the UK – on Saturday, 23 April – making it the first series since the show's revival in 2005 to be broadcast on the same days in America and Canada as the UK broadcast. The BBC America airings also featured a short prelude, with Amy Pond recapping the events of her first meeting with the Doctor in the series 5 premiere The Eleventh Hour and the rest of the fifth season. Amy then tells the audience of her fantastic adventures with the Eleventh Doctor, travelling through time and space, alongside her boyfriend/fiancé/husband Rory Williams. This recap featured short clips from series 5, except for "The Beast Below", "Amy’s Choice", "Vincent and the Doctor" and "The Lodger". This prologue was dropped after Amy Pond's departure from the show. Fandom Initially, the Doctor Who Appreciation Society, the British Doctor Who fan club, had North American chapters but by the early 1980s decided to divest themselves of international components for administrative reasons. As a result, national fan organisations sprang up in North America, including the North American Doctor Who Appreciation Society (which took over from DWAS), the Doctor Who Fan Club of America (which organised regional weekend events with actors headlining the event), the Friends of Doctor Who, and the Canada-based Doctor Who Information Network (which was originally a DWAS chapter). Most of these organisations folded by the 1990s (Friends of Doctor Who lasting to the end of that decade) although the Doctor Who Information Network still continues (celebrating its 33rd anniversary in 2013) and is now the longest-running Doctor Who fan club in North America. Local fan groups also developed, some disbanding when the series ended production, others which are still running; among those still in operation are The Whoosier Network (Indiana, celebrating its 29th Anniversary in 2013), the North East Wisconsin Friends of The Doctor (NEWFOD), the Prydonians of Prynceton (New Jersey), the Guardians of Gallifrey (Central Florida), Tardis Repairs Inc. (aka TRI, Southern Florida), Doctor Who New York and the Gallifreyan Embassy of Long Island (New York), the Atlanta Gallifreyans (Georgia) and the Time Meddlers of Los Angeles (California). Other prominent fan groups have included the Unearthly Children (Pennsylvania), Friends of the Time Lord and UNIT (Massachusetts), T.A.R.D.I.S. (Arizona), the Legion of Rassilon (Northern California), Emerald City Androgums (Washington state), Motor City TARDIS (Michigan), the St. Louis CIA (Missouri), Space City Time Lords and the International House of Daleks (Texas) and the Chronicles of Who (Illinois). Many others have existed over the years. Fan support of the 'Classic' series, while not as pronounced as in its heyday in the 1980s, has continued in light of the current revival of the program, with a huge resurgence in mainstream popularity that reached its peak at the height of Matt Smith's tenure as the Doctor. As of 2016, many annual fan-run events occur in America that are exclusively devoted to both 'generations' of the series: the popular Gallifrey One (which has been running annually since 1990) which takes place in February in the Los Angeles area; Chicago TARDIS (begun in 2000) taking place in late November; Hurricane Who (begun in 2009) taking place in Orlando; the Sci Fi Sea Cruise which runs out of different ports annually to destinations such as Mexico and the Caribbean; and such newer events as Long Island Who (New York), Regeneration Who (Maryland), WhoFestDFW (Texas), ConKasterborous (Alabama), Time Eddy (Kansas), Console Room (Minnesota), TimeGate (Georgia) and Anglicon (Washington state). In recent years, many major comic book/media events such as the very popular San Diego Comic Con and other local comic events, plus trade shows such as Wizard World and DragonCon, have featured top-billed Doctor Who actors as guest stars. Other local events, including those promoted by the Meetup.com website, have spawned local fan gatherings, including the Tampa Time Lord Fest in Florida and the "Galliday" themed event at Disneyland in southern California. Many expressions of fan interest have moved online exclusively. Though the series is a product of the United Kingdom, North American support for the program online has been as fervent and, in some cases, more prominent. Shaun Lyon's Outpost Gallifrey website, statistically the most popular fan-created Doctor Who website in the series' history, originated out of Los Angeles and supported its extremely popular discussion forum community. While Outpost Gallifrey closed during the summer of 2009, it was succeeded by the Gallifrey Base discussion forum, based in Chicago, Illinois. Dr. Siobhan Morgan's "The Doctor Who Homepage," one of the earliest Doctor Who information pages and still a widely regarded portal site, is based in Illinois. Shannon Patrick Sullivan's "Doctor Who: A Brief History of Time (Travel)" and Dominique Boies' "The Doctor Who Guide," both popular Doctor Who reference sites, are based out of Newfoundland and Ontario, Canada, respectively. More recently, the Doctor Who pages of scifi.com, the website of the Sci Fi Channel (which broadcasts the new series episodes) attracts hundreds of fans to its own forum community. Dozens of other popular Doctor Who web pages continue to thrive, and the earlier UseNET newsgroup rec.arts.drwho – a central source of Doctor Who discussion during the 1980s and 90s – still attracts fans. In the late 2000s, new media developments led to several worldwide internet radio and podcast broadcasts. A variety of popular podcasts from both the United States and Canada serves the population; most notable is the Radio Free Skaro podcast (originating in Edmonton, Alberta and Vancouver, British Columbia in Canada), with countless others available for direct download on various websites as well as through sources such as iTunes. See also Doctor Who DVD releases, including North America (Region 1) releases Max Headroom broadcast signal intrusion References External links TVOntario clips TVOntario Dr. Jim Dator 1977, Jim Dator hosted extro to an episode of the Doctor Who story Planet of the Spiders (1977) TVOntario Jim Dator Farewell 1977 Dator's final Doctor Who extro. (1977) TVOntario Dr. Who Judith Merril 1978 1978 Judith Merril extro to an episode of Terror of the Zygons (1978) TVOntario More Judith Merril 1978 Judith Merril extro to another episode of the same series (1978) General Sites Doctor Who at SYFY.COM Doctor Who on BBC America Outpost Gallifrey The Doctor Who Home Page (Nitro 9) The Doctor Who Guide "This Week in Doctor Who", weekly listing of Doctor Who airings worldwide List of US Doctor Who Conventions Doctor Who airdates in the US Doctor Who airdates in Canada Conventions Gallifrey One (February, Los Angeles, CA) Chicago TARDIS (November, Chicago, IL) New England Fan Experience, formerly United Fan Con (November, Boston area, MA) L.I. Who (Long Island, NY) Sci Fi Sea Cruise TimeGate (May, Atlanta, GA) Hurricane Who (Orlando, FL; begins October 2009) Anglicon (Seattle, WA; returns June 2015) Fan Organizations Legion of Rassilon (Northern California) Doctor Who Information Network (DWIN) (Canada) Prydonians of Prynceton (New Jersey) Time Meddlers of Los Angeles (California) Gallifreyan Embassy of Long Island (New York) Doctor Who New York (New York) Guardians of Gallifrey (Florida) Atlanta Gallifreyans Georgia Emerald City Androgums Seattle, WA Webcasts Doctor Who: Podshock Doctor Who: Radio Free Skaro American Who Doctor Who in Canada and the United States

Healthcare in Canada

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Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare. It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984, and is universal. The 2002 Royal Commission, known as the Romanow Report, revealed that Canadians consider universal access to publicly funded health services as a "fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country." Canadian Medicare provides coverage for approximately 70 percent of Canadians' healthcare needs, and the remaining 30 percent is paid for through the private sector. The 30 percent typically relates to services not covered or only partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, eye care, and dentistry. Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance related to the aforementioned reasons; many receive it through their employers or use secondary social service programs related to extended coverage for families receiving social assistance or vulnerable demographics, such as seniors, minors, and those with disabilities. According to the Canadian Institute for Health Information (CIHI), by 2019, Canada's aging population represents an increase in healthcare costs of approximately one percent a year, which is a modest increase. In a 2020 Statistics Canada Canadian Perspectives Survey Series (CPSS), 69 percent of Canadians self-reported that they had excellent or very good physical health—an improvement from 60 percent in 2018. In 2019, 80 percent of Canadian adults self-reported having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease; smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use. Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries attributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of diabetes (types 1 and 2 combined). Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases and diabetes account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada. In 2017, the CIHI reported that healthcare spending was $242 billion, or 11.5 percent of Canada's gross domestic product (GDP) for that year. In 2019, Canada's per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 11th among health-care systems in the OECD. Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s. In 2017, Canada ranked above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources. A comprehensive study from 2017 of the top 11 countries ranked Canada's health care system ninth. Identified weaknesses of Canada's system were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage. Canadian healthcare policy The primary objective of the Canadian healthcare policy, as set out in the 1984 Canada Health Act (CHA), is to "protect, promote and restore the physical and mental well-being of residents of Canada and to facilitate reasonable access to health services without financial or other barriers." The federal government ensures compliance with its requirements that all Canadians have "reasonable access to medically necessary hospital, physician, and surgical-dental services that require a hospital" by providing cash to provinces and territories through the Canada Health Transfer (CHT) based on their fulfilling certain "criteria and conditions related to insured health services and extended health care services". In his widely cited 1987 book, Malcolm G. Taylor traced the roots of Medicare, and federal-provincial negotiations involving "issues of jurisdiction, cost allocations, revenue transfers, and taxing authorities" that resulted in the current system that provides healthcare to "Canadians on the basis of need, irrespective of financial circumstances". Monitoring and measuring healthcare in Canada Health Canada, under the direction of the Health Minister, is the ministry responsible for overseeing Canada's healthcare, including its public policies and implementations. This includes the maintenance and improvement of the health of the Canadian population, which is "among the healthiest in the world as measured by longevity, lifestyle and effective use of the public health care system". Health Canada, a federal department, publishes a series of surveys of the healthcare system in Canada. Although life-threatening cases are dealt with immediately, some services needed are non-urgent and patients are seen at the next-available appointment in their local chosen facility. In 1996, in response to an interest in renewing its healthcare system, the federal government established the Canadian Health Services Research Foundation (CHRSF) in the 1996 federal budget, to conduct research, in collaboration with "provincial governments, health institutions, and the private sector" to identify the successes and failures in the health system. The Canadian Institute for Health Information (CIHI) is a not-for-profit, independent organization established by the provincial, territorial, and federal government to make healthcare information publicly available. The CIHI was established in 1994 to serve as a national "coordinating council and an independent institute for health information", in response to the 1991 report, "Health Information for Canada" produced by the National Task Force on Health Information. In 1994, the CIHI merged the Hospital Medical Records Institute (HMRI) and The Management Information Systems (MIS) Group. Reports include topics such as the evaluating and suggested improvements for the efficiency of healthcare services. Regions that were similar in factors such as education levels and immigration numbers were found to have different efficiency levels in health care provision. The study concluded if increased efficiency of the current system was set as a goal, the death rate could be decreased by 18%-35%. The study notes that supporting physician leadership and facilitating engagement of the care providers could reap great gains in efficiency. Additionally, the study suggested facilitating the exchange of information and interaction between health providers and government figures as well as flexible funding would also contribute to the improvement and solve the problem of differences in regional care by allowing regions to determine the needs of their general populace and meet those needs more efficiently by allowing target-specific allocation of funds. For 24 years, the CIHI has produced an annual detailed report updating "National Health Expenditure Trends" which includes data tables with the most recent report published in January 2021. Other CIHI research topics include hospital care, organ and joint replacements, health system performance, seniors and aging, health workforce, health inequality, quality and safety, mental health and addictions, pharmaceuticals, international comparisons, emergency care, patient experience, residential care, population health, community care, patient outcomes, access and wait times, children and youth, and First Nations, Inuit and Métis. In 2003, at the First Ministers' Accord on Health Care Renewal, the Health Council of Canada (HCC)—an independent national agency—was established to monitor and report on Canada's healthcare system. For over a decade, until 2014, the HCC produced 60 reports on access and wait times, health promotion, seniors healthcare, aboriginal healthcare, home and community care, pharmaceuticals management, and primary health care. Demographics By February 2019, the median age in Canada was 40.9 years compared to 39.5 in 2006. Health and aging in Canada By July 2020, there were 6,835,866 who were 65 years old and older and 11,517 centenarians. The same data reported that by July 2020, 16% of Canadians were 14-years-old or under, 66.5% were between the ages of 15 and 65, and 17.5% were 65 years and older. Canada's population is aging, like that of many other countries—by 2016, there were about six million seniors in Canada, which then had a population of approximately 39 million. While this significantly influences Canada's healthcare services, by 2019, Canada's aging population represented a modest increase in healthcare costs of about 1% a year. Since the 2010s, Statistics Canada health research on aging has focused on "chronic diseases", "social isolation" and senior's mental health needs, and "transitions to institutional care" including long-term care. The eight chronic conditions that are prevalent in one out of ten seniors include high blood pressure, arthritis, back problems, eye problems, heart disease, osteoporosis, diabetes and urinary incontinence, with many seniors having multiple chronic conditions. Those with chronic conditions are "associated with higher use of home-care services and need for formal-care providers." Ninety percent of Canadians agree that Canada should have a "national seniors strategy to address needs along the full continuum of care." In 2016, individuals who are from 55 to 64 years old—which represented about 55% of the population—did not have enough savings to cover even one year's expenses. Canadians who are 65 years of age or older have access to Old Age Security (OAS), Guaranteed Income Supplement (GIS), Allowance and, Canada Pension Plan (CPP) based on certain criteria for eligibility. Current status The government guarantees the quality of care through federal standards. The government does not participate in day-to-day care or collect any information about an individual's health, which remains confidential between a person and their physician. Canada's provincially-based Medicare systems are cost-effective because of their administrative simplicity. In each province, each doctor handles the insurance claim against the provincial insurer. There is no need for the person who accesses healthcare to be involved in billing and reclaim. Private health expenditure accounts for 30% of health care financing. The Canada Health Act does not cover prescription drugs, home care, or long-term care or dental care. Provinces provide partial coverage for children, those living in poverty, and seniors. Programs vary by province. In Ontario, for example, most prescriptions for youths under the age of 24 are covered by the Ontario health insurance plan if no private insurance plan is available. Competitive practices such as advertising are kept to a minimum, thus maximizing the percentage of revenues that go directly towards care. Costs are paid through funding from federal and provincial general tax revenues, which include income taxes, sales taxes, and corporate taxes. In British Columbia, taxation-based funding was (until January 1, 2020) supplemented by a fixed monthly premium that is waived or reduced for those on low incomes. In Ontario, there is an income tax identified as a health premium on taxable income above $20,000. In addition to funding through the tax system, hospitals and medical research are funded in part by charitable contributions. For example, in 2018, Toronto's Hospital for Sick Children embarked on campaign to raise $1.3 billion to equip a new hospital. Charities such as the Canadian Cancer Society provide assistance such as transportation for patients. There are no deductibles on basic health care and co-pays are extremely low or non-existent (supplemental insurance such as Fair Pharmacare may have deductibles, depending on income). In general, user fees are not permitted by the Canada Health Act, but physicians may charge a small fee to the patient for reasons such as missed appointments, doctor's notes, and prescription refills done over the phone. Some physicians charge "annual fees" as part of a comprehensive package of services they offer their patients and their families. Such charges are completely optional and can only be for non-essential health options. Benefits and features Health cards are issued by provincial health ministries to individuals who enroll for the program in the province and everyone receives the same level of care. There is no need for a variety of plans because virtually all essential basic care is covered, including maternity but excluding mental health and home care. Infertility costs are not covered in any province other than Quebec, though they are now partially covered in some other provinces. In some provinces, private supplemental plans are available for those who desire private rooms if they are hospitalized. Cosmetic surgery and some forms of elective surgery are not considered essential care and are generally not covered. For example, Canadian health insurance plans do not cover non-therapeutic circumcision. These can be paid out-of-pocket or through private insurers. Health coverage is not affected by loss or change of jobs, cannot be denied due to unpaid premiums, and there are no lifetime limits or exclusions for pre-existing conditions. The Canada Health Act deems that essential physician and hospital care be covered by the publicly funded system, but each province has reasons to determine what is considered essential, and where, how and who should provide the services. There are some provinces that are moving towards Private Health Care away from Public Health Care. The result is that there is a wide variance in what is covered across the country by the public health system, particularly in more controversial areas, such as in-vitro fertilization, sex reassignment surgery, or autism treatments. Canada (with the exception of the province of Quebec) is one of the few countries with a universal healthcare system that does not include coverage of prescription medication (other such countries are Russia and some of the former USSR republics). Residents of Quebec who are covered by the province's public prescription drug plan pay an annual premium of $0 to $660 when they file their Quebec income tax return. Due to changes in the past two decades, at least some provinces have introduced some universal prescription drug insurance. Nova Scotia has Family Pharmacare, introduced in 2008 by Rodney MacDonald's Progressive Conservative government. However, residents do not automatically receive it through their health care as they must register separately for it, and it covers a limited range of prescriptions. No premiums are charged. A deductible and out-of-pocket maximum for copayments are set as a percentage of taxable income of two years before. Pharmaceutical medications are covered by public funds in some provinces for the elderly or indigent, or through employment-based private insurance or paid for out-of-pocket. In Ontario, eligible medications are provided at no cost for covered individuals aged 24 and under. Most drug prices are negotiated with suppliers by each provincial government to control costs but more recently, the Council of the Federation announced an initiative for select provinces to work together to create a larger buying block for more leverage to control costs of pharmaceutical drugs. More than 60 percent of prescription medications are paid for privately in Canada. Family physicians ("General Practitioners") are chosen by individuals. If a patient wishes to see a specialist or is counseled to see a specialist by their GP, a referral is made by a GP in the local community. Preventive care and early detection are considered critical and yearly checkups are recommended for everyone. Coverage Mental health The Canada Health Act covers the services of psychiatrists, medical doctors with additional training in psychiatry. In Canada, psychiatrists tend to focus on the treatment of mental illness with medication. However, the Canada Health Act excludes care provided in a "hospital or institution primarily for the mentally disordered." Some institutional care is provided by provinces. The Canada Health Act does not cover treatment by a psychologist or psychotherapist unless the practitioner is also a medical doctor. Goods and Services Tax or Harmonized Sales Tax (depending on the province) applies to the services of psychotherapists. Some coverage for mental health care and substance abuse treatment may be available under other government programs. For example, in Alberta, the province provides funding for mental health care through Alberta Health Services. Most or all provinces and territories offer government-funded drug and alcohol addiction rehabilitation, although waiting lists may exist. The cost of treatment by a psychologist or psychotherapist in Canada has been cited as a contributing factor in the high suicide rate among first responders such as police officers, EMTs and paramedics. According to a CBC report, some police forces "offer benefits plans that cover only a handful of sessions with community psychologists, forcing those seeking help to join lengthy waiting lists to seek free psychiatric assistance." Oral health It is said that among the OECD countries, Canada ranks approximately second to last in the public funding of oral healthcare. Those who need dental care are usually responsible for the finances and some may benefit from the coverage available through employment, under provincial plans, or private dental care plans. "As opposed to its national system of public health insurance, dental care in Canada is almost wholly privately financed, with approximately 60% of dental care paid through employment-based insurance, and 35% through out-of-pocket expenditures [7,8]. Of the approximately 5% of publicly financed care that remains, most has focused on socially marginalized groups (e.g., low-income children and adults), and is supported by different levels of government depending on the group insured [9]." It is true that compared to primary care checkups, dental care checkups are highly relied on the ability of people being able to pay those fees. While viewing studies done in the cities of Quebec as well as Ontario a few interesting facts were seen. For example, studies in Quebec showed that there was a strong relation among dental services and the socioeconomic factors of income and education whereas in Ontario older adults heavily relied on dental insurance with visits to the dentist. "According to the National Public Health Service in 1996/1997, it showed a whopping difference of people who were in different classes. About half of Canadians aged 15 or older (53%) reported having dental insurance (Table 1). Coverage tended to be highest among middle-aged people. At older ages, the rate dropped, and only one-fifth of the 65-or-older age group (21%) was covered." Attributes that can contribute to these outcomes is household income, employment, as well as education. Those individuals who are in the middle class may be covered through the benefits of their employment whereas older individuals may not due to the fact of retirement. Under the government healthcare system in Canada, routine dental care is not covered. There are a couple of provinces that offer child prevention programs such as Nova Scotia and Quebec. Other provinces make patients pay for medical dental procedures that are performed in the hospital. Some dental services that are possibly not covered by Medicare may include cavity fillings, routine dental check-ups, restorative dental care, and preventive care, dentures, dental implants, bridges, crowns, veneers, and in-lays, X-rays, and orthodontic procedures. Physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and massage therapy Coverage for services by physiotherapists, occupational therapists (also known as OTs) and Registered Massage Therapists (RMTs) varies by province. For example, in Ontario the provincial health plan, OHIP, does cover physiotherapy following hospital discharge and occupational therapy but does not cover massage therapy. To be eligible for coverage for physiotherapy in Ontario, the insured individual has to have been discharged as an inpatient of a hospital after an overnight stay and require physiotherapy for the condition, illness or injury for which he or she was hospitalized, or be age 19 or younger or age 65 or older. Other coverage limitations Coverage varies for care related to the feet. In Ontario, as of 2019, Medicare covers between $7–16 of each visit to a registered podiatrist up to $135 per patient per year, plus $30 for x-rays. Although the elderly, as well as diabetic patients, may have needs that greatly exceed that limit, such costs would have to be covered by patients or private supplemental insurance. As of 2014, most, but not all provinces and territories provide coverage for sex reassignment surgery (also known as gender confirming surgery) and other treatment for gender dysphoria. In Ontario, sex reassignment surgery requires prior approval before being covered. There are wide discrepancies in coverage for various assistive devices such as wheelchairs and respiratory equipment in Canada. Ontario, which has one of the most generous programs, pays 75% of the cost for listed equipment and supplies for persons with a disability requiring such equipment or supplies for six months or longer. The program does not have age or income restrictions. As with other health coverage, veterans and others covered by federal programs are not eligible under the provincial program. Only certain types of equipment and supplies are covered, and within categories only approved models of equipment from approved vendors are covered, and vendors may not charge more than specified prices established by the government. Nursing homes and home care Home care is an "extended" service, and is therefore not an insured service under the Canada Health Act. Home care is not considered to be a medically necessary service, like hospital and physician services, and provincial and territorial governments are under no obligation to provide home care services. In their 2009 report on home care in Canada, the Canadian Healthcare Association (CHA ) said that there was an increase in chronic disease rates as Canada's population aged. Home care is generally considered to be a lower cost alternative at a time when governments are concerned about the cost of healthcare and is generally the preferred option for seniors. One in four caregivers provide care related to aging. A 2016 study published in the Journal of Canadian Studies said that with an increasing elder population, in Canada, the supply of home care aids (HCA)s was not meeting the demand required to provide adequate nursing home care and home care in an increasingly complex care system. Home care aids face intense job precarity, inadequate staffing levels as well as increasingly complex needs including different types of routinized, assembly-lines types of work, and cost-cutting on equipment and supplies. They also work in situations where there are more occupational hazards, which can include aggressive pets, environmental tobacco smoke, oxygen equipment, unsafe neighborhoods, and pests. As the role of home care aids evolves, so does the need for more training and instruction. Nurses and HCAs are expected to think critically and execute real-time, and make evidence-based care decisions. First Nations, Métis, and Inuit The largest group the federal government is directly responsible for is First Nations. Native peoples are a federal responsibility and the federal government guarantees complete coverage of their health needs. For the last twenty years and despite health care being a guaranteed right for First Nations due to the many treaties the government of Canada signed for access to First Nations lands and resources, the amount of coverage provided by the Federal government's Non-Insured Health Benefits program has diminished drastically for optometry, dentistry, and medicines. Status First Nations individuals qualify for a set number of visits to the optometrist and dentist, with a limited amount of coverage for glasses, eye exams, fillings, root canals, etc. For the most part, First Nations people use normal hospitals and the federal government then fully compensates the provincial government for the expense. The federal government also covers any user fees the province charges. The federal government maintains a network of clinics and health centers on First Nations reserves. At the provincial level, there are also several much smaller health programs alongside Medicare. The largest of these is the health care costs paid by the workers' compensation system. Regardless of federal efforts, healthcare for First Nations has generally not been considered effective. Despite being a provincial responsibility, the large health costs have long been partially funded by the federal government. Healthcare spending While the Canadian healthcare system has been called a single payer system, Canada "does not have a single health care system" according to a 2018 Library of Parliament report. The provinces and territories provide "publicly funded health care" through provincial and territorial public health insurance systems. The total health expenditure in Canada includes expenditures for those health services not covered by either federal funds or these public insurance systems, that are paid by private insurance or by individuals out-of-pocket. Although most of the revenue for health care comes from taxes paid at the provincial and federal levels, some revenue also comes from "municipal government, workers' compensation boards and social security contributions". According to the CIHI 2019 report, since 1997, the 70–30 split between public and private sector healthcare spending has remained relatively consistent with approximately 70% of Canada's total health expenditures from the public sector and 30% from the private sector. Public-sector funding, which has represented approximately 70% of total health expenditure since 1997, "includes payments by governments at the federal, provincial/territorial and municipal levels and by workers' compensation boards and other social security schemes". The provinces and territories health spending accounted for approximately "64.2% of total health expenditure" in 2018.  Public sources of revenue for the public healthcare system include provincial financing which represented 64.2% of the total in 2018. This includes funds transferred from the federal government to the provinces in the form of the CHT. Direct funding from the federal government, as well as funds from municipal governments and social security funds represented 4.8% in 2018. In 2017, the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that healthcare spending is expected to reach $242 billion, or 11.5% of Canada's gross domestic product for that year. Private sector funding Private sector funding is regulated under the Canada Health Act, (CHA) which sets the conditions with which provincial/territorial health insurance plans must comply if they wish to receive their full transfer payments from the federal government. The CHA does not allow charges to insured persons for insured services (defined as medically necessary care provided in hospitals or by physicians). Most provinces have responded through various prohibitions on such payments. Private-sector health care dollars, which has represented about 30% of total health expenditure, "consists primarily of health expenditures by households and private insurance firms". In 2018, private sector funding for health care, accounted for 31% of the total health expenditures. "includes primarily private insurance and household expenditures." The top categories of private sector expenditures account for 66% of this spending, and include pharmaceuticals, and professional services such as dental and vision care services. Only 10% of these services are paid for by the public sector. In 2017, 41% of private sector expenses were paid by private insurance companies. The amount of out-of-pocket spending represented 49% of private sector spending. A 2006 in-depth CBC report, the Canadian system is for the most part publicly funded, yet most of the services are provided by private enterprises. In 2006, most doctors do not receive an annual salary, but receive a fee per visit or service. According to Dr. Albert Schumacher, former president of the Canadian Medical Association, an "estimated 75% of Canadian health care services are delivered privately but funded publicly." Private clinics are permitted and are regulated by the provinces and territories. Private clinics can charge above the agreed-upon fee schedule if they are providing non-insured services or treating non-insured persons. This may include those eligible under automobile insurance or worker's compensation, in addition to those who are not Canadian residents), or providing non-insured services. This provision has been controversial among those seeking a greater role for private funding. Private health insurance In Canada private health insurances is mainly provided through employers. By 2016, "health care dollars from private insurance were $788 per capita" in 2016, which represents an annual growth rate of 6.4% from 1988 to 2016. According to a 2004 OECD report, 75% of Canadians had some form of supplementary private health insurance. Out-of-pocket expenses From 1988 to 2016, the amount of out‑of‑pocket expenses paid by individuals had grown by about 4.6% annually. By 2016, it amounted to $972 per capita. Major healthcare expenses The highest health expenditures were hospitals—$51B in 2009 up from $45.4B, representing 28.2% in 2007, followed by pharmaceuticals—$30B in 2009 up from $26.5B, representing 16.5% in 2007, and physician services—$26B in 2009, up from $21.5B or 13.4% in 2007. The proportion spent on hospitals and physicians has declined between 1975 and 2009 while the amount spent on pharmaceuticals has increased. Of the three biggest health care expenses, the amount spent on pharmaceuticals has increased the most. In 1997, the total price of drugs surpassed that of doctors. In 1975, the three biggest health costs were hospitals ($5.5B/44.7%), physicians ($1.8B/15.1%), and medications ($1.1B/8.8%). By 2018, drugs (both prescription and non-prescription) had become the second largest expenditure representing 15.3% of the total, hospitals at 26.6% represented the largest sector by expenses, and physician services represented 15.1% of the total. Hospitals Hospitals have consistently been the top healthcare expenditure representing 26.6% of total healthcare expenditures in Canada in 2018. Hospital care is delivered by publicly funded hospitals in Canada. Most of the public hospitals, each of which are independent institutions incorporated under provincial Corporations Acts, are required by law to operate within their budget. Amalgamation of hospitals in the 1990s has reduced competition between hospitals. An OECD study in 2010 noted that there were variations in care across the different provinces in Canada. The study found that there was a difference in hospital admission rates depending on the number of people and what province they lived in. Typically, provinces with low population counts had higher hospital admission rates due to there being a lack of doctors and hospitals in the region. Pharmaceuticals By 2018, drugs—both prescription and non-prescription—were the second largest healthcare expenditure in Canada at 15.3% of the total. According to the December 2020 CIHI report, in 2019 public drug programs expenditures were $15 billion, representing a one-year increase of 3%. The drug that contributed to about 26% of the increase in spending were drugs for diabetes. In 2018, hepatitis C drugs were the 2nd highest contributor to increase in pharmaceutical spending. In 2019, this decreased by 18% as fewer people took these drugs. In 2019, spending on biologics increased from 9% to 17% of public spending for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease and similar conditions. By 1997, the total cost of pharmaceuticals surpassed the total cost of physician services and has remained in second place, after hospitals in terms of total annual health expenditures. The proportion spent on hospitals and physicians has declined between 1975 and 2009 while the amount spent on pharmaceuticals has increased. Of the three biggest health care expenses, the amount spent on pharmaceuticals has increased the most. In 1997, the total price of drugs surpassed that of doctors. In 1975, the three biggest health costs were hospitals ($5.5B/44.7%), physicians ($1.8B/15.1%), and medications ($1.1B/8.8%). According to the April 2018 report entitled Pharmacare Now: Prescription Medicine Coverage for All Canadians issued by the House of Commons Standing Committee on Health "spending on medicines dispensed outside hospitals accounted for 85% of total drug expenditures in 2017." The CHA requires that public provincial and territorial health insurance policies must cover all "medicines used within the hospital setting...out‑of‑hospital drug expenditures are paid for by private insurance and individuals, as well as by provincial health insurance for certain population groups". Public provincial and territorial health insurance covers "43% of out‑of‑hospital medicine"; private insurance covers 35%; and the remainder, which represents 22% is paid by individuals out-of-pocket. Pharmaceutical costs are set at a global median by the government price controls. Physician services The third largest healthcare expenditure in Canada are physician services which represented 15.1% of the total in 2018. From 1997 through 2009, the proportion of total annual health expenditures spent on physicians declined. In 2007, physician services cost $21.5B representing 13.4% of total health expenditures. By 2009, that had increased to $26B. Number of physicians Canada, like its North American neighbor the United States, has a ratio of practising physicians to a population that is below the OECD average but a level of practising nurses that is higher than the OECD average, and below the US average in 2016. A record number of doctors was reported in 2012 with 75,142 physicians. The gross average salary was $328,000. Out of the gross amount, doctors pay for taxes, rent, staff salaries and equipment. Recent reports indicate that Canada may be heading toward an excess of doctors, though communities in rural, remote and northern regions, however, may still experience a shortage. Physician payment Basic services are provided by private doctors (since 2002 they have been allowed to incorporate), with the entire fee paid for by the government at the same rate. Most family doctors receive a fee per visit. These rates are negotiated between the provincial governments and the province's medical associations, usually on an annual basis. CTV news reported that, in 2006, family physicians in Canada made an average of $202,000 a year. In 2018, to draw attention to the low pay of nurses and the declining level of service provided to patients, more than 700 physicians, residents and medical students in Quebec signed an online petition asking for their pay raises to be canceled. Professional organizations Each province regulates its medical profession through a self-governing College of Physicians and Surgeons, which is responsible for licensing physicians, setting practice standards, and investigating and disciplining its members. The national doctors association is called the Canadian Medical Association (CMA); it describes its mission as "To serve and unite the physicians of Canada and be the national advocate, in partnership with the people of Canada, for the highest standards of health and health care." Since the passage of the 1984 Canada Health Act, the CMA itself has been a strong advocate of maintaining a strong publicly funded system, including lobbying the federal government to increase funding, and being a founding member of (and active participant in) the Health Action Lobby (HEAL). In December 2008, the Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada reported a critical shortage of obstetricians and gynecologists. The report stated that 1,370 obstetricians were practising in Canada and that number is expected to fall by at least one-third within five years. The society is asking the government to increase the number of medical school spots for obstetrics and gynecologists by 30 percent a year for three years and also recommended rotating placements of doctors into smaller communities to encourage them to take up residence there. Some provincial medical associations have argued for permitting a larger private role. To some extent, this has been a reaction to strong cost control; CIHI estimates that 99% of physician expenditures in Canada come from public sector sources, and physicians—particularly those providing elective procedures who have been squeezed for operating room time—have accordingly looked for alternative revenue sources. The CMA presidency rotates among the provinces, with the provincial association electing a candidate who is customarily ratified by the CMA general meeting. Day's selection was sufficiently controversial that he was challenged—albeit unsuccessfully—by another physician. Provincial associations Because healthcare is deemed to be under provincial/territorial jurisdiction, negotiations on behalf of physicians are conducted by provincial associations such as the Ontario Medical Association. The views of Canadian doctors have been mixed, particularly in their support for allowing parallel private financing. The history of Canadian physicians in the development of Medicare has been described by C. David Naylor. In 1991, the Ontario Medical Association agreed to become a province-wide closed shop, making the OMA union a monopoly. Critics argue that this measure has restricted the supply of doctors to guarantee its members' incomes. In 2008, the Ontario Medical Association and the Ontario government agreed to a four-year contract with a 12.25% doctors' pay raise, which was expected to cost Ontarians an extra $1 billion. Ontario's then-premier Dalton McGuinty said, "One of the things that we've got to do, of course, is ensure that we're competitive ... to attract and keep doctors here in Ontario ..." Healthcare spending and an aging population By 2019, Canada's aging population represented a modest increase in healthcare costs of about 1% a year. It is also the greatest at the extremes of age at a cost of $17,469 per capita in those older than 80 and $8,239 for those less than 1 year old in comparison to $3,809 for those between 1 and 64 years old in 2007. Comparing healthcare spending over time Healthcare spending in Canada (in 1997 dollars) has increased each year between 1975 and 2009, from $39.7 billion to $137.3 billion, or per capita spending from $1,715 to $4089. In 2013 the total reached $211 billion, averaging $5,988 per person. Figures in National Health Expenditure Trends, 1975 to 2012, show that the pace of growth is slowing. Modest economic growth and budgetary deficits are having a moderating effect. For the third straight year, growth in healthcare spending will be less than that in the overall economy. The proportion of Canada's gross domestic product will reach 11.6% in 2012 down from 11.7% in 2011 and the all-time high of 11.9% in 2010. Total spending in 2007 was equivalent to 10.1% of the gross domestic product which was slightly above the average for OECD countries, and below the 16.0% of GDP spent in the United States. Since 1999, 70% of Canada's total health expenditures is from the public sector and 30% from the private sector. This was slightly below the OECD average of public health spending in 2009. Public sector funding included most hospital and physician costs with the other 30% primarily paid by individuals through their private or workplace insurance or out-of-pocket. Half of private health expenditure comes from private insurance and the remaining half is supplied by out-of-pocket payments. There is considerable variation across the provinces/territories as to the extent to which such costs as out of hospital prescription medications, assistive devices, physical therapy, long-term care, dental care and ambulance services are covered. According to a 2001 article in Annals of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, applying a pharmacoeconomic perspective to analyze cost reduction, it has been shown that savings made by individual hospitals result in actual cost increases to the provinces. Healthcare spending by province The planning and funding of most publicly insured health services are the responsibility of provinces and territories. There is a regional variation in health system characteristics. Healthcare costs per capita vary across Canada with Quebec ($4,891) and British Columbia ($5,254) at the lowest level and Alberta ($6,072) and Newfoundland ($5,970) at the highest. Total health spending per resident varies from $7,378 in Newfoundland and Labrador to $6,321 in British Columbia. Public drug spending increased by 4.5% in 2016, driven largely by prescriptions for tumor necrosis factor alpha and hepatitis C drugs. According to a 2003 article by Lightman, "In-kind delivery in Canada is superior to the American market approach in its efficiency of delivery." In the US, 13.6 percent of GNP is used in medical care. By contrast, in Canada, only 9.5 percent of GNP is used on the Medicare system, "in part because there is no profit incentive for private insurers." Lightman also notes that the in-kind delivery system eliminates much of the advertising that is prominent in the US and the low overall administrative costs in the in-kind delivery system. Since there are no means tests and no bad-debt problems for doctors under the Canadian in-kind system, doctors billing and collection costs are reduced to almost zero. Public opinion According to a 2020 survey, 75% of Canadians "were proud of their health-care system." An August 31, 2020 PBS article comparing the American healthcare system to Canada's, cited the director of the University of Ottawa's Centre for Health Law, Policy and Ethics, Colleen Flood, who said that there was "no perfect health care system", and the "Canadian system is not without flaws." However, Canadians "feel grateful for what they have." At times, the complacency has resulted in Canadians not demanding for "better outcomes for lower costs". She said that, Canadians are "always relieved that at least [our healthcare system] not the American system." A 2009 Nanos Research poll found that 86.2% of Canadians "supported or strongly supported" "public solutions" to make Canadian "public health care stronger." According to the survey report, commissioned by the Canadian Healthcare Coalition, there was "compelling evidence" that Canadians "across all demographics" prefer a "public over a for-profit health-care system." A Strategic Counsel survey found 91% of Canadians prefer their healthcare system instead of a U.S. style system. A 2009 Harris-Decima poll found 82% of Canadians preferred their healthcare system to the one in the United States. A 2003 Gallup poll found 57% of Canadians compared to 50% in the UK, and 25% of Americans, were either "very" or "somewhat" satisfied with "the availability of affordable healthcare in the nation". Only 17% of Canadians were "very dissatisfied" compared to 44% of Americans. In 2003, 48% of Americans, 52% of Canadians, and 42% of Britons say they were satisfied. In a 2021 Ipsos poll, 71% of Canadians agreed that their health care system is too bureaucratic to respond to the needs of the population. A timeline of significant events in Canadian healthcare The Constitution Act, 1867 (formerly called the British North America Act, 1867) did not give either the federal or provincial governments responsibility for healthcare, as it was then a minor concern. However, the Act did give the provinces responsibility for regulating hospitals, and the provinces claimed that their general responsibility for local and private matters encompassed healthcare. The federal government felt that the health of the population fell under the "Peace, order, and good government" part of its responsibilities. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council ruled that the federal government had the responsibility of protecting the health and well-being of the population, and that the provinces had the responsibility of administering and delivering healthcare. Before 1966, Veterans Affairs Canada had a large healthcare network, but this was merged into the general system with the creation of Medicare. In 1975, Health Canada, which was then known as National Health and Welfare, established the National Health Research and Development Program. In 1977, cost-sharing agreement between the federal and provincial governments, through the Hospital Insurance and Diagnostic Services Act and extended by the Medical Care Act was discontinued. It was replaced by Established Programs Financing. This gave a bloc transfer to the provinces, giving them more flexibility but also reducing the federal influence on the health system. Almost all government health spending goes through Medicare, but there are several smaller programs. Provinces developed their own programs, for example, OHIP in Ontario, that are required to meet the general guidelines laid out in the federal Canada Health Act. The federal government directly administers health to groups such as the military, and inmates of federal prisons. They also provide some care to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and veterans, but these groups mostly use the public system. In 1996, when faced with a large budget shortfall, the Liberal federal government merged the health transfers with the transfers for other social programs into the Canada Health and Social Transfer, and overall funding levels were cut. This placed considerable pressure on the provinces and combined with population aging and the generally high rate of inflation in health costs, has caused problems with the system. The 2002 Royal Commission on the Future of Health Care in Canada, also known as the Romanow Report, was published. The Canadian Health Coalition formed in 2002. In 2004, the First Ministers came to an agreement with the federal government on a ten-year plan to improve Canada's healthcare. Areas of focus included wait times, home care, primary care reform, national pharmaceuticals strategy, prevention, promotion and public health, aboriginal health, and the First Nations and Inuit Health Branch (FNIHB) at Health Canada. In 2006, Stephen Harper won the federal election on on a "platform that pushed for a mix of public and private health care, provided that health care stays publicly funded and universally accessible". Healthcare debates in Canada Canada has robust debates between those who support the one-tier public healthcare, such as the Canadian Health Coalition, a group that formed following the publication of the Romanov Report in 2002, and a number of pro-privatization organizations, such as the conservative Fraser Institute, that call for a two-tiered healthcare system. American organizations that support privatization of health services, such as the Cato Institute and the most influential American conservative organization in the United States—Americans for Prosperity (AFP), founded in 2004 as the Koch brothers'—David Koch and Charles Koch—primary political action committee (PAC)—have focused criticism of the Canadian healthcare system on the wait times. Wendell Potter, who had worked for Cigna, a giant American health insurance company from 1993 until 2008, told PBS that the American health industry felt threatened by Canada's healthcare system as it "exposed shortcomings in the private U.S. health system and potentially threatened their profits." He said that corporate PR used the tactic of repeating misinformation about the publicly funded Canadian system by focusing on wait times for elective surgeries. As healthcare debate in the United States reached the top of the U.S. "domestic policy agenda" during the U.S. 2008 presidential race with a combination of "soaring costs" in the healthcare system and an increasing number of Americans without health insurance because of job loss during the recession, Canada's so-called "socialized" healthcare system—with its long waiting lists—became a key Republican argument against Obama's health reforms. The Huffington Post described it as the "American politics of Canadian healthcare." A 2009 Huffington Post article, described how American insurance companies were concerned that they would not be as profitable if his healthcare reforms were implemented. Starting in July 2009, a Canadian—Shona Holmes of Waterdown, Ontario—became the poster child of the Koch brothers highly influential Americans for Prosperity (AFP) supporting Republican presidential candidates against then-candidate and President Barack Obama's who ran on health reform and—in 2012—his highly controversial health law—the Affordable Care Act. In 2005, Holmes had paid $100,000 out-of-pocket for immediate treatment for a condition called Rathke's cleft cyst at the U.S. Mayo Clinic—one of the best hospitals in the world Others on the list included the Singapore General Hospital, and the Charité hospital in Berlin.—instead of waiting for an appointment with specialists in Ontario, her home province. In 2007, she filed a lawsuit against the Ontario government when OHIP refused to re-imburse her $100,000. The media attention from the Americans for Prosperity advertisements, resulted in further scrutiny of Holmes' story. A 2009 CBC report consulted medical experts who found discrepancies in her story, including that Rathke's cleft cyst was neither cancerous or life-threatening. The mortality rate for patients with a Rathke's cleft cyst is zero percent. Since 1990, the Fraser Institute has focused on investigating the Canadian healthcare system's historic and problematic waiting times by publishing an annual report based on a nationwide survey of physicians and health care practitioners, entitled Waiting Your Turn: Wait Times for Health Care in Canada. The twentieth annual survey, released December 2010, found that the total waiting time between referral from a general practitioner and delivery of elective treatment by a specialist, averaged across 12 specialties and 10 provinces surveyed, had risen from 16.1 weeks in 2009 to 18.2 weeks in 2010. A 2015 Fraser Institute article focused on Canadians who sought healthcare in other countries and reported that the percentage of Canadian patients who travelled abroad to receive non-emergency medical care was 1.1% in 2014, and 0.9% in 2013, with British Columbia being the province with the highest proportion of its citizens making such trips. A 2017 Fraser Institute cost-effectiveness analysis promoted a two-tiered system with more privatization, showed that "although Canada ranks among the most expensive universal-access health-care systems in the OECD, its performance for availability and access to resources is generally below that of the average OECD country, while its performance for use of resources and quality and clinical performance is mixed." Flaws in Canada's healthcare system Wait times In a May 28, 2020, report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) that examined wait times in member nations—all of which are democratic countries with high-income economies with a very high Human Development Index (HDI), found that long waiting times for health services was an important policy issue in most OECD countries. In 2017, Canada ranked above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources. In the 1980s and the 1990s, wait times for certain surgeries, such as knee and hip replacements, had increased. The year before the 2002 Romanow Royal Commission report was released, in 2001, the Ontario Health Coalition (OHC) called for increased provincial and federal funding for Medicare and an end to provincial funding cuts as solutions to unacceptable wait times. In December 2002, the Romanow Report recommended that "provincial and territorial governments should take immediate action to manage wait lists more effectively by implementing centralized approaches, setting standardized criteria, and providing clear information to patients on how long they can expect to wait." In response to the report, in September 2004, the federal government came to an agreement with the provinces and territories add an additional C$41 billion over a ten-year period, to the Canada Health Transfer (CHT) to improve wait times for access to essential services, a challenge that most other OECD countries shared at that time. By 2006, the federal government had invested C$5.5 billion to decrease wait times. In April 2007, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that all ten provinces and three territories would establish wait-time guarantees by 2010. Canadians will be guaranteed timely access to healthcare in at least one of the following priority areas, prioritized by each province: cancer care, hip and knee replacement, cardiac care, diagnostic imaging, cataract surgeries or primary care. In 2015, Choosing Wisely Canada promoted evidence-based medicine in 2015. Organizations like this focus on facilitating doctor-patient communication to decrease unnecessary care in Canada, and to decrease wait times. In 2014, wait times for knee replacements were much longer in Nova Scotia, compared to Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands and Switzerland. A 2016 study by the Commonwealth Fund, based in the US, found that Canada's wait time for all categories of services ranked either at the bottom or second to the bottom of the 11 surveyed countries (Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States). Canada's wait time on emergency services was the longest of the 11 nations, with 29% of Canadians reporting that they waited for more than four hours the last time they went to an emergency department. Canada also had the longest wait time for specialist appointments, with 56% of all Canadians waiting for more than four weeks. Canada ranked last in all other wait time categories, including same- or next-day appointments, same-day answers from doctors, and elective surgeries, except for access to after-hour care, where Sweden ranks lower. The 2016 study also noted that despite government investment, Canada's wait-time improvements were negligible when compared to the 2010 survey. Gender gap in healthcare Disparities between men and women's access to healthcare in Canada have led to criticism, especially regarding healthcare privatization. While most healthcare expenses remain covered by Medicare, certain medical services previously paid for publicly have been shifted to individuals and employer-based supplemental insurance. While this shift has affected both genders, women have been more affected. Compared to men, women are generally less financially stable, and individual payments are a greater burden. Furthermore, many women work part-time or in fields that do not offer supplemental insurance, such as homemaking. As such, women are less likely to have private insurance to cover the costs of drugs and healthcare services. The shift from public to private financing has also meant additional labor for women due to families relying on them as caregivers. Less public financing has shifted care to women, leaving "them with more support to provide at home." Women's additional healthcare requirements, such as pregnancy, further exacerbate the gender gap. Despite comprising approximately half of Canada's population, women receive the majority of Canadian healthcare. Men and women also experience different wait times for diagnostic tests; longer wait times have been associated with a higher risk of health complications. One Canadian study reports, "mean wait times are significantly lower for men than for women pertaining to overall diagnostic tests: for MRI, 70.3 days for women compared to 29.1 days for men." Socioeconomic gap in healthcare It has been previously documented that one's socioeconomic status significantly impacts their health. Another recent study re-assessed this relationship and found similar results that demonstrated that people with higher levels of education or income experience longer life expectancies and health-adjusted life expectancies. The study discovered a distinct stepwise gradient in Canada, with life expectancy and health-adjusted life expectancy incrementally increasing as social position improves. They also found that this socioeconomic gap in healthcare had gotten wider in the previous 15 years. The reasoning behind the socioeconomic gap is complex and multifaceted. Certain relationships between socioeconomic status and health outcomes can be relatively easily explained through direct exposures. For example, lead or pollutant exposure tends to be more common in rural neighbourhoods, which can result in lower cognitive functions, stunted growth and exacerbated asthma.  Higher income levels allow for the purchase of higher-quality resources, including food products, produce and shelter, as well as faster access to services. Higher education is often thought to lead to greater health literacy, resulting in the adoption of healthier lifestyles. Longer, more complex pathways can also be used to explain potential relationships between socioeconomic status and health outcomes. Duration of poverty has been related to increased chronic stress levels. Recent studies have described how these stress levels can result in the biological "wear-and-tear" for these individuals constantly exposed to social and environmental stressors. Increased stress and lower SES has been correlated with increased blood pressure, worser cholesterol profiles and increased risk for other cardiovascular diseases. Inequality in the LGBT community Canadians in the LGBT community, especially those in poverty, receive inadequate levels of treatment. A research study by Lori Ross and Margaret Gibson notes that of all demographics, LGBT members need mental health services the most due to systemic discrimination. According to the study, LGBT members often need to turn to mental health services that are mainly private and not covered by publicly-funded healthcare. Low-income LGBT members might be unable to afford these private programs; subsequently, their mental health issues may remain unaddressed or even worsen. Researcher Emily Colpitts states that LGBT members in Nova Scotia experience ambiguous or alienating language in their health policies. According to Colpitts, the "heteronormative and gender-binary language and structure of medical intake forms have the consequence of alienating LGBT populations." Colpitts adds that in the previous study of queer and transgender women in Nova Scotia, patients experienced significant discomfort in their meetings with healthcare providers and feared that because of the language of health policy, they would not be able to receive adequate healthcare based on their sexual identities. According to researcher Judith MacDonnell, LGBT members, especially childbearing lesbians, have trouble navigating through health policy. MacDonnell states that LGBT women encounter challenges at every point of the childbearing process in Canada and have to rely on personal and professional means to receive information that they can understand, such as in reproductive health clinics and postpartum or parenting support. The healthcare needs of the LGBT community are affected by a number of social, behavioural, and structural factors. Various bodies of literature have identified the health disparities associated with the LGBT community, and how these individuals receive disproportionate healthcare services. For example, mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety, eating disorders, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases are all of higher prevalence and a major concern amongst LGBT persons. These health issues are not sufficiently addressed either, as healthcare professionals (such as physicians) may be unaware of these individuals' sexual orientation. In 2008, Analysis of Canadian Community Health Service data showed that: LGB persons were more likely to seek out mental health services than heterosexuals; lesbians have lower reported rates of using family physicians. bisexuals report higher levels of unmet healthcare needs compared to heterosexuals(2); and LGB persons perceive they have less equitable access to healthcare services compared to heterosexual persons. Another barrier that exists with regard to the healthcare disparities experienced by LGBT persons is the stigma that continues to persist in society. Moreover, LGBT populations may fear that their health needs are not considered in primary health since healthcare has been historically been constituted through a cisnormative and heteronormative framework. As a result, LGBT populations are less likely to access primary healthcare services due to the fear of discrimination. In addition, recent data shows that healthcare professionals lack adequate knowledge and cultural competence when it comes to addressing health issues predominantly affecting the LGBT community. Cultural competence is an important consideration in assessing the quality of care received by the LGBT community, as a lack of cultural competency in healthcare professionals and systems leads to a reduced life expectancy, a lower quality of life, and an increased risk of acute and chronic illness amongst LGBT persons. Research has also highlighted that higher rates of chronic illness seen in LGBT persons is associated with discrimination, minority stress, avoidance of healthcare providers, and irregular access to healthcare services. Another important consideration in addressing the quality of care received by the LGBT community is patient-physician communication. Many health risks LGBT persons face come as a result of avoidance and/or dissatisfaction of healthcare services; this is in part due to assumptions made by the patient's healthcare providers, such as assuming the sexuality of the patient and predicting their sexual behaviours. In these scenarios, it can be very difficult for LGBT persons to feel comfortable in a clinical setting because they may experience a decline in self-confidence and trust in their healthcare providers. The underlying message in terms of providing equitable care, and access to care, for patients in the LGBT community is that healthcare providers and systems must be aware of the appropriate methods through which to administer care. The specific needs of LGBT persons must be appreciated in order to enhance the quality of care and provide it in a non-judgemental, gender-neutral manner. Inequality in care for refugees Refugees in Canada experience numerous barriers to healthcare, such as gaps in knowledge regarding healthcare needs, which may not be always considered by public health initiatives and policies. Immigrants and refugees are among the groups most at risk for negative health effects resulting from persistent health disparities; differences in race, socioeconomic status, income, citizenship status, and other social factors further exacerbate healthcare inequalities. Compared to immigrants, refugees often require additional healthcare due to previous conditions in their countries of origin. The 2012 Protecting Canada's Immigration System Act formed a tiered system that classified refugees and separated care based on these classifications. Differing levels of care were provided to refugees based on each refugee's home country and other factors. The act also reduced healthcare coverage for refugees provided by the Interim Federal Health Program (IFHP). The changes in refugee healthcare programs created in a rise in emergency room (ER) visits due to a lack of provisions of healthcare to refugees. This created concerns among Canadian citizens that the overall cost of healthcare will rise due. According to one study, the cuts to IFHP also made funding uncertain for programs that helped pay for ER costs. In July 2014, Canada's Federal Court ruled that denying health services to asylum seekers was "cruel and unusual treatment" and therefore unconstitutional. One study suggested open dialogue among policymakers, clinicians, and researchers and working with settlement programs to effectively respond to challenges encountered by the healthcare system regarding refugees. The study notes that supporting primary care and focusing on social accountability training in medical schools will help ensure the sustainability of the healthcare system's response to refugees. Inequality in care for immigrants Inadequate access to primary care and treatment interventions has been and continues to be a prevalent issue amongst minority populations in Canada. As a result, many immigrants are faced with constant barriers with regard to receiving high-quality care. The patient experience is revered as one of the most significant aspects of healthcare, however its relation to immigrant status is not well defined. The "healthy immigrant effect" is a term that recognizes how immigrants on average enter Canada with better health than those born in the country. However, over time, this health advantage experienced by immigrants may begin to decline. Multiple factors contribute to this health decline, including: racialization and discrimination, stress of immigration, barriers accessing healthcare practitioners and others. The most prevalent barriers faced by immigrants with regard to accessing primary care services are related to geography and geographic distribution, language, and culture. Moreover, the distribution of physicians has a direct impact on the utilization of primary care services by immigrants. Immigrants tend to settle in suburbs, and long term immigrants tend to migrate toward suburban areas. These areas offer the most affordable housing options for immigrants, however this creates a "spatial mismatch" between patients and physicians since physicians and medical services are primarily concentrated in urban areas. Language is another strong barrier faced by immigrant populations due to the poor distribution of same-language physicians. Immigrants often face challenges in terms of understanding English medical terms. These linguistic differences are yet another contributing factor to the discordance and miscommunication between immigrants and English-speaking physicians. Since healthcare services in Canada are paid in-part by the federal and provincial governments and by health insurance systems, economic and financial barriers are generally not considered to be a severe issue dealt with by the immigrant community. However, local availability (i.e., spatial accessibility) of physicians and individual patient preferences such as ethnicity and language spoken by physicians are both impactful factors contributing to the precipitous decrease in primary healthcare access by immigrants. Immigrants in Canada face multiple barriers to accessing mental health services. As with primary care access, the language barrier between healthcare providers and immigrants remains one of the greatest challenges in delivering mental health care and often leads to underuse. Many subpopulations of immigrants, including but not limited to: African women, Latin American men, Iranian immigrants and South Asian immigrants have been shown in studies to underuse mental health services due to the limited amount of services offered outside of the English language, which hinders their access to mental health care. One study discussed how immigrants avoided, or did not benefit from, mental health counselling services as there lacks an adequate amount of professional interpretation services. Another study conducted in Montreal examined the reasons behind why immigrants were reluctant to access mental health services. They found a multitude of reasons as to why immigrants were hesitant to seek help, including the fact that their perception of Western doctors' over willingness to utilize pharmaceutical medications, while they believed in the curative powers of non-pharmaceutical interventions, such as God and traditional folk medicine. Inequality in care for Indigenous peoples Many immigrants report experiencing social isolation in Canada while also lacking social support from friends or family, which significantly impacts their mental health and also impacts their access to mental health services. Other racialized immigrants, specifically seniors, may be reluctant to access mental health services due to the stigmatization that surrounds these issues. Another significant barrier reported was the difficulty immigrants faced in finding mental health providers that were appropriately trained in cultural sensitivity. It is well documented in the literature that Indigenous peoples in Canada lack equitable access to healthcare services for a variety of reasons. One major reason for this inequitable access is due to Indigenous locations of residence. Statistics Canada reported that the majority of Métis live in urban centres, while almost half of First Nations people live on reserves. In rural northern communities, they struggle to attract and retain healthcare professionals, leaving a great shortage in services that results in far lesser access to care. In the Inuit Nunangat, it was found that just 23% of Inuit people had a medical doctor they regularly visited. Additionally, due to the lack of healthcare access in northern communities, many are forced into lengthy transportation to southern Ontario to receive necessary care. One study examined an Inuit community in Rigolet, Canada, and looked at the direct and indirect costs of these long-distance healthcare visits, including missed paid employment, mental well-being costs, transportation costs and others. Altogether, this community experiences healthcare costs greater than other Canadian non-Indigenous and urban areas. Another prominent reason for inequitable access to care is the persistence of racism that remains in Canada. In 2012, The Health Council of Canada conducted a series of meetings across the country with a variety of healthcare workers, researchers and Aboriginal people. Through their conversations, they discovered that a large part of the problem comes from the healthcare system. They found that many Indigenous people simply do not trust mainstream health service due to stereotyping, racism and that they feel intimidated. One participant described their experiences as "being treated with contempt, judged, ignored, stereotyped, racialized, and minimized." Finally the Health Council of Canada went on to describe that this lack of equitable access comes as an extension of systemic racism in Canada. A 2015 study examined 80 Indigenous women who experienced neurological conditions. Participants described their lack of access to health services to stem from the racism and sexism experienced in the system. In the same study, the researchers interviewed multiple key informants, including various types of health practitioners. They described how important it is for the health system to implement culturally safe care. They also discussed how many stereotyping problems occur in medical school and that Canada requires further Indigenous-centred training. They recommend higher education and awareness training amongst medical schools and healthcare institutions to address the growing healthcare disparities between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples in Canada. Inequality in care for people living with intellectual disabilities Healthcare needs and comorbidities are often underdiagnosed in those living with intellectual disabilities. A study conducted in Quebec, Canada investigated healthcare utilization and access amongst people with intellectual disabilities in comparison to the general population. Of the study sample, approximately 30 percent reported not having had a comprehensive medical examination in the past year, which is what is currently advised in the 2018 Canadian consensus guidelines for practitioners providing primary care for those with intellectual disabilities. Compared to the general population, women with intellectual disabilities aged 18–69 years were found to undergo cervical cancer screening less often. Results demonstrated them to be 1.5 times less likely to undergo a Pap test in the past three years compared to similar aged women without disabilities. For breast cancer screening, women living with severe or profound intellectual disabilities or Down syndrome were found to be screened significantly less than those in the general population. People with Down syndrome also reported the lowest usage of physiotherapy services compared to other measured population groups, which is a concern given that Down syndrome is associated with a variety of musculoskeletal problems that may be improved with physiotherapy. Inequality in care for Canadian women With regard to disparities in healthcare associated with gender and sex, there are significant inequities among women related to socioeconomic status, geographical location, and ethnicity. It has been hypothesized that women experience a higher rate of health-related issues because of their reduced access to the material and social conditions of life that foster good health, as well as a heightened level of stress associated with their gender and marital roles. Moreover, extensive research evidence has shown that women with low income and who work full-time outside of the house have poorer health status in comparison to their male counterparts. The added responsibilities women hold as primary caregivers in households not only creates additional stress, but also indirectly increases the difficulty of the scheduling and meeting of medical appointments; these implications explain women's poorer self-rated health status in comparison to men, as well as their report of their unmet healthcare needs. These findings demonstrate the implications gender has on the receival of care, but more specifically, women's ability, or the lack thereof, to address their own healthcare needs. Further investigating ways in which women face disparities in Canada's healthcare system is crucial to ensuring optimal health outcomes. Canadians receiving healthcare in the United States Along with the highly publicized 2005 case of Shona Holmes, who campaigned against the Canadian healthcare system on behalf of the Americans for Prosperity's PAC from 2009 through 2012, there have been other high-profiled incidents in which Canadian politicians have visited the Mayo Clinic and other highly specialized hospitals in the United States. Media reports about Robert Bourassa, the premier of Quebec in 1994, then Prime Minister Jean Chrétien's visit to the Mayo Clinic in 1999, then Liberal MP Belinda Stronach's visit to the Mayo in 2007, and then Newfoundland and Labrador Premier Danny Williams have been criticized for being cynical, ironic, hypocritical, and/or elitist. An often-cited 2002 study reported in the Health Affairs journal, said that their research results did "not support the widespread perception that Canadian residents seek care extensively in the United States." The Katz study—based on an analysis of data from the 1996–1997 National Population Health Survey (NPHS)—a large survey representative of the Canadian noninstitutionalized population, including 17,276 Canadian residents, reported that 0.5% sought medical care in the U.S. in the previous year. Of these, less than a quarter had travelled to the U.S. expressly to get that care. This was supported by an additional analysis performed from the American side, using a structured telephone survey of all ambulatory care clinical facilities located in specific heavily populated U.S. urban corridors bordering Canada and discharge data for 1994–1998 from major border states, and contacted key informants at each of U.S. News & World Report'''s "America's Best Hospitals" to inquire about the number of Canadians seen in both inpatient and outpatient settings. The authors characterized this rate of medical travel as "barely detectable relative to the use of care by Canadians at home" and that the results "do not support the widespread perception that Canadian residents seek care extensively in the United States." The majority of Canadians who seek healthcare in the U.S. are already there for other reasons, including business travel or vacations. A smaller proportion seek care in the U.S. for reasons of confidentiality, including abortions, mental illness, substance abuse, and other problems that they may not wish to divulge to their local physician, family, or employer. Canadians offered free care in the U.S. paid by the Canadian government have sometimes declined it. Prime Minister Jean Chrétien traveled to the Mayo Clinic twice in 1999 for medical care. Chrétien allegedly kept the visits a secret, with one occurring during a publicly announced ski trip to Vancouver. Canadian Liberal MP Belinda Stronach went to the United States for breast cancer surgery in June 2007. Stronach's spokesperson Greg MacEachern was quoted in the article saying that the U.S. was the best place to have this type of surgery done. Stronach paid out-of-pocket for the surgery. Stronach had stated in an interview that she was against two-tier health care. When Robert Bourassa, the premier of Quebec, needed cancer treatment, he went to the U.S. to get it. In 2010, Newfoundland and Labrador Premier Danny Williams travelled to the U.S. for heart surgery. One 2008, KOMO-TV report said that some Canadian pregnant women were "forced" to give birth in U.S. One pregnant woman from Calgary had to deliver her quadruplets in Great Falls, Montana because at that time, in 2007, there were hospitals with enough neonatal intensive beds to accommodate the extremely rare quadruple birth. A January 19, 2008, article in The Globe and Mail said that, "More than 150 critically ill Canadians—many with life-threatening cerebral hemorrhages—have been rushed to the United States since the spring of 2006 because they could not obtain intensive-care beds here. Before patients with bleeding in or outside the brain have been whisked through U.S. operating-room doors. Some wait times for these patients in Canada waiting as long as eight hours in emergency wards Canadian health-care workers found solutions for them in the U.S. Americans visiting Canada to receive healthcare Some U.S. citizens travel to Canada for healthcare-related mainly to access lower costs. Many U.S. citizens purchase prescription drugs from Canada, either over the Internet or by travelling there to buy them in person, because prescription drug prices in Canada are substantially lower than prescription drug prices in the United States; this cross-border purchasing has been estimated at $1 billion annually. Some states like Florida have signed bills to import prescription drugs from Canada but are awaiting federal approval. Because marijuana is legal in Canada but illegal in some of the U.S., many U.S. citizens with cancer, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, and glaucoma have travelled to Canada for medical treatment. One of those is Steve Kubby, the Libertarian Party's 1998 candidate for governor of California, who has adrenal cancer. Recent legalization of marijuana in some states of the U.S. has reduced this type of travelling. Portability and provincial residency requirements The Canada Health Act covers residents of Canada, which are persons "lawfully entitled to be or to remain in Canada who makes his home and is ordinarily present in the province, but does not include a tourist, a transient or a visitor to the province." When traveling within Canada, a Canadian's health card from his or her home province or territory is accepted for hospital and physician services. Each province has residency and physical presence requirements to qualify for health care coverage. For example, to qualify for coverage in Ontario, with certain exceptions, one must be physically present in Ontario for 153 days in any given 12-month period. Most provinces require 183 days of physical presence in any given 12-month period. Exceptions may be made for mobile workers, if the individual can provide documentation from his or her employer verifying that the individual's work requires frequent travel in and out of the province. Transients, self-employed itinerant workers (e.g. farm workers) who move from province to province several times within a year, and peripatetic retired or unemployed individuals who move from province to province (e.g. staying with various relatives, or living in a recreational vehicle) may find themselves ineligible for health coverage in any province or territory, even though they are Canadian citizens or landed immigrants physically present in Canada 365 days a year. "Snowbirds" (Canadians who winter in warm climates) and other Canadians who are out their home province or territory for a total of more than 183 days in twelve months lose all coverage, which is reinstated after a three-month waiting period. Students attending a university or college outside their home province are generally covered by the health insurance program of their home province, however, "Typically this coverage (while out-of-province but within Canada) is for physician and hospital services only." The Ontario Ministry of Health and Long Term Care, for example, states, "Therefore, when travelling outside of Ontario but within Canada, the ministry recommends that you obtain private supplementary health insurance for non-physician/non-hospital services." Such services might include prescription drugs, or ground and air ambulance services that might be covered in one's home province. Comparison to selected other countries The Canadian health care system is often compared to the U.S. system. According to a report by the New York-based independent health-care advocacy group, The Commonwealth Fund, that compared 11 rich countries, over 25% of Canadians report a body-mass index of 30 or higher—a measure of obesity—compared to 40% in the U.S. This is twice the rate reported in Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland. Canada ranked 4th in the eleven countries for the number of suicides per 100,000 compared, with a rate of 11.8 per 100,000 compared to the U.S. rate of 13.9 which was the highest of the eleven wealthy countries. In both Canada and the United States there has been an increase in "deaths of despair" which includes substance abuse and overdoses. From 2000 to 2015, the number of preventable deaths caused by treatable health conditions—diabetes, high blood pressure or some cancers—dropped from 109 to 72 deaths per 100,000. In 2016, of the eleven countries, the U.S. "had the highest rate of avoidable deaths at 112 per 100,000". Healthcare spending compared to other countries In 2018, The OECD average represented 8.8% of GDP or CAN$5,175 per person with 27% private and 73% public. Canada's health spending represented 10.7% of GDP or $6,448 per person with 30% private and 70% public. The U.S. spending represented 16.9% of GDP or $13,722 per person with 51% private and 49% public. In 2019, Canada's per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 11th among health-care systems in the OECD. In comparison, in 2006, Canada spent approximately 10.0% of GDP on healthcare in 2006. The average of OECD countries at that time was 8.9%. Elective surgery In its 2016 international health survey, the Commonwealth Fund found that 18 percent of patients in Canada had waited four months or longer for elective surgery in the previous two years, compared to 3 percent of patients in the United States, 6 percent in Switzerland, 4 percent in the Netherlands, and 0 percent in Germany. Life expectancy at birth Based on OECD 2018 data, in terms of life expectancy at birth by gender, women in France is 85.9, Switzerland's 85.7, Canada's 84.1, the Netherlands's 83.4, Germany's 83.3, and the U.S.' 81.2 years. The Commonwealth Fund report ranked Canada at slightly above average in life expectancy and the U.S. at the bottom of the list with a life expectancy of 78.6 years. Of the eleven countries, the U.S. spends the most of healthcare. Life expectancy at 65 Based on Statistics Canada data from 2017 to 2019, women in Canada have a life expectancy at 65 of 22.2 years or 87.5 years and men at 65 have a life expectancy of 19.5 years or 84.5 years. Under-five mortality rates From 1971 to 2020, the under-five mortality rate per 1000 live births rate for Canada dropped gradually from 20.9 deaths per 1000 live births to 4.98 deaths per 1000. In comparison, in the U.S. during the same period, the rate decreased slowly from 22.49 to 6.98 deaths per 1000. Maternal mortality rate per 100,000 live births In 2018, the maternal mortality rate per 100,000 live births in Canada was 8.3 deaths. Since 2008, the rate has been between "4.5 and 8.7 deaths per 100,000 live births". Physicians per 1000 people According to the Commonwealth report, 11 wealthy countries have a higher number of physicians per 1000 people, than Canada. Norway has 4.8, Canada has 2.7 and the U.S. has 2.6 physicians per 1000 people. Healthcare spending by country In 2018, Canada's health expenditures per person was $6,448, which was close to the amount spent by Australia—C$6,488, France—$6,436, and the Netherlands—$6,855. In comparison, the U.S. spent US$10,739—C$13, 637—per person in 2018. A 2009 report commissioned by the Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry (ABPI) ranked 13 developed countries based on sales volumes for conditions such as acute MI, antipsychotics, dementia, hepatitis C, multiple sclerosis, osteoporosis, RDS, rheumatoid arthritis, statins, wet AMD, and cancer hormones. In 2000, the World Health Organization using a methodology that was since changed because of the inaccuracy of its results, gave Canada's health system a very low standing in its list of countries by total health expenditure (PPP) per capita,compared to France, for example. It was revealed that the "primary reason for Canada's low standing" resulted from the "high educational level" of Canada's population not on its health system. Legal challenges to Canada's healthcare system There have been several court cases that have challenged Canadian and provincial health systems including the Chaoulli v. Quebec (Attorney General) and the high-profile, multi-year lawsuit against the provincial government, Cambie Surgeries Corporation v. British Columbia (Medical Services Commission) which ruled in favour of the BC MSC. In June 2005, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in Chaoulli v. Quebec (Attorney General) that Quebec AG had violated the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms by forbidding private health insurance for medically necessary health services. The ruling raised concerns for some and hope for others that there could be an increase in private sector participation in the health system. Chief Justice McLachlin ruled that "[a]ccess to a waiting list is not access to health care". The Cambie Surgeries Corporation v. British Columbia case was settled on September 10, 2020 when Justice Steeves of the Supreme Court of British Columbia ruled against legalizing private health care. On September 5, 2007, the attorneys of Lindsay McCreith and Shona Holmes filed a statement of claim at the Ontario Superior in McCreith and Holmes v. Ontario (Attorney General) with the support of the Canadian Constitution Foundation, a "conservative organization which funds litigation involving individual freedoms, economic liberty, and equality before the law". In William Murray v. Alberta (Minister of Health) the CCF "backed a challenge to Alberta's healthcare laws". Cambie's failed constitutional challenge On September 10, 2020, Justice John J. Steeves of the Supreme Court of British Columbia (BCSC) dismissed Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms violation claims in the high-profile, multi-year trial, Cambie Surgeries Corporation v. British Columbia, launched in 2016 by Vancouver, British Columbia-based Cambie Surgeries Corporation. Background In 2006, the Government of British Columbia threatened to shut down one private clinic because it was planning to start accepting private payments from patients. Since 2008, Dr. Brian Day has been suing the British Columbia government on the basis that the Canada Health Act is unconstitutional. In 2016, the Government of Quebec was sued for passing Bill 20, which allows and regulates add-on fees. Capitation based models are used in some provinces as in place of or in parallel with the traditional fee for service model. An April 2006 perspective on private healthcare in Canada in the New England Journal of Medicine included an interview with Michael McBane and Brian Day on the future of health care in Canada. In August 2007, the Canadian Medical Association (CMA) elected as president Brian Day, who owns the largest private hospital in Canada and who vocally supports increasing private healthcare in Canada. A 2006 New York Times article entitled "Canada's Private Clinics Surge as Public System Falters" said that the "Cambie Surgery Center"—"Canada's most prominent private hospital— was operating in plain view of health authorities as a "rogue enterprise". By 2006, Cambie, which was founded by Dr. Brian Day, Cambie's medical director and president, had a staff of 120 doctors. Day was quoted in the 2006 Times saying, without evidence, that, "This is a country in which dogs can get a hip replacement in under a week and in which humans can wait two to three years." The Canadian Health Coalition responded to Day's claims, pointing out that "access to veterinary care for animals is based on the ability to pay. Dogs are put down if their owners can't pay. Access to care should not be based on ability to pay." According to a May 1, 2006 Maclean's in-depth article, private medical providers in British Columbia and Quebec were expanding their services encouraged by the Supreme Court's 2005 Chaoulli v. Quebec ruling. Quebec was influenced by the success of the blend of private and public healthcare services in France, and Brian Day was influenced by similar health services in New Zealand. Maclean's'' provided a consumer guide to private healthcare services in 2006. In 2009, the Canadian Medical Association met to discuss the potential for an increase in private clinics in Canada's healthcare system A European study presented at the meeting was "expected to call for private clinics, such as the chain of radiology centres owned by Ouellet, to play a bigger role in Canada's health-care system." See also Canada Health Transfer Canada Health and Social Transfer Comparison of the healthcare systems in Canada and the United States Health in Canada Health care compared - tabular comparisons of the US, Canada, and other countries not shown above. EvidenceNetwork.ca Evidence Network of Canadian Health Policy Indian Health Transfer Policy Royal Commission on the Future of Health Care in Canada Notes References External links Canadian Federalism and Public Health Care: The Evolution of Federal-Provincial Relations | re:politics CBC Digital Archives— The Birth of Medicare CBC Canadian Health Services Research Foundation Data from the Canadian Institute for Health Information National Health Expenditure Database Exploring the 70/30 Split: How Canada's Health Care System Is Financed 2006 National Physician Database 2006

Market clearing

eng_Latn

In economics, market clearing is the process by which, in an economic market, the supply of whatever is traded is equated to the demand so that there is no leftover supply or demand. The new classical economics assumes that in any given market, assuming that all buyers and sellers have access to information and that there is no "friction" impeding price changes, prices always adjust up or down to ensure market clearing. Mechanism and examples A market-clearing price is the price of a good or service at which quantity supplied is equal to quantity demanded, also called the equilibrium price. The theory claims that markets tend to move toward this price. For a one-time sale of goods, supply is fixed, so the market-clearing price is simply the price at which all items can be sold, but no lower. (Demand can be adjusted by setting the price appropriately, perhaps through an auction mechanism.) In this case, the marketplace is literally cleared of all goods. For a market where goods are produced and sold on an ongoing basis, the theory predicts that the market will move toward a price where the quantity supplied in a broad time period will equal the quantity demanded. This might be measured over a period like a week, month or year, to smooth out irregularities caused by manufacturing in batches and delivery schedules; sellers often have a buffer of inventory so that products are always available for retail sale. If the sale price is higher than the market-clearing price, then supply will exceed demand, and a surplus inventory will build up over the long run. If the sale price is lower than the market-clearing price, then demand will exceed supply, and in the long run, shortages will result, where buyers sometimes find no products for sale at any price. The first version of the market-clearing theory assumes that the price adjustment process occurs instantaneously. If, for example, a community is subject to an earthquake that destroys all of the houses and apartments, its members will have a sudden increased demand for new housing. Immediately after the disaster, the market for housing in the community will be temporarily out of equilibrium, suffering from an excess demand for houses and apartments (shortage). But if markets are free to operate (i.e., if prices are free to change), and given enough time, prices will increase, causing (1) construction companies to build new houses in the short run and (2) new companies to enter the house and apartment-construction market in the longer run. This increase in production brings supply into balance with the new demand. The adjustment mechanism has cleared the shortage from the market and established a new equilibrium. A similar mechanism is believed to operate when there is a market surplus (glut), where prices fall until all the excess supply is sold. An example of excess supply is Christmas decorations that are still in stores several days after Christmas; the stores that still have boxes of decorations view these products as "excess supply", so the prices are discounted until shoppers buy all the decorations (to keep them until next Christmas). History and non-ideal behavior For 150 years (from approximately 1785 to 1935), the vast majority of economists took the smooth operation of this market-clearing mechanism as inevitable and inviolable, based largely on belief in Say's law. But the Great Depression of the 1930s caused many economists, including John Maynard Keynes, to doubt their classical faith. If markets were supposed to clear, how could ruinously high rates of unemployment persist for so many painful years? Was the market mechanism not supposed to eliminate such surpluses? In one interpretation, Keynes identified imperfections in the adjustment mechanism that, if present, could introduce rigidities and make prices sticky. In another interpretation, price adjustment could make matters worse, causing what Irving Fisher called "debt deflation". Not all economists accept these theories. They attribute what appears to be imperfect clearing to factors like labor unions or government policy, thereby exonerating the clearing mechanism. Most economists see the assumption of continuous market clearing as not very realistic. However, many see the assumption of flexible prices as useful in the long-run analysis since prices are not stuck forever: market-clearing models describe the equilibrium towards which the economy gravitates. Therefore, many macroeconomists feel that price flexibility is a good assumption for studying long-run issues, such as growth in real GDP. Other economists argue that price adjustment may take so much time that the process of equilibration may change the underlying conditions that determine long-run equilibrium. That is, there may be path dependence, as when a long depression changes the nature of the "full employment" period that follows. In the short run (and possibly in the long run), markets may find a temporary equilibrium at a price and quantity that does not correspond with the long-term market-clearing equilibrium. For example, in the theory of "efficiency wages", a labor market can be in equilibrium above the market-clearing wage since each employer has the incentive to pay wages above market-clearing to motivate their employees on the job. In this case, equilibrium wages (where there is no endogenous tendency for wages to change) would not be the same as market-clearing wages (where there is no classical unemployment). See also Double auction Economic equilibrium Supply and demand References Financial markets de:Markträumung