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The Yellow Wallpaper

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"The Yellow Wallpaper" (original title: "The Yellow Wall-paper. A Story") is a short story by American writer Charlotte Perkins Gilman, first published in January 1892 in The New England Magazine. It is regarded as an important early work of American feminist literature for its illustration of the attitudes towards mental and physical health of women in the 19th century. Narrated in the first person, the story is a collection of journal entries written by a woman whose physician husband (John) has rented an old mansion for the summer. Forgoing other rooms in the house, the couple moves into the upstairs nursery. As a form of treatment, the husband forbids the unnamed woman from working or writing and encourages her to eat well and get plenty of air so that she can recuperate from what he calls a "temporary nervous depression – a slight hysterical tendency", a diagnosis common to women during that period. Plot summary The story describes a young woman and her husband. He imposes a rest cure on her when she suffers "temporary nervous depression" after the birth of their baby. They spend the summer at a colonial mansion, where the narrator is largely confined to an upstairs nursery. The story makes striking use of an unreliable narrator in order to gradually reveal the degree to which her husband has imprisoned her: she describes torn wallpaper, barred windows, metal rings in the walls, a floor "scratched and gouged and splintered," a bed bolted to the floor, and a gate at the top of the stairs, but blames all these on children who must have resided there. The narrator devotes many journal entries to describing the wallpaper in the room – its "sickly" color, its "yellow" smell, its bizarre and disturbing pattern like "an interminable string of toadstools, budding and sprouting in endless convolutions," its missing patches, and the way it leaves yellow smears on the skin and clothing of anyone who touches it. She describes how the longer one stays in the bedroom, the more the wallpaper appears to mutate, especially in the moonlight. With no stimulus other than the wallpaper, the pattern and designs become increasingly intriguing to the narrator. She soon begins to see a figure in the design. Eventually, she comes to believe that a woman is creeping on all fours behind the pattern. Believing she must free the woman in the wallpaper, she begins to strip the remaining paper off the wall. When her husband arrives home, the narrator refuses to unlock her door. When he returns with the key, he finds her creeping around the room, rubbing against the wallpaper, and exclaiming, "I've got out at last... in spite of you." He faints, but she continues to circle the room, creeping over his inert body each time she passes it, believing herself to have become the woman trapped behind the yellow wallpaper. Interpretation Gilman Gilman used her writing to explore the role of women in America around 1900. She expanded upon many issues, such as the lack of a life outside the home and the oppressive forces of the patriarchal society. Through her work, Gilman paved the way for writers such as Alice Walker and Sylvia Plath. In "The Yellow Wallpaper," she portrays the narrator's insanity as a way to protest the professional and societal oppression against women. While under the impression that husbands and male doctors were acting with their best interests in mind, women were depicted as mentally fragile. Women’s rights advocates of the era believed that the "outbreak" of this mental instability was the manifestation of their setbacks regarding the roles they were allowed to play in a male-dominated society. Women were even discouraged from writing because it would ultimately create an identity and become a form of defiance. Gilman realized that writing became one of the only forms of existence for women at a time when they had very few rights. After the birth of her first daughter, Gilman suffered postnatal depression and was treated by Dr. Silas Weir Mitchell, the leading expert on women's mental health at the time. He suggested a strict 'rest cure' regime involving much of bed rest and a blanket ban on working, including reading, writing, and painting. After three months and almost desperate, Gilman decided to contravene her diagnosis, along with the treatment methods, and started to work again. Aware of how close she had come to a complete mental breakdown, the author wrote ”The Yellow Wallpaper” with additions and exaggerations to illustrate her criticism of the medical field. Gilman sent a copy to Mitchell but never received a response. (Gilman was ultimately proven right in her disdain for the "rest cure" when she sought a second opinion from Mary Putnam Jacobi, one of the first female doctors and a strong opponent of this theory, who prescribed a regimen of physical and mental activity that proved a much more successful treatment.) She added that "The Yellow Wallpaper" was "not intended to drive people crazy, but to save people from being driven crazy, and it worked". Gilman claimed that many years later, she learned that Mitchell had changed his treatment methods. However, literary historian Julie Bates Dock has discredited this. Mitchell continued his methods, and as late as 1908 – 16 years after "The Yellow Wallpaper" was published – was interested in creating entire hospitals devoted to the "rest cure" so that his treatments would be more widely accessible. Gilman gives her greatest thanks to Richard Bauer for being the only man who believed in her. Feminist This story has been interpreted by feminist critics as a condemnation of the male control of the 19th-century medical profession. Throughout the short story, the narrator offers many suggestions to help her get better, such as exercising, working, or socializing with the outside world. Her ideas are dismissed immediately while using language that stereotypes her as irrational and, therefore, unqualified to offer ideas about her condition. This interpretation draws on the concept of the "domestic sphere" that women were held in during this period. Many feminist critics focus on the degree of triumph at the end of the story. Although some claim the narrator slipped into insanity, others see the ending as a woman's assertion of agency in a marriage in which she felt trapped. The emphasis on reading and writing as gendered practices also illustrated the importance of the wallpaper. If the narrator were allowed neither to write in her journal nor to read, she would begin to "read" the wallpaper until she found the escape she was looking for. Through seeing the women in the wallpaper, the narrator realizes that she could not live her life locked up behind bars. At the end of the story, as her husband lies on the floor unconscious, she crawls over him, symbolically rising over him. This is interpreted as a victory over her husband at the expense of her sanity. In her article "Feminist Criticism 'The Yellow Wallpaper', and the Politics of Color in America", Susan S. Lanser, a professor at Brandeis University, praises contemporary feminism and its role in changing the study and the interpretation of literature. "The Yellow Wallpaper" was one of many stories that lost authority in the literary world because of an ideology that determined the works' content to be disturbing or offensive. Critics such as the editor of the Atlantic Monthly rejected the short story because "[he] could not forgive [himself] if [he] made others as miserable as [he] made [himself]". Lanser argues that the same argument of devastation and misery can be said about the work of Edgar Allan Poe, but his work is still printed and studied by academics. "The Yellow Wallpaper" provided feminists the tools to interpret literature in different ways. Lanser argues that the short story was a "particularly congenial medium for such a re-vision... because the narrator herself engages in a form of feminist interpretation when she tries to read the paper on her wall". The narrator in the story is trying to find a single meaning in the wallpaper. At first, she focuses on the contradictory style of the wallpaper: it is "flamboyant" while also "dull", "pronounced," yet "lame," and "uncertain" (p. 13). She takes into account the patterns and tries to organize them geometrically, but she is further confused. The wallpaper changes colors when it reflects light and emits a distinct odor that the protagonist cannot recognize (p. 25). At night the narrator can see a woman behind bars within the complex design of the wallpaper. Lanser argues that the unnamed woman was able to find "a space of text on which she can locate whatever self-projection". Just like the narrator as a reader, when one comes into contact with a confusing and complicated text, one tries to find a single meaning. "How we were taught to read," as Lanser puts it, is why a reader cannot fully comprehend the text. The patriarchal ideology had kept many scholars from being able to interpret and appreciate stories such as "The Yellow Wallpaper". With the growth of feminist criticism, "The Yellow Wallpaper" has become a fundamental reading in the standard curriculum. Feminists have made a significant contribution to the study of literature but, according to Lanser, are falling short because if "we acknowledge the participation of women writers and readers in dominant patterns of thought and social practice then perhaps our own patterns must also be deconstructed if we are to recover meanings still hidden or overlooked." Martha J. Cutter discusses how, in many of Charlotte Perkins Gilman's works, she addresses this "struggle in which a male-dominated medical establishment attempts to silence women". Gilman's works challenge the social construction of women in patriarchal medical discourse who are seen as "silent, powerless, and passive". At the time in which her works take place, between 1840 and 1890, women were exceedingly defined as lesser than—sickly and weak. In this time period it was thought that women who received formal education (amongst other causes) could develop hysteria, a now-discredited catchall term referring to most mental health diseases identified in women and erroneously believed to stem from a malfunctioning uterus (from the Greek hystera, "womb"). At the time, the medical understanding was that women who spent time in college or studying were over-stimulating their brains and consequently leading themselves into states of hysteria. Many of the diseases recognized in women were seen as a lack of self-control or self-rule. Different physicians argued that a physician must "assume a tone of authority" and that the idea of a "cured" woman is "subdued, docile, silent, and above all subject to the will and voice of the physician". A hysterical woman craves power. To be treated for her hysteria, she must submit to her physician, whose role is to undermine her desires. Often women were prescribed bed rest as a form of treatment, which was meant to "tame" them and keep them imprisoned. Treatments such as this were a way of ridding women of rebelliousness and forcing them to conform to expected social roles. In her works, Gilman highlights that the harm caused by these types of treatments for women, i.e., "the rest cure", has to do with how her voice is silenced. Paula Treichler explains: "In this story diagnosis 'is powerful and public.... It is a male voice that... imposes controls on the female narrator and dictates how she is to perceive and talk about the world.' Diagnosis covertly functions to empower the male physician's voice and disempower the female patient's." The narrator in "The Yellow Wallpaper" is not allowed to participate in her treatment or diagnosis and is completely forced to succumb to everything in which her doctor and in this particular story, her husband, says. The male voice is the one in which forces controls on the female and decides how she is allowed to perceive and speak about the world around her. Other "The Yellow Wallpaper" is sometimes cited as an example of Gothic literature for its themes of madness and powerlessness. Alan Ryan, for example, introduced the story by writing: "quite apart from its origins [it] is one of the finest, and strongest, tales of horror ever written. It may be a ghost story. Worse yet, it may not." Pioneering horror author H. P. Lovecraft writes in his essay Supernatural Horror in Literature (1927) that "'The Yellow Wall Paper' rises to a classic level in subtly delineating the madness which crawls over a woman dwelling in the hideously papered room where a madwoman was once confined". Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, in her book Wild Unrest: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Making of "The Yellow Wall-Paper", concludes that "the story was a cri de coeur against Gilman's first husband, artist Charles Walter Stetson and the traditional marriage he had demanded." Gilman attempted to deflect blame to protect Gilman's daughter Katharine and her step-mother, Gilman's friend Grace Channing. Horowitz consults the sources of Charlotte's private life, including her daily journals, drafts of poems and essays, and intimate letters, and compares them to the diary accounts of her first husband. She also mines Charlotte's diaries for notes on her reading. She shows how specific poetry, fiction, and popular science shaped her consciousness and understanding of sex and gender, health and illness, emotion and intellect. As a result, Horowitz makes some bold and compelling arguments. She builds a strong case to show that "The Yellow Wall-Paper", in its original form, did not represent a literal protest against Mitchell (a neurologist who treated Gilman in 1887) and his treatment. Rather it emerged from Charlotte's troubled relationship with her husband Walter, personified in the story's physician. In demanding a traditional wife, Walter denied Charlotte personal freedom, squelched her intellectual energy, and characterized her illness. Anglican Archbishop Peter Carnley used the story as a reference and a metaphor for the situation of women in the church in his sermon at the ordination of the first women priests in Australia on 7 March 1992 in St George's Cathedral, Perth. In another interpretation, Sari Edelstein has argued that "The Yellow Wallpaper" is an allegory for Gilman's hatred of the emerging yellow journalism. Having created The Forerunner in November 1909, Gilman made it clear she wished the press to be more insightful and not rely upon exaggerated stories and flashy headlines. Gilman was often scandalized in the media and resented the sensationalism of the media. The relationship between the narrator and the wallpaper within the story parallels Gilman's relationship with the press. The protagonist describes the wallpaper as having "sprawling flamboyant patterns committing every artistic sin". Edelstein argues that given Gilman’s distaste for the Yellow Press, this can also be seen as a description of tabloid newspapers of the day. In Paula A. Treichler's article "Escaping the Sentence: Diagnosis and Discourse in 'The Yellow Wallpaper'", she focuses on the relationship portrayed in the short story between women and writing. Rather than write about the feminist themes which view the wallpaper as something along the lines of "...the 'pattern' which underlies sexual inequality, the external manifestation of neurasthenia, the narrator's unconscious, the narrator's situation within patriarchy", Treichler instead explains that the wallpaper can be a symbol to represent discourse and the fact that the narrator is alienated from the world in which she previously could somewhat express herself. Treichler illustrates that through this discussion of language and writing, in the story, Charlotte Perkins Gilman is defying the "...sentence that the structure of patriarchal language imposes". While Treichler accepts the legitimacy of strictly feminist claims, she writes that a closer look at the text suggests that the wallpaper could be interpreted as women's language and discourse. The woman found in the wallpaper could be the "...representation of women that becomes possible only after women obtain the right to speak". In making this claim, it suggests that the new struggle found within the text is between two forms of writing; one rather old and traditional, and the other new and exciting. This is supported in the fact that John, the narrator's husband, does not like his wife to write anything, which is why her journal containing the story is kept a secret and thus is known only by the narrator and reader. A look at the text shows that as the relationship between the narrator and the wallpaper grows stronger, so too does her language in her journal as she begins to increasingly write of her frustration and desperation. Dramatic adaptations Audio plays Agnes Moorehead performed a version twice, in 1948 and 1957, on the radio program Suspense. The CBC Radio drama Vanishing Point did a radio version of Mary Vingoe's adaptation for the stage at Toronto's Nightwood Theatre in 1985. An audio book of "The Yellow Wallpaper" (1997) was produced by Durkin Hayes and read by Winifred Phillips. This Radio Tales version can also be heard on Sonic Theater on XM Radio. BBC Radio modified and dramatized the story for the series Fear on Four, starring Anna Massey. Stuff You Should Know read "The Yellow Wallpaper" as part of their October 31, 2017 episode "2017 Super Spooktacular". Chatterbox Audio Theater adapted "The Yellow Wallpaper" for audio drama. The play was featured on its September 14, 2007 episode. The Gray Area's Edward Champion adapted The Yellow Wallpaper for a modern day setting. The adaptation, which was dedicated to the #metoo movement, aired on The Sonic Society during its August 11, 2019 episode. Actress, director Beata Pozniak performed and published "The Yellow Wallpaper" as an audiobook for the Mental Awareness Month (2021) Stage plays Nightwood Theatre in Toronto, Canada collectively adapted the story for performance 1981. Then This Theatre of Dublin, Ireland adapted Gilman's text for a widely acclaimed production at the 2011 Absolut Dublin Fringe Festival, featuring actress Maeve Fitzgerald and directed by Aoife Spillane-Hinks. The production was reprised in 2012 at Dublin's Project Arts Centre Cube. Heather Newman scripted and directed an adaptation of the original short story, as part of the 2003 season at Theater Schmeater, in Seattle, Washington. This adaptation won the 2003 Seattle Times "Best of the Fringe" award, and was also produced in 2005 at Tarrant County College by Dr. Judith Gallagher, and directed by Melinda Benton-Muller. In May 2010, Benton-Muller and Dr. Gallagher spoke on a panel about this adaptation at the American Literature Association, with members of the ALA and the Charlotte Perkins Gilman Society. Rummage Theatre researched, wrote and directed an hour long play called Behind the Wallpaper (first performed at The Bay Theatre in 2014). The play was inspired by "The Yellow Wallpaper", but focuses on exploring postnatal depression and postpartum psychosis in the present day and uses shadow work cast behind wallpaper to represent the "Shadow Woman" which new mother Julie sees as part of her psychosis. The play toured Dorset in 2014/2015. A Company of Players presented a stage adaptation of the original short story, written and directed by Kristi Boulton, at the 2014 Hamilton Fringe Festival in Ontario, Canada. This production was well received by critics and won a "Best of Fringe" award. Central Works of Berkeley presented a one-woman show consisting of the text of the play recited and performed by Elena Wright and with a TBA-nominated score written and performed by violinist Cybele D'Ambrosio in 2015. Portland, Oregon-based Coho Productions staged an adaptation written by Sue Mach in early 2016, which integrated "expressionistic audio, visual and movement interludes with the haunting literary text". The stage adaptation was co-produced and conceived by Grace Carter, who also portrays the primary character, Charlotte. The play was directed by Philip Cuomo. Film In 1977, the story was adapted as a short film (14 min) as The Yellow Wallpaper by director Marie Ashton and screenwriter Julie Ashton; it starred Sigrid Wurschmidt. In 1989, the story was adapted as The Yellow Wallpaper by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), later shown in the U.S. on Masterpiece Theatre. It was adapted by Maggie Wadey, directed by John Clive, and starred Julia Watson and Stephen Dillane. In 2009, the story was adapted by director John McCarty as a short (30-minute) film called Confinement starring Colleen Lovett. (McCarty had initially written a treatment of the story in the late 1960s on spec for a television anthology. The idea was shelved, but the treatment was eventually revised for Confinement.) In 2011, the story was loosely adapted into the feature-length film The Yellow Wallpaper, directed by Logan Thomas, starring Aric Cushing. (DVD release, 2015) British artist Julia Dogra-Brazell's short experimental film, The Rules of the Game (2015) also found inspiration in this text. American filmmakers Alexandra Loreth and Kevin Pontuti produced and directed a feature-length film adaptation titled The Yellow Wallpaper (2021). The film premiered at Cinequest Film Festival in 2021. Television An episode of The Twilight Zone — "Something in the Walls" (1989) — is a variation on Gilman's story, in which a woman commits herself to a mental institution and insists on plain white walls and no patterns within her hospital room, after having seen faces in the patterns of her bedroom's yellow wallpaper and hearing ominous voices from them. See also Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman – an unfinished novel about a woman imprisoned in an asylum Changeling – a film about a woman imprisoned in a mental hospital References Bibliography Carnley, Peter (2001). The Yellow Wallpaper and other sermons HarperCollins, Sydney Further reading Bak, John S. (1994). "Escaping the Jaundiced Eye: Foucauldian Panopticism in Charlotte Perkins Gilman's 'The Yellow Wallpaper'", Studies in Short Fiction 31.1 (Winter 1994), pp. 39–46. Barkat, Sara N. (2020). "Literary Analysis: The Yellow Wall-Paper Affects Us All", at Tweetspeak Poetry (Spring 2020) Crewe, Jonathan (1995). "Queering 'The Yellow Wallpaper'? Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Politics of Form", Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature 14 (Fall 1995), pp. 273–293. Cutter, Martha J. "The Writer as Doctor: New Models of Medical Discourse in Charlotte Perkins Gilman's Later Fictions". Literature and Medicine 20. 2 (Fall 2001): pp. 151–182. Gilbert, Sandra and Gubar, Susan (1980). The Madwoman in the Attic. Yale University Press. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. "Why I wrote The Yellow Wallpaper", The Forerunner, October 1913, accessed November 15, 2009. Golden, Catherine (1989). "The Writing of ‘The Yellow Wallpaper’ A Double Palimpsest", Studies in American Fiction, 17 (Autumn 1989), pp. 193–201. Haney-Peritz, Janice. "Monumental Feminism and Literature’s Ancestral House: Another Look at ‘The Yellow Wallpaper", Women’s Studies 12 (1986): 113–128. Hume, Beverly A. "Gilman’s ‘Interminable Grotesque’: The Narrator of ‘The Yellow Wallpaper", Studies in Short Fiction 28 (Fall 1991): 477–484. Johnson, Greg. "Gilman’s Gothic Allegory: Rage and Redemption in ‘The Yellow Wallpaper.’" Studies in Short Fiction 26 (Fall 1989): 521–530. King, Jeannette, and Pam Morris. "On Not Reading Between the Lines: Models of Reading in ‘The Yellow Wallpaper.’" Studies in Short Fiction 26.1 (Winter 1989): 23–32. Klotz, Michael. "Two Dickens Rooms in 'The Yellow Wall-Paper'", Notes and Queries (December 2005): 490–1. Knight, Denise D. "The Reincarnation of Jane: 'Through This' – Gilman’s Companion to ‘The Yellow Wall-paper.’" Women’s Studies 20 (1992): 287–302. Lanser, Susan S. "Feminist Criticism, 'The Yellow Wallpaper', and the Politics of Color in America". Feminist Studies 15 (Fall 1989): 415–437. External links Full Text of The Yellow Wallpaper. Retrieved January 22, 2008. Full text of The Yellow Wallpaper at the CUNY Library The Yellow Wallpaper, audio, CBS radio, 1948. The Yellow Wallpaper A 2006 film inspired by the short story that relies on the gothic/horror interpretation. The Yellow Wall-Paper: A Graphic Novel (Unabridged) A 2020 experimental graphic novel containing the unabridged text of the original story. EDSITEment's lesson plan Charlotte Perkins Gilman's Yellow Wall-Paper 1892 short stories American short stories Works originally published in The New England Magazine Feminist short stories Horror short stories Gothic short stories Fictional diaries Fiction with unreliable narrators Short stories about mental disorders Short stories adapted into films Novels about sleep disorders Works set in country houses

L.A. Guns

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L.A. Guns are an American glam metal band from Los Angeles, California, formed in 1983. The lineup currently consists of Tracii Guns (lead guitar), Phil Lewis (lead vocals), Ace Von Johnson (rhythm guitar, backing vocals), Johnny Martin (bass, backing vocals), Scot Coogan (live drums) and Adam Hamilton (studio drums). The first incarnation of the group was formed by Tracii Guns and Rob Gardner in 1983 and merged with fellow Los Angeles group, Hollywood Rose, to form Guns N' Roses in March 1985. After only a brief tenure in that band, Guns reformed L.A. Guns with a new lineup, consisting of Paul Black, Mick Cripps, Robert Stoddard, and Nickey Alexander. Black would soon be replaced by former Girl singer Phil Lewis while former Faster Pussycat bassist Kelly Nickels was added to the group. Later, Alexander would be replaced by former W.A.S.P. drummer Steve Riley with this being known as the "classic lineup" of L.A. Guns. They achieved moderate chart success in the late 1980s and early 1990s. However, the group went through numerous lineup changes (with Riley being the most consistent member) and failed to regain mainstream attention. The "classic lineup" of the group would reunite in 1999 and began recording new material. However, the group continued to change lineups and Guns eventually left to form the hard rock supergroup Brides of Destruction with Nikki Sixx of Mötley Crüe in 2002. L.A. Guns continued without Guns, bringing in guitarist Stacey Blades, however, following his decision to put Brides of Destruction on hiatus in 2006, Guns formed The Tracii Guns Band. The group's lineup consisted of former L.A. Guns members Black, Alexander as well as Jeremy Guns (though the lineup would eventually change), with the group eventually changing their name to L.A. Guns. Both groups continued to record and tour under the L.A. Guns moniker until 2012, when the Tracii Guns-led version of the group disbanded. History Formation and Guns N' Roses (1983–1985) L.A. Guns were first formed in 1983 by guitarist Tracii Guns and drummer Rob Gardner. The first lineup included singer Mike Jagosz, bassist Ole Beich and drummer Rob Gardner. Guns, Gardner and Jagosz met at Fairfax High School and previously played in a band called Pyrrhus with bassist Dani Tull. This lineup recorded the band's debut EP, Collector's Edition No. 1, before Jagosz was replaced by Axl Rose. Originally released on vinyl, the record was produced and engineered by Blues/Rock guitarist Chuck Rosa and came out on Raz Records (an independent Hollywood based record label, named after the band's manager, Raz Cue). The same material would later be released as a bonus disc with the compilation album Hollywood Raw in 2004. Rose fronted the group Rapidfire before going on to form Hollywood Rose, a group formed following the introduction of guitarists Izzy Stradlin and Chris Weber to each other by Guns. Following the breakup of Hollywood Rose, in 1984, singer Rose joined L.A. Guns. However, Hollywood Rose reunited, briefly, with Rose, Stradlin, Weber and Steve Darrow returning while L.A. Guns drummer Gardner also joined the group. Weber, who left to move to New York City, was soon replaced by Tracii Guns. The group changed their name to Guns N' Roses (combining the names of L.A. Guns and Hollywood Rose) with the lineup composed of Axl Rose, Tracii Guns, Izzy Stradlin, Ole Beich and Rob Gardner. Beich was eventually replaced by Duff McKagan while Guns left the group (after a falling out with Rose), being replaced by Slash. McKagan went on to book shows taking place between Sacramento and Seattle, which was dubbed "The Hell Tour". During this time, Gardner quit the group and was replaced by Steven Adler with this line-up becoming known as the "classic lineup" of Guns N' Roses. Reformation and mainstream success (1985–1992) Later, in 1986, Guns reformed LA Guns with Mick Cripps, Paul Black, Nickey Alexander and Robert Stoddard, former The Dogs D'Amour singer, briefly became guitarist for the group, co-writing the song "Nothing to Lose" that appeared on L.A. Guns debut album. Initially, the group were to be called Faster Pussycat (later the name of another band; several of that band's members over the years were also in L.A. Guns) but soon re-adopted the L.A. Guns moniker. After writing material and playing shows, the group signed with PolyGram. Black was soon replaced by former Girl singer Phil Lewis while Kelly Nickels (formerly of Faster Pussycat) was added to the lineup. They recorded their debut album, titled L.A. Guns, with producer Jim Faraci. The album featured six songs co-written by former singer Paul Black ("No Mercy", "Sex Action", "One More Reason", "Nothing to Lose", "Bitch is Back" and "One Way Ticket") while, after album completion, drummer Alexander was replaced by former W.A.S.P. drummer Steve Riley (with Riley credited as L.A. Guns' drummer on the album's liner notes and Alexander only given drum credits). The album was released in 1988, through PolyGram/Vertigo Records, peaking at number 50 on the Billboard 200. After briefly touring in support of the album, the group returned to the studio to record their new album with producers Duane Baron, John Purdell and Tom Werman. Although the group (Lewis, Guns, Cripps, Nickels and Riley) wrote the album's material, "Never Enough" featured additional contributions from Paul Black, Gregg Tripp and Phil Roy. Robin Zander and Rick Nielsen, both of Cheap Trick, also make an appearance on the album. Released in 1989, L.A. Guns new album, titled Cocked & Loaded, peaked at number 38 on the Billboard 200 while the single "The Ballad of Jayne" peaked at number 25 and 33 on the Mainstream Rock Chart and the Billboard Hot 100 respectively. The album went on to become RIAA certified Gold and eventually Platinum. They released their third album, titled Hollywood Vampires, in 1991 which peaked at number 42 on the Billboard 200. The singles "Kiss My Love Goodbye" and "It's Over Now" would peak at number 16 and 25 on the Mainstream Rock Chart respectively while It's Over Now" also peaked at number 62 on the Billboard Hot 100. Drummer Riley was fired from L.A. Guns in 1992 following the group's tour of Europe with Skid Row for allegedly assaulting Lewis. Vicious Circle and lineup changes (1993–1999) Due to the rise in popularity of Seattle's grunge movement, the group waited a number of years before recording new material. During this time, Guns participated in the short lived supergroup Contraband, the group put together by Alan Kovac. The group featured singer Richard Black (of Shark Island), Michael Schenker (of Scorpions, UFO and Michael Schenker Group), Share Pedersen (of Vixen) and Bobby Blotzer (of Ratt). They released one self-titled album in 1991, which peaked at number 187 on the Billboard 200, and achieved some moderate success with the single "All the Way from Memphis", which peaked at number 12 on the Mainstream Rock Chart, before disbanding. Regrouping in the mid-1990s with drummer Michael Gersema, L.A. Guns recorded and released their fourth album, titled Vicious Circle, in 1994 with the album failing to chart. It was their weakest selling album to date with the group's first major lineup change coming afterwards. Former drummer Riley was invited to rejoin the group for the subsequent tour; however, both Lewis (who went on to form Filthy Lucre, releasing the Popsmear album in 1997) and Cripps departed the group with singer Chris Van Dahl replacing Lewis and Johnny Crypt replacing Cripps on rhythm guitar. PolyGram soon dropped the group, who had already begun sessions for a follow-up album, following the low sales of Vicious Circle. Nickels subsequently left the band as well, at which point Crypt switched to bass. The now four-piece lineup completed recording of the Pantera-influenced album American Hardcore, released in 1996 through CMC International with the album failing to chart also. The group changed singers once again, recruiting Ralph Saenz, formerly of The Atomic Punks, for the recording of the Wasted EP released in 1998 before eventually adding former Love/Hate singer Jizzy Pearl to the group in 1999. With the lineup consisting of Pearl, Guns, Crypt and Riley, the group recorded their new album with former Guns N' Roses guitarist Gilby Clarke producing. The group released the album, titled Shrinking Violet in 1999 through Perris Records before going on tour supporting Poison. Reunion and the departure of Tracii Guns (1999–2002) A compilation album of re-recorded songs and new material, titled Greatest Hits and Black Beauties, was released in the summer of 1999. Despite the Pearl-led lineup having just released new material, Shrinking Violet, during this time, the "classic" lineup of L.A. Guns reunited with Phil Lewis, Mick Cripps and Kelly Nickels returning to the group in the fall, touring in support of the compilation album. They recorded a live album during this time, titled Live: A Night on the Strip, which was released the following year. That same year, they re-recorded and re-released Cocked & Loaded, retitled Cocked & Re-Loaded, on Deadline Records. Both Cripps and Nickels would leave the group on the eve of a 2000 summer tour, replaced by Faster Pussycat guitarist Brent Muscat and bassist Muddy. For the recording of their new album, Cripps returned to the lineup, replacing Muscat, and recorded keyboards on the album. Produced by Gilby Clarke, the group released Man in the Moon in 2001 through Spitfire Records while former Pretty Boy Floyd guitarist Keff Ratcliffe was added to the group. Sometime afterwards, Muddy would depart the group, along with Ratcliffe and Cripps, with Adam Hamilton becoming the group's new bassist. with Mötley Crüe bassist Nikki Sixx. L.A. Guns bassist Hamilton was briefly involved with this group (as keyboardist), which was rounded out by singer London LeGrand and Adema drummer Kris Kohls. John Corabi, formerly of Mötley Crüe and The Scream, was to fill in for Guns, during the latter's involvement with Cockstar, on L.A. Guns' tour with Alice Cooper. However, Corabi himself would soon join Cockstar, replacing Hamilton. Cockstar would change their name to Brides of Destruction. Meanwhile, L.A. Guns completed the recording of their new album in late April 2002, releasing the record, titled Waking the Dead, the same year to positive reviews. That June, the group began touring with Warrant, Ratt, FireHouse and Dokken as part of the Rock Fest tour. However, they were soon dropped from their label. They also pulled out of touring with Alice Cooper followings Guns departure from the group in October in order to concentrate on his project with Sixx, though he would argue he never left. Two L.A. Guns Phil Lewis' L.A. Guns (2002–2012) Despite the departure of Guns, the group continued and toured in support of Waking the Dead with the lineup, in 2003, consisting of Lewis, Riley, Hamilton, former guitarist Brent Muscat and new guitarist Keri Kelli (formerly of Big Bang Babies and Slash's Snakepit). The group eventually recruited guitarist Stacey Blades, with both Muscat and Kelli departing the group, in 2004 while they also released the cover album, titled Rips the Covers Off, the same year. Commenting on Blades addition to the lineup, Lewis stated that "Stacey really is a virtuoso type of guy and player. It was really fortunate that we found him and that he's another Hollywood guy. I've read reviews where they called him a Tracii [Guns] clone, but he's not. He is definitely his own man." Enlisting Andy Johns and Bruce Witkin, the group began recording a new material with the group's current lineup with the result being Tales from the Strip, released in 2005 through Shrapnel Records. In a 2006 interview, singer Lewis stated that he would have preferred releasing the album on a larger label while he also likened the album to a demo. In September of the same year, the group released the live album Loud and Dangerous: Live from Hollywood before going on to play a selection of shows in California as well as one date supporting Ratt in Pennsylvania. In January 2007, the group announced a string of US tour dates in support of Tales from the Strip. In March, along with more tour dates, L.A. Guns announced the departure of bassist Hamilton who was subsequently replaced by Scott Griffin. Further tour dates were announced to take place in Australia, taking place in October, as well as dates in Europe supporting Hanoi Rocks, taking place in November. They soon announced that the European dates were postponed until 2008, however, Hanoi Rocks issued a statement saying that the tour with L.A. Guns supporting "was never officially approved" by the group. On July 5, 2009, bassist Griffin departed the group and was replaced by Kenny Kweens (formerly of Beautiful Creatures). In January 2011, Kweens departed the band, with Griffin returning to the lineup. On March 7, 2012, the band announced a new studio album, titled Hollywood Forever, which was released on June 5 that same year. Tracii Guns' L.A. Guns (2006–2012) Following his decision to put Brides of Destruction on hiatus, in 2006, former L.A. Guns guitarist Tracii Guns formed The Tracii Guns Band with former L.A. Guns members Paul Black and Nickey Alexander as well as Brides of Destruction live bassist Jeremy Guns. The group announced a tour of the US with plans to perform songs from L.A. Guns, Brides of Destruction and Tracii Guns' solo material as well as various cover songs. Previously, in 2005, Black released the demos, titled Black List, recorded during his time with L.A. Guns in the 80's. With Tracii Guns owning the rights to the name (along with Steve Riley), he changed the name of The Tracii Guns Band to L.A. Guns in the summer of 2006, creating a conflict, as there were now two groups touring under the "L.A. Guns" moniker. In October of the same year, during the 20-year anniversary party for Cathouse Club, in Hollywood, Phil Lewis joined Tracii Guns' L.A. Guns onstage, after being invited by singer Paul Black, for a duet of "Rip and Tear." Despite Black's hopes that this would "relieve the tension between the two line-ups", Lewis would later state that "Tracii [Guns] as good as he is, has had to pretty much lower himself to playing with these guys that if they were going to do anything they would have done it in the past twenty years, but they have done nothing." In 2007, Alexander would be replaced by drummer Chad Stewart with the group playing shows in South America, Europe as well as numerous tours of the US. In December, the Tracii Guns version of the band's dressing room was robbed during a show at McGuffy's in Dayton, Ohio. Items taken included wallets, "a Blackberry and a bottle of Jack Daniels whiskey." The thief was later caught with the items returned to the band. Guns announced, in January 2008, that the group were to record a new album stating that they were "heading up to Canada in April/May to record the new stuff in a very secluded location so we have no distractions and can actually get it done." They announced dates in the US and South America in February, however, they announced, in March, South American tour was postponed with them beginning recording on their new album, tentatively titled Pretty in Black, with producer Steve Thompson. The same month, they were confirmed as one of the acts of the second Rocklahoma festival. After being invited by bassist Jeremy Guns, singer Marty Casey, of Lovehammers, joined the group, who had signed a deal with Alexus Records, in the studio co-writing material. Paul Black parted ways with the group in March, while Alec Bauer was added as the group's second guitarist. By July, the group had completed the new album with Casey with plans to release the album by the end of the year. They also recorded a pilot for VH1 which, at that point, was being shopped to different networks. Also announced that the "name of the band will not be L.A. Guns for this TV show and album, but we will do some nostalgia shows and festivals as L.A. Guns." The group toured through 2008 and 2009, however, Casey returned to Lovehammers to record and release their new album Heavy Crown in 2009. While the group waited for a release date for their new album, as well as deciding on a new name for the group, former L.A. Guns singer Jizzy Pearl returned to group while guitarist Alec Bauer departed the band. In an interview, in late 2009, Tracii stated that L.A. Guns parted ways with Alexus Records and that he was unsure wither the material recorded with Marty Casey or the VH1 pilot will ever be released. In February 2010, L.A. Guns announced they had signed a deal with Steve Vai's label, Favored Nations, to release a "Deluxe Reissue" of Shrinking Violet, the only L.A. Guns studio album to feature singer Jizzy Pearl, that was released the same year. The album was repackaged with new artwork and five live bonus tracks by the group's current lineup. The band announced a one-off unplugged event, taking place at the Hotel Café in Los Angeles, California, in February 2011 featuring the band, with the exception of Jeremy Guns, former L.A. Guns members Muddy, Mick Cripps, as well as Danny Nordahl and Doni Gray. By March, both Jeremy and Stewart departed the band. Although Nordahl temporarily replaced Jeremy, while Stewart remained before both rejoined Faster Pussycat. It was later confirmed that Jeremy returned to the lineup, with Doni Gray joining as their new drummer. By September, it was announced that Pearl had departed the band, on good terms, with former Rock Star: Supernova finalist Dilana joining in his place. Session musician Eric Grossman was also announced as the replacement for Jeremy. But after being in the band for only a mere 71 days, Dilana would depart from the band and be replaced by Tony West from Blacklist Union. Former bassist for The Whisky Rebellion, Tim Sterling, reported that upon seeing Dilana do a soundcheck with L.A. Guns, it was “the most arrogant, egotistical behavior I’ve ever seen from a performer towards their band and crew.” West was replaced in January 2012 by Scott Foster Harris according to the L.A. Guns official Facebook site. It has also been announced that Tracii Guns L.A. Guns will be playing their farewell tour Europe and then they will be going under the name The Tracii Guns League of Gentleman. Eric Grossman has since announced his departure from L.A. Guns. He was later replaced by Johnny Martin on bass and the band added Steve Preach on guitar, organ and piano, extending the line-up to a 5-piece. Disbanding of Tracii Guns' band (2012–2015) Guns announced in July that he was finished with his version of L.A. Guns, leaving only the Phil Lewis-led group performing under the moniker. On December 12, guitarist Stacey Blades has announced his departure from L.A. Guns; five days later, Frank Wilsey joined the band as its new guitarist. On January 16, L.A. Guns announced a new video DVD, Live in Concert, including video of the band's performance at the M3 Rock Festival in May 2012, three music videos and a documentary about the making of Hollywood Forever. The DVD was scheduled for release via Cleopatra Records on February 12. On January 17, 2013, it was announced that Wilsey had left the band; he was replaced by Michael Grant from Endeverafter. On March 9, 2014, original singer Michael Jagosz died at aged 48. In September 2014, the band revealed that Griffin had departed and Kweens had returned. Reunion between Tracii Guns and Phil Lewis / Steve Riley and Kelly Nickels version of L.A. Guns (2016–present) On May 31, 2016, it was announced that Phil Lewis and Tracii Guns would perform together for the first time in 14 years under the name "L.A. Guns' Phil Lewis + Tracii Guns" for a handful of shows, including three shows in South America in July, Hair Nation Rock Fest in Irvine on September 17 and Rock N Skull Fest in Joliet, Illinois on October 27. This line-up of L.A. Guns consists of Lewis and Guns along with bassist Johnny Martin (who had previously been a member of Tracii Guns' version of the band) and drummer Shane Fitzgibbon; with Michael Grant from Steve Riley's line-up touring with the band as second guitarist. In September 2016, LA Weekly reported that Lewis and Guns plan to record a new album together under the L.A. Guns name for Frontiers Records, originally intended for a June 2017 release. The album was supported by a world tour, which kicked off with two shows at the Whisky a Go Go in West Hollywood in March 2017. In December 2016 Lewis announced he was leaving L.A. Guns, noting "With a heavy heart I have to inform you that as of January 1, 2017 I will no longer be a member of this line up. I feel I have gone as far as I can in this band, and unless I get out and focus on myself and something new that has a future, I'm going to stagnate". It was later clarified that Lewis was to continue fronting the Tracii Guns version of L.A. Guns and that he was only leaving the Steve Riley version. The Steve Riley-led version of the band are due to play the M3 Rock Festival in Maryland, in May 2019. It was announced that L.A. Guns would be entering the studio to record a brand new album called The Missing Peace which was released on October 13, 2017 The Tracii Guns version announced that they would tour Australia and New Zealand in 2018. On March 7, 2018 it was announced that the former Endeverafter guitarist Michael Grant left L.A. Guns to pursue other interests including his solo project "Michael Grant and the Assassins". Grant later revealed that he was fired from the band and did not voluntarily leave. Grant was replaced by Enuff Z'Nuff guitarist Johnny Monaco, but was replaced by Hamilton a few months later. In July 2018, L.A. Guns announced their 12th studio album The Devil You Know, released in March 2019. In January 2020, Guns and Lewis sued Riley over the use of the L.A. Guns name. On April 23, 2021 they settled this dispute in court with Guns and Lewis retaining the L.A. Guns name, while Riley was made to change his versions to Riley's L.A. Guns. Riley's L.A. Guns released their first single called "Crawl" on April 20, 2020. This was follows up by a studio album Renegades released on November 13, 2020 (before the name change had taken effect). This version of the band changed its name to "Riley's L.A. Guns" in April 2021 following a settlement reached between Riley with Tracii Guns and Phil Lewis. L.A. Guns (feat. Tracii Guns and Phil Lewis) released new single is "Let You Down" on May 6, 2020. This was the first single from the new album "Checkered Past" released on November 12, 2021. Producer Adam Hamilton has played the drums for this album. Band members L.A. Guns current members Tracii Guns – lead guitar , rhythm guitar Phil Lewis – lead vocals , rhythm guitar Adam Hamilton – drums , keyboards , bass , rhythm guitar , backing vocals Johnny Martin - bass Ace Von Johnson – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Shane Fitzgibbon – drums, percussion Riley's L.A. Guns current members Kelly Nickels – bass, backing vocals, occasional harmonica, lead vocals on one song ("Nothing Better to Do" off of the Vicious Circle album) Steve Riley – drums, percussion, backing vocals Scott Griffin – lead guitar, backing vocals , rhythm guitar , bass Kurt Frohlich – lead vocals, rhythm guitar Discography Studio albums L.A. Guns (1988) Cocked & Loaded (1989) Hollywood Vampires (1991) Vicious Circle (1994) American Hardcore (1996) Shrinking Violet (1999) Man in the Moon (2001) Waking the Dead (2002) Tales from the Strip (2005) Hollywood Forever (2012) The Missing Peace (2017) The Devil You Know (2019) Renegades (2020) Checkered Past (2021) See also List of glam metal bands and artists References External links Tracii Guns' and Phil Lewis' L.A. Guns Steve Riley's' L.A. Guns L.A. Guns Early band photo on Tracii's Instagram American glam metal musical groups Heavy metal musical groups from California Guns N' Roses Hard rock musical groups from California Musical groups established in 1983 Musical groups disestablished in 1984 Musical groups reestablished in 1985 Musical groups from Los Angeles Musical quintets Vertigo Records artists PolyGram artists Shrapnel Records artists Cleopatra Records artists Frontiers Records artists

Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker

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Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker (also known as The Return of the Joker, Batman Beyond: The Movie or The Batman Beyond Movie in the working title) is a 2000 American direct-to-video animated superhero mystery film produced by Warner Bros. Animation and distributed by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment. It is the third film in the DC Animated Universe and is based on the animated series Batman Beyond. Return of the Joker features the DC Comics superheroes Bruce Wayne (Kevin Conroy) and Terry McGinnis (Will Friedle), as they try and unravel the mysterious return of the former's archenemy, the Joker (Mark Hamill). Following the Columbine High School massacre, the film received heavy edits that delayed its release until December 12, 2000. An uncut version was subsequently released on DVD in 2002, to generally positive reviews. Plot A new faction of the Jokerz gang - consisting of Bonk, Woof, Ghoul, Chucko and the Dee-Dee twins - attempts to steal high-tech electronic equipment, but they are intercepted by Batman (Terry McGinnis). The gang reports back to their leader, revealed to be the original Joker, who kills Bonk for defiance and intimidation to other members. Later on, the Jokerz attack a press conference commemorating Terry's predecessor Bruce Wayne's return to Wayne Enterprises and the Joker reveals himself to Bruce, who insists that it cannot be him despite evidence to the contrary. After fending off the attack, Terry demands information from Bruce and Gotham City Police Department's Commissioner Barbara Gordon, the former Batgirl, but neither gives him answers. Eventually, Bruce orders Terry to return the Batsuit so he can investigate and confront the Joker on his own despite limitations of age. However, the Jokerz attack Terry, nearly killing his girlfriend Dana Tan, while the Joker poisons Bruce and his Great Dane, Ace - revealing he knows Bruce was Batman and that Terry is his successor. After Terry saves Bruce's life with an antidote, Barbara finally explains the Joker's disappearance; Four decades ago, following Dick Grayson's departure from Gotham City to Blüdhaven, the Joker and Harley Quinn kidnapped his successor Tim Drake, then Robin, inflicting three weeks of torture and brainwashing on him to learn Batman's secrets. When Batman and Batgirl found Tim, he was altered to resemble the Joker, a fight ensued - during which Tim turned on and killed the Joker, suffering a complete nervous breakdown, while Harley fell down a ravine and was presumed dead. The Joker's body was buried beneath Arkham Asylum and Tim, after he recovered, was forced into retirement, severing his ties with Bruce and left to make it on his own in life. Terry visits Tim, who voices bitterness towards his past as Robin but denies any involvement in the Joker's return. Terry's next suspect is Jordan Pryce, a Wayne Enterprises executive who hates Bruce, but he only finds Pryce guilty of conspiring with the Jokerz to have Bruce killed. When the beam of a directed-energy weapon strikes Pryce's yacht from above, Terry rescues Pryce before turning him in to the police. In the Batcave, after realizing the Joker only destroyed the Robin costume, Terry recalls Tim's grudge against his old persona and deduces he must be involved; cross-referencing Tim's expertise as a telecommunications engineer with the Jokerz' thefts, Terry and Bruce discover the stolen equipment can create a jamming system to seize control of a laser-armed military satellite. When Terry goes to face Tim, he triggers a trap set by the Joker, who he then follows to an abandoned candy factory after surviving further attacks from the satellite. Subduing the Jokerz with Ace's help, Terry confronts the Joker, who reveals he encoded his DNA and consciousness into a microchip built with genetic technology hidden behind Tim's ear - allowing him to survive his death by turning Tim into the Joker's replicate, who is on the verge of completely taking over Tim's body. With the satellite, the Joker plans to kill Bruce and Terry's loved ones before destroying Gotham City but, in the consequent battle, Terry uses one of the Joker's joy buzzers to destroy both the weapon and the microchip, saving the city and freeing Tim as the Joker finally meets his end. Following the Jokerz' arrests, Barbara hides Tim's unwitting involvement to protect him with the Joker declared dead in the factory's explosion, while the Dee-Dee twins are bailed out by their grandmother - an elderly Harley Quinn, who survived her apparent death and reformed. Bruce, Tim and Barbara make amends while Tim recovers in the hospital, during which Bruce and Tim acknowledge Terry as worthy to carry the Batman mantle. Voice cast Will Friedle as Terry McGinnis / Batman Kevin Conroy as Bruce Wayne / Original Batman Mark Hamill as Joker & Jordan Pryce Angie Harmon as Commissioner Barbara Gordon Tara Strong as Young Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Dean Stockwell as Tim Drake Mathew Valencia as Young Tim Drake / Robin Andrea Romano as Robin's Joker laugh and cry (credited as "Laughing Boy") Arleen Sorkin as Harleen Quinzel / Harley Quinn & Amy Melissa Joan Hart as Delia and Deidre Dennis / Dee Dee Michael Rosenbaum as Stewart Carter Winthrop III / Ghoul Don Patrick Harvey as Charles Buntz / Chucko Henry Rollins as Benjamin Knox / Bonk Frank Welker as Woof the Hyena-Man / Ace the Bat-Hound Lauren Tom as Dana Tan Rachael Leigh Cook as Chelsea Cunningham Teri Garr as Mary McGinnis Ryan O'Donohue as Matthew "Matt" McGinnis Vernee Watson-Johnson as Ms. Joyce Carr Mary Scheer as Mrs. Drake Jason Stanford as a Gangster Production and release The film was initially put into production after the cancellation of Boyd Kirkland's Batman: Arkham, the intended sequel to Batman & Mr. Freeze: SubZero. When Bruce Timm and Glen Murakami were given the green-light to produce a Batman Beyond feature-length film, they decided to use the extra time to answer questions pertaining to the time period between Beyond and the rest of the DC Animated Universe. Will Friedle, Kevin Conroy, and Mark Hamill reprised their roles as Terry McGinnis, Bruce Wayne, and the Joker, respectively, while Dean Stockwell and Angie Harmon joined the voice cast as Barbara Gordon and Tim Drake. Arleen Sorkin returned as Harley Quinn, a role she originated in Batman: The Animated Series. The animation was outsourced to TMS Entertainment in Japan, however, Timm and his crew also used TMS as an outsourced pre-production unit, as a result, TMS also storyboarded almost half of the film in addition to doing the animation. It's also the first Batman direct-to-video animated film to use digital ink and paint. Return of the Joker was originally set for release on Halloween 2000, but, following the backlash against violence in children's media that resulted from the Columbine High School massacre in April 1999, the creative team was forced to make edits that delayed the film's release until December 12, 2000. The most dramatic change was the method of the Joker's death: rather than being shot and killed by Tim Drake, he is instead electrocuted after becoming tangled in water tubing. The Original Uncut Version Two years after the film's initial release, and following online petitions, Warner Home Video released an uncut and unaltered version of Return of the Joker, with more violence and some altered language, as well as the Joker's original death scene. While the 2000 release was rated PG, the uncut version was the first animated Batman film to receive a PG-13 rating from the Motion Picture Association of America. Tie-in media A comic adaptation of the film was released in February 2001, drawn by Craig Rousseau. The page depicting the Joker's death had to be redone in accordance with the edits made to the film. A tie-in video game was released in 2000 for Game Boy Color, PlayStation, and Nintendo 64. Scholastic released a novelization of the film, penned by Michael Teitelbaum, on October 1, 2000. Music Released on October 17, 2000, the soundtrack to Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker contains music composed by Kristopher Carter, as well as two tracks of music featured in the direct-to-video film. Critical reception On Rotten Tomatoes, 91% of critics gave the film a positive review based on 11 reviews, with an average rating of 7.71/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "This feature length entry in the Batman Beyond mythos sends off the Mark Hamill-voiced Joker in thrilling fashion, hitting the same caped crusading peaks of the original series." Nisha Gopalan of Entertainment Weekly praised the uncut version of the film, in particular how it "sheds light on the dark, obsessive relationship between the villain and his vigilante counterpart." Gerry Shamray of Sun Newspapers said that Return of the Joker "would have made a great live-action Batman movie." Ryan Cracknell of Apollo Guide called the film "an animated masterpiece." Peter Canavese of Groucho Reviews called it an "energetic and unsettling Batman adventure," adding that it "provides a memorable showcase for Hamill's celebrated take on the Joker, and allows both McGinnis and Wayne to see action and face emotional challenges." Michael Stailey of DVD Verdict gave the uncut version a score of 92 out of 100, calling it "a taut, high-impact film" and "a must-buy to Bat-fans and animation lovers alike." Garth Franklin of Dark Horizons had a mixed response when reviewing the uncut version, saying that "the script is pretty solid, the animation superb, and the voice performances all work well," but added that "the Terry character's personal scenes aren't anywhere near as engaging [as the scenes featuring the Joker or Bruce Wayne], and the investigative subplot doesn't work as well as it should." Jeremy Conrad of IGN gave the uncut version a score of nine out of 10 for the movie itself, six out of 10 each for video and audio, and eight out of 10 for extras, adding up to an overall score of seven out of 10. Accolades References External links Batman NOT Beyond The Censor's Reach—detailed analysis of the last-minute changes Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Edit List—The World's Finest's list of cuts and edits, includes screencaps from both versions. Batman Beyond: Return Of The Joker @ BYTB: Batman Yesterday, Today and Beyond 2000 animated films 2000 films 2000 action films 2000s American animated films 2000 direct-to-video films 2000s animated superhero films Adult animated superhero films American films Animated action films Animated Batman films Return of the Joker DC Animated Universe films Direct-to-video animated films based on DC Comics Direct-to-video sequel films Films about child abuse Films about child abduction Films about consciousness transfer Films about psychopaths Films about terrorism Films set in 2005 Films set in 2040 Films set in the future Films about genetic engineering Fiction about mind control Films directed by Curt Geda Films with screenplays by Paul Dini Films adapted into comics American adult animated films 2000s English-language films

Nissan S30

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The Nissan S30 (sold in Japan as the Nissan Fairlady Z and in other markets as the Datsun 240Z, then later as the 260Z and 280Z) is the first generation of Z GT 3-door two-seat coupés, produced by Nissan Motors, Ltd. of Japan from 1969 until 1978. One of the most successful sports car lines ever produced, the trend-setting S30 was conceived of by Yutaka Katayama, the President of Nissan Motor Corporation U.S.A. and designed by a team led by Yoshihiko Matsuo, the head of Nissan's Sports Car Styling Studio. Seeking to compete head-to-head with established European sports cars, Datsun priced the new 240Z within $200 of the British MGB-GT in the United States, a five-year-old design that showed its age. The 240Z's sleek styling, modern engineering, relatively low price, and impressive performance struck a major chord with the public. Positive response from both buyers and the motoring press was immediate, and dealers soon had long waiting lists for the "Z". As a "halo" car, the 240Z broadened the acceptance of Japanese car-makers beyond their econobox image. Datsun's growing dealer network—compared to limited production imported sports cars manufactured by Jaguar, BMW, Porsche, Alfa Romeo, and Fiat—ensured both easy purchase and ready maintenance. All variants of the S30 have four-wheel independent suspension consisting of MacPherson struts in front (borrowed from the Nissan Laurel C30) and Chapman struts in back. Front disc brakes and rear drums were standard. The 240Z used twin SU-style Hitachi one-barrel side-draft carburetors. These were replaced on the 260Z with Hitachi one-barrel side-draft carburetors beginning with model year 1973 to comply with emissions regulations, resulting in diminished overall performance. A Bosch-designed L-Jetronic electronic fuel injection was added to US market 280Zs in 1975 to compensate. Continuing through the 1975–1978 model years, markets outside of the United States (and Japan, which only offered the 2-liter engine from 1974) still received the 260Z coupé and 2+2. The S30 240Z is unrelated to the later 240SX, which is sold as the Silvia in Japan. Fairlady Z The Fairlady Z was introduced in late 1969 as a 1970 model, with the L20 2.0-litre straight-six SOHC engine, rear-wheel drive, and a stylish coupe body. The engine, based on the Datsun 510's four-cylinder, produced JIS and came with a four- or a five-speed manual transmission. For 1973, power of the carburetted engine dropped to to meet stricter regulations. In Japan, the Fairlady was exclusive to Nissan Japanese dealerships called Nissan Bluebird Stores. Japanese buyers could also get the L24-engined Fairlady 240Z model (HS30), although the larger engine placed it in a considerably higher tax category. The Japanese-spec 2.4-litre engine produces a claimed JIS at 5600 rpm but was discontinued in 1973 as sales had dropped considerably as a result of the fuel crisis, and so until the August 1978 introduction of the Fairlady 280Z only two-liter Fairladys were available. When export models changed over to the larger 2.6-liter 260Z in 1974, only 2-liter models remained available to Japanese buyers. A Fairlady 260Z had been planned for release, but the impact of the oil crisis stopped the model, although the 260Z was available in Okinawa (which drove on the right side of the road until 1978). The Fairlady Z received all the changes as applied to the export models, including the addition of a long-wheelbase 2+2 model. Introduced in January 1974, this received the GS30 chassis code. In 1975 the L20 engine gained fuel injection to meet new emissions standards (A-S30, A-GS30) and once again provided JIS. At the end of July 1976 the car received the NAPS system, including an EGR system, to meet the stricter yet emissions standards in effect for this year, bringing with it a change in model codes to S31 (C-S31/C-GS31). At the same time, the more luxurious Fairlady Z-T model was introduced - this was strictly an equipment level and did not include a T-bar roof, which was first seen on the succeeding generation Fairlady. Fairlady ZG The Japan-only HS30-H Nissan Fairlady 240ZG was released in Japan in October 1971 to homologate the 240Z for Group 4 racing. Differences between the Fairlady ZG and an export-market Datsun 240Z include an extended fiberglass "aero-dyna" nose, wider over-fenders riveted to the body, a rear spoiler, acrylic glass headlight covers and fender-mounted rear-view mirrors. The ZG's better aerodynamics allowed it to reach a top speed of , five more than the regular Fairlady 240Z (automatics' top speeds were another 5 km/h lower). The Fairlady ZG was available in three colours: Grand Prix Red, Grand Prix White, and Grand Prix Maroon. The "G" in Fairlady ZG stands for "Grande." Although the ZG was not sold in the US and was never sold outside Japan, in order for it to be eligible for competition in the US, Nissan sold the nose kit as a dealer's option which is known as the "G-nose". With the nose added, these 240Zs are often referred to as 240ZGs outside of Japan. Fairlady Z432 Packaging the S20 engine (originally designed by the former Prince engineers) from the Skyline GT-R created a faster Fairlady. "Z432" referred to 4 valves per cylinder, 3 Mikuni carburetors, and 2 camshafts. The model code is PS30. Approximately 420 were built. Some Z432s were used by the police in Japan. Fairlady Z432R A Japan-only model Fairlady Z equipped with the twin cam 2.0 L inline six-cylinder "S20" engine shared with the KPGC10 Skyline GT-R was released in the Japanese domestic market (JDM) for homologation purposes (to enable its use as a rally car). The Z432R were all painted orange with black aluminum wheels and a low luster black hood. Z432R had lighter front guards, doors, and bonnet, as well as further engine enhancements over the Z432. In January 2020 a 1970 Z432R sold at auction in Japan for a record , about US$. 240Z The 1970 240Z was introduced to the American market by Yutaka Katayama, president of Nissan Motors USA operations, widely known as "Mister K". The early cars from 1969 to mid-1971 had some subtle differences compared to late-71 to 1973 cars. The most visible difference is; these early cars had a chrome 240Z badge on the sail pillar, and two horizontal vents in the rear hatch below the glass molding providing flow through ventilation. In mid-1971, there were production changes, including exterior and interior colors, was restyling of the sail pillar emblems were with just the letter Z placed in a circular vented emblem, and the vents were eliminated from the hatch panel of the car, due to complains of exhaust being circulated into the car. Design changes for the US model 240Z occurred throughout production but were not always reflected in the JDM Fairlady if they were specific to federal requirements, including interior modifications for the 1972 model year and a change in the location of the bumper over-riders, as well as the addition of some emission control devices and the adoption of a new style of emissions reducing carburetors for the 1973 model year. The 1970 models were introduced in October 1969, received the L24 2.4-liter engine with a manual choke and a four-speed manual. A less common three-speed automatic transmission was optional from 1971 on, and had a "Nissan full automatic" badge. Most export markets received the car as the "240Z", with slightly differing specifications depending on the various market needs. In 2004, Sports Car International named this car number two on their list of Top Sports Cars of the 1970s. Specifications Engine: L24 inline-six, cast iron block, alloy head, two valves per cylinder, seven-bearing crankshaft, Direct Acting OHC, compression ratio 9.0:1; Maximum recommended engine speed 7,000 rpm. Bore X stroke: Fuel system: Mechanical fuel pump, twin Hitachi HJG 46W SU-type carburetors Power: at 5,600 rpm (SAE gross), DIN at 5,600 rpm Torque: at 4,400 rpm (SAE gross), at 4,800 rpm (DIN) Transmission: Four-speed manual, five-speed manual, or three-speed automatic (after September 1970) Final drive ratios: Four-speed manual transmission: 3.364:1 (37:11) Five-speed manual transmission: 3.90:1 (39:10) (not available in US) Three-speed automatic transmission: 3.545:1 (39:11). Brakes: Front: discs Rear: x drums Suspension: Front: Independent with MacPherson struts, lower transverse and drag links, coil springs, telescopic dampers, anti-roll bar Rear: Independent with Chapman struts, lower wishbones, coil springs, telescopic dampers Steering: Rack and pinion, 2.7 turns lock to lock Wheels: 4.5J-14 steel wheels with 175SR14 tires Top speed: 0 to : 8.0 s Typical fuel consumption: World Rally Championship - round victories In 1973, a 240Z, in the hands of Shekhar Mehta, won the 21st East African Safari Rally. {|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%; " ! No. ! Event ! Season ! Driver ! Co-driver ! Car |- | 1 | 21st East African Safari Rally | 1973 | Shekhar Mehta | Lofty Drews | Datsun 240Z |} 260Z The 260Z was sold in the United States for the 1974 model year only, but was available in other countries until 1978 (aside from Japan, where this model was never regularly available except for in Okinawa). The engine was enlarged to 2.6 L by lengthening its stroke bringing with it the new model code RS30. In the US, federal emissions regulations forced a reduction in ignition timing and compression ratio, resulting in a lower power output of SAE net for the 260Z despite the additional displacement, whereas in other countries the power output increased to . There was also a 1974.5 model sold through the second half of 1974 in the US that had the full 165 hp with the addition of the larger 5 mph safety bumpers, that would become the standard for the 280Z. A four-speed or 5 speed (non US) manual remained standard equipment, with a three-speed automatic transmission optional. A 2+2 model built on a longer wheelbase was introduced, with larger opening quarter panel windows and a slightly notched roofline. The 2+2 looked largely identical inside (aside from the rear seat and its associated seat belt reels), but did receive a carpeted transmission tunnel rather than the quilted vinyl material used on the two-seater. The rear side windows on the 2+2 were push-out units, to add ventilation for rear seat occupants. The 260Z claimed a few updates and improvements over the 240Z. The climate controls were more sensibly laid out and easier to work, and those cars with air conditioning now had the A/C system integrated into the main climate control panel. There was also additional stiffness in the chassis due to a redesign of the chassis rails which were larger and extended further back than previous models. A rear sway bar was added as well. The 260Z debuted a redesigned dashboard and console, as well as new seat trim, and door panels for the interior. The tail lights were updated, moving the back up lights from the main tail light housing to the back panel. Early 1974 US 260Z models had bumpers that resembled those of the earlier 240Z, though increased slightly in size, pushed away from the body somewhat, and wearing black rubber bumper guards rather that the previous chrome bumper guards with rubber strips. These early cars still had the front turn signals located below the bumpers. Late 1974 U.S. 260Z models (often referred to as 1974.5 models) carried the heavier bumpers that would remain on the 1975-76 model years of the 280Z so as to be in compliance with United States bumper legislation in 1973. These late cars had the front turn signals relocated to the outer edges of the front grill, above the bumper. Specifications Engine: L26 I6, cast-iron block, alloy head, two valve per cylinder, seven-bearing crankshaft, single overhead camshaft Displacement: Bore: Stroke: Compression ratio: 8.8:1 Fuel system: Mechanical fuel pump, twin Hitachi HMB 46W SU-type carburetors Power: at 5,600 rpm (SAE gross); at 5,200 rpm (SAE net) Torque: at 4,400 rpm (SAE gross); at 4,400 rpm (SAE net) Transmission: five-speed or four-speed manual or three-speed automatic Brakes: Front: discs front Rear: X drums rear, servo assisted Total swept area: Suspension: Front: Independent with MacPherson struts, lower wishbones, coil springs, telescopic dampers, anti-roll bar Rear: Independent with Chapman struts, lower wishbones, coil springs, telescopic dampers Steering: rack and pinion, 2.8 turns lock to lock Wheels/ tires: pressed steel wheels with 195VR14 radial tyres Top speed: 0 to : 8.0 sec Fuel consumption: Engine oil (sump): Tare weight: (2+2 Automatic) 280Z Nissan released the Datsun 280Z model for the North American market in the 1975 model year. In a further effort to keep the S30 models sporting in the face of increasingly stringent U.S. emission and safety requirements, engine size was again increased, this time to 2.8 liters. The L26 engine was bored out to create the L28, and a Bosch L-Jetronic fuel injection system was added. Canadian versions were uniquely equipped without the anti-smog components mandatory in the States. The model code is HS30, the same as for the original 240Z. The 1975 and 1976 models continued to be fitted with the U.S. federally-required impact absorbing bumpers that had been introduced for the mid-1974 model year of the 260Z. These bumpers were smooth surfaced, and blended into smooth black rubber extensions as they met the body of the car. The 1977 and 1978 models received bumpers with recessed channels added that blended into corrugated- or accordion-style black rubber extension trim. Also new for the 1977 model year, 280Zs no longer received the full-size spare tire, and instead had a "space saver" spare and a larger fuel tank. This resulted in a raised rear deck area made of fiberboard, reducing cargo space. In late 1976 and for most 1977–78 models, an optional five-speed manual transmission was available alongside the four-speed manual and the three-speed automatic options. It included a "5-speed" emblem on the left bottom edge of the rear hatch. For 1977 there was also an update from the charcoal painted hubcap style (with a chrome Z floating in the amber center emblems) to a hubcap that resembled an alloy wheel, bearing a center cap with a chrome Z floating in a black circle. In 1977 and 1978 respectively, Datsun offered two special edition models. The "Zap" edition was offered in 1977 as a "special decor package". Zap cars were finished in "sunshine yellow" paint, and sported black stripes down the center and sides, with yellow, red, and orange chevrons at the front ends of the stripes. An estimated 1,000 "Zap Z" cars were offered in 1977. The "Zap Z" model was also used as the pace car in the 1977 Long Beach Grand Prix. The Black Pearl edition (produced in 1978) came with black pearlescent paint and a "special appearance package" (SAP), which consisted of dual racing mirrors, rear window louvers, and unique red and silver striping. It has been estimated that each United States dealer was allocated one Black Pearl edition to sell, though due to high demand some dealers reportedly received additional allocation. It is estimated 750 to 1,500 of these cars were ultimately produced, however the exact number remains unknown. Both the two-seater and 2+2 280Z coupes remained available throughout the 1975–1978 model year run. The S30 series was replaced for 1979 by the Nissan S130. Specifications Engine: L28E I6, cast-iron block, alloy head, seven-bearing crankshaft, single overhead camshaft Displacement: Bore: Stroke: Fuel system: electric fuel pump, Bosch L-Jetronic fuel injection Compression ratio: 8.3:1 Power: at 5,600 rpm (SAE gross) Torque: at 4,400 rpm Transmission: four-speed manual, five-speed manual, three-speed automatic Final drive ratio: 3.55:1 Racing The Z was very successful in SCCA racing in the 1970s: Bob Sharp Racing out of Wilton, Connecticut with Sharp, Elliot Forbes-Robinson and later Paul Newman driving; and Brock Racing Enterprises (BRE) in the western US with John Morton driving a #46 240Z to the SCCA C Production national title in 1970 and 1971. Other drivers, such as Clearwater Florida (and later Maryland) racer Don Kearney had much success with the Z-car between 1970 and 1978. The Z and Datsun 510 are credited as catalyst for the US Japanese import performance parts industry. Nissan also supported and was associated with Bob Bondurant's race driving school from its inception. In 2013 Nissan claimed its 97th SCCA national championship victory with Greg Ira at the wheel of his orange #2 RevTech 240Z. On his way to his championship Ira set several road course records in SCCA's E Production class, beginning in 2006, including: Daytona International Speedway, Florida Heartland Park, Kansas Homestead-Miami Speedway, Florida Palm Beach International Raceway, Florida Road America, Wisconsin Sebring International Raceway, Florida Virginia International Raceway, Virginia Ira was awarded SCCA's prestigious Kimberly Cup in 2008. Previous Kimberly Cup recipients include Bob Holbert, Roger Penske, Mark Donohue, and Peter Revson. On September 27, 2015, Greg Ira won his second (and Nissan's 98th) SCCA National Championship, in his EP2 Revtech/Ztrix.com 240Z, at Daytona International Speedway. Relaunch attempts From 1997 to 2002 Nissan did not offer the Z-car line outside of Japan, where the Fairlady Z (Z32) remained available until 2000. In 1998, Nissan launched a program to bring back the Z-car line by first purchasing original 240Zs, then restoring them to factory specifications, and finally selling them to dealerships for $24,000. This was an effort to keep Z-car interest alive. Nissan over-estimated the market for the cars and low demand (and the high price) meant that less than fifty cars were re-manufactured and sold. Furthermore, in 1999, a concept car was shown to the public in a plan to return to the fundamentals that made the 240Z a market success. See also Datsun Sports Nissan L engine Nissan Z-car Yutaka Katayama Wangan Midnight References Notes Sources Datsun Z: From Fairlady to 280Z, Brian Long, Motorbooks International 1998 () External links Classic Z Register IMCDb listing for 240Z IMCDb listing for 260Z IMCDb listing for 280Z Sports cars Rear-wheel-drive vehicles Rally cars Cars introduced in 1969 1970s cars 240Z-280ZX

Election Day (United States)

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In the United States, Election Day is the annual day set by law for the general elections of federal public officials. It is statutorily set by the Federal Government as "the Tuesday next after the first Monday in the month of November" equaling the Tuesday occurring within November 2 to November 8. For federal offices (president, vice president, and United States Congress) and most gubernatorial offices (all except for Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Jersey, and Virginia), Election Day occurs only in even-numbered years. Presidential elections are held every four years, in years divisible by four, in which electors for president and vice president are chosen according to the method determined by each state. Elections to the US House of Representatives and the US Senate are held every two years; all representatives are elected to serve two-year terms and are up for election every two years, while senators serve six-year terms, staggered so that one third of senators are elected in any given general election. General elections in which presidential candidates are not on the ballot are referred to as midterm elections. Terms for those elected begin in January the following year; the president and vice president are inaugurated (sworn in) on Inauguration Day, which is usually January 20. Many state and local government offices are also elected on Election Day as a matter of convenience and cost saving, although a handful of states hold elections for state offices (such as governor) during odd-numbered off years, or during other even-numbered midterm years, and may hold special elections for offices that have become vacant. Congress has mandated a uniform date for presidential () and congressional ( and ) elections, though early voting is nonetheless authorized in many states, and states also have mail voting procedures. The fact that Election Day falls on a Tuesday has become controversial in recent decades, as many people might be unable to vote because of their job. It is a public holiday in some states, including Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Montana, New Jersey, New York, Virginia, West Virginia, as well as the territory of the Northern Mariana Islands and Puerto Rico. Some other states require that workers be permitted to take time off with pay. California requires that employees otherwise unable to vote must be allowed two hours off with pay, at the beginning or end of a shift. A federal holiday called Democracy Day, to coincide with Election Day, has been proposed, and some have proposed moving election day to the weekend. Other movements in the IT and automotive industries encourage employers to voluntarily give their employees paid time off on Election Day. History By 1792, federal law permitted each state to choose Presidential electors any time within a 34-day period before the first Wednesday in December. A November election was convenient because the harvest would have been completed but the most severe winter weather, impeding transportation, would not yet have arrived, while the new election results also would roughly conform to a new year. Tuesday was chosen as Election Day so that voters could attend church on Sunday, travel to the polling location (usually in the county seat) on Monday, and vote before Wednesday, which was usually when farmers would sell their produce at the market. Originally, states varied considerably in the method of choosing electors. Gradually, states converged on selection by some form of popular vote. Development of the Morse electric telegraph, funded by Congress in 1843 and successfully tested in 1844, was a technological change that clearly augured an imminent future of instant communication nationwide. To prevent information from one state from influencing Presidential electoral outcomes in another, Congress responded in 1845 by mandating a uniform national date for choosing Presidential electors. Congress chose the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November to harmonize current electoral practice with the existing 34-day window in federal law, as the span between Election Day and the first Wednesday in December is always 29 days. The effect is to constrain Election Day to the week between November 2 and 8 inclusive. Beginning with Presidential elections, states gradually brought most elections into conformity with this date. The Twentieth Amendment, passed in 1933, changed the beginning and end date for the terms of the President, Vice President, Congressmen, and Senators. It did not affect the timing of Election Day. Criticism The majority of the electorate have to attend work on Tuesdays. This has led activists to promote alternatives to increase voter turnout. Alternative solutions include making Election Day a federal holiday or merging it with Veterans Day, observed annually on November 11, allowing voting over multiple days, mandating paid time off to vote, encouraging voters to vote early or vote by postal voting, and encouraging states to promote flexible voting. Holiday and paid leave Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Montana, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia, and the territory of Puerto Rico have declared Election Day a civic holiday. Some other states require that workers be permitted to take time off from employment without loss of pay. California Elections Code Section 14000 and New York State Election Law provide that employees without sufficient time to vote must be allowed two hours off with pay, at the beginning or end of a shift. Some employers allow their employees to begin later or leave their workplace early on Election Day to allow them the opportunity to get to their precinct and vote. The United Auto Workers union has negotiated making Election Day a holiday for workers of U.S. domestic auto manufacturers. In January 2019, Sandusky, Ohio became the first city in the country to make Election Day a paid holiday for city employees by eliminating Columbus Day. On April 12, 2020, the Governor of Virginia Ralph Northam signed legislation that established Election Day as a holiday. On June 16, 2020, the Governor of Illinois J.B. Pritzker signed legislation that established Election Day as a holiday. Democratic Representative John Conyers of Michigan proposed H.R. 63 – Democracy Day Act of 2005 for the Tuesday after the first Monday in November of every even-numbered year, to be a legal public holiday called Democracy Day. The purpose of the holiday was to increase voter turnout by giving citizens more time to vote, as well as to allow for the opening of more polling stations with more workers while raising awareness of the importance of voting and civic participation. The bill was reintroduced on November 12, 2014, and again on September 25, 2018, by independent Senator Bernie Sanders. It has never been enacted. Early and postal voting Most states allow early voting, letting voters cast their ballots before Election Day. Early voting periods vary from 4 to 50 days prior to Election Day. Unconditional early voting in person is allowed in 32 states and in D.C. In the 2008 presidential election, 30% of votes were early votes. Also, all states have some kind of absentee ballot system. Unconditional absentee voting by mail is allowed in 27 states and D.C., and with an excuse in another 21 states. Unconditional permanent absentee voting is allowed in 7 states and in D.C. In Colorado, Oregon, Washington, Utah, and Hawaii all major elections are by postal voting, with ballot papers sent to voters several weeks before Election Day. In 29 states, postal votes must be received on or before Election Day. Other states have later deadlines, with California election law allowing mailed in ballots to arrive at the elections office up to 17 days after Election Day. Some states, like Texas, give overseas and military voters extra time to mail in their ballots. Election Day on weekends Louisiana, to date, is the only U.S. state to hold de facto general elections on a Saturday, as the state's statewide elections are held on odd years and the state's unique primary method, a variation of the nonpartisan blanket primary, only requires a further runoff to be held on the federal Election Day (Tuesday) for those offices for which neither of the top two candidates receive an absolute majority of the vote. See also Fixed-term election Primary election Public holidays in the United States Special election U.S. state holiday References External links Elections in the United States November observances State holidays in the United States Tuesday observances

Mike Bassett: England Manager

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Mike Bassett: England Manager is a 2001 satirical mockumentary comedy film directed by Steve Barron and starring Ricky Tomlinson, Amanda Redman, Bradley Walsh, Dean Lennox Kelly and Geoff Bell. The film follows Mike Bassett, who is appointed England manager having only previous experience of managing in the English lower leagues, he is tasked with guiding the team to qualification for the upcoming World Cup in Brazil Journalist Martin Bashir provides voice-over, and the film features satirical cameo appearances from prominent figures in sport and entertainment such as Pelé, Ronaldo, Gabby Logan and Atomic Kitten. Minimal use of on-field action is employed, with the focus centered on behind-the-scenes events in boardrooms and the locker room. The film initially received mixed reviews, however since its release it has gained popularity as a cult film among English football fans. The film was followed by a television series, Mike Bassett: Manager in 2005. In 2014, there was plans to bring Mike Bassett back to the big screen in a movie titled "Mike Bassett: Interim Manager" however the kickstarter project that was essential for raising funds for the film did not meet it's target, essentially making the series the final instalment. Plot With the film narrated by Martin Bashir in a documentary form, we are told that Norwich City manager Mike Bassett (Ricky Tomlinson) is victorious as his side win the Mr Clutch Cup at Wembley Stadium. The team later take part in an open-top bus parade but the driver accidentally takes them the wrong way and they end up going down a motorway leaving the entire team windswept before returning to the City centre to finish the parade. Away from Norwich, it is reported in the papers that England manager Phil Cope has suffered a heart attack during qualification for the World Cup, which started out well but has gone badly wrong of late. The Football Association heads meet to decide who should be the new England manager, after phoning around Italy, France and Spain they conclude that nobody wants the job and are forced to look for a new coach in England but cannot decide on who should take the role, the most successful Premier League manager is Scottish (based on Sir Alex Ferguson), the second most successful is a former England captain who is interested in the job, but the FA decide that he is too much of a "loudmouth" and refuse to consider him (a reference to the numerous times Brian Clough was passed over for the England job), while none of the other English managers in the Premier League are interested, forcing them to look to Division One for a new manager with press speculating that Mike Bassett may be the new man for the job. Mike lives at home with his wife Karine and son, Jason. He is described as a former professional footballer who played for Doncaster Rovers, Darlington, Hull City and Grimsby Town. When the press turn up at Mike's house to question him about the job he initially denies the speculation until his son Jason appears with a phone to tell him he's got the job. Bassett takes over the England team and moves to appoint his coaching staff, namely assistant manager turned car salesman Lonnie Urquart (Philip Jackson) who is not interested unless Mike buys a car from him, and coach Dave Dodds (Bradley Walsh) who is a sycophantic yes man who once managed with Mike at Colchester United (a reference to Phil Neal under the Graham Taylor era). The team need one win from three World Cup qualifiers to get to the World Cup Finals in Brazil. Bassett travels north to meet Kevin Tonkinson (Dean Lennox Kelly) who he believes he will win England the world cup, but on arrival at the pub, he finds Tonkinson laying drunk on a pool table with people pouring beer into his mouth. Once calmed down, Bassett tells him to clean up his act and if he can promise to do it then he will recall him to the squad. Bassett takes his first training session at Bisham Abbey ahead of his first game at Wembley Stadium against Poland. He selects the old fashioned 4-4-2 formation and writes his team sheets on the back of an old cigarette packet. During the game, Tonkinson opens the scoring with a dink shot over the keeper, but Poland soon begin to put pressure on and eventually equalise before going on to win the game 2–1. Bassett is criticised by the media for the formation he played and the tactics used, meanwhile to the interviewer some of his players anonymously state they have doubts about his credibility to lead the team. Bassett sits his coaching staff down to watch the game review but Doddsy's wife has taped Ground Force over the recording. In an attempt to improve the teams mental and psychological wellbeing the team visit a Sports Science institute but half the team are injured in the process now leaving Bassett with selection issues over his next game against Belgium. In a mix up his secretary accidentally calls up two players to the squad called Benson and Hedges, two aging players in their 40's who are playing in the Third Division, when querying who they are Mike realises she has misunderstood the brand of cigarettes Benson and Hedges as names of players. Bassett is mocked in a press conference but claims he called them up intentionally. England lose the game 3–0, leading to pressure being placed on his family by angry supporters. For the last game of qualification, they need to beat Slovenia in order to qualify and with Tonkinson missing due to a drunken car crash, they struggle to a 0–0 draw in which captain Gary Wackett (Geoff Bell) is sent off and Rufus Smalls (Robbie Gee) misses a penalty. After the game, they learn that Luxembourg have beaten Turkey 2-0 which sees them go through on goal difference. The team head off to record the official England World Cup song with girl group Atomic Kitten and "hellraiser" Keith Allen. England are on their way to Brazil for the finals and they arrive at the airport and start brawling with the Scottish and Irish teams. A difficult group stage sees them on the verge of heading home after they can only manage a boring goalless draw with unfancied Egypt before losing 4–0 to Mexico. To make matters worse, Bassett also receives a phone call from Karine back in England, informing him that Jason was bullied at school for the Egypt draw, resulting in his eyebrows being shaved off. One of England's training sessions is ruined after Urquart locks the footballs in his Opel and goes shopping. Wackett is then sent home for taking part in hooliganism and Tonkinson accidentally gets involved in a drunken tryst with a transsexual and is also booted from the team. During a team meeting the next morning, Urquart begins to praise the Mexicans by getting the English players to cheer "three cheers for Ramirez", this angers Mike who proclaims "We're England" saying that the country hates him and that his wife is about to leave him, Urquart unhappy with Mike's tone asks him to get more of his chest which leads to Mike calling him a small-minded bigot and criticising the car he bought from him, Urquart reacts by punching him in the nose and is effectively sacked from the team instantly. Later that night, Tonkinson reconciles with Bassett and the two share a drink which then leads to them dancing drunk on a bar top. When Lightfoot gets on the bar to coerce Mike down the pair both fall off whilst in full view of the local press. The morning after his drunken incident, Bassett is involved in a press conference where he is expected to step down from the managerial position. When he announces that he is carrying on, the press begin to get hostile and Bassett responds by the reciting of "If—" by Rudyard Kipling, which he finishes by saying that "England will be playing 4–4–fucking–2" and storms out. Following this, England need to beat Argentina to get through to the second round. Reporter Tommo (Phill Jupitus) proclaims that if England win he will quit his job and become a bin man. In a close game in which England are the better team, they eventually succeed when Tonkinson dribbles past the Argentinian defence and blasts a shot that deflects off the crossbar. Tonkinson then punches the ball into the net - a reference to the hand of God goal from Argentina's Diego Maradona which helped to knock England out of the 1986 World Cup. As the full-time whistle sounds and the England team celebrate, Bassett heads down the tunnel telling Doddsy he's going to call his wife. It is later seen in a series of newspaper articles that England advanced to the knock-out stages, where they had beaten Romania and France with Rufus Smalls breaking his goal drought and scoring a hat trick against Romania and becomes England's top goalscorer with 52 international goals, but in the semi-finals had lost to host nation Brazil. Tommo Thompson is also seen briefly working as a binman following his statement during the final press conference. On their plane journey back to Britain, Bashir says to Bassett that England had equalled their best performance since they won in 1966 (in 1990, England finished fourth), Bassett states though that he is ready to move aside and let somebody else take the job. As the plane doors open at the airport, the team depart to a cheering crowd, where a surprised but happy Bassett confirms to the waiting press that he will remain as manager. Cast Main cast Ricky Tomlinson as Mike Bassett, a former player turned manager from the lower leagues who leads Norwich City to the Mr Clutch Cup. He then becomes manager of England but is derided by the fans and English media for not being good enough for the role. Amanda Redman as Karine Bassett, Mike's wife who's patience and loyalty is put to the test when her husband's popularity plummets during England's poor run of form. Bradley Walsh as Dave Dodds, Bassett's first team coach, he is a sycophantic yes man, who agrees with everyone else's opinions echoing instructions and very rarely offering any of his own thoughts. Philip Jackson as Lonnie Urquart, Bassett's assistant manager and used car salesman (a reference to Lawrie McMenemy under the Graham Taylor era) who is very old-fashioned in his beliefs and often compares the England players' performances to cars. He is opinionated but is more concerned with getting the players to buy cars from him. Martin Bashir as Interviewer (Narrator), Bashir narrates the entire film, also appearing in scenes as the interviewer who is given complete access to the England setup as part of the documentary. He offers an impartial view of the events that unfold. Geoffrey Hutchings as Geoffrey Lightfoot, the head of the Football Association, he pays very little interest in Mike or his role. Phill Jupitus as Tommo Thompson, a news reporter who is very sceptical about Mike but after making a bet with him later is seen to quit his job and become a bin man when England beat Argentina. Danny Tennant as Jason Bassett, Mike's son who is a youth team player at Norwich City, he is later targeted by bullies when pressure mounts on his father. Footballers Dean Lennox Kelly as Kevin Tonkinson, a Geordie playmaking midfielder. He is an alcoholic, often in trouble but is the most gifted player on the team. He is based on Paul Gascoigne. Robbie Gee as Rufus Smalls, a centre forward who is on a goal scoring drought. He struggles with self confidence, he is based on Emile Heskey. Geoff Bell as Gary Wackett, team captain and a hard tackling, intimidating central defender who is often sent off. He is later arrested for joining in with rioting English football hooligans. He is based on Vinnie Jones and Stuart Pearce. Terry Kiely as Harpsey, a flash right sided midfielder, he claims he is not about the lifestyle but owns sports cars and constantly talks on the phone to his model girlfriend even during team talks. He is based on David Beckham. Chris McQuarry as Alan Massey, a softly spoken timid striker who is a very talented player, he later becomes the captain in Wackett's absence. He was based on Michael Owen. Dean Holness as Danny, a positive speaking energetic player who is part of a double act with Deano. John Alford as Deano, a positive speaking energetic player who is part of a double act with Danny. Other England players on the team are Scott Mean as Parkesy, Julian Ballantine as Robbo, Thomas Kenyon as Macca, Robert Campion as Smudger, Andy Ansah as Super, Alex Lawler as Sexy, Declan Perkins as Perks, Danny Husbands as Normal, Phil Gridelet as Grids, Dion Osbourne as Ossie, Kim Durham as Benson and Robert Hudson as Hedges. Des Hamilton and Paul Rattray appears as Scotland footballers, with Glenn Mulhern as the Ireland player. Other cast Malcolm Terris as Phil Cope Ulrich Thomsen as Dr Hans Shoegaarten Lloyd McGuire as Midlands rep Stephen Walters as England supporter Sean Gilder as Independent journalist Cameos Pelé as himself, he arrives in to a hotel whilst doing a television interview and is confronted by a drunk Mike who is dancing on the bar. Ronaldo as himself, he is asked by a Brazilian television presenter for what he thinks about Mike Bassett. Atomic Kitten as themselves, they sing the England World Cup song with Keith Allen and the team. Keith Allen as himself, he produces and sings the World Cup song with the team. Sue Barker as herself, presenter of BBC's A Question of Sport, to which Rufus is a team captain. Gabby Logan as herself, a television presenter who presents the World Cup TV show. Barry Venison as himself, a football pundit who appears on the World Cup TV show and interviews Mike over a poor satellite video link. Alan Green, Brian Moore, Clive Tyldesley and Martin Tyler are commentators on England games. Natasha Kaplinsky as herself, a Sky News reporter. Dickie Bird as himself, a guest on BBC's A Question of Sport. Vincent Marzello as himself, a US Newsreader. Kevin Piper as himself, the Norwich newsreader England under Mike Bassett Production Mike Bassett: England Manager is based on the career of Graham Taylor, and documentary An Impossible Job. Shot in high definition, the film is made to look like it had been shot on 35mm. The film was shot entirely in the United Kingdom and Brazil. English football locations prominently used in the movie were Wembley Stadium, the Football Association headquarters at Lancaster Gate and the Bisham Abbey training complex. The Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro was used for the game against Argentina. After the film's events In the follow up television series, Mike Bassett: Manager, it is revealed that Bassett was sacked by England after failing to qualify for the 2004 European Championships, including a defeat to Liechtenstein. Bassett subsequently guided Newcastle United to two consecutive relegations, before unsuccessful returns to Norwich and Colchester lead to him taking over at his father's former club, Wirral County. Alternative ending An alternative ending was shot for the film, in which Mike rejects a four-year extension to stay on as manager with England choosing to appoint a foreign manager as his replacement. Gary Wackett has now retired and is now on television as a Gladiator, whilst Rufus Smalls is given his captaincy back on BBC's A Question of Sport. Kevin Tonkinson has also retired and now is the manager of his local pub where as Mike is seen coaching players on a sandy field and is now the new manager of Bolivia. The film ends with Mike jumping on board a red jeep and driving off with Karine and Jason. Sequel Following the success of the film, numerous talks over the years about a possible sequel. In late 2004 it announced that Mike Bassett 2 was in the works, with the story being continued on from the first movie which sees this time Bassett leading his country to the European Championships in Portugal in 2004. This project was later abandoned and instead the producers reverted to the idea of a television series for ITV Mike Bassett: Manager. In 2016 a Kick Starter campaign was started, which saw both Ricky Tomlinson and Bradley Walsh reprise their roles for a promotional trailer, asking fans to fund to a sequel called Mike Bassett: Interim Manager. The movie needed to hit a certain financial target by a specific date in order for it to be made. The campaign did not hit its target and the project was shelved. It was understood the script centred round Bassett coming out of retirement in order to help assist the current England manager, who is German and struggling to engage his players. Before too long Bassett finds himself back in the hotseat and possibly leading his country to another World Cup. Reception The movie received a mixed reception from critics. When the film was released in the United Kingdom, it originally opened at number 3, behind Artificial Intelligence: AI and Moulin Rouge! in the top two spots. Since its release, Mike Bassett: England Manager has gained popularity as a cult film among English football fans. Rugby coach Brendan Venter gave a press interview in 2010 that parodied one given by "Doddsie" in the film, in which he simply agrees with everything the questioner says, even if that contradicts previous answers. Sprackling observed in 2018 that "when the film actually came out in 2001, Sven-Göran Eriksson was in charge and he was at the height of his pomp. Everyone had become convinced that it had all changed now, that we were going to be successful and continental about it all. This bungling uselessness was all in the past. Everything felt like it was going to be all modern and new and professional. The wheels weren’t going to come off and we weren’t going to have disasters. But that wasn’t the case. That’s why people come back to [the film] so often, because the same disasters continue to happen." Stephen Glynn's 2018 book The British Football Film discusses the film at length, noting that it "does not always undercut a nostalgic and populist imperialism." Comparison to real events Some of the events in the actual Fifa World Cup in 2002 hold similarities to the film. Although the tournament was hosted by Japan and South Korea, England like in the movie drew their opening game with a drab performance but this time with Sweden, they then went on to beat Argentina 1–0. Although there was no revenge or similarity for the hand of god incident, the penalty scored by David Beckham was seen a redemption following his controversial sending off four years earlier at World Cup 98 following a clash with Argentine midfielder Diego Simeone. Just like in the film, England eventually were knocked out by Brazil. It was also recalled in 2019, when, in an echo of Bassett's disastrous open-top bus parade at the beginning of the film, Norwich's open-top bus broke down as they celebrated winning the EFL Championship. References External links 2001 films British association football films British films British sports comedy films British satirical films 2000s sports comedy films British mockumentary films Norwich City F.C. Films directed by Steve Barron 2001 comedy films

GC-content

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In molecular biology and genetics, GC-content (or guanine-cytosine content) is the percentage of nitrogenous bases in a DNA or RNA molecule that are either guanine (G) or cytosine (C). This measure indicates the proportion of G and C bases out of an implied four total bases, also including adenine and thymine in DNA and adenine and uracil in RNA. GC-content may be given for a certain fragment of DNA or RNA or for an entire genome. When it refers to a fragment, it may denote the GC-content of an individual gene or section of a gene (domain), a group of genes or gene clusters, a non-coding region, or a synthetic oligonucleotide such as a primer. Structure Qualitatively, guanine (G) and cytosine (C) undergo a specific hydrogen bonding with each other, whereas adenine (A) bonds specifically with thymine (T) in DNA and with uracil (U) in RNA. Quantitatively, each GC base pair is held together by three hydrogen bonds, while AT and AU base pairs are held together by two hydrogen bonds. To emphasize this difference, the base pairings are often represented as "G≡C" versus "A=T" or "A=U". DNA with low GC-content is less stable than DNA with high GC-content; however, the hydrogen bonds themselves do not have a particularly significant impact on molecular stability, which is instead caused mainly by molecular interactions of base stacking. In spite of the higher thermostability conferred to a nucleic acid with high GC-content, it has been observed that at least some species of bacteria with DNA of high GC-content undergo autolysis more readily, thereby reducing the longevity of the cell per se. Because of the thermostability of GC pairs, it was once presumed that high GC-content was a necessary adaptation to high temperatures, but this hypothesis was refuted in 2001. Even so, it has been shown that there is a strong correlation between the optimal growth of prokaryotes at higher temperatures and the GC-content of structural RNAs such as ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA, and many other non-coding RNAs. The AU base pairs are less stable than the GC base pairs, making high-GC-content RNA structures more resistant to the effects of high temperatures. More recently, it has been demonstrated that the most important factor contributing to the thermal stability of double-stranded nucleic acids is actually due to the base stackings of adjacent bases rather than the number of hydrogen bonds between the bases. There is more favorable stacking energy for GC pairs than for AT or AU pairs because of the relative positions of exocyclic groups. Additionally, there is a correlation between the order in which the bases stack and the thermal stability of the molecule as a whole. Determination GC-content is usually expressed as a percentage value, but sometimes as a ratio (called G+C ratio or GC-ratio). GC-content percentage is calculated as whereas the AT/GC ratio is calculated as . The GC-content percentages as well as GC-ratio can be measured by several means, but one of the simplest methods is to measure the melting temperature of the DNA double helix using spectrophotometry. The absorbance of DNA at a wavelength of 260 nm increases fairly sharply when the double-stranded DNA molecule separates into two single strands when sufficiently heated. The most commonly used protocol for determining GC-ratios uses flow cytometry for large numbers of samples. In an alternative manner, if the DNA or RNA molecule under investigation has been reliably sequenced, then GC-content can be accurately calculated by simple arithmetic or by using a variety of publicly available software tools, such as the free online GC calculator. Genomic content Within-genome variation The GC-ratio within a genome is found to be markedly variable. These variations in GC-ratio within the genomes of more complex organisms result in a mosaic-like formation with islet regions called isochores. This results in the variations in staining intensity in chromosomes. GC-rich isochores typically include many protein-coding genes within them, and thus determination of GC-ratios of these specific regions contributes to mapping gene-rich regions of the genome. Coding sequences Within a long region of genomic sequence, genes are often characterised by having a higher GC-content in contrast to the background GC-content for the entire genome. Evidence of GC ratio with that of length of the coding region of a gene has shown that the length of the coding sequence is directly proportional to higher G+C content. This has been pointed to the fact that the stop codon has a bias towards A and T nucleotides, and, thus, the shorter the sequence the higher the AT bias. Comparison of more than 1,000 orthologous genes in mammals showed marked within-genome variations of the third-codon position GC content, with a range from less than 30% to more than 80%. Among-genome variation GC content is found to be variable with different organisms, the process of which is envisaged to be contributed to by variation in selection, mutational bias, and biased recombination-associated DNA repair. The average GC-content in human genomes ranges from 35% to 60% across 100-Kb fragments, with a mean of 41%. The GC-content of Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is 38%, and that of another common model organism, thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana), is 36%. Because of the nature of the genetic code, it is virtually impossible for an organism to have a genome with a GC-content approaching either 0% or 100%. However, a species with an extremely low GC-content is Plasmodium falciparum (GC% = ~20%), and it is usually common to refer to such examples as being AT-rich instead of GC-poor. Several mammalian species (e.g., shrew, microbat, tenrec, rabbit) have independently undergone a marked increase in the GC-content of their genes. These GC-content changes are correlated with species life-history traits (e.g., body mass or longevity) and genome size, and might be linked to a molecular phenomenon called the GC-biased gene conversion. Applications Molecular biology In polymerase chain reaction (PCR) experiments, the GC-content of short oligonucleotides known as primers is often used to predict their annealing temperature to the template DNA. A higher GC-content level indicates a relatively higher melting temperature. Systematics The species problem in non-eukaryotic taxonomy has led to various suggestions in classifying bacteria, and the ad hoc committee on reconciliation of approaches to bacterial systematics has recommended use of GC-ratios in higher-level hierarchical classification. For example, the Actinobacteria are characterised as "high GC-content bacteria". In Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2), GC-content is 72%. Software tools GCSpeciesSorter and TopSort are software tools for classifying species based on their GC-contents. See also Codon usage bias References External links Table with GC-content of all sequenced prokaryotes Taxonomic browser of bacteria based on GC ratio on NCBI website. GC ratio in diverse species. DNA Molecular biology Biological classification

List of mayors of Nashville, Tennessee

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The Mayor of Nashville is the chief executive of Nashville Tennessee's government. The current mayor is John Cooper, a member of the Democratic party. Each mayor serves a term of four years, with a limit of two terms, unless this is interrupted by a legal mechanism, such as a recall election. Mayors of the City of Nashville The following is a list of the mayors of Nashville before it had a consolidated metropolitan government: Pre-Civil War Civil War and Reconstruction Post-Reconstruction Mayors of Metropolitan Nashville The following is a list of the mayors of Nashville after the consolidation of the municipal government with the government of Davidson County: See also Timeline of Nashville, Tennessee Bibliography Nashville, Tennessee

Brain-to-body mass ratio

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Brain-to-body mass ratio, also known as the brain-to-body weight ratio, is the ratio of brain mass to body mass, which is hypothesized to be a rough estimate of the intelligence of an animal, although fairly inaccurate in many cases. A more complex measurement, encephalization quotient, takes into account allometric effects of widely divergent body sizes across several taxa. The raw brain-to-body mass ratio is however simpler to come by, and is still a useful tool for comparing encephalization within species or between fairly closely related species. Brain-body size relationship Brain size usually increases with body size in animals (i.e. large animals usually have larger brains than smaller animals); the relationship is not, however, linear. Small mammals such as mice may have a brain/body ratio similar to humans, while elephants have a comparatively lower brain/body ratio. In animals, it is thought that the larger the brain, the more brain weight will be available for more complex cognitive tasks. However, large animals need more neurons to represent their own bodies and control specific muscles; thus, relative rather than absolute brain size makes for a ranking of animals that better coincides with the observed complexity of animal behaviour. The relationship between brain-to-body mass ratio and complexity of behaviour is not perfect as other factors also influence intelligence, like the evolution of the recent cerebral cortex and different degrees of brain folding, which increase the surface of the cortex, which is positively correlated in humans to intelligence. The noted exception to this, of course, is swelling of the brain which, while resulting in greater surface area, does not alter the intelligence of those suffering from it. Relation to metabolism The relationship between brain weight and body weight of all living vertebrates follows two completely separate linear functions for cold-blooded and warm-blooded animals. Cold-blooded vertebrates have much smaller brains than warm-blooded vertebrates of the same size. However, if brain metabolism is taken into account, the brain-to-body relationship of both warm and cold-blooded vertebrates becomes similar, with most using between 2 and 8 percent of their basal metabolism for the brain and spinal cord. Comparisons between groups Dolphins have the highest brain-to-body weight ratio of all cetaceans. Monitor lizards, tegus and anoles and some tortoise species have the largest among reptiles. Among birds, the highest brain-to-body ratios are found among parrots, crows, magpies, jays and ravens. Among amphibians, the studies are still limited. Either octopuses or jumping spiders have some of the highest for an invertebrate, although some ant species have 14%-15% of their mass in their brains, the highest value known for any animal. Sharks have one of the highest for fish alongside manta rays (although the electrogenic elephantfish has a ratio nearly 80 times higher - about 1/32, which is slightly higher than that for humans). Treeshrews have a higher brain to body mass ratio than any other mammal, including humans. Shrews hold about 10% of their body mass in their brain. It is a trend that the larger the animal gets, the smaller the brain-to-body mass ratio is. Large whales have very small brains compared to their weight, and small rodents like mice have a relatively large brain, giving a brain-to-body mass ratio similar to humans. One explanation could be that as an animal's brain gets larger, the size of the neural cells remains the same, and more nerve cells will cause the brain to increase in size to a lesser degree than the rest of the body. This phenomenon can be described by an equation of the form E = CSr, where E and S are brain and body weights, r a constant that depends on animal family (but close to 2/3 in many vertebrates), and C is the cephalization factor. It has been argued that the animal's ecological niche, rather than its evolutionary family, is the main determinant of its encephalization factor C. In the essay "Bligh's Bounty", Stephen Jay Gould noted that if one looks at vertebrates with very low encephalization quotient, their brains are slightly less massive than their spinal cords. Theoretically, intelligence might correlate with the absolute amount of brain an animal has after subtracting the weight of the spinal cord from the brain. This formula is useless for invertebrates because they do not have spinal cords, or in some cases, central nervous systems. Criticism Recent research indicates that, in non-human primates, whole brain size is a better measure of cognitive abilities than brain-to-body mass ratio. The total weight of the species is greater than the predicted sample only if the frontal lobe is adjusted for spatial relation. The brain-to-body mass ratio was however found to be an excellent predictor of variation in problem solving abilities among carnivoran mammals. In humans, the brain to body weight ratio can vary greatly from person to person; it would be much higher in an underweight person than an overweight person, and higher in infants than adults. The same problem is encountered when dealing with marine mammals, which may have considerable body fat masses. Some researchers therefore prefer lean body weight to brain mass as a better predictor. See also Cranial capacity Encephalization List of animals by number of neurons Schauenberg's index References External links https://web.archive.org/web/20050325105538/http://www.wsu.edu/~taflinge/mindwork/mawint1.html A graph of body mass vs. brain mass "Bligh's Bounty" — Stephen Jay Gould Suzana Herculano Houzel: What is so special about the human brain TED talk, June 2013. Animal cognition Mass Animal intelligence

Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door

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Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door is a 2004 role-playing video game developed by Intelligent Systems and published by Nintendo for the GameCube. The Thousand-Year Door is the second game in the Paper Mario series following Paper Mario, and is part of the larger Mario franchise. In the game, when Mario and Princess Peach get involved in the search for a mystic portal that holds great fortune, Peach is kidnapped by an alien group called the X-Nauts; Mario sets out to find the treasure and save the princess. The Thousand-Year Door borrows many gameplay elements from its predecessor, such as a drawing-based art style, and a turn-based battle system with an emphasis on timing moves correctly. For the majority of the game the player controls Mario, although Bowser and Princess Peach are playable at certain points. The game was announced at a 2003 Game Developers Conference and was released mid-July 2004 in Japan and late 2004 for the rest of the world. The game was praised by critics, generally lauded for its engaging plot and gameplay. The Thousand-Year Door won the "Role Playing Game of the Year" award at the 2005 Interactive Achievement Awards, and is commonly called the best game in the series. The game was followed by Super Paper Mario, which released for the Wii in 2007. Gameplay The Thousand-Year Door is a role-playing video game (RPG) with other nontraditional RPG elements. The player controls a two-dimensional version of Mario and explores a variety of worlds designed to look like paper. In these locales, he is tasked with retrieving seven Crystal Stars which involves Mario completing puzzles and defeating enemies to proceed. In the overworld, the player can find items that can be used in and outside of combat. The effects of these items range from healing Mario or his partner to damaging the opponent. Mario can also purchase "badges" from non-player characters (NPCs), find them hidden in the environment, or occasionally obtain them from defeated enemies; each badge requires a certain amount of Mario's badge points (BP) in order to be equipped. When equipped, these badges can permanently enhance a particular skill or aspect, or, in some cases, give Mario new abilities. Throughout the game, up to seven characters are permanently added to the player's party; one character is present alongside Mario at any given time and can be switched out at any point. Each character has a specialized skill, some of which are required to solve puzzles. These skills include activating switches and removing physical barriers. Mario is also "cursed" with abilities that allow him to fold into a boat or a paper airplane; these are performed when he stands on a special "activation panel". During the interlude between the game's chapters, the player controls Peach in the X-Naut Fortress and Bowser in multiple side-scrolling levels based on the original Super Mario Bros. Combat Similar to its predecessor, combat in The Thousand-Year Door follows a turn-based battle system. When Mario comes into contact with an enemy in the overworld, the game transitions to a battle screen, taking place on a stage. The player controls both Mario and his currently selected partner, and chooses actions for each of them, which include attacking an enemy, using an item, or swapping the partner with another. Attacking and defending can be enhanced by executing timed button presses. For example, pressing the button when Mario jumps on an enemy causes him to jump on it a second time. Enemies have advantages based on their position on the stage or on their qualities. Some player attacks, such as Mario's hammer, can only target enemies on the ground, and enemies with spiked heads will instead damage Mario if he jumps on them. Each character has its own heart points (HP) that decreases each time it is attacked by an enemy. When a partner's HP is reduced to 0, the partner becomes inactive and cannot be used until revived. If Mario's HP is reduced to 0, however, the game ends and the player must start again from the last saved point. Stronger attacks require Flower Points (FP) to execute and are shared among Mario and his partners. Special attacks, which are unlocked each time the player acquires a Crystal Star, are more powerful and require varying amounts of Star Power to execute. If the player wins the battle, the player is awarded Star Points; for every 100 Star Points, the player levels up and chooses to increase his maximum HP, FP, or BP. Also during battle, a spectating audience will react to how well the player performs. If the player performs well, the audience's cheers will replenish Star Power. Conversely, the audience may throw damage-causing items at the player or leave if the player performs poorly in a battle. The audience starts with a maximum size of 50 and can grow up to 200 as the player levels up during the game. Plot The Thousand-Year Door is set in the Mushroom Kingdom. The town of Rogueport serves as the hub world, connecting to all other locations in the game. The story is divided into eight chapters and a prologue, each of which primarily takes place in one of the unique areas. Each of the major locations are designed around a specific theme; Glitzville, for example, is a floating city known for its fighting arena. The enemies and town inhabitants in the game range from recurring Mario characters, like Boo, to characters exclusive to the game, such as the X-Nauts. Characters The Thousand-Year Door contains several characters, the majority of whom are not playable. Progression in the game is sometimes dependent on interaction with non-player characters, although many are used in the game's various minor sidequests. In particular, the Goomba Professor Frankly, who knows the most about the mysteries relating to Rogueport, must be visited every time Mario retrieves a Crystal Star. The game continues the tradition of Paper Mario, in which Mario can be accompanied by one assistant character at a set time. There are seven party members in total: Goombella the Goomba, Koops the Koopa, Madame Flurrie the wind spirit, a Yoshi who is named by the player, Vivian the Shadow Siren, Admiral Bobbery the Bob-omb, and the optional Ms. Mowz the Squeek. Mario is the main character of The Thousand-Year Door, although the story also rotates between portions where the player plays briefly as Princess Peach and Bowser. Most of Peach's story is spent on her interaction with the X-Nauts' computer AI TEC, who falls in love with Princess Peach despite not fully understanding the concept of love. Princess Peach agrees to teach TEC about love in exchange for the ability to contact Mario via e-mail. The series antagonist Bowser, tries to collect the Crystal Stars before Mario does instead of directly opposing Mario, though his attempts mostly become comedic relief. Story The game opens with an introduction about a seaside town that was destroyed by a cataclysm and consequently sunk into the depths of the earth. Rogueport was later built at this site, with the fortunes of the lost kingdom fabled to exist behind the eponymous Thousand-Year Door, located in the ruins of the old town. Peach mails Mario a magical treasure map she had purchased in Rogueport, beckoning him to come. Before Mario arrives, she is captured by the X-Nauts, led by Grodus, who had intended to obtain the map. With the help of Goombella and Professor Frankly, Mario learns that the map can potentially reveal the location of the seven legendary Crystal Stars, which are required to unlock the Thousand-Year Door. Mario then sets out and collects all the Crystal Stars, acquiring new partners on the way. Meanwhile, Peach is held captive at the X-Nauts' base on the Moon. She gradually learns about the X-Nauts' plan, and e-mails her findings to Mario. The "treasure" is the dormant Shadow Queen, the demon responsible for the ancient cataclysm. Grodus intends to resurrect the Shadow Queen by using Peach's body as its new vessel, believing that he could control it and conquer the world. Peach is removed from their base before Mario arrives. Mario unlocks the Thousand-Year Door with the Crystal Stars but is unable to prevent the Shadow Queen's possession of Peach. With the help of the Crystal Stars, Mario defeats and exorcises the Shadow Queen. The game ends with Mario and Peach returning home together. Development and release Nintendo revealed The Thousand-Year Door at the Game Developers Conference of 2003. Before its release, the game was confirmed to be a direct sequel to the Nintendo 64 game Paper Mario and was known tentatively as Mario Story 2 in Japan and Paper Mario 2 in North America. A preview of the game was available at E3 2004; it included Hooktail Castle and a Bowser bonus level as playable stages. The game was released on October 11, 2004, in North America. In 2008, Morgan Creek Productions filed a lawsuit against Nintendo alleging that they illegally used the song "You're So Cool" from the film True Romance in an advertisement for the game. Morgan Creek dropped the case six days later, after Nintendo revealed that the advertising agency, Leo Burnett USA, Inc., had licensing for the song. Reception Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door received critical acclaim, with review aggregators Metacritic and GameRankings giving the game an 87/100 and 88/100 respectively. Critics particularly praised the plot: GameSpot's Greg Kasavin stated that "each [chapter] provides a thrill of discovery.", while Eurogamer's Tom Bramwell welcomed the whimsical storyline in comparison to traditional role-playing games, commenting that "[it is] something closer to Finding Nemo than Final Fantasy, which is very much a compliment." The game's characters were also well received, with reviewers complimenting the use of NPCs and text. Despite this, some commentators complained that the story developed slowly in the game's beginning stages. Eurogamer rated the large amount of text as "the only major stumbling block" of the game. One of The Thousand-Year Door'''s main features, the use of a paper-based gameplay mechanic, was welcomed by reviewers. When referring to the paper theme, 1UP commented that "It's a cohesive, clever approach that turns the game's visual style into more than just a look." Critics also commented extensively on the game's battle system, which deviated from traditional RPGs. GameSpy praised the use of timing in the battle system, stating that "these twitch elements were designed to be fun and engaging, and they succeed wonderfully at this." Reviewers also praised the concept of having an audience to reward or berate Mario during battle. The game's visuals received a mixed response from critics. GameSpot enjoyed the game's presentation, writing that "it exhibits a level of visual artistry and technical prowess matched or exceeded by few other GameCube games." Conversely, other reviewers complained that the graphics were not much of a visual upgrade from its predecessor, Paper Mario. For the game's use of audio, IGN declared it "game music at its purest", but proceeded to question the absence of voice acting in the text based game. RPGamer commented that the music "for the most part is done very well", but that the perceived repetitive battle music was "one of the biggest flaws" of the game. The game won "Role Playing Game of the Year" at the 2005 Interactive Achievement Awards, and was nominated for GameSpot's 2004 "Best Story", "Best Graphics, Artistic" and "Funniest Game" awards. The game was ranked 56th in Official Nintendo Magazine's "100 Greatest Nintendo Games" feature. Edge Magazine placed the game 93rd on their 100 best video games in 2007. In its first week of release in Japan, The Thousand-Year Door was the best-selling game, selling about 159,000 units. It proceeded to sell 409,000 units in the country and 1.23 million copies in North America. The game has since been included in the Player's Choice line. Legacy The Thousand-Year Door is considered by many to be the best game in the Paper Mario series, as well as when the series peaked. Later games to appear in the series, starting in 2007 with Super Paper Mario, began to change the format and genre after each release to fit the scope of an action-adventure series, by removing certain role-playing game elements and other features, such as combat. The new approach was often critiqued by critics, and most reviewers compare the game to The Thousand-Year Door to highlight what the games were lacking. Paper Mario: The Origami King returned some minor elements that were ultimately removed from the games that it followed, such as Paper Mario: Sticker Star'', but most critics still derided the game of having a lack thereof. Notes References External links Official Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door website (via WayBack Machine) Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door at RPGClassics 2004 video games Alien invasions in video games Video games about demons Video games about dragons Fantasy video games Intelligent Systems games GameCube-only games Interactive Achievement Award winners Mario role-playing games Video games developed in Japan Video games set on the Moon GameCube games Video games about shapeshifting Video games about magic Single-player video games Video games about curses Paper Mario Video games scored by Yuka Tsujiyoko

Phytoremediation

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Phytoremediation technologies use living plants to clean up soil, air, and water contaminated with hazardous contaminants. It is defined as "the use of green plants and the associated microorganisms, along with proper soil amendments and agronomic techniques to either contain, remove or render toxic environmental contaminants harmless". The term is an amalgam of the Greek phyto (plant) and Latin remedium (restoring balance). Although attractive for its cost, phytoremediation has not been demonstrated to redress any significant environmental challenge to the extent that contaminated space has been reclaimed. Phytoremediation is proposed as a cost-effective plant-based approach of environmental remediation that takes advantage of the ability of plants to concentrate elements and compounds from the environment and to detoxify various compounds. The concentrating effect results from the ability of certain plants called hyperaccumulators to bioaccumulate chemicals. The remediation effect is quite different. Toxic heavy metals cannot be degraded, but organic pollutants can be and are generally the major targets for phytoremediation. Several field trials confirmed the feasibility of using plants for environmental cleanup. Background Phytoremediation may be applied to polluted soil or static water environment. This technology has been increasingly investigated and employed at sites with soils contaminated heavy metals like with cadmium, lead, aluminum, arsenic and antimony. These metals can cause oxidative stress in plants, destroy cell membrane integrity, interfere with nutrient uptake, inhibit photosynthesis and decrease plant chlorophyll. Phytoremediation has been used successfully include the restoration of abandoned metal mine workings, and sites where polychlorinated biphenyls have been dumped during manufacture and mitigation of ongoing coal mine discharges reducing the impact of contaminants in soils, water, or air. Contaminants such as metals, pesticides, solvents, explosives, and crude oil and its derivatives, have been mitigated in phytoremediation projects worldwide. Many plants such as mustard plants, alpine pennycress, hemp, and pigweed have proven to be successful at hyperaccumulating contaminants at toxic waste sites. Not all plants are able to accumulate heavy metals or organics pollutants due to differences in the physiology of the plant. Even cultivars within the same species have varying abilities to accumulate pollutants. Advantages and limitations Advantages: the cost of the phytoremediation is lower than that of traditional processes both in situ and ex situ the possibility of the recovery and re-use of valuable metals (by companies specializing in "phyto mining") it preserves the topsoil, maintaining the fertility of the soil Increase soil health, yield, and plant phytochemicals the use of plants also reduces erosion and metal leaching in the soil Limitations: phytoremediation is limited to the surface area and depth occupied by the roots. with plant-based systems of remediation, it is not possible to completely prevent the leaching of contaminants into the groundwater (without the complete removal of the contaminated ground, which in itself does not resolve the problem of contamination) the survival of the plants is affected by the toxicity of the contaminated land and the general condition of the soil bio-accumulation of contaminants, especially metals, into the plants can effect consumer products like food and cosmetics, and requires the safe disposal of the affected plant material when taking up heavy metals, sometimes the metal is bound to the soil organic matter, which makes it unavailable for the plant to extract Processes A range of processes mediated by plants or algae are tested in treating environmental problems: Phytoextraction Phytoextraction (or phytoaccumulation or phytosequestration) exploits the ability of plants or algae to remove contaminants from soil or water into harvestable plant biomass. The roots take up substances from the soil or water and concentrate it above ground in the plant biomass Organisms that can uptake high amounts of contaminants are called hyperaccumulators. Phytoextraction can also be performed by plants (e.g. Populus and Salix) that take up lower levels of pollutants, but due to their high growth rate and biomass production, may remove a considerable amount of contaminants from the soil. Phytoextraction has been growing rapidly in popularity worldwide for the last twenty years or so. Typically, phytoextraction is used for heavy metals or other inorganics. At the time of disposal, contaminants are typically concentrated in the much smaller volume of the plant matter than in the initially contaminated soil or sediment. After harvest, a lower level of the contaminant will remain in the soil, so the growth/harvest cycle must usually be repeated through several crops to achieve a significant cleanup. After the process, the soil is remediated. Of course many pollutants kill plants, so phytoremediation is not a panacea. For example, chromium is toxic to most higher plants at concentrations above 100 μM·kg−1 dry weight. Mining of these extracted metals through phytomining is a conceivable way of recovering the material. Hyperaccumulating plants are often metallophyte. Induced or assisted phytoextraction is a process where a conditioning fluid containing a chelator or another agent is added to soil to increase metal solubility or mobilization so that the plants can absorb them more easily. While such additives can increase metal uptake by plants, they can also lead to large amounts of available metals in the soil beyond what the plants are able to translocate, causing potential leaching into the subsoil or groundwater. Examples of plants that are known to accumulate the following contaminants: Arsenic, using the sunflower (Helianthus annuus), or the Chinese Brake fern (Pteris vittata). Cadmium, using willow (Salix viminalis): In 1999, one research experiment performed by Maria Greger and Tommy Landberg suggested willow has a significant potential as a phytoextractor of cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu), as willow has some specific characteristics like high transport capacity of heavy metals from root to shoot and huge amount of biomass production; can be used also for production of bio energy in the biomass energy power plant. Cadmium and zinc, using alpine pennycress (Thlaspi caerulescens), a hyperaccumulator of these metals at levels that would be toxic to many plants. Specifically, pennycress leaves accumulate up to 380 mg/kg Cd. On the other hand, the presence of copper seems to impair its growth (see table for reference). Chromium is toxic to most plants. However, tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) show some promise. Lead, using Indian mustard (Brassica juncea), ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), hemp dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum), or poplar trees, which sequester lead in their biomass. Salt-tolerant (moderately halophytic) barley and/or sugar beets are commonly used for the extraction of sodium chloride (common salt) to reclaim fields that were previously flooded by sea water. Caesium-137 and strontium-90 were removed from a pond using sunflowers after the Chernobyl accident. Mercury, selenium and organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have been removed from soils by transgenic plants containing genes for bacterial enzymes. Phytostabilization Phytostabilization reduces the mobility of substances in the environment, for example, by limiting the leaching of substances from the soil. It focuses on the long term stabilization and containment of the pollutant. The plant immobilizes the pollutants by binding them to soil particles making them less available for plant or human uptake. Unlike phytoextraction, phytostabilization focuses mainly on sequestering pollutants in soil near the roots but not in plant tissues. Pollutants become less bioavailable, resulting in reduced exposure. The plants can also excrete a substance that produces a chemical reaction, converting the heavy metal pollutant into a less toxic form. Stabilization results in reduced erosion, runoff, leaching, in addition to reducing the bioavailability of the contaminant. An example application of phytostabilization is using a vegetative cap to stabilize and contain mine tailings. Phytodegradation Phytodegradation (also called phytotransformation) uses plants or microorganisms to degrade organic pollutants in the soil or within the body of the plant. The organic compounds are broken down by enzymes that the plant roots secrete and these molecules are then taken up by the plant and released through transpiration. This process works best with organic contaminants like herbicides, trichloroethylene, and methyl tert-butyl ether. Phytotransformation results in the chemical modification of environmental substances as a direct result of plant metabolism, often resulting in their inactivation, degradation (phytodegradation), or immobilization (phytostabilization). In the case of organic pollutants, such as pesticides, explosives, solvents, industrial chemicals, and other xenobiotic substances, certain plants, such as Cannas, render these substances non-toxic by their metabolism. In other cases, microorganisms living in association with plant roots may metabolize these substances in soil or water. These complex and recalcitrant compounds cannot be broken down to basic molecules (water, carbon-dioxide, etc.) by plant molecules, and, hence, the term phytotransformation represents a change in chemical structure without complete breakdown of the compound. The term "Green Liver" is used to describe phytotransformation, as plants behave analogously to the human liver when dealing with these xenobiotic compounds (foreign compound/pollutant). After uptake of the xenobiotics, plant enzymes increase the polarity of the xenobiotics by adding functional groups such as hydroxyl groups (-OH). This is known as Phase I metabolism, similar to the way that the human liver increases the polarity of drugs and foreign compounds (drug metabolism). Whereas in the human liver enzymes such as cytochrome P450s are responsible for the initial reactions, in plants enzymes such as peroxidases, phenoloxidases, esterases and nitroreductases carry out the same role. In the second stage of phytotransformation, known as Phase II metabolism, plant biomolecules such as glucose and amino acids are added to the polarized xenobiotic to further increase the polarity (known as conjugation). This is again similar to the processes occurring in the human liver where glucuronidation (addition of glucose molecules by the UGT class of enzymes, e.g. UGT1A1) and glutathione addition reactions occur on reactive centres of the xenobiotic. Phase I and II reactions serve to increase the polarity and reduce the toxicity of the compounds, although many exceptions to the rule are seen. The increased polarity also allows for easy transport of the xenobiotic along aqueous channels. In the final stage of phytotransformation (Phase III metabolism), a sequestration of the xenobiotic occurs within the plant. The xenobiotics polymerize in a lignin-like manner and develop a complex structure that is sequestered in the plant. This ensures that the xenobiotic is safely stored, and does not affect the functioning of the plant. However, preliminary studies have shown that these plants can be toxic to small animals (such as snails), and, hence, plants involved in phytotransformation may need to be maintained in a closed enclosure. Hence, the plants reduce toxicity (with exceptions) and sequester the xenobiotics in phytotransformation. Trinitrotoluene phytotransformation has been extensively researched and a transformation pathway has been proposed. Phytostimulation Phytostimulation (or rhizodegradation) is the enhancement of soil microbial activity for the degradation of organic contaminants, typically by organisms that associate with roots. This process occurs within the rhizosphere, which is the layer of soil that surrounds the roots. Plants release carbohydrates and acids that stimulate microorganism activity which results in the biodegradation of the organic contaminants. This means that the microorganisms are able to digest and break down the toxic substances into harmless form. Phytostimulation has been shown to be effective in degrading petroleum hydrocarbons, PCBs, and PAHs. Phytostimulation can also involve aquatic plants supporting active populations of microbial degraders, as in the stimulation of atrazine degradation by hornwort. Phytovolatilization Phytovolatilization is the removal of substances from soil or water with release into the air, sometimes as a result of phytotransformation to more volatile and/or less polluting substances. In this process, contaminants are taken up by the plant and through transpiration, evaporate into the atmosphere. This is the most studied form of phytovolatilization, where volatilization occurs at the stem and leaves of the plant, however indirect phytovolatilization occurs when contaminants are volatilized from the root zone. Selenium (Se) and Mercury (Hg) are often removed from soil through phytovolatilization. Poplar trees are one of the most successful plants for removing VOCs through this process due to its high transpiration rate. Rhizofiltration Rhizofiltration is a process that filters water through a mass of roots to remove toxic substances or excess nutrients. The pollutants remain absorbed in or adsorbed to the roots. This process is often used to clean up contaminated groundwater through planting directly in the contaminated site or through removing the contaminated water and providing it to these plants in an off-site location. In either case though, typically plants are first grown in a greenhouse under precise conditions. Biological hydraulic containment Biological hydraulic containment occurs when some plants, like poplars, draw water upwards through the soil into the roots and out through the plant, which decreases the movement of soluble contaminants downwards, deeper into the site and into the groundwater. Phytodesalination Phytodesalination uses halophytes (plants adapted to saline soil) to extract salt from the soil to improve its fertility. Role of genetics Breeding programs and genetic engineering are powerful methods for enhancing natural phytoremediation capabilities, or for introducing new capabilities into plants. Genes for phytoremediation may originate from a micro-organism or may be transferred from one plant to another variety better adapted to the environmental conditions at the cleanup site. For example, genes encoding a nitroreductase from a bacterium were inserted into tobacco and showed faster removal of TNT and enhanced resistance to the toxic effects of TNT. Researchers have also discovered a mechanism in plants that allows them to grow even when the pollution concentration in the soil is lethal for non-treated plants. Some natural, biodegradable compounds, such as exogenous polyamines, allow the plants to tolerate concentrations of pollutants 500 times higher than untreated plants, and to absorb more pollutants. Hyperaccumulators and biotic interactions A plant is said to be a hyperaccumulator if it can concentrate the pollutants in a minimum percentage which varies according to the pollutant involved (for example: more than 1000 mg/kg of dry weight for nickel, copper, cobalt, chromium or lead; or more than 10,000 mg/kg for zinc or manganese). This capacity for accumulation is due to hypertolerance, or phytotolerance: the result of adaptative evolution from the plants to hostile environments through many generations. A number of interactions may be affected by metal hyperaccumulation, including protection, interferences with neighbour plants of different species, mutualism (including mycorrhizae, pollen and seed dispersal), commensalism, and biofilm. Tables of hyperaccumulators Hyperaccumulators table – 1 : Al, Ag, As, Be, Cr, Cu, Mn, Hg, Mo, Naphthalene, Pb, Pd, Pt, Se, Zn Hyperaccumulators table – 2 : Nickel Hyperaccumulators table – 3 : Radionuclides (Cd, Cs, Co, Pu, Ra, Sr, U), Hydrocarbons, Organic Solvents. Phytoscreening As plants are able to translocate and accumulate particular types of contaminants, plants can be used as biosensors of subsurface contamination, thereby allowing investigators to quickly delineate contaminant plumes. Chlorinated solvents, such as trichloroethylene, have been observed in tree trunks at concentrations related to groundwater concentrations. To ease field implementation of phytoscreening, standard methods have been developed to extract a section of the tree trunk for later laboratory analysis, often by using an increment borer. Phytoscreening may lead to more optimized site investigations and reduce contaminated site cleanup costs. See also Bioaugmentation Biodegradation Bioremediation Constructed wetland Mycorrhizal bioremediation Mycoremediation Phytotreatment References Bibliography "Phytoremediation Website" — Includes reviews, conference announcements, lists of companies doing phytoremediation, and bibliographies. "An Overview of Phytoremediation of Lead and Mercury" June 6 2000. The Hazardous Waste Clean-Up Information Web Site. "Enhanced phytoextraction of arsenic from contaminated soil using sunflower" September 22 2004. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Phytoextraction", February 2000. Brookhaven National Laboratory 2000. "Phytoextraction of Metals from Contaminated Soil" April 18, 2001. M.M. Lasat July 2002. Donald Bren School of Environment Science & Management. "Phytoremediation" October 1997. Department of Civil Environmental Engineering. "Phytoremediation" June 2001, Todd Zynda. "Phytoremediation of Lead in Residential Soils in Dorchester, MA" May, 2002. Amy Donovan Palmer, Boston Public Health Commission. "Technology Profile: Phytoextraction" 1997. Environmental Business Association. "Ancona V, Barra Caracciolo A, Campanale C, De Caprariis B, Grenni P, Uricchio VF, Borello D, 2019. Gasification Treatment of Poplar Biomass Produced in a Contaminated Area Restored using Plant Assisted Bioremediation. Journal of Environmental Management" External links Missouri Botanical Garden (host): Phytoremediation website — Review Articles, Conferences, Phytoremediation Links, Research Sponsors, Books and Journals, and Recent Research. International Journal of Phytoremediation — devoted to the publication of current laboratory and field research describing the use of plant systems to remediate contaminated environments. Using Plants To Clean Up Soils — from Agricultural Research magazine New Alchemy Institute — co-founded by John Todd (Canadian biologist) Bioremediation Environmental soil science Environmental engineering Environmental terminology Pollution control technologies Conservation projects Ecological restoration Soil contamination Biotechnology Sustainable technologies

List of straight-chain alkanes

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The following is a list of straight-chain alkanes, the total number of isomers of each (including branched chains), and their common names, sorted by number of carbon atoms. References Alkanes Alkanes

List of African countries by population density

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This is a list of African countries and dependencies by population density in inhabitants/km2. Saint Helena, being closest to Africa, has been included. See also List of African countries by population List of African countries by GDP Demographics of Africa References Population Density Africa Africa

Circumstellar habitable zone

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In astronomy and astrobiology, the circumstellar habitable zone (CHZ), or simply the habitable zone, is the range of orbits around a star within which a planetary surface can support liquid water given sufficient atmospheric pressure. The bounds of the CHZ are based on Earth's position in the Solar System and the amount of radiant energy it receives from the Sun. Due to the importance of liquid water to Earth's biosphere, the nature of the CHZ and the objects within it may be instrumental in determining the scope and distribution of planets capable of supporting Earth-like extraterrestrial life and intelligence. The habitable zone is also called the Goldilocks zone, a metaphor, allusion and antonomasia of the children's fairy tale of "Goldilocks and the Three Bears", in which a little girl chooses from sets of three items, ignoring the ones that are too extreme (large or small, hot or cold, etc.), and settling on the one in the middle, which is "just right". Since the concept was first presented in 1953, many stars have been confirmed to possess a CHZ planet, including some systems that consist of multiple CHZ planets. Most such planets, being either super-Earths or gas giants, are more massive than Earth, because massive planets are easier to detect. On November 4, 2013, astronomers reported, based on Kepler data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarfs in the Milky Way. About 11 billion of these may be orbiting Sun-like stars. Proxima Centauri b, located about 4.2 light-years (1.3 parsecs) from Earth in the constellation of Centaurus, is the nearest known exoplanet, and is orbiting in the habitable zone of its star. The CHZ is also of particular interest to the emerging field of habitability of natural satellites, because planetary-mass moons in the CHZ might outnumber planets. In subsequent decades, the CHZ concept began to be challenged as a primary criterion for life, so the concept is still evolving. Since the discovery of evidence for extraterrestrial liquid water, substantial quantities of it are now thought to occur outside the circumstellar habitable zone. The concept of deep biospheres, like Earth's, that exist independently of stellar energy, are now generally accepted in astrobiology given the large amount of liquid water known to exist within in lithospheres and asthenospheres of the Solar System. Sustained by other energy sources, such as tidal heating or radioactive decay or pressurized by non-atmospheric means, liquid water may be found even on rogue planets, or their moons. Liquid water can also exist at a wider range of temperatures and pressures as a solution, for example with sodium chlorides in seawater on Earth, chlorides and sulphates on equatorial Mars, or ammoniates, due to its different colligative properties. Thus, the term Goldilocks Edge has also been suggested. In addition, other circumstellar zones, where non-water solvents favorable to hypothetical life based on alternative biochemistries could exist in liquid form at the surface, have been proposed. History An estimate of the range of distances from the Sun allowing the existence of liquid water appears in Newton's Principia (Book III, Section 1, corol. 4). The concept of a circumstellar habitable zone was first introduced in 1913, by Edward Maunder in his book "Are The Planets Inhabited?". The relevant quotations are given in . The concept was later discussed in 1953 by Hubertus Strughold, who in his treatise The Green and the Red Planet: A Physiological Study of the Possibility of Life on Mars, coined the term "ecosphere" and referred to various "zones" in which life could emerge. In the same year, Harlow Shapley wrote "Liquid Water Belt", which described the same concept in further scientific detail. Both works stressed the importance of liquid water to life. Su-Shu Huang, an American astrophysicist, first introduced the term "habitable zone" in 1959 to refer to the area around a star where liquid water could exist on a sufficiently large body, and was the first to introduce it in the context of planetary habitability and extraterrestrial life. A major early contributor to habitable zone concept, Huang argued in 1960 that circumstellar habitable zones, and by extension extraterrestrial life, would be uncommon in multiple star systems, given the gravitational instabilities of those systems. The concept of habitable zones was further developed in 1964 by Stephen H. Dole in his book Habitable Planets for Man, in which he discussed the concept of circumstellar habitable zone as well as various other determinants of planetary habitability, eventually estimating the number of habitable planets in the Milky Way to be about 600 million. At the same time, science-fiction author Isaac Asimov introduced the concept of a circumstellar habitable zone to the general public through his various explorations of space colonization. The term "Goldilocks zone" emerged in the 1970s, referencing specifically a region around a star whose temperature is "just right" for water to be present in the liquid phase. In 1993, astronomer James Kasting introduced the term "circumstellar habitable zone" to refer more precisely to the region then (and still) known as the habitable zone. Kasting was the first to present a detailed model for the habitable zone for exoplanets. An update to habitable zone concept came in 2000, when astronomers Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee, introduced the idea of the "galactic habitable zone", which they later developed with Guillermo Gonzalez. The galactic habitable zone, defined as the region where life is most likely to emerge in a galaxy, encompasses those regions close enough to a galactic center that stars there are enriched with heavier elements, but not so close that star systems, planetary orbits, and the emergence of life would be frequently disrupted by the intense radiation and enormous gravitational forces commonly found at galactic centers. Subsequently, some astrobiologists propose that the concept be extended to other solvents, including dihydrogen, sulfuric acid, dinitrogen, formamide, and methane, among others, which would support hypothetical life forms that use an alternative biochemistry. In 2013, further developments in habitable zone concepts were made with the proposal of a circum planetary habitable zone, also known as the "habitable edge", to encompass the region around a planet where the orbits of natural satellites would not be disrupted, and at the same time tidal heating from the planet would not cause liquid water to boil away. It has been noted that the current term of 'circumstellar habitable zone' poses confusion as the name suggests that planets within this region will possess a habitable environment. However, surface conditions are dependent on a host of different individual properties of that planet. This misunderstanding is reflected in excited reports of 'habitable planets'. Since it is completely unknown whether conditions on these distant CHZ worlds could host life, different terminology is needed. Determination Whether a body is in the circumstellar habitable zone of its host star is dependent on the radius of the planet's orbit (for natural satellites, the host planet's orbit), the mass of the body itself, and the radiative flux of the host star. Given the large spread in the masses of planets within a circumstellar habitable zone, coupled with the discovery of super-Earth planets which can sustain thicker atmospheres and stronger magnetic fields than Earth, circumstellar habitable zones are now split into two separate regions—a "conservative habitable zone" in which lower-mass planets like Earth can remain habitable, complemented by a larger "extended habitable zone" in which a planet like Venus, with stronger greenhouse effects, can have the right temperature for liquid water to exist at the surface. Solar System estimates Estimates for the habitable zone within the Solar System range from 0.38 to 10.0 astronomical units, though arriving at these estimates has been challenging for a variety of reasons. Numerous planetary mass objects orbit within, or close to, this range and as such receive sufficient sunlight to raise temperatures above the freezing point of water. However their atmospheric conditions vary substantially. The aphelion of Venus, for example, touches the inner edge of the zone in most estimates and while atmospheric pressure at the surface is sufficient for liquid water, a strong greenhouse effect raises surface temperatures to at which water can only exist as vapour. The entire orbits of the Moon, Mars, and numerous asteroids also lie within various estimates of the habitable zone. Only at Mars' lowest elevations (less than 30% of the planet's surface) is atmospheric pressure and temperature sufficient for water to, if present, exist in liquid form for short periods. At Hellas Basin, for example, atmospheric pressures can reach 1,115 Pa and temperatures above zero Celsius (about the triple point for water) for 70 days in the Martian year. Despite indirect evidence in the form of seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes, no confirmation has been made of the presence of liquid water there. While other objects orbit partly within this zone, including comets, Ceres is the only one of planetary mass. A combination of low mass and an inability to mitigate evaporation and atmosphere loss against the solar wind make it impossible for these bodies to sustain liquid water on their surface. Despite this, studies are strongly suggestive of past liquid water on the surface of Venus, Mars, Vesta and Ceres, suggesting a more common phenomenon than previously thought. Since sustainable liquid water is thought to be essential to support complex life, most estimates, therefore, are inferred from the effect that a repositioned orbit would have on the habitability of Earth or Venus as their surface gravity allows sufficient atmosphere to be retained for several billion years. According to extended habitable zone concept, planetary-mass objects with atmospheres capable of inducing sufficient radiative forcing could possess liquid water farther out from the Sun. Such objects could include those whose atmospheres contain a high component of greenhouse gas and terrestrial planets much more massive than Earth (super-Earth class planets), that have retained atmospheres with surface pressures of up to 100 kbar. There are no examples of such objects in the Solar System to study; not enough is known about the nature of atmospheres of these kinds of extrasolar objects, and their position in the habitable zone cannot determine the net temperature effect of such atmospheres including induced albedo, anti-greenhouse or other possible heat sources. For reference, the average distance from the Sun of some major bodies within the various estimates of the habitable zone is: Mercury, 0.39 AU; Venus, 0.72 AU; Earth, 1.00 AU; Mars, 1.52 AU; Vesta, 2.36 AU; Ceres and Pallas, 2.77 AU; Jupiter, 5.20 AU; Saturn, 9.58 AU. In the most conservative estimates, only Earth lies within the zone; in the most permissive estimates, even Saturn at perihelion, or Mercury at aphelion, might be included. Extrasolar extrapolation Astronomers use stellar flux and the inverse-square law to extrapolate circumstellar habitable zone models created for the Solar System to other stars. For example, according to Kopparapu's habitable zone estimate, although the Solar System has a circumstellar habitable zone centered at 1.34 AU from the Sun, a star with 0.25 times the luminosity of the Sun would have a habitable zone centered at , or 0.5, the distance from the star, corresponding to a distance of 0.67 AU. Various complicating factors, though, including the individual characteristics of stars themselves, mean that extrasolar extrapolation of the CHZ concept is more complex. Spectral types and star-system characteristics Some scientists argue that the concept of a circumstellar habitable zone is actually limited to stars in certain types of systems or of certain spectral types. Binary systems, for example, have circumstellar habitable zones that differ from those of single-star planetary systems, in addition to the orbital stability concerns inherent with a three-body configuration. If the Solar System were such a binary system, the outer limits of the resulting circumstellar habitable zone could extend as far as 2.4 AU. With regard to spectral types, Zoltán Balog proposes that O-type stars cannot form planets due to the photoevaporation caused by their strong ultraviolet emissions. Studying ultraviolet emissions, Andrea Buccino found that only 40% of stars studied (including the Sun) had overlapping liquid water and ultraviolet habitable zones. Stars smaller than the Sun, on the other hand, have distinct impediments to habitability. For example, Michael Hart proposed that only main-sequence stars of spectral class K0 or brighter could offer habitable zones, an idea which has evolved in modern times into the concept of a tidal locking radius for red dwarfs. Within this radius, which is coincidental with the red-dwarf habitable zone, it has been suggested that the volcanism caused by tidal heating could cause a "tidal Venus" planet with high temperatures and no hospitable environment to life. Others maintain that circumstellar habitable zones are more common, and that it is indeed possible for water to exist on planets orbiting cooler stars. Climate modelling from 2013 supports the idea that red dwarf stars can support planets with relatively constant temperatures over their surfaces in spite of tidal locking. Astronomy professor Eric Agol argues that even white dwarfs may support a relatively brief habitable zone through planetary migration. At the same time, others have written in similar support of semi-stable, temporary habitable zones around brown dwarfs. Also, a habitable zone in the outer parts of stellar systems may exist during the pre-main-sequence phase of stellar evolution, especially around M-dwarfs, potentially lasting for billion-year timescales. Stellar evolution Circumstellar habitable zones change over time with stellar evolution. For example, hot O-type stars, which may remain on the main sequence for fewer than 10 million years, would have rapidly changing habitable zones not conducive to the development of life. Red dwarf stars, on the other hand, which can live for hundreds of billions of years on the main sequence, would have planets with ample time for life to develop and evolve. Even while stars are on the main sequence, though, their energy output steadily increases, pushing their habitable zones farther out; our Sun, for example, was 75% as bright in the Archaean as it is now, and in the future, continued increases in energy output will put Earth outside the Sun's habitable zone, even before it reaches the red giant phase. In order to deal with this increase in luminosity, the concept of a continuously habitable zone has been introduced. As the name suggests, the continuously habitable zone is a region around a star in which planetary-mass bodies can sustain liquid water for a given period. Like the general circumstellar habitable zone, the continuously habitable zone of a star is divided into a conservative and extended region. In red dwarf systems, gigantic stellar flares which could double a star's brightness in minutes and huge starspots which can cover 20% of the star's surface area, have the potential to strip an otherwise habitable planet of its atmosphere and water. As with more massive stars, though, stellar evolution changes their nature and energy flux, so by about 1.2 billion years of age, red dwarfs generally become sufficiently constant to allow for the development of life. Once a star has evolved sufficiently to become a red giant, its circumstellar habitable zone will change dramatically from its main-sequence size. For example, the Sun is expected to engulf the previously-habitable Earth as a red giant. However, once a red giant star reaches the horizontal branch, it achieves a new equilibrium and can sustain a new circumstellar habitable zone, which in the case of the Sun would range from 7 to 22 AU. At such stage, Saturn's moon Titan would likely be habitable in Earth's temperature sense. Given that this new equilibrium lasts for about 1 Gyr, and because life on Earth emerged by 0.7 Gyr from the formation of the Solar System at latest, life could conceivably develop on planetary mass objects in the habitable zone of red giants. However, around such a helium-burning star, important life processes like photosynthesis could only happen around planets where the atmosphere has carbon dioxide, as by the time a solar-mass star becomes a red giant, planetary-mass bodies would have already absorbed much of their free carbon dioxide. Moreover, as Ramirez and Kaltenegger (2016) showed, intense stellar winds would completely remove the atmospheres of such smaller planetary bodies, rendering them uninhabitable anyway. Thus, Titan would not be habitable even after the Sun becomes a red giant. Nevertheless, life need not originate during this stage of stellar evolution for it to be detected. Once the star becomes a red giant, and the habitable zone extends outward, the icy surface would melt, forming a temporary atmosphere that can be searched for signs of life that may have been thriving before the start of the red giant stage. Desert planets A planet's atmospheric conditions influence its ability to retain heat, so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet: desert planets (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced greenhouse effect, meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun. The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out. Other considerations A planet cannot have a hydrosphere—a key ingredient for the formation of carbon-based life—unless there is a source for water within its stellar system. The origin of water on Earth is still not completely understood; possible sources include the result of impacts with icy bodies, outgassing, mineralization, leakage from hydrous minerals from the lithosphere, and photolysis. For an extrasolar system, an icy body from beyond the frost line could migrate into the habitable zone of its star, creating an ocean planet with seas hundreds of kilometers deep such as GJ 1214 b or Kepler-22b may be. Maintenance of liquid surface water also requires a sufficiently thick atmosphere. Possible origins of terrestrial atmospheres are currently theorised to outgassing, impact degassing and ingassing. Atmospheres are thought to be maintained through similar processes along with biogeochemical cycles and the mitigation of atmospheric escape. In a 2013 study led by Italian astronomer Giovanni Vladilo, it was shown that the size of the circumstellar habitable zone increased with greater atmospheric pressure. Below an atmospheric pressure of about 15 millibars, it was found that habitability could not be maintained because even a small shift in pressure or temperature could render water unable to form as a liquid. Although traditional definitions of the habitable zone assume that carbon dioxide and water vapor are the most important greenhouse gases (as they are on the Earth), a study led by Ramses Ramirez and co-author Lisa Kaltenegger has shown that the size of the habitable zone is greatly increased if prodigious volcanic outgassing of hydrogen is also included along with the carbon dioxide and water vapor. The outer edge in the Solar System would extend out as far as 2.4 AU in that case. Similar increases in the size of the habitable zone were computed for other stellar systems. An earlier study by Ray Pierrehumbert and Eric Gaidos had eliminated the CO2-H2O concept entirely, arguing that young planets could accrete many tens to hundreds of bars of hydrogen from the protoplanetary disc, providing enough of a greenhouse effect to extend the solar system outer edge to 10 AU. In this case, though, the hydrogen is not continuously replenished by volcanism and is lost within millions to tens-of-millions of years. In the case of planets orbiting in the CHZs of red dwarf stars, the extremely close distances to the stars cause tidal locking, an important factor in habitability. For a tidally locked planet, the sidereal day is as long as the orbital period, causing one side to permanently face the host star and the other side to face away. In the past, such tidal locking was thought to cause extreme heat on the star-facing side and bitter cold on the opposite side, making many red dwarf planets uninhabitable; however, three-dimensional climate models in 2013 showed that the side of a red dwarf planet facing the host star could have extensive cloud cover, increasing its bond albedo and reducing significantly temperature differences between the two sides. Planetary-mass natural satellites have the potential to be habitable as well. However, these bodies need to fulfill additional parameters, in particular being located within the circumplanetary habitable zones of their host planets. More specifically, moons need to be far enough from their host giant planets that they are not transformed by tidal heating into volcanic worlds like Io, but must remain within the Hill radius of the planet so that they are not pulled out of the orbit of their host planet. Red dwarfs that have masses less than 20% of that of the Sun cannot have habitable moons around giant planets, as the small size of the circumstellar habitable zone would put a habitable moon so close to the star that it would be stripped from its host planet. In such a system, a moon close enough to its host planet to maintain its orbit would have tidal heating so intense as to eliminate any prospects of habitability. A planetary object that orbits a star with high orbital eccentricity may spend only some of its year in the CHZ and experience a large variation in temperature and atmospheric pressure. This would result in dramatic seasonal phase shifts where liquid water may exist only intermittently. It is possible that subsurface habitats could be insulated from such changes and that extremophiles on or near the surface might survive through adaptions such as hibernation (cryptobiosis) and/or hyperthermostability. Tardigrades, for example, can survive in a dehydrated state temperatures between and . Life on a planetary object orbiting outside CHZ might hibernate on the cold side as the planet approaches the apastron where the planet is coolest and become active on approach to the periastron when the planet is sufficiently warm. Extrasolar discoveries A 2015 review concluded that the exoplanets Kepler-62f, Kepler-186f and Kepler-442b were likely the best candidates for being potentially habitable. These are at a distance of 990, 490 and 1,120 light-years away, respectively. Of these, Kepler-186f is closest in size to Earth with 1.2 times Earth's radius, and it is located towards the outer edge of the habitable zone around its red dwarf star. Among nearest terrestrial exoplanet candidates, Tau Ceti e is 11.9 light-years away. It is in the inner edge of its solar system's habitable zone, giving it an estimated average surface temperature of . Studies that have attempted to estimate the number of terrestrial planets within the circumstellar habitable zone tend to reflect the availability of scientific data. A 2013 study by Ravi Kumar Kopparapu put ηe, the fraction of stars with planets in the CHZ, at 0.48, meaning that there may be roughly 95–180 billion habitable planets in the Milky Way. However, this is merely a statistical prediction; only a small fraction of these possible planets have yet been discovered. Previous studies have been more conservative. In 2011, Seth Borenstein concluded that there are roughly 500 million habitable planets in the Milky Way. NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2011 study, based on observations from the Kepler mission, raised the number somewhat, estimating that about "1.4 to 2.7 percent" of all stars of spectral class F, G, and K are expected to have planets in their CHZs. Early findings The first discoveries of extrasolar planets in the CHZ occurred just a few years after the first extrasolar planets were discovered. However these early detections were all gas giant sized, and many in eccentric orbits. Despite this, studies indicate the possibility of large, Earth-like moons around these planets supporting liquid water. One of the first discoveries was 70 Virginis b, a gas giant initially nicknamed "Goldilocks" due to it being neither "too hot" nor "too cold". Later study revealed temperatures analogous to Venus, ruling out any potential for liquid water. 16 Cygni Bb, also discovered in 1996, has an extremely eccentric orbit that spends only part of its time in the CHZ, such an orbit would causes extreme seasonal effects. In spite of this, simulations have suggested that a sufficiently large companion could support surface water year-round. Gliese 876 b, discovered in 1998, and Gliese 876 c, discovered in 2001, are both gas giants discovered in the habitable zone around Gliese 876 that may also have large moons. Another gas giant, Upsilon Andromedae d was discovered in 1999 orbiting Upsilon Andromidae's habitable zone. Announced on April 4, 2001, HD 28185 b is a gas giant found to orbit entirely within its star's circumstellar habitable zone and has a low orbital eccentricity, comparable to that of Mars in the Solar System. Tidal interactions suggest it could harbor habitable Earth-mass satellites in orbit around it for many billions of years, though it is unclear whether such satellites could form in the first place. HD 69830 d, a gas giant with 17 times the mass of Earth, was found in 2006 orbiting within the circumstellar habitable zone of HD 69830, 41 light years away from Earth. The following year, 55 Cancri f was discovered within the CHZ of its host star 55 Cancri A. Hypothetical satellites with sufficient mass and composition are thought to be able to support liquid water at their surfaces. Though, in theory, such giant planets could possess moons, the technology did not exist to detect moons around them, and no extrasolar moons had been discovered. Planets within the zone with the potential for solid surfaces were therefore of much higher interest. Habitable super-Earths The 2007 discovery of Gliese 581 c, the first super-Earth in the circumstellar habitable zone, created significant interest in the system by the scientific community, although the planet was later found to have extreme surface conditions that may resemble Venus. Gliese 581 d, another planet in the same system and thought to be a better candidate for habitability, was also announced in 2007. Its existence was later disconfirmed in 2014, but only for short time. As of 2015, the planet has no newer disconfirmations. Gliese 581 g, yet another planet thought to have been discovered in the circumstellar habitable zone of the system, was considered to be more habitable than both Gliese 581 c and d. However, its existence was also disconfirmed in 2014, and astronomers are divided about its existence. Discovered in August 2011, HD 85512 b was initially speculated to be habitable, but the new circumstellar habitable zone criteria devised by Kopparapu et al. in 2013 place the planet outside the circumstellar habitable zone. Kepler-22 b, discovered in December 2011 by the Kepler space probe, is the first transiting exoplanet discovered around a Sun-like star. With a radius 2.4 times that of Earth, Kepler-22b has been predicted by some to be an ocean planet. Gliese 667 Cc, discovered in 2011 but announced in 2012, is a super-Earth orbiting in the circumstellar habitable zone of Gliese 667 C. It is one of the most Earth-like planets known. Gliese 163 c, discovered in September 2012 in orbit around the red dwarf Gliese 163 is located 49 light years from Earth. The planet has 6.9 Earth masses and 1.8–2.4 Earth radii, and with its close orbit receives 40 percent more stellar radiation than Earth, leading to surface temperatures of about ° C. HD 40307 g, a candidate planet tentatively discovered in November 2012, is in the circumstellar habitable zone of HD 40307. In December 2012, Tau Ceti e and Tau Ceti f were found in the circumstellar habitable zone of Tau Ceti, a Sun-like star 12 light years away. Although more massive than Earth, they are among the least massive planets found to date orbiting in the habitable zone; however, Tau Ceti f, like HD 85512 b, did not fit the new circumstellar habitable zone criteria established by the 2013 Kopparapu study. It is now considered as uninhabitable. Near Earth-sized planets and Solar analogs Recent discoveries have uncovered planets that are thought to be similar in size or mass to Earth. "Earth-sized" ranges are typically defined by mass. The lower range used in many definitions of the super-Earth class is 1.9 Earth masses; likewise, sub-Earths range up to the size of Venus (~0.815 Earth masses). An upper limit of 1.5 Earth radii is also considered, given that above the average planet density rapidly decreases with increasing radius, indicating these planets have a significant fraction of volatiles by volume overlying a rocky core. A genuinely Earth-like planet – an Earth analog or "Earth twin" – would need to meet many conditions beyond size and mass; such properties are not observable using current technology. A solar analog (or "solar twin") is a star that resembles the Sun. To date, no solar twin with an exact match as that of the Sun has been found. However, some stars are nearly identical to the Sun and are considered solar twins. An exact solar twin would be a G2V star with a 5,778 K temperature, be 4.6 billion years old, with the correct metallicity and a 0.1% solar luminosity variation. Stars with an age of 4.6 billion years are at the most stable state. Proper metallicity and size are also critical to low luminosity variation. Using data collected by NASA's Kepler Space observatory and the W. M. Keck Observatory, scientists have estimated that 22% of solar-type stars in the Milky Way galaxy have Earth-sized planets in their habitable zone. On 7 January 2013, astronomers from the Kepler team announced the discovery of Kepler-69c (formerly KOI-172.02), an Earth-size exoplanet candidate (1.7 times the radius of Earth) orbiting Kepler-69, a star similar to our Sun, in the CHZ and expected to offer habitable conditions. The discovery of two planets orbiting in the habitable zone of Kepler-62, by the Kepler team was announced on April 19, 2013. The planets, named Kepler-62e and Kepler-62f, are likely solid planets with sizes 1.6 and 1.4 times the radius of Earth, respectively. With a radius estimated at 1.1 Earth, Kepler-186f, discovery announced in April 2014, is the closest yet size to Earth of an exoplanet confirmed by the transit method though its mass remains unknown and its parent star is not a Solar analog. Kapteyn b, discovered in June 2014 is a possible rocky world of about 4.8 Earth masses and about 1.5 earth radii was found orbiting the habitable zone of the red subdwarf Kapteyn's Star, 12.8 light-years away. On 6 January 2015, NASA announced the 1000th confirmed exoplanet discovered by the Kepler Space Telescope. Three of the newly confirmed exoplanets were found to orbit within habitable zones of their related stars: two of the three, Kepler-438b and Kepler-442b, are near-Earth-size and likely rocky; the third, Kepler-440b, is a super-Earth. However, Kepler-438b is found to be a subject of powerful flares, so it is now considered uninhabitable. 16 January, K2-3d a planet of 1.5 Earth radii was found orbiting within the habitable zone of K2-3, receiving 1.4 times the intensity of visible light as Earth. Kepler-452b, announced on 23 July 2015 is 50% bigger than Earth, likely rocky and takes approximately 385 Earth days to orbit the habitable zone of its G-class (solar analog) star Kepler-452. The discovery of a system of three tidally-locked planets orbiting the habitable zone of an ultracool dwarf star, TRAPPIST-1, was announced in May 2016. The discovery is considered significant because it dramatically increases the possibility of smaller, cooler, more numerous and closer stars possessing habitable planets. Two potentially habitable planets, discovered by the K2 mission in July 2016 orbiting around the M dwarf K2-72 around 227 light year from the Sun: K2-72c and K2-72e are both of similar size to Earth and receive similar amounts of stellar radiation. Announced on the 20 April 2017, LHS 1140b is a super-dense super-Earth 39 light years away, 6.6 times Earth's mass and 1.4 times radius, its star 15% the mass of the Sun but with much less observable stellar flare activity than most M dwarfs. The planet is one of few observable by both transit and radial velocity that's mass is confirmed with an atmosphere may be studied. Discovered by radial velocity in June 2017, with approximately three times the mass of Earth, Luyten b orbits within the habitable zone of Luyten's Star just 12.2 light-years away. At 11 light-years away, a second closest planet, Ross 128 b, was announced in November 2017 following a decade's radial velocity study of relatively "quiet" red dwarf star Ross 128. At 1.35 Earth's mass is it roughly Earth-sized and likely rocky in composition. Discovered in March 2018, K2-155d is about 1.64 time the radius of Earth, is likely rocky and orbits in the habitable zone of its red dwarf star 203 light years away. One of the earliest discoveries by the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) announced July 31, 2019 is a Super Earth planet GJ 357 d orbiting the outer edge of a red dwarf 31 light years away. K2-18b is an exoplanet 124 light-years away, orbiting in the habitable zone of the K2-18, a red dwarf. This planet is significant for water vapour found in its atmosphere; this was announced on September 17, 2019. In September 2020, astronomers identified 24 superhabitable planet (planets better than Earth) contenders, from among more than 4000 confirmed exoplanets at present, based on astrophysical parameters, as well as the natural history of known life forms on the Earth. Habitability outside the CHZ Liquid-water environments have been found to exist in the absence of atmospheric pressure, and at temperatures outside the CHZ temperature range. For example, Saturn's moons Titan and Enceladus and Jupiter's moons Europa and Ganymede, all of which are outside the habitable zone, may hold large volumes of liquid water in subsurface oceans. Outside the CHZ, tidal heating and radioactive decay are two possible heat sources that could contribute to the existence of liquid water. Abbot and Switzer (2011) put forward the possibility that subsurface water could exist on rogue planets as a result of radioactive decay-based heating and insulation by a thick surface layer of ice. With some theorising that life on Earth may have actually originated in stable, subsurface habitats, it has been suggested that it may be common for wet subsurface extraterrestrial habitats such as these to 'teem with life'. Indeed, on Earth itself living organisms may be found more than 6 kilometres below the surface. Another possibility is that outside the CHZ organisms may use alternative biochemistries that do not require water at all. Astrobiologist Christopher McKay, has suggested that methane () may be a solvent conducive to the development of "cryolife", with the Sun's "methane habitable zone" being centered on from the star. This distance is coincident with the location of Titan, whose lakes and rain of methane make it an ideal location to find McKay's proposed cryolife. In addition, testing of a number of organisms has found some are capable of surviving in extra-CHZ conditions. Significance for complex and intelligent life The Rare Earth hypothesis argues that complex and intelligent life is uncommon and that the CHZ is one of many critical factors. According to Ward & Brownlee (2004) and others, not only is a CHZ orbit and surface water a primary requirement to sustain life but a requirement to support the secondary conditions required for multicellular life to emerge and evolve. The secondary habitability factors are both geological (the role of surface water in sustaining necessary plate tectonics) and biochemical (the role of radiant energy in supporting photosynthesis for necessary atmospheric oxygenation). But others, such as Ian Stewart and Jack Cohen in their 2002 book Evolving the Alien argue that complex intelligent life may arise outside the CHZ. Intelligent life outside the CHZ may have evolved in subsurface environments, from alternative biochemistries or even from nuclear reactions. On Earth, several complex multicellular life forms (or eukaryotes) have been identified with the potential to survive conditions that might exist outside the conservative habitable zone. Geothermal energy sustains ancient circumvental ecosystems, supporting large complex life forms such as Riftia pachyptila. Similar environments may be found in oceans pressurised beneath solid crusts, such as those of Europa and Enceladus, outside of the habitable zone. Numerous microorganisms have been tested in simulated conditions and in low Earth orbit, including eukaryotes. An animal example is the Milnesium tardigradum, which can withstand extreme temperatures well above the boiling point of water and the cold vacuum of outer space. In addition, the lichens Rhizocarpon geographicum and Xanthoria elegans have been found to survive in an environment where the atmospheric pressure is far too low for surface liquid water and where the radiant energy is also much lower than that which most plants require to photosynthesize. The fungi Cryomyces antarcticus and Cryomyces minteri are also able to survive and reproduce in Mars-like conditions. Species, including humans, known to possess animal cognition require large amounts of energy, and have adapted to specific conditions, including an abundance of atmospheric oxygen and the availability of large quantities of chemical energy synthesized from radiant energy. If humans are to colonize other planets, true Earth analogs in the CHZ are most likely to provide the closest natural habitat; this concept was the basis of Stephen H. Dole's 1964 study. With suitable temperature, gravity, atmospheric pressure and the presence of water, the necessity of spacesuits or space habitat analogues on the surface may be eliminated, and complex Earth life can thrive. Planets in the CHZ remain of paramount interest to researchers looking for intelligent life elsewhere in the universe. The Drake equation, sometimes used to estimate the number of intelligent civilizations in our galaxy, contains the factor or parameter , which is the average number of planetary-mass objects orbiting within the CHZ of each star. A low value lends support to the Rare Earth hypothesis, which posits that intelligent life is a rarity in the Universe, whereas a high value provides evidence for the Copernican mediocrity principle, the view that habitability—and therefore life—is common throughout the Universe. A 1971 NASA report by Drake and Bernard Oliver proposed the "water hole", based on the spectral absorption lines of the hydrogen and hydroxyl components of water, as a good, obvious band for communication with extraterrestrial intelligence that has since been widely adopted by astronomers involved in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. According to Jill Tarter, Margaret Turnbull and many others, CHZ candidates are the priority targets to narrow waterhole searches and the Allen Telescope Array now extends Project Phoenix to such candidates. Because the CHZ is considered the most likely habitat for intelligent life, METI efforts have also been focused on systems likely to have planets there. The 2001 Teen Age Message and the 2003 Cosmic Call 2, for example, were sent to the 47 Ursae Majoris system, known to contain three Jupiter-mass planets and possibly with a terrestrial planet in the CHZ. The Teen Age Message was also directed to the 55 Cancri system, which has a gas giant in its CHZ. A Message from Earth in 2008, and Hello From Earth in 2009, were directed to the Gliese 581 system, containing three planets in the CHZ—Gliese 581 c, d, and the unconfirmed g. See also References External links Interstellar Real Estate: Location, Location, Location – Defining the Habitable Zone Search for extraterrestrial intelligence Planetary habitability Astronomical hypotheses Extraterrestrial life Articles containing video clips Extraterrestrial water

Roy Sullivan

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Roy Cleveland Sullivan (February 7, 1912 – September 28, 1983) was a United States park ranger in Shenandoah National Park in Virginia. Between 1942 and 1977, Sullivan was hit by lightning on seven occasions and survived all of them. For this reason, he gained the nicknames "Human Lightning Conductor" and "Human Lightning Rod". Sullivan is recognized by Guinness World Records as the person struck by lightning more recorded times than any other human being. Personal life Roy was born in Greene County, Virginia, on February 7, 1912. He started working as a ranger in Shenandoah National Park in 1936. Sullivan was described as a brawny man with a broad, rugged face, who resembled the actor Gene Hackman. He was avoided by people later in life because of their fear of being hit by lightning, and this saddened him. He once recalled "For instance, I was walking with the Chief Ranger one day when lightning struck way off (in the distance). The Chief said, 'I'll see you later.'" On the morning of September 28, 1983, Sullivan died at the age of 71 from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head. Two of his ranger hats are on display at two Guinness World Exhibit Halls in New York City and South Carolina. Seven strikes Sullivan's first documented lightning strike was in April 1942. He was hiding from a thunderstorm in a fire lookout tower. The tower was newly built and had no lightning rod at the time; it was hit seven or eight times. Inside the tower, "fire was jumping all over the place". Sullivan ran out and was struck a few feet away. It burned a half-inch strip all along his right leg, hit his toe, and left a hole in his shoe. He was hit again in July 1969. Unusually, he was hit while in his truck, driving on a mountain road – the metal body of a vehicle normally protects people from lightning strikes by acting as a Faraday cage. The lightning first hit nearby trees and was deflected into the open window of the truck. The strike knocked Sullivan unconscious and burned off his eyebrows and eyelashes, and set his hair on fire. The uncontrolled truck kept moving until it stopped near a cliff edge. In July 1970, Sullivan was struck while in his front yard. The lightning hit a nearby power transformer and from there jumped to his left shoulder, searing it. In spring 1972, Sullivan was working inside a ranger station in Shenandoah National Park when he was struck again. It set his hair on fire; he tried to smother the flames with his jacket. He then rushed to the restroom, but could not fit under the water tap and so used a wet towel instead. Although he never was a fearful man, after the fourth strike he began to believe that some force was trying to destroy him and he acquired a fear of death. For months, whenever he was caught in a storm while driving his truck, he would pull over and lie down on the front seat until the storm passed. He also began to believe that he would somehow attract lightning even if he stood in a crowd of people, and carried a can of water with him in case his hair was set on fire. On August 7, 1973, while he was out on patrol in the park, Sullivan saw a storm cloud forming and drove away quickly. But the cloud, he said later, seemed to be following him. When he finally thought he had outrun it, he decided it was safe to leave his truck. Soon after, he was struck by a lightning bolt. Sullivan stated that he actually saw the bolt that hit him. The lightning moved down his left arm and left leg and knocked off his shoe. It then crossed over to his right leg just below the knee. Still conscious, Sullivan crawled to his truck and poured the can of water, which he always kept there, over his head, which was on fire. The next strike, on June 5, 1976, injured his ankle. It was reported that he saw a cloud, thought that it was following him, tried to run away, but was struck anyway. His hair also caught fire. On Saturday morning, June 25, 1977, Sullivan was struck while fishing in a freshwater pool. The lightning hit the top of his head, set his hair on fire, traveled down, and burnt his chest and stomach. Sullivan turned to his car when something unexpected occurred – a bear approached the pond and tried to steal trout from his fishing line. Sullivan had the strength and courage to strike the bear with a tree branch. He claimed that this was the twenty-second time he hit a bear with a stick in his lifetime. All seven strikes were documented by the superintendent of Shenandoah National Park, R. Tyler Hoskins. Hoskins, however, was never present at any of the reported strikes and was not an active and present superintendent in Shenandoah National Park for many of the times Sullivan was supposedly struck. Sullivan himself recalled that the first time he was struck by lightning was not in 1942 but much earlier. When he was a child, he was helping his father to cut wheat in a field, when a thunderbolt struck the blade of his scythe without injuring him. But because he could not prove the fact later, he never claimed it. Sullivan's wife was also struck once, when a storm suddenly arrived as she was out hanging clothes in their back yard. Her husband was helping her at the time, but escaped unharmed. Statistics The odds of being struck by lightning for over the period of 80 years have been roughly estimated as 1:10000. If the lightning strikes were independent events, the probability of being hit seven times would be (1:10000)7 = 1:1028 or 1 in 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000. These numbers do not quite apply to Sullivan, however, who by the nature of his work and his physical location was exposed to more storms than the average person. Virginia, where he lived, averages 35 to 45 thunderstorm days per year, most of which fall in June, July, and August. Between 1959 and 2000 lightning killed 58 people and injured at least 238 people in Virginia. In the United States, 3239 people were killed and 13,057 injured by lightning in the same period. Most of those were males between 20 and 40 years old caught outdoors. In popular culture The short film Don vs Lightning is inspired by Sullivan's story. In the film The Curious Case of Benjamin Button, the character Mr. Daws often tells the title character that he was struck by lightning seven times. See also Lightning injury References External links National Weather Service Lightning Safety Information 1912 births 1983 suicides National Park Service personnel Injuries from lightning strikes People from Greene County, Virginia Suicides by firearm in Virginia People from Augusta County, Virginia 1983 deaths

Big Boss (Metal Gear)

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is a video game character from the Metal Gear video game series created by Hideo Kojima and developed and published by Konami. He was first introduced in the 1987 Metal Gear game as the commanding officer and father of the main character, Solid Snake, later revealing himself as a terrorist leading a faction known as Outer Heaven. He is later featured in the prequel games, starting with Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater as a younger version of the character named , an American Special Forces Operator and decorated war hero until political manipulations cause him to be disillusioned when facing his own mentor, The Boss, and gradually develops his own private mercenary company. The original incarnation of Big Boss from the 1987 Metal Gear game is retroactively established as a separate character known as Venom Snake in Metal Gear Solid V: Ground Zeroes and The Phantom Pain. The creation of Naked Snake was made in an attempt to distance him from Solid Snake, despite both being physically similar through their characterizations. He has been voiced by Akio Ōtsuka in Japanese and David Hayter in English in these games. Critical reception to Big Boss has been positive, due to his role as a villain and rivalry formed with his former subordinate. Snake's younger persona has been praised as likeable, with critics generally enjoying the execution of his character development in the series designed to shape him into the villainous icon. Appearances In the MSX2 games Big Boss is introduced in the original Metal Gear game as the Special Forces Unit FOXHOUND's leader and Solid Snake's commanding officer. He initially acts as a radio contact who provides Snake with information about mission objectives, as well as weapons and equipment. But after Snake destroys the titular TX-55 Metal Gear weapon despite Big Boss' discouragement, Outer Heaven's militia leader confronts Snake near the base's escape route in a final battle only to be defeated. Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake reveals that Big Boss has since taken control of a fortified nation in Central Asia known as Zanzibar Land and commissions the development of Metal Gear D. Solid Snake confronts Big Boss once again while escaping from Zanzibar Land's detention camp, with Snake incinerating Big Boss. In the Metal Gear Solid series Big Boss' presence figures prominently in the original Metal Gear Solid games where his DNA was used to create the genetically-altered clones as part of the secret "Les Enfants Terribles" government project (French for "The Terrible Children"): Solid Snake, Liquid Snake, and Solidus Snake. Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater The prequel Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater depicts a young incarnation of the character, under the codename Naked Snake, as a member of the CIA special forces unit FOX in 1964 that was founded by Zero. With Para-Medic and Sigint for additional support, he is sent on an assignment in the Soviet Union to thwart an uprising led by the sadistic Volgin, rescue key weapons researcher Nikolai Stepanovich Sokolov, destroy the Shagohod prototype, and kill his mentor, The Boss, who defected to the Soviet Union, to avert a nuclear war. Over the course of his assignment, he encounters Major Ocelot multiple times, fights and defeats the Cobra Unit (consisting of The Pain, The Fear, The End, The Fury and The Sorrow). After the mission is completed and Snake kills The Boss, he learns that the defection was part of a mission to be carried out, and the government ordered his mentor's death to prevent war. According to EVA's debrief, the political motives behind the operation do not sit well with Snake, especially after he is awarded the Big Boss title for his actions; he initially rejects the title, prompting him to retire from active service. Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops shows Naked Snake still under his former codename, believing that he has yet to surpass The Boss as a warrior. Having spent six years wandering the globe, Snake finds himself involved in an armed uprising caused by Gene's rogue FOX unit in the (fictional) San Hieronymo peninsula in Colombia and learns that he has been convicted for instigating the revolt. Hoping to clear his name, Snake forms his own team of specialists by recruiting both old allies and defecting enemy soldiers to his cause, one of whom happens to be Roy Campbell. He faces not only the members of the FOX unit, but also Metal Gear's first prototype. After he learned that The Boss' death had been planned all along, Snake defeats Gene and obtains the funds for Army's Heaven. Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots revealed that Big Boss was one of the founding members of Zero's cause to initially realize The Boss' dream, but this spiraled into a conspiracy to impose order and control over the world after Big Boss disagreed with Zero's interpretation of the dream. Big Boss despised his role as figurehead, especially since Zero's vision placed no value on loyalty to ideals and people, something The Boss treasured above all else. When Big Boss learns that his own DNA was being used for Zero's "Les Enfants Terribles" project, this proved to be the final straw. After his defection from Zero's cause, Big Boss plotted coup d'état with Outer Heaven (Metal Gear) and Zanzibar Land (Metal Gear 2). Although he had survived these defeats, he was placed in an artificially induced coma with his genetic code used for an ID recognition system, the use of which allows access to the AIs that make up the Patriots. His body is recovered and reconstructed using parts from the bodies of both Liquid and Solidus, and he awakens from his coma after the fall of the Patriots' AIs. Following the game's voice casting credits, Big Boss appears before Old Snake. After he reveals to Snake the truth about himself and Zero, Big Boss shuts down his catatonic nemesis' life support system. He manages to come to terms with his feelings regarding The Boss, and then reconciles with his son before dying from unintended exposure to the new FOXDIE virus. Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker Naked Snake's past again serves as the scenario in Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker after he and his business partner Kazuhira "Kaz" Miller established the mercenary force Militaires Sans Frontières (French for "Soldiers Without Borders") made up of expatriate soldiers recruited to his cause. He intends to use MSF to live out The Boss' final will, a world where soldiers are free to choose their own fights on their own terms, and not at the whim of a government. On Colombia's Barranquilla coast, two representatives of the Costa Rican government (Paz Ortega Andrade and Ramon Gálvez Mena) seek to hire MSF to liberate Costa Rica from Coldman's CIA Peace Sentinel unit that has established bases in the country. Snake accepts the mission after Gálvez hands him an audio cassette with a recording of The Boss' voice. Following Kaz's advice, the MSF takes over an offshore research platform in the Caribbean as their base of operations in a bid to expand the group's capabilities. Over the course of the story, Snake comes to learn about the true purpose of Coldman's Peace Walker prototypes (Pupa, Chrysalis, Cocoon, and Peace Walker) and gradually lets go of his guilt for The Boss' death after encountering an AI replica, finally accepting his Big Boss title. Later in the game, Big Boss has Huey Emmerich create Metal Gear ZEKE as a weapon to defend his interests, with no desire to use offensively. After Big Boss killed Gálvez out of self-defense, Paz pilots ZEKE to launch a nuclear strike on the Eastern Coast of the United States as part of an insurance policy if Big Boss refused to obey Cipher. After hearing the ultimatum, Big Boss refuses and fights ZEKE in order to stop Paz. He is victorious, but ZEKE is heavily damaged and Paz is ejected into the Caribbean Sea. After ZEKE's destruction, Kaz tells Big Boss of being aware of the plot from the beginning, and used it to spur the growth of MSF. Big Boss and Kaz realize they'll no longer be able to be away from the outside world unless they reveal their true nature. Big Boss rejects this idea, stating that his "life shall be different from The Boss'". After this conversation, Big Boss gives a speech to the MSF soldiers, telling them that if the times demand it, they will be vigilantes, criminals and terrorists, but they will be the ones to choose their battles and their causes, not governments. Metal Gear Solid V Big Boss plays a central role in Metal Gear Solid V: Ground Zeroes and Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain. He is on a mission to rescue a child soldier and Pacifica Ocean from an American black site on Cuban soil; Big Boss believes that Pacifica can be converted to MSF's cause. Big Boss' rescue is successful and the medic found a bomb implanted inside Pacifica who is sacrificed to save everyone from another bomb which causes an explosive concussion wave which causes the helicopter to crash into the Caribbean Sea as MSF is destroyed by an invading paramilitary force led by Skull Face. Big Boss comes out of his coma and poses as "Ishmael", a patient in the hospital where Venom Snake is also being treated, and aids in an escape when the hospital is attacked by Skull Face's forces. While Snake ventures into Soviet-controlled Afghanistan using the new mercenary force Diamond Dogs made from MSF's remaining forces, Big Boss stays behind the scenes to develop a true Outer Heaven. Other appearances In Snake's Revenge, a non-canonical sequel to the original Metal Gear for the NES released during the same year as Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake, Big Boss returns as the leader of the enemy organization, having survived the injuries he sustained in the original game as a cyborg. He fights Solid Snake as a boss prior to reaching the new Metal Gear prototype and has two forms: his human form and a fire-breathing cyborg form. Naked Snake also appears as a playable character in Super Bomberman R. Creation and design In Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake, Big Boss' visual appearance was inspired by actor Sean Connery. But for the ports of the game's re-released version, the original design was replaced by Yoji Shinkawa's design. During the making of Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater, Hideo Kojima asked Shinkawa to make Naked Snake similar to Solid Snake. But with the differences that unlike Solid Snake, Naked Snake was a rookie and thus acted more naive. Shinkawa stated having no difficulties in designing Naked Snake as basically a revised version of Solid Snake. As a result, Naked Snake is virtually identical to Solid Snake from the previous Metal Gear Solid games in terms of appearance. The love scene between Naked Snake and EVA was inspired by the first Pink Panther. Kojima and Shinkawa watched the movie but the former stated it might have come different from the original version. Since the game's trailers did not state that Naked Snake was Big Boss, Kojima often gave vague answers to the character's true identity. Although the ending of Metal Gear Solid 3 reveals Naked Snake was given the Big Boss title, Kojima stated "he's not really the Big Boss yet". With Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker, he wanted to explain how Naked Snake became the man who appeared in the original Metal Gear games as Solid Snake's enemy. Naked Snake as portrayed in Metal Gear Solid 3 shares the same voice actor as Solid Snake did in the first two Metal Gear Solid games, being voiced by Akio Otsuka in the Japanese version and David Hayter in the English version. Both actors would return to provide Snake's voice in Portable Ops and Peace Walker. The elderly version of Big Boss who appears in the end of Metal Gear Solid 4 is voiced by Chikao Otsuka (Akio Otsuka's real-life father) in Japanese and by Richard Doyle in English. Originally, Naked Snake was planned to have been voiced by Kurt Russell due to Kojima's request but the actor refused. On June 6, 2013, during Konami's third annual pre-E3 show, it was announced that Kiefer Sutherland would be portraying Snake in Metal Gear Solid V, replacing David Hayter (Akio Otsuka was unaffected by this casting change and continued to portrayed Snake in the Japanese dub). Sutherland plays the original Big Boss (who serves as the playable character in the stand-alone prologue Ground Zeroes), as well as Venom Snake (a new version of the character who serves as the protagonist in the main game The Phantom Pain). In addition to the voice, Sutherland also provided facial capture for the character. Sutherland was assigned the role after a suggestion to Kojima from Hollywood producer and director Avi Arad; Kojima's reason was to "have a more subdued performance expressed through subtle facial movements and tone of voice rather than words", and that he "needed someone who could genuinely convey both the facial and vocal qualities of a man in his late 40s". Reception Big Boss' character has been well-received, with IGN ranking him number 32 on their 2010 list of top video game villains, and as the fourth top Metal Gear villains. In 2010, IGN'''s Jesse Schedeen found the character one of the most important characters from the franchise to the point his "influence is felt in every Metal Gear game, even if he isn't always present in the flesh". Ken Gagne of Computerworld named Big Boss as one of the most creative "badass villains" in video games, citing the complexity of his betrayal of Solid Snake, fueled by Solid Snake being his genetic heir. Additionally, Joe Dodson of GameSpot listed Big Boss as one of the 20 best Metal Gear bosses with focus on his importance within the series' plot. He was ranked as the 28th "coolest" video game villain by Complex in 2012. Naked Snake's transition to Big Boss was listed as the second hero who turned evil by What Culture with the writer finding the character more interesting than Solid Snake based on his progression across Big Boss' video games. Various gaming sites such as 1UP.com, Game Informer and Kotaku placed his character as one of the worst fathers in video games due to his poor relationship with Solid Snake and the attempts to murder his own son. The inclusion of Naked Snake's role in Metal Gear Solid 3 has also received praise from critics. Prior to the game's release, Naked Snake was often called 'Solid Snake' or simply 'Snake' by critics due to his resemblance with Solid Snake, although some still were not sure about his true identity. Additionally, early speculation of the playable character's identity from Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater was listed by IGN as one top ten rumors on the PlayStation 2. Benjamin Turner of GameSpy further noted that various fans started making theories about Naked Snake's identity before the game's release as while they thought it was Solid Snake, the setting from the game made it impossible for Solid Snake to be the game's main protagonist due to their difference of years. Finding the revelation of Naked Snake's identity was considered by GameSpy as "the single coolest thing Kojima could have done in MGS3" because of [Naked Snake's] differences from [Solid Snake] in regards to their personality as well as because it made fans wonder how Naked Snake would become the series antagonist Big Boss. Another comparison between Big Boss' and Solid Snake's character was made by IGN's Phil Pirrello in article titled "Stars Thunderdome: Snake vs. Big Boss." Despite the similarities between Naked Snake and Solid Snake, Rich Stanton of Eurogamer praised how different is they are from each other in terms of experience within the battlefield but also liked how Naked looks after the Boss despite the game placing them as enemies. Dave Meikleham of GamesRadar placed his relationship with EVA in his top list of disastrous game romances due to how it was ruined by the two's different roles in the story. Play editor Nick Jones listed Naked Snake's final fight against The Boss in such game as the second best moment from the franchise, citing the emotional focus from their characters. David Hayter's performance as Naked Snake's English voice actor in Metal Gear Solid 3 has been criticized by Edge while discussing the dialogues from the game. Joe Dodson, writing for GameRevolution, disliked Big Boss' character in Portable Ops due to his process of kidnapping and indoctrinating enemy soldiers through "confusing rants" about the idea of loyalty. Rob Fahey of Eurogamer found that Snake remained likeable from carrying over traits shown in Snake Eater and praised Hayter's performance. Charles Herold of The New York Times described Snake as a tragic character based on the events shown in Snake Eater, and with Portable Ops had been forced to face a new conflict despite retirement. Greg Kasavin of GameSpot praised the handling of Snake's character in Portable Ops due to his interactions with his former partners from the FOX unit. Jeff Haynes of IGN noted how the game presented major plot twists and exposition that would affect Snake's characterization and lay the groundwork for important items shown later in the series. Oli Welsh of Eurogamer criticized Big Boss' characterization in Peace Walker as confusing in the wider context of the series, with mixed comments being given to Hayter's performance. Jonathan Holmes of Destructoid enjoyed how Peace Walker further developed Big Boss' character from Portable Ops by completing his journey from lone soldier to leader and cementing him as the icon he would become. Greg Miller of IGN also found the game's story was one of the most enjoyable and least-convoluted by focusing purely on Big Boss' emotions and his quest to discover more about his fallen mentor, The Boss, similar sentiments of which were shared by Ramón Varela of Vandal and Randy Nelson of Engadget. Jason Schreier of Kotaku disliked the plot twist in The Phantom Pain'' which revealed that the player character, Venom Snake, was not Big Boss, feeling it cheapened the character's arc and failed to explain Big Boss' motivations for becoming a villain. References Notes Footnotes Characters created by Hideo Kojima Characters designed by Yoji Shinkawa Cryonically preserved characters in video games Fictional American people in video games Fictional characters missing an eye Fictional characters with post-traumatic stress disorder Fictional assassins in video games Fictional Central Intelligence Agency personnel Fictional criminals in video games Fictional gunfighters Fictional judoka Fictional jujutsuka Fictional karateka Fictional marksmen and snipers Fictional Korean War veterans Fictional male martial artists Fictional martial arts trainers Fictional martial artists in video games Fictional members of secret societies Fictional mercenaries in video games Fictional military personnel in video games Fictional private military members Fictional revolutionaries Fictional secret agents and spies in video games Fictional smokers Fictional knife-fighters Fictional special forces personnel Fictional spymasters Fictional military strategists Fictional commanders Fictional soldiers in video games Fictional torturers and interrogators Fictional United States Army personnel Fictional United States Army Special Forces personnel Fictional Vietnam War veterans Fictional war criminals Fictional warlords in video games Fictional anarchists Politician characters in video games Konami antagonists Konami protagonists Male characters in video games Male video game villains Metal Gear characters Video game bosses Video game characters introduced in 1987

White (surname)

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White is a surname either of English or of Scottish and Irish origin, the latter being an anglicisation of the Scottish Gaelic MacGillebhàin, "Son of the fair gillie" and the Irish "Mac Faoitigh" or "de Faoite". It is the seventeenth most common surname in England. In the 1990 United States Census, "White" ranked fourteenth among all reported surnames in frequency, accounting for 0.28% of the population. By 2000, White had fallen to position 20 in the United States and 22nd position by 2014 Notable people with the surname include: White (Hampshire cricketer) (active 1789–1797, full name unknown), English cricketer White (Surrey cricketer) (active 1850, full name unknown), English cricketer A Aaron White (basketball) (born 1992), American basketball player Adam White (disambiguation), multiple people Addison White (1824–1909), American politician Adlyn White (1929–2017), Jamaican educator and Christian minister Al White (disambiguation), multiple people Alan White (disambiguation), multiple people Alex White (disambiguation), multiple people Alexander White (disambiguation), multiple people Alfred Holmes White (1873–1953), American chemical engineering professor Alfred Tredway White, American housing reformer Alice White (1904–1983), American actress Allie White (1915–1996), American football player Andrew Dickson White, US diplomat and co-founder of Cornell University Andrew White (disambiguation), multiple people Andy White (disambiguation), multiple people Anthony White (disambiguation), multiple people Azellia White (1913–2019), American aviator B Barclay White (1821–1906), Superintendent of Indian Affairs under President Grant Barry White (1944–2003), American soul and disco singer Bartow White (1776–1862), US Congressman from New York Benjamin White (disambiguation), multiple people Betty White (1922–2021), American actress Beverly White (1928-2021), American activist and politician Bill White (disambiguation), multiple people Blaire White (born 1993), American YouTuber and political commentator Bodi White, Louisiana politician Bree White (born 1981), Australian rules footballer Brendan White (born 1992), Australian association football player Brett White (executive), chief executive officer of the investment firm CBRE Group Brian White (disambiguation), multiple people Brooke White (born 1983), American singer-songwriter and American Idol contestant Bryan D. White (1936–2017), general secretary and CEO of Moose International in Great Britain Buck White (born 1930), member of the American country music vocal group The Whites Bukka White (Booker T. Washington White) (1909–1977), American Delta blues guitarist and singer Byron White (1917-2002), Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States C Cameron White, Australian cricketer Charlie White (figure skater), American Olympic silver, bronze, and gold medalist ice dancer Cr1TiKaL (Charles White Jr., born 1994), American YouTuber, Twitch streamer, podcaster, actor, musician, and businessman Charline White, Michigan politician Charlotte Price White, (1873 - 1932), Welsh suffragist and politician Charmaine White Face, American human rights activist Cheryl White (born 1955), member of the American country music vocal group The Whites Chilton A. White (1826–1900), US Representative from Ohio Christian Streit White (1839–1917), West Virginia politician Christopher White (disambiguation), multiple people Clarence White (1944–1973), American bluegrass and country guitarist (Kentucky Colonels, The Byrds) Coby White (born 2000), American basketball player Colin White (disambiguation), multiple people Compton I. White, Jr., US Representative from Idaho Compton I. White, US Representative from Idaho Curtis White (author), American essayist D Dan White (disambiguation), multiple people Dana White (born 1969), American MMA promoter and president of UFC Danny White (born 1952), American football player Darren White (disambiguation), multiple people David White (disambiguation), multiple people Davin White (born 1981), American basketball player Deacon White, aka James "Deacon" White, (1847–1939), baseball star Denny White, Ohio politician Des White, New Zealand rugby league footballer Desmond White (footballer) (1911–1985), Scottish footballer Devin White (born 1998), American football player Devon White (baseball), Jamaican American baseball player Doc White, American baseball player Donny White, American college sports coach and administrator Doug White (disambiguation), multiple people Douglas R. White (born 1942), American anthropologist Duncan White (1918–1998), Sri Lankan Burgher athlete, first to win an Olympic medal for Sri Lanka E E. B. White (1899–1985), American children's book author Ed White (astronaut) (1930–1967), American astronaut Eden White (born 1970), American singer-songwriter Edith White (1855–1946), American painter Edith Grace White (1890–1975), American zoologist Edmund White (born 1940), American literary critic Edward White (disambiguation) (or Ed White), multiple people Eg White (born 1966 as Francis White), British musician, songwriter and producer Elizabeth Coleman White (1871–1954), pioneering American blueberry breeder and vendor Ellen White (footballer) (born 1989), English footballer Ellen G. White (1827–1915), American Christian pioneer Erica White (born 1986), American basketball player Erica White (artist) (1904–1991), British sculptor Erik White (Canadian football), American football player of Canadian football Erik White, American music director Erin White, Canadian softball first baseman Ethel Lina White (1876–1944), British crime writer F Faye White (born 1978), English football player Felix Harold White (1884–1945), English composer, music teacher and pianist Florence Mildred White (1874–1957), English policewoman Francis White (disambiguation), multiple people Frank White (disambiguation), multiple people Franklin White (dancer), British ballet dancer Frederick D. White, Canadian politician Freeman White, American football player Fuzz White, American Major League Baseball right fielder G Gary White (disambiguation), multiple people Genevieve Beatrice White (1913–2009), also known as Genevieve Pezet, American-born French artist George Henry White, North Carolina politician George White (British Army officer), British general George White (Ohio politician), governor of Ohio Gilbert F. White (1911–2006), American geographer Gilbert White (1720–1793), English naturalist Gillian White (actor) (born 1975), American actor Gillian White (lawyer) (1936–2016), English professor of international law Gillian White (sculptor) (born 1939), English sculptor Gillian White (writer) (1945–2020), English writer H Harry Dexter White, American economist, US representative to the Bretton Woods Conference Henry White (disambiguation), multiple people Horace White (writer) (1834–1916), American journalist and financial writer Horace White, American lawyer and politician from New York Horace Henry White (1864–1946), American lawyer and civic leader from Louisiana Howard White (footballer) (born 1954), English footballer Hugh L. White, American politician from Mississippi I Ian White (ice hockey) (born 1984), Canadian professional ice hockey defence man Ian White (darts player) (born 1970), English darts player Ilka White, Australian textile artist Isobel Mary White (1912–1997), Australian anthropologist Israel Charles White (1848–1927), American geologist J Jack White (disambiguation), multiple people Jake White (born 1963), South African rugby union coach Jaleel White (born 1976), American actor James White (disambiguation), multiple people Jamie White, American radio host and actress Jan White (born 1948), American football player Javin White (born 1997), American football player Jay White (mixed martial artist) (born 1978), American MMA fighter Jay White (born 1992), New Zealand professional wrestler Jeff White (Australian footballer) Jeordie White aka Twiggy Ramirez (born 1971), American bassist and guitarist Jimmy White, English professional snooker player Jock White, Scottish footballer Joe White (disambiguation), multiple people John White (disambiguation), multiple people Jordan White (musician) (born 1982), American rock musician and singer-songwriter Jose White (American football) (born 1973), American football player Joseph Blanco White (1775–1841), Spanish theologian Julian White (born 1973), English rugby union footballer K Karen Malina White (born 1965), American actress Karyn White (born 1965), American R&B singer during the late 1980s and early 1990s Katie White (born 1983), British singer in The Ting Tings Keith White (yachtsman), British physically disabled yachtsman, attempted world solo circumnavigation in 2015 Kelli White, American sprinter Kerwin White, former ring name of American wrestler Chavo Guerrero, Jr. Kevin White (disambiguation), multiple people Kyzir White (born 1996), American football player L Lari White (1965–2018), American country music singer Lawrence White (disambiguation), multiple people Lee White (actor) (1888–1949), American actor of the stage, screen and radio Lee White (American football) (born 1946), American football player Lee C. White (1923–2013), advisor to President Kennedy and President Johnson Leo White (1882–1948), English-American film and stage actor who appeared in many Charlie Chaplin films Leo White (judoka) (born 1957), member of the US olympic judo team Leon White (1955–2018), American professional wrestler better known as Big Van Vader or Vader Leslie White (1900–1975), American anthropologist Liz White (actress) (born 1979), British actress Loren H. White (1863–1923), New York state senator Lulu Belle Madison White (1900–1957), American teacher and civil rights activist M Malcolm White (cricketer) (1924–2009), English cricketer Malinda Brumfield White (born 1967), member of the Louisiana House of Representatives Margaret Bourke-White, American photographer and documentary photographer Margaret Matilda White (1868–1910), New Zealand photographer Mark White (disambiguation), multiple people Marquez White (born 1994), American football player Mary White (disambiguation), multiple people Maureen White, Canadian theatre director, actor, and playwright Maurice White (1941–2016), American musician, founder and leader of the band Earth, Wind & Fire Meg White (born 1974), American musician, drummer in The White Stripes Michael White (disambiguation), multiple people, includes Mike White Minor White, American photographer Morgan White (gymnast) (born 1983), American gymnast Morgan White (radio DJ) (1924–2010), American radio disc jockey and actor N Nancy White (disambiguation), multiple people Nathaniel White (born 1960), American serial killer Nettie L. White (c. 1850 – 1921), American suffragist and stenographer Nicholas White (disambiguation), multiple people Noel White (rugby league), Australian rugby league footballer O Oliver White (born 1995), British YouTube personality Onna White (1922–2005), Canadian choreographer and dancer P Pat White (American football) (born 1986), American football quarterback Patrick White (1912–1990), Australian author Paul Dudley White (1886–1973), American cardiologist Percy White, Australian rugby league footballer Peregrine White (1620–1704), first child born to the Pilgrims in New England Peter White (disambiguation), multiple people Portia White (1911–1968), Canadian operatic contralto R Rachaad White (born 1999), American football player Rachel White (disambiguation), multiple people Randy White (disambiguation), multiple people Reggie White (defensive lineman, born 1970), American football player Reggie White (running back) (born 1979), American football player Reggie White (1961–2004), American football player Resolved White (17th century), passenger on the Pilgrim ship Mayflower Rick White (politician) (born 1953), American politician from Washington Robert White (disambiguation), multiple people Roddy White (born 1981), American football player Roderick White (1814–1856), New York politician Romello White (born 1998), American basketball player for Hapoel Eilat of the Israeli Basketball Premier League Rodney White (born 1980), American basketball player Ron White (born 1956), American comedian Rosie White (born 1993), New Zealand soccer player Royce White (born 1991), American basketball player Ryan White (1971–1990), American HIV/AIDS poster child, namesake of the Ryan White Care Act S Sallie Joy White (1847–1909), American journalist Sammy White (disambiguation), multiple people Sandra White (born 1951), Scottish politician Sharon White, lead singer of American country music group The Whites Shaun White (born 1986), American snowboarder and skateboarder Sheila White (abolitionist) (born 1988), American abolitionist and human trafficking victim Sheila White (actress) (1948–2018), British film, television and stage actress Simon White (born 1951), British astrophysicist Slappy White (1924–1995), American comedian and actor Snowy White (Terence Charles 'Snowy' White) (born 1948), English guitarist Spencer White (born 1994), Australian rules footballer Stanford White (1853–1906), American architect, member of the firm McKim, Mead, and White Stephen White (disambiguation), multiple people Steve White (disambiguation), multiple people Steven White (disambiguation), multiple people Stewart Edward White (1873–1946), American novelist and outdoorsman Stewart White (journalist) (born 1947), British television newsreader and presenter T T. H. White (1906–1964), English author, known for The Once and Future King Ted White (author) (born 1938), American science fiction writer and music critic Terri White (born 1948), American singer and actress The Whites, American country music vocal group Theodore H. White (1915–1986), American journalist Thomas White (disambiguation) (or Tom White) Timothy White (disambiguation) (or Tim White) Timothy White, ship's chandler and pharmacist, founder of British retailer Timothy Whites Todd White, Canadian ice hockey player Tony Joe White (1943–2018), American singer-songwriter Tony White (disambiguation), multiple people Tre'Davious White (born 1995), American football player V Vanessa White (born 1989), British singer and songwriter Vanna White (born 1957), American television personality Verdine White (born 1951), American musician, younger brother of Maurice White, bass guitarist in Earth, Wind & Fire Vince White (born 1960), English guitarist who replaced Joe Strummer in The Clash Violetta Susan White (1875–1949), American mycologist W Walter Francis White (1893–1955), American civil rights activist Warren White (disambiguation), multiple people Wendy Tan White (born 1970), British technology company executive Wendy White (tennis), American professional tennis player Sir Willard White (born 1946), Jamaican-born British operatic bass-baritone William White (disambiguation), multiple people Willie White (disambiguation), multiple people Z Zamir White (born 1999), American football player Fictional characters Brad White, a character in 2001 psychological horror movie Frailty Cammy White, from the Street Fighter video game series Carrie White, title character from the Stephen King novel and movie Carrie Frank White, lead character in the 1990 film King of New York Perry White, supporting character in the Superman comics Snow White, protagonist of German fairy tales Mrs. White, one of six original Cluedo characters Redd White, from the video game Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney Walter White, protagonist of the American television series Breaking Bad References English-language surnames Surnames of English origin Scottish surnames Surnames of Scottish origin Surnames of Irish origin Anglicised Scottish Gaelic-language surnames Anglicised Irish-language surnames fr:White ru:Уайт

Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds

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Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds is a real-time strategy video game set in the Star Wars universe. It was developed by Ensemble Studios and LucasArts. It was released on November 11, 2001. An expansion pack, Clone Campaigns, was released on May 14, 2002, adding two new factions and campaigns. Later that year, both Galactic Battlegrounds and Clone Campaigns were released in a box set, Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds Saga. The games were built on the Genie engine, the same one used in Age of Empires and Age of Empires II. Gameplay The player starts the game with a Command Center, a scout, and three workers (in a normal random map game) for whichever of the six original factions they choose. The player searches and gathers resources such as Food, Carbon, Nova Crystals, and Ore and then uses the resources in order to create new buildings, combat units, and workers. Food is used for low-end units and troopers, as well as the work force. Carbon is used in place of Wood in Age of Empires 2 for buildings and artillery. Nova Crystals create the more high-end units and can be gathered through getting special "holocrons" (similar to Relics in Age of Empires 2). Ore is used for defensive structures as well as the Gungan unique unit Fambaa. The player can build separate units at separate buildings designed specifically for different types of units. The player can advance through the four Tech Levels by paying a certain amount of resources. When a player advances a Tech Level, more units, buildings, and upgrades become available. There are a total of seven military structures in the game. These are the Troop Center, the Shipyard, the Mech factory, the Jedi Temple or Sith Temple depending on the faction, the Heavy Weapons Factory, the Airbase, and the Fortress. The Troop center produces 'cannon fodder' early game units. These are the Grenadier, the Anti-Air trooper, the Mounted Trooper, and the ubiquitous Trooper. The Shipyard produces ships, these being the Frigate, the Destroyer, the Cruiser, and the Anti-Air Frigate. The Mech Factory produces Scouts, Assault Mechs, Strike Mechs, and Mech Destroyers. The Jedi Temple or Sith Temple is a depository for Holocrons and produces Jedi Padawans/Sith Apprentice and Jedi Knights/Sith Knights as well as Jedi Masters/Sith Masters. The Airbase produces aircraft such as fighters, bombers and transports, and the Heavy Weapons Factory produces pummels, artillery, anti-air mobiles, basically the big guns needed to mount a full-scale assault. The Fortress serves as a defensive structure and produces the civilization's unique unit and an anti-jedi Bounty Hunter, as well as long-range cannons, and the massive Air cruiser. It fires high-damage, area-of-effect shells at air, sea or ground targets over long reload times while being durable and having passive shielding. It is the most directly powerful unit in the game (not including cheats.) If Victory is set to standard, the player can win in three different ways. The player may win by destroying all of the enemies buildings and units with their army. Also, the player can use a Jedi/Sith to bring all of the Holocrons to the Jedi/Sith Temple and preserve them for 200 "days". The final way to win is to build a monument that is only available at Tech Level 4. If the monument stays standing for 300 days, then the player wins. Campaigns Tutorial - The campaign sees the player assume the role of Chewbacca's father, Attichitchuk. In this campaign, the player gradually learns the game's play mechanics as Attichitchuk marshals a Wookiee army to force the Trade Federation off Alaris Prime. Trade Federation - The campaign has the player assume the role of OOM-9, a droid ground commander leading the Trade Federation's actions during the blockade of Naboo in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace which includes a conquest of Theed city, the capital of Naboo. The campaign also features the movie's ground battle between the Trade Federation and the Gungans but as an alternate history simulation wherein Darth Maul has killed Qui-Gon Jinn and Obi-Wan Kenobi while Federation droid ships destroy the Naboo starfighters. Gungans - The Gungan campaign begins millennia in the past as a sub-faction of Gungans under the command of Boss Gallo try to unite the other warring tribes under a single banner, then continues as the Gungans fight back against the Trade Federation invasion. It also features a bonus mission featuring The Phantom Menace'''s climactic ground battle, and the Naboo's assault against Trade Federation forces in Theed. Galactic Empire - The Imperial campaign begins just after the events of A New Hope, as Darth Vader personally leads the assault on the Rebels' Massassi Ruins base and captures General Jan Dodonna. The rest of the campaign focuses on suppressing other Rebel bases, including a mission to protect an AT-AT prototype, with a cameo by The Empire Strikes Back character General Veers (a colonel in the mission). The campaign's last mission is the Imperial attack on Hoth, where the player has a chance to destroy Echo Base and prevent Han Solo and company's escape. The bonus missions depict the Empire's hostile takeover of Bespin and an alternate retelling of the Battle of Endor where the Empire routs the Ewoks. Rebel Alliance - The Rebel campaign is mostly set between the events of A New Hope and The Empire Strikes Back. It features the Rebels' efforts to recover a Jedi artifact, the Vor'Na'Tu, while fending off Imperial forces. The bonus missions include the Battle of Hoth, the ground phase of the Battle of Endor, and a mission to attack an Imperial asteroid base. Wookiee - The mission features Chewbacca's efforts to liberate Kashyyyk from Trandoshan slavers and the Empire. Its bonus mission is the liberation of Kessel. Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds: Clone CampaignsStar Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds Clone Campaigns is an expansion pack that was released two days before the theatrical release of Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones on May 14, 2002. It introduced two playable factions and campaigns: that of the Confederacy of Independent Systems and the Galactic Republic. Clone Campaigns added more units, such as the Decimator and the Air Cruiser, support for movable power supplies, and more. Clone Campaigns occurs during the first months of the Clone Wars. Confederacy campaign In the Confederacy campaign, the hero is Chiss warrior Sev'rance Tann, and guided by Count Dooku. The player's goal is to capture the energy-mining platforms of the Galactic Republic so that they can effectively hold Coruscant hostage, and take control of the Decimators, a secret weapon developed by the Republic. The campaign begins with the Battle of Geonosis as Tann's forces clear an escape route for Count Dooku. After rebuilding the Separatist army, Count Dooku directs her to Tatooine, where she finds Boorka the Hutt. In exchange for destroying a Republic outpost, she is given information regarding the location of a Decimator testing base on Eredenn Prime. General Tann manages to capture the base and the Decimators, but their Wookiee manufacturers include a fail-safe locking code and prevent the CIS from using them. However, Tann manages to also capture a Data Droid, which she takes with her to the Wookiee colony on Alaris Prime. Alaris Prime soon serves as one of many probing attacks by the CIS on Wookiee territory before the Battle of Kashyyyk. After destroying the Wookiee Decimator facilities, Tann makes the droid unlock the Decimators. At this point the objective is revealed: Sarapin, a world providing much of the Republic's power. The Decimators' firepower enables Tann to crush the Republic defenses and kill the base's commander, Jedi Knight Jor Drakas. Republic campaign The Galactic Republic campaign begins at the Battle of Geonosis. Jedi Master Echuu Shen-Jon leads a force of clone troopers and Jedi including his young Padawan, Stam Reath, in destroying Trade Federation core ships. The mission is successful, but Reath is brutally killed by Sev'rance Tann, sinking Echuu into depression. The campaign follows the climax of the CIS campaign. The Jedi Council sends Shen-Jon to the planet along with his new padawan, Stam Reath's sister Naat, to reactivate Sarapin's energy platforms. The wreckage of a Decimator found on the planet reveals the usage of stolen Republic technology. The Republic forces successfully take back Sarapin and Shen-Jon interrogates CIS officer Zian Finnis, who gives away the Confederacy's presence on Tatooine. Shen-Jon goes to Tatooine and strikes an alliance with Jabba the Hutt, who tips him off about the CIS' alliance with Boorka the Hutt (a rival in the planet's criminal industry). After defeating a band of Tusken Raiders and the combined Confederate and mercenary forces, Echuu discovers some supply crates destined for the distant world of Krant. Shen-Jon and Reath head to the planet and destroy a Trade Federation mining camp on Krant's moon, creating a staging area for the invasion of Krant. Wookiee stragglers assist the Republic forces in destroying the CIS Decimator factories, but Tann catches Reath and challenges Shen-Jon to a duel. The Jedi Master kills the Chiss commander, but his brush with the Dark Side of the Force leaves him with enough guilt to go on a self-imposed exile. Echuu later meets with Princess Leia on Krant during the Rebel campaign, where Darth Vader kills him. The last mission follows the Rebel Alliance in their conquest of Coruscant's Imperial Palace, a few years following the Battle of Endor. DevelopmentStar Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds was developed by LucasArts by licensing the Genie game engine from Ensemble Studios. The game, as well as the Clone Campaigns expansion pack, was designed and directed by Garry M. Gaber. Reception Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds In the United States, Galactic Battlegrounds sold 225,000 copies and earned $9.8 million by August 2006, after its release in November 2001. It was the country's 94th best-selling computer game during this period. Combined sales of all versions and expansions of Galactic Battlegrounds reached 480,000 units in the United States by August 2006.Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds received generally positive reviews. GameRankings gave the game a score of 77.33%, while Metacritic gave it 75 out of 100. GameSpot gave the game an 8.2/10, calling it "perfect for a generation of gamers raised on Star Wars". However, Brian Gee of Game Revolution gave the game a "C" and said that it "doesn't feel very Star Wars". Carla Harker reviewed the PC version of the game for Next Generation, rating it four stars out of five, and stated that "Age of Empires and Star Wars? Bring it on." Clone Campaigns The Clone Campaigns'' expansion pack was met with positive to average reception; GameRankings gave it a score of 73.78% while Metacritic gave it 71 out of 100. References External links 2001 video games Genie Engine games LucasArts games Classic Mac OS games MacOS games Real-time strategy video games Galactic Battlegrounds Video games developed in the United States Video games with expansion packs Windows games

Air force officer ranks

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Many air forces use a rank system similar to those of armies. However, the RAF and the air forces of many Commonwealth countries, or those formerly under a British influence, use a different set of ranks loosely based on naval equivalents; Lieutenant, Commander, Captain and Commodore are prefixed for air force use with Flight, Wing, Group and Air, respectively (the first three being the units that they used to command). NATO rank codes To assist in the comparison of ranks in the armed forces of different countries, established NATO rank codes are used. These are established codes for determining the seniority of officer and other ranks in NATO countries for a particular joint task group or command structure, although specific appointments designate a higher level of seniority over other equivalent rank codes in a given situation. Officer ranks go from OF-1 (applying to all subaltern officers below captain) up to OF-10; OF(D) being a special category for trainee officers awaiting a commission. Other Ranks (also known as enlisted men) are classified from OR-1 to OR-9. The system should not be confused with the pay grades used in the US military. While countries outside the NATO command structure (including some NATO member countries such as France) do not strictly fall into this classification structure and there may be incidences of overlap (particularly in OR ranks between countries) the codes still provide a useful gauge in determining what ranks are broadly equivalent. Generals/Marshals/Air Officers These are the highest ranks. Promotion to a rank above OF-9 is now rare and usually reserved for wartime. General of the Air Force is an example of such a rank. Note that there is doubt about rank equivalency in countries that have both colonel-generals and generals but no brigadier-generals, such as German Empire and Russia - often it is considered that in these countries a colonel-general equates to an OF-9 rank, a general to OF-8, a lieutenant-general to OF-7, and a major-general to OF-6 (i.e. the ranks below colonel-general all move down one grade). Other officers ¹ No officer of the French Air Force has ever been created a Maréchal. ² Introduced on 1 July 2000, when promotions to the rank of Överste av 1. graden (a field officer rank) ceased. ³ Promotion to the rank of Överste av 1. graden ceased on 1 July 2000, when the new junior general officer rank of Brigadgeneral was introduced. Rank insignia Whilst there is a wide range of air force rank insignia in use, many air forces use army-style rank insignia whilst others follow the Royal Air Force style (shown below). 1 Honorary/War time rank. See also Air force officer rank insignia Army officer ranks Naval officer ranks Comparative military ranks Staff (military) RAF officer ranks Notes Officer rank Air force officer rank

Garba (dance)

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Garba is a form of dance which originates from the state of Gujarat in India. The name is derived from the Sanskrit term Garbha ("womb") and Deep ("a small earthenware lamp"). Many traditional garbas are performed around a centrally lit lamp or a picture or statue of the Goddess Shakti. Traditionally, it is performed during the nine-day Hindu festival Navarātrī (Gujarati નવરાત્રી Nava = 9, ratri = nights). Either the lamp (the " garbha Deep) or an image of the Goddess, Durga (also called Amba) is placed in middle of concentric rings as an object of veneration. Etymology The word garba comes from the Sanskrit word for womb and so implies gestation or pregnancy — life. Traditionally, the dance is performed around a clay lantern with a light inside, called a Garbha Deep ("womb lamp"). This lantern represents life, and the fetus in the womb in particular. The dancers thus honor Durga, the feminine form of divinity. Garba is performed in a circle as a symbol of the Hindu view of time. The rings of dancers revolve in cycles, as time in Hinduism is cyclical. As the cycle of time revolves, from birth, to life, to death and again to rebirth, the only thing that is constant is the Goddess, that one unmoving symbol in the midst of all of this unending and infinite movement. The dance symbolizes that God, represented in feminine form in this case, is the only thing that remains unchanging in a constantly changing universe (jagat). The Garbha Deep has another symbolic interpretation. The vessel itself is a symbol of the body, within whom Divinity (in the form of the Goddess) resides. Garba is danced around this symbol to honor the fact that all humans have the Divine energy of Devi within them. Dance Modern Garba is also heavily influenced by Dandiya Raas (Gujarātī: ડાંડીયા), a dance traditionally performed by men. The merger of these two dances has formed the high-energy dance that is seen today. Both men and women usually wear colorful costumes while performing garba and dandiya. The girls and the women wear Chaniya choli, a three-piece dress with a choli, which is an embroidered and colorful blouse, teamed with chaniya, which is the flared, skirt-like bottom, with intricate work and dupatta, which is usually worn in the traditional Gujarati manner. Chaniya Cholis are decorated with beads, shells, mirrors, stars, and embroidery work, mati, etc. Traditionally, women adorn themselves with jhumkas (large earrings), necklaces, bindi, bajubandh, chudas and kangans, kamarbandh, payal, and mojiris. Boys and men wear kafni pyjamas with a Ghagra - a short round kurta - above the knees and pagadi on the head with bandhini dupatta, kada, and mojiris. In Gujarati, this costume worn by men is called 'Kediyu'. Over the years, the interest in Garba has only increased. There is a huge interest in Garba among the youth of India and in particular, the Gujarati diaspora. Traditionally, this dance is performed in concentric circles and the entire group performs once step in sync, with the beat starting slow and slowly catching on speed. Garba and Dandiya Raas are also popular in the United States where more than 20 universities have Raas/Garba competitions on a huge scale every year with professional choreography. The Canadian city of Toronto now hosts North America's largest annual garba by number of attendees. Garba is also very popular in the United Kingdom where there are a number of Gujarati communities who hold their own Garba nights and widely popular among the Gujarati community worldwide. Tradition Garba is a Gujarati folk dance celebrated in Navratri, a celebration lasting nine nights. Garba songs typically revolve around the subjects of the nine goddesses. Garba styles vary from place to place in Gujarat. The traditional costume of the Garba dancer is red, pink, yellow, orange, and brightly colored chanya, choli or ghagra choli; dupatta with bandhani (tie-dye), abhla (big mirrors) or with thick Gujarati borders. They also wear heavy jewellery, such as 2-3 necklaces, sparkling bangles, waist belts, and long oxidized earrings. Traditionally men wear an ethnic kedia'' and a pajama or a dhoti with an oxidized bracelet and necklace. Normally, the dandiya sticks are Wooden. References Dances of India Gujarati culture

Last call (bar term)

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In a bar, a last call (last orders) is an announcement made shortly before the bar closes for the night, informing patrons of their last chance to buy alcoholic beverages. There are various means to make the signal, like ringing a bell, flashing the lights, or announcing verbally. Last call times are often legally mandated and vary widely globally as well as locally. Legislation's purposes include reducing late night noise in the neighborhood, traffic crashes, violence, and alcohol related health problems. List of last call times around the world Australia In New South Wales, there is no specified closing time, but in residential areas, bars are often required to close at midnight. In non-residential areas, some bars are open 24 hours. However, a six-hour daily closure period applies to new licenses (and extended hours authorizations) granted from 30 October 2008, which is nominated depending on individual and community circumstances. During a significant part of the early 20th century, bars in Australia and New Zealand were closed at 6p.m. by law. The resulting rush to buy drinks after work was known as the six o'clock swill. Austria Bar closing hours in Austria are regulated by the federated states. In most states bars must close at 4a.m. although many places have special permits to close later. In the capital, Vienna, bars and clubs are allowed to stay open until 6a.m. Alcohol is allowed to be served until the bar or club closes. Belgium There is no legally mandated last call in Belgium; many bars will stay open all night. Brazil There is no legally mandated last call in Brazil; many bars will stay open all night. However, some cities have laws that require bars to close during the early morning hours. Canada British Columbia: Last call for serving alcohol is generally 2:00 a.m. provincially. However, municipalities may change last call as earlier as 12a.m. or as late as 4a.m. if they so choose. Downtown Vancouver's last call was moved to 4:00 a.m. but was subsequently lowered to 3a.m. On New Year's Eve last call is extended to 4a.m. provincewide if food is available to patrons at the premises. Regulated liquor stores (both private and government-operated) can sell off-premises alcohol from 9:00 a.m. until 11:00p.m., with government-operated liquor stores typically closing before 9p.m. Alberta: Last call and sale of alcohol from a store or establishment is 2a.m. province-wide. In an establishment, a customer may have no more than two drinks in possession after 1a.m. or last call, whatever comes first. All liquor drinks are to be removed from patron areas by 3:00am at the latest. Manitoba: Last call and the sale of alcohol from a store or establishment is 2a.m. province-wide. During special events, establishments are permitted to serve alcohol until 3a.m. Ontario: Last call begins at 1:45a.m. and you are provided with the last fifteen minutes to order an alcoholic beverage. It is no longer legally permissible to serve alcohol past 2am province-wide although the province has the authority to grant waivers to allow closing at 4a.m. during special events. On New Year's Eve, all licensed premises are allowed to serve until 3:00 a.m. In all cases, there is always an added 45 minute "consumption period" allowing patrons additional time to consume their purchases after alcohol sales have ended. Even though licensed establishments are never required to close their doors by a certain time, all alcohol must be removed by the end of the consumption period. Alcohol sales may occur only within regulated stores, which will always close between 9p.m. or 11p.m., depending on location or store (LCBO, Beer Store, Wine Stores or selected grocery stores). Quebec: Last call is 3a.m. province wide for establishments serving alcohol (with some exceptions), while the sale of alcohol from a store is restricted after 11p.m. Bars may allow customers to stay until 4a.m. but may not serve alcohol past 3a.m. Bars across the river from Ottawa (Hull area) close at 2a.m. to match their Ontario counterparts. New Brunswick: Sales can start at 11:00 a.m. but must end at 2:00 a.m. the following day. A tolerance period of 30 minutes, beyond 2:00 a.m., is allowed to give patrons time to consume their beverage. At 2:30 a.m. the premises must be vacated. Newfoundland and Labrador: Last call is 2a.m. on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday and 3a.m. the rest of the week. There is then a halfhour "consumption period" before bars must close. Nova Scotia: Last call for most establishments is 2a.m., Cabaret businesses are allowed to serve until 3:30 a.m. Saskatchewan: Last call is 2a.m. On New Year's Eve, it is extended until 2:30 a.m. (on Jan. 1). Northwest Territories; Yukon: Last call is 2a.m., extended to 3a.m. on New Year's Eve. China Many bars, KTVs and nightclubs have no specific last call and will continue to sell alcohol and stay open provided there are paying customers present. However, during sensitive times where national security is increased (i.e. the Olympics, the 60th Anniversary of the PRC), closing times may be in effect in some cities between 1 and 2a.m. Alcohol is sold through retailers 24 hours a day. Croatia Establishments that serve drinks may register as bars and then may be open in inhabited areas only indoors and only between 9p.m. and 6a.m., but no such restrictions exist if bars are located outside inhabited areas. Various exceptions can be made for bars located in transit facilities, if approved by the local authorities, etc. The prescribed working hours for bars are a frequent point of contention between city authorities and local businessmen, particularly during the summer tourist season. Finland Bars are allowed to serve drinks until 1:30 a.m., but a provincial government may at the proprietor's request, grant extensions up to 4a.m. Extensions require the establishment to maintain a higher standard of amenities, service and entertainment by, for example, providing a coat check, entertainment programming such as a DJ or live music, and even general cleanliness and "look and feel" count. The laws were loosened beginning of 2018. A last call is not announced per se, but as a custom, the lights are flashed a few times (or in case of a dimly lit establishment such as a nightclub, all lights are left on) to notify the customers that serving drinks is over. In Finnish lexicon "valomerkki" (lit. "Light signal") has become a common synonym for ending any activities for the night. Germany Bar closing hours in Germany are regulated by the federated states or cities. Since the 2000s, many federated states and cities have none or relaxed regulations. In many states and cities bars are open as long as there are customers. Open-air locations such as beer gardens often must close at 11p.m. or 12a.m. to reduce noise pollution. Exceptions may exist for weekends, Carnival and New Year's Eve. Not all cities strictly enforce the regulation. Greece In Greece, all bars, cafeterias, clubs and the like will stay open as long as there are customers inside. Usually, cafeterias stay open until 11p.m., bars until 2a.m. and clubs until early in the morning, but there is no last call. In 1994, Stelios Papathemelis, the Minister for Public Order, passed a law mandating closing of all bars at 2a.m. The law was widely unpopular, never materialized fully and was abolished a few years later. India India closing time of bars vary in different states. In Delhi it is 1am, Mumbai 1:30am, Chennai, Hyderabad and Kolkata at midnight. In Chandigarh it is 1a.m. weekdays and 2a.m. weekends. In Bangalore it is 11:30 p.m. on weekdays and 1am on Friday and Saturday nights. Ireland Bar closing hours are governed by the Intoxicating Liquor Act 2000. Generally, bars must close at 23:30 Sunday to Thursday and 00:30 on Friday and Saturday. There are special provisions for certain holidays and festivals. However, bars may get an extended license until 02:30 any night. Israel In Israel, there are no specific closing times and the country has liberal alcohol laws. Bars and clubs in entertainment districts will serve alcohol practically 24 hours a day, while in residential districts local regulations apply; establishments that serve alcohol outside may often have to call their guests inside after midnight or even close completely. In 2006, Knesset member Ruhama Avraham attempted to pass a bill in parliament that would forbid selling alcohol between 2 and 6a.m. The bill faced severe resistance from bar and restaurant owners and finally was drawn back. In Tel Aviv, bars are fined for remaining open past 1a.m. Though few bars actually close at that time, they are forced to pay the "back-door" tax to the municipality, with no recourse to the national government. A number of bars are contemplated closing at the required time and during internationally promoted events such as Gay Pride Week in protest of the city's underhanded hypocrisy in promoting itself as "the city that never sleeps" but also fining the very establishments that make it such a hot tourist spot. Alcohol is no longer sold around the clock in grocery stores, and no sales are allowed between 11p.m. and 6a.m. Italy Italy does not have a legally mandated closing time. Alcohol may be served or sold anywhere 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. In Rome, an ordinance was passed in January 2009 to make 2a.m. the last call in Campo de' Fiori and the neighbourhoods of Trastevere and Testaccio. The new last call time for these areas was initiated to curtail nighttime commotion in those popular parts of Rome. Japan Japan does not have a legally mandated closing time. Alcohol may be served or sold anywhere 24 hours a day. New Zealand Until December 18, 2013, bars could close at any time they wanted (often 7am). However, since December 18, 2013, all bars and nightclubs must close at 2am. Special conditions apply on Holy/ Maundy Thursday, Holy Saturday (Easter Eve), the day before ANZAC day and Christmas Eve, when bars must close their doors by midnight (However, private bars and workingmen's clubs may stay open beyond that curfew). There was a time pubs closed at 6pm and did not open on Sundays. The above is incorrect On premise sales a can take place between 8 am and 4 am the following day, off premise sales are 7 am till pm that day. These change for special days , such as Anzac Day morning, Christmas Day, Good Friday and Easter Sunday. Exemptions can be applied for and hours extended with a special licence. Norway Last call laws vary. City-specific laws Oslo: 3a.m. Bergen: 2:30 a.m. - 3a.m. at places that plays live music. Trondheim: 2a.m. Stavanger: 3a.m., only for venues that are 21+ Moss: 2:30 a.m. Fredrikstad: 1:30 a.m. 3a.m. Bodø: 3a.m. Harstad: 3a.m. Hamar: 1:30 a.m. Kristiansand: 2a.m. Molde: 2a.m. Ålesund: 3a.m. Drammen: 3a.m. Tønsberg: 3a.m. Tromsø: 3a.m. Kirkenes: 2a.m. Arendal: 2a.m. Kongsberg: 2a.m. Larvik: 2a.m. Longyearbyen: 2a.m. Out of the 429 counties of Norway, almost 50% have established a closing time or "last call" at 2a.m. Only 1 in 7 counties serves drinks until the maximum allowance at 3a.m. That is a major decrease over the last few years because of the government's belief that reduced drinking hours equal less fighting, noise, disturbance, etc. Sweden In Sweden, explicit last calls do not take place, as it would violate a political principle not to encourage people to drink more. The latest allowed closing time of bars and restaurant is decided by the municipality but regulated by national laws and rules. The standard latest time is 1a.m. But in many cities a later time can be allowed on some conditions, like high security and staff educated in responsible serving of alcohol. In some of the largest cities, a closing time as late as 5a.m. occurs. During the coronavirus pandemic 2020-2021 the alcohol law was used to limit the number of visitors to bars and restaurants (only for those serving alcohol) by setting the closing time to 8p.m. Turkey Turkey does not have a legally mandated closing time. In the new Turkish system, Alcohol may no longer be sold in grocery stores past 11pm, but may still be sold in bars and clubs with no legally mandated last call. United States In the U.S., the last call time varies mostly on state, county and/or municipality. State-specific laws Alabama: 2a.m. (Many bars and nightclubs in Birmingham serve alcohol past 2a.m. with certain licensing and determine last call when business diminishes. There is at least one nightclub in the city that serves alcohol 24/7 365 days a year. Mobile has many 24/7 bars and the bars in their downtown entertainment district stay open typically until 7:00am the next morning on Thursday, Friday and Saturday Nights. Alaska: 5a.m.; while most cities restrict this further, some do not (primarily smaller Matanuska-Susitna Valley towns), and some villages are dry. Arizona: 2a.m. Arkansas: 2a.m. California: 2a.m. Colorado: 2a.m. Connecticut: 2a.m. Friday and Saturday nights. 1a.m. Sunday through Thursday., 3a.m. New Year's Eve (Day) Delaware: Last call is 12:45a.m. Service must stop at 1a.m. All drinks must be removed from tables by 2a.m. Service resumes at 9a.m. District of Columbia: 3a.m. on Friday night, Saturday night, and the night before a federal or D.C. holiday; 4a.m. on the night of New Year's Eve and the beginning of daylight saving time; 2a.m. other nights. Florida: Last call set statewide to 2a.m., some cities have passed exemptions to the law, notably Tampa, St. Petersburg, and Pinellas County (3a.m.), Broward County (4a.m.), Key West (4a.m.), and Miami (24 hours in the Miami Entertainment District). Liquor store closing times vary by county. Georgia: Varies by county (most are set at 2a.m., while others may have different times or no time at all). In Atlanta, most bars are allowed to close at 2:30 a.m., but Underground Atlanta can operate until 4a.m. Hawaii: 4a.m., however not all bars qualify for a 4a.m. license and must close at 2a.m. Idaho: 2a.m. Illinois: 1a.m. through 3a.m., varies by municipality. In Chicago, it is regular license bars 2a.m., Sunday to Friday at 3a.m. Saturday. Some bars have a late night license, allowing them to close two hours later so 4a.m. Sunday through Friday at 5a.m. Saturday. Indiana: 3a.m. (was 12:30 on Sundays, not currently) Iowa: 2a.m. Kansas: 2a.m. (in the 17 counties allowing bars without limitation) Kentucky: 2a.m. In Louisville, some bars may buy 4a.m. licenses. Louisiana: There is no statewide closing time. Bars may remain open 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Except, Louisiana law provides: "The governing authority of any municipality within a parish [Louisiana has parishes instead of counties] with a population between fifty-three thousand and fifty-seven thousand persons according to the most recent federal decennial census may enact ordinances to regulate the closing times of bars located within the municipality, subject to approval by a majority of the qualified electors of the municipality voting at an election held for the purpose." Maine: 1a.m., 2a.m. on New Year's Eve. In all instances, there is a 15-minute consumption period before the premises must be vacated. Maryland: 2a.m. Massachusetts: 2a.m., although cities and towns can (and frequently do) set last call earlier; Casinos can serve until 4a.m., if purchaser is actively gaming. Alcohol sales stop 30 minutes prior to closing time. Michigan: 2a.m., 4a.m. New Year's Eve. Minnesota: 2a.m. Many cities have a 1a.m. restriction. Mississippi: 12:00 midnight or 1:00a.m.; depending on city. Larger metro areas usually adhere to "After Midnight" policy. Most Casinos do not have a last call. Missouri: 1:30a.m. in most of the state; 3a.m. in specially licensed establishments in the two largest metropolises of St. Louis and Kansas City, and their surrounding areas. Montana: Last call for bars and taverns is around 1:30a.m. However, one can purchase beer from many local gas stations and grocery stores until 2a.m. State law reads, "Agency liquor stores may remain open during the period between 8 a.m. and 2 a.m." In spite of this, most liquor stores close on or before 10p.m. with the exception of casino/liquor stores. Nebraska: 1a.m.; except for municipalities (Omaha & Lincoln) are allowed to stay open until 2am. Nevada: There is no set statewide closing time. Bars may remain open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. New Hampshire: Statewide is 1:00a.m., bars must close at 1:30a.m. Must call last call at 12:45a.m. New Jersey: No statewide closing time. Most municipalities set their last call at 2a.m. Atlantic City serves 24 hours. Ocean City is a dry town. New Mexico: 2a.m. Monday thru Saturday. 12a.m. on Sundays. New York: Under state law, establishments must stop serving alcohol by 4a.m., however the actual closing time is left up to each of New York's 62 counties. The 4a.m. time applies in New York City; clubs and bars may remain open without serving alcohol; they may start serving at 7a.m. except on Sunday when sales begin at noon. Last call is also 4a.m. in Albany, Buffalo, and Saratoga Springs. Binghamton has a last call of 3a.m., Syracuse and Rochester have a time of 2a.m., and Elmira, Geneva, and Ithaca have a time of 1a.m. Rural counties may be even earlier. North Carolina: Last call is 2a.m. statewide. On weekdays and Saturdays, alcohol can be sold beginning at 7a.m., on Sunday alcohol sales begin at noon. Liquor stores (ABC) Closed on Sundays. North Dakota: 1a.m., however recent legislation allows each county and city by local option to set a 2a.m. closing time. North Dakota's closing time is strict. All drinks must be off the tables and the bar closed by the mandatory closing time. Ohio: Last call is 2a.m. statewide, but establishments may acquire licenses that allow them to serve until 2:30 a.m. Store-bought beer and wine sales stop at 1a.m. Liquor over 42 proof must be purchased in state-approved stores, whose sales stop at 10p.m. Oklahoma: 2a.m. Oregon: 2:30a.m. Pennsylvania: 2a.m. in taverns, 3a.m. in membership-only clubs statewide. Sales may begin as early as 7a.m. Pennsylvania Liquor Control Board–operated liquor stores (known as "Wine & Spirits Shoppes", or commonly called "state stores") operate various hours, but never open before 9a.m. and never close later than 10p.m. About ten percent of state stores, most of which near the borders of the Commonwealth, are open from noon to 5p.m. on Sundays. Rhode Island: 1a.m. seven days a week. 2a.m. in Providence only on Friday and Saturday nights and nights before a state-recognized holiday. South Carolina: Set by county or municipality. No alcohol sales (on or off premises) is permitted on Sundays, except in Aiken City, Columbia, Charleston, Greenville / North Augusta, South Carolina, Spartanburg, and the Myrtle Beach area. South Dakota: 2a.m. Tennessee: 3a.m. Texas: Serving stops at midnight or 2a.m. (depending on city and county population) on Monday through Saturday; beverages may be sold until 1 or 2a.m. Sunday (depending on population), and then again at 10a.m. (if food is served with the liquor) or 12 noon (regardless of food). All drinks must be up fifteen minutes after serving stops. Starting September 1st, 2021, hotel bars will be able to serve alcohol to registered guests 24/7 Utah: Last call is 1a.m., and establishments must be closed by 2a.m. Vermont: 2a.m., 3a.m. on New Year's Eve Virginia: All on-premises drinks must be up by 2a.m. If Daylight Saving Time is ending, the first instance of 2a.m. counts. Some bars possess grandfathered licenses obtained before the current last call was instituted, allowing them to sell at any time. Off-premises premises must stop by midnight. Liquors may be acquired for off-premises consumption only at state-run liquor stores, which have fewer hours. Washington: 2a.m. West Virginia: 3a.m. Wisconsin: 2a.m. Sunday through Thursday, 2:30 a.m. Friday and Saturday. No closing time on New Year's Eve. Wyoming: 2a.m. City-specific laws Albany, New York: 4a.m. Atlanta: 2:30a.m.; 4a.m. in Underground Atlanta. Midnight on Sunday night/Monday morning. Atlantic City: Bars may stay open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Austin: 2a.m. Baltimore: 2a.m. Bloomington and Normal, Illinois: 1a.m. on weeknights, 2a.m. on weekends. Bloomington, Indiana: 3a.m. Boston: 2a.m. Buffalo: 4a.m., 24 hours on specific holidays. Champaign, Illinois: 2a.m. Charlotte: 2a.m. Chicago: Some bars may choose to close at 2a.m. or earlier. They may alternately get an extension to allow them to close at 4a.m. or earlier. On Saturdays, closing times are shifted an hour back to 3 and 5a.m. Cincinnati: 2:15a.m. for last call; 2:30a.m. for closing time. Cleveland: 2:30a.m. Columbus: 2:30a.m. Denver: 2a.m. Florence, South Carolina: 2a.m. for hard liquor, 3a.m. for beer. This includes Sundays where any bar that is defined as a private club may operate 7 days a week, otherwise last call is midnight Saturday night, until the establishment reopens for business on Monday. Fort Wayne, Indiana: 3a.m. Houston: alcohol service stops at 2a.m. Indianapolis: 3a.m. Kansas City, Missouri: 1:30a.m. for most bars, 3a.m. for specially licensed bars in certain geographic areas, 6:00a.m. for one bar only, the Mutual Musicians Foundation. Key West, Florida: 4a.m. Lake Charles, Louisiana: 24 hours a day except Sundays. Bars must be closed between 2:30 a.m. on Sunday and 12:01 a.m. on Monday. Las Vegas: Bars may stay open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Los Angeles: 2a.m. Lexington, Kentucky: 2:30a.m. Louisville, Kentucky: 2a.m. or 4a.m., depending on license. Miami: 5a.m.; Bars may stay open 24 hours, 7 days a week in the Downtown Entertainment District. Minneapolis–Saint Paul: 2a.m. Mobile: No last call for bars operating under a private club license New Orleans: Bars may stay open 24 hours, 7 days a week. New York City: 4a.m.; nightclubs are permitted to stay open after 4a.m. but cannot serve alcohol. Pensacola, Florida: 3a.m. (within city limits, 2a.m. for county) Peoria, Illinois: Bars in the downtown district may stay open until 4a.m. Bars in other areas may stay open until 1a.m. Sunday through Wednesday and 2a.m. Thursday through Saturday. Bars may stay open 2 hours later than normal closing hours on New Year's Eve, but additional patrons are not allowed after normal closing hours. Phoenix / Scottsdale: 2a.m. Philadelphia: 2a.m. Pittsburgh: 2a.m. Providence: 2a.m. on weekends, and nights before a state-recognized holiday. 1a.m. on weeknights. Rochester, New York: 2a.m. Salt Lake City: 1a.m. San Diego: 2a.m. San Francisco: 2a.m. Saratoga Springs, New York: 4a.m. Savannah, Georgia: 3a.m. San Antonio, Texas: 2a.m. Seattle: 2a.m. Shreveport, Louisiana: 6a.m. for Downtown, 4a.m. everywhere else. St. Louis: 1:30a.m. for most bars, with some 3a.m. bars St. Petersburg, Florida: 3a.m. Tampa: 3a.m. Washington, D.C.: 3a.m. on Friday night, Saturday night, and the night before a federal or DC holiday; 4a.m. on the night of New Year's Eve; 2a.m. other nights. United Kingdom Until 2005 the standard closing time was 11pm but the Licensing Act 2003 allows more flexibility. The average "Last Call" time is between 11pm and 1am in municipalities like Birmingham and London. This information was taken from two hundred bars from 2014 to 2016. Bars and clubs can apply for individual licenses allowing them to close at any time between 11pm and 3am. Some establishments in big cities have 24-hour licenses. See also Alcohol laws of the United States by state List of public house topics References Alcohol law Drinking culture Bartending

Chlamydosaurus

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The frilled lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingii), also known commonly as the frill-necked lizard, frilled dragon or frilled agama, is a species of lizard in the family Agamidae. The species is endemic to northern Australia and southern New Guinea. This species is the only member of the genus Chlamydosaurus. Its common names come from the large frill around its neck, which usually stays folded against the lizard's body. C. kingii is largely arboreal, spending the majority of its time in the trees. Its diet consists mainly of insects and small vertebrates. Frill-necked lizards, or 'frillies' as some call them, will occasionally eat plants as well, although this behaviour is uncommon. It's a relatively large lizard, averaging in total length (including tail) and is kept as an exotic pet. Taxonomy British zoologist John Edward Gray described the frill-necked lizard in 1825 as Clamydosaurus kingii, from a specimen collected by an expedition conducted by Captain Phillip Parker King from . King's specimen was obtained by his ship's botanist, Allan Cunningham, at Careening Bay off the northwest coast of Australia. The generic name, Chlamydosaurus, is derived from the Ancient Greek chlamydo (χλαμύς), meaning "cloaked" or "mantled", and saurus (sauros), meaning "lizard". The specific name, kingii, is a Latinised form of Phillip Parker King's last name. It is the only member of this genus. In the Jawoyn language of the Katherine area, it is known as leliyn. Description The frill-necked lizard is a relatively large member of the agamid family, growing up to . It is capable of bipedal locomotion and has been described as regularly moving in this manner with a purposeful stride at times by naturalists. Colouration tends to be brown or grey with spots and blotches of darker colours mixed in a mottled fashion to give the appearance of tree bark. There is not one standard colour: rather, colouration varies according to the lizard's environment. For example, a lizard found in a dryer, clay filled environment will most likely have a collage of oranges, reds, and browns; whereas a lizard found in a damper, more tropical region will tend to show darker browns and greys, and some greens. This suggests they are adapted to their habitats; their colours are a form of camouflage. The most distinct feature of these lizards is the large ruff of skin which usually lies folded back against its head and neck. The neck frill is supported by long spines of cartilage which are connected to the jaw bones. When the lizard is frightened, it produces a startling deimatic display: it gapes its mouth, exposing a bright pink or yellow lining; it spreads out its frill, displaying bright orange and red scales; raises its body; and sometimes holds its tail above its body. This reaction is used for territorial displays, to discourage predators, and during courtship. The red and orange parts of its frill contain carotenoid pigments. The bones of the frill are modified elongate hyoid types that form rods which expand the frill. Secondarily the frill can serve as a form of camouflage when relaxed; there is no standard colouration to the body, but it is usually darker than the frill. Distribution and habitat The frilled-neck lizard is found mainly in the northern regions of Australia and southern New Guinea. The lizard on rare occasions is found in the lower desert regions of Australia but primarily inhabits humid climates such as those in the tropical savannah woodlands. It tends to be an arboreal lizard, meaning it spends a majority of its time in the trees. The lizard ventures to the floor only in search of food, or to engage in territorial conflicts. The arboreal habitat may be a product of the lizard's diet, which consists mainly of small arthropods and vertebrates (usually smaller lizards). However, the trees are most importantly used for camouflage. Diet Like many lizards, frill-necked lizards are carnivores, feeding on cicadas, beetles, termites, and mice. They especially favour butterflies, moths and their larvae. Though insects are their primary source of food, they also consume spiders and occasionally other lizards. Like most members of the agamids (dragons), frill-necked lizards employ an ambush method of hunting, lying in wait for their prey. When the lizards eat, they eat in abundance; these binge periods usually occur during the wet season, when they ingest hundreds to thousands of alate (flying) ants or termites. Thermoregulation The frilled-neck lizard is ectothermic and maintains its body temperature by basking briefly to achieve an average of 2–3°C (3.6–5.4°F) above the surrounding temperature. Weather conditions, including sunlight, are the main factors regulating the lizards' temperature. This basking period usually occurs in the morning to early afternoon to ensure maximum exposure to sunlight. However, the lizard's final internal temperature depends mainly on the ambient temperature of the surrounding environment. The lizard's frill was once thought to aid in thermoregulation, but this has been found without merit. Reproduction and sexual dimorphism The frilled-neck lizard is sexually dimorphic; meaning that there are physical differences between male and females. This dimorphism is apparent in the length of the lizard; the male is generally larger than the female. There is little to no dimorphism in the colour of the lizard. Frilled-necked lizards breed in the early wet season from September to October. Adult males fight for mates, displaying their frills and biting each other. One to two clutches of 6–25 eggs are laid from early to mid-wet season from November to February. The eggs are laid in a nest below ground, and usually in sunny areas. Incubation takes two to three months. Gender is partly temperature determined, with extreme temperatures producing exclusively females, and intermediate temperatures (29–35 °C, or 84–95 °F) producing equal numbers of males and females. Their eggs are soft-shelled. Predators The species' main predators are eagles, owls, snakes, dingoes, quolls, and larger lizards such as goannas. In culture A frill-necked lizard was featured on the reverse of the Australian 2-cent coin until 1991. A frill-necked lizard named "Lizzie" was the mascot for the 2000 Summer Paralympic Games. An anthropomorphic version of Lizzie reappeared as the mascot for the Australian team of the 2020 Summer Paralympic Games. The lizard features on the emblem of the Northern Australian regiment NORFORCE. Because of its unique appearance and behavior, the creature has often been used in film and television. A frill-necked lizard named "Frank" appeared in the 1990 Disney animated film The Rescuers Down Under. In Steven Spielberg's 1993 film Jurassic Park, the dinosaur Dilophosaurus was portrayed with a similar looking neck frill that raised when attacking, and generated an increase in demand for frill-necked lizards as pets. It gained notoriety in Japan after featuring prominently in a 1984 commercial for the Mitsubishi Mirage. References Further reading Bedford GS. (1995). "Anti-predator tactics from the Frilled Neck Lizard Chlamydosaurus kingii ". Journal of the Victorian Herpetological Society 6 (3): 120-130. Harlow PS, Shine R. (1998). "Temperature dependent sex-determination in the frillneck lizard Chlamydosaurus kingii (Agamidae)". Herpetologica 55 (2): 205-212. Shine R, Lambeck R. (1989). "Ecology of frillneck lizards, Chlamydosaurus kingii (Agamidae) in tropical Australia". Australian Wildlife Research 16: 491-500. External links Australia Advances - Frilled Neck Lizard by CSIRO Frilled-neck lizard babies are out! by ABC Science Frilled Lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingii ) by Zoo and Aquarium Association Agamidae Reptiles of Western Australia Agamid lizards of New Guinea Monotypic lizard genera Taxa named by John Edward Gray Reptiles of Queensland Agamid lizards of Australia Reptiles described in 1825

Wilderness Road

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The Wilderness Road was one of two principal routes used by colonial and early national era settlers to reach Kentucky from the East. Although this road goes through the Cumberland Gap into southern Kentucky and northern Tennessee, the other (more northern route) is sometimes called the "Cumberland Road" because it started in Fort Cumberland in Maryland. Despite Kentucky Senator Henry Clay's advocacy of this route, early in the 19th century, the northern route was selected for the National Road, connecting near Washington, Pennsylvania into the Ohio Valley of northern Kentucky and Ohio. In 1775, Daniel Boone blazed a trail for the Transylvania Company from Fort Chiswell in Virginia through the Cumberland Gap. It was later lengthened, following Indian trails, to reach the Falls of the Ohio at Louisville. The Wilderness Road was steep, rough and narrow, and could be traversed only on foot or horseback. By contrast, wagons could travel along the National Road route (originally the Braddock Road blazed by the competing Ohio Company and George Washington circa 1750), particularly after the improvements. Despite the adverse conditions, thousands of people used the Wilderness Road, particularly slaveholders after the states of Ohio, then Indiana and finally Illinois became free states (abolishing slavery) on the northern bank of the Ohio River, where travelers often embarked on boats to travel westward. In 1792, the new Kentucky legislature provided money to upgrade the road. In 1796, an improved all-weather road was opened for wagon and carriage travel. The road was abandoned around 1840 (construction on the National Road after Vandalia, Illinois also stopping owing to the Panic of 1837 and early railroad construction), although modern highways follow much of its route. Early exploration The first European explorers of the southern Appalachian Mountains were Spanish. Hernando de Soto and his troops traversed the region in 1540 and 1541 searching for gold. The first recorded English explorations of the mountains were those of Abraham Wood, which began around 1650. Later, Wood sent exploring parties into the mountains. The Batts-Fallam expedition reached the New River Valley in 1671. In 1673, Wood sent Gabriel Arthur and James Needham to the Overhill Cherokee of modern Tennessee. The purpose was to try to make direct contact with the Cherokee for trade, so as to circumvent the Ocaneechee "middlemen" traders. The expedition did reach the Overhill Cherokee area, but Needham was killed on the return trip. Gabriel Arthur was almost killed, but was rescued and adopted by a Cherokee chief. For his own safety, Arthur was then sent with one of the chief's raiding parties. For about a year, he traveled with the Cherokee throughout the Appalachians. He was probably the first European to visit modern West Virginia and cross the Cumberland Gap. In 1750, Dr. Thomas Walker, an investor in the Loyal Land Company, with five companions, made a famous exploration through the Cumberland Gap and into eastern Kentucky. The Loyal Land Company settled people in southwest Virginia, but not Kentucky. In 1769, Virginia longhunter and explorer Joseph Martin made the first of several forays into the region. Acting as an agent for Dr. Thomas Walker, to whom Martin was connected through family relationships, Martin began an expedition to Powell's Valley in early 1769 in return for a promised land grant from Walker and the Loyal Land Company. Martin and his men built the earliest westernmost frontier fort at present-day Rose Hill, Virginia, a fort dubbed Martin's Station. Later that year Indians chased off Martin and his men, who returned to Albemarle County. Martin returned six years later to rebuild the fort, and a few months later became an agent for Richard Henderson's Transylvania Company. In 1774, Richard Henderson, a judge from North Carolina, organized a land speculation company with a number of other prominent North Carolinians called the Transylvania Company. The men hoped to purchase land from the Cherokees on the Kentucky side of the Appalachian Mountains and establish a British proprietary colony. Henderson hired Daniel Boone, an experienced hunter who had explored Kentucky, to blaze a trail through the Cumberland Gap into central Kentucky. Boone, the trailblazer The Appalachian Mountains form a natural barrier to east–west travel. From New York to Georgia there are only five ways to travel to the west, with only three natural interior breaks allowing animal powered travel without great engineering works. These were the Gaps of the Allegheny and the several ways such as the Kittanning Paths in Pennsylvania, the Cumberland Narrows in northwestern Maryland host to Nemacolin's Path, and the Cumberland Gap in the four-state region of North Carolina and Virginia on the east side and through the gap, Tennessee and Kentucky. While late 19th and 20th century technologies would later bridge the mountain chain in other places, these all required significant civil engineering works to make a road bed past the barrier range geologist classify as the ridge-and-valley Appalachians. Settlers from Pennsylvania tended to migrate south along the Great Wagon Road through the Great Appalachian Valley and Shenandoah Valley. Daniel Boone was from Pennsylvania and migrated south with his family along this road. From an early age, Boone was one of the longhunters who hunted and trapped among the Native American nations along the western frontiers of Virginia, so-called because of the long time they spent away from home on hunts in the wilderness. Boone would sometimes be gone for months and even years before returning home from his hunting expeditions. Boone recommended three essentials for a pioneer: "A good gun, a good horse, and a good wife." He also would need a strong body, a sharp ax and good luck. Another essential was salt. Before 1776, it had to be shipped into the Thirteen Colonies from the West Indies at great expense. It was the only meat preservative available for men on the move and Kentucky had an extra lure with its large salt brine lakes near what is today the community of Boonesborough, Kentucky. The many "salt licks" of Kentucky are today reflected in the many place names in the state that use the words "lick" or "licking". Starting on March 10, 1775 Boone, along with 35 axmen, cut a trail from Long Island in Kingsport, Tennessee through the forests and mountains to Kentucky. It was a rough mud trail, hardly more than a path. The Transylvania Company had obtained title to Kentucky from the Cherokee and Iroquois, and even the Shawnee chief Cornstalk, defeated in Dunmore's War, had promised at the Treaty of Camp Charlotte on October 19, 1774 that his tribe would no longer hunt or claim land south of the Ohio River in Kentucky. Notwithstanding this promise, the Shawnee viewed Boone and other settlers as invaders. On March 24, 1775 Boone and his party were only from their final destination of the Kentucky River when they camped for the night. Just before daybreak a group of Shawnee, slinging tomahawks, attacked the sleeping men. Some of Boone's party were killed and a few were wounded but most were able to escape into the woods. Boone regrouped his men and managed to drive off the hostile Shawnee. The party lost some of their horses. Here Boone built a temporary open barricade with 6 to high logs. By the next year, the Shawnee had been joined by the Chickamauga Cherokee in the Cherokee–American wars with the settlers, which lasted until 1794. Route The route of the Wilderness Road made a long loop from Virginia southward to Tennessee and then northward to Kentucky, a distance of . From the Long Island of the Holston River (modern Kingsport, Tennessee), the road went north through Moccasin Gap of Clinch Mountain, then crossed the Clinch River and crossed rough land (called the Devils Raceway) to the North Fork Clinch River. Then it crossed Powell Mountain at Kanes Gap. From there it ran southwest through the valley of the Powell River to the Cumberland Gap. After passing over the Cumberland Gap the Wilderness Road forked. The southern fork passed over the Cumberland Plateau to Nashville, Tennessee via the Cumberland River. The northern fork split into two parts. The eastern spur went into the Bluegrass region of Kentucky to Boonesborough on the Kentucky River (near Lexington). The western spur ran to the Falls of the Ohio (Louisville). As settlements grew southward, the road stretched all the way to Knoxville, Tennessee, by 1792. Dangers Because of the threat of Native American attacks, the road was so dangerous that most pioneers traveled well armed. Robbers and criminals also could be found on the road, ready to pounce on weaker pioneers. Although the Transylvania Company had purchased the region from the Cherokee, and the Iroquois had ceded it at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, other tribes, such as the Shawnee, still claimed it and lived there. Often entire communities and church congregations would move together over the road to new settlements. Hundreds of pioneers were killed by Indian attacks. Defensive log blockhouses built alongside the road had portholes in the walls for firing at Native American attackers. They were often called "stations". No one knew exactly when the next attack would happen. The Shawnee came from the north, while the Chickamauga (Cherokees who rejected the land sale treaty) came from the south. The tribes were resentful of the settlers taking their ancestral hunting lands, and the French and Indian War had further stirred up their passions against the white man. There was a great variety of animal life in the wilderness. At night, the pioneers could hear the hoots and screeches of owls, the howls of wolves, and the cries of panthers and wild cats. Sometimes the Native Americans imitated these sounds. Venomous snakes such as copperheads and rattlesnakes blended into the leaves and undergrowth and were a danger to the pioneers, their horses and cattle. Settlement Judge Richard Henderson had made a treaty with the Cherokee at Sycamore Shoals in 1775, purchasing over of land between the Cumberland and Kentucky Rivers. On March 28, 1775, he left Long Island (Kingsport, Tennessee) with about 30 horsemen on the grueling trip down the Wilderness Road to Kentucky. At Martin's Station 40 to 50 additional pioneers joined the venture. On their way, they met nearly a hundred refugees fleeing Native American attacks further down the road. Despite the danger, the party kept going toward Kentucky. Since some of the streams were flooded, the pioneers had to swim with their horses. On April 20, they arrived at Boonesborough, a fortified town, named by Judge Henderson in honor of Boone. After 1770, a surge of over 400,000 Scots-Irish immigrants arrived in the colonies to escape the poor harvest, high rents and religious intolerance of Ulster. Since the better lands had already been taken, they constantly pressed onward to the western frontier of the foothills of the Carolinas. The flood of Scots-Irish, German, and others immigrants kept coming. Over 200,000 pioneers came over the Wilderness Road, enduring severe hardships. In the winter of 1778-79, the weather was so cold that the Kentucky River froze to a depth of two feet. The frontier settlements alongside the road struggled to survive. Many of the cattle and hogs froze to death. The settlers had to eat frozen cattle and horses to survive. Often the Chickamauga, under the leadership of Dragging Canoe, would hide in ambush for weeks between Cumberland Gap and Crab Orchard, a distance of . They would not attack large groups but wait for weaker ones who were not able to defend themselves. More than 100 men, women and children were killed in the fall of 1784 along the Wilderness Road. Many families, even in ice and snow, crossed the creeks and rivers without shoes or stockings; they often had no money and few clothes. They lived off the land by hunting in the woods and by fishing in the streams. Since they had hardly any money, entire families sometimes walked hundreds of miles after landing in America. They even used cattle as pack animals to carry their heavy loads. Cabins were built and land was cleared of trees and undergrowth so crops could be planted. Chestnut was the most popular wood since its logs could be used to build cabins and rail fences to protect crops from wild animals. It could easily be split into shingles for roofs to cover cabins and barns. Its bark was used to make medicine and tannic acid for tanning and dyeing. In the fall, its rich nuts were used to fatten razorback hogs for the market and the home. Hemlock was also highly valued for its many uses. Commerce and mail The Wilderness Road served as a great path of commerce for the early settlers in Kentucky, as well as for wagon-loads of slaves being transported through Tennessee to plantations in Mississippi and Louisiana. Horses, cattle, sheep and hogs herded in the other direction found waiting markets in the Carolinas, Maryland and Virginia. Hogs in groups of 500 or more were driven down the Road to market. Beef in Eastern markets had become a main source of income for farmers in Kentucky. A postal road was opened in 1792 from Bean Station, Tennessee through Cumberland Gap to Danville, Kentucky. This was due largely to the efforts of Governor Isaac Shelby of Kentucky. This connection of Kentucky to the East was a great advantage. Frontier settlers considered the postal riders heroes and waited eagerly for their arrival for news from settlements along the trails as well as getting their mail and newspapers. Civil War and decline Use of the Wilderness Road fell when the National Road was opened in 1818, allowing travel to the Ohio River on more level ground from the East. The Panic of 1837, geology and new railroad technology doomed the James River Canal, once envisioned as augmenting this commercial route. At the same time, the steamboat first appeared on the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, allowing faster and cheaper travel both up and down the rivers. During the 1850s, the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad was constructed along part of this route. During the American Civil War, both the Union Army and the Confederate States Army used the Wilderness Road. An early battle (Camp Wildcat), stymied the first Confederate attempt to seize control of neutral Kentucky. The Cumberland Gap changed hands four times throughout the war. Southern troops used the road for marches into Virginia. General Ulysses S. Grant came down the road for the Union campaign in Tennessee in 1864. Grant was so taken by the Road that he said, "With two brigades of the Army of the Cumberland I could hold that pass against the army which Napoleon led to Moscow." Preservation A segment of the Wilderness Road was among the first roads in the United States to be paved. The old road from the town of Cumberland Gap, Tennessee to Middlesboro, Kentucky through the mountain pass was paved and completed on October 3, 1908. This was an "object-lesson" road (a new kind of paved macadam construction funded by local communities but with federal governmental supervision) initiated by the U.S. Office of Public Roads. At that time, only about of paved roads existed in the United States. Its name was later changed to U.S. Route 25E. This new road brought a new industry, tourism, to the rural areas filling hotels and restaurants with travelers. Cumberland Gap is a National Historical Park, and portions of the Wilderness Road can be visited at Wilderness Road State Park in Virginia. Additionally, a reconstructed fort at Martin's Station in Virginia on the Wilderness Road can be visited about east of the Cumberland Gap. Since the completion of the Cumberland Gap Tunnel in 1996, a project has been underway to restore the original appearance of the Wilderness Road as it crosses the historic Cumberland Gap. Since 2001, Hwy. 25E has been obliterated over several miles of its length and the original grade restored, including the addition of of elevation to restore the Gap to its original contour, with virtually all modern artifacts, buildings and roads removed. The replanting of thousands of seedlings from original forest stocks in the area is intended, over a period of decades, to recreate a forest that will allow visitors to view the crossing of the Gap on the Wilderness Road as travelers would have experienced it circa 1790. This section of the Wilderness Road is now a hiking trail, including an interpretive center about the road's history located on the Tennessee side. See also Kentucky County, Virginia Ohio Country Overmountain Men Southwest Territory Trans-Appalachia Footnotes References Axelrod, Alan: What Every American Should Know About American History (1992) Holbrook, MA. Adams Media Corp. . Bodett, Tom: America's Historic Trails (1992) San Francisco James Connoly (Small World Productions). Calloway, Brenda: America's First Western Frontier: East Tennessee (1989) Kingsport, Tenn. The Overmountain Press . Cooke, Alistair: Alistair Cooke's America (1973) New York Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. Eslinger, Ellen: Running Mad for Kentucky: Frontier Travel Accounts. University Press of Kentucky, (2004). Drake, Richard B. A History of Appalachia. University Press of Kentucky (2001). Kincaid, Robert: The Wilderness Road (1992) Kingsport, Tenn. Arcata Graphics. ISBN Unknown Leyburn, James G: The Scotch Irish A Social History (1962) Chapel Hill .University of North Carolina Press . . Newby, Eric: The Rand McNally World Atlas of Exploration (1975) London: Mitchell Beazley. . Riley, Darnell: The Tennessee Blue Book (2004) Nashville: State of Tennessee. Rouse, Parke, Jr: 'The Great Wagon Road (2004) Richmond: The Diaz Press . . Webb, James: Born Fighting How the Scots-Irish Shaped America (2004) New York : Broadway Books. . Williams, John Alexander: Appalachia: A History'' (2002) Chapel Hill, N.C. : University of North Carolina Press. . External links Interactive map of the Wilderness Road Map of the Kentucky part of the Wilderness Road The Wilderness Road Regional Museum in Dublin, Virginia, is owned and operated by the New River Historical Society. Native American trails in the United States Historic trails and roads in the United States Historic trails and roads in Kentucky Historic trails and roads in Tennessee Historic trails and roads in Virginia Daniel Boone National Scenic Byways U.S. Route 25 Appalachia Native American history of Kentucky Native American history of Tennessee Native American history of Virginia

List of longest novels

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This is a list of the novels over 500,000 words published through a mainstream publisher. Traditionally, Artamène ou le Grand Cyrus has been considered the longest novel, but it has been surpassed by at least one novel, or two depending on the criterion used to determine the length. Originally published (1649–1654) in ten parts, each part in three volumes, Artamène is generally attributed to Madeleine de Scudéry. Compiling a list of longest novels yields different results depending on whether pages, words, or characters are counted. Length of a book is typically associated with its size—specifically page count—leading many to assume the largest and thickest book equates to its length. Word count is a direct way to measure the length of a novel in a manner unaffected by variations of format and page size; however, translating the story into different languages and dialects results in different word counts. Comparison of methods There are at least three ways to determine length: Character count is at the best estimate of the total numbers of spaces, written characters, and punctuation; Guinness World Records uses this criterion. Word count (omitting punctuation) is another method. Using computer software to count words is the current preferred method for academia and publications. However it is not very meaningful when comparing different languages, for instance, because some languages use more words to express a given idea than others. A rough way to count words in an English language text is to assume that a standard formatted page with 12 pt Courier font and double-spaced lines is 250 words. Due to formatting, the page count will depend on the choice of paper size, font, style, formatting, and illustrations in the published work, and thus cannot be considered a reliable measure of length, despite it being the easiest physical indicator of length to determine. For the purposes of this list, word count is ideal. Page count is a rough indicator of length; for completeness, the page size will be included. A particular difficulty is created when comparing word counts across different writing systems. The logographic Chinese characters used to write East Asian languages each represent one morpheme and are not separated by spaces. The same character may at times stand for one word, and other times form part of a larger word. For instance, the characters 中 zhong and 国 guo can be used independently to mean "middle" and "kingdom", respectively, but can also be combined into Zhongguo 中国, "China" (i.e. "The Middle Kingdom"). One could theoretically construct a noun phrase Zhongguo Zhong Guo 中国中国 meaning "kingdoms in the middle of China". The absence of any formal marking of word boundaries means that it would be difficult to mechanically determine if such a phrase consists of two, three, or four words without knowing Chinese. East Asian bibliographies therefore generally give only the character count without attempting any word count. However there are similar difficulties in European languages: in some cases it is arbitrary whether an expression is written as one word or two: e.g. airshow vs. air show; in German it is very common to link two or more words together to form compound words – merely reflecting a feature of the language. In Japanese, some characters represent "words" and others only represent "syllables". A rough approximation can sometimes be obtained by citing the word count of a translation into a Latin alphabet language like English (if such a translation exists), but this will vary to some extent depending on the style of English adopted by the translator. However citing a translation has the advantage that it indicates how many words are required to convey the same meaning in the target text, not how many "words" the source text actually contains. Definitions What counts as a novel is another variable. For the purposes of the list, a "novel" is defined as a single work in print or electronic form that has been published through a mainstream publisher and that has acquired publishing rights from authors. A "single work" includes works thought of as one novel by the author but published in multiple volumes for reasons of convenience but not entire series of novels. Excluded are self-published, printed-on-demand, vanity works, unpublished novels like Henry Darger's, novel sequences like the Chronicles of Barsetshire, novel cycles such as those set in the James Bond universe, and record-grabbing stunts written solely for the title of the longest work. List {| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:1.00em; line-height:1.5em;" !scope="col" | Book title !scope="col" | Author !scope="col" | Edition/publisher !scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | Pagecount !scope="col" | Volumes !scope="col" class="unsortable"| Page size !scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | Word count !scope="col" | Language !scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes |- |- |- |- |Venmurasu |Jeyamohan |Natrinai/Kizhakku | |26 | x | (estimated) |Tamil |A novel based on Mahabharata, published 25 December 2014-July 2020 online. |- |Devta |Muhiyyu-d-Deen Nawaab |Suspense Digest | |56 | | words |Urdu |Started in February 1977 and completed in January 2010 |- | A Chronicle of Ancient Sunlight |Henry Williamson |Macdonald, 1951–1969 | |15 | | |English |The sequel to The Flax of Dream tetralogy |- |Men of Good Will (Les Hommes de bonne volonté) |Jules Romains |Alfred A. Knopf | |14 | | |English translation from French |English translation of the first 3 volumes by Warre B. Wells and the rest by Gerard Hopkins |- |Artamène ou le Grand Cyrus |Georges and/or Madeleine de Scudéry |Augustin Courbé, 1649–53 | |10 | | |French |It was translated into English by F. G. Gent |- |Het Bureau (The Office) |J. J. Voskuil |Van Oorschot, 1996-2000 | |8 | x | |Dutch |Longest Dutch novel. Published in seven parts between 1996 and 2000. |- |Gordana |Marija Jurić Zagorka |Školska knjiga, 2007 | |12 | | (estimated) |Croatian |The longest Croatian novel. It is divided into 3 parts. |- |In Search of Lost Time (À la recherche du temps perdu) |Marcel Proust |Gallimard (Collection Folio edition, 1988–1990) | |7 | x | |French |Guinness World Record holder for longest novel. Uses estimated character count of 9,609,000 characters. |- |Bottom's Dream |Arno Schmidt |Dalkey Archive Press | |1 | x | (estimated) |English translation from German |6,800,000 characters; longest novel published in one volume |- |Joseph and His Brothers |Thomas Mann |Everyman's Library | |4 | x | |English Translation from German |The author retells the Biblical story of Jacob and Joseph, setting it during the Amarna period during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten. The Nobel Laureate author considered it his magnum opus. |- |Orbitor (Blinding) |Mircea Cărtărescu |Humanitas | |3 | | |Romanian |Only the first volume has been translated into English |- |A Dance to the Music of Time |Anthony Powell |Arrow | |12 | | |English | |- |Dessen Sprache du nicht verstehst (Whose Language You Do Not Understand) |Marianne Fritz |Suhrkamp | |12 | | |German | |- |Kelidar |Mahmoud Dowlatabadi |Farhang Moaaser | |10 | | |Persian |The longest Persian novel |- |The Great Eastern (O Megas Anatolikos) |Andreas Embirikos |Agra | |8 | | |Modern Greek |The longest Modern Greek novel and one of the longest erotic novels ever written as well. |- |Clarissa, or, the History of a Young Lady |Samuel Richardson |Penguin Classics (1987) | |7 | x | and 984,870 |English |Revised through 4 editions (1747–1761). Word count obtained through Project Gutenberg digitization and 1964 estimate by The New York Times |- |Sir Charles Grandison |Samuel Richardson |Oxford World's Classics (1986) | |1 | x | (estimated) |English |Restored and corrected through 4 editions (1753–1761) |- |Sivagamiyin Sapatham (The Vow of Sivagami) |Kalki Krishnamurthy |CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform | |4 | x | |English translation from Tamil |Released in four volumes, this historical novel, originally written in Tamil, tells the story of Mahendravarman I, and his son Narasimhavarman I two of the kings of the Pallava Dynasty. The first part of a historical trilogy. |- |Ponniyin Selvan |Kalki Krishnamurthy |(1955 edition) | |5 | | |Tamil |Released in five volumes, this historical novel, originally written in Tamil, tells the story of Arulmozhivarman (Raja Raja Chola I), one of the kings of the Chola Dynasty. The third part of a historical trilogy. 4 out of 5 volumes have been translated into English and the 5th volume is in progress. |- |Poor Fellow My Country |Xavier Herbert |HarperCollins Publishers (Australia) |hardcover |1 | x | |English |1975 winner of the Miles Franklin Award |- |Women and Men |Joseph McElroy |Knopf (1987) |hardcover |1 | x | (estimated) 700,000 (estimated) |English | |- |The Story of the Stone (The 'Dream of the Red Chamber) (紅樓夢) |Cao Xueqin |Penguin Classics | |5 | x | (estimated) |English translation from Chinese | |- |The Plum in the Golden Vase (1610 version)/The Golden Lotus (1695 version) (Jin Ping Mei) (金瓶梅) |The Scoffing Scholar of Lanling (1695 version edited by Zhang Zhupo) |Princeton University Press (1610 version)/Tuttle Publishing (1695 version) | (1610 version) (1695 version) |5 (1610 version)/2 (1695 version) | x | |English translation from Chinese |A spin-off from 'Water Margin. It was included in the 4 Classic Chinese Novels but later removed because of its genre but it is included in one of the 6 Classic Chinese Novels |- |Water Margin (水滸傳) (Outlaws of the Marsh/The Marshes of Mount Liang) |Shi Nai'an and Luo Guanzhong |The Chinese University Press (120-chapter version, slightly abridged)/Foreign Languages Press (A combination of the 70 and the 100-chapter version, unabridged) | (120-chapter version, slightly abridged)/ (A combination of the 70 and the 100-chapter version, unabridged) |5 (120-chapter version, slightly abridged)/4 (A combination of the 70 and the 100-chapter version, unabridged) | x | |English translation from Chinese |The current translations are all flawed in some way. The Jackson translation is the only translation that includes the foreword but it is the translation of the 71-chapter version. The Sidney Shapiro translation is a combination of the 71 and the 100-chapter version that omits some of the poems, the foreword, and the prologue. The Dent-Youngs' translation is the translation of the 120-chapter version but it omits the foreword and slightly abridges the text, omitting passages concerning Ming Dynasty's official details and some locations. |- |The Romance of the Three Kingdoms (三國演義) |Luo Guanzhong (Edited by Mao Lun and Mao Zonggang) |Foreign Languages Press (1995) | |4 | x | (estimate) |English translation from Chinese | |- |The Journey to the West (西遊記) |Wu Cheng'en |University of Chicago Press | |4 | x | |English translation from Chinese | |- |The Legend of the Condor Heroes|Jin Yong |MacLehose Press (2018–21) | |4 | | |English translation from Chinese |The first part of the Condor Trilogy. |- |Sironia, Texas|Madison Cooper |Houghton Mifflin (1952) | |2 | | (estimatedAuthor of 1,800 page novel in New York looking after plans for publication of big book The Times-News 27 October 1952 (via Google news archive)) |English |Houghton Mifflin Literary Award winner |- |Shanghai|David Rotenberg |Penguin Canada (2008) | |1 | | (estimated) |English |Written as a trilogy by the author but published in one volume. The prequel to the Zhong Fong mysteries. |- |Miss MacIntosh, My Darling|Marguerite Young |Scribners (1965) | |1 | | (estimated) 576,000 (estimated) |English | |- |Varney the Vampire|James Malcolm Rymer and Thomas Peckett Prest |Edward Lloyd (1845–47) | |1 | | |English |Originally published anonymously, in serial "penny dreadful" pamphlets. Present-day opinions are divided regarding its authorship. |- |Anniversaries. From the Life of Gesine Cresspahl|Uwe Johnson |New York Review of Books Classics (2018) |(Damion Searlstranslation) |2 | | |English translation from German |Word count obtained from eBook digitization of Searles translation. |- |Les Misérables|Victor Hugo |Penguin Classics edition | |1 | x | |English translation from French |According to Lee Fahnestock, the author allowed the Belgian publisher, Albert Lacroix to excise one chapter on prostitution and women's lot but the chapter appears as an appendix in some French editions. |- |Atlas Shrugged|Ayn Rand |Signet Books (1996 edition) |paperback |1 | x | (estimate by the publisher and by The New York Times and by the author herself quoting printer's word count) |English |US National Book Award for Fiction finalist in 1958. Prometheus Award – Hall of Fame winner in 1983. |- |Jean-Christophe|Romain Rolland |Henry Holt (1910,1911,1913) | |3 | | (estimated) |English translation from French |Author received the 1915 Nobel Prize for Literature. |- |Jerusalem| Alan Moore |Knockabout (2016) | |1 | x | (estimated) |English | |- |"...And Ladies of the Club"|Helen Hooven Santmyer |Ohio State University Press (1982) | |1 | | (newspaper estimate) |English |1984 surprise bestseller. 1983 Ohioana Book Award winner in the category of fiction. |- | A Suitable Boy|Vikram Seth |Penguin Books |paperback |1 | x | |English |Word count obtained from Amazon digitization (eBook) word count. |- | War and Peace(Война и мир)|Leo Tolstoy |Alfred A. Knopf | |1 | | |English translation from Russian |Word count obtained from eBook of Pevear & Volokhonsky translation (Knopf, 2007). |- | F. L. Věk|Alois Jirásek |Československý spisovatel (last printed edition, 1976–1977) |(1972 ed.) |1 | | |Czech |Word count obtained from 2011 eBook. |- | The Mill on the Po (Il mulino del Po) |Riccardo Bacchelli |Arnoldo Mondadori Editore |paperback |3 | x | |Italian | |- |Infinite Jest|David Foster Wallace |Back Bay Books |paperback |1 | x | |English | |- |Remembrance Rock|Carl Sandburg |Mariner Books |paperback |1 | x | and 673,000 |English |Word counts obtained from Amazon digitization (eBook) word count, and author's own count. |- | The Lord of the Rings|JRR Tolkien | Allen & Unwin | |3 | | |English | The sequel to The Hobbit, or There and Back Again. Internally divided into 6 books, originally published in three volumes or parts, always considered a single novel. One of the most popular fictional works of the 20th century. |- |The Stand: The Complete & Uncut Edition|Stephen King |Doubleday | |1 | | |English |Runner-up (2nd place), Locus Award's Best Horror/Dark Fantasy Novel, 1991 |- |To Green Angel Tower|Tad Williams |DAW Books |hardcover |1 | | |English |Word counts obtained from Amazon digitization (eBook) word count. |- |Horcynus Orca|Stefano D'Arrigo |Arnoldo Mondadori Editore |hardcover |1 | x | |Italian |The first draft is published as I Fatti della Fera (The Facts of the Fera). |- |The Neapolitan Novels|Elena Ferrante |Europa Editions (2018) | |4 | x | |English Translation from Italian |The author published this novel in four installments due to its length but acknowledges it as a single novel. |- | My Struggle (Min Kamp) |Karl Ove Knausgård |Farrar, Straus, and Giroux | (English translation by Don Barlett and Martin Aitken) |6 | | |English Translation from Norwegian | |- |Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften (The Man Without Qualities) |Robert Musil |Alfred A. Knopf | (English translation by Sophie Wilkins and Burton Pike) |2 | | |English Translation from German |The author passed away before he could finish the novel. |- |Musashi |Eiji Yoshikawa |Pocket Books | (Unabridged English translation by Charles Sanford Terry) |5 | | |English Translation from Japanese |There is an abridged single volume edition that is 984 pages long in hardback edition. |- |The Tale of Genji|Murasaki Shikibu |Penguin Classics (Illustrated Deluxe edition) | (Unabridged English translation by Dr. Royall Tyler) |1 | x | |English Translation from Japanese |This is perhaps the first novel of the world but it is partially lost. It consists of 54 chapters but back in the Heian Period, it used to be circulated in 60 chapters and most scholars are of the opinion that there is a lost chapter between the current chapter 1 and 2. Some scholars consider the chapters after chapter 41 to be a sequel and a separate work as Hikaru Genji dies after chapter 41 and the story continues with his son, Prince Kaoru. |- |The Mohicans of Paris|Alexandre Dumas |Gallimard (Collection Quarto edition, 1998) | |2 | | |French |Inspired by Eugène Sue's The Mysteries of Paris and James Fenimore Cooper's The Last of the Mohicans. |- |The Vicomte de Bragelonne|Alexandre Dumas | | |5 | | |French |The final part of The d'Artagnan Romances trilogy. English translation by Lawrence Ellsworth in progress. As of 2021, only the first volume is in translation and the other 4 volumes are in preparation. |- | Mission Earth |L. Ron Hubbard |Bridge Publications | |10 | | |English |The novel was promoted as a "dekalogy" by the publisher. |- |The Mysteries of Paris|Eugène Sue |Penguin Classicspaperback | |1 | x | |English translation from French |This highly popular novel was published serially in Journal des débats. Word count obtained from Project Gutenberg English translation eBook (Chapman & Hall, 1845). |- |The Wandering Jew |Eugène Sue |Skyhorse | |1 | | |English translation from French |This highly popular novel was published serially in Journal des débats. Word count obtained from Project Gutenberg English translation eBook (Routledge, 1889). |- |Juliette |Marquis de Sade |Grove Press | |1 | x | |English translation from French |The sequel to the third version of Justine called The New Justine that has not been translated into English yet. |- |Black Bess; or, The Knight of the Road|Edward Viles |E. Harrison (c. 1860) | |3 | | |English |Originally published anonymously, in serial "penny dreadful" pamphlets. A romanticized tale of Dick Turpin that was a popular subject of that time. Each page has 2 column and there are a few illustrations scattered throughout the novel. Word count obtained from Internet Archive eBook. |- |Le Morte d'Arthur: The Winchester Manuscript| Sir Thomas Malory |Clarendon Press | |3 | x | |English |The third edition edited by Eugène Vinaver and Reverend P J C Field (1990) |- |- |Chlopi (The Peasants) |Władysław Reymont |Naklad Gebethnera i Wolffa /Alfred A. Knopf |1156 (English translation by Michael Henry Dziewicki) |4 | | |English translation from Polish |The author received the 1924 Nobel Prize in Literature for this novel. |- |The Viscount of Adrilankha |Steven Brust |Tor Books | (hardback) |3 | | |English |A fantasy novel set in the world of Dragaera. narrated by Paarfi of Roundwood. The novel is the final part of the Khaavren Romances trilogy which is based on Alexandre Dumas's The Vicomte de Bragelonne|- |Shōgun |James Clavell |Hodder & Stoughton | (1st edition paperback) |1 | | |English |A historical novel set in Feudal Japan about a fictionalised version of Tokugawa Ieyasu and William Adams. The first book in The Asian Saga. The first draft was 2,300 pages and Clavell cut it down to 1,700 with the help of his editor, German Gollob. |- |Gai-Jin |James Clavell |Delacorte Press | (paperback) |1 | | |English |A historical novel set in the Edo period in Japan (1862). The third book in The Asian Saga. |- |Noble House |James Clavell |Delacorte Press | (paperback) |1 | | |English |A historical novel set in Hong Kong in 1963. The fifth book in The Asian Saga. |- |Whirlwind |James Clavell |William Morrow | (hardback) |1 | | |English |A historical novel set in Iran in early 1979. The sixth book in The Asian Saga. The author abridged the novel and rewrote some parts of it. It was posthumously published as Escape, 598 pages |- |Gaunt's Ghosts|Dan Abnett |Black Library | |16 | | |English | |} Other list (non-Latin and Cyrillic) MalayalamAvakasikal by Vilasini: This book in Malayalam is known as the second longest written in an Indian language. It contains 3,958 pages in four volumes and took 10 years to complete. Japanese Nansō Satomi Hakkenden (; ) (The 8 Dog Warriors of the Satomi Clan of Nansō) written by Takizawa Bakin is a very popular epic historical fantasy and romance novel of the Yomihon category in 106 volumes. It was written and published over a period of nearly twenty-eight years (1814–42). Tokugawa Ieyasu by : The 40 volumes of this historical novel were published serially between 1950 and 1967. The complete text includes more than 10 million Japanese characters. It is the longest Japanese novel after Nansō Satomi Hakkenden and also one of the longest ever written.Daibosatsu Toge by : Published in 41 volumes and 1533 chapters, this unfinished historical novel includes 5.7 million Japanese characters. Chinese by Sun Haohui: Published in 6 volumes, this historical novel includes 5 million Chinese characters. The Popular Romance of Chinese Dynasties by Cai Dongfan: Published in 11 volumes and 1080 chapters (1040 chapters by Cai Dongfan, the last 40 chapters by Xu Jinfu), this historical novel includes 6 million Chinese characters.On the Plateau by Zhang Wei: Scheduled to include 4.5 million Chinese characters, the ten volume fully published in 2010 and became the longest Chinese novel in prose.Li Zicheng by Yao Xueyin: This historical novel completed in 1999 includes 3.4 million Chinese characters. It has been published in 9 volumes over a period of 40 years. It is currently the longest novel published in modern Chinese. The Swordspeople from Shu Mountains by Huanzhulouzhu: Published in 309 chapters, although unfinished, this Wuxia novel includes 4.1 million Chinese characters. The Chinese wuxia novelist Jin Yong wrote a number of long novels, of which the longest are The Deer and the Cauldron (1,230,000 characters) and Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils (1,211,000 characters). The Chinese wuxia novelist Huang Yi wrote a number of long novels, of which the longest is The Legend of the Twin Dragons of the Tang Dynasty'' (approximately 50,000,000 characters), consisting of 63 volumes (794 chapters) and the revised version is 20 volumes. See also Classic Chinese Novels, an overview of 5 very long Chinese classics. List of manga series by volume count List of longest films References External links The 10 Longest Novels Ever Written Lists by length Novels Lists of novels Novels Literature records Top book lists

Concrete masonry unit

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A concrete masonry unit (CMU) is a standard-size rectangular block used in building construction. CMUs are some of the most versatile building products available because of the wide variety of appearances that can be achieved using them. Those that use cinders (fly ash or bottom ash) as an aggregate material are called cinder blocks in the United States, breeze blocks (breeze is a synonym of ash) in the United Kingdom, and hollow blocks in the Philippines. In New Zealand and Canada they are known as concrete blocks (a name common in the United States also). In New Zealand, they are also called construction blocks. In Australia, they are known as Besser blocks or Besser bricks, because the Besser Company was a major supplier of machines that made concrete blocks. Clinker blocks use clinker as aggregate. In non-technical usage, the terms cinder block and breeze block are often generalized to cover all of these varieties. Composition Concrete blocks are made from cast concrete (e.g. Portland cement and aggregate, usually sand and fine gravel, for high-density blocks). Lower density blocks may use industrial wastes, such as fly ash or bottom ash, as an aggregate. Recycled materials, such as post-consumer glass, slag cement, or recycled aggregate, are often used in the composition of the blocks. Use of recycled materials within blocks can create different appearances in the block, such as a terrazzo finish, and may help the finished structure earn LEED certification. Lightweight blocks can also be produced using autoclaved aerated concrete; these are widely used for construction in Finland and similar northern countries for the material's inherent thermal isolation characteristics, as are expanded clay aggregate blocks. Sizes and structure The use of blockwork allows structures to be built in the traditional masonry style with layers (or courses) of staggered blocks. Concrete blocks may be produced with hollow centers (cores) to reduce weight, improve insulation and provide an interconnected void into which concrete can be poured to solidify the entire wall after it is built. Blocks come in modular sizes, with the most popular typically referred to (by their thickness) as "4-inch", "6-inch", "8-inch", and "12-inch". In the US, CMU blocks are nominally long and wide. Their actual dimensions are less than the nominal dimensions (to allow for -inch mortar joints between blocks in any orientation). In Ireland and the UK, blocks are usually excluding mortar joints. In Australia, New Zealand and Canada, blocks are usually excluding mortar joints. Block cores are typically tapered so that their top surface (as laid) has a greater surface on which to spread a mortar bed and for easier handling. Most CMUs have two cores, but three- and four-core units are also produced. A core also allows for the insertion of steel reinforcement to span courses in order to increase tensile strength. This is accomplished by grouting the voids of blocks containing rebar with concrete. Thus reinforced, CMU walls are better able to resist lateral forces such as wind load and seismic forces. Cores may also be filled with expanded-polystyrene (EPS) block foam insulation, substantially increasing the R-value of the resulting wall to be in compliance with the US national energy code. A variety of specialized shapes exist to allow special construction features. U-shaped blocks or knockout blocks with notches to allow the construction of bond beams or lintel assemblies, using horizontal reinforcing grouted into place in the cavity. Blocks with a channel on the end, known as "jamb blocks", allow doors to be secured to wall assemblies. Blocks with grooved ends permit the construction of control joints, allowing a filler material to be anchored between the un-mortared block ends. Other features, such as radiused corners known as "bullnoses" may be incorporated. A wide variety of decorative profiles also exist. CMUs may be formulated with special aggregates to produce specific colors or textures for finish use. Special textures may be produced by splitting a ribbed or solid two-block unit; such factory-produced units are called "split-rib" or "split-face" blocks. Blocks may be scored by grooves the width of a mortar joint to simulate different block modules. For example, an block may be scored in the middle to simulate masonry, with the grooves filled with mortar and struck to match the true joints. General information Uses Concrete block, when built with integral steel reinforcement, is a very common building material for the load-bearing walls of buildings, in what is termed concrete block structure (CBS) construction. One of the common foundation types for American suburban houses is the "crawl space foundation" which consists of a concrete block wall around the perimeter on which dimensional lumber floor joists are supported. Retaining walls, which also can be constructed of concrete blocks, either using blocks designed to be set back each course and used with a sand base and without mortar or reinforcing (gravity wall), or using blocks (typically an architectural style of block or clad with a veneer such as brick) with a concrete base, steel reinforcing and mortar (piling wall). Other very common, non-structural uses for concrete block walls (especially in American schools) are as interior fire-rated and extremely durable partition walls, and as exterior backup curtain walls for attachment of building envelope systems (rigid foam insulation and an air/vapor barrier) and veneers (stucco, steel, brick, or split-face concrete block). Structural properties Concrete masonry walls may be ungrouted, partially grouted, or fully grouted, the latter two enhancing their structural strength. Additionally, steel reinforcement bars (rebar) can be used both vertically and horizontally inside a CMU wall to maximize its structural performance. The cells in which the rebar is placed must be grouted for the bars to bond to the wall. For this reason, high seismic zones typically only allow fully grouted walls in their building codes. The American design code that guides design engineers in using CMU as a structural system is the Masonry Standards Joint Committee's Building Code Requirements & Specification for Masonry Structures (TMS 402/ACI 530/ASCE 5). The compressive strength of concrete masonry units and masonry walls varies from approximately based on the type of concrete used to manufacture the unit, stacking orientation, the type of mortar used to build the wall, it depends on whether it is a load bearing partition or not and other factors. See also Concrete bricks Gypsum block Rusticated concrete block Fly ash brick References Sources External links How Products Are Made: Volume 3 Concrete Block Concrete Masonry Association of California and Nevada National Concrete Masonry Association Mason Contractors Association of America Concrete Block Association Masonry Institute of America "The History Behind Rock Face Block"—Classic Rock Face Block Masonry Soil-based building materials

Piriformis muscle

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The piriformis muscle () is a muscle in the gluteal region of the lower limbs. It is one of the six muscles in the lateral rotator group. Structure The piriformis muscle originates from the anterior (front) part of the sacrum, the part of the spine in the gluteal region. It uses three fleshy digitations, attached to the second sacral vertebra, the third sacral vertebra, and the fourth sacral vertebra. It also arises from the superior margin of the greater sciatic notch (as well as the sacroiliac joint capsule and the sacrotuberous ligament). A few fibers also arise from the margin of the greater sciatic foramen, and from the anterior surface of the sacrotuberous ligament. It exits the pelvis through the greater sciatic foramen. It then inserts onto the greater trochanter of the femur. Its tendon often joins with the tendons of the superior gemellus, inferior gemellus, and obturator internus muscles prior to insertion. The piriformis is a flat muscle, pyramidal in shape. It lies almost parallel with the posterior margin of the gluteus medius. It is situated partly within the pelvis against its posterior wall, and partly at the back of the hip-joint. Innervation The piriformis muscle is innervated by the piriformis nerve. Variation In around 80% of the population, the sciatic nerve travels below the piriformis muscle. In 17% of people, the piriformis muscle is pierced by parts or all of the sciatic nerve. Several variations occur, but the most common type of anomaly (81% of anomalies) is the Beaton's type B which is when the common peroneal nerve pierces the piriformis muscle. It may be united with the gluteus medius, send fibers to the gluteus minimus, or receive fibers from the superior gemellus. It may have one or two sacral attachments; or it may be inserted into the capsule of the hip joint. Function The piriformis muscle is part of the lateral rotators of the hip, along with the quadratus femoris, gemellus inferior, gemellus superior, obturator externus, and obturator internus. The piriformis laterally rotates the femur with hip extension and abducts the femur with hip flexion. Abduction of the flexed thigh is important in the action of walking because it shifts the body weight to the opposite side of the foot being lifted, which prevents falling. The action of the lateral rotators can be understood by crossing the legs to rest an ankle on the knee of the other leg. This causes the femur to rotate and point the knee laterally. The lateral rotators also oppose medial rotation by the gluteus medius and gluteus minimus. When the hip is flexed to 90 degrees, piriformis abducts the femur at the hip and reverses primary function, internally rotating the hip when the hip is flexed at 90 degrees or more. (Netter's Clinical Anatomy, 2010) Clinical significance Piriformis syndrome occurs when the piriformis irritates the sciatic nerve, which comes into the gluteal region beneath the muscle, causing pain in the buttocks and referred pain along the sciatic nerve. This referred pain is known as sciatica. Seventeen percent of the population has their sciatic nerve coursing through the piriformis muscle. This subgroup of the population is predisposed to developing sciatica. Sciatica can be described by pain, tingling, or numbness deep in the buttocks and along the sciatic nerve. Sitting down, stretching, climbing stairs, and performing squats usually increases pain. Diagnosing the syndrome is usually based on symptoms and on the physical exam. More testing, including MRIs, X-rays, and nerve conduction tests can be administered to exclude other possible diseases. If diagnosed with piriformis syndrome, the first treatment involves progressive stretching exercises, massage therapy (including neuromuscular therapy) and physical treatment. Corticosteroids can be injected into the piriformis muscle if pain continues. Findings suggest the possibility that Botulinum toxin type B may be of potential benefit in the treatment of pain attributed to piriformis syndrome. A more invasive, but sometimes necessary treatment involves surgical exploration; however, the side effects of the surgery could be much worse than alternative treatments such as physical therapy. Surgery should always be a last resort. Landmark The piriformis is a very important landmark in the gluteal region. As it travels through the greater sciatic foramen, it effectively divides it into an inferior and superior part. This determines the name of the vessels and nerves in this region – the nerve and vessels that emerge superior to the piriformis are the superior gluteal nerve and superior gluteal vessels. Inferiorly, it is the same, and the sciatic nerve also travels inferiorly to the piriformis. History The piriformis muscle was first named by Adriaan van den Spiegel, a professor from the University of Padua in the 16th century. Additional images References External links "Piriformis" University of Washington - "Gluteal Region: Muscles" - "The Female Pelvis: The Posterolateral Pelvic Wall" Hip muscles Hip lateral rotators Deep lateral rotators of the hip Muscles of the lower limb

Typographer (typewriter)

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The typographer was an early typewriter. It was a mechanical innovation created by William Austin Burt. The mechanism was operated by hand to provide a printed ink impression on paper. Burt was a government surveyor and needed to get official correspondence done quickly. He observed office workers overwhelmed with laborious tasks of handwriting lengthy official documents that took a long time. Burt had a mechanical background so was inspired to make a machine that would speed up secretarial work. A friend of his in the newspaper business furnished typeface letters from a printing press for his experimental mechanism. Burt had two versions of his mechanical apparatus. The first was built in a wooden box that could be carried by hand. The second was a large advanced model that was mounted on four legs. The first working model provided by Burt for his 1829 patent was destroyed in the 1836 Patent Office fire. Although his typographer, as his innovation was first known by, could print neat documents the mechanism was slow as each letter had to be done by hand. His invention ultimately did not accomplish the goal of speeding up office work as he had intended. History Burt conceived the idea of a typing device when he observed office workers overwhelmed with the task of creating official documents in triplicate by hand. He reasoned that a printing machine could relieve many hours of the tedious task by automation. In the 1820s in his blacksmith shop he commenced the development of such an apparatus. His "typographer" constructed to the point of being able to print out a neat letter was patented as number 259 on July 23, 1829. United States Patent Office documents describe Burt's American machine as "the actual construction of a type writing machine for the first time in any country". It was the first practical typewriting machine ever made in America, although Pellegrino Turri had made one in Italy in 1808. The patent gave Burt the full exclusive rights to his new typewriter machine for 14 years, including vending or selling to others any or all of these rights as he saw fit, signed by President Andrew Jackson. All "type writing" machines, those that used letters of typeface, were generally given the name "typographer" from Burt's 1829 patent until 1874 by subsequent inventors who improved on Burt's machine. The concept ultimately came to be called a "type-writer" in 1874. The word stayed hyphenated until the 1880s. William Ozmun Wyckoff, president of the New York State Shorthand Reporters' Association in 1886, and founder of the Remington Typewriter Company, publicized the unhyphenated name "typewriter". It became very well known, and the public finally accepted this as one word by 1919. Eventually, Burt's typographer was called a typewriter. In 1714, the British patent office issued a patent to English engineer Henry Mill for a typewriter; however, he never built it. This first record of an initial attempt gave Mills time (14 years) to develop a model or at least a description of his "artificial machine"; however, the secret of how to make such a machine, if there ever was one, died with him. There is no record that it ever existed. There hasn't even been found a trace of any drawings or specifications. Christopher Latham Sholes is given credit for inventing the first "practical" typewriter. He was in fact the fifty-second person or possibly the 112th to reinvent a "type-writing" machine – which he called a type-writer. Some of the "type-writing" machines invented between Burt's 1829 patented machine and Sholes' 1867 type-writer are "The Projean Machine" (1833), "The Thurber Machine" (1843), "The Foucault Machine" (1843), "O. T. Eddy's machine" (1850), "The Fairbanks machine" (1850), "J. M. Jones' machine" (1850), "William Hughes' machine" (1851), John M. Jones "mechanical Typographer" (1852), "Thomas' typograph" (1854), "The Beach typewriter" (1856), "The Francis Typewriter" (1857), "The Hansen Machine" (1865), "The Livermore Printing Device" (1863), "Peeler Writing Machine" (1866), and "The Sholes and Glidden Typewriter" (1867) invented by three men (C. Latham Sholes, Samuel W. Soule, Carlos Glidden). Thomas Edison is even given credit for an electrified version in 1872. The Board of Electors at the National Shorthand Association of Detroit recognized Burt as a leader among typewriter inventors and one that ensured world-wide recognition of priority of American inventors in the typewriter field. French authors Henri Dupont and C. Senechal described Burt's typographer in great detail in their 1906 book Patent The machine was a rectangular wooden box wide, high, and long. It mechanically worked by depressing a rotating lever so that an inked letter made contact with paper. A gauge that was designed in a circular clockwise fashion on the front of the box indicated the number of lines typed on the blank piece of paper that was up to 15 inches in length. The paper was attached to a velvet-like material belt. The belt rotated when the impression lever was depressed. The patent describes Burt's machine as having a set of typeface characters that were arranged on the under side of a set of parts that had a lever pivoted to swing vertically and horizontally. The desired typeface character is brought to the printing point by moving this lever horizontally to a position over the same character in the index, and the impression on the paper is made by then depressing the lever. Different styles of typeface characters could be used. They were arranged in two rows on a lever. The rows of typeface characters could be shifted on the lever to bring either one to the printing point. The paper was carried in an endless band that traveled crosswise of the machine and the band was moved for letter space by the impression lever every time the lever is depressed to print. The line space was made by shifting the frame carrying the printing mechanism toward the front or rear of the machine, with the paper remaining stationary. Ink-pads were located at each side of the impression point, and all the typeface characters, except the one in the printing position, were inked every time the impression lever was depressed. Upper and lower case typeface letters could be used. A dial was provided that indicated the length of paper (inches) which had passed the printing point in printing each line. The operator knew the width of the paper being used each time. There was a stop printing indicator for end of the line. Four classes of typewriters had been recognized by the U. S. Patent Office. The first was an index-wheel machine, like that patented by Burt on July 23, 1829. The second was the bar-machine first patented by John B. Fairbanks on September 17, 1850. The third was the plate-machine first patented by Oliver T. Eddy on November 12, 1850. The fourth was the key-wheel machine first patented by John Pratt on August 11, 1868. A complete working model of Burt's "typographer" was in the model room of the Patent Office from the time of the patent until the Patent Office fire of December 15, 1836. The fire destroyed all the patents and patent models issued from 1790. A competent mechanic can build a working replica of Burt's typographer from his patent description and drawings. Austin Burt, the great grandson of Burt, built a working model in 1892 for the World's Columbian Exposition working from a parchment copy of the original patent (No. 5581X). The reason Burt built the machine was to speed up his work in official correspondence as a government surveyor. John Pitts Sheldon of the Detroit Free Press, Burt's newspaper editor friend, furnished the typeface letters from the newspaper company in May 1829 for Burt's first typographer to be able to type the first letter ever written on it. The letter was to future president Martin Van Buren then Secretary of State. Two months later it received an official patent as one of the most unique and useful inventions of the time. It was the first patent for a type writing machine. Burt built in 1830 a second improved typographer typewriter that resembled a pinball machine because four tapered legs for standing were added to it. Sheldon had taken Burt's "moddle" to the Patent Office in Washington, D.C. on March 9 of that year according to a typewritten letter to his wife of March 13, 1830. The typeface letters for this Patent Office model was obtained from a Mr. White of New York, a typeface founder. Even though a neat-looking letter could be typed on Burt's "typographer", the basic goal to speed up correspondence was not accomplished, as his machine was very slow in typing. Because of this, the machine could not get marketed. Burt lost interest in it and sold his rights to one Cyrus Spalding for $75 on March 17, 1830 with suggested improvements. Ultimately he did not have any further luck in marketing the typewriter. The typographer was so far ahead of its time it found no market. References Sources American inventions Typewriters

List of countries and territories by land borders

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This list of countries and territories by land borders gives the number of distinct land borders of each country or territory, as well the names of its neighbouring countries and territories. The length of each land border is included, as is the total length of each country's and territory's land borders. Countries or territories that are connected only by bridges or other man-made causeways are not considered to have land borders. However, borders along lakes, rivers, and other internal waters are considered land borders for the purposes of this article. Land borders Superlatives Longest land border: : Longest land border between two countries: – : (Canada–United States border) Longest single segments of land borders: – : – : – : Shortest land borders between two countries: - : at Ram Setu – : near Kazungula (UK) – : (Denmark) – : at Hans Island (disputed) Shortest single segments of land border: - : at Ram Setu , – : at Märket – : at Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera – : at K Island – : at the southern tip of Dall Island – : – : at Baarle-Nassau / Baarle-Hertog – : at Baarle-Nassau / Baarle-Hertog – : north of Baarle-Nassau / Baarle-Hertog – : at Baarle-Nassau / Baarle-Hertog Most separate segments of land borders between any two countries or territories: – : 31 – : 6 – : 6 – : 6 – (UK): 6 – : 4 - : 2 Highest number of bordering countries: : 14 (16 if and are included) : 14 (18 if , , and are included) has borders with all countries of South America except for and . See also How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Island nations Landlocked List of countries and territories by land and maritime borders List of countries and territories by maritime boundaries List of countries that border only one other country List of land borders by date of establishment List of divided islands List of island nations List of political and geographic borders List of bordering countries with greatest differences in GDP (PPP) per person Separation barrier References Borders, land Countries and territories by land borders Land borders Land Lists by length

VSEPR theory

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Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory, or VSEPR theory ( , ), is a model used in chemistry to predict the geometry of individual molecules from the number of electron pairs surrounding their central atoms. It is also named the Gillespie-Nyholm theory after its two main developers, Ronald Gillespie and Ronald Nyholm. The premise of VSEPR is that the valence electron pairs surrounding an atom tend to repel each other and will, therefore, adopt an arrangement that minimizes this repulsion. This in turn decreases the molecule's energy and increases its stability, which determines the molecular geometry. Gillespie has emphasized that the electron-electron repulsion due to the Pauli exclusion principle is more important in determining molecular geometry than the electrostatic repulsion. The insights of VSEPR theory are derived from topological analysis of the electron density of molecules. Such quantum chemical topology (QCT) methods include the electron localization function (ELF) and the quantum theory of atoms in molecules (AIM or QTAIM). Hence, VSEPR is unrelated to wave function based methods such as orbital hybridisation in valence bond theory. History The idea of a correlation between molecular geometry and number of valence electron pairs (both shared and unshared pairs) was originally proposed in 1939 by Ryutaro Tsuchida in Japan, and was independently presented in a Bakerian Lecture in 1940 by Nevil Sidgwick and Herbert Powell of the University of Oxford. In 1957, Ronald Gillespie and Ronald Sydney Nyholm of University College London refined this concept into a more detailed theory, capable of choosing between various alternative geometries. Overview VSEPR theory is used to predict the arrangement of electron pairs around central atoms in molecules, especially simple and symmetric molecules. A central atom is defined in this theory as an atom which is bonded to two or more other atoms, while a terminal atom is bonded to only one other atom. For example in the molecule methyl isocyanate (H3C-N=C=O), the two carbons and one nitrogen are central atoms, and the three hydrogens and one oxygen are terminal atoms. The geometry of the central atoms and their non-bonding electron pairs in turn determine the geometry of the larger whole molecule. The number of electron pairs in the valence shell of a central atom is determined after drawing the Lewis structure of the molecule, and expanding it to show all bonding groups and lone pairs of electrons. In VSEPR theory, a double bond or triple bond is treated as a single bonding group. The sum of the number of atoms bonded to a central atom and the number of lone pairs formed by its nonbonding valence electrons is known as the central atom's steric number. The electron pairs (or groups if multiple bonds are present) are assumed to lie on the surface of a sphere centered on the central atom and tend to occupy positions that minimize their mutual repulsions by maximizing the distance between them. The number of electron pairs (or groups), therefore, determines the overall geometry that they will adopt. For example, when there are two electron pairs surrounding the central atom, their mutual repulsion is minimal when they lie at opposite poles of the sphere. Therefore, the central atom is predicted to adopt a linear geometry. If there are 3 electron pairs surrounding the central atom, their repulsion is minimized by placing them at the vertices of an equilateral triangle centered on the atom. Therefore, the predicted geometry is trigonal. Likewise, for 4 electron pairs, the optimal arrangement is tetrahedral. As a tool in predicting the geometry adopted with a given number of electron pairs, an often used physical demonstration of the principle of minimal electron pair repulsion utilizes inflated balloons. Through handling, balloons acquire a slight surface electrostatic charge that results in the adoption of roughly the same geometries when they are tied together at their stems as the corresponding number of electron pairs. For example, five balloons tied together adopt the trigonal bipyramidal geometry, just as do the five bonding pairs of a PCl5 molecule. Steric number The steric number of a central atom in a molecule is the number of atoms bonded to that central atom, called its coordination number, plus the number of lone pairs of valence electrons on the central atom. In the molecule SF4, for example, the central sulfur atom has four ligands; the coordination number of sulfur is four. In addition to the four ligands, sulfur also has one lone pair in this molecule. Thus, the steric number is 4 + 1 = 5. Degree of repulsion The overall geometry is further refined by distinguishing between bonding and nonbonding electron pairs. The bonding electron pair shared in a sigma bond with an adjacent atom lies further from the central atom than a nonbonding (lone) pair of that atom, which is held close to its positively charged nucleus. VSEPR theory therefore views repulsion by the lone pair to be greater than the repulsion by a bonding pair. As such, when a molecule has 2 interactions with different degrees of repulsion, VSEPR theory predicts the structure where lone pairs occupy positions that allow them to experience less repulsion. Lone pair–lone pair (lp–lp) repulsions are considered stronger than lone pair–bonding pair (lp–bp) repulsions, which in turn are considered stronger than bonding pair–bonding pair (bp–bp) repulsions, distinctions that then guide decisions about overall geometry when 2 or more non-equivalent positions are possible. For instance, when 5 valence electron pairs surround a central atom, they adopt a trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry with two collinear axial positions and three equatorial positions. An electron pair in an axial position has three close equatorial neighbors only 90° away and a fourth much farther at 180°, while an equatorial electron pair has only two adjacent pairs at 90° and two at 120°. The repulsion from the close neighbors at 90° is more important, so that the axial positions experience more repulsion than the equatorial positions; hence, when there are lone pairs, they tend to occupy equatorial positions as shown in the diagrams of the next section for steric number five. The difference between lone pairs and bonding pairs may also be used to rationalize deviations from idealized geometries. For example, the H2O molecule has four electron pairs in its valence shell: two lone pairs and two bond pairs. The four electron pairs are spread so as to point roughly towards the apices of a tetrahedron. However, the bond angle between the two O–H bonds is only 104.5°, rather than the 109.5° of a regular tetrahedron, because the two lone pairs (whose density or probability envelopes lie closer to the oxygen nucleus) exert a greater mutual repulsion than the two bond pairs. A bond of higher bond order also exerts greater repulsion since the pi bond electrons contribute. For example in isobutylene, (H3C)2C=CH2, the H3C−C=C angle (124°) is larger than the H3C−C−CH3 angle (111.5°). However, in the carbonate ion, , all three C−O bonds are equivalent with angles of 120° due to resonance. AXE method The "AXE method" of electron counting is commonly used when applying the VSEPR theory. The electron pairs around a central atom are represented by a formula AXnEm, where A represents the central atom and always has an implied subscript one. Each X represents a ligand (an atom bonded to A). Each E represents a lone pair of electrons on the central atom. The total number of X and E is known as the steric number. For example in a molecule AX3E2, the atom A has a steric number of 5. When the substituent (X) atoms are not all the same, the geometry is still approximately valid, but the bond angles may be slightly different from the ones where all the outside atoms are the same. For example, the double-bond carbons in alkenes like C2H4 are AX3E0, but the bond angles are not all exactly 120°. Likewise, SOCl2 is AX3E1, but because the X substituents are not identical, the X–A–X angles are not all equal. Based on the steric number and distribution of Xs and Es, VSEPR theory makes the predictions in the following tables. Main-group elements For main-group elements, there are stereochemically active lone pairs E whose number can vary between 0 to 3. Note that the geometries are named according to the atomic positions only and not the electron arrangement. For example, the description of AX2E1 as a bent molecule means that the three atoms AX2 are not in one straight line, although the lone pair helps to determine the geometry. Transition metals (Kepert model) The lone pairs on transition metal atoms are usually stereochemically inactive, meaning that their presence does not change the molecular geometry. For example, the hexaaquo complexes M(H2O)6 are all octahedral for M = V3+, Mn3+, Co3+, Ni2+ and Zn2+, despite the fact that the electronic configurations of the central metal ion are d2, d4, d6, d8 and d10 respectively. The Kepert model ignores all lone pairs on transition metal atoms, so that the geometry around all such atoms corresponds to the VSEPR geometry for AXn with 0 lone pairs E. This is often written MLn, where M = metal and L = ligand. The Kepert model predicts the following geometries for coordination numbers of 2 through 9: Examples The methane molecule (CH4) is tetrahedral because there are four pairs of electrons. The four hydrogen atoms are positioned at the vertices of a tetrahedron, and the bond angle is cos−1(−) ≈ 109° 28′. This is referred to as an AX4 type of molecule. As mentioned above, A represents the central atom and X represents an outer atom. The ammonia molecule (NH3) has three pairs of electrons involved in bonding, but there is a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom. It is not bonded with another atom; however, it influences the overall shape through repulsions. As in methane above, there are four regions of electron density. Therefore, the overall orientation of the regions of electron density is tetrahedral. On the other hand, there are only three outer atoms. This is referred to as an AX3E type molecule because the lone pair is represented by an E. By definition, the molecular shape or geometry describes the geometric arrangement of the atomic nuclei only, which is trigonal-pyramidal for NH3. Steric numbers of 7 or greater are possible, but are less common. The steric number of 7 occurs in iodine heptafluoride (IF7); the base geometry for a steric number of 7 is pentagonal bipyramidal. The most common geometry for a steric number of 8 is a square antiprismatic geometry. Examples of this include the octacyanomolybdate () and octafluorozirconate () anions. The nonahydridorhenate ion () in potassium nonahydridorhenate is a rare example of a compound with a steric number of 9, which has a tricapped trigonal prismatic geometry. Possible geometries for steric numbers of 10, 11, 12, or 14 are bicapped square antiprismatic (or bicapped dodecadeltahedral), octadecahedral, icosahedral, and bicapped hexagonal antiprismatic, respectively. No compounds with steric numbers this high involving monodentate ligands exist, and those involving multidentate ligands can often be analysed more simply as complexes with lower steric numbers when some multidentate ligands are treated as a unit. Exceptions There are groups of compounds where VSEPR fails to predict the correct geometry. Some AX2E0 molecules The shapes of heavier Group 14 element alkyne analogues (RM≡MR, where M = Si, Ge, Sn or Pb) have been computed to be bent. Some AX2E2 molecules One example of the AX2E2 geometry is molecular lithium oxide, Li2O, a linear rather than bent structure, which is ascribed to its bonds being essentially ionic and the strong lithium-lithium repulsion that results. Another example is O(SiH3)2 with an Si–O–Si angle of 144.1°, which compares to the angles in Cl2O (110.9°), (CH3)2O (111.7°), and N(CH3)3 (110.9°). Gillespie and Robinson rationalize the Si–O–Si bond angle based on the observed ability of a ligand's lone pair to most greatly repel other electron pairs when the ligand electronegativity is greater than or equal to that of the central atom. In O(SiH3)2, the central atom is more electronegative, and the lone pairs are less localized and more weakly repulsive. The larger Si–O–Si bond angle results from this and strong ligand-ligand repulsion by the relatively large -SiH3 ligand. Burford et al showed through X-ray diffraction studies that Cl3Al–O–PCl3 has a linear Al–O–P bond angle and is therefore a non-VSEPR molecule. Some AX6E1 and AX8E1 molecules Some AX6E1 molecules, e.g. xenon hexafluoride (XeF6) and the Te(IV) and Bi(III) anions, , , , and , are octahedral, rather than pentagonal pyramids, and the lone pair does not affect the geometry to the degree predicted by VSEPR. Similarly, the octafluoroxenate ion () in nitrosonium octafluoroxenate(VI) is a square antiprism and not a bicapped trigonal prism (as predicted by VSEPR theory for an AX8E1 molecule), despite having a lone pair. One rationalization is that steric crowding of the ligands allows little or no room for the non-bonding lone pair; another rationalization is the inert pair effect. Square planar transition metal complexes The Kepert model predicts that AX4 transition metal molecules are tetrahedral in shape, and it cannot explain the formation of square planar complexes. The majority of such complexes exhibit a d8 configuration as for the tetrachloroplatinate () ion. The explanation of the shape of square planar complexes involves electronic effects and requires the use of crystal field theory. Complexes with strong d-contribution Some transition metal complexes with low d electron count have unusual geometries, which can be ascribed to d subshell bonding interaction. Gillespie found that this interaction produces bonding pairs that also occupy the respective antipodal points (ligand opposed) of the sphere. This phenomenon is an electronic effect resulting from the bilobed shape of the underlying sdx hybrid orbitals. The repulsion of these bidirectional bonding pairs leads to a different set of shapes. The gas phase structures of the triatomic halides of the heavier members of group 2, (i.e., calcium, strontium and barium halides, MX2), are not linear as predicted but are bent, (approximate X–M–X angles: CaF2, 145°; SrF2, 120°; BaF2, 108°; SrCl2, 130°; BaCl2, 115°; BaBr2, 115°; BaI2, 105°). It has been proposed by Gillespie that this is also caused by bonding interaction of the ligands with the d subshell of the metal atom, thus influencing the molecular geometry. Superheavy elements Relativistic effects on the electron orbitals of superheavy elements is predicted to influence the molecular geometry of some compounds. For instance, the 6d5/2 electrons in nihonium play an unexpectedly strong role in bonding, so NhF3 should assume a T-shaped geometry, instead of a trigonal planar geometry like its lighter congener BF3. In contrast, the extra stability of the 7p1/2 electrons in tennessine are predicted to make TsF3 trigonal planar, unlike the T-shaped geometry observed for IF3 and predicted for AtF3; similarly, OgF4 should have a tetrahedral geometry, while XeF4 has a square planar geometry and RnF4 is predicted to have the same. Odd-electron molecules The VSEPR theory can be extended to molecules with an odd number of electrons by treating the unpaired electron as a "half electron pair" — for example, Gillespie and Nyholm suggested that the decrease in the bond angle in the series (180°), NO2 (134°), (115°) indicates that a given set of bonding electron pairs exert a weaker repulsion on a single non-bonding electron than on a pair of non-bonding electrons. In effect, they considered nitrogen dioxide as an AX2E0.5 molecule, with a geometry intermediate between and . Similarly, chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is an AX2E1.5 molecule, with a geometry intermediate between and . Finally, the methyl radical (CH3) is predicted to be trigonal pyramidal like the methyl anion (), but with a larger bond angle (as in the trigonal planar methyl cation ()). However, in this case, the VSEPR prediction is not quite true, as CH3 is actually planar, although its distortion to a pyramidal geometry requires very little energy. See also Valence Bond Theory (VBT) Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT) Bent's rule (effect of ligand electronegativity) Linear combination of atomic orbitals Molecular geometry Molecular modelling Software for molecular modeling Thomson problem Valency interaction formula References Further reading External links VSEPR AR - 3D VSEPR Theory Visualization with Augmented Reality app 3D Chem – Chemistry, structures, and 3D Molecules IUMSC – Indiana University Molecular Structure Center Chemistry theories Molecular geometry Stereochemistry Quantum chemistry

The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth

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The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth is a 2004 real-time strategy video game developed by EA Los Angeles for Microsoft Windows. It is based on Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, in turn based on J. R. R. Tolkien's original novel. The game uses short video clips from the movies and a number of the voice actors, including the hobbits and wizards. It uses the SAGE engine. The sequel, The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth II, was released on March 2, 2006. The official game servers for The Battle for Middle-earth were permanently closed on December 31, 2010 by EA Games, due to the expiration of The Lord of the Rings video game license, however the players can still play it online using unofficial game servers. As of 2021, official broadcaster BeyondStandards is hosting tournaments for all Battle for Middle-Earth games. Gameplay The Battle for Middle-earth is a real-time strategy game. Warring factions gather resources, then use them to construct military bases and armies on-site. In The Battle for Middle-earth, buildings may only be constructed on the building slots of predefined plots. Plots range from farmhouses to full-fledged castles, with different slot arrangements and available buildings, and plots can be purchased when they're in the sole presence of a side's forces. The only resource are the nebulous "resources," which are produced inexhaustibly in dedicated buildings. Four factions on two sides wage the War of the Ring: Representing the Free Peoples are the horse-lords of Rohan, and Gondor with its forges and battlements. The Forces of Darkness are the fighting Uruk-hai of Isengard, and Mordor's orc hordes, bolstered by Haradrim, Mûmakil and Trolls. Keeping with the trends of contemporary RTS titles, basic units operate in groups, significant characters are represented by "hero units", and the destruction of units gathers points for the purchase of special abilities. There is also a unit limit. Unit strengths and weaknesses form a sort of rock-paper-scissors system. Cavalry beats archers as they do not have a lot of time to shoot and are then forced to close quarters fighting, Pikemen beat cavalry, swordsmen beat pikemen and archers beat swordsmen. Fire beats Ents, Mumakil, and Trolls. Units gain experience and levels, becoming hardier and more dangerous. Squads replace lost members when rank 2 or higher without losing experience. Most normal units have purchasable upgrades and may also have abilities such as changing formation, changing weapons, combining with other squad types, Ranger stealth and orc cannibalism. Heroes are unique, far more potent units (and Hobbits and Gollum) that lack upgrades but do have multiple, elaborate abilities, and can be purchased back if killed. Most hero abilities require certain experience levels. Good has the advantage in the quantity and quality of heroes; Gandalf at the peak of his strength is an anti-army device. Buildings also gain experience and may become able to build new units, research new upgrades, or bestow better passive bonuses such as a reduction in cavalry build costs. The player's special powers are purchased from a small tree. They can be utilitarian (Vision of the Palantír, reveals an area), supportive (Healing), or able to call in temporary units (Summon Eagles, Summon Balrog). They are usable indefinitely once acquired, with recharge times but no cost. Both factions on a side share the same powers, and the tree is much larger (and slower to climb) in campaign mode than it is in skirmishes. Good has some powers that boost the ability of a single hero (Power of the Istari, Andúril). Evil receives aid in resource harvesting (Industry, Fuel the Fires). The Heroes for Gondor are Pippin, Faramir, Boromir, and Gandalf. Rohan's heroes are Merry, Eowyn, Eomer, Theoden, Gimli, Legolas, Aragorn, and Treebeard (he is bought at an Entmoot). Isengard's heroes are Lurtz and Saruman. Mordor's heroes are Gollum, two Nazgûl, and the Witch King of Angmar. Frodo, Sam and Shelob are playable at various stages of the good and evil campaigns, but cannot be used in skirmish battles. Campaign The good and evil forces of Middle-earth each have a campaign. They take place on an animated map of western Middle-earth, where each battle represents the defense/sacking of a territory. Armies and characters move on the map, and moving the cursor over them shows snippets of the movies (whereas battle cutscenes use the game engine). Some mandatory missions represent important events. Between these the player must take enough nearby territories in skirmish battles, variations on the theme of building a base and killing everyone. Each territory provides a permanent increase of power points, the unit limit, and/or a multiplier for acquired resources. Units, their upgrades and purchased powers also persist between battles. The good campaign follows the story of the Lord of the Rings movies with an emphasis of traditional, scripted missions, from Moria to Lórien, the fight at Amon Hen, the Battle of the Hornburg, the Ents' conquest of Isengard, the siege of Osgiliath, Sam's search for Frodo in Shelob's lair, the Battle of the Pelennor Fields and the Black Gate. The evil campaign begins with Isengard's betrayal and then continues with Saruman's conquest of Rohan signified by the fall of Helm's Deep and the deaths of Theoden and Eomer. It then switches to Mordor's assault on Gondor and concludes with the successful destruction of Minas Tirith and total victory for Sauron. It provides an alternative storyline to the book and film. Development Music The Battle for Middle-earth features score from The Lord of the Rings film trilogy composed by Howard Shore, as well as original music in Shore's image by Jamie Christopherson and Bill Brown. The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth (Soundtrack from the Video Game) was released via digital sellers on August 28, 2006, featuring 22 tracks of cues from the game by Christopherson & Brown spanning 44 minutes. Working conditions The development environment and "extreme crunch time" for The Battle for Middle-earth led to a high-profile labor lawsuit by programmers that was settled by Electronic Arts for US$14.9 million in 2006. Reception According to Electronic Arts, The Battle for Middle-earth was a commercial success, with sales above 1 million units worldwide by the end of 2004. In the United States, the computer version of The Battle for Middle-earth sold 230,000 copies and earned $9.4 million by August 2006, after its release in December 2004. It was the country's 89th best-selling computer game during this period. It received a "Gold" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 200,000 copies in the United Kingdom. The critical response to The Battle for Middle-earth was fairly positive. The video game review aggregator GameRankings displays an average critic score of 82.5%, with about two-thirds of the reviews in the 80%s. IGN praised the game for its visual flair and impressive audio, but pointed out its lack of depth in gameplay, giving out a score of 8.3 to the "decent, if not spectacular, game. GameSpot, with a score of 8.4, also commented on the visuals and sound effects as well as its focus on large-scale battles that "befits the source material". GameSpy gave 4 stars out of 5, calling the game "a perfect example of a license enhancing the final product." Awards The Battle for Middle-earth won three awards: the E3 2004 Game Critics Awards award for Best Strategy Game, the 2005 GIGA Games award for Best Strategy Game, and the GameSpy award for Best of E3 2004 Editors Choice. The Battle for Middle-earth was nominated for X-Plays "Best Strategy Game" and PC Gamer USs "Best Real-Time Strategy Game 2004" awards, both of which ultimately went to Rome: Total War. It also received a runner-up placement for GameSpots annual "Best Game Based on a TV or Film Property" prize. References External links The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth at MobyGames 2004 video games Electronic Arts games Inactive multiplayer online games Multiplayer online games Real-time strategy video games SAGE (game engine) games Battle for Middle-earth Video games based on adaptations Video games developed in the United States Video games scored by Jamie Christopherson Windows games Windows-only games

Online shopping

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Online shopping is a form of electronic commerce which allows consumers to directly buy goods or services from a seller over the Internet using a web browser or a mobile app. Consumers find a product of interest by visiting the website of the retailer directly or by searching among alternative vendors using a shopping search engine, which displays the same product's availability and pricing at different e-retailers. As of 2020, customers can shop online using a range of different computers and devices, including desktop computers, laptops, tablet computers and smartphones. An online shop evokes the physical analogy of buying products or services at a regular "bricks-and-mortar" retailer or shopping center; the process is called business-to-consumer (B2C) online shopping. When an online store is set up to enable businesses to buy from another businesses, the process is called business-to-business (B2B) online shopping. A typical online store enables the customer to browse the firm's range of products and services, view photos or images of the products, along with information about the product specifications, features and prices. Online stores usually enable shoppers to use "search" features to find specific models, brands or items. Online customers must have access to the Internet and a valid method of payment in order to complete a transaction, such as a credit card, an Interac-enabled debit card, or a service such as PayPal. For physical products (e.g., paperback books or clothes), the e-tailer ships the products to the customer; for digital products, such as digital audio files of songs or software, the e-tailer usually sends the file to the customer over the Internet. The largest of these online retailing corporations are Alibaba, Amazon.com, and eBay. Terminology Alternative names for the activity are "e-tailing", a shortened form of "electronic retail" or "e-shopping", a shortened form of "electronic shopping". An online store may also be called an e-web-store, e-shop, e-store, Internet shop, web-shop, web-store, online store, online storefront and virtual store. Mobile commerce (or m-commerce) describes purchasing from an online retailer's mobile device-optimized website or software application ("app"). These websites or apps are designed to enable customers to browse through a companies' products and services on tablet computers and smartphones. History History of online shopping One of the earliest forms of trade conducted online was IBM's online transaction processing (OLTP) developed in the 1960s, which allowed the processing of financial transactions in real-time. The computerized ticket reservation system developed for American Airlines called Semi-Automatic Business Research Environment (SABRE) was one of its applications. There, computer terminals located in different travel agencies were linked to a large IBM mainframe computer, which processed transactions simultaneously and coordinated them so that all travel agents had access to the same information at the same time. The emergence of online shopping as it is known today developed with the emergence of the Internet. Initially, this platform only functioned as an advertising tool for companies, providing information about their products. It quickly moved on from this simple utility to actual online shopping transaction due to the development of interactive Web pages and secure transmissions. Specifically, the growth of the Internet as a secure shopping channel has developed since 1994, with the first sales of Sting's album Ten Summoner's Tales. Wine, chocolates, and flowers soon followed and were among the pioneering retail categories which fueled the growth of online shopping. Researchers found that having products that are appropriate for e-commerce was a key indicator of Internet success. Many of these products did well as they are generic products which shoppers did not need to touch and feel in order to buy. But also importantly, in the early days, there were few shoppers online and they were from a narrow segment: affluent, male, 30+. Online shopping has come a long way since those early days and – in the UK – accounts for significant percentage (depending on product category as percentages can vary). Growth in online shoppers As the revenues from online sales continued to grow significantly researchers identified different types of online shoppers, Rohm & Swaninathan identified four categories and named them "convenience shoppers, variety seekers, balanced buyers, and store-oriented shoppers". They focused on shopping motivations and found that the variety of products available and the perceived convenience of the buying online experience were significant motivating factors. This was different for offline shoppers, who were more motivated by time saving and recreational motives. English entrepreneur Michael Aldrich was a pioneer of online shopping in 1979. His system connected a modified domestic TV to a real-time transaction processing computer via a domestic telephone line. He believed that videotex, the modified domestic TV technology with a simple menu-driven human–computer interface, was a 'new, universally applicable, participative communication medium — the first since the invention of the telephone.' This enabled 'closed' corporate information systems to be opened to 'outside' correspondents not just for transaction processing but also for e-messaging and information retrieval and dissemination, later known as e-business. His definition of the new mass communications medium as 'participative' [interactive, many-to-many] was fundamentally different from the traditional definitions of mass communication and mass media and a precursor to the social networking on the Internet 25 years later. In March 1980 he launched Redifon's Office Revolution, which allowed consumers, customers, agents, distributors, suppliers and service companies to be connected online to the corporate systems and allow business transactions to be completed electronically in real-time. During the 1980s he designed, manufactured, sold, installed, maintained and supported many online shopping systems, using videotex technology. These systems which also provided voice response and handprint processing pre-date the Internet and the World Wide Web, the IBM PC, and Microsoft MS-DOS, and were installed mainly in the UK by large corporations. The first World Wide Web server and browser, created by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, opened for commercial use in 1991. Thereafter, subsequent technological innovations emerged in 1994: online banking, the opening of an online pizza shop by Pizza Hut, Netscape's SSL v2 encryption standard for secure data transfer, and Intershop's first online shopping system. The first secure retail transaction over the Web was either by NetMarket or Internet Shopping Network in 1994. Immediately after, Amazon.com launched its online shopping site in 1995 and eBay was also introduced in 1995. Alibaba's sites Taobao and Tmall were launched in 2003 and 2008, respectively. Retailers are increasingly selling goods and services prior to availability through "pretail" for testing, building, and managing demand. International statistics Statistics show that in 2012, Asia-Pacific increased their international sales over 30% giving them over $433 billion in revenue. That is a $69 billion difference between the U.S. revenue of $364.66 billion. It is estimated that Asia-Pacific will increase by another 30% in the year 2013 putting them ahead by more than one-third of all global ecommerce sales. The largest online shopping day in the world is Singles Day, with sales just in Alibaba's sites at US$9.3 billion in 2014. Customers Online customers must have access to the Internet and a valid method of payment in order to complete a transaction. Generally, higher levels of education and personal income correspond to more favorable perceptions of shopping online. Increased exposure to technology also increases the probability of developing favorable attitudes towards new shopping channels. Customer buying behaviour in digital environment The marketing around the digital environment, customer's buying behaviour may not be influenced and controlled by the brand and firm, when they make a buying decision that might concern the interactions with search engine, recommendations, online reviews and other information. With the quickly separate of the digital devices environment, people are more likely to use their mobile phones, computers, tablets and other digital devices to gather information. In other words, the digital environment has a growing effect on consumer's mind and buying behaviour. In an online shopping environment, interactive decision may have an influence on aid customer decision making. Each customer is becoming more interactive, and though online reviews customers can influence other potential buyers' behaviors. In addition, not only those reviews, people more rely on other people's post information about product commends on social media. There will shows common problems in the past and some solutions or comments of the merchants will be attached for customer reference. Subsequently, risk and trust would also are two important factors affecting people's' behavior in digital environments. Customer consider to switch between e-channels, because they are mainly influence by the comparison with offline shopping, involving growth of security, financial and performance-risks In other words, a customer shopping online that they may receive more risk than people shopping in stores. There are three factors may influence people to do the buying decision, firstly, people cannot examine whether the product satisfy their needs and wants before they receive it. Secondly, customer may concern at after-sale services. Finally, customer may afraid that they cannot fully understand the language used in e-sales. Based on those factors customer perceive risk may as a significantly reason influence the online purchasing behaviour. Online retailers has place much emphasis on customer trust aspect, trust is another way driving customer's behaviour in digital environment, which can depend on customer's attitude and expectation. Indeed, the company's products design or ideas can not met customer's expectations. Customer's purchase intention based on rational expectations, and additionally impacts on emotional trust. Moreover, those expectations can be also establish on the product information and revision from others. Product selection Consumers find a product of interest by visiting the website of the retailer directly or by searching among alternative vendors using a shopping search engine. Once a particular product has been found on the website of the seller, most online retailers use shopping cart software to allow the consumer to accumulate multiple items and to adjust quantities, like filling a physical shopping cart or basket in a conventional store. A "checkout" process follows (continuing the physical-store analogy) in which payment and delivery information is collected, if necessary. Some stores allow consumers to sign up for a permanent online account so that some or all of this information only needs to be entered once. The consumer often receives an e-mail confirmation once the transaction is complete. Less sophisticated stores may rely on consumers to phone or e-mail their orders (although full credit card numbers, expiry date, and Card Security Code, or bank account and routing number should not be accepted by e-mail, for reasons of security). Payment Online shoppers commonly use a credit card or a PayPal account in order to make payments. However, some systems enable users to create accounts and pay by alternative means, such as: Billing to mobile phones and landlines Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies Cash on delivery (C.O.D.) Cheque/ Check Debit card Direct debit in some countries Electronic money of various types Gift cards Invoice, especially popular in some markets/countries, such as Switzerland Postal money order Wire transfer/delivery on payment Some online shops will not accept international credit cards. Some require both the purchaser's billing and shipping address to be in the same country as the online shop's base of operation. Other online shops allow customers from any country to send gifts anywhere. The financial part of a transaction may be processed in real time (e.g. letting the consumer know their credit card was declined before they log off), or may be done later as part of the fulfillment process. Product delivery Once a payment has been accepted, the goods or services can be delivered in the following ways. For physical items: Package delivery: The product is shipped to a customer-designated address. Retail package delivery is typically done by the public postal system or a retail courier such as FedEx, UPS, DHL, or TNT. Drop shipping: The order is passed to the manufacturer or third-party distributor, who then ships the item directly to the consumer, bypassing the retailer's physical location to save time, money, and space. In-store pick-up: The customer selects a local store using a locator software and picks up the delivered product at the selected location. This is the method often used in the bricks and clicks business model. For digital items or tickets: Downloading/Digital distribution: The method often used for digital media products such as software, music, movies, or images. Printing out, provision of a code for, or e-mailing of such items as admission tickets and scrip (e.g., gift certificates and coupons). The tickets, codes, or coupons may be redeemed at the appropriate physical or online premises and their content reviewed to verify their eligibility (e.g., assurances that the right of admission or use is redeemed at the correct time and place, for the correct dollar amount, and for the correct number of uses). Will call, COBO (in Care Of Box Office), or "at the door" pickup: The patron picks up pre-purchased tickets for an event, such as a play, sporting event, or concert, either just before the event or in advance. With the onset of the Internet and e-commerce sites, which allow customers to buy tickets online, the popularity of this service has increased. Shopping cart systems Simple shopping cart systems allow the off-line administration of products and categories. The shop is then generated as HTML files and graphics that can be uploaded to a webspace. The systems do not use an online database. A high-end solution can be bought or rented as a stand-alone program or as an addition to an enterprise resource planning program. It is usually installed on the company's web server and may integrate into the existing supply chain so that ordering, payment, delivery, accounting and warehousing can be automated to a large extent. Other solutions allow the user to register and create an online shop on a portal that hosts multiple shops simultaneously from one back office. Examples are BigCommerce, Shopify and FlickRocket. Open source shopping cart packages include advanced platforms such as Interchange, and off-the-shelf solutions such as Magento, osCommerce, WooCommerce, PrestaShop, and Zen Cart. Commercial systems can also be tailored so the shop does not have to be created from scratch. By using an existing framework, software modules for various functionalities required by a web shop can be adapted and combined. Design Customers are attracted to online shopping not only because of high levels of convenience, but also because of broader selections, competitive pricing, and greater access to information. Business organizations seek to offer online shopping not only because it is of much lower cost compared to bricks and mortar stores, but also because it offers access to a worldwide market, increases customer value, and builds sustainable capabilities. Information load Designers of online shops are concerned with the effects of information load. Information load is a product of the spatial and temporal arrangements of stimuli in the web store. Compared with conventional retail shopping, the information environment of virtual shopping is enhanced by providing additional product information such as comparative products and services, as well as various alternatives and attributes of each alternative, etc. Two major dimensions of information load are complexity and novelty. Complexity refers to the number of different elements or features of a site, often the result of increased information diversity. Novelty involves the unexpected, suppressed, new, or unfamiliar aspects of the site. The novelty dimension may keep consumers exploring a shopping site, whereas the complexity dimension may induce impulse purchases. Consumer needs and expectations According to the output of a research report by Western Michigan University published in 2005, an e-commerce website does not have to be good looking with listing on a lot of search engines. It must build relationships with customers to make money. The report also suggests that a website must leave a positive impression on the customers, giving them a reason to come back. However, resent research has proven that sites with higher focus on efficiency, convenience, and personalised services increased the customers motivation to make purchases. Dyn, an Internet performance management company conducted a survey on more than 1400 consumers across 11 countries in North America, Europe, Middle-East and Asia and the results of the survey are as follows: Online retailers must improve the website speed Online retailers must ease consumers fear around security These concerns majorly affect the decisions of almost two thirds of the consumers. User interface The most important factors determining whether customers return to a website are ease of use and the presence of user-friendly features. Usability testing is important for finding problems and improvements in a web site. Methods for evaluating usability include heuristic evaluation, cognitive walkthrough, and user testing. Each technique has its own characteristics and emphasizes different aspects of the user experience. Market share The popularity of online shopping continues to erode sales of conventional retailers. For example, Best Buy, the largest retailer of electronics in the U.S. in August 2014 reported its tenth consecutive quarterly dip in sales, citing an increasing shift by consumers to online shopping. Amazon.com has the largest market share in the United States. As of May 2018, a survey found two-thirds of Americans had bought something from Amazon (92% of those who had bought anything online), with 40% of online shoppers buying something from Amazon at least once a month. The survey found shopping began at amazon.com 44% of the time, compared to a general search engine at 33%. It estimated 75 million Americans subscribe to Amazon Prime and 35 million more use someone else's account. There were 242 million people shopping online in China in 2012. For developing countries and low-income households in developed countries, adoption of e-commerce in place of or in addition to conventional methods is limited by a lack of affordable Internet access. Advantages Convenience Online stores are usually available 24 hours a day, and many consumers in Western countries have Internet access both at work and at home. Other establishments such as Internet cafes, community centers and schools provide internet access as well. In contrast, visiting a conventional retail store requires travel or commuting and costs such as gas, parking, or bus tickets, and must usually take place during business hours. Delivery was always a problem which affected the convenience of online shopping. However to overcome this many retailers including online retailers in Taiwan brought in a store pick up service. This now meant that customers could purchase goods online and pick them up at a nearby convenience store, making online shopping more advantageous to customers. In the event of a problem with the item (e.g., the product was not what the consumer ordered or the product was not satisfactory), consumers are concerned with the ease of returning an item in exchange for the correct product or a refund. Consumers may need to contact the retailer, visit the post office and pay return shipping, and then wait for a replacement or refund. Some online companies have more generous return policies to compensate for the traditional advantage of physical stores. For example, the online shoe retailer Zappos.com includes labels for free return shipping, and does not charge a restocking fee, even for returns which are not the result of merchant error. (Note: In the United Kingdom, online shops are prohibited from charging a restocking fee if the consumer cancels their order in accordance with the Consumer Protection (Distance Selling) Act 2000). A 2018 survey in the United States found 26% of online shoppers said they never return items, and another 65% said they rarely do so. Information and reviews Online stores must describe products for sale with text, photos, and multimedia files, whereas in a physical retail store, the actual product and the manufacturer's packaging will be available for direct inspection (which might involve a test drive, fitting, or other experimentation). Some online stores provide or link to supplemental product information, such as instructions, safety procedures, demonstrations, or manufacturer specifications. Some provide background information, advice, or how-to guides designed to help consumers decide which product to buy. Some stores even allow customers to comment or rate their items. There are also dedicated review sites that host user reviews for different products. Reviews and even some blogs give customers the option of shopping for cheaper purchases from all over the world without having to depend on local retailers. In a conventional retail store, clerks are generally available to answer questions. Some online stores have real-time chat features, but most rely on e-mails or phone calls to handle customer questions. Even if an online store is open 24 hours a day, seven days a week, the customer service team may only be available during regular business hours. Price and selection One advantage of shopping online is being able to quickly seek out deals for items or services provided by many different vendors (though some local search engines do exist to help consumers locate products for sale in nearby stores). Search engines, online price comparison services and discovery shopping engines can be used to look up sellers of a particular product or service. Shipping costs (if applicable) reduce the price advantage of online merchandise, though depending on the jurisdiction, a lack of sales tax may compensate for this. Shipping a small number of items, especially from another country, is much more expensive than making the larger shipments bricks-and-mortar retailers order. Some retailers (especially those selling small, high-value items like electronics) offer free shipping on sufficiently large orders. Another major advantage for retailers is the ability to rapidly switch suppliers and vendors without disrupting users' shopping experience. Disadvantages Fraud and security concerns Given the lack of ability to inspect merchandise before purchase, consumers are at higher risk of fraud than face-to-face transactions. When ordering merchandise online, the item may not work properly, it may have defects, or it might not be the same item pictured in the online photo. Merchants also risk fraudulent purchases if customers are using stolen credit cards or fraudulent repudiation of the online purchase. However, merchants face less risk from physical theft by using a warehouse instead of a retail storefront. Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) encryption has generally solved the problem of credit card numbers being intercepted in transit between the consumer and the merchant. However, one must still trust the merchant (and employees) not to use the credit card information subsequently for their own purchases, and not to pass the information to others. Also, hackers might break into a merchant's web site and steal names, addresses and credit card numbers, although the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard is intended to minimize the impact of such breaches. Identity theft is still a concern for consumers. A number of high-profile break-ins in the 2000s has prompted some U.S. states to require disclosure to consumers when this happens. Computer security has thus become a major concern for merchants and e-commerce service providers, who deploy countermeasures such as firewalls and anti-virus software to protect their networks. Phishing is another danger, where consumers are fooled into thinking they are dealing with a reputable retailer, when they have actually been manipulated into feeding private information to a system operated by a malicious party. Denial of service attacks are a minor risk for merchants, as are server and network outages. Quality seals can be placed on the Shop web page if it has undergone an independent assessment and meets all requirements of the company issuing the seal. The purpose of these seals is to increase the confidence of online shoppers. However, the existence of many different seals, or seals unfamiliar to consumers, may foil this effort to a certain extent. A number of resources offer advice on how consumers can protect themselves when using online retailer services. These include: Sticking with well-known stores, or attempting to find independent consumer reviews of their experiences; also ensuring that there is comprehensive contact information on the website before using the service, and noting if the retailer has enrolled in industry oversight programs such as a trust mark or a trust seal. Before buying from a new company, evaluating the website by considering issues such as: the professionalism and user-friendliness of the site; whether or not the company lists a telephone number and/or street address along with e-contact information; whether a fair and reasonable refund and return policy is clearly stated; and whether there are hidden price inflators, such as excessive shipping and handling charges. Ensuring that the retailer has an acceptable privacy policy posted. For example, note if the retailer does not explicitly state that it will not share private information with others without consent. Ensuring that the vendor address is protected with SSL (see above) when entering credit card information. If it does the address on the credit card information entry screen will start with "HTTPS". Using strong passwords which do not contain personal information such as the user's name or birthdate. Another option is a "pass phrase," which might be something along the lines: "I shop 4 good a buy!!" These are difficult to hack, since they do not consist of words found in a dictionary, and provides a variety of upper, lower, and special characters. These passwords can be site specific and may be easy to remember. Although the benefits of online shopping are considerable, when the process goes poorly it can create a thorny situation. A few problems that shoppers potentially face include identity theft, faulty products, and the accumulation of spyware. If users are required to put in their credit card information and billing/shipping address and the website is not secure, customer information can be accessible to anyone who knows how to obtain it. Most large online corporations are inventing new ways to make fraud more difficult. However, criminals are constantly responding to these developments with new ways to manipulate the system. Even though online retailers are making efforts to protect consumer information, it is a constant fight to maintain the lead. It is advisable to be aware of the most current technology and scams to protect consumer identity and finances. Product delivery is also a main concern of online shopping. Most companies offer shipping insurance in case the product is lost or damaged. Some shipping companies will offer refunds or compensation for the damage, but this is up to their discretion. Lack of full cost disclosure The lack of full cost disclosure may also be problematic. While it may be easy to compare the base price of an item online, it may not be easy to see the total cost up front. Additional fees such as shipping are often not visible until the final step in the checkout process. The problem is especially evident with cross-border purchases, where the cost indicated at the final checkout screen may not include additional fees that must be paid upon delivery such as duties and brokerage. Some services such as the Canadian-based Wishabi attempts to include estimates of these additional cost, but nevertheless, the lack of general full cost disclosure remains a concern. Privacy Privacy of personal information is a significant issue for some consumers. Many consumers wish to avoid spam and telemarketing which could result from supplying contact information to an online merchant. In response, many merchants promise to not use consumer information for these purposes, Many websites keep track of consumer shopping habits in order to suggest items and other websites to view. Brick-and-mortar stores also collect consumer information. Some ask for a shopper's address and phone number at checkout, though consumers may refuse to provide it. Many larger stores use the address information encoded on consumers' credit cards (often without their knowledge) to add them to a catalog mailing list. This information is obviously not accessible to the merchant when paying in cash or through a bank (money transfer, in which case there is also proof of payment). Product suitability Many successful purely virtual companies deal with digital products, (including information storage, retrieval, and modification), music, movies, office supplies, education, communication, software, photography, and financial transactions. Other successful marketers use drop shipping or affiliate marketing techniques to facilitate transactions of tangible goods without maintaining real inventory. Some non-digital products have been more successful than others for online stores. Profitable items often have a high value-to-weight ratio, they may involve embarrassing purchases, they may typically go to people in remote locations, and they may have shut-ins as their typical purchasers. Items which can fit in a standard mailbox—such as music CDs, DVDs and books—are particularly suitable for a virtual marketer. Products such as spare parts, both for consumer items like washing machines and for industrial equipment like centrifugal pumps, also seem good candidates for selling online. Retailers often need to order spare parts specially, since they typically do not stock them at consumer outlets—in such cases, e-commerce solutions in spares do not compete with retail stores, only with other ordering systems. A factor for success in this niche can consist of providing customers with exact, reliable information about which part number their particular version of a product needs, for example by providing parts lists keyed by serial number. Products less suitable for e-commerce include products that have a low value-to-weight ratio, products that have a smell, taste, or touch component, products that need trial fittings—most notably clothing—and products where colour integrity appears important. Nonetheless, some web sites have had success delivering groceries and clothing sold through the internet is big business in the U.S. Aggregation High-volume websites, such as Yahoo!, Amazon.com and eBay offer hosting services for online stores to all size retailers. These stores are presented within an integrated navigation framework, sometimes known as virtual shopping malls or online marketplaces. Impact of reviews on consumer behavior One of the great benefits of online shopping is the ability to read product reviews, written either by experts or fellow online shoppers. The Nielsen Company conducted a survey in March 2010 and polled more than 27,000 Internet users in 55 markets from the Asia-Pacific, Europe, Middle East, North America, and South America to look at questions such as "How do consumers shop online?", "What do they intend to buy?", "How do they use various online shopping web pages?", and the impact of social media and other factors that come into play when consumers are trying to decide how to spend their money on which product or service. According to the research, reviews on electronics (57%) such as DVD players, cellphones, or PlayStations, and so on, reviews on cars (45%), and reviews on software (37%) play an important role in influencing consumers who tend to make purchases online. Furthermore, 40% of online shoppers indicate that they would not even buy electronics without consulting online reviews first. In addition to online reviews, peer recommendations on online shopping pages or social media websites play a key role for online shoppers when they are researching future purchases. 90% of all purchases made are influenced by social media. See also Bricks and clicks business model Dark store Digital distribution Electronic business Online auction business model Online music store Online pharmacy Online shopping malls Online shopping rewards Open catalogue Package delivery Personal shopper Product tracing systems: allow to see source factory of a product Retail therapy Types of retail outlets References External links Consumer behaviour Merchandising

Toyota Racing Development

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Toyota Racing Development (also known by its abbreviation TRD) is the in-house tuning shop for all Toyota, Lexus and formerly Scion cars. TRD is responsible both for improving street cars for more performance and supporting Toyota's racing interests around the world. TRD produces various tuning products and accessories, including performance suspension components, superchargers, and wheels. TRD parts are available through Toyota dealers, and are also available as accessories on brand-new Toyotas and Scions. Performance parts for Lexus vehicles are now labeled as F-Sport and performance Lexus models are labeled F to distinguish Lexus's F division from TRD. there are two official branches of TRD: TRD Japan (a.k.a. Toyota Technocraft) and TRD USA. Each of these branches has both a performance tuning division and a race (or competition) division. In 2018, TRD Japan and Toyota Modellista merged to form Toyota Customizing & Development Co., Ltd (TCD). TRD Japan's Race Division concentrates on the Super GT Series (JGTC), All-Japan Formula Three Championship Series, Esso Formula Toyota Series, and Netz Cup races (Vitz and 86/BRZ Race Series). Many of these activities has been rebranded under the Toyota Gazoo Racing brand, following the merger of TRD Japan into TCD banner. TRD USA's Race Division, known as 'Toyota Racing', competes in NASCAR, NHRA Top Fuel and Funny car, IMSA GT Daytona, Pirelli World Challenge TCA, Formula Drift, TORC, USAC, and Lucas Oil Off Road Racing Series. Former competitions include the Baja 1000, Grand-Am, CART/Champ Car and the Indy Racing League. In association with All American Racers, TRD USA was responsible for developing engines for the Eagle HF89/90 and Eagle MkIII Grand Touring Prototypes. TRD is not to be confused with Toyota Motorsport GmbH (TMG), which is located in Cologne, Germany and operates Toyota's FIA World Endurance Championship (WEC) factory team under the name Toyota Gazoo Racing. Within Toyota, TMG is a completely separate entity from, and therefore not under the control of, TRD. Former TMG activities include operating the Toyota Formula One Team (also known as Panasonic Toyota Racing), which competed in the FIA Formula One World Championship (F1). TMG also competed in the FIA World Rally Championship (WRC) as Toyota Team Europe with the famous Celica GT-Four and rally versions of the Corolla, and two attempts (in 1998 and 1999) at the 24 Hours of Le Mans with the GT-One. Toyota Australia introduced a TRD division in August 2007, with the supercharged Aurion V6, followed by a high-performance variant of the 4WD Hilux in April 2008. Speculation suggested a third model was likely to be a RAV4. TRD was aimed to compete with local in-house tuning shops Holden Special Vehicles (HSV) and Ford Performance Vehicles (FPV). However, in December 2008 Toyota Australia announced it would be ceasing production of its TRD range. The decision took effect on 31 March 2009. TRD parts TRD offers bolt-on headers, sport mufflers, and cat-back exhausts that are 50 state emission legal. Cold air intakes are also sold but not always emission legal. Suspension equipment includes coilovers, springs, dampers and struts, suspension tower braces, sway bars, and wheel upgrades as well. Braking hardware includes full brake kits including calipers, rotors and stainless steel braided brake lines. Separate performance brake pads are also sold. Oil and air filters are offered. Engine head gaskets and camshafts are sold as well. A number of cosmetic modifications are available among other performance equipment. TRD supercharged engine list When install is performed by a Toyota dealer, the 3/36,000 mile warranty extends to the supercharger, otherwise the vehicle retains the factory warranties and the supercharger is covered by a 12 month/unlimited mileage warranty. As of 2015 all TRD Superchargers have been discontinued and ceased production, but all warranties will still be acknowledged. 4A-GZE 1.6 L I4 (Roots) AE92 Corolla 1987–1991 (Japan only) AE101 Corolla 1991–1995 (Japan only) AW11 MR2 1986–1989 (Japan, 1988-1989 North America) AE92 Sprinter 1987–1991 (Japan only) AE101 Sprinter 1991–1995 (Japan only) 1ZZ-FE 1.8 L I4 (Roots) 2003–04 Matrix 2003–04 Corolla 2003–04 Pontiac Vibe (factory warranty from GM rather than Toyota, but same rules apply) 2AZ-FE 2.4 L I4 (centrifugal) 2005–2010 Scion tC 2008–2009 Scion xB 1MZ-FE 3.0 L V6 (Roots) 1994–96 Camry Requires minor modification. (discontinued) 1997–00 Camry (discontinued) 1998–00 Sienna (discontinued) 1999–00 Solara (discontinued) 5VZ-FE 3.4 L V6 (Roots) 1995–04 Tacoma 1997–98 T100 2000–03 Tundra 1996–02 4Runner 2GR-FZE 3.5 L V6 (Roots) 2008– TRD Aurion (factory installed, world's first Eaton TVS supercharged production car) 1GR-FE 4.0 L V6 (Roots) 2005–2015 Tacoma 2007–09 FJ Cruiser 2003-09 4Runner 1FZ-FE 4.5 L I6 1995–97 Landcruiser 2UZ-FE 4.7 L V8 2000–09 Tundra 2003 GX 470 2003–09 4Runner 3UR-FE 5.7 L V8 (Roots, Eaton TVS, air to liquid intercooler) 2007– Tundra 2008– Sequoia Models Toyota 4Runner TRD Pro Toyota 4Runner TRD Off-Road Toyota 4Runner TRD Off-Road Premium Toyota 4Runner TRD Sport Toyota Tacoma TRD Sport Toyota Tacoma TRD Off-Road Toyota Tacoma TRD Pro Toyota Tundra SR5, Limited, Platinum, or 1794 Edition with TRD Sport package Toyota Tundra SR5, Limited, Platinum, or 1794 Edition with TRD Off-Road package Toyota Tundra TRD Pro (USA and Canada only) Toyota Sequoia TRD Sport Toyota Sequoia TRD Pro Toyota RAV4 TRD Off-Road Toyota Camry TRD Toyota Avalon TRD TD2 Through the TRD brand Toyota since the early-2010’s has had a driver development program called TD2 which offers training to drivers to develop them up the ranks to have what it takes to succeed at the top level of the sports. Drivers currently in the program as of 2022 consist of Chandler Smith, Christian Eckes, Corey Heim, Gracie Trotter, Sammy Smith, Kaylee Bryson, Cannon McIntosh, Presley Truedson, and Daison Pursley. Drivers such as Erik Jones, Christopher Bell, and Harrison Burton have "graduated" from the program and made it to the NASCAR Cup Series which the program preps its drivers for. Most drivers in the program can be marked by the TD2 logo often seen on the back towards the collar or "neck" of their fire suits and/or the back center of their helmets. See also Lexus F division Toyota in motorsports Toyota Gazoo Racing Toyota Racing References External links Toyota Technocraft Toyota Motorsport GmbH Toyota Motorsports (USA) Auto parts suppliers of Japan Official motorsports and performance division of automakers Multinational companies IndyCar Series engine manufacturers

Two-second rule

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The two-second rule is a rule of thumb by which a driver may maintain a safe trailing distance at any speed. The rule is that a driver should ideally stay at least two seconds behind any vehicle that is directly in front of his or her vehicle. It is intended for automobiles, although its general principle applies to other types of vehicles. Some areas recommend a three-second rule instead of a two-second rule to give an additional buffer. The two seconds is not a guide to safe stopping distance, it is more a guide to reaction times. The two-second rule is useful as it can be applied to any speed. Drivers can find it difficult to estimate the correct distance from the car in front, let alone remember the stopping distances that are required for a given speed, or to compute the equation on the fly (BD = (SMPH/20)*SMPH). The two-second rule gets around these problems and provides a simple and common-sense way of improving road safety. The practice has been shown to considerably reduce the risk of collision and also the severity of any injuries if a collision occurs. It also helps to avoid tailgating and road rage for all drivers. A large risk of tailgating is the collision avoidance time being much less than the driver reaction time. Driving instructors advocate that drivers always use the "two-second rule" regardless of speed or the type of road. During adverse weather, downhill slopes, or hazardous conditions such as black ice, it is important to maintain an even greater distance. The two-second rule tells a defensive driver the minimum distance needed to reduce the risk of collision under ideal driving conditions. The allotted two-seconds is a safety buffer, to allow the following driver time to respond. To estimate the time, a driver can wait until the rear end of the vehicle in front passes any distinct and fixed point on the roadway—e.g. a road sign, mailbox, line/crack/patch in the road. After the car ahead passes a given fixed point, the front of one's car should pass the same point no less than two seconds later. If the elapsed time is less than this, one should increase the distance, then repeat the method again until the time is at least two seconds. One can count the duration of time simply by saying "zero... one... two" but for greater accuracy, it is suggested that drivers say "only a fool breaks the two-second rule". At a normal speaking rate, this sentence takes approximately two seconds to say and serves as a reminder to the driver of the importance of the rule itself. The TailGuardian distance advisory decals recently adopted by Stagecoach Buses in the UK use the two-second rule in their calibration. Advisory Decals for 30, 50 and 70 mph are calibrated to be invisible outside those safe distance, only rendering themselves visible once the car following has entered the safety zone for the speed that they are travelling. Some authorities regard two seconds as inadequate, and recommend a three-second rule. German law requires a minimum 0.9 second distance but when tested under relaxed conditions researchers found that their test subjects spent 41% of the test time at following distances under 0.9 seconds. The United States National Safety Council suggests that a three-second rule—with increases of one second per factor of driving difficulty—is more appropriate. Factors that make driving more difficult include poor lighting conditions (dawn and dusk are the most common); inclement weather (ice, rain, snow, fog, etc.), adverse traffic mix (heavy vehicles, slow vehicles, impaired drivers, pedestrians, bicyclists, etc.), and personal condition (fatigue, sleepiness, drug-related loss of response time, distracting thoughts, etc.). For example, a fatigued driver piloting a car in rainy weather at dusk would do well to observe a six-second following distance, rather than the basic three-second gap. See also Assured Clear Distance Ahead (ACDA) Braking distance Stopping sight distance References External links Tutorial: Keep Your Distance—Traveling Safely behind other traffic, by Driving School Ireland Illinois Rules of the Road—See Chapter 11 "Safe Driving Tips" for details on the "three-second rule" How to practice following distance rules Passive advisory decals to following traffic Road safety Rules of thumb fr:Distance de perception-réaction

Treacher Collins syndrome

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Treacher Collins syndrome (TCS) is a genetic disorder characterized by deformities of the ears, eyes, cheekbones, and chin. The degree to which a person is affected, however, may vary from mild to severe. Complications may include breathing problems, problems seeing, cleft palate, and hearing loss. Those affected generally have normal intelligence. TCS is usually autosomal dominant. More than half the time it occurs as a result of a new mutation rather than being inherited from a person's parents. The involved genes may include TCOF1, POLR1C, or POLR1D. Diagnosis is generally suspected based on symptoms and X-rays, and potentially confirmation by genetic testing. Treacher Collins syndrome is not curable. Symptoms may be managed with reconstructive surgery, hearing aids, speech therapy, and other assistive devices. Life expectancy is generally normal. TCS occurs in about one in 50,000 people. The syndrome is named after Edward Treacher Collins, an English surgeon and ophthalmologist, who described its essential traits in 1900. Signs and symptoms Symptoms in people with Treacher Collins syndrome vary. Some individuals are so mildly affected that they remain undiagnosed, while others have moderate to severe facial involvement and life-threatening airway compromise. Most of the features of TCS are symmetrical and are already recognizable at birth. The most common symptom of Treacher Collins syndrome is underdevelopment of the lower jaw and underdevelopment of the zygomatic bone. This can be accompanied by the tongue being retracted. The small mandible can result in a poor occlusion of the teeth or in more severe cases, trouble breathing or swallowing. The respiratory system of a child with Treacher Collins syndrome is the primary concern at birth, with other issues only addressed once respiratory function has been stabilized. Underdevelopment of the zygomatic bone gives the cheeks a sunken appearance. The external ear is sometimes small, rotated, malformed, or absent entirely in people with TCS. Symmetric, bilateral narrowing or absence of the external ear canal, is also described. In most cases, the bones of the middle ear and the middle ear cavity are misshapen. Inner ear malformations are rarely described. As a result of these abnormalities, a majority of the individuals with TCS have conductive hearing loss. Most affected people also experience eye problems, including coloboma (notches) in the lower eyelids, partial or complete absence of eyelashes on the lower lid, downward angled eyelids, drooping of upper and lower eyelids, and narrowing of the tear ducts. Vision loss can occur and is associated with strabismus, refractive errors, and anisometropia. It can also be caused by severely dry eyes, a consequence of lower eyelid abnormalities and frequent eye infections. Although an abnormally shaped skull is not distinctive for Treacher Collins syndrome, brachycephaly with bitemporal narrowing is sometimes observed. Cleft palate is also common. Dental anomalies are seen in 60% of affected people, including tooth agenesis (33%), discoloration (enamel opacities) (20%), malplacement of the maxillary first molars (13%), and wide spacing of the teeth. In some cases, dental anomalies in combination with mandible hypoplasia result in a malocclusion. This can lead to problems with food intake and the ability to close the mouth. Less common features of TCS may add to an affected person's breathing problems, including sleep apnea. Choanal atresia or stenosis is a narrowing or absence of the choanae, the internal opening of the nasal passages, which may also be observed. Underdevelopment of the pharynx can also narrow the airway. Features related to TCS that are seen less frequently include nasal deformities, high-arched palate, macrostomia, preauricular hair displacement, cleft palate, hypertelorism, notched upper eyelid, and congenital heart defects. Although facial deformity is often associated with developmental delay and intellectual disability, more than 95% of people affected with TCS have normal intelligence. The psychological and social problems associated with facial deformity can affect quality of life in individuals with TCS. Genetics Mutations in TCOF1, POLR1C, or POLR1D genes can cause Treacher Collins syndrome. TCOF1 gene mutations are the most common cause of the disorder, with POLR1C and POLR1D gene mutations causing an additional 2% of cases. In individuals without an identified mutation in one of these genes, the genetic cause of the condition is unknown. The TCOF1, POLR1C, and POLR1D genes code for proteins which play important roles in the early development of bones and other tissues of the face. Mutations in these genes reduce the production of rRNA, which may trigger the self-destruction (apoptosis) of certain cells involved in the development of facial bones and tissues. It is unclear why the effects of a reduction in rRNA are limited to facial development. Mutations in TCOF1 and POLR1D cause the autosomal dominant form of Treacher Collins, and mutations in POLR1C cause the autosomal recessive form. TCOF1 TCOF1 is the primary gene associated with TCS, a mutation in this gene being found in 90–95% of the individuals with TCS. However, in some individuals with typical symptoms of TCS, mutations in TCOF1 have not been found. Investigation of the DNA has resulted in the identification of the kind of mutations found in TCOF1. The majority of mutations are small deletions or insertions, though splice site and missense mutations also have been identified. Mutation analysis has unveiled more than 100 disease-causing mutations in TCOF1, which are mostly family-specific mutations. The only recurrent mutation accounts for about 17% of the cases. TCOF1 is found on the 5th chromosome in the 5q32 region. It codes for a relatively simple nucleolar protein called treacle, that is thought to be involved in ribosome assembly. Mutations in TCOF1 lead to haploinsufficiency of the treacle protein. Haploinsufficiency occurs when a diploid organism has only one functional copy of a gene, because the other copy is inactivated by a mutation. The one normal copy of the gene does not produce enough protein, causing disease. Haploinsufficiency of the treacle protein leads to a depletion of the neural crest cell precursor, which leads to a reduced number of crest cells migrating to the first and second pharyngeal arches. These cells play an important role in the development of the craniofacial appearance, and loss of one copy of treacle affects the cells' ability to form the bones and tissues of the face. Other mutations POLR1C and POLR1D mutations are responsible for a minority of cases of Treacher Collins. POLR1C is found on chromosome 6 at position 6q21.2 and POLR1D is found on chromosome 13 at position 13q12.2. Those genes code for a protein subunits shared between RNA polymerase I and III. Both of these polymerases are important for ribosome biogenesis. Diagnosis Genetic counseling TCS is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner and the penetrance of the affected gene is almost complete. Some recent investigations, though, described some rare cases in which the penetrance in TCS was not complete. Causes may be a variable expressivity, an incomplete penetrance or germline mosaicism. Only 40% of the mutations are inherited. The remaining 60% are a result of a de novo mutation, where a child has a new mutation in the responsible gene and did not inherit it from either parent. In the outcome of the disease, inter- and intrafamilial variability occurs. This suggests that when an affected child is born, it is important to investigate the parents to determine whether the affected gene is present, because the parent could have a mild form of the disease that has not been diagnosed. In this case, the risk of having another affected child is 50%. If the parents do not have the affected gene, the recurrence risk appears to be low. In following generations, the severity of the clinical symptoms increases. Prenatal diagnosis Mutations in the main genes responsible for TCS can be detected with chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis. Rare mutations may not be detected by these methods. Ultrasonography can be used to detect craniofacial abnormalities later in pregnancy, but may not detect milder cases. Clinical findings TCS is often first suspected with characteristic symptoms observed during a physical exam. However, the clinical presentation of TCS can resemble other diseases, making diagnosis difficult. The OMENS classification was developed as a comprehensive and stage-based approach to differentiate the diseases. This acronym describes five distinct dysmorphic manifestations, namely orbital asymmetry, mandibular hypoplasia, auricular deformity, nerve development, and soft-tissue disease. Orbital symmetry O0: normal orbital size, position O1: abnormal orbital size O2: abnormal orbital position O3: abnormal orbital size and position Mandible M0: normal mandible M1: small mandible and glenoid fossa with short ramus M2: ramus short and abnormally shaped 2A: glenoid fossa in anatomical acceptable position 2B: Temperomandibular joint inferiorly (TMJ), medially, anteriorly displaced, with severely hypoplastic condyle M3: Complete absence of ramus, glenoid fossa, and TMJ Ear E0: normal ear E1: Minor hypoplasia and cupping with all structures present E2: Absence of external auditory canal with variable hypoplasia of the auricle E3: Malposition of the lobule with absent auricle, lobular remnant usually inferior anteriorly displaced Facial nerve N0: No facial nerve involvement N1: Upper facial nerve involvement (temporal or zygomatic branches) N2: Lower facial nerve involvement (buccal, mandibular or cervical) N3: All branches affected Soft tissue S0: No soft tissue or muscle deficiency S1: Minimal tissue or muscle deficiency S2: Moderate tissue or muscle deficiency S3: Severe tissue or muscle deficiency Radiographs A few techniques are used to confirm the diagnosis in TCS. An orthopantomogram (OPG) is a panoramic dental X-ray of the upper and lower jaw. It shows a two-dimensional image from ear to ear. Particularly, OPG facilitates an accurate postoperative follow-up and monitoring of bone growth under a mono- or double-distractor treatment. Thereby, some TCS features could be seen on OPG, but better techniques are used to include the whole spectrum of TCS abnormalities instead of showing only the jaw abnormalities. Another method of radiographic evaluation is taking an X-ray image of the whole head. The lateral cephalometric radiograph in TCS shows hypoplasia of the facial bones, like the malar bone, mandible, and the mastoid. Finally, occipitomental radiographs are used to detect hypoplasia or discontinuity of the zygomatic arch. CT scan A temporal-bone CT using thin slices makes it possible to diagnose the degree of stenosis and atresia of the external auditory canal, the status of the middle ear cavity, the absent or dysplastic and rudimentary ossicles, or inner ear abnormalities such as a deficient cochlea. Two- and three-dimensional CT reconstructions with VRT and bone and skin-surfacing are helpful for more accurate staging and the three-dimensional planning of mandibular and external ear reconstructive surgery. Differential diagnosis Other diseases have similar characteristics to Treacher Collins syndrome. In the differential diagnosis, one should consider the acrofacial dysostoses. The facial appearance resembles that of Treacher Collins syndrome, but additional limb abnormalities occur in those persons. Examples of these diseases are Nager syndrome and Miller syndrome. The oculoauriculovertebral spectrum should also be considered in the differential diagnosis. An example is hemifacial microsomia, which primarily affects development of the ear, mouth, and mandible. This anomaly may occur bilaterally. Another disease which belongs to this spectrum is Goldenhar syndrome, which includes vertebral abnormalities, epibulbar dermoids and facial deformities. Treatment The treatment of individuals with TCS may involve the intervention of professionals from multiple disciplines. The primary concerns are breathing and feeding, as a consequence of the hypoplasia of the mandibula and the obstruction of the hypopharynx by the tongue. Sometimes, they may require a tracheostomy to maintain an adequate airway, and a gastrostomy to assure an adequate caloric intake while protecting the airway. Corrective surgery of the face is performed at defined ages, depending on the developmental state. An overview of the present guidelines: If a cleft palate is present, the repair normally takes place at 9–12 months old. Before surgery, a polysomnography with a palatal plate in place is needed. This may predict the postoperative situation and gives insight on the chance of the presence of sleep apnea (OSAS) after the operation. Hearing loss is treated by bone conduction amplification, speech therapy, and educational intervention to avoid language/speech problems. The bone-anchored hearing aid is an alternative for individuals with ear anomalies. Zygomatic and orbital reconstruction is performed when the cranio-orbitozygomatic bone is completely developed, usually at the age of 5–7 years. In children, an autologous bone graft is mostly used. In combination with this transplantation, lipofilling can be used in the periorbital area to get an optimal result of the reconstruction. Reconstruction of the lower eyelid coloboma includes the use of a myocutaneous flap, which is elevated and in this manner closes the eyelid defect. External ear reconstruction is usually done when the individual is at least eight years old. Sometimes, the external auditory canal or middle ear can also be treated. The optimal age for the maxillomandibular reconstruction is controversial; as of 2004, this classification has been used: Type I (mild) and Type IIa (moderate) 13–16 years Type IIb (moderate to severe malformation) at skeletal maturity Type III (severe) 6–10 years When the teeth are cutting, the teeth should be under supervision of an orthodontist to make sure no abnormalities occur. If abnormalities like dislocation or an overgrowth of teeth are seen, appropriate action can be undertaken as soon as possible. Orthognatic treatments usually take place after the age of 16 years; at this point, all teeth are in place and the jaw and dentures are mature. Whenever OSAS is detected, the level of obstruction is determined through endoscopy of the upper airways. Mandibular advancement can be an effective way to improve both breathing and æsthetics, while a chinplasty only restores the profile. If a nose reconstruction is necessary, it is usually performed after the orthognatic surgery and after the age of 18 years. The contour of the facial soft tissues generally requires correction at a later age, because of the facial skeletal maturity. The use of microsurgical methods, like the free flap transfer, has improved the correction of facial soft tissue contours. Another technique to improve the facial soft tissue contours is lipofilling. For instance, lipofilling is used to reconstruct the eyelids. Hearing loss Hearing loss in Treacher Collins syndrome is caused by deformed structures in the outer and middle ear. The hearing loss is generally bilateral with a conductive loss of about 50–70 dB. Even in cases with normal auricles and open external auditory canals, the ossicular chain is often malformed. Attempts to surgically reconstruct the external auditory canal and improve hearing in children with TCS have not yielded positive results. Auditory rehabilitation with bone-anchored hearing aids (BAHAs) or a conventional bone conduction aid has proven preferable to surgical reconstruction. Psychiatric The disorder can be associated with a number of psychological symptoms, including anxiety, depression, social phobia, and distress about body image. People who have this disorder may also experience discrimination, bullying, and name calling, especially when young. A multi-disciplinary team and parental support should include these issues. Epidemiology TCS occurs in about one in 50,000 births in Europe. Worldwide, it is estimated to occur in one in 10,000 to one in 50,000 births. History The syndrome is named after Edward Treacher Collins (1862–1932), the English surgeon and ophthalmologist who described its essential traits in 1900. In 1949, Adolphe Franceschetti and David Klein described the same condition on their own observations as mandibulofacial dysostosis. The term mandibulofacial dysostosis is used to describe the clinical features. Culture A July 1977 New York Times article that was reprinted in numerous newspapers nationwide over the ensuing weeks brought this malady to many people's attention for the first time. The disorder was featured on the show Nip/Tuck, in the episode "Blu Mondae". TLC's Born Without a Face features Juliana Wetmore, who was born with the most severe case in medical history of this syndrome and is missing 30%–40% of the bones in her face. In 2010, BBC Three documentary Love Me, Love My Face covered the case of a man, Jono Lancaster, with the condition. In 2011, BBC Three returned to Jono to cover his and his partner Laura's quest to start a family, in So What If My Baby Is Born Like Me?, which first aired as part of a BBC Three season of programmes on parenting. The first film was replayed on BBC One shortly ahead of the second film's initial BBC Three broadcast. Lancaster's third BBC Three film, Finding My Family on Facebook, which looked at adoption, aired in 2011. In Wonder, a children's novel, the main character is a child who has Treacher Collins syndrome. A 2017 film adaptation of Wonder, starring Julia Roberts, Owen Wilson and Jacob Tremblay, was released in November 2017. Alison Midstokke, who appears in the drama film Happy Face (2018), is an actress and activist who has the condition. See also First arch syndrome Franceschetti-Klein syndrome Hearing loss with craniofacial syndromes References External links Genodermatoses Rare diseases Hearing loss with craniofacial syndromes Congenital disorders of musculoskeletal system Autosomal dominant disorders Nucleus diseases Connective tissue diseases Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate

Hyaline cartilage

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Hyaline cartilage is the glass-like (hyaline) and translucent cartilage found on many joint surfaces. It is also most commonly found in the ribs, nose, larynx, and trachea. Hyaline cartilage is pearl-grey in color, with a firm consistency and has a considerable amount of collagen. It contains no nerves or blood vessels, and its structure is relatively simple. Structure Hyaline cartilage is covered externally by a fibrous membrane known as the perichondrium or, when it's along articulating surfaces, the synovial membrane. This membrane contains vessels that provide the cartilage with nutrition through diffusion. Hyaline cartilage matrix is primarily made of type II collagen and chondroitin sulphate, both of which are also found in elastic cartilage. Hyaline cartilage exists on the sternal ends of the ribs, in the larynx, trachea, and bronchi, and on the articulating surfaces of bones. It gives the structures a definite but pliable form. The presence of collagen fibres makes such structures and joints strong, but with limited mobility and flexibility. Hyaline cartilage is the most prevalent type of cartilage. It also forms the temporary embryonic skeleton, which is gradually replaced by bone, and the skeleton of elasmobranch fish. Microanatomy When a slice of hyaline cartilage is examined under the microscope, it is shown to consist of cells (chondrocytes) of a rounded or bluntly angular form, lying in groups of two or more in a granular, or almost homogeneous matrix. When arranged in groups of two or more, the chondrocytes have rounded, but generally straight outlines; where they are in contact with each other, and in the rest of their circumference, they are rounded. They consist of translucent protoplasm with fine interlacing filaments and minute granules are sometimes present. Embedded in this are one or two round nuclei, having the usual intranuclear network. The cells are contained in cavities in the matrix, called cartilage lacunae. These cavities are actually artificial gaps formed from the shrinking of the cells during the staining and setting of the tissue for examination. The inter-territorial space between the isogenous cell groups contains relatively more collagen fibres, allowing it to maintain its shape while the actual cells shrink, creating the lacunae. This constitutes the so-called 'capsule' of the space. Each lacuna is usually occupied by a single cell, but during mitosis, it may contain two, four, or even eight cells. Articular cartilage Articular cartilage is hyaline cartilage on the articular surfaces of bones, and lies inside the joint cavity of synovial joints, bathed in synovial fluid produced by the synovial membrane, which lines the walls of the cavity. Though it is often found in close contact with menisci and articular disks, articular cartilage is not considered a part of either of these structures, which are made entirely of fibrocartilage. The articular cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM) has a highly specialized architecture that is zonally organized: the superficial zone consists mostly of collagen II fibers aligned parallel to the articular surface to resist shear forces, whereas the deep zone consists of the same fibers aligned perpendicularly to the bone interface to absorb compressive loads. The biochemical breakdown of the articular cartilage results in osteoarthritis – the most common type of joint disease. Osteoarthritis affects over 30 million individuals in the United States alone, and is the leading cause of chronic disability amongst the elderly. Additional images See also Cartilage Hyaline Articular cartilage injuries Articular cartilage damage Articular cartilage repair References External links Skeletal system Connective tissue

I Was Born to Love You (song)

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"I Was Born to Love You" is a 1985 song by Freddie Mercury, and was released as a single and on the Mr. Bad Guy album. After Mercury's death, Queen re-worked this song for their album Made in Heaven in 1995, by having the other members play their instrumental parts over the original track, transforming the song from a disco song to a rock song. The Queen version from the Made in Heaven album also includes samples of Mercury's ad-lib vocals taken from "A Kind of Magic" and from "Living on My Own". The song received its live debut on the 2005 tour of Japan, given by Queen + Paul Rodgers. Brian May and Roger Taylor performed the song acoustically. The song was also performed during the concerts given by Queen + Adam Lambert in South Korea and Japan, which was the first time that a full live band was used for the performance. Music videos The video for the original Freddie Mercury version of the song was directed by David Mallet and filmed at the now demolished Limehouse Studios, London. The video was choreographed by Arlene Phillips and shows Freddie singing in front of a wall of mirrors, then running through a house with a woman (Debbie Ash of Hot Gossip), before dancing on a podium. The video for the version used on Made in Heaven was directed by Richard Heslop for the British Film Institute, and included on Made in Heaven: The Films. It shows inhabitants of a block of council flats. Couples kiss, kids play, and teenagers steal and destroy a car in a monochrome film. The audio also uses the vinyl edit. For the 2004 re-release(see below), a video was created mixing footage of Mercury's original solo video intercut with footage of Queen performing live at Wembley Stadium, plus his solo video "Living on My Own". This video is included on Queen Jewels, the 2004 Greatest Karaoke Hits DVD, and the Japanese release of the documentary Days of Our Lives. Appearances in other media The song has appeared in multiple television advertisements, mainly in Japan. The original version recorded by Mercury appeared in the TV commercial of Japanese cosmetics company Noevia in the mid 1980s. The Queen version was released as a single exclusively in Japan in February 1996, because the song was used in a TV ad for Kirin Ichiban Shibori, one of the best-selling liquors of the country produced by the Kirin Brewery Company. The single became their first song that entered the Japanese chart since "Teo Torriatte (Let Us Cling Together)", released in 1977. In 1987, Brazilian singer Gretchen made a cover version. In 2004, Queen's version was used as the theme for Pride, the successful Japanese drama starring Takuya Kimura and Yūko Takeuchi. Jewels, Queen's tie-in compilation album released only in Japan, includes "I Was Born to Love You". The song was used in episode 29 of Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon, during a competitive game of gym-class volleyball. In Malaysia, Mercury's version, using a different mix, was used by Astro in TV advertisements to promote their coverage of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. The advertisement, commissioned by Astro through agency Dentsu LHS Malaysia and created by Pesona Pictures Indonesia, also have an unused version, which used Queen's version of the song. Cover versions were released by Hannah Jones, Worlds Apart and Andrew W.K. in February 2011. A cover version based on Queen's version is used in the fourth level of the Nintendo DS video game Elite Beat Agents. Track listings 7" single (1985) A. "I Was Born to Love You" - 3:37 B. "Stop All the Fighting" - 3:17 12" single (1985) A. "I Was Born to Love You" (Extended Version) - 7:03 B. "Stop All the Fighting" - 3:17 Personnel Original version Freddie Mercury - lead vocals, piano, synthesizer, Synclavier Fred Mandel - synthesizer, rhythm guitar Paul Vincent - lead guitar Curt Cress - drums Stephan Wissnet - bass guitar, Fairlight CMI Reinhold Mack - Fairlight CMI, Synclavier II Queen version Freddie Mercury - lead and backing vocals, piano, keyboards Brian May - electric guitar, keyboards Roger Taylor - drums, percussion John Deacon - bass guitar Chart history Freddie Mercury version Queen version Certifications References External links Lyrics at Queen official website Freddie Mercury songs Queen (band) songs 1985 singles 1985 songs 1996 singles 2004 singles Oricon International Singles Chart number-one singles Songs written by Freddie Mercury Songs released posthumously Japanese television drama theme songs Dance-rock songs Hard rock ballads Song recordings produced by Reinhold Mack Hollywood Records singles Music videos directed by David Mallet (director) Disco songs

Khigh Dhiegh

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Khigh Alx Dhiegh ( or ; born Kenneth Dickerson; August 25, 1910 - October 25, 1991) was an American television and motion picture actor of Anglo-Egyptian Sudanese ancestry, noted for portraying East Asian roles. He is perhaps best remembered for portraying villains, in particular his recurring TV guest role as Chinese agent Wo Fat on Hawaii Five-O (from the pilot in 1968 to the final episode in 1980), and brainwashing expert Dr. Yen Lo in 1962's The Manchurian Candidate. Life and death He was born Kenneth Dickerson in Spring Lake, New Jersey. Dhiegh stated his mother was "Chinese, Spanish, English, and Egyptian" and his father was "Italian, Portuguese, and Zulu"; he was raised in New York City, living in all the boroughs except Staten Island. He moved to Arizona in 1977. Dhiegh died on October 25, 1991, at Desert Samaritan Hospital of Mesa, Arizona, from kidney and heart failure. Career In the early 1930s, Dhiegh was asked by a customer at his mother's bookshop to understudy the role of a butler in Noël Coward's Design for Living, which led to his long career in acting, producing, and directing. Performance On Broadway, Dhiegh's credits include The Teahouse of the August Moon and Flower Drum Song. Off-Broadway, he received an Obie Award in 1961 for playing Schlink in In the Jungle of Cities. He also starred in the short-lived 1975 TV series Khan! as the title character. In 1988, he was featured as Four Finger Wu in James Clavell's Noble House television mini-series. In 1965, Dhiegh recorded and released an album on Folkways Records, entitled St. John of the Cross: Volume II, a collection of poems of St. John. Philosophy Besides his acting endeavors, Dhiegh was active in Taoist philosophy, writing a number of books on the subject, including The Eleventh Wing (). Dhiegh credited his "life long dear friend Chao-Li Chi" with sparking his interest in the I Ching and Taoism, starting in 1935. In 1971, he founded the Taoist Sanctuary (now the Taoist Institute) in Hollywood, California. At the time, he was living in the San Fernando Valley. Dhiegh also had a doctorate in theology, and in his later years, was the rector for a Taoist sanctuary in Tempe, Arizona called 'Inner Truth Looking Place.' He held weekly services and sponsored many 'Tea Ceremonies' in the Phoenix metro area. Dhiegh picked up jewelry making as a hobby in the 1970s, later selling pieces to help support the sanctuary. One of his last interviews was on One World in 1990, where he presented the concept of World Citizenry and its benefit to mankind. Dhiegh's contributions to Taoism are discussed in some detail in the book Taoism for Dummies (John Wiley and Sons Canada, 2013). Select filmography Notes References External links Khigh Dhiegh roles and background at TV Acres Khigh Dhiegh Album Details at Smithsonian Folkways American male television actors American male film actors Male actors from New Jersey American Taoists People from Spring Lake, New Jersey American people of English descent American people of Egyptian descent American people of Sudanese descent 1910 births 1991 deaths 20th-century American male actors

Antonio Fargas

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Antonio Juan Fargas (born August 14, 1946) is an American actor known for his roles in 1970s blaxploitation and comedy movies, as well as his portrayal as Huggy Bear in the 1970s TV series Starsky & Hutch. Early life Fargas was born in New York City to Mildred (née Bailey) and Manuel Fargas; he was one of 11 children. His father was a Puerto Rican who worked for the City of New York. His mother was from Trinidad and Tobago. Raised in New York's Spanish Harlem, Fargas graduated from Fashion Industries High School in 1965. Acting career Fargas' breakout role was in the comedy film Putney Swope (1969). After starring in a string of blaxploitation movies in the early 1970s, such as Across 110th Street (1972) and Foxy Brown (1974), he gained recognition as streetwise informant Huggy Bear in the television series Starsky & Hutch. He appeared in All My Children in the mid-1980s as the father of Angie Hubbard. As a nod to his early roles, Fargas had a part in the blaxploitation spoof I'm Gonna Git You Sucka (1988) as well as another Wayans brothers "hood" parody, Don't Be a Menace (1996). He guest-starred in the mid-1990s sitcoms Living Single, Martin, The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air and The Steve Harvey Show. Fargas played the driver in the 1997 music video for the Backstreet Boys hit "Everybody (Backstreet's Back)". Some of Fargas' notable appearances on British television shows include Series 4 of the reality series I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! in 2004 and Frank Sidebottom's Proper Telly Show in early 2006. He played the part of Toledo in a revival of August Wilson's Ma Rainey's Black Bottom at the Royal Exchange Theatre in Manchester in 2006. He had a regular role as Doc on the 2005–2009 television series Everybody Hates Chris. In 2008, Fargas acted in the British boxing film Sucker Punch. He appeared in an episode of Fox's Lie to Me as the father of a murdered firefighter. Personal life Fargas' son Justin Fargas, a University of Southern California alumnus, is a former NFL running back who played seven seasons for the Oakland Raiders, amassing over 3,000 rushing yards in his career. Fargas' daughter-in-law is LSU women's basketball coach Nikki Caldwell. Selected filmography The Cool World (1963) - (uncredited) Putney Swope (1969) – The Arab Pound (1970) – Greyhound Shaft (1971) – Bunky Cisco Pike (1972) – Buffalo Across 110th Street (1972) – Henry J. Jackson Cleopatra Jones (1973) – Doodlebug Simkins Busting (1974) – Stephen Conrack (1974) – Quickfellow Foxy Brown (1974) – Lincoln 'Link' Brown The Gambler (1974) – Pimp Kolchak Episode #2 "The Zombie" (September 20, 1974) Car Wash (1976) - Lindy Next Stop, Greenwich Village (1976) - Bernstein Chandler Pretty Baby (1978) – Professor Up the Academy (1980) – Coach Firestarter (1984) – Taxi Driver Crimewave (1985) – Blind Man Night of the Sharks (1988) – Paco Shakedown (1988) – Nicky 'N.C.' Carr I'm Gonna Git You Sucka (1988) – Flyguy The Borrower (1991) – Julius Howling VI: The Freaks (1991) – Bellamey Whore (1991) – Rasta Don't Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood (1996) – Old School The Suburbans (1999) – Magee 3 Strikes (2000) – Uncle Jim Douglas Driver 2 (2000, video game) – Detective Tobias Jones Osmosis Jones (2001) – Chill Starsky & Hutch (2003, video game) – Huggy Bear Everybody Hates Chris (2005–2009, TV Series) – Doc / Mr. Harris / Sweet Tooth Fist of the Warrior (2007) – Father Riley Sucker Punch (2008) – Baz Vegas Cinefest (2011) – Himself Silver Bells (2013) – Major Melvin Lowell Beyond Skyline (2017) – Sarge Cherif (2018) – Huggy Bear serial French 'Quand Cherif rencontre Huggy' One Year Off (TBA) References External links Official Website 1946 births Living people 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors American male film actors American male television actors American people of Puerto Rican descent American people of Trinidad and Tobago descent Male actors from New York City I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! (British TV series) participants

Madonna (Madonna album)

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Madonna (retitled Madonna: The First Album for the 1985 reissue) is the debut studio album by American singer-songwriter Madonna, released on July 27, 1983, by Sire Records. After having established herself as a singer in downtown New York City, Madonna was signed by Sire president Seymour Stein, due to the club success of her debut single, "Everybody" (1982). She became the sole writer for most of the album's tracks, and chose Reggie Lucas as its primary producer. Unhappy with Lucas's production outputs, she invited John "Jellybean" Benitez to complete the album, who remixed three tracks and produced "Holiday". Madonna has an upbeat synthetic disco sound, using new technology of the time, including the Linn drum machine, Moog bass and Oberheim OB-X synthesizer. She sang in a bright, girlish timbre, with lyrics about love and relationships. To promote the album, Madonna performed one-off gigs in clubs and on television in the United States and United Kingdom throughout 1983 and 1984, followed by The Virgin Tour in 1985. Five singles were released, including the international top-ten hits "Holiday", "Lucky Star", and "Borderline". Their accompanying music videos were released on the Madonna video compilation, which became the best-selling videocassette of 1985 in the United States. Madonna peaked at number eight on the Billboard 200, and was certified five-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipment of five million copies across the United States. It reached the top ten of the charts in Australia, France, Netherlands, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, and sold more than 10 million copies worldwide. The album received generally favorable reviews from music critics and was included in "The 100 Best Debut Albums of All Time" by Rolling Stone in 2013 saying that "it succeed in introducing the most important female voice in the history of modern music". The album has been credited for setting the standard of dance-pop for decades afterward, and for pointing the direction for numerous female artists of the 1980s. Background In 1982, Madonna, aged 23, was living in New York, and trying to set up her music career. She was joined by her Detroit boyfriend Steve Bray who became the drummer of her band, the Breakfast Club, which played generally hard-rock music. Soon they abandoned playing songs in the hard-rock genre, and got signed by a music management company called Gotham Records, planning to move in a new musical direction. They decided to pursue the funk genre, but the record company was not happy with their musical talents and they were dropped from the label; Madonna and Bray left the band also. Meanwhile, she had written and developed some songs on her own. She carried rough tapes of three of the songs, "Everybody", "Ain't No Big Deal" and "Burning Up". At that time she was frequenting the Danceteria nightclub in New York. It was here that Madonna convinced the DJ Mark Kamins to play "Everybody". The song was received positively by the crowd, and Kamins decided that he should get Madonna a record deal, on the understanding that he would get to produce the single. He took her to his boss Chris Blackwell, who owned Island Records, but Blackwell refused to sign Madonna so they approached Sire Records. Michael Rosenblatt, who worked in the artists and repertoire department of Sire, offered Madonna $5,000 in advance, plus $1,000 in royalties, for each song she wrote. Madonna was ultimately signed for two 12" singles by the President of Sire, Seymour Stein, who was impressed by her singing, after listening to "Everybody" at a hospital in Lenox Hill where he was admitted. The 12" version of "Everybody" was produced by Mark Kamins at Blank Tapes Studios in New York, who took over the production work from Steve Bray. The new recording ran 5:56 on one side and 9:23 for the dub version on the reverse side. Madonna and Kamins had to record the single at their own cost. Arthur Baker, friend of Mark Kamins, guided him through the role of a music producer and provided him with studio musician Fred Zarr who played keyboards on the track. Zarr became one of the common musical threads on the album by eventually performing on every track. Due to restrained budget the recording was done hurriedly. Madonna and Kamins had difficulty in understanding each other's inputs for the sessions. Rosenblatt wanted to release "Everybody" with "Ain't No Big Deal" on the other side, but later changed his mind and put "Everybody" on both sides of the vinyl record after hearing the recorded version of "Ain't No Big Deal". The single was commercially released in October 1982 and became a dance hit in the United States. This led to Sire signing Madonna for an LP and two more singles. Development The album was primarily recorded at Sigma Sound Studios in New York City. Madonna opted not to work with either Kamins or Bray, but chose Reggie Lucas, a Warner Bros. producer. Bray decided to push her in the musical direction of pop, and recorded the song "Burning Up" with her. However, Madonna still did not have enough material to generate a full album. The songs available were, "Lucky Star", a new version of "Ain't No Big Deal", "Think of Me" and "I Know It". She met with Lucas at the apartment of her then-boyfriend Jean-Michel Basquiat, and he brought another two songs to the project, "Physical Attraction" and "Borderline". As he recorded the tracks he deviated considerably from the original versions of the demos. One such altered song was "Lucky Star". The song was written by Madonna for Kamins, who previously promised to play the track at Danceteria. However, the track was instead used by Madonna for the album, which she planned to call Lucky Star. She believed that "Lucky Star", along with "Borderline", were the perfect foundation for her album. Problems arose between her and Lucas during the recording of the songs. Madonna was unhappy with the way the final versions turned out. According to Madonna, Lucas used too many instruments and did not consider her ideas for the songs. This led to a dispute between the two and, after finishing the album, Lucas left the project without tailoring the songs to Madonna's specifications; hence she called John "Jellybean" Benitez, a DJ at Funhouse disco, to remix the available tracks. In the meantime, due to a conflict of interest, Bray had sold "Ain't No Big Deal" to an act on another label, rendering it unavailable for Madonna's project. It was Benitez who discovered a new song, written by Curtis Hudson and Lisa Stevens of the pop group Pure Energy. The song, titled "Holiday", had been turned down by Phyllis Hyman and Mary Wilson, formerly of The Supremes. Benitez and Madonna sent the demo to their friend, Fred Zarr so he could embellish the arrangement and program the synthesizer lines. After vocals were recorded by Madonna, Benitez spent four days trying to enhance the commercial appeal of the track before the April 1983 deadline. Just before it was completed, Madonna and Benitez met Fred Zarr at Sigma Sound in Manhattan, where Zarr added the now familiar piano solo towards the end of the track. Music and lyrics According to AllMusic, Madonna is a dance-pop and post-disco album, while Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine stated that the album's sound is "post-disco, post-punk dance." The overall sound of the album is dissonant, and is in the form of upbeat synthetic disco, utilizing some of the new technology of the time, like the usage of Linn drum machine, Moog bass and the OB-X synthesizer. This equipment has dated since, consequently the sound of the album comes off as somewhat harsh. Madonna commented on her debut album: "The songs were pretty weak and I went to England during the recordings so I wasn't around... I wasn't in control. [...] I didn't realize how crucial it was for me to break out of the disco mold before I'd already finished the [first] album. I wish I could have got a little more variety there." The album starts with the song "Lucky Star", a medium-paced dance track, beginning with a sparkle of synth note and is followed by heavy beats of electronic drum and handclaps. A guitar is played in high riff and a bubbling bass synth is produced to accompany the guitar sound. The song revolves around the "Starlight, starbright" hook for more than a minute, before going to the chorus. According to author Rikky Rooksby, the lyrics are repetitive and inane, revolving around the transparent ambiguity of the stars, and juxtaposition of the male character with being a heavenly body in the sky. "Borderline" is a sentimental track, talking about a love that is never quite fulfilled. According to author Santiago Fouz-Hernández and his book Madonna's drowned worlds, the lyrics of the song like "Something in the way you love me won't let me be/I don't want to be your prisoner so baby won't you set me free" depicted a rebellion against male chauvinism. Madonna used a refined and expressive voice to sing the song, backed by Lucas's instrumentation. It opens with a keyboard rich intro and a catchy synth melody provided by Fred Zarr. Bass player Anthony Jackson doubled Dean Gant's synth bass to provide a solid and more complex texture. The chords in the song were inspired by Seventies disco sound in Philadelphia as well as Elton John's musical style during the mid-seventies. The chord sequences cite from Bachman–Turner Overdrive's song "You Ain't Seen Nothing Yet" while the synth phases display her typical musical style. The third track "Burning Up" has a starker arrangement, brought about by bass, single guitar and Linn drum machine. The drum beats used in the song were reminiscent to the records of singer Phil Collins. It also incorporated electric guitars and the most state-of-the-art synthesizers of that time. The chorus is a repetition of the same three lines, while the bridge consists of a series of double entendres; the lyrics describing what Madonna is prepared to do for her lover, and that she is individualistic and shameless. The next track "I Know It" has a gentler swing to it and features music from piano, a saxophone, synth phrases while having an offbeat chord change. "Holiday" consists of a four-bar sequence, featuring instrumentation from guitars, electronic drums and handclaps from the Oberheim DMX, cowbell played by Madonna and a synthesized string arrangement. A side-by-side repetitive progression is achieved by making use of the chorus. Towards the end of the song, a change in the arrangement happens, where a piano break is heard. Lyrically, the song expresses the universal sentiment that everybody needs a holiday. In "Think of Me", Madonna warns her erring lover that he should pay her attention or else she would leave. The song consists of beats from the Linn drum machine and a saxophone interlude. "Physical Attraction" is a medium paced track, with synth bass, a guitar line, sounds of a brass and Madonna singing in a shrill voice, about the attraction between herself and a boy. The last song on the album is "Everybody", which starts with a heavily synthesized and spoken introduction, with Madonna taking a loud intake of breath. She displayed her bubblegum-pop like voice in the song, which was also doubletracked. Release and artwork The album was first released in the United States by Sire Records on July 27, 1983. It was originally slated to be titled Lucky Star, after the track of the same name. The original album cover was shot by photographer Edo Bertoglio and designed by Madonna's friend Martin Burgoyne, but according to Seymour Stein, Madonna felt "it just wasn't iconic enough." The album was eventually titled simply Madonna, perhaps that this singular name could have star power. The album cover was shot by photographer Gary Heery and directed by Carin Goldberg. The front cover shows Madonna with short-cropped platinum hair, wearing a number of black rubber bangles on her hands and a dog chain around her throat. Her navel is also prominent on the inner sleeve of the album. Madonna commented: "The picture inside the dust of sleeve of my first album has me, like, in this Betty Boop pose with my belly button showing. Then when people reviews the album, they kept talking about my cute belly button. [...] I think there are other unobvious places on the body that are sexy and the stomach is kind of innocent." Regarding the album photoshoot, Gary Heery recalled: [Madonna] arrived at my Broadway studio in New York with a small bag of clothes and jewelry, and no entourage. Then, in front of the camera she was explosive, like a great model, but with her own unique style. She came over the next day to see some prints and the proofs, and there was shot after shot to choose from. We agreed on every choice and whittled it down to the album cover images. I had no idea what I had just been a party to. The album was re-released in 1985 for the European market and re-packaged as Madonna: The First Album with a different artwork created by photographer George Holy. The cover features Madonna in similar style of dress to the original cover but this time with crucifix as her earrings. Madonna's trademark style was catching on as a fashion statement among club kids and fans, with her crucifix accessories becoming the jewelry of the moment. Madonna said that wearing a crucifix is "kind of offbeat and interesting. I mean, everything I do is sort of tongue-in-cheeks. Besides, the crucifixes seem to go with my name." In 2001, Warner Bros. Records released a remastered version of the album with its original artwork and two bonus remix tracks of "Burning Up" and "Lucky Star". Madonna dedicated the album to her father, Tony Ciccone, with whom her relationship had not been good until the release of the album. In an interview with Time magazine, Madonna said: "My father had never believed that what I was doing here [in New York] was worthwhile, nor did he believe that I was up to any good. [...] It wasn't until my first album came out and my father started hearing my songs on the radio that he stopped asking the questions." Promotion Madonna had promoted the album throughout 1983–84 by performing a series of "track dates", one-off gigs. These shows were done at New York City and London clubs like Danceteria and Camden Palace and on American and British television programs like Dancin' On Air, American Bandstand, and Top of the Pops. On American Bandstand, Madonna performed the track "Holiday" and told interviewer Dick Clark that she wanted "to rule the world." John Mitchell from MTV said that the appearance "remains one of her most legendary." The album's singles were later performed on The Virgin Tour in 1985. It was Madonna's first concert tour and visited North American dates. The Virgin Tour received mixed reception from critics, but was a commercial success. As soon as the tour was announced, tickets were sold out everywhere. Macy's New York department store was flooded with buyers, who bought the tour merchandise like the crucifix earrings and fingerless gloves. After its end, the Virgin Tour was reported to have grossed over $5 million ($ million in dollars), with Billboard Boxscore reporting a gross of $3.3 million ($ million in dollars). The tour was recorded and released in VHS, as Madonna Live: The Virgin Tour. Later authors have looked back at the tour and commented that it was clear that "[Madonna] was a bonafide pop star in the process of becoming a cultural icon." Shari Benstock and Suzanne Ferriss noted the clothes and fashion in the tour and said, "Virgin Tour established Madonna as the hottest figure in pop music." Singles Madonna released five singles from the album, although two of those singles actually preceded the album's release by several months. "Everybody" was released on October 6, 1982, as Madonna's debut single; at this point, the rest of the Madonna album had not yet been recorded or even conceived of. Musically incorporating R&B infused beats, "Everybody" portrayed the image of Madonna as a black artist, since her picture did not appear on the single cover. However this misconception was cleared later when Madonna convinced Sire executives to allow her to shoot a music video for the song. The low-budget music video directed by Ed Steinberg portrayed Madonna and her friends singing and dancing in a club to the song. The video helped to promote the song and Madonna as an artist further. "Everybody" failed to enter the Billboard Hot 100 chart and only charted at number 107 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles on January 22, 1983. Nevertheless, the single was a hit on the Billboard Hot Dance/Club Play Chart, peaking at number three. "Burning Up" was released as the second single in the US on March 9, 1983, and later issued in some countries as a double A-side single with "Physical Attraction". The single peaked at number three on the dance chart in the US, and became Madonna's first top twenty hit in Australia. The accompanying music video of the song portrays Madonna writhing passionately on an empty road before her "lover" approaches in a car from behind. The video ends with Madonna driving the car instead, suggesting that she is ultimately in control. "Holiday" was released as the third single on September 7, 1983, and became Madonna's first top-ten hit in many countries, including Australia, Belgium, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands and the UK. It also became her first entry ever on the Billboard Hot 100, reaching number 16, and her first number-one hit on the dance chart. Originally released in the UK on September 9, 1983, "Lucky Star" was the fourth single from the album. The single peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100. The music video portrayed Madonna dancing in front of a white background, accompanied by her dancers. After the video was released, Madonna's style and mannerisms became a fashion trend among the younger generation. Scholars noted that in the video, Madonna portrayed herself as narcissistic and an ambiguous character. She referred to herself as the "lucky star", unlike the lyrical meaning of the song. "Borderline" was the fifth single from the album, and was released on February 15, 1984. In the US the song was released before "Lucky Star" and became Madonna's first top-ten hit on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at ten. Elsewhere, the song reached the top twenty of a number of European nations while peaking the chart in Ireland. The accompanying music video portrayed Madonna, with a Latin man as boyfriend. She was enticed by a British photographer to pose and model for him, but later returned to her original boyfriend. The video generated interest amongst academics, who noted the use of power as symbolism in it. Video compilation A video compilation, titled Madonna, was released by Warner Music Video and Sire Records in November 1984 to promote the album. The singer's first video compilation, it contained three music videos from the album—"Burning Up", "Borderline" and "Lucky Star"—as well as the then current single "Like a Virgin". The music video for "Lucky Star" was a special extended dance mix, and when she says "ooh yeah" it is echoed three times and her image is repeated three times. "Like a Virgin" omits the scene where the lion's tongue moves in time with the beat of the music. These videos were later released on the 1990 greatest hits compilation The Immaculate Collection with these edits changed. The video was promoted at the Cabaret Metro club in Chicago, on February 9, 1985. Dubbed as 'The Virgin Party', the event drew a crowd of around 1,200 and promoted Madonna's LPs, cassettes, CDs and the videocassette. Attendees were encouraged to wear white, and for $5 admission fees, were able to view the Madonna videocassette and the premiere of the music video of her then upcoming single "Material Girl". The event was organised as a drive to promote music videos, which at that point did not have a large market. Madonna topped the Music Videocassette chart of Billboard for the period from April 13, 1985, to November 9, 1985. Jim McCullaugh from Billboard attributed the strong sales of the video to Madonna's recent studio album Like a Virgin and The Virgin Tour concert. It placed at number one on the year-end music videocassette chart for 1985. Madonna was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of 100,000 units of the video. It won the award for the "Best Selling Video Cassette Merchandised as Music Video" from the National Association of Recording Merchandisers. Critical reception Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic wrote that the album "cleverly incorporated great pop songs with stylish, state-of-the-art beats, and it shrewdly walked a line between being a rush of sound and a showcase for a dynamic lead singer. This is music where all of the elements may not particularly impressive on their own — the arrangement, synth, and drum programming are fairly rudimentary — but taken together, it's utterly irresistible." Tony Power from Blender said that the album consisted of "quacking synths, overperky bass and state-of-the-art mechanical disco, with Madonna strapped to the wing rather than holding the controls. It's a breathless, subtlety-free debut, with overtones of Soft Cell and Tom Tom Club." Reviewing the remastered version of the album, released in 2001, Michael Paoletta from Billboard stated that "Nearly 20 years after the release of Madonna, such tracks as 'Holiday', 'Physical Attraction', 'Borderline' and 'Lucky Star' remain irresistible." Jim Farber from Entertainment Weekly said that "[Madonna] might have wound up just another post-disco dolly if [the songs on the album] didn't announce her ability to fuse club beats with peerless pop." In July 2008, the magazine ranked the album at number five in their list of "Top 100 Best Albums of Past 25 Years". Bill Lamb from About.com commented: "[The] album is state of the art dance-pop loaded with hits from 'Holiday' and 'Lucky Star' to 'Borderline'. Irresistible pop hooks glide across shimmering synth beats to make this a landmark album of the early 80's." Jonathan Ross from Q said that "'Borderline' is sweet and 'Holiday' still fizzes with invention and joie de vivre....this quintessentially '80s dance hit also features a barrelhouse piano solo." Robert Christgau wrote in The Village Voice, "In case you bought the con, disco never died — just reverted to the crazies who thought it was worth living for. This shamelessly ersatz blonde is one of them, and with the craftily orchestrated help of a fine selection of producers, remixers, and DJs, she's come up with a shamelessly ersatz sound that's tighter than her tummy — essence of electro, the D in DOR." Don Shewey from Rolling Stone was of the opinion that "without overstepping the modest ambitions of minimal funk, Madonna issues an irresistible invitation to the dance." Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented: "Heralding the synth-heavy movement was a debut album [Madonna] that sounds just as fresh today as it did almost two decades ago." In March 2012, the publication placed the album at number 33 on their "Best Albums of the 1980s" list. Michaelangelo Matos from Spin selected the album among "The Definitive Guide to Classic Disco" and noted that it "mashed-up street sounds and reinvigorated disco for a generation that wanted nothing to do with polyester suits, ending an era and birthing a new one." Commercial performance In the United States, the album entered the Billboard 200 albums chart at number 190, the week of September 3, 1983. The album had a slow and steady climb, and peaked at eight on the Billboard 200 on the week ending October 20, 1984, more than a year after its release. It also peaked at twenty on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums. Within a year, Madonna had sold 2.8 million copies in the United States. It placed at number twenty-seven on the year-end chart for 1984 and at number 25 on the year-end chart for 1985, with Madonna becoming the top pop artist for the year 1985. After 17 years since its release, the album was certified five-times Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipment of five million copies across United States. With the advent of the Nielsen SoundScan era in 1991, the album sold a further 450,000 copies as of August 2010. In Canada, the album was released on March 10, 1984, and debuted at number 87 on the RPM Albums Chart. After few weeks it re-entered the chart again, at number 95 on August 4, 1984. The album finally reached its peak position of number 16 in its 29th week. It was present on the chart for a total of 47 weeks, and ranked at number 50 on the RPM Top 100 Albums of 1984 list. In the United Kingdom, the album was released on February 11, 1984, and charted on the UK Albums Chart, reaching a peak of thirty-seven and present on the chart for twenty weeks. After a re-release titled Madonna – The First Album in July 1985, the album charted again on the UK Albums chart. It ultimately reached a peak of number six and was present on the chart for 125 weeks. Six months since the re-release, the album was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipment of 300,000 copies of the album. In Australia, the album reached a peak of ten on the Kent Music Report albums chart and was certified triple platinum. The album reached the top ten of the charts in Netherlands, France and New Zealand; in the last two markets, it was certified Platinum. It was also certified Platinum in Hong Kong and Gold in Germany and Spain. In November 2019, the album managed to enter the Spanish albums charts for the first time, since it failed to do it at the time of the release. Worldwide the album has sold more than 10 million copies. Legacy Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that with the album, Madonna began her career as a disco diva, in an era that did not have any such divas to speak of. In the beginning of the 80s, disco was an anathema to the mainstream pop, and according to him, Madonna had a huge role in popularizing dance music as mainstream music, utilizing her charisma, chutzpah and sex appeal. Erlewine claimed that Madonna "launched dance-pop" and set the standard for the genre for the next two decades. The staff of Vice magazine stated that the album "drew the blueprint for future dance-pop." Rolling Stone ranked the album at number 50 on "The 100 Best Albums of the Eighties" list, writing that "[the album's] assured style and sound, as well as Madonna's savvy approach to videos, helped the singer make the leap from dance diva to pop phenom, and it pointed the direction for a host of female vocalists from Janet Jackson to Debbie Gibson." In 2013, they ranked it as the 96th best debut album of all time, saying "it succeed in introducing the most important female voice in the history of modern music". According to biographer Andrew Morton, the album made Madonna a household name, and was instrumental in introducing her star power. Martin Charles Strong, author of The Great Rock Discography felt that the album's unprecedented dance-pop and naive appeal served Madonna in establishing her base as an artist. Kyle Anderson from Entertainment Weekly commented: "Madonna's sound, and of course her look, would be heavily copied for years to come, but Madonna heralded something much bigger: the arrival of the pop diva as a singular force who put personality above all else." According to author Santiago Fouz-Hernández, the songs on Madonna reveal several key trends that have continued to define her success, including a strong dance-based idiom, catchy hooks, highly polished arrangement and Madonna's own vocal style. In songs such as "Lucky Star" and "Burning Up", Madonna introduced a style of upbeat dance music that would prove particularly appealing to future gay audiences. Music critics Bob Batchelor and Scott Stoddart, commented in their book The 1980s that "the music videos for the singles off the album, was more effective in introducing Madonna to the rest of the world." Author Carol Clerk said that the music videos of "Burning Up", "Borderline" and "Lucky Star" established Madonna, not as the girl-next-door, but as a sassy and smart, tough funny woman. Her clothes worn in the videos were later used by designers like Karl Lagerfeld and Christian Lacroix, in Paris Fashion week of the same year. Professor Douglas Kellner, in his book Media Culture: Cultural Studies, Identity, and Politics Between the Modern and the Postmodern, commented that the videos depicted motifs and strategies which helped Madonna in her journey to become a star. With the "Borderline" music video, Madonna was credited for breaking the taboo of interracial relationships, and it was considered one of her career-making moments. MTV played the video in heavy rotation, increasing Madonna's popularity further. Following the release of the album, Madonna was dismissed by some critics. They called her voice sounding as "Minnie Mouse on helium", while the other detractors suggested that she was "almost entirely helium, a gas-filled, lighter-than-air creation of MTV and other sinister media packagers." Madonna said: "From the very beginning of my career, people have been writing shit about me and saying, 'She's a one-hit wonder, she'll disappear after a year'." She responded to the comment "Minnie Mouse on helium" by doing a photoshoot with Alberto Tolot, where she flirted with a giant Mickey Mouse toy, putting its hand inside her dress and looking at it with an admonishing glare. Author Debbi Voller noted that "such provocative imagery at a young age of her career, could have hurt her too much. But it went on to shut those twerps who dared to take a swag at her voice again." Twenty-five years later, in her acceptance speech of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction, Madonna thanked the critics who snubbed her in the early years, "The ones that said I was talentless, that I was chubby, that I couldn't sing, that I was a one-hit wonder. They pushed me to be better, and I am grateful for their resistance." Track listing Notes signifies a remix by John "Jellybean" Benitez "Burning Up" (alternate album version) – 4:48 appeared on early pressings of the album and was used for the vinyl edition of Madonna: The First Album, released in Europe in 1985. "Everybody" - 6:02 replaces the original album version, which fades a minute earlier, with its full length version on pressings 2001 onwards. Formats Vinyl, Cassette, CD – includes the 8-track album Vinyl (1985) – Reissued in Europe with new artwork and renamed as Madonna: The First Album. This format uses the alternate album version of "Burning Up". Also released as a limited edition with fold-out poster of the cover minus typography. CD (2001 & 2020) – Remastered 10-track edition includes all tracks from the original album and two bonus remixes of "Burning Up" and "Lucky Star". This version includes full length version of "Everybody" – 6:02. This version replaced the 1985 international re-release and reverted the album back to its original artwork and title in those territories. Digital download (2005) – Same tracks as the 2001 remastered version, except erroneously uses "Borderline" U.S. remix and "Holiday" is a 3:51 edited version of The Immaculate Collection remix. Personnel Adapted from the album's liner notes. Madonna – lead vocals, background vocals, cowbell Tina B. – background vocals Christine Faith – background vocals Dean Gant – synthesizer, piano, electric piano Gwen Guthrie – background vocals Curtis Hudson – guitar Raymond Hudson – bass Anthony Jackson – electric bass Bashiri Johnson – percussion Reggie Lucas – guitar Bob Malach – tenor saxophone Paul Pesco – guitar Ira Siegel – guitar Ed Walsh – synthesizer Brenda White – background vocals Norma Jean Wright – background vocals Fred Zarr – synthesizer, piano, drums, electric piano, Moog synthesizer, Fender Rhodes, Moog bass Production Reggie Lucas – producer John "Jellybean" Benitez – producer, remixer Mark Kamins – producer Jim Dougherty – sound engineer Butch Jones – sound engineer Bob Blank – sound engineer Ted Jensen – audio mastering Design Carin Goldberg – art direction Gary Heery – photography George Holy – photography (Madonna – The First Album) Record company Sire Records – record label, U.S. copyright owner Warner Bros. Records – U.S. marketing and distributor record label, copyright owner WEA International – international distributor, international copyright owner Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications and sales See also List of best-selling albums by women Notes References Bibliography External links 1983 debut albums Madonna (entertainer) albums Sire Records albums Warner Records albums Albums recorded at Sigma Sound Studios Post-disco albums

Battle of Hong Kong

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The Battle of Hong Kong (8–25 December 1941), also known as the Defence of Hong Kong and the Fall of Hong Kong, was one of the first battles of the Pacific War in World War II. On the same morning as the attack on Pearl Harbor, forces of the Empire of Japan attacked the British Crown colony of Hong Kong, without declaring war against the British Empire. The Hong Kong garrison consisted of British, Indian and Canadian units, also the Auxiliary Defence Units and Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Corps (HKVDC). Within a week the defenders abandoned the mainland and less than two weeks later, with their position on the island untenable, the colony surrendered. Background Britain first thought of Japan as a threat with the ending of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1921, a threat that increased throughout the 1930s with the escalation of the Second Sino-Japanese War. On 21 October 1938 the Japanese occupied Canton (Guangzhou) and Hong Kong was surrounded. British defence studies concluded that Hong Kong would be extremely hard to defend in the event of a Japanese attack, but in the mid-1930s work began on improvements to defences including along the Gin Drinkers' Line. By 1940, the British determined to reduce the Hong Kong Garrison to only a symbolic size. Air Chief Marshal Sir Robert Brooke-Popham, the Commander-in-Chief of the British Far East Command argued that limited reinforcements could allow the garrison to delay a Japanese attack, gaining time elsewhere. Winston Churchill and the general staff named Hong Kong as an outpost, and decided against sending more troops. In September 1941, they reversed their decision and argued that additional reinforcements would provide a military deterrent against the Japanese and reassure Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek that Britain was serious about defending the colony. The plan for the defence of Hong Kong was that a delaying action would be fought in the New Territories and Kowloon peninsula to allow the destruction of vital infrastructure and stores there. The Gin Drinker's Line was expected to hold out for at least three weeks, following which all defenders would withdraw to Hong Kong Island which would be defended and use of the harbour denied until reinforcements could arrive from Singapore or the Philippines. According to the history manual of the United States Military Academy: "Japanese control of Canton, Hainan Island, French Indo-China, and Formosa virtually sealed the fate of Hong Kong well before the firing of the first shot". The British military in Hong Kong grossly underestimated the capabilities of the Japanese forces and downplayed assessments that the Japanese posed a serious threat as 'unpatriotic' and 'insubordinate'. US Consul Robert Ward, the highest ranking US official posted to Hong Kong in the period preceding the outbreak of hostilities, offered a first-hand explanation for the rapid collapse of defences in Hong Kong by saying that the local British community had insufficiently prepared itself or the Chinese populace for war besides highlighting the prejudiced attitudes held by those governing the Crown Colony of Hong Kong: "several of them (the British rulers) said frankly that they would rather turn the island over to the Japanese rather than to turn it over to the Chinese, by which they meant rather than employ Chinese to defend the colony they would surrender it to the Japanese". According to Ward, "when the real fighting came it was the British soldiery that broke and ran. The Eurasians fought well and so did the Indians but the Kowloon line broke when the Royal Scots gave way. The same thing happened on the mainland." Colonel Reynolds Condon, a US Army assistant military attaché who witnessed the battle and was taken prisoner by the Japanese, wrote up his observations on military preparedness before the commencement of hostilities and on the execution of operations thereafter. Order of battle Allied order of battle Indian Army The 5/7th Battalion, Rajput Regiment took up garrison at Hong Kong in June 1937 followed by the 2/14th Battalion, Punjab Regiment in November 1940. Indian troops were also incorporated within several overseas regiments as for example the Hong Kong Singapore Royal Artillery Regiment which had Indian (Sikh) gunners. The Hong Kong Mule Corps was staffed almost entirely by Dogras and Punjabi Muslims. Medical personnel from the Indian Medical Service tended to those injured in combat. Ex-servicemen from India serving as security guards in Hong Kong also suffered "appallingly huge" casualties. Hong Kong and Singapore Royal Artillery Coastal defence batteries, including those at Stonecutters Island, Pak Sha Wan, Lyemun fort, Saiwan, Mount Collinson, Mount Parker, Belchers, Mount Davis, Jubilee Hill, Bokara, and Stanley, provided artillery support for ground operations until they were put out of action or they surrendered. Hong Kong and Singapore Royal Artillery, which was raised with troops recruited from Undivided India, also suffered heavy casualties during the Battle of Hong Kong and are commemorated with names inscribed on panels at the entrance to Sai Wan War Cemetery: 144 killed, 45 missing and 103 wounded. Canadian Army (C Force) In late 1941, the British government accepted an offer by the Canadian Government to send a battalion of the Royal Rifles of Canada (from Quebec) and one of the Winnipeg Grenadiers (from Manitoba) and a brigade headquarters (1,975 personnel) to reinforce the Hong Kong garrison. "C Force", as it was known, arrived on 16 November on board the troopship and the armed merchant cruiser . A total of 96 officers, two Auxiliary Services supervisors and 1,877 other ranks disembarked. Included were two medical officers and two nurses (supernumerary to the regimental medical officers), two Canadian Dental Corps officers with assistants, three chaplains and a detachment of the Canadian Postal Corps. A soldier of the Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps (RCAMC), had stowed away and was sent back to Canada. The Royal Rifles had served only in the Dominion of Newfoundland and New Brunswick, prior to posting to Hong Kong. The Winnipeg Grenadiers had been deployed to Jamaica. Few Canadian soldiers had field experience, but were nearly fully equipped. However, the battalions had only two anti-tank rifles, and no ammunition for 2-inch and 3-inch mortars or for signal pistols. These were intended to be supplied after they arrived in Hong Kong. Nor did C Force receive its vehicles, as the US merchant ship San Jose carrying them was, at the outbreak of the Pacific War, diverted to Manila, in the Philippine Islands, at the request of the US Government. Royal Navy The Royal Navy presence at Hong Kong was little more than a token display of defence, with three World War I vintage destroyers, four river gunboats, a new but almost unarmed minelayer and the 2nd Motor Torpedo Boat Flotilla. Royal Marines There were 40 Royal Marines attached to HMS Tamar (a shore station). When the battle began, the Royal Marines fought against Japanese forces in Magazine Gap, alongside HKVDC and Royal Engineers. Commanding officer, Major Giles RM instructed his men to defend the island "to the last man and last round". Royal Air Force The Royal Air Force station at Hong Kong's Kai Tak Airport (RAF Kai Tak) had only five aeroplanes: two Supermarine Walrus amphibious aircraft and three out-dated Vickers Vildebeest torpedo-reconnaissance bombers, flown and serviced by seven officers and 108 airmen. An earlier request for a fighter squadron had been rejected and the nearest fully operational RAF base was in Kota Bharu, Malaya, nearly away. Other forces The Chinese Military Mission to Hong Kong, initiated in 1938, was headed by Rear Admiral Chan Chak and his aide Lieutenant Commander Henry Hsu. It had the objective of co-ordinating Chinese war aims with the British in Hong Kong. Working with the British police, Chan organized pro-British agents among the population and rooted out triad factions that were sympathetic to the Japanese. A squad of Free French under Captain Jacques Egal, of the Free French in Shanghai who happened to be in Hong Kong when the battle broke out, fought alongside the HKVDC at the North Point power station. They were all World War I veterans (as were the local HKVDC) and acquitted themselves well. Battle New Territories and Kowloon Defending the New Territories were the 2nd Battalion, Royal Scots in the west, the 2/14th Punjab in the center and the 5/7th Rajput in the east. In front of them was a thin screen of 2/14th Punjab infantry supported by four Bren Gun Carriers and two armored cars and engineers at Sheung Shui and Tai Po. At 04:45 on 8 December 1941 (Hong Kong Time), three hours after the Attack on Pearl Harbor (difference in time and date is due to the day shift that occurs because of the International date line) Radio Tokyo announced that war was imminent and General Maltby and Governor Young were informed. At 05:00 the engineers detonated their charges destroying bridges on likely invasion routes. Japanese forces had been assembling north of the Sham Chun River since the beginning of December. The Japanese attack began at 06:00 when the IJA 230th, 229th and 228th Regiments (arranged from west to east) crossed the Sham Chun River. In the west the 230th Regiment advanced towards Yuen Long, Castle Peak Bay and Tai Mo Shan. In the center the 229th Regiment advanced from Sha Tau Kok towards Chek Nai Ping and across Tide Cove to Tai Shui Hang. In the east the 228th Regiment crossed at Lok Ma Chau and Lo Wu and advanced towards Lam Tsuen and Needle Hill. At 08:00 the Japanese bombed Kai Tak Airport. Two of the three Vildebeest and the two Walruses were destroyed by 12 Japanese bombers. The attack also destroyed several civil aircraft including all but two of the aircraft used by the air unit of the Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Corps. The RAF and air unit personnel from then fought on as ground troops. The Pan-Am Airways flying boat "Hong Kong Clipper" was dive-bombed and destroyed. The Japanese also bombed Sham Shui Po Barracks causing minimal damage. The first significant exchanges of fire were at 15:00 when 2/14th Punjab engaged the IJA who had crossed into Laffan's Plain. 2/14th Punjab eliminated several IJA platoons at 18:30 just south of Tai Po and HKVDC armored cars and Bren Gun Carriers also successfully engaged IJA forces. Despite these successes the 2/14th Punjab withdrew towards Grassy Hill in the afternoon to avoid being outflanked and the IJA forces advanced down the Tai Po Road towards Sha Tin. Late that night all units were ordered to withdraw to the Gin Drinker's Line. On 9 December the 2nd Royal Scots held in the west, a reserve company of the 5/7th Rajputs moved forward to Smuggler's Ridge, the HKVDC held Fo Tan and the 2/14th Pujab held at Tide Cove. By 13:00 the IJA 228th Regiment had reached Needle Hill and its commander Colonel Doi was reconnoitring the Shing Mun Redoubt area of the Gin Drinker's Line which he found to be unprepared for an attack. Despite the area being outside of his regimental boundary he developed an attack plan and began moving his men into position. The redoubt was defended by A Company, 2nd Royal Scots supplemented by other units giving a total strength of three officers and 39 soldiers. The defenders and the nearby D Company, 5/7th Rajputs conducted patrols north of the redoubt and around Needle Hill but failed to detect the two IJA battalions in the area or the 150 man attacking force which had crossed the Jubilee Dam and was in position just below one of the redoubt's pillboxes. At 23:00 the defenders detected movement and opened fire as the IJA began their attack. As the Japanese progressively overran the complex of trenches and tunnels, many of the defenders found themselves locked in the redoubt's artillery observation post (OP). Pillbox 402 was destroyed by IJA sappers at 02:30 on the 10th and the rest of the 3/228th Regiment joined the assault moving through the redoubt and into valley, running into the 5/7th Rajputs who were moving to support the redoubt. The 5/7th Rajputs forced the Japanese back towards the redoubt. The Japanese eventually blew open the OP, capturing the 15 survivors. Artillery at Stonecutter's Island and Mount Davis pounded the redoubt until 05:00, but apart from one position which held out until the afternoon the redoubt was lost. The IJA had lost two soldiers in the attack. At 21:30 on the 9th and HMS Scout were ordered to leave Hong Kong for Singapore, successfully evading the IJN blockade. Only one destroyer, HMS Thracian, several gunboats and a flotilla of MTBs remained. Between 8 and 10 December, eight American plus a number of Chinese pilots of the China National Aviation Corporation (CNAC) and their crews flew 16 sorties between Kai Tak Airport and landing fields in Namyung and Chongqing (Chungking), the wartime capital of the Republic of China. The crews evacuated 275 persons including Mme Sun Yat-Sen, the widow of Sun Yat-sen and the Chinese Finance Minister Kung Hsiang-hsi. On 10 December the IJA 228th Regiment continued to move troops into the Shing Mun Redoubt while sending out small patrols along the rest of the line, but otherwise failed to capitalize on their success. Maltby saw the loss of the redoubt as a disaster that undermined the entire defensive line and the 2nd Royal Scots were ordered to counterattack at dawn on the 11th, but their commander Lieutenant Colonel S. White refused on the basis that it had no chance of success. At dawn on the 11th the IJA 228th Regiment attacked Golden Hill and were engaged by the 5/7th Rajputs supported by fire from HMS Cicala. D Company, 2nd Royal Scots counterattacked and regained the hill. At midday, Maltby having decided that the New Territories and Kowloon were untenable and that the defense of Hong Kong island was the priority, ordered the evacuation of all his forces. Demolition works were carried out and the 2nd Royal Scots and supporting forces withdrew south to Sham Shui Po Barracks and Jordan pier, while the 5/7th Rajputs withdrew to Ma Yau Tong where they would hold Devil's Peak peninsula protecting the narrow Lye Moon Passage. The guns on Stonecutter's Island were destroyed and the base abandoned that night. Also on the morning of the 11th the IJA landed on Lamma Island and were engaged by guns of Jubilee Battery and Aberdeen Battery. That afternoon the Japanese attempted a landing near Aberdeen Island but were driven off by machine gun fire. The 2/14th Punjab were to join the Rajputs on the Ma Yau Tong line, but during their march on the night of 11/12 December became split up, with one group reaching the Devil's Peak area while the other descended into Kai Tak and marched into Kowloon on the morning of the 12th, where they were engaged by the IJA 3/320th Regiment which had infiltrated into the area. The Punjabis fought their way down to Tsim Sha Tsui and were evacuated by Star Ferry. HMS Tamar was scuttled in the harbor to prevent its use by the Japanese. On the night of the 12th the 5/7th Rajputs withdrew from Ma Yau Tong further down the Devil's Peak peninsula and at 04:00 on the 13th they began boarding boats to take them to Hong Kong island with the evacuation being completed by the morning of 13 December 1941. Hong Kong Island Maltby organised the defence of the island, splitting it between an East Brigade and a West Brigade. The West Brigade commanded by Brigadier John K. Lawson had its headquarters at the top of Wong Nai Chung Gap, a strategic passage between the north and south of the island. The West Brigade comprised the 2/14th Punjab covering the shoreline from Causeway Bay to Belcher's Point; the Winnipeg Grenadiers defended the southwest corner of the island and Lawson's headquarters; the Middlesex Regiment was dispersed across 72 pillboxes along the island shoreline; the 2nd Royal Scots reinforced by the HKVDC were held in reserve at Wanchai Gap; and the HKVDC had companies located at High West, Mt Davis, Pinewood Battery, Magazine Gap, Jardine's Lookout and Aberdeen Naval Base. The East Brigade commanded by Brigadier Cedric Wallis had its headquarters at Tai Tam Gap. The East Brigade comprised the 5/7th Rajputs holding pillboxes along the northeast shoreline with a company and their headquarters in the hills behind Taikoo Dockyard and a reserve company in Tai Hang; the Royal Rifles of Canada defended the island's northeast all the way around to Stanley; and two companies of the HKVDC were located at Tai Tam and Pottinger Gap. On the morning of 13 December a Japanese delegation crossed the harbor to offer terms of surrender, which were rejected. The Japanese then began an artillery bombardment of Hong Kong Island disabling one of the 9.2-inch guns on Mt Davis and hitting Belcher's Fort in Pok Fu Lam. On the 14th Japanese artillery destroyed a 3-inch gun at Mt Davis. On the 15th Japanese artillery moved to targeting pillboxes and other defensive positions along the shoreline. The Japanese mounted six air attacks on positions on the west of island and bomb damage forced the abandonment of Pinewood Battery. On the morning of the 17th the Japanese again offered terms of surrender which were rejected. That night a reconnaissance team from the IJA 3/229th Regiment successfully explored the Taikoo area. The IJA had moved its forces closer to Hong Kong Island with the 23rd Army headquarters at Tai Po and the 38th Division near Kai Tak. On 18 December the Japanese bombardment of the island shoreline increased and the oil storage tanks were hit. The IJA forces were organized into two assault units: the west assault unit comprised the 228th and 230th Regiments and would leave from the Kai Tak area; and the east assault unit comprised the 229th Regiment (less 1/229th held as Divisional reserve) and would leave from the Devil's Peak area. The attack order was issued at 18:00 and at 20:00 the first wave from the 2/228th and 3/230th began paddling towards the Taikoo Dockyard and sugar refinery under cover of artillery fire. As they approached the shore the boats were illuminated by searchlights and fired on by the 5/7th Rajputs. The boats scattered and both battalion commanders were wounded so Colonel Doi crossing with the second wave assumed command of the assault. At 21:40 the artillery barrage moved to targets further inshore and at 21:45 the 3/230th landed at North Point, followed by the 2/228th. At 21:38 the 2/229th landed at Sai Wan and the 3/229th landed at Aldrich Bay. By midnight all six IJA battalions were ashore, but were held up on the beaches by barbed wire, fire from the 5/7th Rajputs and the general confusion of night operations. The Japanese eventually moved inshore overwhelming the Rajputs, bypassing or destroying the strongpoints as they generally headed towards the high ground. Maltby believing that the landing only comprised two battalions and was a diversion for a direct assault across the harbor on Victoria sent minimal reinforcements to block any IJA movement west towards Victoria and five HKVDC armored cars to protect the East Brigade headquarters. The 2/230th moved west towards Victoria but was stopped by an HKVDC, Free French and miscellaneous force in the North Point Power Station led by Major John Johnstone Paterson. Radioing for assistance, Maltby sent an HKVDC armored car and a platoon from the 1st Middlesex, but they were ambushed on the way and only nine men made it to the station. The Japanese then directed artillery fire on the station and the surviving defenders withdrew at 01:45 continuing to fight the Japanese on Electric Road and King's Road until all were killed or captured. In the early hours of 19 December the IJA 3/229th moved uphill towards Mt Parker, while the 2/229th moved southeast towards the Lyemun fortifications. The 2/229th engaged a platoon of the Royal Rifles sent to check on A Company of the Rajputs and then quickly overwhelmed the Fort's garrison. The 2/229th then captured Sai Wan Battery killing six gunners from the HKVDC 5th Anti-Aircraft Battery and then proceeded to bayonet 20 prisoners, with only two surviving. The Royal Rifles attempted to retake the Victorian era Sai Wan Fort with two platoons, but were unable to scale the walls and lost nine killed. A company from the 2/229th entered the Salesian Mission in Shau Kei Wan, which was being used as a dressing station and they proceeded to kill all those inside, however four men survived. According to Captain Stanley Martin Banfill of the Royal Rifles, who witnessed his men being executed, the leading Japanese officer stated that "Order is all captives must die". The rest of the 2/229th were engaged by C Company, Royal Rifles who inflicted heavy casualties, but the Japanese were able to move past the Canadian while also inflicting heavy losses forcing C Company to withdraw leaving only A Company on Mt Parker. At 03:00 a platoon from D Company was sent to reinforce Mt Parker, but they became lost in the dark and only arrived at 07:30 to find over 100 Japanese on Mt Parker and A Company withdrawing and so Mt Parker was abandoned to the Japanese. In addition to East Brigade's infantry losses, the coastal batteries at Cape D'Aguilar and Cape Collinson were abandoned, while a number of 965 Battery's guns were destroyed in error or left to the Japanese. Wallis withdrew his headquarters from Tai Tam Gap to Stanley. In the West Brigade area Lawson sent three platoons from the Winnipeg Grenadiers forward to block the IJA advance from their landing sites, deploying one platoon on each of Jardine's Lookout and Mt Butler and one forward on Wong Nei Chung Gap Road. Meanwhile, the 3/230th was advancing along Sir Cecil's Ride on the side of Jardine's Lookout, the 2/230th towards Jardine's Lookout, the 2/228th advanced on the other side of Jardine's Lookout, the 1/228th moved through Quarry Gap and the 3/229th advanced up Tai Tam Reservoir Road. The Japanese swept aside the weak infantry screens and while pillboxes inflicted casualties the Japanese were able to bypass such strongpoints and captured Jardine's Lookout. At 06:20 Pillbox PB1 occupied by No. 3 Company, HKVDC fired on an estimated 400 IJA advancing along Sir Cecil's Ride. Several IJA battlions advancing along the catchwaters captured the anti-aircraft positions on Tai Tam Reservoir Road east of Wong Nei Chung Gap, after a heavy firefight. In the early morning Lawson brought forward A Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers to recapture Jardine's Lookout and they then successfully retook Jardine's Lookout, but only for a couple of hours before the hill fell after an intense artillery bombardment and frontal assaults by IJA 230th and 228th Regiment. The IJA forces descended from Wong Nei Chung Reservoir and attacked the police station and Postbridge House at the summit of Wong Nei Chung Gap. By 07:00 the 3/230th closed in on the West Brigade headquarters, Maltby sent A Company, 2nd Royal Scots to reinforce them approaching up Wong Nei Chung Gap Road, but only 15 men made it through while a group of sailors approaching from the south up Repulse Bay Road were also ambushed. The 3/230th cleared out positions south and east of the headquarters despite fire from HKSRA artillery in Happy Valley. At 10:00 Lawson radioed that his headquarters were surrounded and that he was "going outside to shoot it out", he and his entire command group were then hit by Japanese machine gun fire from across the gap and Lawson died of blood loss on the hill behind his bunker. By midday only elements of D Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers and British and Chinese engineers held positions above the West Brigade Headquarters, while Pillboxes PB 1 and PB 2 on the lower slopes of Jardine's Lookout continued to resist. At 08:45 six MTBs assembled off Green Island and then moved east in pairs into Hong Kong Harbour to attack boats transporting IJA soldiers across the harbour. As they neared Kowloon Bay MTB 7 attacked three Japanese boats, sinking two and damaging others before being disabled by Japanese fire and towed out by MTB 2. MTB 9 damaged a further four Japanese boats. At 13:30 Maltby issued Operation Order No. 6 for a general counterattack to commence at 15:00. A and D Companies, 2/14th Punjab were to attack east towards North Point to relieve the HKVDC still holding out there, however the order never reached them. Headquarters Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers, the rest of 2/14th Punjab and the 2nd Royal Scots were to attack east from Middle Gap towards Wong Nei Chung Gap, but the Royal Scots were late and so the HQ Company moved along the front of Mt Nicholson separately. D Company, 2nd Royal Scots and D Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers were then ordered to advance up Wong Nei Chung Gap Road, but were hit by Japanese fire from Jardine's Lookout and were pinned down for the rest of the day. By 18:00 PB1 and PB2 were abandoned. At 22:00 a Japanese counterattack on Mt Butler was repulsed by A Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers. At 02:00 on the 20th the Royal Scots attacked the police station at the top of Wong Nei Chung Gap, but were repulsed as was another attack an hour later. An attack on Jardine's Lookout by C Company, 2nd Royal Scots also failed. Maltby ordered Headquarters Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers to advance on Wong Nei Chung Gap, but they suffered heavy casualties before being stopped 300m short of the road, they then moved back along Black's Link and encountered approximately 500 unprepared Japanese and proceeded to attack them. At 15:00, after exhausting their ammunition, A Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers on Mt Butler surrendered to the Japanese, however in a final exchange of fire Sergeant-major John Robert Osborn smothered a Japanese grenade with his body, an action for which he was later posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross. By 17:45 elements of the HKSRA under Major Edward De Vere were ordered to attack the police station. The attack was launched at 22:00 supported by two armored cars. This attack was successful and the unit managed to recapture the police station , but only for a few hours until the Japanese captured the police station using reinforcements from Stanley Gap( the old name for the Tai Tam Reservoir Road. The new West Brigade commander Colonel H.B. Rose of the HKVDC developed a plan to retake the Gap using 2nd Royal Scots and the Winnipeg Grenadiers. B Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers was brought from Pok Fu Lam in the afternoon, but was unable to locate the 2nd Royal Scots who had inexplicably moved off the eastern slopes of Mt Nicholson. This lapse allowed Colonel Doi to order three companies of the 1/228th to occupy Mt Nicholson in the afternoon under cover of a rain storm. B Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers moved in two columns in the dark and rain around the north and south of Mt Nicholson, meeting up above the gap which was to be their starting point for the next day's attack. However they were then engaged by the Japanese and all their officers and NCOs and 29 men became casualties and they retreated around the north of Mt Nicholson. Elsewhere on the 20th, the 2nd and 3rd battalions, 229th Regiment had advanced down the Tytam Road and captured the X roads, Red Hill and Bridge Hill. They captured the 4.5 inch battery at Red Hill, which was abandoned the previous day. A handful of British civilians who were at the nearby pumping station were blindfolded and bayonetted at the beach in front of the pumping station. Meanwhile, the Japanese in the area south of Tai Tam Reservoir and into the hills above Repulse Bay where they encountered a company from the Royal Rifles and two HKVDC platoons preparing to attack towards Wong Hei Chung Gap from Violet Hill. Maltby sent A Company, 2/14th Punjab to support the forces in Repulse Bay, but they were engaged by a Japanese force on Shouson Hill and were forced to retreat with their commander Colonel Kidd killed in the action. Further east the 1/229th and 2/228th advanced from Tai Tam and Sai Wan towards Stanley. HMS Cicala which had been providing gunfire support in Deep Water Bay was hit by Japanese bombers and sank in the Lamma Channel. At 09:15 on the 21st Wallis launched a new attack into Tai Tam to try to reach Wong Nei Chung Gap, with D Company, Royal Rifles, No. 1 Company, HKVDC, a medium machine gun section and two Bren Gun Carriers advancing from Stanley Mound. They were soon hit by Japanese mortar fire from Red Hill and then engaged by infantry from 1/229th and 1/230th on Bridge Hill and Red Hill. By 1400 hours, the Commonwealth forces managed to capture the summit of Bridge Hill, the X roads and the summit of Red Hill. The Japanese quickly rushed reinforcements from Tai Tam Gap, such as two Type 94 Tankettes. These tankettes were fired upon by a British machine gun on Bridge Hill, and the tankettes retreated back to Tai Tam Gap. Even of this success, by 17:00 all the officers in the Commonwealth counterattacking force had been wounded and the force withdrew towards Stanley. On the north shore elements of the 230th Regiment pushed west reaching Victoria Park, while Japanese artillery bombarded the Naval Dockyard. Maltby ordered a further attack on Wong Nei Chung Gap by a force comprising four platoons, but when the commanded saw the IJA forces in the area he cancelled the attack. On the 22nd the 2/229th moved west from Shouson Hill and captured PB14 on the shore of Deepwater Bay from elements of the 1st Middlesex and then proceeded to behead all the prisoners. Two battalions of the 229th attacked the Repulse Bay Hotel while the 1/229th and 1/230th pushed the remnants on East Brigade back into the Stanley peninsula. The East Brigade formed three defensive lines: the first line was composed of elements of the 1st Middlesex, three companies of the Royal Rifles and one company of the HKVDC supported by one 2-pounder gun; the second line at Stanley Village comprised two companies of the 1st Middlesex, a company of the HKVDC and the Stanley company of the HKVDC supported by two 18-pounder and 2-pounder guns; and at Stanley Fort were two HKVDC artillery batteries and two Royal Artillery batteries with two 18-pounder, two 3.7-inch and 9.2-inch and 6-inch coastal guns. On the north shore West Brigade forces struggled to hold the line from Causeway Bay, through Leighton Hill, Happy Valley and Mount Cameron down to Bennett's Hill on the south of the island. At midday the Japanese attacked Stanley Mound and Sugarloaf Hill defended by units of the Royal Rifles, after repulsing several attacks, low ammunition forced the defenders to withdraw. The Japanese began their assault on the southern flank of Mt Cameron inflicting severe losses on B Company, 2/14th Punjab, but the penetration was stopped by a counterattack by B Company, 4/7th Rajputs. In the north, after intensive artillery bombardment the Japanese broke through the defensive line south of Leighton Hill at 22:00, forcing the defenders to start abandoning their positions and retreat west to avoid encirclement. At 08:00 on the 23rd the 5/7th Rajputs fell back leaving the 1st Middlesex units on Leighton Hill isolated and the Japanese bombarded them with mortar fire. Meanwhile, the remaining defenders on the north shore retreated west to Mount Gough. With the main water reservoirs now controlled by the IJA and with artillery damage to pipes, water supplies began to run out. On the 24th the Royal Rifles were withdrawn to the defensive lines at Stanley. The IJA forces attacked down the Tai Tam Road but were repulsed. A second attack began at 21:00 supported by three Type 94 tankettes, two of which were destroyed by 2-pounder fire. The outer defensive line broke and No 2 Company HKVDC was forced back to Stanley Village with heavy losses. At midnight the Japanese pedrt. On the north shore the 230th Regiment advanced through Wanchai, meeting resistance at the China Fleet Club but this was soon overcome and the regiment advanced on the dockyard. In Happy Valley the remnants of the 5/7th Rajputs were pushed back from the Happy Valley Racecourse, off Mount Parish and out of Wanchai Market. Fall of Hong Kong On Christmas morning, Young informed Chan of his intent to surrender. Chan intended to break out and was given command of the five remaining MTBs; 68 men, including Chan, Hsu, and David Mercer MacDougall were successfully evacuated to Mirs Bay where they contacted Nationalist guerrillas and were escorted to Huizhou. For this feat Chan was made an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire. By the afternoon of 25 December 1941, it was clear that further resistance would be futile and at 15:30 Governor Young and General Maltby surrendered in person to General Sakai at the Japanese headquarters on the third floor of the Peninsula Hotel. At Stanley, Wallis refused to surrender without a written order and this was received by him at 02:30 on the 26th. Isolated pockets held out even longer, the Central Ordnance Munitions Depot (known as "Little Hong Kong") surrendered on 27 December. This was the first occasion on which a British Crown Colony had surrendered to an invading force. The garrison had held out for 17 days. This day is known in Hong Kong as "Black Christmas". Aftermath Casualties The Japanese officially reported 675 men killed and 2,079 wounded; western estimates go as high as 1,895 dead and 6,000 casualties overall. Allied casualties were 1,111 men killed, 1,167 missing and 1,362 wounded (sources vary; other figures given include 1,045 killed, 1,068 missing and 2,300 wounded, as well as 1,560 killed or missing). Allied dead, including British, Canadian and Indian soldiers, were eventually interred at Sai Wan Military Cemetery and the Stanley Military Cemetery. Total battle casualties of "Indian Other Ranks" is given to be 1164 out of a total of 3893 military personnel from India who were garrisoned in Hong Kong. The 5/7 Rajput bore the heaviest losses recorded amongst the 6 combat regiments during the battle of Hong Kong: 156 killed in action or died from wounds, 113 missing, and 193 wounded. The 2/14 Punjab had 55 killed in action or died from wounds, 69 missing, and 161 wounded. C Force casualties in the battle were 23 officers and 267 other ranks killed or died of wounds, including five officers and 16 other ranks of the brigade headquarters, seven officers and 123 men of the Royal Rifles and 11 officers and 128 men of the Winnipeg Grenadiers. C Force also had 28 officers and 465 men wounded. Some of the dead were murdered by Japanese soldiers during or after surrender. Japanese soldiers committed a number of atrocities on 19 December, when the aid post at the Salesian Mission near Sau Ki Wan was overrun. A total of 1,528 soldiers, mainly Commonwealth (predominantly Indians and Canadians), are either buried or commemorated there. There are also graves of other Allied combatants who died in the region during the war, including some Dutch sailors who were re-interred in Hong Kong after the war. At the end of February 1942, the Japanese government stated that numbers of prisoners of war in Hong Kong were: British 5,072, Canadian 1,689, Indian 3,829, others 357, a total of 10,947. They were sent to: Sham Shui Po POW Camp Argyle Street Camp for officers North Point Camp primarily for Canadians and Royal Navy Ma Tau Chung Camp for Indian soldiers Yokohama Camp in Japan Fukuoka Camp in Japan Osaka Camp in Japan Of the Canadians captured during the battle, 267 subsequently perished in Japanese prisoner of war camps, mainly due to neglect and abuse. In December 2011, Toshiyuki Kato, Japan's parliamentary vice-minister for foreign affairs, apologised for the mistreatment to a group of Canadian veterans of the Battle of Hong Kong. Civilians were interned at the Stanley Internment Camp. Initially, there were 2,400 internees although this number was reduced, by repatriations during the war. Interned persons who died and prisoners executed by the Japanese are buried in Stanley Military Cemetery. Massacres and other war crimes Three captured persons were executed at Quarry Bay, including a female air raid warden named Ada Baldwin who was with the local Air Raid Precautions (ARP). One private ( John Payne) and an Australian was captured by the Japanese in Kowloon on the 12th of December and executed. After the fall of the medical station near the West Brigade command post, ten stretcher bearers of the St. John Ambulance within the station were killed, as well as a policeman and a medic from the Royal Army Medical Corps. Four men of A Company Winnipeg Grenadiers were bayoneted after the battle at Jardine's Lookout. One grenadier, Private Kilfoyle, was killed on the forced march to North Point, according to witnesses. Four men were killed in the so-called "Black Hole of Hong Kong" a mess hut at the Wongneichong AA Battery, including two Canadian officers. Around thirty civilians of different ethnicities were massacred at No. 42 Blue Pool Road on 22 December. In the worst massacre of POWs of the battle, the Japanese killed at least 47 after taking The Ridge in Repulse Bay. Among the dead was Major Charles Sydney Clarke of China Command HQ, two men of the 12th and 20th Coastal Regiments of the Royal Artillery (RA), six men of the Royal Army Service Corps (RASC) and two of the Royal Canadian Army Service Corps (RCASC), nineteen men of the Royal Army Ordnance Corps (RAOC) and three of the Royal Canadian Ordnance Corps (RCOC) and fourteen men of the RASC Company of the HKVDC. The Japanese also executed at least fourteen captives at Overbays, men of the same units as at The Ridge but also including three Royal Rifles of Canada and an officer of the 1st Middlesex. A further seven were killed at Eucliffe and another 36 known victims cannot be placed precisely at one of the three locations (Ridge, Overbays, Eucliffe). Ride, who was present at the surrender, stated later that he saw fifty bodies lying by the road, including six Middlesex men among them. These men may have been some of those attached to the Hong Kong Chinese Regiment. The Commonwealth War Graves Commission report also states that five men of the Royal Air Force went missing near The Ridge on 20 December, perhaps captured and killed. Six men of the Middlesex were killed defending PB 14 at Deepwater Bay Ride (Lyon Light). Most of them were killed after capture via beheading. *At least six officers and a number of other men were killed after capture at Maryknoll Mission. Four members of the 8th Coastal Regiment RA may have been killed here as well; estimates of the number of men murdered vary from 11 to 16. Twelve nurses were raped at the emergency hospital at Happy Valley racecourse on 25 December. An estimated 10,000 Hong Kong civilians were executed, while many others were tortured, raped, or mutilated. Subsequent operations Isogai Rensuke became the first Japanese governor of Hong Kong. This ushered in the three years and eight months of Imperial Japanese administration. The 38th Infantry Division departed Hong Kong in January 1942. The Hong Kong Defence Force was established during the same month, and was the main Japanese military unit in Hong Kong throughout the occupation. During the over three and a half years of occupation by the Japanese, an estimated 10,000 Hong Kong civilians were executed, while many others were tortured, raped, or mutilated. The local population in the rural New Territories, a mix of Hakka, Cantonese and other Han Chinese groups, waged a guerrilla war with limited success. The resistance groups were known as the Gangjiu and Dongjiang forces. The Japanese razed several villages in reprisal; the guerillas fought until the end of the Japanese occupation. General Takashi Sakai, who led the invasion of Hong Kong and served as governor for some time, was tried as a war criminal and executed by a firing squad in 1946. Awards Battalions from both Indian Army regiments earned Battle Honours for the defence of Hong Kong. In his despatch, Major-General C. M. Maltby, wrote about the conduct of troops under his command in Hong Kong and mentions the 5/7 Rajput Regiment: "This battalion fought well on the mainland and their repulse of the enemy attack on Devil's Peak was entirely successful. The full force of the enemy's initial attack on the island fell on this battalion and they fought gallantly until they had suffered heavy casualties (100% of British Officers and most senior Indian Officers being lost) and were run over". Gander was a Newfoundland dog posthumously awarded the Dickin Medal, the "animals' Victoria Cross", in 2000 for his deeds in World War II, the first such award in over 50 years. He picked up a thrown Japanese hand grenade and rushed with it toward the enemy, dying in the ensuing explosion but saving the lives of several wounded Canadian soldiers. Colonel Lance Newnham, Captain Douglas Ford and Flight Lieutenant Hector Bertram Gray were awarded the George Cross for the gallantry they showed in resisting Japanese torture in the immediate aftermath of the battle. The men had been captured and were in the process of planning a mass escape by British forces. Their plan was discovered but they refused to disclose information under torture and were shot by firing squad. Captain Mateen Ansari of the 5/7th Rajput's was awarded the George Cross "for most conspicuous gallantry in carrying out hazardous work in a very brave manner". Despite numerous efforts by the Japanese to get him to renounce his allegiance to the British and assist them in spreading subversion amongst the Indian ranks held in Japanese POW camps (after the fall of the Colony), all efforts failed. Ansari was tortured and starved for over five months before being sentenced to death. He was executed by beheading on 20 October 1943. Commemoration The Cenotaph in Central commemorates the defence as well as war-dead from the First World War. The shield in the colonial Emblem of Hong Kong granted in 1959, featured the battlement design to commemorate the defence of Hong Kong during the Second World War. This Coat of Arms was in place until 1997, when it was replaced by the regional emblem. After the war, Lei Yue Mun Fort became a training ground for the British Forces until 1987, when it was vacated. In view of its historical significance and unique architectural features, the former Urban Council decided in 1993 to conserve and develop the fort into the Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence. The memorial garden at Hong Kong City Hall commemorates those who died in Hong Kong during World War II. Notes Footnotes Bibliography Books Journals Newspapers Websites Further reading External links Hong Kong Veterans Commemorative Association, Canada Hong Kong Category WW2 People's War BBC Official report by Major-General C. M. Maltby, G.O.C. Hong Kong Canadians at Hong Kong (archived from the original on 2008-05-28) (Archived version as of 24 August 2006) Hong Kong War Diary – Current research into the Battle Battle of Hong Kong Background and Battlefield Tour Points of Interest by Tony Banham Philip Doddridge, Memories Uninvited – "A fascinating story of a young man who finds himself caught up in the horrific battle for Hong Kong and the years of captivity he lived through after the battle was over on December 25th, 1941." Hong Kong's defences in 2019.

List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (nominal)

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Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of all final goods and services from a nation in a given year. Countries are sorted by nominal GDP estimates from financial and statistical institutions, which are calculated at market or government official exchange rates. Nominal GDP does not take into account differences in the cost of living in different countries, and the results can vary greatly from one year to another based on fluctuations in the exchange rates of the country's currency. Such fluctuations may change a country's ranking from one year to the next, even though they often make little or no difference in the standard of living of its population. List of nominal GDP for European countries in billion USD This is a sortable list of all European countries by their gross domestic product in US dollars at market or official government exchange rates (nominal GDP), according to the International Monetary Fund. The economic and political map of Europe also includes: Turkey, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Kosovo. See also List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe by GDP (PPP) List of U.S. states and territories by GDP List of metropolitan areas in the European Union by GDP List of European countries by budget revenues List of European countries by budget revenues per capita Economy of Europe World economy European Union OSCE countries statistics Sources International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, April 2016 edition International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, October 2016 edition References Europe GDP (nominal) GDP (nominal) GDP (nominal), List of European countries by Economy of Europe-related lists

Moro reflex

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The Moro reflex is an infantile reflex that develops between 28 and 32 weeks of gestation and disappears at 3–6 months of age. It is a response to a sudden loss of support and involves three distinct components: spreading out the arms (abduction) pulling the arms in (adduction) crying (usually) It is distinct from the startle reflex. Unlike the startle reflex, the Moro reflex does not decrease with repeated stimulation. The primary significance of the Moro reflex is in evaluating integration of the central nervous system. Eliciting the Moro reflex Ernst Moro elicited the Moro reflex by slapping the pillow on both sides of the infant's head. Other methods have been used since then, including rapidly lowering the infant (while supported) to a sudden stop and pinching the skin of the abdomen. Today, the most common method is the head drop, where the infant is supported in both hands and tilted suddenly so the head is a few centimeters lower than the level of the body. Clinical significance The Moro reflex may be observed in incomplete form in premature birth after the 25th week of gestation, and is usually present in complete form by week 30 (third trimester). Absence or asymmetry of either abduction or adduction by 2 to 3 months age can be regarded as abnormal, as can persistence of the reflex in infants older than 6 months. Furthermore, absence during the neonatal period may warrant assessment for the possibility of developmental complications such as birth injury or interference with brain formation. Asymmetry of the Moro reflex is especially useful to note, as it is almost always a feature of root, plexus, or nerve disease. The Moro reflex is impaired or absent in infants with kernicterus. An exaggerated Moro reflex can be seen in infants with severe brain damage that occurred in-utero, including microcephaly and hydrancephaly. Exaggeration of the Moro reflex, either due to low threshold or excessive clutching, often occurs in newborns with moderate hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. The Moro reflex is also exaggerated in infants withdrawing from narcotics. Persistence of the Moro reflex beyond 6 months of age is noted only in infants with severe neurological defects, including cerebral palsy. History The Moro reflex was first described in western medicine by Austrian pediatrician Ernst Moro (1874–1951) in 1918. Moro referred to it as the Umklammerungsreflex (embracing reflex). In this publication, he stated: "When a young infant is placed on the examination table and one taps with hands on both sides of the pillow, there follows a rapid symmetrical extending abduction of both extremities, which approach each other in adduction immediately thereafter". According to him, this reflex should disappear after the infant's first 3–6 months of life. Since then, the Moro reflex has been used to detect early neurological problems in infants. Absence or prolonged retention of Moro reflex can be signs that the infants need neurological attention. Function The Moro reflex may be a survival instinct to help the infant cling to its mother. If the infant lost its balance, the reflex caused the infant to embrace its mother and regain its hold on the mother’s body. References External links Medline Plus: Moro reflex Pathologic Moro Reflex in an adult following acute demyelinating lesion of unknown origin in the medulla oblongata (Neurology) Reflexes Obstetrics Neonatology Articles containing video clips

Add-on

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Software Plug-in (computing), a piece of software which enhances another software application and usually cannot be run independently Browser extension, which modifies the interface and/or behavior of web browsers Add-on (Mozilla), a piece of software that enhances and customizes Mozilla-based applications Expansion pack, a usually commercially distributed add-on for a video game (usually extended story line, new game areas or objInter Hardware Peripheral, an optional computer hardware component that significantly supplements or enhances the functionality of the original unit Video game accessory, a piece of hardware used in conjunction with a video game console for playing video games Other An extension to a house Addon, a person named in the Hebrew bible An adjuvant therapy, an add-on therapy to existing treatment See also Plug-in (disambiguation)

Violet Jessop

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Violet Constance Jessop (2 October 1887 – 5 May 1971) was an Argentine ocean liner stewardess, memoirist, and nurse who is known for having survived the sinkings of in 1912 and her sister ship in 1916. In addition, she had been onboard , the eldest of the three sister ships, when it collided with a British warship, , in 1911. She is often called the "Queen of sinking ships," as well as "Miss Unsinkable". Early life Born on 2 October 1887, near Bahía Blanca, Argentina, Violet Constance Jessop was the oldest daughter of Irish immigrants William and Katherine Jessop. She was the first of nine children, six of whom survived. Jessop spent much of her childhood caring for her younger siblings. She became very ill as a child with what is presumed to have been tuberculosis, which she survived despite doctors' predictions that her illness would be fatal. When Jessop was 16 years old, her father died of complications from surgery and her family moved to England, where she attended a convent school and cared for her youngest sister while her mother was at sea working as a stewardess. When her mother became ill, Jessop left school and, following in her mother's footsteps, applied to be a stewardess. Jessop had to dress down to make herself less attractive to be hired. At age 21, her first stewardess position was with the Royal Mail Line aboard the Orinoco in 1908. RMS Olympic In 1911, Jessop began working as a stewardess for the White Star vessel . Olympic was a luxury ship that was the largest civilian liner at that time. Jessop was on board on 20 September 1911, when Olympic left from Southampton and collided with the British warship . There were no fatalities and, despite damage, the ship was able to make it back to port without sinking. Jessop chose not to discuss this collision in her memoirs. She continued to work on Olympic until April 1912, when she was transferred to sister ship Titanic. RMS Titanic Jessop boarded as a stewardess on 10 April 1912, at age 24. Four days later, on 14 April, it struck an iceberg in the North Atlantic and sank about two hours and forty minutes after the collision. Jessop described in her memoirs how she was ordered up on deck to serve as an example of how to behave for the non-English speakers who could not follow the instructions given to them. She watched as the crew loaded the lifeboats. She was later ordered into lifeboat 16; and as the boat was being lowered, one of Titanics officers gave her a baby to look after. The next morning, Jessop and the rest of the survivors were rescued by the and taken to New York City on April 18. According to Jessop, while on board Carpathia, a woman, presumably the baby's mother, grabbed the baby she was holding and ran off crying, without saying a word. After arriving in New York City, she later returned to Southampton. HMHS Britannic During the First World War, Jessop served as a stewardess for the British Red Cross. On the morning of 21 November 1916, she was on board , the younger sister ship of Titanic that had been converted into a hospital ship, when it sank in the Aegean Sea after an unexplained explosion. During a major diving expedition on the wreck in 2016, it was determined that the ship had struck a deep sea mine. This was shown in the documentary film of that dive, The Mystery of the Britannic. Britannic sank within 55 minutes, killing 30 of the 1,066 people on board. British authorities hypothesized that the ship had either been struck by a torpedo or had hit a mine planted by German forces. Conspiracy theories have even circulated that suggest the British were responsible for sinking their own ship. While Britannic was sinking, Jessop and other passengers were nearly killed by the ship's propellers that were sucking lifeboats under the stern. Jessop had to jump out of her lifeboat, resulting in a traumatic head injury which she survived. In her memoirs, she described the scene she witnessed as Britannic went under: "The white pride of the ocean's medical world ... dipped her head a little, then a little lower and still lower. All the deck machinery fell into the sea like a child's toys. Then she took a fearful plunge, her stern rearing hundreds of feet into the air until with a final roar, she disappeared into the depths." Arthur John Priest and Archie Jewell, two other survivors of the Titanic, were also onboard and both survived. Jessop returned to work for the White Star Line in 1920. Later life After the war, Jessop continued to work for the White Star Line, before joining the Red Star Line and then the Royal Mail Line again. During her tenure with Red Star, Jessop went on two cruises around the world on the company's largest ship, . In her late thirties, Jessop had a brief marriage, and in 1950 she retired to Great Ashfield, Suffolk. Years after her retirement, Jessop claimed to have received a telephone call, on a stormy night, from a woman who asked Jessop if she had saved a baby on the night that Titanic sank. "Yes," Jessop replied. The voice then said "I was that baby," laughed, and hung up. Her friend and biographer John Maxtone-Graham said it was most likely some children in the village playing a joke on her. She replied, "No, John, I had never told that story to anyone before I told you now." Records indicate that the only baby on lifeboat 16 was Assad Thomas, who was handed to Edwina Troutt, and later reunited with his mother on Carpathia. Jessop, often winkingly called "Miss Unsinkable", died of congestive heart failure in 1971 at the age of 83. In popular culture In the 1958 film A Night To Remember, a scene depicts naval architect Thomas Andrews (played by Michael Goodliffe) instructing a stewardess to be seen wearing her life jacket as an example to the other passengers. Several scenes from this film inspired later depictions of the sinking; in James Cameron's later 1997 blockbuster Titanic, a similar encounter takes place involving Andrews and a stewardess named Lucy, who is also told to wear her life jacket in order to convince the passengers to do the same. In the 2000 television movie Britannic, the main character is Vera Campbell (played by Amanda Ryan), a woman who is apprehensive about travelling on Britannic because she had survived the sinking of Titanic four years earlier. In 2006, "Shadow Divers" John Chatterton and Richie Kohler led an expedition to dive HMHS Britannic. The dive team needed to accomplish a number of tasks including reviewing the expansion joints. The team was looking for evidence that would change the thinking on RMS Titanics sinking. During the expedition, Rosemary E. Lunn played the role of Violet Jessop, re-enacting her jumping into the water, from her lifeboat which was being drawn into Britannics still turning propellers. The character of Jessop is featured in the Chris Burgess stage play Iceberg – Right Ahead!, staged for the first time Upstairs at the Gatehouse in Highgate, March 2012, to commemorate the centenary of the sinking of Titanic. Jessop's role was played by Amy-Joyce Hastings. In the 2020 Alma Katsu historical horror novel The Deep, Jessop is a secondary character. The fictional main character meets Jessop while working on the Titanic, who offers her a job and subsequently works with her on the Britannic. See also Wenman Wykeham-Musgrave, a British sailor who survived three consecutive sinkings in the action of 22 September 1914. References External links RMS Titanic's crew and passengers People from Bahía Blanca 1887 births 1971 deaths Shipwreck survivors RMS Titanic survivors Argentine people of Irish descent Argentine emigrants to England English people of Irish descent British Merchant Service personnel of World War I

Fade to Black (song)

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"Fade to Black" is a song and the first power ballad by American heavy metal band Metallica, released as the first promotional single from its second studio album, Ride the Lightning. The song was ranked as having the 24th best guitar solo ever by Guitar World readers. The song peaked at number 100 on Swiss Singles Chart in 2008. The song is certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America. Background In an interview on the set of the production MTV Icon: Metallica in 2003, drummer Lars Ulrich recalls how he and vocalist/rhythm guitarist James Hetfield were "obsessed with death" at the time the album and song were produced. Hetfield later admitted that a break-in to their gear truck resulting in the loss of his favorite Marshall amplifier also contributed to the mood of the song. The song's lyrics address suicidal feelings. It begins with an acoustic guitar introduction and becomes progressively heavier as the song goes on, similar to their future songs, "Welcome Home (Sanitarium)", "One", and "The Day That Never Comes". James Hetfield commented on the song in a 1991 interview with Guitar World: Since its release, "Fade to Black" has been a fixture in Metallica's live performances. It was also the last song that Metallica performed live with former bassist Jason Newsted before he left the band, of which occurred at the VH1 Music Awards on November 30, 2000. It was one of his favorite Metallica songs, and was said to be of great sentimental value to him, although it had been written before he had joined the band. His previous band, Flotsam and Jetsam, performed a song called "Fade to Black" on their 1986 album Doomsday for the Deceiver before he left to join Metallica. While on the Guns N' Roses/Metallica Stadium Tour on August 8, 1992, Hetfield accidentally stepped into the path of one of the chemical flames that had been rigged to shoot from the lip of the stage while playing "Fade to Black". Hetfield's guitar protected him from the full force of the blast; however, the fire engulfed most of his left side, burning his hand, both arms, eyebrows, face and hair. He suffered second and third-degree burns, but was back on stage 17 days later, although his guitar duties were delegated to former guitar tech and Metal Church guitarist John Marshall for four weeks while he made a full recovery. "Fade to Black" was the last song to be played on the Los Angeles heavy metal radio station KNAC, which went off the air on February 15, 1995. It would later sign off fellow longtime rock stations 94 WYSP in Philadelphia on September 2, 2011, and Power 97 in Winnipeg on January 29, 2015. Track listing Personnel James Hetfield – vocals, rhythm guitar, acoustic guitar Lars Ulrich – drums Kirk Hammett – lead guitar Cliff Burton – bass References External links 1980s ballads 1984 singles 1984 songs Elektra Records singles Heavy metal ballads Megaforce Records singles Metallica songs Songs about death Songs about suicide Songs written by Cliff Burton Songs written by James Hetfield Songs written by Kirk Hammett Songs written by Lars Ulrich

Roses Are Red

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"Roses Are Red" is the name of a love poem and children's rhyme with Roud Folk Song Index number 19798. It has become a cliché for Valentine's Day, and has spawned multiple humorous and parodic variants. A modern standard version is: Origins The rhyme builds on poetic conventions that are traceable as far back as Edmund Spenser's epic The Faerie Queene of 1590: A rhyme similar to the modern standard version can be found in Gammer Gurton's Garland, a 1784 collection of English nursery rhymes published in London by Joseph Johnson: Victor Hugo was probably familiar with Spenser, but may not have known the English nursery rhyme when he published his novel Les Misérables in 1862. A song by the character Fantine contains this refrain: In his English translation published in the same year, Charles Edwin Wilbour rendered this as: This translation replaces the original version's cornflowers ("bleuets") with violets, and makes the roses red rather than pink, effectively making the song closer to the English nursery rhyme. Folklore The short poem has since become a snowclone, and numerous satirical versions have long circulated in children's lore. Among them: Country music singer Roger Miller parodied the poem in a verse of his 1964 hit "Dang Me": The Marx Brothers' film Horse Feathers has Chico Marx describing the symptoms of cirrhosis thus: The Benny Hill version: Notes English nursery rhymes Love poems English folk songs English children's songs Traditional children's songs

Methyl orange

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Methyl orange is a pH indicator frequently used in titration because of its clear and distinct color variance at different pH values. Methyl orange shows red color in acidic medium and yellow color in basic medium. Because it changes color at the pKa of a mid strength acid, it is usually used in titration for acids. Unlike a universal indicator, methyl orange does not have a full spectrum of color change, but it has a sharp end point. In a solution becoming less acidic, methyl orange changes from red to orange and, finally, to yellow—with the reverse process occurring in a solution of increasing acidity. Indicator colors In a solution that decreases in acidity, methyl orange moves from the colour red to orange and finally to yellow with the opposite occurring for a solution increasing in acidity. In an acid, it is reddish and in alkali, it is yellow. Methyl orange has a pKa of 3.47 in water at . Other indicators Modified (or screened) methyl orange, an indicator consisting of a solution of methyl orange and xylene cyanol, changes from grey-violet to green as the solution becomes more basic. Safety Methyl orange has mutagenic properties. See also pH indicator Methyl red Litmus Phenolphthalein Bromothymol blue Universal indicator References External links Informative page on different titration indicators, including methyl orange Azo dyes PH indicators Benzenesulfonates Anilines Organic sodium salts Dimethylamino compounds

The Beguiled (1971 film)

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The Beguiled is a 1971 American Southern Gothic film directed by Don Siegel, starring Clint Eastwood and Geraldine Page. The script was written by Albert Maltz and is based on the 1966 novel written by Thomas P. Cullinan, originally titled A Painted Devil. The film marks the third of five collaborations between Siegel and Eastwood, following Coogan's Bluff (1968) and Two Mules for Sister Sara (1970), and continuing with Dirty Harry (1971) and Escape from Alcatraz (1979). Plot During the American Civil War in 1863, Amy, a 12-year-old student at the Miss Martha Farnsworth Seminary for Young Ladies in rural Mississippi, discovers a seriously wounded Union soldier, John McBurney. She brings him to the school's gated enclosure where the school headmistress, Martha Farnsworth, first insists on turning him over to Confederate troops, but then decides to restore him to health first. He is initially kept locked in the school's music room and kept under watch. Edwina, the schoolteacher who has had no experience with men, takes an immediate liking to John, as does Carol, a 17-year-old student who makes advances with an experienced air. John begins to bond with each of the women in the house, including the slave Hallie. As he charms each of them, the sexually repressed atmosphere of the school becomes filled with jealousy and deceit, and the women begin to turn on one another. After Carol, who earlier made a welcomed pass at John, witnesses John kissing Edwina in the garden, she ties a blue rag to the school's entrance gate to alert the Confederate troops to the presence of a Yankee soldier. When a band of Confederate soldiers see it while passing the school, Martha lies and helps John pretend he is a relative loyal to the Confederacy. Martha also becomes infatuated with John, and a flashback shows her having an incestuous relationship with her brother. Martha considers keeping John at the school as a handyman. She makes sexual advances toward him, which he resists. Late one night, Edwina discovers John having sex with Carol in her bedroom. In a jealous rage, she beats him with a candlestick, causing him to fall down the staircase and break his leg severely. Martha insists he will die of gangrene unless they amputate his leg. The women carry him to the kitchen where they tie him to the table. Martha saws off his leg at the knee. When John awakens and learns that his leg has been amputated, he goes into a fury, convinced that Martha performed the operation as revenge for his rejection of her sexual advances. John, under lock and key, convinces Carol to unlock his door. He sneaks from his room into Martha's room and steals a pistol and some personal items of Martha's including some letters from her brother. Convinced that Martha plans to hold him prisoner, John confronts Martha at gunpoint, claiming control of the house and declaring his intention to have his way with any of the women or girls. He gets drunk and then confronts the entire household, revealing that he read Martha's letters and that they implicate Martha and her brother in an incestuous relationship. In a fit of anger he also kills Amy's pet turtle. Edwina follows John to his room and professes her love for him. They begin to kiss and it is later implied that they had sex. Meanwhile, Martha convinces the others (except for Edwina, who is not present) that they need to kill John to prevent him from denouncing them to Union troops who have made camp within sight of the school. Martha asks Amy to pick mushrooms they can prepare "especially for him" and Amy says she knows just where to find some. At dinner, John apologizes for his actions, and Edwina reveals that she and John have made plans to leave the school and marry. John has been eating the mushrooms and the others pass the bowl without taking any except for Edwina. When she starts to eat some, Martha cries out for her to stop. John realizes he has been poisoned, and leaves the dining room disoriented, and collapses in the hallway. The following day, the women sew his corpse into a burial shroud and carry him out of the gate to bury. They agree he died of exhaustion, and Amy denies she could ever pick a poisonous mushroom by mistake. Cast Clint Eastwood as Corporal John 'McBee' McBurney Geraldine Page as Martha Farnsworth Elizabeth Hartman as Edwina Dabney Jo Ann Harris as Carol Darleen Carr as Doris Mae Mercer as Hallie Pamelyn Ferdin as Amelia 'Amy' Melody Thomas as Abigail Peggy Drier as Lizzie Pattye Mattick as Janie Production Clint Eastwood was given a copy of the 1966 novel by producer Jennings Lang, and was engrossed throughout the night in reading it. This was the first of several films where Eastwood agreed to storylines where nubile females look at him adoringly (including minors in this film and Pale Rider). Eastwood considered the film as "an opportunity to play true emotions and not totally operatic and not lighting cannons with cigars". Albert Maltz was brought in to draft the script, but disagreements in the end led to a revision of the script by Claude Traverse, who although uncredited, led to Maltz being credited under a pseudonym. Maltz had originally written a script with a happy ending, in which Eastwood's character and the girl live happily ever after. Both Eastwood and director Don Siegel felt that an ending faithful to that of the book would be a stronger anti-war statement, and Eastwood's character would be killed. The film, according to Siegel, deals with the themes of sex, violence and vengeance, and was based around "the basic desire of women to castrate men" though the central theme was the impact of a man having sex with multiple women. Jeanne Moreau was considered for the role of the domineering Martha Farnsworth, but the role went to Geraldine Page, and actresses Elizabeth Hartman, Jo Ann Harris, Darlene Carr, Mae Mercer, and Pamelyn Ferdin were cast in supporting roles. Universal initially wanted Siegel to film at a studio at Disney Studios Ranch, but Siegel preferred to have it filmed at an antebellum estate near Baton Rouge, Louisiana in Ascension Parish: the Ashland-Belle Helene Plantation, a historic house built in 1841, that was a plantation estate and home of Duncan Farrar Kenner. Portions of the interiors were filmed at Universal Studios. Filming started in April 1970 and lasted 10 weeks. Eastwood had signed a long-term contract with Universal but became angry with the studio because he felt that they botched its release. This eventually led to his leaving the studio in 1975 after the release of The Eiger Sanction, which he directed as well as starred in. He would not work with Universal again until 2008's Changeling. Eastwood said of his role in The Beguiled, Reception The Beguiled holds an 89% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 19 reviews, with a weighted average of 7.2/10. Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote that the film "is not, indeed, successful as baroque melodrama, and, towards the end, there are so many twists and turns of plot and character that everything that's gone before is neutralized. People who consider themselves discriminating moviegoers, but who are uncommitted to Mr. Siegel will be hard put to accept it, other than as a sensational, misogynistic nightmare." A negative review in Variety said that the film "doesn't come off, and the apparent attempt to mesh Charles Addams style with Tennessee Williams-type material cues audience laughter in all the wrong places." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film two stars out of four and wrote that Siegel "unfortunately elects to tell his story with a broad and leering humor that at times is barely distinguishable from a sexploitation shocker." Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times praised The Beguiled as "a film of psychological suspense laced with dark humor that is a triumph of style, totally engrossing and utterly convincing." Gary Arnold of The Washington Post slammed the film as "anything but beguiling. Weird, yes; trashy, yes; pathetic, yes; beguiling, no." Nigel Andrews of The Monthly Film Bulletin called it "a film that works best when it is most outrageous. Geraldine Page's piously neurotic Miss Martha and Elizabeth Hartman's sickly Edwina hover on the brink of self-parody for most of the film, and are pushed well over in Siegel's climactic dream sequence, which begins with multiple-exposure effects and triangular embraces and ends with a shot of the two women supporting a limply naked Eastwood in the pose of Van Der Weyden's 'Pieta' (which hangs ambiguously on Page's bedroom wall)." The film received major recognition in France, and was proposed by Pierre Rissient to the Cannes Film Festival, and while agreed to by Eastwood and Siegel, the producers declined. It would be widely screened in France later and is considered one of Eastwood's finest works by the French. The film was poorly marketed and in the end grossed little over $1 million, earning less than a fourth of what Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song did at the same time and falling to below 50 in the charts within two weeks of release. Made right before Dirty Harry, this was a bold early attempt by Eastwood to play against type. It was not a hit, likely due to uncertainty on Universal's part concerning how to market it, eventually leading them to advertise the film as a hothouse melodrama: "One man...seven women...in a strange house!" "His love... or his life..." According to Eastwood and Jennings Lang, the film, aside from being poorly publicized, flopped due to Eastwood's being "emasculated in the film". The film's poster, for example, shows him with a gun, suggesting an action movie, but the only action consists of a few seconds of flashback to Eastwood's character in battle before being wounded. Quentin Tarantino later wrote the movie "was the closest Siegel ever came to making an art film... and truth be told, as good as it is, as its director, he's miscast. While the offbeat film is ultimately successful, it does bring out Siegel's worst stylistic impulses. His fondness for Freudian imagery, his literalness in a tale that screams for ambiguity (a dream sequence in the middle makes explicit everything that had only been suggested). However, once Siegel settles down and focuses on Eastwood, the film comes alive." Other film adaptations Sofia Coppola wrote and directed a film based on the same source material with Nicole Kidman, Colin Farrell, Kirsten Dunst and Elle Fanning. It had its world premiere at the Cannes Film Festival in May 2017. The film was released by Focus Features on June 23, 2017. See also List of American films of 1971 References Bibliography Hirsch, Foster (1971–72). "The Beguilded: Southern Gothic revived." Film Heritage, 7, 15–20. Kay, Karyn. (1976) "The Beguiled: Gothic Misogyny." Velvet Light Trap, 16, 32–33. Tumanov, Vladimir (2013). "One Adam and Nine Eves in Donald Siegel's The Beguiled and Giovanni Boccaccio's 3:1 of The Decameron." Neophilologus: An International Journal of Modern and Mediaeval Language and Literature. External links The Beguiled at Rotten Tomatoes 1971 films 1970s erotic thriller films 1970s erotic drama films 1970s historical drama films American films American historical drama films American Civil War films English-language films American erotic thriller films Films about amputees Films based on American novels Films directed by Don Siegel Incest in film Poisoning in film Films scored by Lalo Schifrin Southern Gothic films 1971 drama films

Group of Seven

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The Group of Seven (G7) is an inter-governmental political forum consisting of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, The United Kingdom, and the United States. Its members are the world's largest IMF advanced economies and wealthiest liberal democracies; the group is officially organized around shared values of pluralism and representative government. As of 2020, the collective group accounts for a little over 50 percent of global net wealth (which is $418 trillion), 32 to 46 percent of global gross domestic product, and about 770 million people or 10 percent of the world's population. Most members are great powers in global affairs and maintain mutually close political, economic, social, legal, environmental, military, religious, cultural, and diplomatic relations. Since the start of 2022, Germany has taken over the presidency of the G7. Originating from an ad hoc gathering of finance ministers in 1973, the G7 has since become a formal, high-profile venue for discussing and coordinating solutions to major global issues, especially in the areas of trade, security, economics, and climate change. Each member state's head of government or head of state, along with the Commission President and Council President of the European Union, meet annually at the G7 summit; other high-ranking officials of the G7 and the EU meet throughout the year. Representatives of other states and international organizations are often invited as guests, with Russia having been a formal member (as part of the Group of Eight) from 1997 to 2014. The G7 is not based on a treaty and has no permanent secretariat or office; its presidency rotates annually among the member states, with the presiding state setting the group's priorities, and hosting and organizing its summit. While lacking a legal or institutional basis, the G7 is considered to wield significant international influence; it has catalyzed or spearheaded several major global initiatives, including efforts to combat the HIV/AIDS pandemic, provide financial aid to developing countries, and address climate change through the 2015 Paris Agreement. The group has been criticized for its allegedly outdated and limited membership, narrow global representation, and ineffectualness; it is also opposed by anti-globalization groups, which often protest at summits. History Origins The concept of a forum for the capitalist world's major industrialized countries emerged before the 1973 oil crisis. On 25 March 1973, the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury, George Shultz, convened an informal gathering of finance ministers from West Germany (Helmut Schmidt), France (Valéry Giscard d'Estaing), and the United Kingdom (Anthony Barber) before an upcoming meeting in Washington, D.C. U.S. President Richard Nixon offered the White House as a venue, and the meeting was subsequently held in its library on the ground floor; the original group of four consequently became known as the "Library Group". In mid-1973, at the Spring Meetings of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, Shultz proposed the addition of Japan, which all members accepted. The informal gathering of senior financial officials from the U.S., U.K., West Germany, Japan, and France became known as the "Group of Five". In 1974, all five members endured sudden and often troubled changes in leadership. French President Georges Pompidou abruptly died, leading to two rounds of presidential elections in a single year that were closely won by Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. West German Chancellor Willy Brandt, American President Richard Nixon, and Japanese Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka all resigned due to scandals. In the United Kingdom, a hung election led to a minority government whose subsequent instability prompted another election the same year. Consequently, Nixon's successor, Gerald Ford, proposed a retreat the following year for the group's new leaders to learn about one another. First summit and expansion At the initiative of Giscard d'Estaing and his German counterpart, Helmut Schmidt, France hosted a three-day summit in November 1975, inviting the Group of Five plus Italy, forming the "Group of Six" (G6). Taking place at the Château de Rambouillet, the meeting focused on several major economic issues, including the oil crisis, the collapse of the Bretton-Woods system, and the ongoing global recession. The result was the 15-point "Declaration of Rambouillet", which, among other positions, announced the group's united commitment to promoting free trade, multilateralism, cooperation with the developing world, and rapprochement with the Eastern Bloc. The members also established plans for future gatherings to take place regularly every year. In 1976, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson, who had participated in the first G6 summit, resigned from office; Schmidt and Ford believed the group needed an English speaker with more political experience, and advocated for inviting Pierre Trudeau, who had been Prime Minister of Canada for eight yearssignificantly longer than any G6 leader. Canada was also the next largest advanced economy after the G6 members. The summit in Dorado, Puerto Rico later that year became the first of the current Group of Seven (G7). In 1977, the United Kingdom, which hosted that year's summit, invited the European Economic Community to join all G7 summits; beginning in 1981, it had attended every gathering through the president of the European Commission and the leader of the country holding the presidency of the Council of the European Union. Since 2009, the then-newly established Council President of the EU, who serves as the Union's principal foreign representative, also regularly attends the summits. Rising profile Until the 1985 Plaza Accord, meetings between the seven governements' finance ministers were not public knowledge. The Accord, which involved only the original Group of Five, was announced the day before it was finalized, with a communiqué issued afterwards. The 1980s also marked the G7's expanded concerns beyond macroeconomic issues, namely with respect to international security and conflict; for example, it sought to address the ongoing conflicts between Iran and Iraq and between the Soviet Union and Afghanistan. Following the 1994 summit in Naples, Russian officials held separate meetings with leaders of the G7. This informal arrangement was dubbed the "Political 8" (P8), colloquially the G7+1. At the invitation of the G7 leaders, Russian President Boris Yeltsin was invited first as a guest observer, later as a full participant. After the 1997 meeting, Russia was formally invited to the next meeting and formally joined the group in 1998, resulting in the Group of Eight (G8). Russia was an outlier in the group, as it lacked the national wealth and financial weight of other members, had never been a major advanced economy, and was not yet an established liberal democracy. Its invitation, made during a difficult transition to a post-communist economy, is believed to have been motivated by a desire to encourage its political and economic reforms and international engagement. Russia's membership was suspended in March 2014 in response to its annexation of Crimea. Members stopped short of permanently ejecting the country, and in subsequent years expressed an openness or express desire to reinstate Russian participation. Nevertheless, Russia announced its permanent departure in 2017; the following year, the G7 announced further sanctions on the country for its intervention in Ukraine. In 2020, U.S. President Donald Trump, backed by Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte, advocated for Russia's return; all other members rejected the proposal, and Russia expressed no interest. Renewed calls for expanded membership There have been various proposals to expand the G7. The U.S.-based Atlantic Council has held the "D-10 Strategy Forum" since 2014 with representatives from what it calls "leading democracies" which support a "rules-based democratic order": Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States, plus the European Union. Several democratic countriesincluding India, Indonesia, Poland, and Spain participate as observers. Centered around a similar mandate as the G7, the D-10 has been considered by some analysts to be an alternative to the group; This is also favored by various think tanks and British leader Boris Johnson. In 2019 under Putin, Russia had signaled support for the inclusion of China, India, and Turkey if the U.S. reinstates the Russian membership. In 2020 under Trump, the U.S. had signaled support for the inclusion of Australia, Brazil, India, and South Korea, plus the reincorporation of Russia. Boris Johnson invited members Australia and South Korea to the June 2021 G7 summit. India was also invited to the 2021 summit, so as to "deepen the expertise and experience around the table" along with the other guests, according to a U.K. government statement. In 2021, French jurist and consultant Eric Garner de Béville, a member of the Cercle Montesquieu, proposed Spain's membership to the G7. American Chargé d'Affaires in Spain, Conrad Tribble, stated that the United States "enthusiastically supports" a "greater" role of Spanish leadership at the international level. Activities and initiatives The G7 was founded primarily to facilitate shared macroeconomic initiatives in response to contemporary economic problems; the first gathering was centered around the Nixon shock, the 1970s energy crisis, and the ensuing global recession. Since 1975, the group has met annually at summits organized and hosted by whichever country occupies the annually-rotating presidency; since 1987, the G7 Finance Ministers have met at least semi-annually, and up to four times a year at stand-alone meetings. Beginning in the 1980s, the G7 broadened its areas of concern to include issues of international security, human rights, and global security; for example, during this period, the G7 concerned itself with the ongoing Iran-Iraq War and Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. In the 1990s, it launched a debt-relief program for the 42 heavily indebted poor countries (HIPC); provided $300 million to help build the Shelter Structure over the damaged reactor at Chernobyl; and established the Financial Stability Forum to help in "managing the international monetary system". At the turn of the 21st century, the G7 began emphasizing engagement with the developing world. At the 1999 summit, the group helped launch the G20, a similar forum made up of the G7 and the next 13 largest economies (including the European Union), in order to "promote dialogue between major industrial and emerging market countries"; the G20 has been touted by some of its members as a replacement for the G7. Having previously announced a plan to cancel 90% of bilateral debt for the HIPC, totaling $100 billion, in 2005 the G7 announced debt reductions of "up to 100%" to be negotiated on a "case by case" basis. Following the global financial crisis of 2007–2008, which was the worst of its kind since the 1970s, the G7 met twice in Washington, D.C. in 2008 and in Rome the following February. News media reported that much of the world was looking to the group for leadership and solutions. G7 finance ministers pledged to take "all necessary steps" to stem the crisis, devising an "aggressive action plan" that included providing publicly-funded capital infusions to banks in danger of failing. Some analysts criticized the group for seemingly advocating that individual governments develop their own responses to the recession, rather than cohere around a united effort. In subsequent years, the G7 has faced several geopolitical challenges that have led some international analysts to question its credibility, or propose its replacement by the G20. On 2 March 2014, the G7 condemned the Russian Federation for its "violation of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ukraine" through its military intervention. The group also announced its commitment to "mobilize rapid technical assistance to support Ukraine in addressing its macroeconomic, regulatory and anti-corruption challenges", while adding that the International Monetary Fund (IMF) was best suited to stabilizing the country's finances and economy. In response to Russia's subsequent annexation of Crimea, on 24 March the G7 convened an emergency meeting at the official residence of the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, the Catshuis in The Hague; this location was chosen because all G7 leaders were already present to attend the 2014 Nuclear Security Summit hosted by the Netherlands. This was the first G7 meeting neither taking place in a member state nor having the host leader participating in the meeting. The upcoming G8 summit in Sochi, Russia was moved to Brussels, where the EU was the host. On 5 June 2014 the G7 condemned Moscow for its "continuing violation" of Ukraine's sovereignty and stated they were prepared to impose further sanctions on Russia. This meeting was the first since Russia was suspended from the G8, and subsequently it has not been involved in any G7 summit. The G7 has continued to take a strong stance against Russia's "destabilising behaviour and malign activities" in Ukraine and elsewhere around the world, following the joint communique from the June 2021 summit in the U.K. The group also called on Russia to address international cybercrime attacks launched from within its borders, and to investigate the use of chemical weapons on Russian opposition leader Alexei Navalny. The June 2021 summit also saw the G7 commit to helping the world recover from the global COVID-19 pandemic (including plans to help vaccinate the entire world); encourage further action against climate change and biodiversity loss; and promote "shared values" of pluralism and democracy. Summit organization The annual G7 summit is attended by each member's head of government. The member country holding the G7 presidency is responsible for organizing and hosting the year's summit. The serial annual summits can be parsed chronologically in arguably distinct ways, including as the sequence of host countries for the summits has recurred over time and series. Generally every country hosts the summit once every seven years. Besides a main meeting in June or July a number of other meetings may take place throughout the year; in 2021 for example, seven tracks existed for finance (4-5 June 2021), environmental (20 and 21 May 2021), health (3 - 4 June 2021), trade (27 - 28 May 2021), interior (7–9 September) digital and technology (28-29 April 2021), development (3 - 5 May 2021) and foreign ministers. List of summits Country leaders and EU representatives (as of 2022) Current leaders Member country data The G7 is composed of the seven wealthiest advanced countries. The People's Republic of China, according to its data, would be the second-largest with 17.90% of the world net wealth, but is excluded because the IMF and other main global institutions do not consider China an advanced country and because of its relatively low net wealth per adult and Human Development Index. As of 2021, Crédit Suisse reports the G7 (without the European Union) represents around 53% of the global net wealth; including the EU, the G7 accounts for over 60% of the global net wealth. Member facts 7 of the 9 top-ranked advanced economies with the current largest GDP and with the highest national wealth (United States, Japan, Germany, UK, France, Italy, Canada). 7 of the 15 top-ranked countries with the highest net wealth per capita (United States, France, Japan, United Kingdom, Italy, Canada, Germany). 7 of 10 top-ranked leading export countries. 5 of 10 top-ranked countries with the largest gold reserves (United States, Germany, Italy, France, Japan). 7 of 10 top-ranked economies (by nominal GDP), according to latest (2016 data) International Monetary Fund's statistics. 4 countries with a nominal GDP per capita above US$40,000 (United States, Canada, Germany, Japan). 4 countries with a sovereign wealth fund, administered by either a national or a state/provincial government (United States, France, Canada, Italy). 7 of 30 top-ranked nations with large amounts of foreign-exchange reserves in their central banks. 3 out of 9 countries having nuclear weapons (France, UK, United States), plus 2 countries that have nuclear weapon sharing programs (Germany, Italy). all 5 of the members of the NATO Quint (U.S., U.K., France, Germany, Italy) and Canada is also member of Five Eyes intelligence gathering body with U.S. and U.K. 6 of the 9 largest nuclear energy producers (United States, France, Japan, Germany, Canada, UK), although Germany announced in 2011 that it will close all of its nuclear power plants by 2022. Following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Japan shut down all of its nuclear reactors. However, Japan restarted several nuclear reactors, with the refueling of other reactors underway. 7 of the 10 top donors to the UN budget for the 2016 annual fiscal year. 5 countries with an HDI for 2018 of 0.9 and higher (United States, Germany, United Kingdom, Canada, Japan). 2 countries with the highest credit rating from Standard & Poor's, Fitch, and Moody's at the same time (Canada and Germany). 3 countries are constitutional monarchies (United Kingdom, Canada, Japan), 2 are presidential or semi-presidential republics (France, United States) and 2 are parliamentary republics (Germany and Italy). 4 countries are located in Europe (France, Germany, Italy, United Kingdom), 2 in North America (Canada, United States) and 1 in Asia (Japan). Criticism and controversy 2014 suspension and subsequent exclusion of Russia In March 2014 Russia was suspended by G7 members from the political forum G8 following the annexation of Crimea. In January 2017, Russia announced it would permanently leave the G8, which came into effect June 2018. 2015 protests About 7,500 protesters led by the group 'Stop-G7' demonstrated during the summit. About 300 of those managed to reach the 3 m high and 7 km long security fence surrounding the summit location despite Germany's immense efforts to prevent it and despite its remote location – the luxury hotel Schloss Elmau at the foot of the Wetterstein mountains (altitude of above sea level). The protesters questioned the legitimacy of the G7 to make decisions that could affect the whole world. Authorities had banned demonstrations in the closer area of the summit location and 20,000 police were on duty in Southern Bavaria to keep activists and protesters from interfering with the summit. 2018 Trump conflict over tariffs and Russia The 2018 meeting in Charlevoix, Canada, was marred by fractious negotiations concerning tariffs and Donald Trump's position that Russia should be reinstated to the G7. The Trump administration had just imposed steel and aluminum tariffs on many countries, including European countries that are fellow members of the G7, and Canada, the host country for the 2018 meeting. Trump expressed dismay at Canadian Prime Minister Trudeau for holding a press conference in which Canada restated its position on tariffs (a public criticism of Trump's economic policy), and directed his representatives at the meeting to not sign the economic section of the joint communiqué that is typically issued at the conclusion of the meeting. German Chancellor Angela Merkel described Trump's behavior as a "depressing withdrawal," while French President Emmanuel Macron invited him "to be serious." In the final statement signed by all members except the US, G7 announced its intention to recall sanctions and to be ready to take further restrictive measures within the next months against the Russian Federation for its failure to completely implement the Minsk Agreement. Trump repeated calls for Russia to be re-admitted to the group in the 2019 meeting in Biarritz, saying it should be included in discussions relating to Iran, Syria, and North Korea. The Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte supported Trump's proposal, Shinzo Abe of Japan was neutral, and the rest of the G7 pushed back against the suggestion, after which the atmosphere allegedly became "tense". 2019 Amazon rainforest fires and Brazil U.S. President Donald Trump's reiteration that Russia should be readmitted to the group (see above), instigation of a trade war with China, increased tensions in Iran, Trump's alleged reluctance to attend the conference and a number of international crises made the 2019 G7 meeting in Biarritz, France the most divided since its inception. Following Trump's previous rescinding of his signature to a joint communiqué agreed in 2018 due to an alleged slight from Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau (see above), French President Emmanuel Macron agreed that the group would not issue a joint communiqué at the Biarritz conference. The G7 nations pledged to help Brazil and other countries in South America to fight the wildfires. This money was welcomed, although it was widely seen as "relatively small amount" given the scale of the problem. Macron threatened to block a major trade deal between European Union and Brazil (Mercosur) that would benefit the agricultural interests accused of driving deforestation. See also List of G7 leaders Build Back Better World Developed country E7 (countries) G4 (EU) G6 (EU) Group of Eight (G8) G8+5 G10 currencies Group of Twelve (G12) G20 List of country groupings List of multilateral free-trade agreements NATO Quint Great power Notes References External links 2022 G7 presidency Germany 2021 G7 presidency UK G7/8 Information Centre – University of Toronto Intergovernmental organizations International economic organizations Economic country classifications 20th-century diplomatic conferences 21st-century diplomatic conferences Organizations established in 1975

Cunégonde

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Cunégonde is a fictional character in Voltaire's 1759 novel Candide. She is the title character's aristocratic cousin and love interest. At the beginning of the story, Candide is chased away from his uncle's home after he is caught kissing and fondling Cunégonde. Shortly afterwards, Cunégonde's family is attacked by a band of marauding soldiers and she is taken prisoner. However, Cunégonde soon becomes the mistress of two wealthy Portuguese who decide to share her between them. Candide kills the two men and he, Cunégonde and the Old Woman (Cunégonde's servant) flee to Buenos Aires. There, Cunégonde becomes the mistress of the provincial governor. Since Candide is wanted for the murders of the two Portuguese, he is forced to leave her in Buenos Aires. However he vows to find her and marry her. Finally, near the end of the novel, Candide finds Cunégonde in Istanbul, but she has lost her beauty, and is now very irritable and unfortunately very shallow-minded. Candide reluctantly agrees to marry her. Name ‘Cunégonde’ may be derived from Cunigunde of Luxemburg. However, the first part of the name may be intended as a pun, referring to the female genitalia (Latin: cunnus, French: con). Kunigunde, Kunigunda, or Cunigunde is a European female name of German origin derived from "kuni" (clan, family) and "gund" (war). In Polish this is sometimes Kunegunda or Kinga. Cunegonde is a Persian word meaning "big read-end" or big buttocks. Voltaire may have used it because he knew Persian. Candide (operetta) In the 1956 operetta Candide written by Leonard Bernstein, Cunegonde is a soprano, who sings one of the most difficult arias written for the theatre: "Glitter and Be Gay". The role has been portrayed by skilled actresses such as Barbara Cook, who originated the role in 1956, Madeline Kahn, Kristin Chenoweth, June Anderson, Harolyn Blackwell, and Maureen Brennan, who received a Tony Award nomination and won the Theatre World Award for her performance in the 1974 Broadway revival. References External links Brief analyses of the novel's main characters Candide Comedy literature characters Female characters in literature Literary characters introduced in 1759 Characters in French novels

Homeward Bound: The Incredible Journey

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Homeward Bound: The Incredible Journey is a 1993 American adventure comedy film and a remake of the 1963 film The Incredible Journey, which was based on the 1961 novel of the same name by Sheila Burnford. Directed by Duwayne Dunham, it was released on February 3, 1993. It grossed $57 million worldwide and was followed in 1996 by Homeward Bound II: Lost in San Francisco. This film is dedicated to producer Franklin R. Levy, who died during production of the film. Plot Chance, a selfish and free-spirited American Bulldog and the narrator of the film, explains that he is the pet of Jamie Burnford, but expresses no interest in his owner or being part of a family. He shares his home with Shadow, a wise old Golden Retriever owned by Jamie's brother Peter, and Sassy, a pampered Himalayan cat owned by Peter and Jamie's sister Hope. That morning, the children's mother, Laura Burnford, marries Bob Seaver, and Chance causes trouble by devouring the wedding cake in front of all the guests. Shortly after the wedding, the family has to temporarily move to San Francisco because Bob must relocate there for his job. They leave the pets at a ranch belonging to Kate, Laura's college friend. Shadow and Sassy miss their owners immediately, but Chance sees it as an opportunity to relax and be free. Later in the week, Kate goes on a cattle drive, leaving the animals to be looked after by her neighbor Frank. However, half of her message to him is lost, leading him to believe that she has taken them along, leaving the animals alone. Unsure about the disappearance of their host, the animals fear they have been abandoned. Shadow, refusing to believe that his boy would leave him, decides to make his way home. Not wanting to be left alone on the ranch, Chance and Sassy decide to accompany Shadow on his journey. They head into the rocky, mountainous wilderness of the Sierra Nevada with Shadow leading. After a night spent in fear of the woodland noises, the group stops to catch breakfast at a river. However, two black bear cubs interrupt Chance and a large brown bear causes the group to retreat. At another river, Sassy refuses to swim across to follow the dogs and instead tries to cross via a wooden path further downstream; halfway across, the wood breaks and she falls into the river. Shadow tries to save her, but she goes over a waterfall to her apparent death. Guilt-ridden, Shadow and Chance go on without her. Unknown to them, Sassy survives and is later found on the riverbank by an old man named Quentin, who nurses her back to health. Over the next two days, Shadow and Chance try unsuccessfully to catch food and encounter a mountain lion, which chases them to the edge of a cliff. Shadow gets an idea to use rocks positioned like a seesaw as a way to outsmart the mountain lion. While Shadow acts as bait, Chance pounces onto the end of the rock and sends the mountain lion over the cliff and into a river. Sassy hears the dogs barking in celebration and follows the sound to rejoin them. The animals continue on their way, but Chance begins pestering a porcupine, ending up with a load of quills in his muzzle. The animals then encounter a little girl named Molly, who is lost in the woods. Loyalty instinct takes over and they stand guard over her during the night. In the morning, Shadow finds a rescue party and leads them back to the girl. They recognize the animals from a missing pets flyer and take them to the local animal shelter, but Chance mistakes it for an animal pound and the trio panic. As the medical staff remove the quills from Chance's muzzle, Sassy sneaks in and frees Shadow. Together, they retrieve Chance and escape the shelter, unaware that their owners are on their way to get them. Finally reaching their hometown, the animals cross through a train yard, where Shadow falls into a muddy pit and injures his leg. Despondent, he tells Chance and Sassy to go on without him, and when Chance argues passionately, tells the younger dog he's learned all he needs; "Now all you have to learn is how to say goodbye." Heartbroken, Chance insists he won't let him give up. Near dusk, Chance and Sassy finally make it home and are happily reunited with their owners. Shadow initially fails to appear, but eventually he limps into view and happily comes running home at the sight of Peter. Chance narrates how it was Shadow's belief that brought them home and how the years seemed to lift off of him, making him a puppy again as he reunited with his boy. The film ends with Chance musing about how he truly feels "home" with his family, before happily running into the house at the smell of food. Cast Michael J. Fox as the voice of Chance Don Ameche as the voice of Shadow Sally Field as the voice of Sassy Robert Hays as Bob Seaver Kim Greist as Laura Burnford-Seaver Benj Thall as Peter Burnford-Seaver Veronica Lauren as Hope Burnford-Seaver Kevin Chevalia as Jamie Burnford-Seaver William Edward Phipps as Quentin Ed Bernard as Desk Sergeant Gary Taylor as Frank Jean Smart as Kate Bart the Bear as Bear David MacIntyre as Foote Caroll Spinney as Dog in Pound Reception The film received positive reception. The film holds an 87% aggregate critic approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes based on 30 reviews, with the consensus stating "Disney's remake of The Incredible Journey successfully replicates, and in some ways improves upon, the simple charms of the original, with its cross-country animal odyssey sure to delight kids." According to movie critic Roger Ebert, the movie is "frankly designed for kids, and yet it has a certain craftsmanship and an undeniable charm, and if you find yourself watching it with a child you may end up liking it almost as much." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale. The film grossed $41,833,324 in the United States and Canada and $15.5 million internationally for a worldwide total of $57.4 million. References External links 1993 films 1990s adventure films Remakes of American films 1990s English-language films Films about cats Films about dogs Films based on British novels Films based on children's books Films directed by Duwayne Dunham Films set in California Films set in San Francisco Films shot in Oregon Films shot in Portland, Oregon Films with screenplays by Caroline Thompson Films with screenplays by Linda Woolverton Walt Disney Pictures films Films scored by Bruce Broughton American films 1993 directorial debut films Films with screenplays by Jonathan Roberts (writer)

Not Fade Away (song)

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"Not Fade Away" is a song credited to Buddy Holly (originally under his first and middle names, Charles Hardin) and Norman Petty (although Petty's co-writing credit is likely to have been a formality) and first recorded by Holly and his band, the Crickets. Original song Holly and the Crickets recorded the song in Clovis, New Mexico, on May 27, 1957, the same day the song "Everyday" was recorded. The rhythmic pattern of "Not Fade Away" is a variant of the legendary Bo Diddley beat, with the second stress occurring on the second rather than third beat of the first measure, which was an update of the "hambone" rhythm, or patted juba from West Africa. Jerry Allison, the drummer for the Crickets, pounded out the beat on a cardboard box. Allison, Holly's best friend, wrote some of the lyrics, though his name never appeared in the songwriting credits. Joe Mauldin played the double bass on this recording. It is likely that the backing vocalists were Holly, Allison, and Niki Sullivan, but this is not known for certain. "Not Fade Away" was originally released as the B-side of the hit single "Oh, Boy!" and was included on the album The "Chirping" Crickets (1957). The Crickets' recording never charted as a single. Personnel Buddy Holly and the Crickets Buddy Holly – lead vocals, lead guitar, backing vocals Jerry Allison – drums, card-box percussion Joe B. Mauldin – contrabass Niki Sullivan – rhythm guitar, backing vocals The Rolling Stones version In 1964, the Rolling Stones' cover of "Not Fade Away", with a strong Bo Diddley beat, was a major hit in the United Kingdom. It was the A-side of the band's first US single. The Rolling Stones' version of "Not Fade Away" was one of their first hits. Recorded in January 1964 and released by Decca Records on February 21, 1964, with "Little by Little" as the B-side, it was their first Top 10 hit in the United Kingdom, reaching number three. London Records released the song in the US on March 6, 1964, as the band's first single there, with "I Wanna Be Your Man" as the B-side. The single reached number 48 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 singles chart. It also reached number 44 on the Cash Box pop singles chart in the U.S. and number 33 in Australia based on the Kent Music Report. "Not Fade Away" was not on the UK version of their debut album, The Rolling Stones, but was the opening track of the US version, released a month later as England's Newest Hitmakers. Cash Box described it as "a wild, freewheeling full-sounding pounder that can take off in no time flat." It was a mainstay of the band's concerts in their early years, usually opening the shows. It was revived as the opening song in the band's Voodoo Lounge Tour, in 1994 and 1995. Personnel According to authors Philippe Margotin and Jean-Michel Guesdon, except where noted: Mick Jagger double tracked lead vocal, hand claps, tambourine, maracas Keith Richards twelve-string acoustic guitar, lead guitar Brian Jones harmonica Bill Wyman bass Charlie Watts drums Charts Other cover versions Rush recorded a version of "Not Fade Away" as their debut single in 1973, which peaked at number 88 in Canada. The single was released on the band's own Moon Records label, and is considered a rare collector's item today, as it has never been reissued on any format. Stephen Stills recorded a cover of "Not Fade Away" for his 1978 album Thoroughfare Gap the night after seeing The Buddy Holly Story, which he described as "kind of a combination of the Stones version and the original version." Tanya Tucker included a funky, rock-and-roll version of "Not Fade Away" on her album, TNT (1978). Tucker's cover of this song peaked at number 70 on the U.S. Billboard pop singles chart in 1979. Explanatory notes References Sources 1957 songs 1957 singles 1964 singles 1973 singles 2007 singles Buddy Holly songs The Rolling Stones songs Dick and Dee Dee songs Decca Records singles London Records singles Grateful Dead songs Sheryl Crow songs Rush (band) songs Songs written by Buddy Holly Song recordings produced by Andrew Loog Oldham Songs written by Norman Petty Brunswick Records singles

Boost Mobile

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Boost Mobile may refer to: Boost Mobile (Australia), an Australian mobile virtual network operator Boost Mobile (United States), an American mobile virtual network operator owned by Dish Wireless Spark New Zealand, a telecommunications company in New Zealand which used the Boost Mobile brand prior to 2007

Anne of Green Gables: The Sequel

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Anne of Green Gables: The Sequel is a 1987 Canadian television miniseries film and the second in a series of four films. It is the sequel to the 1985 miniseries Anne of Green Gables, based on Lucy Maud Montgomery's novels Anne of Avonlea, Anne of the Island and Anne of Windy Poplars. The miniseries aired in four hour-long installments, in May and June 1987, on the Disney Channel as Anne of Avonlea: The Continuing Story of Anne of Green Gables, and in two 150-minute installments, in December 1987, on CBC (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation), and in March 1988, on PBS, as Anne of Green Gables: The Sequel. The film was also shown theatrically in Israel, Japan, and Europe as Anne of Green Gables: The Sequel and has been released on DVD under that title. Finally, in 2017, the miniseries was officially retitled Anne of Avonlea for its North American Blu-ray Disc release by Sullivan Films, as part of the Anne of Green Gables Collector's Set. Plot After two years of teaching at the Avonlea school, Anne Shirley dreams of being a writer, but her story "Averil's Atonement" is rejected by a magazine. Her best friend Diana Barry has become engaged. Marilla's eyesight has also improved, opening an opportunity for Anne to follow her ambitions, which have been on hold since giving up the Avery Scholarship. Anne's misadventures in Avonlea continue. Unbeknownst to her, Diana submitted "Averil's Atonement" into a contest to introduce the new Rollings Reliable baking powder to the public, and it wins first prize. Anne is grateful to her friend for trying to boost her spirits, but finds the widespread recognition humiliating. She later sees her jersey cow Dolly in Rachel Lynde's field, which she had promised would never happen again. After unsuccessfully trying to get Dolly back to her field, Anne sells the cow to Gilbert Blythe and his father. She laments about her "Jonah day" to Marilla, who offers encouragement and plum puffs. Anne later realizes she actually sold Rachel Lynde's cow instead of her own. When she and Marilla pay a visit to the Lyndes to explain her mistake, Rachel's ailing husband Thomas passes away, which Rachel fears will force her to sell her farm and leave Avonlea. At a clambake for Diana's engagement, Gilbert proposes to Anne, but she rejects his offer, convinced that their marriage would be unhappy and unsuccessful. She later runs into Morgan Harris, a traveling businessman whom she had previously met at the beach and who shows interest in her. At Diana's wedding, she sees Gilbert with a young woman named Christine Stuart. Gilbert insists they are just friends, and offers to wait for Anne, but she affirms she will never marry. Back at Green Gables, Marilla reveals that Rachel will be moving in with her. Anne decides to accept a job offer from her former teacher Miss Stacey as an English literature teacher at Kingsport Ladies' College in New Brunswick. Anne initially finds her job difficult. Kingsport is dominated by the wealthy and conceited Pringle family, who resent that she received the position over one of their own. The students in her class, led by Jen Pringle, delight in causing trouble to make Anne look like a bad teacher. Anne must also endure the cold and sarcastic principal of Kingsport Ladies' College, Katherine Brooke. She grows close to Emmeline Harris, a motherless student who also happens to be Morgan's daughter. After Anne and Emmeline get on Katherine Brooke's bad side, Morgan withdraws both his daughter and his financial support from K.L.C. He sends Emmeline to live with her stern grandmother Margaret Harris and repressed aunt Pauline at their mansion, Maplehurst. Anne convinces Mrs. Harris to let her tutor Emmeline at home, and let Pauline attend a friend's wedding anniversary overnight. Meanwhile, Anne and Miss Stacey organize a play to raise money for the school, with Jen Pringle playing the lead role of Mary, Queen of Scots. When Jen calls off sick on the day of the show, Anne convinces Morgan to let Emmeline star in the play, which they have been rehearsing during tutoring sessions. The show is a success and Anne finally wins the Pringles' support. After returning from a trip to Boston, she runs into Gilbert and finds out that he is engaged to Christine Stuart. Inspired by his suggestion, she publishes a series of short stories entitled Avonlea Vignettes. During a hospital benefit ball, Morgan asks her to marry him, which she declines. After Mrs. Harris dies, Pauline accepts a marriage proposal and Morgan decides to sell Maplehurst and return to Boston with Emmeline. Anne resigns from K.L.C. and persuades Katherine to come back to Avonlea with her for the summer holidays. Upon arriving at Green Gables and meeting Diana's new baby, Anne discovers that Gilbert has fallen ill with scarlet fever, which he contracted at medical school in Halifax. Finally realizing her true feelings for Gilbert, Anne rushes to his bedside, where he tells her that he has called off his engagement to Christine because Anne is the only one for him. After recovering, he proposes once more, and Anne accepts him with a kiss. Timeline of events (1902–1903) Late spring 1902 – Anne, now 18, finishes teaching at Avonlea school. Summer 1902 – Diana marries Fred, Anne takes a teaching position at Kingsport Ladies College. September 1902 – Anne begins teaching at Kingsport Ladies College. November 26, 1902 – Production date of Anne's play at Kingsport Ladies College. Summer 1903 – Katherine Brooke spends summer break with Anne at Green Gables. Anne commits to Gilbert. Cast Megan Follows - Anne Shirley Colleen Dewhurst - Marilla Cuthbert Jonathan Crombie - Gilbert Blythe Schuyler Grant - Diana Barry Patricia Hamilton - Rachel Lynde Marilyn Lightstone - Miss Stacey Wendy Hiller - Mrs. Margaret Harris Frank Converse - Morgan Harris Kate Lynch - Pauline Harris Genevieve Appleton - Emmeline Harris Rosemary Dunsmore - Katherine Brooke Susannah Hoffman - Jen Pringle Nuala Fitzgerald - Mrs. Tom Pringle Molly MacNeil - Myra Pringle Fiona McGillivray - Hattie Pringle London Juno - Jimsie Pringle Bruce McCulloch - Fred Wright Sheila Harcourt - Christine Stuart Kathryn Trainor - Essie Rosemary Radcliffe - Mrs. Barry Charmion King - Aunt Josephine Barry Robert Collins - Mr. Barry Kay Hawtrey - Mabel Sloane Jacqueline Blais - Mrs. Harrison Anna Ferguson - Mrs. Boulter Trish Nettleton - Jane Andrews Jennifer Inch - Ruby Gillis Brigit Wilson - Tillie Boulter Miranda de Pencier - Josie Pye (uncredited) Ian Heath - Anthony Pye Mag Ruffman - Alice Lawson Dave Foley - Lewis Allen Awards and nominations 2 Cable Ace Awards: Best Costume, Best Supporting Actress (Colleen Dewhurst), 1987 6 Gemini Awards: Best Dramatic Miniseries, Best Photography (Marc Champion), Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, Best Performance by Lead Actress (Megan Follows), Best Performance by a Supporting Actress (Colleen Dewhurst), 1988 Silver Award - International Film and Television Festival, New York, 1987 Best Family Series - TV Guide, 1987 CFTA Award - Best New TV Production, 1987 Chris Award - Columbus International Film Festival, 1987 Honourable Mention - International San Francisco Film Festival, 1988 Crystal Apple Award - National Education Film and Video Festival, 1988 ACT Award - Achievement in Children's TV, 1988 Golden Hugo Award - Chicago International Film Festival, 1987 Gold Award - Houston International Film Festival, 1987 Sequels and spinoffs Road to Avonlea is a television series which was first broadcast in Canada and the United States between 1990 and 1996. It was inspired by a series of short stories and two novels by Lucy Maud Montgomery. Many of the actors in the Anne of Green Gables movies also appear in storylines crossing over into the long-running Emmy award-winning series, including Patricia Hamilton as Rachel Lynde, Colleen Dewhurst as Marilla Cuthbert until her death in 1991, and Marilyn Lightstone as Muriel Stacy. Jonathan Crombie returned as Gilbert Blythe in a one-time guest appearance in the finale episode of season three, which dealt with Marilla's death. Other actors from the first two Anne films portrayed different characters in Road to Avonlea, including Rosemary Dunsmore, who played Katherine Brooke in this film but returned as "Abigail MacEwan" in the television series. Anne of Green Gables: The Continuing Story was released in 2000. Many cast members from the first two movies returned, including Megan Follows, Jonathan Crombie, and Schuyler Grant. Taking place in the midst of World War I, the movie follows Anne (now in her 20s) as she embarks on a new journey, taking her from her home in Prince Edward Island to New York City, London, and into war-ravaged Europe. This film is an original story not based on any of Montgomery's novels, nor does it align with the chronology of the books. Montgomery's Rilla of Ingleside, which also takes place during the first World War, focuses on Anne's teenage daughter and depicts Anne and Gilbert as a middle-aged couple who witness the effects of the war from the home front while their adult sons fight in Europe. Anne of Green Gables: A New Beginning was released in fall 2008 (the 100th anniversary of the original novel), serving as a prequel to the previous films, and is not based on the books. Set near the end of World War II in 1945, the story follows a middle-aged Anne (Barbara Hershey) looking back on her life before arriving at Green Gables. Hannah Endicott-Douglas played the role of young Anne. Production When Kevin Sullivan was commissioned by CBC, PBS and The Disney Channel to create a sequel he started by combining many different elements of Montgomery's three later books: Anne of Avonlea (1909), Anne of the Island (1915), and Anne of Windy Poplars (1936) into a cohesive screen story. Sullivan invented his own plotline relying on several of Montgomery's episodic storylines spread across the three sequels, He also looked at numerous other nineteenth century female authors for inspiration in fleshing out the screen story. The film succeeded in re-popularizing Megan Follows and Colleen Dewhurst in their original roles. Sullivan also cast British veteran actress and Oscar winner, Wendy Hiller, in the role of the impossible Mrs. Harris whom Sullivan created based on a composite of several matriarchs found in the series of novels. In Canada, the film became the highest rated drama to air on network television in Canadian broadcasting history. This Sequel became known as Anne of Green Gables - The Sequel when shown around the world, and as Anne of Avonlea - the Continuing Story of Anne of Green Gables when it premiered on The Disney Channel. ACE Award nomination Megan Follows was nominated for an ACE Award in 1988 by the National Academy of Cable Programing in the Ninth Annual System Awards for Cable Excellence for Disney's "Anne of Avonlea". Home Box Office led with 112 nominations for the ACE Award, or Award for Cable Excellence. Showtime was awarded 48, Arts & Entertainment 33, and the Disney Channel and Cable News Network 10 each, respectively. 30 categories of the 174 ACE Awards were presented on a live broadcast on HBO on January 24, 1988. The other categories were presented at a non-televised dinner in Las Vegas, on January 22, 1988. The ACE awards were established after cable programs and performers were excluded from the Emmy Awards. The National Academy of Cable Programming was established in March 1985 to promote excellence in cable television programming. References External links The Official Anne of Green Gables Movie Website - The official website of Sullivan series of Anne of Green Gables movies Sullivan Entertainment Website - The Official website of Sullivan Entertainment. Includes information on the Anne movies and its spinoffs Road to Avonlea Website - The official website for Road to Avonlea, the spinoff to the Green Gables series of movies L.M. Montgomery Online Formerly the L.M. Montgomery Research Group, this site includes a blog, extensive lists of primary and secondary materials, detailed information about Montgomery's publishing history, and a filmography of screen adaptations of Montgomery texts. See, in particular, the page for Anne of Green Gables: The Sequel. 1980s Canadian television miniseries 1987 films Anne of Green Gables films CBC Television original films Canadian films Films directed by Kevin Sullivan Films set in New Brunswick Gemini and Canadian Screen Award for Best Television Film or Miniseries winners

Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

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The Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team is the intercollegiate football team representing the University of Notre Dame in Notre Dame, Indiana, north of the city of South Bend. The team plays its home games at the campus's Notre Dame Stadium, which has a capacity of 77,622. Notre Dame is one of seven schools that competes as an Independent at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) level; however, they play five games a year against opponents from the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), of which Notre Dame is a member in all other sports except ice hockey. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Notre Dame football competed as an ACC member for the 2020 FBS season. During the 2020 season, they went on to appear in the ACC Championship Game. The school has won 22 national championships from NCAA-designated major selectors, 11 of which are claimed by the University. Seven Notre Dame players have won the Heisman Trophy. Notre Dame home games have been televised by NBC since 1991. History Early history (1887–1917) Football did not have an auspicious beginning at the University of Notre Dame. In their inaugural game on November 22, 1887, the Irish lost to Michigan by a score of 8–0. Their first win came in the final (and only) game of the 1888 season, when the Irish defeated Harvard Prep School of Chicago by a score of 20–0. Between 1887 and 1899, Notre Dame compiled a record of 31 wins, 15 losses, and four ties against a diverse variety of opponents, ranging from local high school teams to other universities. In 1894, James L. Morrison was hired as Notre Dame's first head football coach. Notre Dame took a significant step toward respectability, prominence, and stability when they hired Morrison. He wrote an acquaintance after his first day on the job: "I arrived here [Notre Dame] this morning and found about as green a set of football players that ever donned a uniform... They want to smoke, and when I told them that they would have to run and get up some wind, they thought I was rubbing it in on them....One big, strong cuss remarked that it was too much like work. Well, maybe you think I didn't give him hell! I bet you a hundred no one ever makes a remark like that again." Morrison had been hired for $40 plus expenses for two weeks. In 1908, a win over Franklin saw end Fay Wood catch the first touchdown pass in Notre Dame history. Notre Dame continued its success near the turn of the century and achieved their first victory over Michigan in 1909 by a score of 11–3, after which Michigan refused to play Notre Dame again for 33 years. By the end of the 1912 season, they had amassed a record of 108 wins, 31 losses, and 13 ties. Jesse Harper became head coach in 1913, and remained so until he retired in 1917. During his tenure the Irish began playing only intercollegiate games and posted a record of 34 wins, five losses, and one tie. This period would also mark the beginning of the rivalry with Army, and the continuation of a rivalry with Michigan State. In 1913, Notre Dame burst into the national consciousness and helped to transform the collegiate game in a single contest. In an effort to gain respect for a regionally successful but small-time Midwestern football program, Harper scheduled games in his first season with national powerhouses Texas, Penn State, and Army. On November 1, 1913, the Notre Dame squad stunned the Black Knights of the Hudson 35–13 in a game played at West Point. Led by quarterback Gus Dorais and end Knute Rockne—who was soon to be a legendary coach—the Notre Dame team attacked the Cadets with an offense that featured both the expected powerful running game but also long and accurate downfield forward passes from Dorais to Rockne. This game has been miscredited as the invention of the forward pass. Prior to this contest, receivers would come to a full-stop and wait on the ball to come to them, but in this contest, Dorais threw to Rockne in stride, changing the forward pass from a seldom-used play into the dominant ball-moving strategy that it is today. Knute Rockne era (1918–1930) Irish assistant Knute Rockne became head coach in 1918. Under Rockne, the Irish would post a record of 105 wins, 12 losses, and five ties. The 105 wins account for 12.3% of all wins in Notre Dame football history. During his 13 years, the Irish won three national championships, had five undefeated seasons, won the Rose Bowl in 1925, and produced players such as George Gipp and the "Four Horsemen". Knute Rockne has the highest winning percentage (.881) in NCAA Division I/FBS football history. Rockne's offenses employed the Notre Dame Box and his defenses ran a 7–2–2 scheme. Rockne took over in the war-torn season of 1918 and posted a 3–1–2 record; he lost only to the Michigan Agricultural Aggies. He made his coaching debut on September 28, 1918, against Case Tech in Cleveland, Ohio, and earned a 26–6 victory. Leonard Bahan, George Gipp, and Curly Lambeau were in the backfield. With Gipp, Rockne had an ideal handler of the forward pass. The 1919 team had Rockne handle the line and Gus Dorais handle the backfield. The team went undefeated and won the national championship. Gipp died at age 25 on December 14, 1920, just two weeks after Walter Camp elected him as Notre Dame's first All-American. Gipp likely contracted strep throat and pneumonia while giving punting lessons after his final game on November 20 against Northwestern. Since antibiotics were not available in the 1920s, treatment options for such infections were limited and they could be fatal even to young, healthy individuals. Rockne was speaking to Gipper on his hospital bed when he was purported to have delivered the famous, "Win one for the Gipper" line. John Mohardt led the 1921 Notre Dame team to a 10–1 record with 781 rushing yards, 995 passing yards, 12 rushing touchdowns, and nine passing touchdowns. Grantland Rice wrote that "Mohardt could throw the ball to within a foot or two of any given space" and noted that the 1921 Notre Dame team "was the first team we know of to build its attack around a forward passing game, rather than use a forward passing game as a mere aid to the running game." Mohardt had both Eddie Anderson and Roger Kiley at end to receive his passes. The national champion 1924 team included the "Four Horsemen" backfield of Harry Stuhldreher, Don Miller, Jim Crowley, and Elmer Layden. The line was known as the "Seven Mules". The Irish capped an undefeated, 10–0 season with a victory over Stanford in the Rose Bowl. The 1926 team beat Army and was led by Christie Flanagan. For all his success, Rockne also made what an Associated Press writer called "one of the greatest coaching blunders in history." Instead of coaching his team against Carnegie Tech, Rockne traveled to Chicago for the Army–Navy Game to "write newspaper articles about it, as well as select an All-America football team." Carnegie Tech used the coach's absence as motivation for a 19–0 win; the upset likely cost the Irish a chance for a national title. The 1928 team lost to national champion Georgia Tech. "I sat at Grant Field and saw a magnificent Notre Dame team suddenly recoil before the furious pounding of one man–Peter Pund," said Rockne. "Nobody could stop him. I counted 20 scoring plays that this man ruined." Among the events that occurred during Rockne's tenure none may be more famous than Rockne's Win one for the Gipper speech. Army came into the 1928 matchup undefeated and was the clear favorite. Notre Dame, on the other hand, was having their worst season under Rockne's leadership and entered the game with a 4–2 record. At the end of the half Army was leading and looked to be in command of the game. Rockne entered the locker room and gave his account of Gipp's final words: "I've got to go, Rock. It's all right. I'm not afraid. Some time, Rock, when the team is up against it, when things are going wrong and the breaks are beating the boys, tell them to go in there with all they've got and win just one for the Gipper. I don't know where I'll be then, Rock. But I'll know about it, and I'll be happy." The speech inspired the team and they went on to upset Army and win the game 12–6. The 1929 and 1930 teams both went undefeated, winning national championships, and the 1930 team was led by the likes of Frank Carideo, Joe Savoldi, Marchy Schwartz and Marty Brill. It featured the first and only example of all four members of a backfield being named to an All-American team during the same season. The 1929 team played all of its games on the road while the new Notre Dame Stadium was being built. In 1930, "Jumping Joe" Savoldi scored the first Notre Dame touchdown in the new stadium on a 98-yard kickoff return. Savoldi is also known as "the first hero in the lore of Notre Dame's Stadium" based on scoring three touchdowns in the official stadium dedication game against Navy the following week. Rockne coached his last game on December 14, 1930, when he led a group of Notre Dame all-stars against the New York Giants in New York City. The game raised funds for the Mayor's Relief Committee for the unemployed and needy of the city. 50,000 fans turned out to see the reunited "Four Horsemen" along with players from Rockne's other championship teams take the field against the pros. On March 31, 1931, Rockne died at age 43 in the crash of a Transcontinental & Western Air airliner in Kansas; he was on his way to help in the production of the film The Spirit of Notre Dame. The crash site is located in a remote expanse of Kansas known as the Flint Hills and now features a Rockne Memorial. As Notre Dame's head coach from 1918 to 1930, Rockne posted what has remained for decades the all-time highest winning percentage (.881) for a football coach in the NCAA's flagship FBS division. During his 13-year tenure as head coach of the Fighting Irish, Rockne collected 105 victories, 12 losses, 5 ties and 3 national championships. Rockne also coached Notre Dame to five undefeated and untied seasons. Heartley Anderson (1931–1933) Through game broadcasts during the Golden Age of Radio, Notre Dame football gained a nationwide following of "subway alumni", Catholics who became fans whether or not they attended the university. Former Saint Louis head coach Heartley "Hunk" Anderson was promoted from assistant coach and took the helm of the Irish after Knute Rockne's death, leading them to a record of 16 wins, nine losses, and two ties. Anderson was a former Irish player under Rockne and was serving as an assistant coach at the time of Rockne's death. Anderson resigned as Irish head coach after the 1933 season to accept the position of head football coach at NC State. Notre Dame finished 6–2–1 in 1931. The Irish began the season with a 25–0 win over Indiana, Notre Dame tied Northwestern in the season's second game. Anderson's squad then demolished Drake by a score of 63–0. After defeating Pittsburgh by a score of 25–12, the Fighting Irish shut out their next three opponents: Carnegie Mellon, Pennsylvania and Navy. The Irish lost a heartbreaker by a score of 16–14 to USC on November 21 that snapped the Irish's 26-game non-losing streak. Army shut out the Irish by a score of 12–0 on November 28 to finish the Irish's season. The Irish went 7–2 in 1932. Anderson's team began with three blowout victories: 73–0 over Haskell, 62–0 over Drake and 42–0 over Carnegie Mellon. The Irish then faced Pittsburgh in front of a then-record crowd of 62,000, losing by a score of 12–0. Notre Dame bounced back to win its next four: 24–6 over Kansas, 21–0 over Northwestern, 12–0 over Navy and 21–0 over Army in front of a new record crowd on 80,000. Anderson's Irish closed the season on a sour note, losing to USC by a score of 13–0. 1933 was a tough year for the Irish as they finished with a 3–5–2 record. Notre Dame began the season in a scoreless tie with Kansas. After defeating Indiana by a score of 12–2, ND suffered a four-game losing streak, failing to score a point in all four losses to Carnegie Mellon, Pittsburgh, Navy, and Purdue. Notre Dame ended the losing streak by defeating Northwestern by a score of 7–0. The Fighting Irish closed the season with a 19–0 loss to USC and a 13–12 win over Army. Elmer Layden (1934–1940) Anderson was replaced by Elmer Layden, who was one of Rockne's "Four Horsemen" in the 1920s. After graduating, Layden played professional football for one year and then began a coaching career. The Irish posted a record of 47 wins, 13 losses, and three ties in seven years under Layden, the most successful record of a Notre Dame coach not to win a national championship. He left Notre Dame after the 1940 season to become Commissioner of the National Football League. Layden's 1935 squad posted one of the greatest wins in school history by rallying to defeat Ohio State by a score of 18–13. His 1938 team finished 8–1, losing only to USC in the season finale. This loss cost them a possible consensus national championship, but the team was named national champion by the Dickinson System. Like Rockne before him, Layden was a goodwill ambassador for Notre Dame during his time as head coach. He was able to schedule a home-and-home series with Michigan after meeting with Fielding H. Yost, healing a rift between the two schools. The two teams had not met since 1909, when, after eight straight losses to the Wolverines, the Irish posted their first win. They were scheduled to meet again in 1910, but Michigan canceled the game and refused to play the Irish again. By the time they met again in 1943, Layden had left Notre Dame and Frank Leahy had taken his place. Unlike the easygoing Layden, Leahy was intense, and after the Irish had thrashed Michigan by a score of 35–12 in 1943, Wolverine coach and athletic director Fritz Crisler never scheduled the Irish again. Frank Leahy era (1941–1953) Boston College head coach Frank Leahy was hired by Notre Dame to take over for Layden in 1941, and was another former Irish player who played during the Rockne era. After graduating from Notre Dame, Leahy held several coaching positions, including line coach of the "Seven Blocks of Granite" of Fordham University that helped that team win all but two of their games between 1935 and 1937. He then coached the Boston College Eagles to a win in the 1941 Sugar Bowl and a share of the national championship. His move to Notre Dame began a new period of gridiron success for the Irish, and ensured Leahy's place among the winningest coaches in the history of college football. Leahy coached the team for 11 seasons, from 1941 to 1943 and 1946 to 1953. He has the second highest winning percentage (.864) of any college coach in history. He led the Irish to a record of 87 wins, 11 losses, and nine ties including 39 consecutive games without a loss (37–0–2), four national championships, and six undefeated seasons. A fifth national championship was lost because of a 1953 tie against Iowa, in a game that featured 1953 Heisman Trophy winner Johnny Lattner that caused a minor scandal at the time, when it appeared that some Irish players had faked injuries to stop the clock, leading some to nickname those players the "Fainting Irish". From 1944 to 1945, Leahy served in the U.S. Navy during World War II and was honorably discharged as a Captain. Edward McKeever, Leahy's assistant coach, became interim head coach when Leahy left for the Navy. During his one year at the helm (1944) the Irish managed 8 wins and 2 losses. McKeever left Notre Dame in 1945 to take over as head coach of Cornell. He was replaced by Hugh Devore for the 1945 season who led the Irish to a 7–2–1 record. Leahy retired in 1954 reportedly due to health issues. Perhaps the best example of this occurred during the Georgia Tech game in 1953. Leahy fell ill during the game, which led to him collapsing during halftime. The situation was so dire that a priest was called in to give Leahy the last rites. However, Leahy recovered, and the consequent diagnosis was that he was suffering from nervous tension and pancreatitis. Terry Brennan (1954–1958) The departure of Frank Leahy ushered in a downward slope in Notre Dame's performance, referred to in various circles as a period of de-emphasis. 25-year old assistant coach Terry Brennan was hired as Frank Leahy's successor as the Notre Dame head coach in 1954 and would stay until 1958. When asked if he thought he was too young to be a head coach at the age of 25, Brennan replied, "Oh, I don't know. I'll be 26 in a few months." He departed with a total of 32 wins and 18 losses. But note: the 32 wins included 17 in 1954 and 1955. From 1956 to 1958 his record was 15–15. Brennan was a former player under Leahy and before joining the Irish had coached the Mount Carmel High School team in Chicago and later the freshman squad and assistant at Notre Dame. His first two seasons the Irish were ranked fourth and ninth respectively. It was the 1956 season that began to darken his reputation, for it became one of the most dismal in the team's history and saw them finish the season with a mere two wins, including losses to Michigan State, Oklahoma, and Iowa. One bright spot in the 1956 season was the awarding of the Heisman Trophy to Paul Hornung, who would go on to a legendary NFL career with the Green Bay Packers. To date, Hornung is the only Heisman winner to win the award while playing for a team that had a losing record. The Irish would recover the following season, posting a record of 7–3 and including in their wins a stunning upset of Oklahoma, in Norman, Oklahoma, that ended the Sooners' still-standing record of 47 consecutive wins. In Brennan's final season, though, the Irish finished 6–4. Brennan was fired in mid-December. Brennan's tenure can only be properly framed with the understanding that in a time of zero scholarship limitations in college football, Notre Dame's administration inexplicably began a process of deemphasizing football, severely cutting scholarships and hindering Brennan from building a roster of any meaningful depth. Joe Kuharich (1959–1963) Former San Francisco, Chicago Cardinals and Washington Redskins head coach Joe Kuharich took the head coaching position at Notre Dame in 1959, realizing a longtime ambition to return to his alma mater. He had earlier been courted by Notre Dame after the 1956 season, after the Irish finished 2–8, but before he had a chance to accept an offer, Terry Brennan was given a reprieve. He brought a professional touch to Irish football, putting shamrocks on the players' helmets and shoulder stripes on their jerseys. Kuharich compiled a 17–23 record over four non-winning seasons and remains to this day the only coach ever to have an overall losing record at Notre Dame. Included was a school-record eight-game losing streak in 1960, a year in which the Irish finished 2–8. It was one of the worst stretches in program history. The consensus opinion was that Kuharich never made the adjustment from pro football to college football, attempting to use complicated pro coaching techniques with collegiate players, and never adapted to the limited substitution rules in effect at the time, having big, immobile linemen playing both ways in an era where smaller, quicker players were preferred. He often said, "You win some and you lose some", and seemed perfectly content finishing 5–5 every year. This did not sit well with the Irish faithful, who expected Notre Dame to beat everybody. When the pressure of winning became too much to bear, Kuharich resigned in the spring of 1963 and assumed the post of supervisor of NFL officials. Because it was so late in the spring, Hugh Devore was named head coach for the 1963 season while the search for a permanent replacement was being conducted. The players that he recruited came to within 93 seconds of an undefeated season and a national championship in 1964 under first-year coach Ara Parseghian. Despite his unsuccessful Notre Dame tenure, Kuharich remains the only Irish coach to post back-to-back shutouts over their greatest rival, the University of Southern California Trojans in 1960 (17–0) and 1961 (30–0). Kuharich was involved in a game whose controversial ending resulted in a rule change. In 1961, Notre Dame faced Syracuse at home and trailed, 15–14, with three seconds left to play. A desperation 56-yard field goal attempt fell short as time ran out, and Syracuse appeared to have won the game. But the Orangemen were penalized 15 yards for roughing the placekick holder, and given a second chance with no time showing on the clock, Notre Dame kicker Joe Perkowski drilled a 41-yard field goal for a 17–15 Irish victory. Syracuse protested, claiming that under the existing rules, the second kick should not have been allowed because time had expired. It never was clear whether the officials had erred in allowing the extra play, and the Irish victory was permitted to stand. As a result of this game, the rule was clarified to state that a half cannot end on an accepted defensive foul—consistent with the officials' ruling in this game. Ara Parseghian era (1964–1974) In 1964, Ara Parseghian left his job as the Northwestern head football coach when he was hired to take over the coaching duties at Notre Dame. He immediately brought the team back to a level of success in Irish football history that was comparable only to Rockne and Leahy. These three coaches have an 80% or greater winning percentage while at Notre Dame – Rockne at .881, Leahy at .864, and Parseghian at .836. Parseghian's teams never won fewer than seven nor lost more than three games during the ten-game regular seasons of the era. In his first year, the Irish improved their record to 9–1, but they lost the national championship in the last game of the season at USC when Craig Fertig connected with a touchdown pass to Rod Sherman. Parseghian earned coach of the year honors from the American Football Coaches Association, the Football Writers Association, and The Sporting News, as well as several others, and a cover story in Time magazine. Parseghian was also named coach of the year by several selectors in his national championship years of 1966 and 1973 and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1980. It was under Parseghian as well that Notre Dame lifted its 40-plus year-old "no bowl games" policy, beginning with the season of 1969, after which the Irish played the No. 1 Texas Longhorns in the Cotton Bowl Classic, losing in the final minutes in a closely contested game. The following year, Parseghian's 9–1 squad ended Texas' Southwest Conference record 30-game winning streak in the 1971 Cotton Bowl. During his eleven-year career, the Irish amassed a record of 95–17–4 and captured two national championships as well as the MacArthur Bowl in 1964. The Irish also had undefeated seasons in 1966 and 1973, had three major bowl wins in five appearances, and produced one Heisman Trophy winner (John Huarte in 1964). In 1971, Cliff Brown became the first African-American quarterback to start a game for the program. Due to health issues, Parseghian was forced to retire from coaching after the 1974 season. Dan Devine era (1975–1980) Dan Devine was hired to take over as head coach upon Parseghian's departure from Notre Dame in 1975. Devine was already a highly successful coach and had led Arizona State, Missouri, and the NFL's Green Bay Packers. Devine had been a leading candidate for the head coaching job at Notre Dame in 1964, when Ara Parseghian was hired. When approached for the job following Parseghian's resignation, Devine accepted immediately, joking that it was probably the shortest job interview in history. When he arrived at Notre Dame he already had a college coaching record of 120 wins, 40 losses, and eight ties and had led his teams to victory in four bowl games. At Notre Dame he would lead the Irish to 53 wins, 16 losses, and a tie as well as three bowl victories. His lasting achievement came midway through this run when Notre Dame won the 1977 national championship, led by junior quarterback Joe Montana. The championship season climaxed with a 38–10 win in the 1978 Cotton Bowl Classic over previously top-ranked Texas, led by Heisman Trophy winner Earl Campbell. The win vaulted the Irish from fifth to first in the polls. Earlier in the season, before the annual game against USC, played at home on October 22, Devine changed the team's jerseys from navy blue & white to kelly green & gold, later known as the "green jersey game" resulting in a 49–19 victory over the Trojans. The Irish continued to wear green for the rest of Devine's tenure at the school. Like Joe Kuharich before him, Devine was involved in a game while at Notre Dame whose ending resulted in a rule change still in effect today. On September 15, 1979, the Irish faced the Michigan Wolverines in Ann Arbor in their season opener. With six seconds remaining, Michigan lined up for a game-winning field goal attempt. Notre Dame linebacker Bob Crable ran onto the backs of offensive lineman Tim Foley and defensive end Scott Zettek and was able to block the kick, preserving a 12–10 Irish victory. A new rule was implemented the following season that prohibited this tactic. Because he had the unenviable task of following a legend, Devine came under heavy scrutiny while at Notre Dame and it was felt that he was never fully embraced by the Notre Dame community, despite winning a national championship. After a 5–2 start in his first season, rumors of incompetence were circulated and that Devine would be dismissed and replaced by Don Shula or even Ara Parseghian (who went so far as to say he would not return to Notre Dame under any circumstances). Even on the day of the 1977 USC game, "Dump Devine" bumper stickers were being sold outside Notre Dame Stadium. He also had the notoriety of losing to his old program, a shocking 3–0 loss to the Tigers at South Bend in 1978. It was not until after Devine had left Notre Dame that the fans began to appreciate him. On August 15, 1980, Devine announced that he would be leaving Notre Dame at the end of the season, saying he wanted to be able to spend more time with his wife. He moved back to Arizona and became a fundraiser for Arizona State University's Sun Devil Foundation. In 1985, he was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame, and then returned to his old school at Missouri seven years later as athletic director to help navigate the school through financial troubles. Devine was inducted into the inaugural class of the University of Minnesota Duluth Athletic Hall of Fame in 1991. Gerry Faust (1981–1985) Gerry Faust was hired to replace Devine in 1981. Prior to Notre Dame, Faust had been one of the more successful high school football coaches in the country. As coach of Moeller High School in Cincinnati he amassed a 174–17–2 record over 19 seasons. Many of his players had gone on to play for Notre Dame; indeed, when he arrived in South Bend, he was reunited with nine of his former players from Moeller. Despite his success in the high school ranks, Faust's success at Notre Dame was mixed and his record mediocre at best. In his first season, the Irish finished 5–6. In Faust's second season, Notre Dame improved slightly to 6–4–1. The most successful years under Faust were the 1983 and 1984 campaigns where the Irish finished 7–5 and made trips to the Liberty Bowl and Aloha Bowl respectively. His final record at Notre Dame was 30–26–1. To avoid being fired, Faust resigned at the end of the 1985 season, following fan cries of "Oust Faust". He announced his resignation prior to the final game of the year, where Notre Dame suffered a humiliating 58–7 loss at Miami; Allen Pinkett scored the Irish TD. Faust proceeded to take over as head coach at Akron. Lou Holtz era (1986–1996) Lou Holtz had 17 years of head coaching experience by the time he was hired to lead the Irish. He had previously been head coach of William & Mary, North Carolina State, the NFL's New York Jets, Arkansas, and Minnesota. Holtz began in 1986 where his predecessor left off in 1985, finishing with an identical record of 5 wins and 6 losses. However, unlike the 1985 squad, which was generally outcoached and outplayed, Holtz's 1986 edition was competitive in nearly every game, losing five out of those six games by a combined total of 14 points. That would be his only losing season as he posted a record of 95–24–2 over the next ten seasons adding up to a 100–30–2 record overall. In 1987, Holtz led the Irish to an 8–4 record. Notre Dame's best player was star wide receiver Tim Brown, who would win the Heisman Trophy that season and is Notre Dame's seventh and last Heisman winner to date. The season began with the Irish defeating No. 9 Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan, by a score of 26–7. The next week, the Irish defeated No. 17 Michigan State by a score of 31–8. After defeating Purdue, the Irish lost to Pittsburgh and lost starting quarterback Terry Andrysiak to injury during the game. With sophomore quarterback Tony Rice under center, the Irish reeled off five straight wins, beginning with Air Force, then USC, Navy, Boston College and No. 10 Alabama. Notre Dame would then lose their last three to close the season, starting with Penn State, then No. 2 Miami and Texas A&M in the Cotton Bowl. In contrast to Faust, Holtz was well known as a master motivator and a strict disciplinarian. The tone was set with Holtz's first meeting with his team as Irish head coach in 1986, immediately demanding his players sit up straight in their chairs and look him in the eye as he spoke. He displayed the latter trait in spades when two of his top contributing players showed up late for dinner right before the then top-ranked Irish played second-ranked USC in the final regular season game of 1988. In a controversial move, coach Lou Holtz took his 10–0 Irish squad to Los Angeles without stars Ricky Watters and Tony Brooks, who he suspended for disciplinary reasons. This was not the first time these players had gotten into trouble and the players had been warned there would be serious consequences if it happened again. His move was vindicated when the Irish defeated USC anyway. Holtz was named national coach of the year (Paul "Bear" Bryant Award) in 1988, the same season he took Notre Dame to an upset of No. 1 Miami in the Catholics vs. Convicts series and a win over No. 3 West Virginia in the Fiesta Bowl, thus capturing the national championship. The Irish finished a perfect 12–0 in 1988, its last undefeated season and national championship to date. Occasionally, despite his lack of success with the N.Y. Jets, he was rumored to be leaving Notre Dame for the NFL. Following a 6–10 season in 1990 and an 8–8 showing in 1991, the Minnesota Vikings were rumored to replace Jerry Burns with Holtz. However, Holtz denied these rumors each of those two seasons. Holtz remained at Notre Dame; the Vikings, meanwhile, hired Dennis Green to replace the retired Jerry Burns. Holtz nearly replaced Green five years later after retiring from Notre Dame. In 1989, Holtz led the Irish to a 12–1 record. The Irish began the season in the Kickoff Classic game in East Rutherford, New Jersey, against Virginia. The Irish won by a score of 36–13. Next, top-ranked Notre Dame defeated No. 2 Michigan by a score of 24–19. That was followed by wins over Michigan State, Purdue, Stanford, No. 17 Air Force, No. 9 USC, No. 7 Pittsburgh, Navy, SMU and No. 17 Penn State. The Irish would lose to No. 7 Miami the following week, ending Notre Dame's 23-game winning streak. Holtz would lead the Irish to a victory in the Orange Bowl over No. 1 Colorado to end the season. Holtz led the Fighting Irish to a 9–3 record in 1990. The season began with a No. 1 ranking and a victory over No. 4 Michigan by a score of 28–24. The Irish defeated No. 24 Michigan State the following week then beat Purdue. The Irish would suffer its first defeat of the season the next week, losing to Stanford by a score of 36–31. The Irish would rebound to post five consecutive wins, defeating Air Force, No. 2 Miami, Pittsburgh, Navy and No. 9 Tennessee. After losing 24–21 to No. 22 Penn State, the Irish defeated USC by a score of 10–6 in the regular season finale. The Irish would get a rematch with Colorado in the Orange Bowl but would lose by a score of 10–9. The Fighting Irish would go 10–3 in 1991. After defeating Indiana to open the season, the Irish lost to No. 4 Michigan by a score of 24–14. The Irish won their next seven, defeating Michigan State, Purdue, Stanford, No. 12 Pittsburgh, Air Force, USC and Navy. The Irish would suffer a defeat to No. 13 Tennessee at home, blowing a 24-point lead to lose by a score of 35–34. Notre Dame would then lose back-to-back games for the first time since 1987 when they lost to unranked Penn State, their first loss to an unranked opponent also since 1987. The Irish would close out the regular season with a victory over Hawaii by a score of 48–42. The Irish would receive a berth in the Sugar Bowl in New Orleans, Louisiana, where they defeated Florida by a score of 39–28. In 1992, Notre Dame finished 10–1–1. After defeating Northwestern to start the season, the Fighting Irish tied No. 5 Michigan, their first tie of the Holtz era. After defeating Michigan State and Purdue, the Irish lost to No. 19 Stanford by a score of 33–16. Notre Dame would win out for the rest of the season, defeating Pittsburgh, BYU, Navy, No. 9 Boston College, No. 21 Penn State, No. 23 USC and the Cotton Bowl against No. 3 Texas A&M. The Irish would enjoy another successful season in 1993, finishing the season at 11–1. After scoring 27 points in wins over Northwestern and No. 2 Michigan to start the season, the Irish defeated Michigan State, Purdue, Pittsburgh, BYU, USC, Navy and No. 1 Florida State. However, a loss to No. 12 Boston College on a game-winning field goal as time expired by a score of 41–39 ended the Irish's national championship aspirations. The Irish would face a rematch with No. 6 Texas A&M in the Cotton Bowl to finish the season, a game the Irish won by a score of 24–21. In 1994, Holtz led Notre Dame to a 6–5–1 record, the Irish's worst record since Holtz's first season in 1986. The Irish would begin by defeating Northwestern but would lose to No. 5 Michigan by a score of 26–24. The Irish defeated Michigan State the following week by a score of 21–20. After wins over Purdue and Stanford, the Irish would lose three of their next four to drop out of the rankings for the first time since 1986. After beating Navy, the Fighting Irish lost to No. 6 Florida State by a score of 23–16. After beating Air Force, Notre Dame tied USC and lost to No. 5 Colorado in the Fiesta Bowl by a score of 41–24. The Irish would improve to 9–3 in 1995. Despite getting upset by Northwestern to begin the season, the Irish won their next three, defeating Purdue, Vanderbilt (a game in which Coach Holtz missed because of a health issue and defensive coordinator Bob Davie filled in as head coach for the game), and No. 10 Texas. After losing to No. 6 Ohio State, the Irish reeled off six straight wins, defeating No. 15 Washington, Army, No. 5 USC, Boston College, Navy and Air Force. The Irish finished the 1995 campaign by losing to No. 8 Florida State in the Orange Bowl. Lou Holtz's last season at Notre Dame in 1996 resulted in an 8–3 record. After defeating Vanderbilt, Purdue and No. 8 Texas, the Irish lost to No. 4 Ohio State. Notre Dame would finish the season with a win over No. 16 Washington, a loss to Air Force in overtime, a win over Navy, a win over Boston College, a win over Pittsburgh, a win over Rutgers and an overtime loss to USC, snapping the Irish's 13-game non-losing streak against the Trojans. Holtz's option offense, which helped catapult Notre Dame to many victories in the late 1980s and early 1990s, also helped rack up impressive recruiting classes. During the 1989 season, Holtz had the following future NFL players on offense: QB Rick Mirer, RB Ricky Watters, RB Anthony Johnson, RB Rodney Culver, RB Dorsey Levens, and WR Raghib Ismail. In 1990, he added RB Jeff Burris (who would later move to Safety), FB Jerome Bettis and TE Irv Smith. 1991 saw the additions of RB Reggie Brooks and FB Ray Zellars. 1992 saw the addition of WR Derrick Mayes. For 1993, he added FB Marc Edwards. In 1995, he added RB Autry Denson. From the 1987–1991 NFL Drafts, there were 33 Notre Dame players selected. From the 1992–1995 NFL Drafts, there were 32 Notre Dame players selected. Overall, Holtz took Notre Dame to one undefeated season, nine consecutive New Year's Day bowl games, and top 10 finishes in the AP poll in five seasons. Holtz retired from Notre Dame following the 1996 season, but would unretire in 1999 to accept the head coaching position at South Carolina where he would serve until the completion of the 2004 season. Bob Davie (1997–2001) Bob Davie, who had been Holtz's defensive coordinator from 1994 to 1996, was promoted to head coach when Holtz retired. Davie, who turned down a head coaching offer from Purdue to accept the Irish's head coaching position, was a well-respected defensive mind who had also served as defensive coordinator at Tulane and Texas A&M. Davie had also filled in as head coach for one game during the 1995 season when Lou Holtz was dealing with a health issue. One of his first major decisions was to fire long-time offensive line coach Joe Moore, who then successfully sued the university for age discrimination. On Davie's watch, the team suffered three bowl game losses (1997 Independence Bowl, 1999 Gator Bowl, and 2001 Fiesta Bowl), and it failed to qualify for a bowl game in two others (1999 and 2001). The highlight of Davie's tenure was a 36–20 upset win in 1998 over No. 5 Michigan, the defending national champions. Davie's Irish also posted a 25–24 home victory over USC in 1999. Davie nearly defeated top ranked Nebraska in 2000, with the Irish comeback bid falling short in overtime 27–24. The aforementioned 2001 Fiesta Bowl was Notre Dame's first invitation to the Bowl Championship Series. The Irish lost by 32 points to Oregon State, but would finish No. 15 in the AP Poll, Davie's highest ranking as head coach. The 2001 squad was awarded the American Football Coaches Association Achievement Award for its 100% graduation rate. On December 17, 1999, Notre Dame was placed on probation by the NCAA for the only time in its history. The association's Committee on Infractions found two series of violations. The New York Times reported "the main one involved the actions of a booster, Kimberly Dunbar, who lavished gifts on football players with money she later pleaded guilty to embezzling." In the second series of events, a football player was accused of trying to sell several complimentary game tickets and of using others as repayment of a loan. The player was also said "to have been romantically involved with a woman (not Dunbar), a part-time tutor at the university, who wrote a term paper for another player for a small fee and provided players with meals, lodging and gifts." The Dunbar violation began while Lou Holtz was head coach: "According to the NCAA committee report, Dunbar, the woman at the center of the more serious violations, had become romantically involved with several Notre Dame football players from June 1995 to January 1998 and had a child with one, Jarvis Edison." Notre Dame was placed on probation for two years and lost one of its 85 football scholarships each year in what the Times termed "minor" penalties. Following the 1998 season, the team fell into a pattern of frustrating inconsistency and alternated between successful and mediocre seasons. Despite Davie's rocky tenure, new athletic director Kevin White gave the coach a contract extension following the Fiesta Bowl-capped 2000 season, then saw the team start 0–3 in 2001 – the first such start in school history. Disappointed by the on-field results, coupled with the Joe Moore and Kim Dunbar scandals, the administration decided to dismiss Davie after the 2001 season. His final record at Notre Dame was 35–25. After departing Notre Dame, Davie accepted an offer from ESPN to serve as a play-by-play broadcast college football analyst, a position he would hold for ten years before New Mexico hired him to be their head football coach in December 2011. George O'Leary controversy On December 9, 2001, Notre Dame hired George O'Leary, the head coach at Georgia Tech, to replace Davie. However, while researching a "local boy done good" story on O'Leary, New Hampshire Union Leader reporter Jim Fennell uncovered misrepresentations in O'Leary's resume that had influenced the administration's decision to hire him. The resulting media scandal embarrassed Notre Dame officials, and tainted O'Leary; he resigned five days later, before coaching a single practice, recruiting a single player, or hiring a single assistant coach. O'Leary's tenure is the shortest of any head coach in FBS history. O'Leary would go on to become the head football coach at the University of Central Florida. Tyrone Willingham (2002–2004) Once again in need of a new head coach, the school turned to Tyrone Willingham, the head coach at Stanford. Willingham's hiring made him the first African American head coach in Notre Dame football history. Bringing a feeling of change and excitement to campus, Willingham led the 2002 squad to a 10–2 regular season record, including an 8–0 start with wins over No. 7 Michigan and No. 11 Florida State, and a No. 4 ranking. This great early start, however, would be the lone highlight of Willingham's tenure, as Notre Dame finished the year with a heart-breaking loss to Boston College, then lopsided losses to USC and North Carolina State in the Gator Bowl. The program faltered over the next two seasons under Willingham, compiling an 11–12 record. During this time, Notre Dame lost a game by at least 30 points on five occasions. Furthermore, Willingham's 2004 recruiting class was judged by analysts to be the worst at Notre Dame in more than two decades. Citing Notre Dame's third consecutive four-touchdown loss to arch-rival USC compounded by another year of sub-par recruiting efforts, the Willingham era ended on November 30, 2004 (after the conclusion of the 2004 season) when the university chose to terminate him and pay out the remainder of Willingham's six-year contract. Willingham would not be unemployed for long, however, as he would accept the head coaching position at Washington two weeks after he was fired by the Irish. Charlie Weis (2005–2009) After Willingham's firing, Notre Dame initially pursued Utah head coach Urban Meyer, who had been an Irish assistant from 1996 to 2000. After Meyer accepted the Florida head coaching position and turned down the Irish, Charlie Weis left the NFL's New England Patriots, where he won three Super Bowls as offensive coordinator, to become head football coach for the Irish beginning with the 2005 season. Weis' hiring as the Irish's 30th head football coach made him the first Notre Dame graduate to hold the football head coaching position on a full-fledged basis since Joe Kuharich (a 1938 Notre Dame graduate). In his inaugural season he led Notre Dame to a record of 9–3, including an appearance in the Fiesta Bowl, where they were defeated by the Ohio State Buckeyes 34–20. In the first half of the first game (against Pittsburgh), Notre Dame had gained more offensive yards than it had in five games combined, during the previous season. On September 25, Weis and the Irish traveled to Seattle, Washington, to face Washington and former head coach Tyrone Willingham, who was hired by the Huskies to be their head coach two weeks after getting fired at Notre Dame. The Irish won by a score of 36–17. Quarterback Brady Quinn would go on to break numerous team passing records that season and rise to the national spotlight, by holding 35 Notre Dame records as well as becoming a top Heisman Trophy contender. Wide receiver Jeff Samardzija would be the team's leading receiver and would go on to a successful career in Major League Baseball as a pitcher for the San Francisco Giants. Tight end Anthony Fasano would be another key offensive player during the 2005 season who would go on to an NFL career with the Dallas Cowboys, Miami Dolphins, Kansas City Chiefs and Tennessee Titans. During the 2005 season, Notre Dame signed Weis to a big raise and ten-year contract extension that was set to keep the coach in South Bend through the 2015 season. Weis and the Irish went into the 2006 season with a No. 2 preseason ranking in the ESPN/Coaches Poll. They finished the regular season with a 10–2 record, losing only to Michigan and USC. Notre Dame accepted a bid to the 2007 Sugar Bowl, losing to LSU 41–14. This marked their ninth consecutive post-season loss, the longest drought in NCAA history. As a result, Notre Dame dropped to No. 17 in the final rankings. In the wake of a graduating class that sent eleven players to the NFL, the 2007 season (3–9) included various negative milestones: the most losses in a single year (9); two of the ten worst losses ever (38–0 losses to both Michigan and USC); and the first six-game losing streak for home games. The Naval Academy recorded their first win over the Irish since 1963, breaking the NCAA-record 43-game streak. In 2008, the Irish started 4–1, but completed the regular season with a 6–6 record, including a 24–23 home loss to Syracuse, the first time that Notre Dame had fallen to an eight-loss team. Quarterback Jimmy Clausen would be the team's star player, completing over 60% of his passes his sophomore season in 2008. Despite speculation the university might fire Weis, it was announced he would remain head coach. Weis's Notre Dame squad ended the season breaking the Irish's NCAA record nine-game bowl losing streak by beating Hawaii, 49–21, in the Hawaii Bowl. After the 2008 season, offensive coordinator Mike Haywood left to accept the head coaching position at Miami (OH). Instead of hiring a replacement, Weis elected to assume offensive coordinator duties himself, which included calling the plays. Charlie Weis entered the 2009 season with the expectation from the Notre Dame administration that his team would be in position to compete for a BCS Bowl berth. Notre Dame started the first part of the season 4–2, with close losses to Michigan and USC. Many of their wins were also close, aside from a 35–0 victory over Nevada and a 40–14 defeat of Washington State. Sitting at 6–2, however, Notre Dame lost a close game at Notre Dame Stadium to Navy, 23–21. This loss was the second to Navy in the last three years, and would be the first loss in a four-game losing streak to finish the season. The following week, Notre Dame lost to No. 8 Pittsburgh, then lost to UConn at home in double overtime on senior day. The Irish lost to Stanford the last week of the season by a score of 45–38. Quarterback Jimmy Clausen and wide receiver Golden Tate would forgo their senior seasons and enter the NFL Draft. Weis was fired on November 30, 2009, exactly five years after his predecessor. According to Weis' buyout, he was to be paid $6 million then $2.05 million annually until the contract ran out in December 2015 for a total of about $19 million. During that time, Weis made more money annually not to coach the Irish than his successor, Brian Kelly, made to coach the team. After leaving Notre Dame, Weis would serve as offensive coordinator for the NFL's Kansas City Chiefs in 2010 as well as Florida under Will Muschamp in 2011 before accepting the head coaching position at Kansas in December 2011. His hiring made him the fifth consecutive former Notre Dame head coach (sixth counting George O'Leary) to be hired as head coach by another FBS school, joining Gerry Faust (Akron), Lou Holtz (South Carolina), Bob Davie (New Mexico) and Tyrone Willingham (Washington). O'Leary was hired by UCF. Brian Kelly era (2010–2021) Brian Kelly became the 29th head coach of the Fighting Irish on December 10, 2009, after coaching Cincinnati to a 12–0 record and BCS bowl-game berth, but he left the team before the bowl game. In his first season, Kelly led the Fighting Irish to an 8–5 record. Tragedy struck early in the season when Declan Sullivan, a junior working for the athletic department, died while filming a practice on a scissor lift in dangerously high winds. Dayne Crist started the season at quarterback but was injured for a second consecutive year, this time in the Tulsa game, which the Irish lost. Kelly turned to freshman quarterback Tommy Rees, who led the Irish to victories in the last three games against No. 14 Utah, Army in Yankee Stadium, and breaking an eight-year losing streak to USC in the LA Coliseum. Kelly guided the Irish to a 33–17 win over Miami (FL) in the 2010 Sun Bowl to finish 2010 with an 8–5 record. With senior wide out Michael Floyd returning for his senior season and an outstanding recruiting class that included several highly touted defensive linemen, Kelly and the Irish looked to improve on their 8–5 record from the prior year. However, an early season upset to a Skip Holtz-led South Florida team and a last second loss to Michigan in Ann Arbor left the Irish at 0–2 to start the season. The Irish bounced back to beat No. 15 Michigan State and had two 4-game winning-streaks, with the only loss during that stretch coming at the hands of USC. The Irish also broke Navy's 2-game winning streak over Notre Dame (2009–10). Notre Dame finished the season with an 8–4 record but lost 18 – 14 to Florida State in the 2011 Champs Sports Bowl, concluding the 2011 campaign with and 8–5 record overall, identical to the 2010 season. In the team's losses, multiple turnovers from the quarterback position were often the culprit, and as a whole turnovers at critical times in the game often derailed potential Irish comebacks. After the 2011 season, offensive coordinator Charley Molnar left ND to accept the head coaching position at UMass. Safeties coach and recruiting coordinator Chuck Martin would move over to the offensive side of the ball as Molnar's replacement running the offense. On September 12, 2012, during the football program's 125th season, Notre Dame announced that it would leave the Big East Conference for the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), excluding the football and hockey programs. This move became official on July 1, 2013, in time for the fall sports to compete within the ACC conference. While the Fighting Irish football team will remain an FBS independent, it has agreed to play five games per season against ACC teams starting with the 2014 football season, as the schedule allows. In return, Notre Dame will become eligible to participate in the ACC's sub-BCS level bowl arrangements. On November 18, 2012, Notre Dame was ranked No. 1 in the nation in both the AP and Coaches' polls after reaching 11–0 during the regular season for the first time since 1993, also ranking No. 1 in the BCS standings for the first time in the 14-year history of the selection system. After defeating the University of Southern California Trojans on November 24, 2012, Notre Dame concluded its first 12–0 regular season, and on December 2, 2012, the Irish were formally named to appear in the BCS National Championship Game for the first time in the 2013 BCS National Championship Game. In that game, on January 7, 2013, the Irish lost to Alabama 42–14. Coming off the previous year's national title game appearance, the Fighting Irish were dealt a blow when 2012 starting quarterback Everett Golson was suspended from the university due to an academic violation. Senior Tommy Rees then took over. Notre Dame's 2013 season ended with a record of 9–4 and a victory over Rutgers in the Pinstripe Bowl. Notre Dame finished No. 20 in the AP poll. After the 2013 season, offensive coordinator Chuck Martin left ND to accept the head coaching position at Miami (OH), marking the second assistant coach to leave Kelly's staff to accept an FBS head coaching job. Mike Denbrock was promoted from wide receivers coach to offensive coordinator to replace Martin. The 2014 season started off with 6 straight victories and a No. 5 national ranking heading into a showdown with No. 2 Florida State in Tallahassee, Florida. FSU won that game 31–27, on a controversial offensive pass interference call that brought back a last second Notre Dame touchdown. The Fighting Irish bounced back with a win against Navy before dropping their final 4 games of the season. They did win the Music City Bowl by defeating the LSU Tigers and finished the season at an 8–5 record. After the 2014 season, the Irish again changed offensive coordinators, as Mike Denbrock stepped down from the position due to prostate cancer and returned to coaching the team's receivers. The 2015 Fighting Irish began its season with another new offensive coordinator, Mike Sanford Jr. That year's squad is arguably the most explosive offense that Brian Kelly has coached at Notre Dame. During the regular season, the Irish were one of twenty-one schools in the country to average 200 or more passing yards and rushing yards per game. The Irish had fourteen plays of over 50 yards during the season, which ranked 13th in the country and was a school record. They also had two touchdowns of over 90 yards, (a 91-yard touchdown run by C. J. Prosise and a 98-yard touchdown run by Josh Adams). The Irish only had two in the previous 126 years of Notre Dame football. The running game was dominant. The 5.76 yards per carry were fifth in the country. They finished the regular season averaging 34 points per game, including a 62-point effort against UMass, the most points in a game since 1996. The Irish finished their 2015 season with a 10–3 record, a ranking of No. 11 in the AP and No. 12 in the Coaches' Poll and a Fiesta Bowl appearance, a loss to Ohio State. The 2016 season ended with a 4–8 record, Brian Kelly's worst win/loss record at Notre Dame up to that point. The tone for the season was set early, with a double overtime loss to Texas in the season opener. On September 24, Notre Dame lost to Duke by a score of 38–35. Just 4 games into the season, Brian Kelly fired defensive coordinator Brian VanGorder. Mike Elko was hired from Wake Forest as VanGorder's replacement. After a 10–3 loss to NC State in Raleigh, North Carolina, during messy conditions due to Hurricane Matthew, Kelly publicly called out his starting center over "poor snapping and atrocious play". At the end of the season, starting quarterback DeShone Kizer declared for the NFL Draft and backup quarterback Malik Zaire announced he would be transferring in the winter after graduation. Offensive coordinator Mike Sanford Jr. left the ND staff after the season to accept the head coaching position at Western Kentucky, making him the third Irish OC under Kelly to accept an FBS head coaching position. Chip Long was hired from Memphis as his replacement. Mike Denbrock also departed the Notre Dame staff, accepting the offensive coordinator position at Cincinnati under new head coach Luke Fickell. Amidst speculation that Kelly's job was in jeopardy and that Kelly was looking to leave Notre Dame, athletics director Jack Swarbrick announced that Kelly would return for the 2017 season. The 2017 season ended with a 10-3 record, and a win in the Citrus Bowl over LSU. An early one-point loss to No. 2 Georgia set the tone for the first half of the season. The tough running of running back Josh Adams behind an experienced and talented offensive line allowed Notre Dame to string together 6 consecutive more-than-20-point victories against solid competition like No. 11 USC and No. 14 NC State. But a 41-8 loss to No. 7 Miami in South Florida on Nov 7, 2017 effectively ended the Irish hopes of a playoff run. They went on to struggle in final games to Navy (W 24-17) and Stanford (L 20-38). The strong start and disappointing finish made for mixed feeling among Irish fans after the poor 2016 season. The 2018 season ended with a 12-1 record, with the lone loss coming at the hands of the eventual National Champion Clemson Tigers in the Cotton Bowl. This season marked the first time in Notre Dame history that the team would be selected as one of the four teams to participate in the College Football Playoff, as the team was ranked No. 3 heading into the playoffs. After going 12-0 in the regular season, Notre Dame would go on to lose in the 2018 Cotton Bowl Classic by a score of 30-3. Due to logistical issues created by the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States (which resulted initially from the Big Ten and Pac-12 restricting non-conference games), Notre Dame reached an agreement to play a full ACC schedule for the 2020 season. They placed first in the standings and played in the ACC Championship Game. They lost to the Clemson Tigers, 34-10. They then played in the 2021 Rose Bowl, losing to the Alabama Crimson Tide. The 2021 campaign saw Kelly lead the Irish to an 11-1 record. Notre Dame's lone loss was at home against Cincinnati, Kelly's former team. The Irish secured wins against rivals, such as Purdue, USC, Navy, and Stanford. Two days after the Irish beat Stanford, news leaked that Kelly would leave Notre Dame for LSU. Kelly had said a week prior that he would "never" leave Notre Dame. Marcus Freeman era (2021–present) On December 3, 2021, Marcus Freeman was named the 30th head coach of the Fighting Irish. Freeman previously served as the defensive coordinator and linebackers coach of the Fighting Irish in 2021. Since the Fighting Irish are eligible, Freeman will make his head coaching debut in the 2021 post-season. Championships and distinctions National championships Notre Dame has won eight wire service (AP or Coaches') national championships, second most ever in the post-1936 poll era. Notre Dame claims national championships in an additional three seasons before the major poll era for a total of 11. Notre Dame, however, is often credited with 13 consensus national championships in total. The 1938 and 1953 seasons are part of the reason for the discrepancy. In the 1938 season, 8–1 Notre Dame was awarded the national championship by the Dickinson System, while Texas Christian (which finished 11–0) was awarded the championship by the Associated Press. In the 1953 season, an undefeated Notre Dame team (9–0–1) was named national champion by every major selector except the AP and UPI (Coaches') polls, where the Irish finished second in both to 10–1 Maryland. As Notre Dame has a policy of only recognizing AP and Coaches' Poll national championships post-1936, the school does not officially recognize the 1938 and 1953 national championships. The NCAA does not list 1938 and 1953 but does recognize 1919 and 1964, making Notre Dame a national champion selection in thirteen seasons: 1919, 1924, 1929, 1930, 1943, 1946, 1947, 1949, 1964, 1966, 1973, 1977, 1988. Notre Dame has been voted national champion by at least one selector in an additional nine seasons: 1920, 1927, 1938, 1953, 1967, 1970, 1989, 1993, and 2012 Notre Dame's 11 claimed national championships are: Following its appearance in the 1925 Rose Bowl, Notre Dame did not play in a post-season game for 44 consecutive years (1925–1968), including after many of the team's most successful seasons from the Rockne era in the 1920s and the Leahy era in the 1940s. The university's stated reasons for its self-imposed hiatus were that bowl games were "glorified exhibitions" that played no part in national championship selections and that they extended the season too far to the detriment of players' academic progress. Appearances in the final Associated Press Poll Notre Dame has made 715 appearances in the Associated Press poll over 71 seasons. Notre Dame has spent 496 weeks in the Top 10, 277 weeks in the Top 5, and 95 weeks at No. 1. Notre Dame has finished the year ranked in the final Associated Press poll of the season 56 times: Team awards MacArthur Bowl Trophy - NFF National Champions Notre Dame Fighting Irish - 1964, 1966‡, 1973, 1977, 1988 ‡ - named co-champions with Michigan State Grantland Rice Trophy - FWAA National Champions Notre Dame Fighting Irish – 1966, 1973, 1977, 1988 The Joe Moore Award Notre Dame Fighting Irish – 2017 Distinctions As of 2020, Notre Dame has the fourth-highest winning percentage in NCAA Division I FBS (I-A) history ()(minimum 100 games of football). As of 2019, Notre Dame has produced the second most players drafted into the National Football League of any program in the country. As of the 2019 NFL draft, 511 players have been drafted. As of 2020, Notre Dame is fifth in wins among Division I-A/FBS programs (918), trailing Texas (923), Alabama (929), Ohio State (931), and Michigan (964). As of 2020, Notre Dame is tied for the fewest losses of any NCAA Division I program (329) that has been playing football for more than 100 years with Oklahoma. As of 2020, Notre Dame has 109 winning seasons in 134 years of football, and only 15 losing seasons (including the 2012-2013 season which were posthumously stripped of their wins). One of two football programs with the most individual Heisman Trophy winners at seven (shares the distinction with Oklahoma, Ohio State has seven Heisman Trophies that were won by six players). As of 2014, Notre Dame has produced more 1st Team All-Americans (188), consensus All-Americans (81 players on 99 selections) and unanimous All-Americans (33) in football than any other college program. Notre Dame is represented by 48 players and coaches in the College Football Hall of Fame, the most of any university. 12 former players are in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, tied with USC. Helped by its status as a highly regarded academic institution (ranked 19th by U.S. News & World Report), Notre Dame is second only to Nebraska in Academic All-Americans (66). Since 1962, Notre Dame has graduated 98.74% of its football players in four years. As of 2006, only 13 football players in this time have left Notre Dame without finishing their degree requirements. Also of note is the 90% graduation rate of ND's African American players (only Navy and Boston College have higher African American graduation rates). Notre Dame holds the NCAA record for Most consecutive wins over one opponent, beating the US Naval Academy (USNA) 43 times in a row before falling to them in 2007. The football program is also known for ending the Oklahoma Sooners' NCAA record winning streak of 47 games in 1957. Coincidentally, Oklahoma's 28–21 loss to Notre Dame to open the 1953 season was the last loss before the beginning of the streak. Notre Dame has had 13 undefeated seasons and 11 others with at most one loss or tie. They have gone undefeated in the regular season an additional Notre Dame is 3–3–1 in games where the national title winners from the previous two years have met in a regular season game. There have only been 13 of these games played in college football history. Notre Dame has played in 7 of the 13 games: 1945 – Army def. Notre Dame 48–0 1947 – Notre Dame def. Army 27–7 1968 – Notre Dame tie USC 21–21 1974 – USC def. Notre Dame 55–24 1978 – Notre Dame def. Pitt 26–17 1989 – Miami def. Notre Dame 27–10 1990 – Notre Dame def. Miami 29–20 Notre Dame is one of only three out of the current 124 Football Bowl Subdivision (formerly Division I-A) teams to have never played a Football Championship Subdivision (formerly Division I-AA) team since the divisions were created in 1978. The other two are UCLA and USC. Notre Dame is one of only two Catholic universities that field a team in the Football Bowl Subdivision, the other being Boston College. No. 1 vs. No. 2 Notre Dame has participated in eleven "No. 1 vs No. 2" matchups since the AP poll began in 1936. They have a record of 5–3–2 in such games, with a 4–1–1 record as the No. 1 team in such matchups. Here's a list of such games: Historic games Notre Dame has played in many regular season games that have been widely regarded by both the media and sports historians as historic or famous games. Notre Dame has played in many games labeled as "game of the century" games as well as several No. 1 vs No. 2 matchups, It has also participated in several games that ended record streaks in college football. The games listed are widely regarded as of historical importance to the game of college football and are written about by sports historians and make many sportswriters' lists. 1913 Notre Dame vs. Army ("The Forward Pass") 1935 Notre Dame vs. Ohio State ("Game of the Century") 1946 Army vs. Notre Dame ("Game of the Century") 1957 Notre Dame vs. Oklahoma (End of Oklahoma's NCAA record 47 game win streak) 1966 Notre Dame vs. Michigan St. ("Game of the Century") 1988 Miami vs. Notre Dame (Catholics vs. Convicts) 1993 Florida St. vs. Notre Dame ("Game of the Century") 2005 USC vs. Notre Dame ("Bush Push" game) 2007 Navy vs. Notre Dame (Navy ends 43-year losing streak to Notre Dame, the longest in NCAA history between annual opponents) Notre Dame has also played in several bowl games considered by many sportswriters to be among the best bowl games played: 1970 Cotton Bowl Classic vs. Texas 1973 Sugar Bowl vs. Alabama 1979 Cotton Bowl Classic vs. Houston ("Chicken Soup Game") All-time records Season records Notre Dame's all-time record after January 2, 2021, stands at 918 wins, 329 losses, and 42 ties. The winning percentage of is 4th All-Time. Its 918 wins are fifth behind Michigan, Ohio State, Alabama and Texas, while its 329 losses are tied with Oklahoma as the second-lowest of any college programs that have been playing football for 100 years or more, behind Ohio State's 326. In-state NCAA Division I record Head coaches † George O'Leary did not coach a single practice or game, resigning five days after being hired for misrepresenting his academic credentials. ‡ Kent Baer served as interim head coach for one game at the 2004 Insight Bowl after Tyrone Willingham was fired. Bowl games Notre Dame has made 40 bowl game appearances, winning 18 and losing 21, with one game vacated. After an initial appearance in a postseason contest in the 1925 Rose Bowl, the Fighting Irish refused to participate in bowl games for more than four decades; writers like Dan Jenkins have speculated that Notre Dame might have gone to as many as twenty bowl games during the self-imposed forty-five-year hiatus. It has played in the BCS National Championship Game (1 loss), Rose Bowl (1 win, 1 loss), the Cotton Bowl Classic (5 wins, 3 losses), the Orange Bowl (2 wins, 3 losses), the Sugar Bowl (2 wins, 2 losses), the Gator Bowl (1 win, 2 losses), the Liberty Bowl (1 win), the Aloha Bowl (1 loss), the Fiesta Bowl (1 win, 4 losses), the Independence Bowl (1 loss), the Insight Bowl (1 loss), Hawaii Bowl (1 win), the Sun Bowl (1 win), the Pinstripe Bowl (1 win) and the Citrus Bowl (1 win). From 1994 to the 2006 football seasons, Notre Dame lost 9 consecutive bowl games, tied with Northwestern University for the most in NCAA history. That streak ended with a 49–21 win over Hawaii in the 2008 Hawaii Bowl. In the process, Notre Dame scored its highest point total in post-season play. The record of 9 consecutive bowl losses was later tied by Northwestern in 2011, then that streak was snapped a year later. Currently, the Fighting Irish are in a skid with winless 0-8 record in BCS/Playoff games and 0-10 in their last 10 major bowl games. Notre Dame’s last major bowl win came against Texas A & M in the 1994 Cotton Bowl. Shamrock Series Between 2009 and 2016, and resuming again in 2018, Notre Dame has hosted an annual off-site home football game known as the Shamrock Series. The series promotes Notre Dame's athletic and academic brand, and has brought the Fighting Irish to San Antonio, New York, Greater Washington, D.C., Chicago, Indianapolis, Boston and the Dallas/Fort Worth metroplex. Prior to the 2012 season, Notre Dame Athletic Director Jack Swarbrick announced at a news conference of plans to continue the series through 2016. He confirmed after his news conference that New York is expected to fall in that rotation and then continue to be the one consistently repeating venue for Shamrock Series games. The Shamrock Series was not held in 2017, but resumed in 2018. One of the unique aspects of the Shamrock Series is its inclusion of academic and other non-football activities in the area of that year's host city the days and hours leading up to the game, which include pep rallies, drummers' circles, and academic lectures. Players and coaches Heisman Trophy Seven Notre Dame football players have won the Heisman Trophy, which ties them with the University of Oklahoma for the most by any university. (Ohio State also has seven trophies but were won by only six players and USC won seven but has been reduced to six trophies, following Reggie Bush's forfeit of the 2005 award due to NCAA violations). Heisman voting: 1938 – Whitney Beinor, 9th 1943 – Angelo Bertelli, 1st, Creighton Miller, 4th, Jim White, 9th 1944 – Bob Kelly, 6th 1945 – Frank Dancewicz, 6th 1946 - Johnny Lujack, 3rd 1947 – Johnny Lujack, 1st 1949 – Leon Hart, 1st, Bob Williams, 5th, Emil Sitko, 8th 1950 – Bob Williams, 6th 1953 – Johnny Lattner, 1st 1954 – Ralph Guglielmi, 4th 1956 – Paul Hornung, 1st 1958 – Nick Pietrosante, 10th 1959 – Monty Stickles, 9th 1964 – John Huarte, 1st, Jack Snow, 5th 1965 – Bill Wolski, 11th 1966 – Nick Eddy, 3rd, Terry Hanratty, 6th 1967 – Terry Hanratty, 9th 1968 – Terry Hanratty, 3rd 1969 – Mike McCoy, 6th 1970 – Joe Theismann, 2nd 1971 – Walt Patulski, 9th 1974 – Tom Clements, 4th 1975 – Steve Niehaus, 12th 1977 – Ken MacAfee, 3rd, Ross Browner, 5th 1979 – Vagas Ferguson, 5th 1983 – Allen Pinkett, 16th 1985 – Allen Pinkett, 8th 1987 – Tim Brown, 1st 1989 – Tony Rice, 4th, Raghib Ismail, tie 10th 1990 – Raghib Ismail, 2nd 1992 – Reggie Brooks, 5th 2005 – Brady Quinn, 4th 2006 – Brady Quinn, 3rd 2009 – Golden Tate, 10th 2012 – Manti Te'o, 2nd 2020 – Ian Book, 9th Other national award winners Maxwell Award Leon Hart – 1949 Johnny Lattner – 1952, 1953 Jim Lynch – 1966 Ross Browner – 1977 Brady Quinn – 2006 Manti Te'o – 2012 Walter Camp Award Ken MacAfee – 1977 Tim Brown – 1987 Raghib Ismail – 1990 Manti Te'o – 2012 Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award Tony Rice – 1989 Brady Quinn – 2006 Sammy Baugh Trophy Terry Hanratty – 1967 Brady Quinn – 2005 Biletnikoff Award Golden Tate – 2009 John Mackey Award Tyler Eifert – 2012 Dick Butkus Award Manti Te'o – 2012 Jaylon Smith – 2015 Jeremiah Owusu-Koramoah – 2020 Chuck Bednarik Award Manti Te'o – 2012 Ozzie Newsome Award Tyler Eifert – 2011 Lombardi Award Walt Patulski – 1971 Ross Browner – 1977 Chris Zorich – 1990 Aaron Taylor – 1993 Manti Te'o – 2012 Lott IMPACT Trophy Manti Te'o – 2012 Bronko Nagurski Trophy Manti Te'o – 2012 Outland Trophy George Connor – 1946 Bill Fischer – 1948 Ross Browner – 1976 AT&T ESPN All-America Player Brady Quinn – 2006 The Jim Parker Trophy Aaron Taylor – 1993 The Jack Tatum Trophy Bobby Taylor – 1994 Chic Harley Award Paul Hornung – 1956 The Kellen Moore Award Rick Mirer – 1992 Polynesian Player of the Year Award Ronnie Stanley – 2015 Wuerffel Trophy Drue Tranquill – 2018 Coaching awards Paul "Bear" Bryant Award Ara Parseghian – 1964 Lou Holtz – 1988 Eddie Robinson Coach of the Year Award Ara Parseghian – 1964 Lou Holtz – 1988 Charlie Weis – 2005 Brian Kelly – 2012 Home Depot Coach of the Year Award Tyrone Willingham – 2002 Brian Kelly – 2012, 2018 Walter Camp Coach of the Year Award Brian Kelly – 2012 Liberty Mutual Coach of the Year Award Brian Kelly – 2012 Associated Press Coach of the Year Award Brian Kelly – 2012 Sporting News Coach of the Year Ara Parseghian – 1966 Lou Holtz – 1988 Brian Kelly – 2012 George Munger Award Tyrone Willingham – 2002 The Woody Hayes Trophy Lou Holtz – 1988 Broyles Award Bob Diaco – 2012 Team awards Grantland Rice Trophy Notre Dame Fighting Irish – 1966, 1973, 1977, 1988 Joe Moore Award Notre Dame Fighting Irish – 2017 College Football Hall of Fame Forty-six former Notre Dame players and six coaches have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, located in Atlanta, Georgia. Notre Dame leads all universities in players inducted. Uniforms Notre Dame's home jersey is navy blue with white numerals, gold outlining, and a small interlocking "ND" logo on each sleeve. The away jersey is white with navy numerals, gold outlining, and the interlocking "ND" on the sleeves. In recent years, neither jersey included the player's name on the back, but names were included during the Dan Devine and Gerry Faust eras. However, for the Irish's Hawai'i Bowl appearance in 2008 vs. the University of Hawai'i, Notre Dame once again wore last names on their jerseys. Gold pants, with a small ND logo just below the left waist, are worn with both home and away jerseys. Notre Dame's helmets are solid gold with gray facemasks, the gold being emblematic of the University's famed "Golden Dome". Notre Dame's tradition for the team's student managers to spray-paint the team's helmets prior to each game ended in 2011 when the football equipment staff, along with Notre Dame Athletics Director Jack Swarbrick and head coach Brian Kelly outsourced the painting process to Hydro Graphics Inc. Over the years, Notre Dame has occasionally worn green instead of blue as its home jersey, sometimes adopting the jersey for an entire season – or more – at a time. Currently, Notre Dame reserves its green jerseys for "special" occasions. Often on such occasions, the Irish will take the field for warmups dressed in blue, only to switch to green when they go back to the locker room before kickoff. This tradition was started by Dan Devine in 1977 before the USC game. Notre Dame has also been known to switch jerseys at halftime, as during the 1985 USC game, and in the loss to Nile Kinnick-led Iowa in 1939, although this was to help avoid confusion between their navy uniforms and Iowa's black ones. The current design of the jersey is kelly green with gold numbers and white outlining. For the 2006 Army game, Coach Charlie Weis broke out the Green jerseys as a reward to his senior players, as well finally ending the string of losses by the Irish when wearing green. Notre Dame wore throwback green jerseys in 2007 against USC in honor of the 30th anniversary of the 1977 National Championship team. On at least one occasion (1992 Sugar Bowl) Notre Dame has worn an away variant of the jersey: a white jersey with green numbers. Champion supplied football jerseys for The University of Notre Dame for over 50 years until they switched to Adidas in 2001. On July 1, 2014, the University of Notre Dame Athletic department began wearing uniforms and footwear supplied by Under Armour. During Gerry Faust's tenure (1981–85), Notre Dame's blue jerseys switched from the traditional navy to royal blue with gold and white stripes on the sleeves. The navy blue jerseys returned in 1984. No uniform numbers have been retired by Notre Dame. Upon being issued a number, each player is given a card that lists some of the more famous players who have worn that particular number. Number 3 is perhaps the most famous number in Irish football history, having been worn by Ralph Guglielmi, George Izo, Daryle Lamonica, Coley O'Brien, Joe Montana, Michael Floyd, Rick Mirer and Ron Powlus, among others. Number 5 is also notable, as it is the only number to be worn by one of the Four Horsemen (Elmer Layden) a Heisman Trophy Winner (Paul Hornung) and a National Title winning Quarterback (Terry Hanratty). Number 7 has been worn by such Irish greats as 1964 Heisman Trophy winner John Huarte, 1970 Heisman runner-up Joe Theismann, Steve Beuerlein, Jimmy Clausen and Jarious Jackson. In 2011, both Michigan and Notre Dame wore throwback uniforms in their game against each other. For the Shamrock Series games, Notre Dame and their outfitters have announced that the school will wear specially-designed helmets, jerseys, and pants. Facilities Notre Dame Stadium Notre Dame Stadium is the home football stadium for the University of Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team. Located on the southeast part of the university's campus in Notre Dame, Indiana and with a seating capacity of 77,622, Notre Dame Stadium is one of the most renowned venues in college football. The Sporting News ranks Notre Dame Stadium as # 2 on its list of "College Football Cathedrals". and the stadium experience evokes a more traditional feel. Notre Dame Stadium is used for football-related activities and for Commencement (since 2010). Notre Dame Stadium had no permanent lighting until the expansion project in 1997. NBC paid for the lighting as they have televised all Notre Dame home football games since 1991. On April 12, 2014, it was announced during the annual Blue-Gold Spring Game that a FieldTurf synthetic surface would replace the grass field after the 2014 Commencement Weekend. In November 2014 the University of Notre Dame embarked on a $400 million stadium expansion called the Crossroads Campus Project, which was completed in time for the 2017 season. Cartier Field Cartier Field was the original playing field of the Fighting Irish. In 1930, it was replaced by Notre Dame Stadium, due to the growing popularity of ND football. Notre Dame's practice facility still bears the Cartier Field name. Most ND practices take place on Cartier Field. Guglielmino Athletics Complex Known by fans as "The Gug" (pronounced "goog"), The Guglielmino Athletics Complex is Notre Dame's football headquarters. The Gug houses the offices for all team staff members, an auditorium, a weight room, a training room, the equipment room, the practice locker room, a brand new napping room, and various other spaces for the football team to utilize. The complex was underwritten by Don F. Guglielmino and his family. Irish Athletic Center The indoor practice facility has a synthetic turf field and a video board at midfield for replay and graphics. On the second level of the facility, there is a 1,600-square-foot recruiting lounge. In all, the facility totals 111,400 square feet, and the ceiling is 95 feet at its peak. Rivalries Notre Dame has rivalries with several universities. Although the Fighting Irish competes as an Independent, they play a national schedule that includes annual or otherwise regularly scheduled rivalry games. USC, Navy, Michigan, Michigan State, Stanford, and Pitt are among Notre Dame's rivals. USC USC is Notre Dame's primary rival, and the schools compete annually for the Jeweled Shillelagh. The rivalry has produced 39 national championships, 14 Heisman Trophy winners, and 184 Consensus All-Americans through the 2021 season. It is considered one of the most prominent rivalries in college football, and has been called the greatest rivalry not dictated by conference affiliation or geography. The teams have played each other annually since 1926, except from 1943 to 1945 and 2020. Notable games in the series include the 1977 "Green Jersey" game and the 2005 "Bush Push" game. Through the 2021 season, Notre Dame leads the all-time series 48–36–5 and the trophy series 33–29–3. Navy Navy and Notre Dame played 93 games without interruption from 1927 to 2019. Notre Dame had a 43-game win streak during this time frame, the longest streak by one team over another in Division I-A football, which ended in 2007. While the 2020 contest was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the series resumed in 2021. Through the 2021 season, Notre Dame leads the series 78–13–1. Michigan The first meeting between Notre Dame and Michigan was in 1887, the first official football game in Notre Dame's history. The two schools have met 44 times in total, the latest matchup in 2019. Through the 2021 season, the two schools are both in the top five in all-time Division I winning percentage, with Notre Dame fourth and Michigan fifth. Despite being played continuously since 1978, the series ended after the 2014 season. Shortly before the 2012 game, the Associated Press reported that Notre Dame had exercised a three-year out clause in their series contract. This was due to Notre Dame's arrangement with the Atlantic Coast Conference, under which the Fighting Irish must play five games per season against ACC opponents after the school joined the ACC in all sports except for football and hockey in 2014. In 2016, Michigan announced that the rivalry would resume for a home-and-home series in 2018 and 2019. Through the 2021 season, Michigan leads the series 25–17–1. Michigan State Meeting for the first time in 1897, Notre Dame and Michigan State play for the Megaphone Trophy. The two schools played in 64 out of 70 seasons from 1948 to 2017, but have not met since. Their next scheduled game is in 2026. Notable games in the series include the 1966 "Game of the Century". Through the 2021 season, Notre Dame leads the all-time series 47–29–1 and the trophy series 33–27–1. Gameday traditions Due to its long and storied history, Notre Dame football boasts many traditions unique to Notre Dame. Some of these are: The tradition of having 23.9 karat gold in the helmet paint continues, with the painting process provided by Hydro Graphics, Inc. and no longer by student managers. The gold particles that are used on the helmet were collected from the re-gilding on the Notre Dame dome in 2007. During the 2011 season, however, a new helmet paint scheme was introduced. While retaining the basic gold helmet and grey facemask look, the new gold is much more reflective than the old; there have already been several variations of this new "gold chrome" look, including brick and fish-scale texturing. Formerly, prior to the start of the game, the team attended Mass in semi-formal attire at the Sacred Heart Basilica. At the conclusion of Mass, fans formed a line that the team walked through from the chapel to the stadium. However, in 2011 the team changed its movements prior the game, instead taking buses back to The Gug for final meetings. In 2013, Mass was moved to Friday night; as a result, the walk now originates from the Gug. Earlier on game day, the Band of the Fighting Irish trumpet section plays Notre Dame, Our Mother & the Notre Dame victory march under the Golden Dome, with visitors standing at the bottom of the rotunda, and behind the band members on each upper floor. Coming out of the locker room, players slap the famous "Play Like a Champion Today" sign. Prior to the start of the game, with around 15–30 seconds left on the pregame clock, a clip of Cathy Richardson singing "Here Come The Irish" is played, followed up by I'm Shipping Up To Boston, which continues to play until the football is kicked off. Between the third and fourth quarters of home games, the Notre Dame Marching Band plays the finale to the 1812 Overture, as the crowd reacts with a synchronized waving of arms, with their fingers in the shape of a "K" for Kelly. ("W" for both Weis and Willingham and "L" for Lou Holtz) Starting in 1960, Sergeant Tim McCarthy of the Indiana State Police read out a driving safety announcement to the crowd during the fourth quarter. When Sergeant McCarthy began his announcement, the crowd went silent to hear his message, which invariably ended with a pun. Sergeant McCarthy retired from this duty in the 2015 season after 55 years of fan-favorite messages. He was honored on the field on September 26, 2015, to deliver his last in-person address in which he repeated the same announcement he did on his first gameday. He died on October 1, 2020. At the conclusion of every home game, the team turns to the student section to salute them by raising their helmets in the air. They do this after a win or after a loss. Then, the band plays the Alma Mater, "Notre Dame, Our Mother". Those who stay link arms and sing the lyrics. Irish in the NFL Since the NFL began drafting players in 1936, 495 Notre Dame football players have been selected by NFL teams. Additionally, Notre Dame has had 65 players selected in the first round of the NFL draft, including five overall number one picks. Of the 46 Super Bowls competed, only 14 teams have won the event without an Irish player on the roster. Looking at both participating team rosters, there have only been five Super Bowls that did not feature at least one former Notre Dame player on either team's roster – Denver vs. Atlanta, 1999; Dallas vs. Buffalo, 1994; Washington vs. Denver, 1988; Dallas vs. Denver, 1978; and Baltimore vs. Dallas, 1971. Eleven former players have won multiple Super Bowls: Mark Bavaro, Rocky Bleier, Nick Buoniconti, Eric Dorsey, Dave Duerson, David Givens, Terry Hanratty, Bob Kuechenberg, Joe Montana, Steve Sylvester and Justin Tuck. Pro Football Hall of Fame Thirteen former Notre Dame players/alumni have been inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame, ranking it first of all college football programs. 1963: Curly Lambeau – Green Bay Packers 1919–49 1963: John McNally* – Milwaukee Badgers 1925–1926, Duluth Eskimos 1926–1927, Pottsville Maroons 1928, Green Bay Packers 1929–1933, 1935–1936, Pittsburgh Pirates (Steelers) 1934, 1937–1938 1964: George Trafton – Chicago Bears 1920–32 1968: Wayne Millner – Boston and Washington Redskins 1936–41, 1945 1975: George Connor – Chicago Bears 1948–55 1986: Paul Hornung – Green Bay Packers 1957–62, 1964–66 1988: Alan Page – Minnesota Vikings 1967–78, Chicago Bears 1978–81 2000: Joe Montana – San Francisco 49ers 1979–92, Kansas City Chiefs 1993–94 2001: Nick Buoniconti – Boston Patriots 1962–68, Miami Dolphins 1969–74, 1976 2002: Dave Casper – Oakland Raiders 1974–80, Houston Oilers 1980–83, Minnesota Vikings 1983 2015: Jerome Bettis – Los Angeles/St. Louis Rams (1993–1995), Pittsburgh Steelers (1996–2005) 2015: Tim Brown – Los Angeles/Oakland Raiders (1988–2003), Tampa Bay Buccaneers (2004) 2016: Edward J. DeBartolo Jr. – Former San Francisco 49ers Owner, received B.A. from Notre Dame, inducted into Pro Hall of Fame in 2016 as a Contributor. *McNally graduated from St. John's (MN), but started his career at Notre Dame and is listed as a hall of famer under both schools in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Current NFL players Media The Fighting Irish are unique among sports teams in the United States, as they are the only team, professional or college, to have all their games broadcast nationally on the radio, as well as the only team to have all of their home games broadcast nationally on television. Notre Dame famously left the College Football Association, a consortium that administered television broadcast rights on behalf of over 64 schools, in 1990, in order to establish its own broadcasting deal with NBC. From 1968 to 2007, Westwood One served as the official radio partner for the Irish, broadcasting their games for 40 consecutive years. Until the 2006 Air Force game, Notre Dame had a record 169 consecutive games broadcast nationally on either NBC, ABC, ESPN, or CBS. The 2006 ND vs. Air Force game was broadcast on CSTV, a college sports channel owned by CBS who had an exclusive contract with the Mountain West Conference, of which Air Force is a member. Television NBC has been televising Notre Dame Home football games since the 1991 season. Notre Dame is the only FBS football team to have all of its home games televised exclusively by one television network. In addition to TV broadcasts, NBC also maintains several dedicated websites to ND football and Notre Dame Central, which provides complete coverage, full game replays and commentary of the Notre Dame team. NBC's television contract with Notre Dame was renewed in April 2013 and is set to continue through the 2025 football season. It also aired football games on NBC's streaming service Peacock started in the 2021 season, with the home opener on September 11, 2021 against Toledo aired exclusively on the streaming service. Current broadcast team Mike Tirico (play-by-play) Drew Brees (color commentator) Kathryn Tappen (sideline reporter) Radio Radio rights to the Fighting Irish are held by Skyview Networks, who began distributing the broadcasts as part of a multi-sport arrangement in 2020. Current broadcast team Paul Burmeister (play-by-play) 2018–present Ryan Harris (color commentator) 2018–present Jack Nolan (network studio host) 2020–present Former commentators Tony Roberts (play-by-play) – 1980–2005 Tom Pagna (color analyst) Pat Haden Ralph Guglielmi Lindsey Nelson Al Wester Don Criqui (play-by-play) – 1974–1976, 2006–2017 Allen Pinkett (color analyst) – 2002–2017 Tom Hammond Mike Mayock Tony Dungy Future schedules Although the Notre Dame football program is not a full member of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), it has an agreement to play an average of five ACC schools per season. In return Notre Dame has access to the non-College Football Playoff ACC bowl line-up. Notre Dame utilizes a format of six home games in South Bend, five away games, and one major metropolitan area neutral site "Shamrock Series" home game for scheduling. This includes preserving traditional yearly rivalries with USC, Stanford, and Navy, five rotating ACC opponents (two away ACC games will coincide in even years with away games at Navy and three away ACC games will coincide in odd years with home games against Navy), two home and home series (one home game and one away game), one one-time opponent home game, and the traveling "Shamrock Series" home game. 2022 TBA: The University of Notre Dame released the official 2022 football schedule on December 7, 2021. 2023 TBA: An additional non-ACC home game will be scheduled. 2024 TBA: An additional 3 non-ACC home games will be scheduled. 2025 TBA: An additional non-ACC home game will be scheduled. 2026 TBA: An additional 2 non-ACC home games will be scheduled. 2027 TBA: An additional 3 non-ACC games will be scheduled (2 home and 1 away). 2028 TBA: An additional 2 non-ACC home game will be scheduled. 2029 TBA: An additional 2 non-ACC home games will be scheduled. 2030 TBA: An additional 2 non-ACC home games will be scheduled. References External links 1887 establishments in Indiana American football teams established in 1887

Sweet Caroline

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"Sweet Caroline" is a song written and performed by American singer Neil Diamond and released in May 1969 as a single with the title "Sweet Caroline (Good Times Never Seemed So Good)". It was arranged by Charles Calello, and recorded at American Sound Studio in Memphis, Tennessee. Inspiration In a 2007 interview, Diamond stated the inspiration for his song was John F. Kennedy's daughter, Caroline, who was eleven years old at the time it was released. Diamond sang the song for her at her 50th birthday celebration in 2007. On December 21, 2011, in an interview on CBS's The Early Show, Diamond said that a magazine cover photo of Caroline as a young child on a horse with her parents created an image in his mind, and the rest of the song came together about five years after seeing the picture. However, in 2014 Diamond said the song was about his then-wife Marsha, but he needed a three-syllable name to fit the melody. The song has proven to be enduringly popular and, as of November 2014, has sold over two million digital downloads in the United States. Performance The song reached No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart the week ending August 16, 1969, and was certified gold by the RIAA on August 18, 1969, for sales of one million singles. "Sweet Caroline" was also the first of fifty-eight entries on the US Easy Listening chart, peaking at #3. In the autumn of 1969, Diamond performed "Sweet Caroline" on several television shows. It later reached No. 8 on the UK singles chart in March 1971. In July 2021, "Sweet Caroline" re-entered the UK Singles Chart again 50 years after its first UK release, following its use by England supporters during Euro 2020. It re-entered the chart at No. 48 on the week ending 15 July and a week later it rose to No. 20. Reception Cash Box called the song "sensational," highlighting the fact that Diamond's "material and production sound take on a completely different dimension in this love ballad which maintains a warm glow throughout with occasional surges of strength." Chart history Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications Alternative versions There are three distinct mixes of this song. In the original mono 45 mix, the orchestra and glockenspiel are more prominent than in the stereo version on the Brother Love's Travelling Salvation Show LP. The third version was a remix found only on the initial CD release of Diamond's His 12 Greatest Hits. This version has the orchestra mixed down and has the background vocals mixed up. It has a longer fade as well. A live version of the song is on his Hot August Night LP. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Diamond changed some of the lyrics to "Hands ... washing hands ... don't touch me ... I won't touch you." Use at sporting events United States The National Football League's Carolina Panthers have played the song at all home games in Charlotte since 1996. In 2020, the Panthers played the song to an empty Bank of America Stadium in honor of all front-line workers in the COVID-19 pandemic. The song has been played at Fenway Park, home of Major League Baseball's Boston Red Sox, since at least 1997, and in the middle of the eighth inning at every game since 2002. On opening night of the 2010 season at Fenway Park, the song was performed live by Diamond himself. The Iowa State Cyclones have used "Sweet Caroline" as a football victory song since 2006. Since 2008, the University of Pittsburgh has used "Sweet Caroline" as an unofficial school sing-along song by inserting "Let's Go Pitt!" over the instrumental three-beat "Woah oh oh" interval after the title refrain and replacing the repeated phrase "So good" with "Go Pitt!" The song started as a rallying anthem played between the third and fourth quarters of Pittsburgh Panthers football games, but has been adopted for use during other university sports contests, alumni events, and student ceremonies, including graduation commencement ceremonies, and references to the song have appeared on various school merchandise. "Sweet Caroline" is sometimes part of the regular rotation of songs during sports events at other universities, and although noted as not as being a tradition specific to or uniquely associated with Pennsylvania State University, out of a speculated concern with the song's lyrics in the wake of the Penn State child sex abuse scandal, the university removed the song from the rotation of music played at football games prior to the 2012 season. However, performances resumed to loud renditions at Penn State football games in September 2013. Several days after the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Neil Diamond led the crowd at Fenway Park in a rendition of the song. Sales of the song surged nearly 600 percent in the week after the bombings, to 19,000 copies, up from 2,800 the week before. Diamond said that he would donate his royalties from those sales to the One Fund Boston charity to help the people affected by the bombings. On February 22, 2020, newly crowned WBC and The Ring heavyweight world champion Tyson Fury sang the song live in the ring at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas to celebrate his knockout victory against Deontay Wilder following the conclusion of their rematch. Fury had also previously sang "Sweet Caroline" at a press conference ahead of his fight against Francesco Pianeta in 2018. Canada The song is used at the Ontario Hockey League's Erie Otters home games, where fans replace the "bum, bum, bum" with "London sucks!" in reference to the rival London Knights. United Kingdom Fans of the Northern Ireland national football team adopted the song as an anthem after it was played in the post-match stadium celebrations after defeating England in 2005. It has however been a fan favourite at Windsor Park for 20 years. The song has been used at home games ever since, most notably during UEFA Euro 2016. Northern Irish darts player Daryl Gurney began using the song as his walk-on song in 2015 for Professional Darts Corporation events, in tribute to the football team. On June 29, 2021, at the Round of 16 of the UEFA Euro 2020 championships, after the England national football team won 2–0 against Germany, England supporters amongst the 40,000 spectators who were present at Wembley Stadium remained and collectively sang the song after the match. The team manager, Gareth Southgate, remarked "So, to be able to send them home feeling as they do tonight, to hear them at the end ... I mean, you can't beat a bit of 'Sweet Caroline', can you? That's a belter, really." During post-match interviews, the team captain, Harry Kane, was visibly moved as he paused to listen to the singing crowd, remarking: "Yeah, it's special. I'm speechless, I don't know what to say." After their 2–1 semi-final win against Denmark, the England players led the crowd through a rendition of the song. Reading started using the song as requested by the players in their first ever season in the Premiership for the 2006/07 season. According to former player Glenn Little, this was selected as part of a celebration of their record winning 106 point Championship season. However, it was not until 2015, when Little suggested it should be re-established, that it became a fan favourite. The song was later adopted by supporters of Aston Villa during their Championship game against Stoke City in February 2019, as they battled from an early deficit to obtain a draw. After the game, Aston Villa had 12-game unbeaten run, which enabled them to reach the 2019 English Football League play-offs. Subsequently, they continued to sing the song after they memorably won a pivotal penalty shootout at their cross-city rivals West Bromwich Albion, before eventually winning the play-offs and winning promotion to the Premier League for the 2019–20 season. The club players had later continued their strong association with the song, and sang the song within their dressing room, after a pivotal draw at their final match of the season, to narrowly escape relegation from the Premier League by only one point. For cricket in England, the home crowd at Lord's, along with the players of the England cricket team, sang the song after their dramatic boundary count win at the Final of the 2019 Cricket World Cup. On November 15, 2021, the Swiss national football team sang the song after a 4-0 win against Bulgaria in honor to the Northern Ireland national football team, who drew against the Italian national football team, thus permitting the Swiss to qualify directly to the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Mixed Martial Arts UFC middleweight fighter Darren Till has adopted the song as his entrance music beginning at UFC Fight Night: Thompson vs. Till. Personnel Neil Diamond – vocals, acoustic guitar Charles Calello – string, horn and vocal arrangements The Memphis Boys – other instrumentation Gene Chrisman – drums Tommy Cogbill – bass guitar Bobby Emmons – keyboards Reggie Young – electric guitar Legacy In 2019, "Sweet Caroline" was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Recording Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". DJ Ötzi version Austrian singer DJ Ötzi released a version of the song in 2009 through UMG. His version reached number 19 on the German Singles Chart, staying for 18 weeks in the German charts. It also peaked at number 18 on the Austrian charts. The song was also included in the Hotel Engel (Gold Edition). Track list CD-Single "Sweet Caroline" (Single Version) - 3:37 "Sweet Caroline" (DJ Mix) - 3:46 2009 Limited Edition - CD-Single "Sweet Caroline" (Single Version) - 3:37 Exclusives Bonus Video (Gerry Friedle: Mein Leben mit DJ Ötzi) - 19:04 2010 CD-Single "Sweet Caroline" (Single Version) - 3:37 "Sweet Caroline" (EURO 2010 Magic Moments Version) - 3:46 Charts References External links England vs Germany Euro 2020 at Wembley. Sweet Caroline after the final whistle Official audio Lyrics at Genius 1969 singles 1971 singles 2001 singles Songs written by Neil Diamond Baseball songs and chants Neil Diamond songs Checkmates, Ltd. songs Bobby Womack songs Andy Williams songs Song recordings produced by Chips Moman Irish Singles Chart number-one singles Football songs and chants Boston Red Sox Carolina Panthers Uni Records singles MCA Records singles 1969 songs United States National Recording Registry recordings Song recordings produced by Tom Catalano

War Powers Clause

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Article I, Section 8, Clause 11 of the U.S. Constitution, sometimes referred to as the War Powers Clause, vests in the Congress the power to declare war, in the following wording: [The Congress shall have Power ...] To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water... A number of wars have been declared under the U.S. Constitution, although there is some controversy as to the exact number; the Constitution does not specify the form of such a declaration. History and usage Five wars have been declared by Congress under their constitutional power to do so: the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War, the Spanish–American War, World WarI, and World WarII. In a message to Congress on May 11, 1846, President James K. Polk announced that the Republic of Texas was about to become a state. After Mexico threatened to invade Texas, Polk amassed federal troops around Corpus Christi. When Texas became a state, federal troops moved into an area in which the new international boundary was disputed. Mexican troops moved into the same area, and both forces clashed. The President then said that "after reiterated menaces, Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil. She has proclaimed that hostilities have commenced and that the two nations are now at war." Some in Congress wondered if that was actually so, including Abraham Lincoln, who wrote in a letter to his law partner:Let me first state what I understand to be your position. It is, that if it shall become necessary, to repel invasion, the President may, without violation of the Constitution, cross the line and invade the territory of another country; and that whether such necessity exists in any given case, the President is to be the sole judge.... But allow the President to invade a neighboring nation, whenever he shall deem it necessary to repel an invasion, and you allow him to do so, whenever he may choose to say he deems it necessary for such purpose—and allow him to make war at pleasure.... If, today, he should choose to say he thinks it necessary to invade Canada, to prevent the British from invading us, how could you stop him? You may say to him, "I see no probability of the British invading us" but he will say to you "be silent; I see it, if you don't." The provision of the Constitution giving the war-making power to Congress, was dictated, as I understand it, by the following reasons. Kings had always been involving and impoverishing their people in wars, pretending generally, if not always, that the good of the people was the object. This our Convention understood to be the most oppressive of all Kingly oppressions; and they resolved to so frame the Constitution that no one man should hold the power of bringing this oppression upon us. But your view destroys the whole matter, and places our President where kings have always stood.Lincoln on Democracy, Mario M. Cuomo and Harold Holzer (Fordham University Press, 2004) pp. 36–37. US Representative Lincoln moved for a resolution issuing the President interrogatories (questions) so that Congress could determine for itself the exact "spot" of the conflict and whether the Congress believed it to be in the United States. However, Congress, by roll-call vote, declared war. If it was true that the war was ongoing because the President had to repel a sudden attack, that had been contemplated by the framers in Philadelphia in August 1787, when the wording of the proposed Constitution was changed from "make war" to "declare war." American presidents have often not sought formal declarations of war but instead maintained that they have constitutional authority (Article II, Section 2) as commander-in chief-to use the military for "police actions." The Korean War was the first modern example of the U.S. being taken to war without a formal declaration, as has been repeated in every armed conflict since. Beginning with the Vietnam War, however, Congress has given other various forms of authorization to do so. Some debate continues as to their appropriateness as well as the tendency of the executive branch to engage in the origination of such a push, its marketing, and even propagandizing or related activities to generate such support. In light of the speculation concerning the Gulf of Tonkin Incident and the possible abuse of the authorization that followed, Congress in 1973 passed the War Powers Resolution, which requires the President to obtain either a declaration of war or a resolution authorizing the use of force from Congress within 60 days of initiating hostilities with a full disclosure of facts in the process. Its constitutionality has never been settled, and some Presidents have criticized it as an unconstitutional encroachment upon the President. In 2007, University of Virginia Professor Larry J. Sabato proposed, in his book A More Perfect Constitution, a constitutional amendment that would settle the issue by spelling out the exact powers of each branch in the Constitution itself. One counterargument is that the Constitution is a "living document" that has survived for over 200 years because not everything is "spelled out." In the area of the War Powers Clause, the flexibility provided by the requirement for a congressional statute for a declaration of war and constitutional interpretation could be sufficient. The President could defend the country himself but not use the military offensively without Congress. That would not require a constitutional amendment or a statute like the War Powers Resolution since it has been used since 1787. Some legal scholars maintain that offensive, non-police military actions, while a quorum can still be convened (see Continuity of Government), taken without a formal congressional declaration of war is unconstitutional since no amendment has changed the original intent to make the War Powers Resolution legally binding. However, the US Supreme Court has never ruled directly on the matter and no counterresolutions has come to a vote. In the absence of a determination by the Supreme Court, the principle of separation of powers produces a stalemate on the issue. Constitutional convention debate Pierce Butler of South Carolina was the only delegate to the Philadelphia Convention who suggested giving the executive the power to take offensive military action. He suggested that even if the President should be able to do so, he, in practice, would have the character not to do so without mass support. Elbridge Gerry, a delegate from Massachusetts, summed up the majority viewpoint saying he "never expected to hear in a republic a motion to empower the Executive alone to declare war." George Mason, Thomas Jefferson, and other contemporaries voiced similar sentiments. War Powers Reform Congress has at various points sought to reassert its constitutional responsibility over war powers decisions, including since its enactment of the War Powers Resolution in 1973. In 2021, the House Rules Committee and the House Foreign Affairs Committee held hearings on war powers reform, at which testified several war powers scholars and former government officials. Supreme Court cases Woods v. Cloyd W. Miller Co. (1948) Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1952) Other cases Dellums v. Bush (D.C. Dist. 1990) Campbell v. Clinton (D.C. Dist. 2000) See also Commander-in-Chief The Imperial Presidency Unitary executive theory War Powers Resolution (War Powers Act of 1973) References Further reading Fisher, Louis (2004) Presidential War Power, 2d Rev. Edition. University Press of Kansas Hendrickson, Ryan C. The Clinton Wars: Congress, the Constitution and War Powers. Vanderbilt University Press, 2002 Lawson, Gary, "Delegation and Original Meaning" (October 2, 2001). Virginia Law Review, Vol. 88, April 2002 Madison, James. Federalist No. 45, The Federalist Papers Woods, Thomas. Presidential War Powers, LewRockwell.com Yoo, John C., "War and the Constitutional Text" . University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 69, No. 4, Fall 2002 2 Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, at 318-19 (Max Farrand ed. 1937). Clauses of the United States Constitution

Voltage-gated ion channel

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Voltage-gated ion channels are a class of transmembrane proteins that form ion channels that are activated by changes in the electrical membrane potential near the channel. The membrane potential alters the conformation of the channel proteins, regulating their opening and closing. Cell membranes are generally impermeable to ions, thus they must diffuse through the membrane through transmembrane protein channels. They have a crucial role in excitable cells such as neuronal and muscle tissues, allowing a rapid and co-ordinated depolarization in response to triggering voltage change. Found along the axon and at the synapse, voltage-gated ion channels directionally propagate electrical signals. Voltage-gated ion-channels are usually ion-specific, and channels specific to sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), and chloride (Cl−) ions have been identified. The opening and closing of the channels are triggered by changing ion concentration, and hence charge gradient, between the sides of the cell membrane. Structure Voltage-gated ion channels are generally composed of several subunits arranged in such a way that there is a central pore through which ions can travel down their electrochemical gradients. The channels tend to be ion-specific, although similarly sized and charged ions may sometimes travel through them. The functionality of voltage-gated ion channels is attributed to its three main discrete units: the voltage sensor, the pore or conducting pathway, and the gate. Na+, K+, and Ca2+ channels are composed of four transmembrane domains arranged around a central pore; these four domains are part of a single α-subunit in the case of most Na+ and Ca2+ channels, whereas there are four α-subunits, each contributing one transmembrane domain, in most K+ channels. The membrane-spanning segments, designated S1-S6, all take the form of alpha helices with specialized functions. The fifth and sixth transmembrane segments (S5 and S6) and pore loop serve the principal role of ion conduction, comprising the gate and pore of the channel, while S1-S4 serve as the voltage-sensing region. The four subunits may be identical, or different from one another. In addition to the four central α-subunits, there are also regulatory β-subunits, with oxidoreductase activity, which are located on the inner surface of the cell membrane and do not cross the membrane, and which are coassembled with the α-subunits in the endoplasmic reticulum. Mechanism Crystallographic structural studies of a potassium channel have shown that, when a potential difference is introduced over the membrane, the associated electric field induces a conformational change in the potassium channel. The conformational change distorts the shape of the channel proteins sufficiently such that the cavity, or channel, opens to allow influx or efflux to occur across the membrane. This movement of ions down their concentration gradients subsequently generates an electric current sufficient to depolarize the cell membrane. Voltage-gated sodium channels and calcium channels are made up of a single polypeptide with four homologous domains. Each domain contains 6 membrane spanning alpha helices. One of these helices, S4, is the voltage sensing helix. The S4 segment contains many positive charges such that a high positive charge outside the cell repels the helix, keeping the channel in its closed state. In general, the voltage sensing portion of the ion channel is responsible for the detection of changes in transmembrane potential that trigger the opening or closing of the channel. The S1-4 alpha helices are generally thought to serve this role. In potassium and sodium channels, voltage-sensing S4 helices contain positively-charged lysine or arginine residues in repeated motifs. In its resting state, half of each S4 helix is in contact with the cell cytosol. Upon depolarization, the positively-charged residues on the S4 domains move toward the exoplasmic surface of the membrane. It is thought that the first 4 arginines account for the gating current, moving toward the extracellular solvent upon channel activation in response to membrane depolarization. The movement of 10–12 of these protein-bound positive charges triggers a conformational change that opens the channel. The exact mechanism by which this movement occurs is not currently agreed upon, however the canonical, transporter, paddle, and twisted models are examples of current theories. Movement of the voltage-sensor triggers a conformational change of the gate of the conducting pathway, controlling the flow of ions through the channel. The main functional part of the voltage-sensitive protein domain of these channels generally contains a region composed of S3b and S4 helices, known as the "paddle" due to its shape, which appears to be a conserved sequence, interchangeable across a wide variety of cells and species. A similar voltage sensor paddle has also been found in a family of voltage sensitive phosphatases in various species. Genetic engineering of the paddle region from a species of volcano-dwelling archaebacteria into rat brain potassium channels results in a fully functional ion channel, as long as the whole intact paddle is replaced. This "modularity" allows use of simple and inexpensive model systems to study the function of this region, its role in disease, and pharmaceutical control of its behavior rather than being limited to poorly characterized, expensive, and/or difficult to study preparations. Although voltage-gated ion channels are typically activated by membrane depolarization, some channels, such as inward-rectifier potassium ion channels, are activated instead by hyperpolarization. The gate is thought to be coupled to the voltage sensing regions of the channels and appears to contain a mechanical obstruction to ion flow. While the S6 domain has been agreed upon as the segment acting as this obstruction, its exact mechanism is unknown. Possible explanations include: the S6 segment makes a scissor-like movement allowing ions to flow through, the S6 segment breaks into two segments allowing of passing of ions through the channel, or the S6 channel serving as the gate itself. The mechanism by which the movement of the S4 segment affects that of S6 is still unknown, however it is theorized that there is a S4-S5 linker whose movement allows the opening of S6. Inactivation of ion channels occurs within milliseconds after opening. Inactivation is thought to be mediated by an intracellular gate that controls the opening of the pore on the inside of the cell. This gate is modeled as a ball tethered to a flexible chain. During inactivation, the chain folds in on itself and the ball blocks the flow of ions through the channel. Fast inactivation is directly linked to the activation caused by intramembrane movements of the S4 segments, though the mechanism linking movement of S4 and the engagement of the inactivation gate is unknown. Different types Sodium (Na+) channels Sodium channels have similar functional properties across many different cell types. While ten human genes encoding for sodium channels have been identified, their function is typically conserved between species and different cell types. Calcium (Ca2+) channels With sixteen different identified genes for human calcium channels, this type of channel differs in function between cell types. Ca2+ channels produce action potentials similarly to Na+ channels in some neurons. They also play a role in neurotransmitter release in pre-synaptic nerve endings. In most cells, Ca2+ channels regulate a wide variety of biochemical processes due to their role in controlling intracellular Ca2+ concentrations. Potassium (K+) channels Potassium channels are the largest and most diverse class of voltage-gated channels, with over 100 encoding human genes. These types of channels differ significantly in their gating properties; some inactivating extremely slowly and others inactivating extremely quickly. This difference in activation time influences the duration and rate of action potential firing, which has a significant effect on electrical conduction along an axon as well as synaptic transmission. Potassium channels differ in structure from the other channels in that they contain four separate polypeptide subunits, while the other channels contain four homologous domain but on a single polypeptide unit. Chloride (Cl−) channels Chloride channels are present in all types of neurons. With the chief responsibility of controlling excitability, chloride channels contribute to the maintenance of cell resting potential and help to regulate cell volume. Proton (H+) channels Voltage-gated proton channels carry currents mediated by hydrogen ions in the form of hydronium, and are activated by depolarization in a pH-dependent manner. They function to remove acid from cells. Phylogenetics Phylogenetic studies of proteins expressed in bacteria revealed the existence of a superfamily of voltage-gated sodium channels. Subsequent studies have shown that a variety of other ion channels and transporters are phylogenetically related to the voltage-gated ion channels, including inwardly rectifying K+ channels, ryanodine-inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor Ca2+ channels, transient receptor potential Ca2+ channels, polycystin cation channels, glutamate-gated ion channels, calcium-dependent chloride channels, monovalent cation:proton antiporters, type 1, and potassium transporters. See also Potassium channel Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia References External links IUPHAR-DB Voltage-gated ion channel subunits The IUPHAR Compendium of Voltage-gated Ion Channels 2005 Ion channels Electrophysiology Integral membrane proteins

Robert Ressler

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Robert Kenneth Ressler (February 21, 1937 – May 5, 2013) was an FBI agent and author. He played a significant role in the psychological profiling of violent offenders in the 1970s and is often credited with coining the term "serial killer", though the term is a direct translation of the German term "Serienmörder" coined in 1930 by Berlin investigator Ernst Gennat. After retiring from the FBI, he authored a number of books on serial murders, and often gave lectures on criminology. Early life Robert Ressler grew up on North Marmora Avenue in Chicago, Illinois and graduated from Schurz High School, Class of 1955. He was the son of Joseph, who worked in security and maintenance at the Chicago Tribune, and Gertrude Ressler. At an early age Robert became interested in killers, as he followed the Tribune'''s articles on "The Lipstick Killer". Ressler claims that he was more fascinated than afraid of this notorious killer, as other killers fascinated him in his later years with the FBI. Ressler attended two years at a community college before joining the U.S. Army and was stationed in Okinawa. After two years in the army Ressler decided to enroll in the School of Criminology and Police Administration at Michigan State University. He graduated with a bachelor's degree and started graduate work but only finished one semester before going back into the army as an officer, having also completed an ROTC program at Michigan State. Military career Ressler served in the U.S. Army from 1957 to 1962 as a provost marshal of a platoon of MPs in Aschaffenburg, as he states in his autobiography Whoever Fights Monsters. He was in charge of solving cases such as homicides, robberies, and arson. After four years in Germany, Ressler decided to leave the position and was reassigned as the Commander of a Criminal Investigation Division (CID) at Fort Sheridan. He then went back to Michigan State to finish his master's in police administration, paid for by the army, in exchange for two more years of service after graduation. After he received his degree, he served a year in Thailand and a year in Fort Sheridan, where he ended his career with the army as a major, and moved on to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). FBI career Ressler joined the FBI in 1970 and was recruited into the Behavioral Science Unit that deals with drawing up psychological profiles of violent offenders, such as rapists and serial killers, who typically select victims at random. Between 1976 and 1979, Ressler helped to organize the interviews of thirty-six incarcerated serial killers in order to find parallels between such criminals' backgrounds and motives. He was also instrumental in setting up Vi-CAP (Violent Criminal Apprehension Program). This consists of a centralized computer database of information on unsolved homicides. Information is gathered from local police forces and cross-referenced with other unsolved killings across the United States. Working on the basis that most serial killers claim similar victims with a standard method (modus operandi) it hopes to spot early on when a killer is carrying out crimes in different jurisdictions. This was primarily a response to the appearance of nomadic killers who committed crimes in different areas. So long as the killer kept on the move, the police forces in each state would be unaware that there were multiple victims and would just be investigating a single homicide each, unaware that other police forces had similar crimes. Vi-CAP would help individual police forces determine if they were hunting for the same perpetrator so that they could share and correlate information with one another, increasing their chances of identifying a suspect. He worked on many cases of serial homicide such as Jeffrey Dahmer, Ted Bundy, Richard Chase and John Joubert. Life after retirement Ressler retired from the FBI in 1990 and authored a number of books about serial murder. He actively gave lectures to students and police forces on the subject of criminology and in 1993, was brought in to London to assist in the investigation into the murders committed by Colin Ireland. In 1995, Ressler met South African profiler Micki Pistorius at a conference in Scotland and she invited him to review her investigation of the "ABC Murders", so-called because of their location in the Johannesburg suburbs of Atteridgeville, Boksburg, and Cleveland. A man named David Selepe had died in police custody while being investigated as a suspect for the Cleveland murders, prior to the discovery of the Atteridgeville and Boksburg crimes, and the authorities feared that they had killed an innocent man while the real culprit was still at large. Ressler believed that Selepe was indeed responsible for the Cleveland murders, either alone or with an accomplice, and that the Atteridgeville and Boksburg murders had been committed by the same offender, but that this killer was not involved in the Cleveland murders. He also pointed out that the Atteridgeville-Boksburg murderer was gaining confidence with each killing and would contact the media. As predicted, serial killer Moses Sithole called the South African newspaper The Star to claim responsibility for the Atteridgeville and Boksburg murders, some time after Ressler left the case.Murray, William (2009) Serial Killers. Canary Press, 192 pages. Ressler's visit to Ciudad Juárez in Mexico to investigate the still-active feminicides occurring there served as inspiration for the character Albert Kessler in Roberto Bolaño's novel 2666. Death Ressler died at his home in Spotsylvania County, Virginia on Sunday May 5, 2013, from Parkinson's disease. He was 76 years old. He is survived by his wife Helen Graszer Ressler, his son Lt. Col. Aaron R. Ressler, daughters Allison R. Tsiumis and Betsy S. Hamlin, three grandchildren and three step grandchildren. Model for fictional characters A screenplay adapted from his colleague John E. Douglas' book Mindhunter: Inside the FBI's Elite Serial Crime Unit was picked up by Netflix. Mindhunter stars Holt McCallany, who plays the character Special Agent Bill Tench, a lead character based on Ressler. Books Sexual Homicide: Patterns and Motives (with John E. Douglas, Ann Wolbert Burgess) (1988) Whoever Fights Monsters: My Twenty Years Tracking Serial Killers for the FBI (with Tom Shachtman) (1992) Justice Is Served (with Tom Shachtman) (1994) I Have Lived in the Monster'' (with Tom Shachtman) (1998) See also Crime Classification Manual FBI method of profiling Forensic psychology Investigative psychology Offender profiling References External links Robert K Ressler interview at www.sci-fi-online.com Robert Ressler obituary at Forensic Behavioral Science International Obituary 1937 births 2013 deaths Burials at Arlington National Cemetery Federal Bureau of Investigation agents Offender profiling Michigan State University alumni United States Army officers Neurological disease deaths in Virginia Deaths from Parkinson's disease

Zobo

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Stéphane Zobo (born 2000), Cameroonian footballer Zobo is the word in the Hausa language for the edible plant Hibiscus sabdariffa, as well as the drink made from its petals. "Zobo" is the nickname of Abdulkadir Mohamed Adan, a leader of the Somali Democratic Movement, a faction in Somali Civil War Zobo was the project codename for the Triumph Herald A hybrid between the zebu and the yak

Middle age

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Middle age is the period of age beyond young adulthood but before the onset of old age. The exact range is disputed; some sources place middle adulthood between the ages of 45 and 65. This phase of life is marked by gradual physical, cognitive, and social changes in the individual as they age. Middle adulthood This time span can be referred to as "middle age" and has been defined as the time between ages about 45 and about 65. Many changes may occur between young adulthood and this stage. The body may slow down and the middle aged might become more sensitive to diet, substance abuse, stress, and rest. Chronic health problems can become an issue along with disability or disease. Approximately one centimeter of height may be lost per decade. Emotional responses and retrospection vary from person to person, for example, experiencing a sense of mortality, sadness, or loss are common emotions at this age. Those in middle adulthood or middle age continue to develop relationships and adapt to the changes in relationships. These changes are highly evident in the maturing relationships between growing/grown children and aging parents. Community involvement is fairly typical of this stage of adulthood, as well as continued career development. Physical characteristics Middle-aged adults may begin to show visible signs of aging. This process can be more rapid in women who have osteoporosis. Changes might occur in the nervous system. The ability to perform complex tasks remains intact. Women experience menopause in the years surrounding the age of 51, which ends natural fertility. Menopause can have many side effects. Changes can occur to skin and other changes may include a decline in physical fitness, including a reduction in aerobic performance and a decrease in maximal heart rate. Sensory sensitivity in middle-aged adults has been shown to be one of the lowest. These measurements are generalities and people may exhibit these changes at different rates and times. The mortality rate can begin to increase from 50 and onwards, mainly due to health problems like heart problems, cancer, hypertension, and diabetes. Still, the majority of middle-aged people in industrialized nations can expect to live into old age. Cognitive characteristics Erik Erikson refers to this period of adulthood as the generativity-versus-stagnation – the seventh out of eight stages of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. People in middle adulthood or middle age may suffer some cognitive loss. This loss usually remains unnoticeable because life experiences and strategies are developed to compensate for any decrease in mental abilities. During this stage, adults often strive to have things that will outlast them. Generativity, which is the concern and the commitment middle-aged people have for future generations, is a big part of the development during this age. Social and personality characteristics For some, marital satisfaction remains intact, but other family relationships can be more difficult. Career satisfaction focuses more on inner satisfaction and contentedness and less on ambition and the desire to advance. Even so, career changes occur often. Middle adulthood or middle age can be a time when people re-examine their lives by taking stock and evaluating their accomplishments. Morality may change and become more conscious. The perception that those in this stage of development of life undergo a "mid-life" crisis is largely false. Personality characteristics remain stable throughout this period. The relationships in middle adulthood may continue to evolve into connections that are stable. See also Youth Young adult Old age Aging Midlife crisis References External links Further reading Lachman, M. E. (Ed.). (2001). Handbook of midlife development. NY: John Wiley. Lachman, M. E., Salom, T., & Agrigoroaei, S. (2015). Midlife as a pivotal period in the life course: Balancing growth and decline at the crossroads of youth and old age. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 39. 20-31. doi: 10.1177/0165025414533223 Human development

Goals against average

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Goals Against Average (GAA) also known as "Average Goals Against" or "AGA" is a statistic used in field hockey, ice hockey, lacrosse, soccer and water polo that is the mean of goals allowed per game by a goaltender/goalkeeper (depending on sport). GAA is analogous to a baseball pitcher's earned run average (ERA). In Japanese, the same translation (防御率) is used for both GAA and ERA, because of this. For ice hockey, the goals against average statistic is the number of goals a goaltender allows per 60 minutes of playing time. It is calculated by taking the number of goals against, multiply that by 60 (minutes) and then dividing by the number of minutes played. The modification is used by the NHL since 1965 & the IIHF since 1990. When calculating GAA, overtime goals and time on ice are included, whereas empty net and shootout goals are not. It is typically given to two decimal places. The top goaltenders in the National Hockey League have a GAA of about 1.85-2.10, although the measure of a good GAA changes as different playing styles come and go. The top goaltenders in the National Lacrosse League however, have a GAA of about 10.00, and the top 2005 Western Lacrosse Association goaltenders had a GAA of about 9.00. At their best, elite NCAA water polo goalies have a GAA between 3.00 and 5.00. Since the statistic is highly dependent on the team playing in front of a goalie, save percentage is usually considered a more accurate measure of a goaltender's skill, especially in ice hockey and lacrosse, as it takes into account the number of shots the goaltender has faced. In soccer, since it is considered a part of the goalkeeper's job to coach defenders on proper positioning to prevent opponents' shots, GAA is more commonly used to evaluate goalkeepers than save percentage. References Ice hockey statistics

Eggheads (TV series)

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Eggheads is a British quiz show produced by 12 Yard. It was first broadcast in November 2003 chaired by Dermot Murnaghan. In 2008, Jeremy Vine became joint chair, and subsequently sole chair. The show has inspired three spinoff series: Are You an Egghead? (2008), Revenge of the Egghead (2014) and Make Me an Egghead (2016). There have also been episodes of the regular series featuring teams of celebrities in their own short series, with their own rolling prize fund. History The show began in 2003 with Dermot Murnaghan as the presenter. From 2008, Jeremy Vine presented when Murnaghan was hosting the spinoff series. After the spin-off show finished, Murnaghan and Vine continued to host the series on a rotational basis, with Murnaghan typically hosting the first half of each series and Vine taking over for the second half. From series 16 Vine became the sole presenter. The series originally broadcast on BBC One at lunchtime beginning in November 2003, and later moved to a primetime slot on BBC Two from 2005 to 2020. On 31 December 2016 the quiz made a brief cameo in BBC One’s Peter Pan Goes Wrong TV special. On 12 March 2021, after a year's hiatus during the covid pandemic, it was announced on Jeremy Vine's titular Channel 5 programme that the quiz show would be moving to Channel 5 with Vine and the most recent Eggheads returning. The new season premiered on 4 October 2021, and alongside a studio change, only four Eggheads and four contestants now played at a time with a reduction to three one-on-one rounds to accommodate advert breaks (due to Channel 5's status as a commercial broadcaster). Due to social distancing restrictions, the desks were lengthened and perspex screens were added. The first challengers, playing for charity, were Jay's Virtual Quiz, who had become a fundraising hit on social media during the pandemic. An additional Egghead was featured on the opening credits and competed from week two. Format In each episode, a team of five quiz and game show champions (the Eggheads) is challenged by a team of five contestants for prize money. If the challengers lose, then £1,000 is added to the prize money fund until the Eggheads are beaten, when the prize will revert to £1,000. The most prize money that has been won is £75,000, in 2007. Some teams have been reduced to one contestant for the final round, but have still beaten five Eggheads. Occasionally, one remaining Egghead will beat five challengers. Only once have the Eggheads lost four games in succession and only four times has a team of all five challengers won the final round. Since 2021, it has been four Eggheads against four challengers, instead of the previous five. Rounds The show is played in five rounds. The first four 'one-on-one' 'elimination' rounds each focus on one subject category (of nine) while the final 'conferring' round tests general knowledge. In the first four rounds, the challengers choose a member of their own team to play, and an Egghead against whom they wish to compete. The players for that round then leave the studio to go into the "Question Room". The challenger is given the choice of going first or second. Both players are asked in turn three multiple-choice questions. If there is no winner, the round goes into sudden death with no choices given for answers. Since the show moved to Channel 5, there have only been four players per team, and thus only three 'one-on-one' rounds. The player who wins each round earns a place in the final round, while losing players are eliminated from the game. The final general knowledge round is then played between non-eliminated Eggheads and challengers with a similar question format to the previous rounds, with the exception that if more than one remains on a team they may confer. If the challengers win they take the prize money; if the Eggheads win, the prize money is increased by £1,000 for the next quiz. Subjects There are nine (formerly eight) possible subjects for the first rounds. They are: Arts & Books (2003–present) Entertainment (2003–2008) Film & Television (2008–present) Food & Drink (2003–present) Geography (2003–present) History (2003–present) Music (2008–present) Politics (2003–present) Science (2003–present) Sport (2003–present) Music and Film & Television were introduced in Autumn 2008 through a split of the Entertainment category. Subjects can appear in any order, although at least one of Sport, Music or Film & Television will appear in every episode. "Eggheads" In the first eight series, the team consisted of only five Eggheads who each appeared in every episode and did not rotate. At the end of 2008, a sixth Egghead was added and appearances rotated. From series 15, five of eight possible Eggheads appear each episode, and later in 2016, two brand-new Eggheads (one male and one female) joined the panel after a spin-off series entitled Make Me an Egghead. Currently, there are 9 Eggheads (6 male and 3 female): Kevin Ashman, Chris Hughes, Barry Simmons, Pat Gibson, Steve Cooke, Olav Bjortomt, Judith Keppel, Lisa Thiel and Beth Webster and they currently appear on Channel 5. Current Eggheads Kevin Ashman (2003–present) is the eight-time winner of the British Quiz Championship, the winner of the third series of Fifteen to One in 1989, the 1995 Mastermind (including all-time record score), the 1996 Brain of Britain (including all-time record score), its 3-yearly Brain of Brains and 9-yearly Top Brain in 1998, the Fifteen to One: Millenium Edition in 1999, the thirteen time Brain of London winner, the twice Gold Medallist for quizzing at the Mind Sports Olympiad, the two time Master Brain, and the winner of Sale of the Century, Quiz Night, Trivial Pursuit and The Great British Quiz. Since joining Eggheads, he has won six European Quizzing Championships and six World Quizzing Championships as well as being the Captain of the England quiz team and being ranked the number one quizzer in the world. Chris Hughes (2003–present) won £100 on The Sky's the Limit in the 1970s, Top of the World in 1982, Mastermind and International Mastermind in 1983 and participated on The Weakest Link in 2001 where despite answering every question correctly, was the last contestant voted off. Since joining Eggheads, he won Brain of Britain in 2005. Judith Keppel (2003–present) was the first British winner of £1,000,000 on Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? in 2000. Barry Simmons (2008–present) won £64,000 on Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? in 2005, a winning member of Masterteam in 2006 and a semi-finalist on Mastermind. He joined Eggheads in 2008 after winning the first series of Are You an Egghead? beating in the final Shaun Wallace, who would become one of two original chasers in The Chase. Since joining Eggheads, he won Brain of Britain in 2013 which garnered controversy amongst listeners. He is currently a member of the Scotland Quiz Team. Pat Gibson (2009–present) was the fourth British winner of £1,000,000 on Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, and the fifth recorded contestant to do so, in 2004, Mastermind in 2005 and Brain of Britain in 2006. He is a four-time winner (2007, 2010, 2014, 2015) of the British Quiz Championship, and a four-time winner (2007, 2010, 2011, 2013) of the World Quizzing Championships. He took part in Are You an Egghead? twice, losing in the quarter-finals to Mark Kerr in the first series in 2008, but winning the second series in 2009 beating David Edwards in the final to join the Eggheads. He also won Mastermind Champion of Champions in 2010. He has amassed 21 international quizzing medals and was ranked the second strongest quizzer in the UK, behind Kevin Ashman. Lisa Thiel (2014–present), a previous contestant on The Weakest Link in 2001 where she made the final but lost, The Chase in 2012 and part of a winning team on the Egghead's spinoff Revenge of the Egghead in 2014. Steve Cooke (2016–present), winner of the men's contest in Make Me an Egghead. He is a member of Mensa who previously won £12,900 on The People Versus in 2001. Beth Webster (2016–present), winner of the women's contest in Make Me an Egghead. She is active on the Quizzing Grand Prix Circuit in the United Kingdom, and in The Quiz League of London. She was ranked as a "Sage" in the 2012 Order of Merit listings of the British Quiz Association. Olav Bjortomt (2021–present), the four-time winner of the World Quizzing Championships, and a four-time European Quiz Champion. He is also a question setter for University Challenge and The Chase and has previously been a contestant on Are You an Egghead? Former Eggheads CJ de Mooi (2003–2012, Revenge of the Egghead (2014), 2014–2016) won the original The Weakest Link Bad Loser Special in 2000,100% in 2001, Beat the Nation in 2002 and Fifteen to One. He is also a Mensa chess champion. He took a break from the show from August 2012 until May 2014. His last appearance on his first run on the show was on 31 August 2012 during Series 13. He was the sole Egghead on Revenge of the Egghead, which aired on BBC2 in 2014. In May 2016, he confirmed on Twitter that he was leaving the show again to pursue an acting career in South Africa. Daphne Fowler (2003–2014) won Going for Gold in 1988, Brain of Britain in 1997 and two series of Fifteen to One in 2001 (including second highest score, for which she answered every question in the final round correctly). She has now retired from Eggheads, with her last appearance being in May 2014. She was replaced in the team by returning Egghead CJ de Mooi. Dave Rainford (2012–2018) appeared on Remote Control in 1991 and won £250,000 on Who Wants To Be A Millionaire in 2005. He was a previous contestant on Are You An Egghead where he was a semi-finalist in the first series in 2008, losing to eventual winner Barry Simmons, and a quarter-finalist in the second series in 2009, losing to David Edwards. He replaced CJ de Mooi. He earned himself the nickname "Tremendous Knowledge Dave". On 7 March 2020, it was reported that Rainford had died, after illness had prevented him appearing on the show since 2018. Graphical representation This chart displays when each presenter and Egghead was active. The black bars denote the start of each series. Teams who have defeated the Eggheads The highest amount any team has won to beat the Eggheads is £75,000 in 2007 (Series 8, Episode 14) by a team of Oxford Brookes University students, Beer Today, Gone Tomorrow. Transmissions Regular editions Celebrity editions Spin-offs Are You an Egghead? On 20 October 2008, a spin-off called Are You an Egghead? debuted on BBC Two. The first series was won by Barry Simmons and ran from 20 October to 2 December 2008 while the second series was won by Pat Gibson and ran from 12 October to 23 November 2009. Revenge of the Egghead On 24 February 2014, a new spin-off series of Eggheads was launched called Revenge of the Egghead. It was presented by Jeremy Vine and saw the return of CJ de Mooi, who left Eggheads in 2012. In each episode, de Mooi faced a team of five contestants hoping to win thousands of pounds. The series ran for a 6-week period, between 24 February and 4 April 2014. Lisa Thiel appeared on the show as part of a winning team before becoming an Egghead herself shortly afterwards. Main game Each contestant, in turn, is asked a general knowledge question. If their answer is right, £200 is added to the prize fund but if their answer is wrong and de Mooi knows their answer is wrong, he presses a red button in front of him to answer the same question. If he gets it wrong and the contestant gets it right, an additional £100 is added to the prize fund. If he gets it right, the contestant is asked a multiple-choice question by de Mooi. If they get it right, gameplay continues as normal but if they get it wrong, they lose one of their two lives. If a contestant loses both of their lives, they are out of the game. When time runs out, the surviving players move on to the final round, along with the total number of lives remaining for all players, for a chance to win an equal share of the prize fund. Final round The final round starts out with de Mooi answering ten general knowledge questions. The number of questions he gets right becomes the target that the team has to beat. The team can confer on every question. Every wrong answer means that the team loses one of their lives and if they lose all of their lives, they leave with nothing but if they beat the target, they win an equal share of the prize fund. Make Me an Egghead A 25-part spin-off series ran from 22 August to 23 September 2016, with the search for two new members for the Eggheads line-up: one male, one female. The series was won by Steve Cooke and Beth Webster. References External links Eggheads at 12-Yard Productions Celebrity Eggheads 2003 British television series debuts 2000s British game shows 2010s British game shows 2020s British game shows BBC Scotland television shows Channel 5 (British TV channel) original programming BBC television game shows British game shows English-language television shows Television series by ITV Studios Television game shows with incorrect disambiguation

Islam in Saudi Arabia

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Sunni Islam is the state religion of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The connection between Islam and modern day Saudi Arabia is uniquely strong. The kingdom is called the "home of Islam" due to Islam being founded in modern day Saudi Arabia as well as it is the birthplace of Islamic Prophet Muhammad and all territories of Saudi Arabia and Arabian Peninsula being United and ruled by Prophet Muhammad, It is the location of the cities of Mecca and Medina, where Muhammad, the messenger of the Islamic faith, lived and died, and attracts millions of Muslim Hajj pilgrims annually, and thousands of clerics and students who come from across the Muslim world to study. The official title of the King of Saudi Arabia is "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques"—the two being Al-Masjid al-Haram in Mecca and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina—which are considered the holiest in Islam. In the 18th century, a pact between Islamic preacher Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and a regional emir, Muhammad bin Saud, brought the original form of Islam (Salifism) of Sunni Islam first to the Najd region and then to the Arabian Peninsula. Referred to by supporters as "Salafism" and by others as "Wahhabism", this interpretation of Islam became the state religion and interpretation of Islam espoused by Muhammad bin Saud and his successors (the Al Saud family), who eventually created the modern kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932. The Saudi government has spent tens of billions of dollars of its petroleum export revenue throughout the Islamic world and elsewhere on building mosques, publishing books, giving scholarships and fellowships, hosting international Islamic organisations, and promoting its form of Islam, sometimes referred to as "petro-Islam". Whether Salafis/Wahhabis are a majority in Saudi Arabia is disputed, with one estimate putting their number at only 22.9% of the native population (concentrated in Najd). The Wahhabi mission has been dominant in Najd for two hundred years, but in most other parts of the country—Hejaz, the Eastern Province, Najran—it has dominated only since 1913–1925. Most of the 15 to 20 million Saudi citizens are Sunni Muslims, while the eastern regions are populated mostly by Twelver Shia, and there are Zaydi Shia in the southern regions. According to a number of sources, only a minority of Saudis consider themselves Wahhabis, although according to other sources, the Wahhabi affiliation is up to 40%, making it a very dominant minority, at the very least using a native population of 17 million based on "2008-9 estimates". In addition, the next largest affiliation is with Salafism, which encompasses all of the central principles of Wahhabism, with a number of minor additional accepted principles differentiating the two. Public worship and proselytising by non-Muslims in Saudi Arabia, including the distribution of non-Muslim religious materials (such as the Bible), is illegal. Starting in 2017, under Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, dramatic changes have been made in religious policy, including the lifting of bans on amusement parks, cinemas, concert venues, and driving of vehicles by women. The power of the religious police has been eliminated. History The Islamic prophet, Muhammad, was born in Mecca in about 570. From the early 7th century, Muhammad united the various tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity under his rule. Following his death in 632, his followers rapidly expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia and conquered many parts of Asia, Africa and Europe conquering huge swathes of territory. Although Arabia soon became a politically peripheral region as the focus shifted to the more developed conquered lands, Mecca and Medina remained the spiritually most important places in the Muslim world. The Qur'an requires every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it, as one of the five pillars of Islam, to make a pilgrimage, or Hajj, to Mecca during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah at least once in his or her lifetime. From the 9th century, a number of Shia sects developed particularly in the eastern part of Arabia. These included the Qarmatians, a millenarian Ismaili sect led by Abū-Tāhir Al-Jannābī who attacked and sacked Mecca in 930. Al Saud and ibn Abd al-Wahhab In 1744, in the desert region of Nejd, Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the Al Saud dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab was the founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam. This alliance formed in the 18th century provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today. The first "Saudi state" established in 1744 in the area around Riyadh, rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, but was destroyed by 1818 by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha. In 1824, a much smaller second "Saudi state", located mainly in Nejd, was established in 1824, but by 1891 its Al Saud rulers were driven into exile in Kuwait. At the beginning of the 20th century, a third attempt was made to conquer this territory by another Al-Saud, Abdulaziz Ibn Saud. He gained the support of the Ikhwan, a tribal army inspired by Wahhabism and led by Sultan ibn Bijad and Faisal Al-Dawish, which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912. With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured al-Hasa from the Ottoman Empire in 1913. Ibn Saud defeated a rival ruling family and took the title Sultan of Nejd in 1921. By this time the Ottomans had been defeated in World War I, and Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia was no more. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Hejaz was conquered in 1924–25. Following this victory however the Ikhwan clashed with Ibn Saud. He opposed their raiding the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, to expand of the Wahhabist realm, and they opposed his policies of allowing some modernization and some non-Muslim foreigners in the country. The Ikhwan were defeated and their leaders executed in 1930 after a two-year struggle. In 1932 the two kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd were united as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Era of oil exports Oil was discovered in the Persian Gulf region of Saudi Arabia in 1938, and oil wells eventually revealing the largest source of crude oil in the world. For the king, oil revenues became a crucial source of wealth since he no longer had to rely on receipts from pilgrimages to Mecca. This discovery would alter Middle Eastern political relations forever. During the 1960s and '70s, religious authorities allowed some practices that had previously been forbidden (haram). At the urging of the government and after vigorous debate, religious authorities allowed the use of paper money in 1951, abolished slavery in 1962, permitted the education of females in 1964, and use of television in 1965. By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and government modernization policies, economic and social development progressed at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country; in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed. By 1976 Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world. The power of the ulema was in decline. However, in the 1980s and 1990s, this trend was reversed. In 1979, the modernizing monarch of Iran, despite his oil revenues and apparently formidable security apparatus, was overthrown by an Islamic revolution. The new revolutionary Islamic Republic was across the Persian Gulf from Saudi oil fields and across from where most of Saudi Arabia's minority Shiites—co-religionists of Iran who also often worked in the oil industry—lived. There were several anti-government uprisings in the region in 1979 and 1980. Also alarming to the government was the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi government, proclaimed the return of the Mahdi. The takeover and siege of the mosque lasted for nearly two weeks, during which the mosque was severely damaged and several hundred militants, soldiers, and hostages were killed. In response the royal family enforced much stricter observances of traditional religious and social norms in the country and gave the Ulema a greater role in government. First photographs of women in newspapers were banned, then women on television. Cinemas and music shops were shut down. School curriculum was changed to provide many more hours of religious studies, eliminating classes on subjects like non-Islamic history. Gender segregation was extended "to the humblest coffee shop". The religious police became more assertive. Greater emphasis was put on religion in the media (increased religious programming on television and radio, and an increase in articles about religion in newspapers), in individual behavior, in government policies, in mosque sermons. In 1986 King Fahd replaced his title "His Majesty" with "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques". The ulema's powers and financial support were strengthened in particular, they were given greater control over the education system and allowed to enforce stricter observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour. These policies did not succeed in dampening the growth and strength of religious conservatives dissatisfied with the royal family. Saudi Islamism gained momentum following 1991 Gulf War. The presence of U.S. troops on Saudi soil from 1991 onwards was deeply unpopular with conservative Saudis and one of the major issues that has led to an increase in Islamist terrorism by Saudis inside and out of Saudi Arabia, (the 9/11 attacks in New York being the most prominent example). Islamist terrorist activity increased dramatically in 2003, with the Riyadh compound bombings and other attacks, which prompted the government to take much more stringent action against terrorism. The king (Abdullah) has also taken steps to rein back the powers of the ulema, for instance transferring their control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education. Some have complained that the king's dominance over the ulema has weakened the traditional Islamic legitimacy of Saudi throne. Current position Role in the state and society Islam plays a central role in Saudi society. It has been said that Islam is more than a religion, it is a way of life in Saudi Arabia, and, as a result, the influence of the ulema, the religious establishment, is all-pervasive. Article one of the 1992 Saudi "Basic Law of Governance" states, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a sovereign Arab Islamic State. Its religion is Islam. Its constitution is Almighty God's Book, The Holy Qur'an, and the Sunna (Traditions) of the Prophet (PBUH). Arabic is the language of the Kingdom. Unlike most Muslim countries, Saudi Arabia gives the ulema direct involvement in government, and fields a specifically "religious" police force, called the Haia. (Iran gives the ulema much more influence and also has a religious police.) According to Robert Baer, this power is only over certain sectors of governance. The founder of Saudi Arabia, Ibn Saud, established a division of power (according to Baer) with the Wahhabi religious establishment in 1932. In "return for allowing it control of the mosques, culture, and education", the ulema or religious establishment "would never go near core political issues, such as royal succession, foreign policy, and the armed forces." This agreement has "been more or less respected" since 1932. Historians note that in his alliance with the House of Saud, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab called for the state to have an "imam" (religious leader, himself) and an "emir" (military leader, Ibn Saud). However, the third head of the House of Saud used the title "Imam", and Saudi kings have served in this role since. A Council of Senior Scholars, appointed and paid by the government advises the king on religious matters. The ulema have also been a key influence in major government decisions, have a significant role in the judicial and education systems and a monopoly of authority in the sphere of religious and social morals. Not only is the succession to the throne subject to the approval of the ulema, but so are all new laws (royal decrees). The religious police or Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice numbers 3,500-4,000. Members patrol the streets enforcing dress codes, strict separation of men and women, salat prayer by Muslims during prayer times, investigating reports of witchcraft, and other behavior it believes to be commanded or forbidden by Islam. Daily life in Saudi Arabia is dominated by Islamic observance. Five times each day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets of mosques scattered throughout the country. Because Friday is the holiest day for Muslims, the weekend begins on Thursday. In accordance with Salafi doctrine, only two religious holidays are publicly recognized, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. Celebration of other Islamic holidays, such as the Prophet's birthday and Day of Ashura are tolerated only when celebrated locally and on a small scale. Public observance of non-Islamic religious holidays is prohibited, with the exception of 23 September, which commemorates the unification of the kingdom. Conformity of behavior is highly valued as part of religion, apparent in sameness of dress. Almost all women wear a loose-fitting black abaya cloak covering all but their eyes and hands, almost all men wear a white thawb with a red and white checkered headdress. Sharia, or Islamic law, is the basis of the legal system in Saudi Arabia. It is unique not only compared to Western systems, but also compared to other Muslim countries, as (according to its supporters) the Saudi model is closest to the form of law originally developed when Islam became established in the Arabian peninsula in the 7th century. The Saudi courts impose a number of severe physical punishments. The death penalty can be imposed for a wide range of offences including murder, rape, armed robbery, repeated drug use, apostasy, adultery, witchcraft and sorcery and can be carried out by beheading with a sword, stoning or firing squad, followed by crucifixion. Wahhabism Many of the strict and unique practices in Saudi Arabia mentioned above come from Wahhabism, the official and dominant form of Sunni Islam in Saudi Arabia, named after the preacher and scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. Proponents consider the name derogatory, preferring the term Salafiyya, after the early Muslims known as the Salaf. This interpretation is often described as 'puritanical', 'intolerant' or 'ultra-conservative', however proponents believe its teachings seek to purify the practise of Islam of any innovations or practices that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions. According to one anti-Wahhabi source (Stephen Schwartz), "no more than" 40% of Saudi nationals consider themselves Wahhabis. The message of the school was the essential oneness of God (tawhid). The movement is therefore known by its adherents as ad dawa lil tawhid (the call to unity), and those who follow the call are known as ahl at tawhid (the people of unity) or muwahhidun (unitarians). The school puts an emphasis on following of the Athari school of thought. Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab, was influenced by the writings of Ibn Taymiyya and questioned the philosophical interpretations of Islam within the Ash'ari and Maturidi schools, claiming to rely on the Qur'an and the Hadith without speculative philosophy so as to not transgress beyond the limits of the early Muslims known as the Salaf. Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab attacked a "perceived moral decline and political weakness" in the Arabian Peninsula and condemned what he perceived as idolatry, the popular cult of saints, and shrine and tomb visitation. In the 1990s, Saudi leadership did not emphasize its identity as inheritor of the Wahhabi legacy as such, nor did the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab, the Al ash Shaykh, continue to hold the highest posts in the religious bureaucracy. Wahhabi influence in Saudi Arabia, however, remained tangible in the physical conformity in dress, in public deportment, and in public prayer. Most significantly, the Wahhabi legacy was manifest in the social ethos that presumed government responsibility for the collective moral ordering of society, from the behavior of individuals, to institutions, to businesses, to the government itself. Non Salafi The Wahhabi mission has been dominant in most of the central region of Najd—its "heartland"—for two hundred years, but in most other parts of the country it has dominated only since 1913–1925. The eastern region has many Twelver Shias, the southern regions of Saudi Arabia has many Zaydi Shias. The hijaz region has long had a more pluralistic tradition. The southwest region of Asir is known for its followers of a local leader, Idris, revered by many as a Sufi saint, a concept which Wahhbism opposes. According to one estimate by Michael Mehrdad Izady, "using cultural and not confessional criteria", there are 4.3 million (25%) Shia, 4 million (23%) Wahhabi, 9 million (52%) non-Wahhabi Sunnis in Saudi Arabia Two critics of Wahhabism (Ali Al-Ahmed and Stephen Schwartz), also give a relatively high estimate of the non-Wahhabi population of Saudi Arabia—over 60%. Sunnism Although Wahabism is a strand of Sunni Islam, the promotion of non-Salafi-Sunnism is restricted. Shia Islam An estimated 5-10% of citizens in Saudi Arabia are Shia Muslims, most of whom are adherents to Twelver Shia Islam. Twelvers are predominantly represented by the Baharna community living in the Eastern Province, with the largest concentrations in Qatif, Half the population in al-Hasa,. In addition there is a small Twelver Shia minority in Medina (called the Nakhawila). Sizable and Isma'ili communities also live in Najran along the border with Yemen. Shia, human rights groups and other observers have complained of "systematic discrimination" of Shia in Saudi Arabia "in religion, education, justice, and employment". Unlike other countries with sizable Shia populations (such as Iraq and Lebanon), Saudi Arabia has no Shia cabinet ministers, mayors or police chiefs. Shia are kept out of "critical jobs" in the armed forces and the security services, and not one of the three hundred Shia girls’ schools in the Eastern Province has a Shia principal. In the Eastern provinces of Saudi Arabia there are Shia courts who deal with cases such as marriage, divorce and inheritance. Shia demonstrations in Qatif have sometimes led to conflict with Sunni Saudi religious authorities who disapprove of Shia commemorations marking the martyrdom of Hussein ibn Ali by the Sunni Caliph Yazid I. There also Shias living in Southern Saudi Arabia, who are mostly from the Zaydi branch. Ahmadiyya Ahmadiyya is a small persecuted Islamic sect in Saudi Arabia. There are "no accurate figures" for the number of Ahmadi in Saudi Arabia. Ahmadis are officially banned from entering the country and are barred from performing the pilgrimage to Mecca. This has led to criticisms from multiple human rights organizations. They are primarily foreign workers from India and Pakistan and some from other countries.. Since the Ahmadiyya faith is banned in the country, there are no Ahmadi mosques. Ahmadis generally gather together in private properties for their daily prayers, thereby limiting exposure to the local authorities. From the very early history of the Ahmadiyya Movement in the 19th century, Ahmadis have had contact with the region in what were then a number of Ottoman provinces in the Arabian peninsula, primarily due to their spiritual connection to the two holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Islamic pilgrimage Saudi Arabia, and specifically Mecca and Medina, in Hejaz are the cradle of Islam, and the pilgrimage destinations for large numbers of Muslims from across the Islamic world. One of the King's titles is Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, the two mosques being Al-Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, which contains Islam's most sacred place (the Kaaba) and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina which contains Muhammad's tomb. The Hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca, occurs annually between the first and tenth days of the last month of the Muslim year, Dhul Hajj. The Hajj represents the culmination of the Muslim's spiritual life. For many, it is a lifelong ambition. From the time of embarking on the journey to make the Hajj, pilgrims often experience a spirit of exaltation and excitement; the meeting of so many Muslims of all races, cultures, and stations in life in harmony and equality moves many people deeply. Certain rites of pilgrimage may be performed any time, and although meritorious, these constitute a lesser pilgrimage, known as umrah. The Ministry of Pilgrimage Affairs and Religious Trusts handles the immense logistical and administrative problems generated by such a huge international gathering. The government issues special pilgrimage visas that permit the pilgrim to visit Mecca and to make the customary excursion to Medina to visit the Prophet's tomb. Care is taken to assure that pilgrims do not remain in the kingdom after the Hajj to search for work. An elaborate guild of specialists assists the Hajjis. Guides (mutawwifs) who speak the pilgrim's language make the necessary arrangements in Mecca and instruct the pilgrim in the proper performance of rituals; assistants (wakils) provide subsidiary services. Separate groups of specialists take care of pilgrims in Medina and Jiddah. Water drawers (zamzamis) provide water drawn from the sacred well. Since the late 1980s, the Saudis have been particularly energetic in catering to the needs of pilgrims. In 1988, a US$15 billion traffic improvement scheme for the holy sites was launched. The improvement initiative resulted partly from Iranian charges that the Saudi government was incompetent to guard the holy sites after a 1987 clash between demonstrating Iranian pilgrims and Saudi police left 400 people dead. A further disaster occurred in 1990, when 1,426 pilgrims suffocated or were crushed to death in one of the new air-conditioned pedestrian tunnels built to shield pilgrims from the heat. The incident resulted from the panic that erupted in the overcrowded and inadequately ventilated tunnel, and further fueled Iranian claims that the Saudis did not deserve to be in sole charge of the holy places. In 1992, however, 114,000 Iranian pilgrims, close to the usual level, participated in the Hajj. Islam and politics Islamic legitimacy The religious establishment in Saudi Arabia, led by the Al ash-Sheikh, which influences almost every aspect of social life, is deeply involved in politics. It has long been fractured into at least two distinct groups, with the senior ulema closely tied to the political agenda of the House of Saud. A younger generation of ulema, who are less firmly established and more radical in tone, have openly criticized the senior ulema and the government in the past. Fractures between the government and this younger generation deepened in May 2003, when Riyadh fired or suspended thousands of them. Many were to be "re-educated," while others were simply ousted from the religious establishment. The move did little to endear the government to an already frustrated and religiously radical cadre of clerics.The Islamic Legitimacy of the modern Saudi state has been questioned by many radical Islamist groups and individuals including Al-Qaeda. Saudi Arabia's grand mufti, Sheikh Abdul-Aziz ibn Abdullah Al ash-Sheikh, has defended the religious establishment's legitimacy in a public forum, while responding to mounting criticism of the religious leadership's close political alliance with the ruling House of Saud. During a question-and-answer session with members of the public and the media, Al Al-Sheikh denied that the government influenced fatwas (religious rulings) and said accusations to the contrary within the media were false: Both the criticism and the public response to it indicate a deepening level of dissent, not only within the kingdom's religious establishment, but also among the public. It is significant that the question was asked and answered in a public forum, and then reprinted in the media -- including the Arabic and English language newspapers. Similar questions of legitimacy will arise in coming months, with the kingdom's religious, political and perhaps military leaderships becoming the focal points for increasingly intense criticism. That Al Al-Sheikh answered the question about government influence over fatwas so openly is a clear indicator that the public has growing concerns about the legitimacy of religious leaders. Also, that the statements were reprinted in the press signals that the Saudi government -- which wields enormous influence over the local press -- is moving to respond to the charges of undue influence and corruption and illegitimacy. See also International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism Islam by country List of mosques in Saudi Arabia Religion in Saudi Arabia Salafism Wahhabism References External links Islam in Saudi Arabia in Oxford Islamic Studies Online The Ideology of Terrorism and Violence in Saudi Arabia: Origins, Reasons and Solution Saudi Rehab in Practice Datarabia: Islamic Community Directory Saudi Arabia

The Hardy Boyz

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The Hardy Boyz are an American professional wrestling tag team consisting of real-life brothers Matt and Jeff Hardy. They first began teaming together in 1993 on the independent circuit, winning the NWA 2000 Tag Team Championship in NWA and founding OMEGA Championship Wrestling, where they held the OMEGA Tag Team Championship. They signed contracts with the WWF (now WWE) in 1997. In 2000, they were joined by Lita, and the trio became Team Xtreme. They are considered as one of the greatest tag teams of all time in professional wrestling history, they are the only team to have held the WWE/World, WCW, TNA, ROH, Raw, and SmackDown Tag Team Championships. In 2012, WWE named them the greatest tag team in WWE history. After splitting up as a team in 2002, the brothers reunited in 2006 and teamed up sporadically afterward. They also appeared in Impact Wrestling (formerly TNA) to briefly reunite in 2011 as members of Immortal, and teamed more frequently from 2014 to 2017. Both brothers left Impact in 2017, and returned to WWE, where they would go on to win the Raw Tag Team Championship at WrestleMania 33. They would team up together in WWE on and off over the next two years. In 2019, they won the SmackDown Tag Team Championship the night after WrestleMania 35, but would relinquish the titles three weeks later after Jeff suffered a leg injury. Jeff would then be out of action for the rest of the year, marking the last appearance of the team during their latest run in WWE, as Matt's contract expired in March 2020 and he went to AEW soon after. Both brothers have also won singles championships, with each becoming multi-time world champions in their own right. In 2017, they held seven tag team championships from seven different companies at the same time, including the ROH World Tag Team Championship and the TNA World Tag Team Championship, being recognized as the only tag team in history to hold these titles simultaneously. After returning to WWE in 2017, they became the only tag team in history to have held tag team championships from all three major U.S. promotions within the span of a month. The Hardy Boyz gained fame for their innovative participation in ladder matches and Tables, Ladders and Chairs matches with The Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian. Overall, they are 12-time world tag team champions between WWE, TNA, and ROH, having won the WWE/World Tag Team Championship six times, the Raw Tag Team Championship once, the SmackDown Tag Team Championship once, the WCW Tag Team Championship once (in WWE), the TNA World Tag Team Championship twice, and the ROH World Tag Team Championship once. History Independent circuit (1993–1998) The brothers formed a tag team in 1993 after Jeff's debut in the Trampoline Wrestling Federation (TWF). The promotion went by several names, and it was modernized in 1997 as the Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts (OMEGA). The duo worked in several independent promotions throughout North Carolina, holding the OMEGA Tag Team Championship and NWA 2000 Tag Team Championship. World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment (1998–2009) Rise to popularity (1998–1999) Originally the brothers competed in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) as jobbers—wrestlers who consistently lose to make their opponents look stronger – both in singles and tag team competition. After being signed to a contract in 1998, they were trained by Dory Funk, Jr. in his Funkin' Dojo. The Hardy Boyz started their run as a popular tag team with a win over Kaientai (Men's Teioh and Shoichi Funaki) on the September 27, 1998 episode of Sunday Night Heat. Soon after their Sunday Night Heat win, they built up a fan base following through their high-flying tag team tactics. They started to become serious contenders for the Tag Team Championship after they became managed by Michael Hayes, formerly a member of The Fabulous Freebirds. On the June 29, 1999, episode of Raw Is War (aired July 5), they defeated The Acolytes (Faarooq and Bradshaw) to win their first WWF Tag Team Championship, but they re-lost the title to The Acolytes a little less than a month later at Fully Loaded. They eventually dumped Hayes as their manager in August 1999, becoming villains and briefly associating themselves with Gangrel as part of The New Brood. After winning a series of matches against the team of Edge and Christian—dubbed the Terri Invitational Tournament—they won the services of Terri Runnels as their manager by winning the first ever tag team ladder match at No Mercy, and then dumped Gangrel the next night becoming faces. The fans also gave both teams a standing ovation the next night on Raw Is War. This began an over two year rivalry between the Hardy Boyz and the team of Edge and Christian. During this time, they also gained notoriety as a faction with Lita. Team Xtreme (2000–2002) With the addition of Lita, Matt and Jeff comprised the trio dubbed Team Xtreme, their name serving as a reflection of their "extreme" high-flying moves. In 2000, they were involved in feuds with Edge and Christian and The Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray Dudley and D-Von Dudley) in many ladder matches and TLC matches. They faced Edge and Christian and the Dudley Boyz at WrestleMania 2000 in a triple threat tag team ladder match. The Dudley Boyz started the match as the champions and Edge and Christian won the title. The Hardyz faced Edge and Christian for the title at Insurrextion and defeated them by disqualification, which meant that Edge and Christian retained the title. At King of the Ring, the Hardy Boyz squared off in a Four Corners Elimination match for the Tag Team Championship which included the champions Too Cool (Grandmaster Sexay and Scotty 2 Hotty), T & A (Test and Albert) and Edge and Christian. The Hardyz were able to eliminate T & A before getting eliminated themselves by Edge and Christian. At SummerSlam, the Hardy Boyz were defeated in the first ever TLC match for the title, which Edge and Christian won, and in which the Dudley Boyz also competed. At Unforgiven, the Hardy Boyz defeated Edge and Christian in a steel cage match to win the title for a second time. They re-lost the title to Edge and Christian (who were dressed as Los Conquistadores) at No Mercy, but they won it back the next night on Raw Is War for a third time. During the match, the Hardy Boyz were dressed as Los Conquistadores, but tore off their masks after the match, revealing themselves. The team lost the title less than a month later to Right to Censor (Bull Buchanan and The Goodfather) on the November 6 episode of Raw Is War, when Edge and Christian came out and assaulted the Hardyz, allowing Right to Censor to pick up the win and the title. The Hardyz became involved in a feud with both Edge and Christian and Right to Censor. At Survivor Series, the Hardyz along with the Dudleyz defeated Edge and Christian and Right to Censor in a Survivor Series elimination match. At Rebellion, the Hardy Boyz faced Right to Censor in a rematch for the titles but were unable to win the titles when Val Venis interfered. On the December 4 episode of Raw Is War, Dean Malenko defeated the Hardy Boyz' valet Lita to retain the Light Heavyweight Championship and earn himself a date with her three days later on SmackDown!, when Malenko took Lita on a date and received a beating from the Hardyz. The Hardyz began feuding with Malenko and his friends, The Radicalz (Eddie Guerrero, Chris Benoit, Malenko and Perry Saturn). The two teams faced each other in several tag team and singles matches on Raw Is War and SmackDown!. The two teams also squared off against each other at Armageddon with Guerrero, Malenko and Saturn taking on the Hardyz and Lita. The Radicalz won the match. On the March 5, 2001 episode of Raw Is War, the Hardy Boyz captured their fourth WWF Tag Team Championship when they defeated The Dudley Boyz, after interference from Christian, only to lose the title to Edge and Christian two weeks later on Raw. The next month at WrestleMania X-Seven, the Hardy Boyz competed in another TLC match against Edge and Christian and the Dudley Boyz. Just as in the first TLC match, Edge and Christian were victorious thanks to help from Rhyno. On the October 8 episode of Raw, the Hardy Boyz won the WCW Tag Team Championship from Booker T and Test. They lost the title to the Dudley Boyz two weeks later on SmackDown!. On the November 12 episode of Raw, they beat Booker T and Test again, but this time for the WWF Tag Team Championship. At Survivor Series, they lost the title to the Dudleys in a steel cage title unification match. This defeat led to a break up storyline that resulted in a match between the brothers at Vengeance. Jeff would emerge victorious after Lita, who was the special referee, failed to see Matt's foot on the rope. The storyline was dropped in January 2002 and they reunited. At No Way Out, the Hardy Boyz participated in a tag team turmoil match which was won by the APA. At WrestleMania X8, along with the APA and the Dudley Boyz, the Hardyz challenged Billy and Chuck for the WWF Tag Team Championship in a four corners elimination match. The APA were eliminated by the Dudleyz, whom the Hardy Boyz managed to eliminate. In the end, they were pinned by the champions, therefore losing the opportunity. They then began a feud with the newcomer Brock Lesnar and his manager Paul Heyman. At Judgment Day, the Hardy Boyz lost to Lesnar and Heyman in a tag team match. Split and departure (2002–2005) The duo split up afterward as Jeff began a storyline with The Undertaker, while Matt was relegated to working on Heat. In the storyline, Matt then attacked Jeff due to jealousy of Jeff getting opportunities, including a match for the Intercontinental Championship. Matt was then moved to the SmackDown! brand, where he dubbed himself "Matt Hardy Version 1" and the "Sensei of Mattitude" and picked up real-life friend Shannon Moore and briefly Crash Holly as followers. He later won the Cruiserweight Championship from Billy Kidman at No Way Out in February 2003. Jeff was released from WWE on April 22 for erratic behavior, drug use, refusal to go to rehab and deteriorating ring performance as well as constant tardiness and no-showing events. Following his release from WWE, Jeff debuted in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) in mid-2004. After no-showing several events, he was suspended in 2006 before leaving the company soon afterward. Meanwhile, in April 2005, Matt was released from WWE due to unprofessional conduct with social media after discovering Lita had a real-life affair with Edge. He was rehired just a few months later, feuded with Edge, and was eventually sent to the SmackDown! brand. The Hardys reunion (2006–2007) On August 4, 2006, Jeff rejoined WWE on its Raw brand. In November 2006, it was announced on WWE's official website that Matt and Jeff would team up for the first time together in over four years as members of Team DX at the Survivor Series. The Hardys, as they were now known, were first given a "warm up match" on ECW on Sci Fi, defeating The Full Blooded Italians (Little Guido Maritato and Tony Mamaluke). At Survivor Series, Team DX defeated Team Rated-RKO in a clean sweep. On the November 27 episode of Raw, The Hardys had their first shot at Tag Team gold in five years. They took on World Tag Team Champions Rated-RKO (Edge and Randy Orton), but came up short when Edge hit Jeff in the back with a belt to get himself and Orton deliberately disqualified to retain the title. That same day, The Hardys posed an open challenge to any team for ECW brand's ECW December to Dismember which was immediately accepted by a reuniting MNM (Johnny Nitro and Joey Mercury). After a run in on the intervening ECW on Sci Fi, The Hardys defeated MNM at the event, starting a feud between all four men that spanned both brands. The Hardys got their first chance to gain the WWE Tag Team Championship at Armageddon, where the original tag team match was changed to a four team ladder match involving The Hardys, MNM, Dave Taylor and William Regal, and Paul London and Brian Kendrick. Despite coming up short, The Hardys sparked another feud with MNM when Mercury was legitimately injured. While Jeff and Nitro continued battling over the Intercontinental Championship on Raw, Matt and Mercury feuded on SmackDown!. Mercury and Nitro tried injuring both Hardys' faces as payback for what happened at Armageddon, claiming that The Hardys had ruined Mercury's 'Hollywood good looks'. The Hardys settled their feud with MNM at the Royal Rumble when they defeated them for the second time. Matt and Mercury continued feuding, however, which was finally settled at No Way Out. On the April 2, 2007, episode of Raw, the Hardys won the World Tag Team Championship for the sixth time in their career after winning a ten team battle royal. After losing singles bouts to both Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch, The Hardys retained their World Tag Team Championship at both Backlash and Judgment Day against the team of Cade and Murdoch. At One Night Stand, Hardyz retained the titles against The World's Greatest Tag Team (Charlie Haas and Shelton Benjamin) in a ladder match. The next night on Raw, however, the Hardys lost their championship to Cade and Murdoch, when Jeff missed a Swanton Bomb and was pinned by Cade after Murdoch pushed his foot off of the bottom rope of the ring. Cade and Murdoch attacked the Hardys with the championship belts after the match. The Hardys got a rematch at Vengeance, but was unsuccessful after Jeff was hit with a sitout spinebuster from Cade. The Hardys once again returned to WWE on the November 13 episode of ECW to face Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP) and Mr. Kennedy, a match that was originally scheduled for the November 16 episode of SmackDown!. The Hardys were unsuccessful in their return as Porter pinned Jeff for the win. The Hardys, announced and referred to once again as the Hardy Boyz, reunited once again in 2008, on the June 23 episode of Raw in a losing effort to John Morrison and The Miz. The match occurred after Jeff was drafted to the SmackDown brand (the same brand as Matt). This loss, however, caused Matt to be drafted to the ECW brand. On the July 15 episode of ECW, The Hardys reunited in their home state of North Carolina, defeating Morrison and Miz. The Hardys then teamed up on the October 31 episode of SmackDown and on November 3 on Raw, winning both matches. Feud and second departure (2009) The Hardy Boyz kickstarted 2009 with a win over Edge and Big Show on the January 2 episode of SmackDown. This was the last match for the then WWE Champion and ECW Champion as a team as Matt would lose the ECW championship to Jack Swagger on the January 13 episode of ECW. Heading into the 2009 Royal Rumble, Matt was attempting to regain the ECW Championship from Jack Swagger while Jeff held the WWE Championship. After Matt lost to Swagger, he interfered in Jeff's match with Edge, hitting Jeff with a steel chair and allowing Edge to win the WWE Championship. On the January 30 episode of SmackDown, Matt announced the permanent disbandment of the tag team due to the events at the Royal Rumble and that he no longer considered Jeff as his partner or brother. Matt moved to the SmackDown brand and began a scripted rivalry with Jeff. The pair faced each other in an Extreme Rules match at WrestleMania 25, which Matt won. They later faced each other in a stretcher match, in which Matt gained his second win over Jeff. As part of the 2009 WWE draft, Matt was drafted to the Raw brand on the April 13 episode of Raw. Despite this, the brothers faced each other in an "I Quit" match at Backlash, which Jeff won. Matt also interfered in Jeff's World Heavyweight Championship match at Judgment Day, preventing him from winning the championship. On the August 21 episode of SmackDown, Jeff (then the World Heavyweight Champion) and Matt reunited as the Hardys and teamed with John Morrison in a six-man tag team match to defeat CM Punk and The Hart Dynasty. The following week, Jeff lost a "Loser Leaves the WWE" steel cage match to CM Punk, resulting in him leaving the company. Over a year later, on October 15, 2010, WWE announced that Matt had been released from his contract, with Matt later stating that his release had been in effect two weeks before WWE made the announcement. Total Nonstop Action Wrestling Immortal (2010–2011) Jeff made his TNA return on the January 4, 2010 episode of Impact!, and went on to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship at Bound for Glory in October with help from Hulk Hogan and Eric Bischoff, revealing that they and others had formed the Immortal faction. On January 9, 2011, at TNA's pay-per-view Genesis, Matt made his TNA debut as a surprise member of Immortal, and defeated Rob Van Dam. Jeff went on to lose the TNA World Heavyweight Championship to Mr. Anderson later that night. On the January 13 episode of Impact! the Hardy Brothers reunited, as heels for the first time since 1999, and defeated Van Dam and Anderson. Following the Victory Road pay-per-view, Immortal severed their ties with Jeff. On August 20, Matt was released from TNA after being arrested for driving while intoxicated. TNA World Tag Team Champions (2014–2015) Matt returned to TNA in mid-2014. On June 26, at Destination X The Hardys unsuccessfully challenged The Wolves (Davey Richards and Eddie Edwards) for the TNA World Tag Team Championship. On the August 14 episode of Impact Wrestling, The Hardys were defeated by Team 3D (the former Dudley Boyz). At the Hardcore Justice edition of Impact Wrestling, The Hardys and Team 3D challenged The Wolves to a three-way for the TNA World Tag Team Championship, to which they agreed. Kurt Angle later announced that all three teams would compete in a best of three series for the title with the winners of the first match being able to choose the stipulation of the next one. Team 3D won the first match and chose a Tables match, The Hardys won the second match and chose a ladder match, and The Wolves won the third match on the No Surrender episode of Impact Wrestling, tying them all at one win each. A final match to decide the series took place, and was won by The Wolves. In October, The Hardys participated in a tournament to determine the number one contender to the TNA World Tag Team Championship; they defeated The BroMans (Jessie Godderz and DJ Z), Ethan Carter III and Tyrus, and Samoa Joe and Low Ki to win the tournamanet. On February 6, 2015, at Lockdown, The Hardys unsuccessfully challenged The Revolution for the TNA World Tag Team Championship in a Six Sides of Steel match. After The Wolves vacated the tag team championship due to an injury to Eddie Edwards, an Ultimate X match was held for the title at the March 16 Impact Wrestling tapings. The Hardys defeated Kenny King and Low Ki, Ethan Carter III and Bram, and Rockstar Spud and Mr. Anderson to win the match and the title. However, The Hardys vacated the titles due to Jeff's broken tibia. The Broken Hardyz (2016–2017) On the August 4 episode of Impact Wrestling, after a lengthy feud involving the "Deletion" of Jeff Hardy, Broken Matt sent Jeff, (at the time referred to as Brother Nero), on a quest to procure the Impact Wrestling World Tag Team Championship for him. On the August 18 episode of Impact Wrestling, Broken Matt and Brother Nero defeated The BroMans, The Tribunal, and The Helms Dynasty in an "Ascension to Hell" fatal four-way number one contender's ladder match for an opportunity to challenge Decay for the TNA World Tag Team Championships at Bound for Glory. Broken Matt climbed the ladder and grabbed the contract, following Nero sacrificing himself by jumping off the ladder and onto Trevor Lee. On the September 1 episode of Impact Wrestling, the Hardys invited Decay to come to their hometown compound, plotting for a sequel to "The Final Deletion" (dubbed as "Delete or Decay"). Broken Matt turned babyface during this encounter when King Maxel was almost kidnapped by Decay and when Brother Nero took a hit from Abyss' spiked bat, and Broken Matt healed him via the Lake of Restoration. On October 2 at TNA Bound for Glory they defeated Decay to become two time TNA World Tag Team Champions. On the October 6 episode of Impact Wrestling, they retained their titles against Decay in a Wolf Creek match. On the October 13 episode of Impact Wrestling, they were attacked by The Tribunal. The Hardys would then face The Tribunal one week later, on October 20's broadcast where they were able to successfully defend their titles. However, after the match as they returned to the dressing-rooms, the arena went dark, signalling the arrival of a new faction, dubbed the DCC. The DCC would use the darkness to attack and layout The Tribunal as The Hardys looked on from the ramp, thus potentially building an upcoming rivalry in weeks to comes. On February 27, 2017, The Hardys announced their departure from TNA after negotiations of a new contract fell through. Jeff and Matt left the company without dropping the TNA World Tag Team Championships. Expedition of Gold (2014–2017) Beginning in April 2014, the brothers reunited on the independent circuit. In 2017, the Hardys embarked on a tour of various independent promotions—while still reigning as TNA World Tag Team Champions—which was promoted on Impact Wrestling as the "Expedition of Gold," where they sought to win other tag team titles in order to declare themselves as the "greatest tag team in all of space and time". During this tour, Matt and Jeff won the tag team titles in promotions such as Mexico's The Crash promotion, the West Virginia based All Star Wrestling, Maryland's MCW Pro Wrestling, their own OMEGA Championship Wrestling and Wrestling Superstar company based out of Chile. Footage from some of these matches was aired on Impact Wrestling. Although some debate remains whether it was six or seven championships held at one time, the contracts of Broken Matt (Hardy) and Brother Nero (Jeff Hardy) expired with TNA Wrestling on February 27, 2017 at midnight after negotiations were stalled by the company. Having previously filmed television weeks in advance, in storylines Matt and Jeff remained the TNA Tag Team Champions as their contracts expired. They offered to drop the titles the following week on the next set of television tapings but TNA's new parent company, Anthem, declined. On March 4, 2017, The Hardys made their Ring of Honor (ROH) debut at Manhattan Mayhem VI and defeated The Young Bucks for the ROH World Tag Team Championship. TNA still recognized them as the World Tag Team Champions (as the footage filmed for the following week where they would vacate the titles on Impact Wrestling hadn't aired yet), making them the only team to be recognized as both the TNA and ROH World Tag Team Champions simultaneously. They then lost the titles back to The Young Bucks in a ladder match on April 1 at Supercard of Honor XI, to which after the match, Jeff was noted as staying in the ring and saying "We'll fade away and classify ourselves as obsolete", paying homage to their "Broken" characters. It was also announced after the match that both Matt and Jeff Hardy's contracts had expired. Having won the ROH World Tag Team Championship, their tag team title accouterments equaled seven at the time. The Broken Hardy storyline was abruptly dropped without explanation following a new set of television tapings between March 2–5, 2017. The Hardys did not appear on the Thursday, March 9 airing of Impact Wrestling and there was no reference to the TNA tag team titles, but the Broken Hardys were last seen broadcast in their compound using Vanguard-1 to teleport them with the TNA World Tag Team Championship belts to their next location, only for Decay to appear through teleportation with the belts with Rosemary declaring the Broken Hardys, "deleted, obsolete, and decay!". The following week on the March 16 episode of Impact Wrestling, Bruce Prichard cut a promo in the ring and said that the tag team titles are won in the ring, not in space. Playing upon the Hardys phrase of "greatest tag team in all of space and time", he said that four teams would wrestle in two weeks to crown new tag team champions. Return to WWE (2017, 2019) On April 2 at, WrestleMania 33, The Hardy Boyz made an unannounced return to WWE, after hosts The New Day (Big E, Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods) announced that the triple threat ladder match for the Raw Tag Team Championship which had been set by WWE before the event was now going to be a Fatal four-way match. They then began jokingly questioning the arena about who the mystery team could be, before the Hardy Boyz's made their entrance to the stage to a massive ovation from the crowd. At the event, The Hardy Boyz won the Raw Tag Team Championship, defeating the teams of Enzo Amore and Big Cass, Cesaro and Sheamus, and then-reigning champions Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson. The night after WrestleMania on Raw, they successfully defended the Raw Tag Team Championship against Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson. Afterwards on Raw Talk, Matt mentioned that the Hardy Boyz had successfully completed the Expedition of Gold after winning the Raw Tag Team Championship. They would retain the titles at Payback against Sheamus and Cesaro, but lost them at Extreme Rules in a steel cage match, and failed to regain it at the inaugural Great Balls of Fire event. In September, Jeff suffered a torn rotator cuff and would be out of action for four to six months, leaving Matt to begin a run as a singles competitor. However, two years later, on the February 26, 2019 episode of SmackDown Live, the Hardy Boyz reunited and, on the April 9 episode of SmackDown, defeated The Usos to win the SmackDown Tag Team Championships. With this, they became the first team to win all three of WWE's world tag team championships (World, Raw, and SmackDown). However, they vacated the WWE Smackdown Tag Team Championships due to Jeff suffering a leg injury from Lars Sullivan. While Jeff was recovering, Matt was featured less on WWE television until he left WWE on March 2. and he went on to sign with All Elite Wrestling. Jeff went on to become a singles competitor before being released from the WWE on December 9, 2021. On February 14, 2022, The Hardys announced that they will go on their final run. Reunion (2022) Matt announced on Twitter that he and Jeff would be reuniting for their 'Final Run' and wrestling a match in Big Time Wrestling (BTW). They will be facing the winner of a match between The Briscoes and The S.A.T. Other media The Hardys appeared on the February 7, 1999 episode of That '70s Show entitled "That Wrestling Show", as uncredited wrestlers. Jeff and Matt, along with Lita, also appeared on Tough Enough in early 2001, talking and wrestling with the contestants. They both appeared on the February 25, 2002 episode of Fear Factor competing against four other WWF wrestlers. Jeff was eliminated in the first round, but Matt became the eventual winner, winning $50,000 for the American Cancer Society. In 2001, the Hardys and Lita appeared in Rolling Stone magazine's 2001 Sports Hall of Fame issue. In 2003, Jeff and Matt, with the help of Michael Krugman, wrote and published their autobiography The Hardy Boyz: Exist 2 Inspire. As part of WWE, the Hardys appeared in the DVD, The Hardy Boyz: Leap of Faith in 2001. On April 29, 2008, WWE released Twist of Fate: The Matt and Jeff Hardy Story. The DVD features footage of the brothers in OMEGA and WWE, and it also briefly mentions Jeff's initial stint in TNA. The brothers also appear on The Hardy Show, an internet web show which features the Hardys, Shannon Moore, and many of their friends. Championships and accomplishments All Star Wrestling (West Virginia) ASW Tag Team Championship (1 time) The Crash The Crash Tag Team Championship (1 time) House of Glory HOG Tag Team Championship (1 time) MCW Pro Wrestling MCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) New Dimension Wrestling NDW Tag Team Championship (1 time) NWA 2000 NWA 2000 Tag Team Championship (1 time) Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts OMEGA Tag Team Championship (2 times) Pro Wrestling Illustrated Match of the Year (2000) vs. The Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian in a triangle ladder match at WrestleMania 2000 Match of the Year (2001) vs. The Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian in a Tables, Ladders and Chairs match at WrestleMania X-Seven Tag Team of the Year (2000) Comeback of the Year (2017) Ring of Honor ROH World Tag Team Championship (1 time) Holy S*** Moment of the Decade (2010s) – Total Nonstop Action Wrestling TNA World Tag Team Championship (2 times) TNA World Tag Team Championship #1 Contender Tournament (2014) TNA World Tag Team Championship Tournament (2015) Race for the Case (2017 – Green Case) – Jeff World Wrestling Federation/World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE WCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) WWE Raw Tag Team Championship (1 time) WWE SmackDown Tag Team Championship (1 time) WWF/World Tag Team Championship (6 times) Terri Invitational Tournament (1999) WWF/E European Championship (2 times) – Jeff (1) and Matt (1) WWF/E Hardcore Championship (4 times) – Jeff (3) and Matt (1) WWF/E Intercontinental Championship (2 times) – Jeff WWF Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time) – Jeff Wrestling Superstar Wrestling Superstar Tag Team Championship (1 time) References External links The Hardy Show Cagematch profile Brother duos ECW (WWE) teams and stables Impact Wrestling teams and stables Independent promotions teams and stables Masked tag teams Ring of Honor teams and stables Smoky Mountain Wrestling teams and stables WWE teams and stables WWE World Tag Team Champions

Money creation

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Money creation, or money issuance, is the process by which the money supply of a country, or of an economic or monetary region, is increased. In most modern economies, most of the money supply is created by private banks in the form of bank deposits. Central banks monitor the amount of money in the economy by measuring monetary aggregates (termed broad money), consisting of cash and bank deposits. Money creation occurs when the quantity of monetary aggregates increase. Money issued by central banks is termed base money. Central banks can increase the quantity of base money directly, by engaging in open market operations. Bank loans issued by commercial banks that practice fractional reserve banking expands the quantity of broad money to more than the original amount of base money issued by the central bank. Governmental authorities, including central banks and other bank regulators, can use policies such as reserve requirements and capital adequacy ratios to influence the amount of broad money created by commercial banks. Money supply The term "money supply" commonly denotes the total, safe, financial assets that households and businesses can use to make payments or to hold as short-term investment. The money supply is measured using the so-called "monetary aggregates", defined in accordance to their respective level of liquidity. In the United States, for example: M0: The total of all physical currency including coinage. M0 = Federal Reserve Notes + US Notes + Coins. It is not relevant whether the currency is held inside or outside of the private banking system as reserves. M1: The total amount of M0 (cash/coin) outside of the private banking system plus the amount of demand deposits, travelers checks and other checkable deposits M2: M1 + most savings accounts, money market accounts, retail money market mutual funds, and small denomination time deposits (certificates of deposit of under $100,000). The money supply is understood to increase through activities by government authorities, by the central bank of the nation, and by commercial banks. Money creation by the central bank Central banks The authority through which monetary policy is conducted is the central bank of the nation. The mandate of a central bank typically includes either one of the three following objectives or a combination of them, in varying order of preference, according to the country or the region: Price stability, i.e. inflation-targeting; the facilitation of maximum employment in the economy; the assurance of moderate, long term, interest rates. The central bank is the banker of the government and provides to the government a range of services at the operational level, such as managing the Treasury's single account, and also acting as its fiscal agent (e.g. by running auctions), its settlement agent, and its bond registrar. A central bank cannot become insolvent in its own currency. However, a central bank can become insolvent in liabilities on foreign currency. Central banks operate in practically every nation in the world, with few exceptions. There are some groups of countries, for which, through agreement, a single entity acts as their central bank, such as the organization of states of Central Africa, which all have a common central bank, the Bank of Central African States; or monetary unions, such as the Eurozone, whereby nations retain their respective central bank yet submit to the policies of the central entity, the European Central Bank. Central banking institutions are generally independent of the government executive. The central bank's activities directly affect interest rates, through controlling the base rate, and indirectly affect stock prices, the economy's wealth, and the national currency's exchange rate. Monetarists and some Austrians argue that the central bank should control the money supply, through its monetary operations. Critics of the mainstream view maintain that central-bank operations can affect but not control the money supply. Open-market operations Open-market operations (OMOs) concern the purchase and sale of securities in the open market by a central bank. OMOs essentially swap one type of financial assets for another; when the central bank buys bonds held by the banks or the private sector, bank reserves increase while bonds held by the banks or the public decrease. Temporary operations are typically used to address reserve needs that are deemed to be transitory in nature, while permanent operations accommodate the longer-term factors driving the expansion of the central bank's balance sheet; such a primary factor is typically the trend of the money-supply growth in the economy. Among the temporary, open-market operations are repurchase agreements (repos) or reverse repos, while permanent ones involve outright purchases or sales of securities. Each open-market operation by the central bank affects its balance sheet. Monetary policy Monetary policy is the process by which the monetary authority of a country, typically the central bank (or the currency board), manages the level of short-term interest rates and influences the availability and the cost of credit in the economy, as well as overall economic activity. Central banks conduct monetary policy usually through open market operations. The purchase of debt, and the resulting increase in bank reserves, is called "monetary easing". An extraordinary process of monetary easing is denoted as "quantitative easing", whose intent is to stimulate the economy by increasing liquidity and promoting bank lending. Physical currency The central bank, or other competent, state authorities (such as the treasury), are typically empowered to create new, physical currency, i.e. paper notes and coins, in order to meet the needs of commercial banks for cash withdrawals, and to replace worn and/or destroyed currency. The process does not increase the money supply, as such; the term "printing [new] money" is considered a misnomer. In modern economies, relatively little of the supply of broad money is in physical currency. Role of commercial banks When commercial banks lend money, they expand the amount of bank deposits. The banking system can expand the money supply of a country beyond the amount created or targeted by the central bank, creating most of the broad money in a process called the multiplier effect. Banks are limited in the total amount they can lend by their capital adequacy ratios, and their required reserve ratios. The required-reserves ratio obliges banks to keep a minimum, predetermined, percentage of their deposits at an account at the central bank. The theory holds that, in a system of fractional-reserve banking, where banks ordinarily keep only a fraction of their deposits in reserves, an initial bank loan creates more money than it initially lent out. The maximum ratio of loans to deposits is the required-reserve ratio , which is determined by the central bank, as where are reserves and are deposits. Rather than holding the quantity of base money fixed, central banks have recently pursued an interest rate target to control bank issuance of credit indirectly so the ceiling implied by the money multiplier does not impose a limit on money creation in practice. Credit theory of money The fractional reserve theory where the money supply is limited by the money multiplier has come under increased criticism since the financial crisis of 2007–2008. It has been observed that the bank reserves are not a limiting factor because the central banks supply more reserves than necessary and because banks have been able to build up additional reserves when they were needed. Many economists and bankers now believe that the amount of money in circulation is limited only by the demand for loans, not by reserve requirements. A study of banking software demonstrates that the bank does nothing else than adding an amount to the two accounts when they issue a loan. The observation that there appears to be no limit to the amount of credit money that banks can bring into circulation in this way has given rise to the often-heard expression that "Banks are creating money out of thin air". The exact mechanism behind the creation of commercial bank money has been a controversial issue. In 2014, a study titled "Can banks individually create money out of nothing? — The theories and the empirical evidence" empirically tested the manner in which this type of money is created by monitoring a cooperating bank's internal records: The credit theory of money, initiated by Joseph Schumpeter, asserts the central role of banks as creators and allocators of the money supply, and distinguishes between "productive credit creation" (allowing non-inflationary economic growth even at full employment, in the presence of technological progress) and "unproductive credit creation" (resulting in inflation of either the consumer- or asset-price variety). The model of bank lending stimulated through central-bank operations (such as "monetary easing") has been rejected by Neo-Keynesian and Post-Keynesian analysis as well as central banks. The major argument offered by dissident analysis is that any bank balance-sheet expansion (e.g. through a new loan) that leaves the bank short of the required reserves may affect the return it can expect on the loan, because of the extra cost the bank will undertake to return within the ratios limits – but this does not and "will never impede the bank's capacity to give the loan in the first place". Banks first lend and then cover their reserve ratios: The decision whether or not to lend is generally independent of their reserves with the central bank or their deposits from customers; banks are not lending out deposits or reserves, anyway. Banks lend on the basis of lending criteria, such as the status of the customer's business, the loan's prospects, and/or the overall economic situation. Monetary financing Policy "Monetary financing", also "debt monetization", occurs when the country's central bank purchases government debt. It is considered by mainstream analysis to cause inflation, and often hyperinflation. IMF's former chief economist Olivier Blanchard states that governments do not create money; the central bank does. But with the central bank's cooperation, the government can in effect finance itself by money creation. It can issue bonds and ask the central bank to buy them. The central bank then pays the government with money it creates, and the government in turn uses that money to finance the deficit. This process is called debt monetization. The description of the process differs in heterodox analysis. Modern chartalists state: the central bank does not have the option to monetize any of the outstanding government debt or newly issued government debt...[A]s long as the central bank has a mandate to maintain a short-term interest rate target, the size of its purchases and sales of government debt are not discretionary. The central bank's lack of control over the quantity of reserves underscores the impossibility of debt monetization. The central bank is unable to monetize the government debt by purchasing government securities at will because to do so would cause the short-term target rate to fall to zero or to any support rate that it might have in place for excess reserves. Restrictions Monetary financing used to be standard monetary policy in many countries, such as Canada or France, while in others it was and still is prohibited. In the Eurozone, Article 123 of the Lisbon Treaty explicitly prohibits the European Central Bank from financing public institutions and state governments. In Japan, the nation's central bank "routinely" purchases approximately 70% of state debt issued each month, and owns, as of Oct 2018, approximately 440 trillion JP¥ (approx. $4trillion) or over 40% of all outstanding government bonds. In the United States, the 1913 Federal Reserve Act allowed federal banks to purchase short-term securities directly from the Treasury, in order to facilitate its cash-management operations. The Banking Act of 1935 prohibited the central bank from directly purchasing Treasury securities, and permitted their purchase and sale only "in the open market". In 1942, during wartime, Congress amended the Banking Act's provisions to allow purchases of government debt by the federal banks, with the total amount they'd hold "not [to] exceed $5 billion". After the war, the exemption was renewed, with time limitations, until it was allowed to expire in June 1981. See also Commissary notes Commodity money Fiat money Fiscal policy Functional finance Gold standard History of banking History of money Monetary economics Monetary reform Seigniorage Footnotes References Further reading Federal Reserve historical statistics (11 June 2009) External links "The Role of Central Bank Money in Payment Systems", Bank for International Settlements, August 2003 Mitchell, William (2009) "Deficit spending 101: Part 1"; "Part 2"; "Part 3" Monetary policy Banking

Last universal common ancestor

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The last universal common ancestor or last universal cellular ancestor (LUCA), also called the last universal ancestor (LUA), is the most recent population of organisms from which all organisms now living on Earth have a common descent—the most recent common ancestor of all current life on Earth. A related concept is that of progenote. LUCA is not thought to be the first life on Earth, but rather the latest that is ancestral to all current existing life. While there is no specific fossil evidence of LUCA, it can be studied by comparing the genomes of all modern organisms, its descendants. The genes describe a complex life form with many co-adapted features, including transcription and translation mechanisms to convert information from DNA to RNA to proteins. A study concluded that the LUCA probably lived in the high-temperature water of deep sea vents near ocean-floor magma flows. Studies from 2000 to 2018 have suggested an increasingly ancient time for LUCA. In 2000, estimations suggested LUCA existed 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago in the Paleoarchean era, a few hundred million years before the earliest fossil evidence of life, for which there are several candidates ranging in age from 3.48 to 4.28 billion years ago. A 2018 study from the University of Bristol, applying a molecular clock model, places the LUCA shortly after 4.5 billion years ago, within the Hadean. It is often assumed that the LUCA (and likely the origins of life more generally), cannot have existed prior to the formation of the moon which (according to the Giant Impact Hypothesis) would have rendered Earth uninhabitable, melting or vaporising its surface. Charles Darwin first proposed the theory of universal common descent through an evolutionary process in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859: "Therefore I should infer from analogy that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed." Later biologists have separated the problem of the origin of life from that of the LUCA. Features By analysis of the presumed LUCA's offspring groups, the LUCA appears to have been a small, single-celled organism. It likely had a ring-shaped coil of DNA floating freely within the cell. Morphologically, it would likely not have stood out within a mixed population of small modern-day bacteria. However, Carl Woese et al., who first proposed the currently used three domain system based on an analysis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequences of bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes, stated that in its genetic machinery, the LUCA would have been a "... simpler, more rudimentary entity than the individual ancestors that spawned the three [domains] (and their descendants)". While the gross anatomy of LUCA can only be reconstructed with much uncertainty, its biochemical mechanisms can be described in some detail, based on the "universal" properties currently shared by all independently living organisms on Earth. Its genetic code was likely based on DNA, so that it lived after the RNA world. If DNA was present, it was composed exclusively of the four modern-day nucleotides: deoxyadenosine, deoxycytidine, deoxythymidine, and deoxyguanosine. The DNA was kept double-stranded by a template-dependent enzyme, DNA polymerase, which was recently proposed to belong to the family D. The integrity of the DNA benefited from a group of maintenance and repair enzymes including DNA topoisomerase. If the genetic code was DNA-based, it was expressed via single-stranded RNA intermediates. The RNA was produced by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase using nucleotides similar to those of DNA, with the exception that the DNA nucleotide thymidine was replaced by uridine in RNA. It had multiple DNA-binding proteins, such as histone-fold proteins. The genetic code was expressed into proteins. These were assembled from free amino acids by translation of a messenger RNA via a mechanism of ribosomes, transfer RNAs, and a group of related proteins. The ribosomes were composed of two subunits, a big 50S and a small 30S. Each ribosomal subunit was composed of a core of ribosomal RNA surrounded by ribosomal proteins. Both types of RNA molecules (ribosomal and transfer RNAs) played an important role in the catalytic activity of the ribosomes. Only 20 amino acids were used, only in L-isomers, to the exclusion of countless other amino acids. ATP served as an energy intermediate. Several hundred protein enzymes catalyzed chemical reactions to extract energy from fats, sugars, and amino acids, and to synthesize fats, sugars, amino acids, and nucleic acid bases through various chemical pathways. The cell contained a water-based cytoplasm effectively enclosed by a lipid bilayer membrane. The cell tended to exclude sodium and concentrate potassium by means of specific ion transporters (or ion pumps). The cell multiplied by duplicating all its contents followed by cellular division. The cell used chemiosmosis to produce energy. It also reduced CO2 and oxidized H2 (methanogenesis or acetogenesis) via acetyl-thioesters. The LUCA probably lived in the high-temperature conditions found in deep sea vents caused by ocean water interacting with magma beneath the ocean floor. An alternative to the search for "universal" traits is to use genome analysis to identify phylogenetically ancient genes. This gives a picture of a LUCA that could live in a geochemically harsh environment and is like modern prokaryotes. Analysis of biochemical pathways implies the same sort of chemistry as does phylogenetic analysis. Experiments show that acetyl-CoA pathway chemicals such as formate, methanol, acetyl entities, and pyruvate all arise spontaneously in the presence of water, carbon dioxide, and native metals, as occurs in hydrothermal vents. Hypotheses In 1859, Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species, in which he twice stated the hypothesis that there was only one progenitor for all life forms. In the summation he states: "Therefore I should infer from analogy that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed." The last sentence begins with a restatement of the hypothesis: "There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one ..." When the LUCA was hypothesized, cladograms based on genetic distance between living cells indicated that Archaea split early from the rest of living things. This was inferred from the fact that the archaeans known at that time were highly resistant to environmental extremes such as high salinity, temperature or acidity, leading some scientists to suggest that the LUCA evolved in areas like the deep ocean vents, where such extremes prevail today. Archaea, however, were later discovered in less hostile environments, and are now believed to be more closely related to the Eukaryota than to the Bacteria, although many details are still unknown. In 2010, based on "the vast array of molecular sequences now available from all domains of life," a formal test of universal common ancestry was published. The formal test favored the existence of a universal common ancestor over a wide class of alternative hypotheses that included horizontal gene transfer. Basic biochemical principles make it overwhelmingly likely that all organisms do have a single common ancestor. It is extremely unlikely that organisms that had descended from separate incidents of cell-formation would be able to complete a horizontal gene transfer without garbling each other's genes, converting them into noncoding segments. Further, many more amino acids are chemically possible than the 22 found in protein molecules. These lines of chemical evidence, incorporated into the formal statistical test point to a single cell having been the LUCA. While the test overwhelmingly favored the existence of a single LUCA, this does not imply that the LUCA was ever alone: Instead, it was one of many early microbes but the only one whose descendants survived beyond the Paleoarchean Era. With the later gene pool of the LUCA's descendants, with their common framework of the AT/GC rule and the standard twenty amino acids, horizontal gene transfer would have been feasible and could have been very common. In an earlier hypothesis, Carl Woese (1988) had proposed that: no individual organism can be considered a LUCA, and the genetic heritage of all modern organisms derived through horizontal gene transfer among an ancient community of organisms. While the results of Theobald (2010) and Saey (2010) demonstrated the existence of a single LUCA, Woese's argument can still be applied to Ur-organisms (initial products of abiogenesis) before the LUCA. At the beginnings of life, ancestry was not as linear as it is today because the genetic code had not evolved. Before high fidelity replication, organisms could not be easily mapped on a phylogenetic tree. However, the LUCA lived after the origin of the genetic code and at least some rudimentary early form of molecular proofreading. There is evidence that both archaea and bacteria have reduced their genomes through evolution, suggesting that the LUCA could have been more complex than some modern prokaryotes; Bayesian phylogenetic comparisons imply that LUCA's phenotype was indeed complex. In rare cases, gene synteny (linkage) has been identified predating the LUCA, as with the F-ATPase genes. Location of the root The most commonly accepted tree of life, based on several molecular studies, has its root between a monophyletic domain bacteria and a clade formed by Archaea and Eukaryota. However, a very small minority of studies place the root in the domain bacteria, in the phylum Firmicutes, or state that the phylum Chloroflexi is basal to a clade with Archaea and Eukaryotes and the rest of bacteria (as proposed by Thomas Cavalier-Smith). Research by William F. Martin (2016) genetically analyzed 6.1 million protein-coding genes and 286,514 protein clusters from sequenced prokaryotic genomes of various phylogenetic trees, and identified 355 protein clusters that were probably common to the LUCA. The results "depict LUCA as anaerobic, CO2-fixing, H2-dependent with a Wood–Ljungdahl pathway (the reductive acetyl-coenzyme A pathway), N2-fixing and thermophilic. LUCA's biochemistry was replete with FeS clusters and radical reaction mechanisms." The cofactors also reveal "dependence upon transition metals, flavins, S-adenosyl methionine, coenzyme A, ferredoxin, molybdopterin, corrins and selenium. Its genetic code required nucleoside modifications and S-adenosylmethionine-dependent methylations." The results are "quite specific": they show that methanogenic clostridia was a basal clade in the 355 lineages examined, and that the LUCA may therefore have inhabited an anaerobic hydrothermal vent setting in a geochemically active environment rich in H2, CO2, and iron. These findings could mean that life on Earth originated in such hydrothermal vents, but it is also possible that life was restricted to such locations at some later time, perhaps by the Late Heavy Bombardment. The identification of these genes as being present in LUCA has also been criticized, as they may simply represent later genes that migrated via horizontal gene transfers between archaea and bacteria. A study published in the academic journal PNAS that shows the presence of CODH/ACS in LUCA doesn't just include compatibility with being an autotroph but also, a mixotroph, or heterotroph. Viruses Based on the extant distribution of viruses across the two primary domains of life, bacteria and archaea, it has been suggested that LUCA was associated with a remarkably complex virome that already included the main groups of extant viruses of bacteria and archaea and that extensive virus evolution has antedated, or preceded in time, the LUCA. This ancestral virome was likely dominated by dsDNA viruses from the realms Duplodnaviria and Varidnaviria. In addition, two groups of single-stranded DNA viruses (realm Monodnaviria), namely Microviridae and Tubulavirales, can be traced to the last bacterial common ancestor (LBCA), whereas spindle-shaped viruses most likely infected the last archaeal common ancestor (LACA). The possibility that these virus groups were present in the LUCA virome but were subsequently lost in one of the two primary domains cannot be dismissed. By contrast, RNA viruses do not appear to have been a prominent part of the LUCA virome, even though straightforward thinking might have envisaged the LUCA virome as a domain of RNA viruses descending from the primordial RNA world. Instead, by the time the LUCA lived, RNA viruses had probably already been largely supplanted by the more efficient DNA virosphere. See also Footnotes References External links Origin of life Evolutionary biology Genetic genealogy Phylogenetics Hypothetical life forms Last common ancestors

Puckett

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Puckett is a surname of French Huguenot origin, an anglicized form of French surnames such as Pouquette or Pouquet meaning "the son of Pouque" or Puck. It is found mostly in North America and the British Isles with the mass emigration of Huguenot families following the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. People Casey Puckett, American alpine skier Charlie Puckett (1911–2002), Australian baseballer and cricketer Clinton A. Puckett, sergeant major in the U.S. Marine Corps Gary Puckett & The Union Gap, American rock band from the 1960s fronted by Gary Puckett Joel Puckett (born 1977), American composer of concert music Kirby Puckett (1960–2006), American baseball player Matthew Puckett, American songwriter Max Puckett (1935–1991), Australian baseballer and cricketer Phillip Puckett, Virginia state senator Ralph Puckett, US Army ranger in the Korean War Riley Puckett, Country music pioneer Tim Puckett, American amateur astronomer Aaron Jennings Puckett, American rapper known as Lil Aaron Fictional characters Sam Puckett (iCarly), fictional character from the TV show iCarly Sam Puckett (Sam & Cat), fictional character from the TV show Sam & Cat Red Puckett (Hoodwinked, 2005), fictional character from the movie Hoodwinked Places United States Puckett, Mississippi, village in Mississippi Puckett Observatory, private observatory in Georgia, United States Other uses 32096 Puckett, asteroid References Surnames

Nicholson (name)

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Nicholson is a Germanic and Scottish surname. It is a patronymic form of the given name Nichol, which was a common medieval form of Nicholas. People with the surname Aideen Nicholson (1927–2019), Irish-born Canadian politician A. J. Nicholson (born 1983), American football linebacker Alexander Malcolm Nicholson (1900–1991), Canadian clergyman, farmer, and politician Alfred O. P. Nicholson (1808–1876), United States Senator from Tennessee Alistair Nicholson (born 1978), Australian rules footballer Anne-Marie Nicholson (born 1991), English singer and songwriter known as Anne-Marie (singer) Archibald Keightley Nicholson (1871–1937), British ecclesiastical stained-glass maker Arthur D. Nicholson, (1947–1985) U.S. Army officer Asenath Nicholson (1792–1855), American activist, writer and philanthropist Barry Nicholson (born 1978), Scottish footballer Ben Nicholson (1894–1982), English abstract painter (married to Winifred Nicholson) Bill Nicholson (disambiguation), several people Bob Nicholson (disambiguation), several people Bobby Nicholson (1918–1993), American musician and actor Bruce Nicholson, special effects artist Sir Charles Nicholson (1808–1903), British–Australian politician Sir Charles Nicholson, 2nd Baronet (1867–1949), British ecclesiastical architect Charles Ernest Nicholson, (1868–1954) British yacht designer Christopher Nicholson (1904–1948), British architect and designer Claude Nicholson (1892–1951), Australian rugby league footballer of the 1910s Claude Nicholson, (1898–1943) British Brigadier, in command of Calais during the Siege of Calais (1940) Danell Nicholson (born 1967), American boxer David Nicholson (disambiguation), several people Donald Nicholson (disambiguation), multiple people Donte Nicholson (born 1981), American NFL football player Ed Nicholson (1923–1987), Canadian ice hockey player Edward Nicholson (disambiguation), several people Edward Max Nicholson (1904–2003), founder of World Wildlife Fund Edward Williams Byron Nicholson, Bodley's Librarian Eliza Jane Nicholson (1843–1896), American journalist Elliot Nicholson (1871–1953), English rugby union player Emma Nicholson, Baroness Nicholson of Winterbourne (born 1941), British politician Rev Ernest Nicholson (1938–2013), British biblical scholar Francis Nicholson (1655–1727/8), British military officer and colonial governor Francis Nicholson (painter) (1753–1844), British artist Frank Nicholson (disambiguation), several people Geoff Nicholson (born 1953), British novelist and short story writer George Nicholson (printer) (1760–1825), British printer George Nicholson (footballer), English footballer Sir Godfrey Nicholson (1901–1991), British Conservative Party politician Grace Nicholson (1877–1948), American art collector and art dealer Harold James Nicholson (born 1950), CIA officer convicted of spying for Russia Henry Alleyne Nicholson (1816–1878), British paleontologist and zoologist Howard Nicholson (1912–2014), English physician J. C. Nicholson (born 1942), American judge Jack Nicholson (born 1937), American actor James W. Nicholson (1821–1887), U.S. Navy officer during Mexican–American War and Civil War Jim Nicholson (U.S. politician) (born 1938), United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs Joe Nicholson (1898–1978), English footballer John Nicholson (disambiguation), several people Joseph Hopper Nicholson (1770–1817), American lawyer, jurist, and politician from Maryland Joseph Shield Nicholson (1850–1927), English economist Joyce Nicholson (1919–2011), Australian author Julianne Nicholson (born 1971), American actress Julie Nicholson, British former vicar John Kenyon Nicholson, American playwright Ken Nicholson, video game developer and Windows graphics pioneer Kevin Nicholson (disambiguation), several people Leonard Nicholson (1904–1983), tenth Commissioner of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (1951–1959) Lorna Schultz Nicholson, Canadian children's writer Lorraine Nicholson, American actress, daughter of Jack Nicholson Lawson Nicholson (1866–1947), Washington state pioneer, engineer, and surveyor Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson (1890–1965), American pulp magazine writer and comic book pioneer Marjorie Nicholson (1914–1997), British activist Matthew Nicholson (born 1974), Australian cricketer Meredith Nicholson (1866–1947), American author and politician Meredith Merle Nicholson (1913–2005), American cinematographer Michael Nicholson (1937–2016), English journalist Montae Nicholson (born 1995), American football player Nancy Nicholson (1899–1977), British painter and fabric designer Natalie Nicholson (born 1976), American curler Neil Nicholson (cricketer), (English cricketer) Nigel Nicholson, British psychologist Norman Nicholson (1914–1987), English poet Ossie Nicholson (1906–1965), Australian cyclist Parson Nicholson (1863–1917), American Major League Baseball player Paul Nicholson (ice hockey) (born 1954), Canadian ice hockey forward Paul Nicholson (industrialist) (born 1938), British industrialist Paul Nicholson (darts player) (born 1979), English-born Australian darts player Peter Nicholson (architect) (1765–1844), British architect, engineer and mathematician Peter Nicholson (cartoonist) (born 1946), Australian political cartoonist Reginald Nicholson (1869–1946), English politician Reginald F. Nicholson (1852–1939), United States Navy admiral Reynold A. Nicholson (1868–1945), British orientalist Richard Nicholson (composer) (c1570–1639), English composer Richard Nicholson (Paralympian) (dates unknown), Australian paralympics competitor Rob Nicholson (musician) (born 1969), also known as "Blasko", American rock music performer Rob Nicholson (born 1952), Canadian Member of Parliament Robert Nicholson (disambiguation), several people Robert Nicholson (judge), Australian jurist Robert Nicholson (Indian Army officer) (1745–1821), British military officer in Bombay Robert Nicholson (piper) (1798–1842), Northumbrian piper Robert B. Nicholson (1863–1917), businessman in Kalgoorlie, Western Australia Roscoe Nicholson (1887–1959), American surveyor and conservationist Ross Nicholson (born 1975), New Zealand football goalkeeper Roxie Nicholson (born 1950), U.S. Department of Labor welfare policy analyst Russ Nicholson, British illustrator Samuel Nicholson (disambiguation), several people Seth Barnes Nicholson (1891–1963), American astronomer Shane Nicholson (born 1970), English footballer Sharon Nicholson, American climatologist Simon Nicholson, British painter and sculptor Skonk Nicholson (1917–2011), South African rugby coach Stan Nicholson, rugby league footballer of the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s Stuart Nicholson (1987), English footballer Sir Sydney Nicholson (1875–1947), English choir directory, organist, composer, founder of the Royal College of Music Thomas Nicholson, several people Tony Nicholson (1938–1985), English cricketer Viv Nicholson (1936–2015), British gambling winner and tabloid target William Nicholson (disambiguation), several people Winifred Nicholson (née Roberts) (1893–1981), English painter (married to Ben Nicholson) References English-language surnames German-language surnames Patronymic surnames

Sydney Carter

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Sydney Bertram Carter (6 May 1915 – 13 March 2004) was an English poet, songwriter, and folk musician who was born in Camden Town, London. He is best known for the song "Lord of the Dance" (1967), whose music is based on the "Shaker Allegro" more commonly known as the song "Simple Gifts", and the song "The Crow on the Cradle". His other notable songs include "Julian of Norwich" (sometimes called "The Bells of Norwich"), based on words of Julian of Norwich, "One More Step Along the World I Go", "When I Needed a Neighbour", "Friday Morning", "Every Star Shall Sing a Carol", "The Youth of the Heart", "Down Below" and "Sing John Ball". Biography Born in Camden Town London Carter studied at Montem Street Primary School in Finsbury Park, Christ's Hospital school in Horsham, West Sussex and Balliol College, Oxford, graduating in history in 1936. A committed pacifist, he registered as a conscientious objector in World War II and joined the Friends' Ambulance Unit, serving in Egypt, Palestine and Greece. In 1964 he married his second wife Leela Nair, with whom he had a son, the neurosurgeon Michael Carter. Career Carter worked as a lyricist for Donald Swann's revues and musicals in the 1950s and in 1962 produced an album, Putting out the Dustbin, with Sheila Hancock. "Last Cigarette", a song from the album about failing to give up smoking became a minor hit. In 1972, a collection of his poems, Love More or Less, was described in a review by Michael Grosvenor Myer in the EFDSS magazine English Dance and Song as the work of "an impressive spokesman for the believer in an age of general unbelief". He continued to work with Donald Swann, writing six songs for the 1964 Donald Swann EP, Songs of Faith and Doubt. In the 1960s he also worked as a critic for Gramophone magazine. In 1965 Carter wrote the six-song EP album Lord of the Dance with Martin Carthy on guitar, the Johnny Scott Trio and the Mike Sammes singers. He also worked with Nadia Cattouse and Jeremy Taylor. In 1972 Carter presented a series of concerts in Australia. Franciscus Henri who accompanied him recorded an anthology of Carter's songs and poems (Nothing Fixed or Final) in 2005. Also in 1972, Bob and Carole Pegg recorded a collection of his songs with him, And Now It Is So Early. In 1981, an all-star collection of English folk musicians released Lovely in the Dances, a compilation of his songs. Performers included Shusha, Maddy Prior, and John Kirkpatrick. See also Quaker music References Bibliography Nothing Fixed or Final (1969) Love More or Less (1971) The Two-Way Clock (Nothing Fixed or Final and Love More or Less with 29 additional poems (1974) The Rock of Doubt (1978) Dance in the Dark (1980) External links Sydney Carter & "Lord of the Dance" at Stainer & Bell Obituary: The Telegraph The Daily Telegraph 1915 births 2004 deaths People from Camden Town People educated at Christ's Hospital British conscientious objectors People associated with the Friends' Ambulance Unit English Quakers English songwriters English nonconformist hymnwriters English male poets Burials at West Norwood Cemetery 20th-century English male writers

List of U.S. state sports

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This is a ' list of official U.S. state sports as recognized by state legislatures. Table See also List of U.S. state, district, and territorial insignia National sport References External links Sports

2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami

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The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami (also known as the Boxing Day Tsunami and, by the scientific community, the Sumatra–Andaman earthquake) occurred at 07:58:53 local time (UTC+7) on 26 December, with an epicentre off the west coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia. It was an undersea megathrust earthquake that registered a magnitude of 9.1–9.3 , reaching a Mercalli intensity up to IX in certain areas. The earthquake was caused by a rupture along the fault between the Burmese Plate and the Indian Plate. A series of massive tsunami waves grew up to high once heading inland, after being created by the underwater seismic activity offshore. Communities along the surrounding coasts of the Indian Ocean were devastated, and the tsunamis killed an estimated 227,898 people in 14 countries, making it one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. The direct results caused major disruptions to living conditions and commerce in coastal provinces of surrounded countries, including Aceh (Indonesia), Sri Lanka, Tamil Nadu (India) and Khao Lak (Thailand). Banda Aceh reported the largest number of deaths. The earthquake was the third-largest ever recorded, the largest in the 21st century and had the longest duration of faulting ever observed, between eight and ten minutes. It caused the planet to vibrate as much as , and also remotely triggered earthquakes as far away as Alaska. Its epicentre was between Simeulue and mainland Sumatra. The plight of the affected people and countries prompted a worldwide humanitarian response, with donations totalling more than US$14 billion. Earthquake The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was initially documented as having a moment magnitude of 8.8. In February 2005, scientists revised the estimate of the magnitude to 9.0. Although the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center has accepted these new numbers, the United States Geological Survey has so far not changed its estimate of 9.1. A 2006 study estimated a magnitude of 9.1–9.3; Hiroo Kanamori of the California Institute of Technology estimates that 9.2 is representative of the earthquake's size. The hypocentre of the main earthquake was approximately off the western coast of northern Sumatra, in the Indian Ocean just north of Simeulue island at a depth of below mean sea level (initially reported as ). The northern section of the Sunda megathrust ruptured over a length of . The earthquake (followed by the tsunami) was felt in Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Splay faults, or secondary "pop up faults", caused long, narrow parts of the seafloor to pop up in seconds. This quickly elevated the height and increased the speed of waves, destroying the nearby Indonesian town of Lhoknga. Indonesia lies between the Pacific Ring of Fire along the north-eastern islands adjacent to New Guinea, and the Alpide belt that runs along the south and west from Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores to Timor. The 2002 Sumatra earthquake is believed to have been a foreshock, preceding the main event by over two years. Great earthquakes, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, are associated with megathrust events in subduction zones. Their seismic moments can account for a significant fraction of the global seismic moment across century-scale periods. Of all the moment released by earthquakes in the 100 years from 1906 through 2005, roughly one eighth was due to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. This quake, together with the Great Alaskan earthquake (1964) and the Great Chilean earthquake (1960), account for almost half of the total moment. Since 1900, the only earthquakes recorded with a greater magnitude were the 1960 Valdivia earthquake (magnitude 9.5) and the 1964 Alaska earthquake in Prince William Sound (magnitude 9.2). The only other recorded earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater were off Kamchatka, Russia, on 4 November 1952 (magnitude 9.0) and Tōhoku, Japan (magnitude 9.1) in March 2011. Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean. In comparison to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the death toll from these earthquakes was significantly lower, primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas, the much greater distances to more populated coasts, and the superior infrastructure and warning systems in MEDCs (More Economically Developed Countries) such as Japan. Other huge megathrust earthquakes occurred in 1868 (Peru, Nazca Plate and South American Plate); 1827 (Colombia, Nazca Plate and South American Plate); 1812 (Venezuela, Caribbean Plate and South American Plate) and 1700 (western North America, Juan de Fuca Plate and North American Plate). All of them are believed to be greater than magnitude 9, but no accurate measurements were available at the time. Tectonic plates The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was unusually large in geographical and geological extent. An estimated of fault surface slipped (or ruptured) about along the subduction zone where the Indian Plate slides (or subducts) under the overriding Burma Plate. The slip did not happen instantaneously but took place in two phases over several minutes: Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the first phase involved a rupture about long and wide, beneath the sea bed—the largest rupture ever known to have been caused by an earthquake. The rupture proceeded at about , beginning off the coast of Aceh and proceeding north-westerly over about 100 seconds. After a pause of about another 100 seconds, the rupture continued northwards towards the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The northern rupture occurred more slowly than in the south, at about , continuing north for another five minutes to a plate boundary where the fault type changes from subduction to strike-slip (the two plates slide past one another in opposite directions). The Indian Plate is part of the great Indo-Australian Plate, which underlies the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, and is moving north-east at an average of . The India Plate meets the Burma Plate (which is considered a portion of the great Eurasian Plate) at the Sunda Trench. At this point, the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, which carries the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands, and northern Sumatra. The India Plate sinks deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive volatiles out of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the overlying plate, causing partial melting and the formation of magma. The rising magma intrudes into the crust above and exits the Earth's crust through volcanoes in the form of a volcanic arc. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian Plate subducts the Eurasian Plate has created the Sunda Arc. As well as the sideways movement between the plates, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake resulted in a rise of the seafloor by several metres, displacing an estimated of water and triggering devastating tsunami waves. The waves radiated outwards along the entire length of the rupture (acting as a line source). This greatly increased the geographical area over which the waves were observed, reaching as far as Mexico, Chile, and the Arctic. The raising of the seafloor significantly reduced the capacity of the Indian Ocean, producing a permanent rise in the global sea level by an estimated . Aftershocks and other earthquakes Numerous aftershocks were reported off the Andaman Islands, the Nicobar Islands and the region of the original epicentre in the hours and days that followed. The magnitude 8.7 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake, which originated off the coast of the Sumatran island of Nias, is not considered an aftershock, despite its proximity to the epicentre, and was most likely triggered by stress changes associated with the 2004 event. The earthquake produced its own aftershocks (some registering a magnitude of as high as 6.1) and presently ranks as the third-largest earthquake ever recorded on the moment magnitude or Richter magnitude scale. Other aftershocks of up to magnitude 6.6 continued to shake the region daily for three or four months. As well as continuing aftershocks, the energy released by the original earthquake continued to make its presence felt well after the event. A week after the earthquake, its reverberations could still be measured, providing valuable scientific data about the Earth's interior. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake came just three days after a magnitude 8.1 earthquake in the sub-antarctic Auckland Islands, an uninhabited region west of New Zealand, and Macquarie Island to Australia's north. This is unusual since earthquakes of magnitude eight or more occur only about once per year on average. The U.S. Geological Survey sees no evidence of a causal relationship between these events. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake is thought to have triggered activity in both Leuser Mountain and Mount Talang, volcanoes in Aceh along the same range of peaks, while the 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake had sparked activity in Lake Toba, an ancient crater in Sumatra. Energy released The energy released on the Earth's surface (ME, which is the seismic potential for damage) by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was estimated at . This energy is equivalent to over 1,500 times that of the Hiroshima atomic bomb, but less than that of Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated. The total physical work done MW (and thus energy) by the quake was , the vast majority underground, which is over 360,000 times more than its ME, equivalent to 9,600 gigatons of TNT equivalent (550 million times that of Hiroshima) or about 370 years of energy use in the United States at 2005 levels of . The only recorded earthquakes with a larger MW were the 1960 Chilean and 1964 Alaskan quakes, with and , respectively. The earthquake generated a seismic oscillation of the Earth's surface of up to , equivalent to the effect of the tidal forces caused by the Sun and Moon. The seismic waves of the earthquake were felt across the planet; as far away as the U.S. state of Oklahoma, where vertical movements of were recorded. By February 2005, the earthquake's effects were still detectable as a complex harmonic oscillation of the Earth's surface, which gradually diminished and merged with the incessant free oscillation of the Earth more than four months after the earthquake. Because of its enormous energy release and shallow rupture depth, the earthquake generated remarkable seismic ground motions around the globe, particularly due to huge Rayleigh (surface) elastic waves that exceeded in vertical amplitude everywhere on Earth. The record section plot displays vertical displacements of the Earth's surface recorded by seismometers from the IRIS/USGS Global Seismographic Network plotted with respect to time (since the earthquake initiation) on the horizontal axis, and vertical displacements of the Earth on the vertical axis (note the 1 cm scale bar at the bottom for scale). The seismograms are arranged vertically by distance from the epicentre in degrees. The earliest, lower amplitude signal is that of the compressional (P) wave, which takes about 22 minutes to reach the other side of the planet (the antipode; in this case near Ecuador). The largest amplitude signals are seismic surface waves that reach the antipode after about 100 minutes. The surface waves can be clearly seen to reinforce near the antipode (with the closest seismic stations in Ecuador), and to subsequently encircle the planet to return to the epicentral region after about 200 minutes. A major aftershock (magnitude 7.1) can be seen at the closest stations starting just after the 200-minute mark. The aftershock would be considered a major earthquake under ordinary circumstances but is dwarfed by the mainshock. The shift of mass and the massive release of energy slightly altered the Earth's rotation. The exact amount is not yet known, but theoretical models suggest the earthquake shortened the length of a day by 2.68 microseconds, due to a decrease in the oblateness of the Earth. It also caused the Earth to minutely "wobble" on its axis by up to in the direction of 145° east longitude, or perhaps by up to . Because of tidal effects of the Moon, the length of a day increases at an average of 15 microseconds per year, so any rotational change due to the earthquake will be lost quickly. Similarly, the natural Chandler wobble of the Earth, which in some cases can be up to , will eventually offset the minor wobble produced by the earthquake. There was movement laterally and vertically along the fault line. Early speculation was that some of the smaller islands south-west of Sumatra, which is on the Burma Plate (the southern regions are on the Sunda Plate), might have moved south-west by up to , but more accurate data released more than a month after the earthquake found the movement to be about . Since movement was vertical as well as lateral, some coastal areas may have been moved to below sea level. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands appear to have shifted south-west by around and to have sunk by . In February 2005, the Royal Navy vessel surveyed the seabed around the earthquake zone, which varies in depth between . The survey, conducted using a high-resolution, multi-beam sonar system, revealed that the earthquake had made a considerable impact on the topography of the seabed. thrust ridges created by previous geologic activity along the fault had collapsed, generating landslides several kilometres wide. One such landslide consisted of a single block of rock some high and long. The momentum of the water displaced by tectonic uplift had also dragged massive slabs of rock, each weighing millions of tonnes, as far as across the seabed. An oceanic trench several kilometres wide was exposed in the earthquake zone. The TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1 satellites happened to pass over the tsunami as it was crossing the ocean. These satellites carry radars that measure precisely the height of the water surface; anomalies in the order of were measured. Measurements from these satellites may prove invaluable for the understanding of the earthquake and tsunami. Unlike data from tide gauges installed on shores, measurements obtained in the middle of the ocean can be used for computing the parameters of the source earthquake without having to compensate for the complex ways in which proximity to the coast changes the size and shape of a wave. Tsunami The sudden vertical rise of the seabed by several metres during the earthquake displaced massive volumes of water, resulting in a tsunami that struck the coasts of the Indian Ocean. A tsunami that causes damage far away from its source is sometimes called a teletsunami and is much more likely to be produced by the vertical motion of the seabed than by horizontal motion. The tsunami, like all others, behaved differently in deep water than in shallow water. In deep ocean water, tsunami waves form only a low, broad hump, barely noticeable and harmless, which generally travels at high speed of ; in shallow water near coastlines, a tsunami slows down to only tens of kilometres per hour but, in doing so, forms large destructive waves. Scientists investigating the damage in Aceh found evidence that the wave reached a height of when coming ashore along large stretches of the coastline, rising to in some areas when travelling inland. Radar satellites recorded the heights of tsunami waves in deep water: maximum height was at two hours after the earthquake, the first such observations ever made. According to Tad Murty, vice-president of the Tsunami Society, the total energy of the tsunami waves was equivalent to about , which is more than twice the total explosive energy used during all of World War II (including the two atomic bombs) but still a couple of orders of magnitude less than the energy released in the earthquake itself. In many places, the waves reached as far as inland. Because the fault affected by the earthquake was in a nearly north–south orientation, the greatest strength of the tsunami waves was in an east–west direction. Bangladesh, which lies at the northern end of the Bay of Bengal, had few casualties despite being a low-lying country relatively near the epicentre. It also benefited from the fact that the earthquake proceeded more slowly in the northern rupture zone, greatly reducing the energy of the water displacements in that region. Coasts that have a landmass between them and the tsunami's location of origin are usually safe; however, tsunami waves can sometimes diffract around such landmasses. Thus, the state of Kerala was hit by the tsunami despite being on the western coast of India, and the western coast of Sri Lanka suffered substantial impacts. Distance alone was no guarantee of safety, as Somalia was hit harder than Bangladesh despite being much farther away. Because of the distances involved, the tsunami took anywhere from fifteen minutes to seven hours to reach the coastlines. The northern regions of the Indonesian island of Sumatra were hit quickly, while Sri Lanka and the east coast of India were hit roughly 90 minutes to two hours later. Thailand was struck about two hours later despite being closer to the epicentre because the tsunami travelled more slowly in the shallow Andaman Sea off its western coast. The tsunami was noticed as far as Struisbaai in South Africa, about away, where a tide surged on shore about 16 hours after the earthquake. It took a relatively long time to reach Struisbaai at the southernmost point of Africa, probably because of the broad continental shelf off South Africa and because the tsunami would have followed the South African coast from east to west. The tsunami also reached Antarctica, where tidal gauges at Japan's Showa Base recorded oscillations of up to a metre (), with disturbances lasting a couple of days. Some of the tsunami's energy escaped into the Pacific Ocean, where it produced small but measurable tsunamis along the western coasts of North and South America, typically around . At Manzanillo, Mexico, a crest-to-trough tsunami was measured. As well, the tsunami was large enough to be detected in Vancouver, which puzzled many scientists, as the tsunamis measured in some parts of South America were larger than those measured in some parts of the Indian Ocean. It has been theorized that the tsunamis were focused and directed at long ranges by the mid-ocean ridges which run along the margins of the continental plates. Early signs and warnings Despite a delay of up to several hours between the earthquake and the impact of the tsunami, nearly all of the victims were taken by surprise. There were no tsunami warning systems in the Indian Ocean to detect tsunamis or to warn the general population living around the ocean. Tsunami detection is not easy because while a tsunami is in deep water, it has little height and a network of sensors is needed to detect it. Tsunamis are more frequent in the Pacific Ocean than in other oceans because of earthquakes in the "Ring of Fire". Although the extreme western edge of the Ring of Fire extends into the Indian Ocean (the point where the earthquake struck), no warning system exists in that ocean. Tsunamis there are relatively rare despite earthquakes being relatively frequent in Indonesia. The last major tsunami was caused by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa. Not every earthquake produces large tsunamis: on 28 March 2005, a magnitude 8.7 earthquake hit roughly the same area of the Indian Ocean but did not result in a major tsunami. The first warning sign of a possible tsunami is the earthquake itself. However, tsunamis can strike thousands of kilometres away where the earthquake is felt only weakly or not at all. Also, in the minutes preceding a tsunami strike, the sea sometimes recedes temporarily from the coast, which was observed on the eastern earthquake rupture zone such as the coastlines of Aceh, Phuket island, and Khao Lak area in Thailand, Penang island of Malaysia, and the Andaman and Nicobar islands. This rare sight reportedly induced people, especially children, to visit the coast to investigate and collect stranded fish on as much as of exposed beach, with fatal results. However, not all tsunamis cause this "disappearing sea" effect. In some cases, there are no warning signs at all: the sea will suddenly swell without retreating, surprising many people and giving them little time to flee. One of the few coastal areas to evacuate ahead of the tsunami was on the Indonesian island of Simeulue, close to the epicentre. Island folklore recounted an earthquake and tsunami in 1907, and the islanders fled to inland hills after the initial shaking and before the tsunami struck. These tales and oral folklore from previous generations may have helped the survival of the inhabitants. On Maikhao Beach in north Phuket City, Thailand, a 10-year-old British tourist named Tilly Smith had studied tsunamis in geography at school and recognised the warning signs of the receding ocean and frothing bubbles. She and her parents warned others on the beach, which was evacuated safely. John Chroston, a biology teacher from Scotland, also recognised the signs at Kamala Bay north of Phuket, taking a busload of vacationers and locals to safety on higher ground. Anthropologists had initially expected the aboriginal population of the Andaman Islands to be badly affected by the tsunami and even feared the already depopulated Onge tribe could have been wiped out. Many of the aboriginal tribes evacuated and suffered fewer casualties, however. Oral traditions developed from previous earthquakes helped the aboriginal tribes escape the tsunami. For example, the folklore of the Onges talks of "huge shaking of ground followed by high wall of water". Almost all of the Onge people seemed to have survived the tsunami. Indonesia Aceh The tsunami devastated the coastline of Aceh province, about 20 minutes after the earthquake. Banda Aceh, the closest major city, suffered severe casualties. The sea receded and exposed the seabed, prompting locals to collect stranded fish and explore the area. Local eyewitnesses described three large waves, with the first wave rising gently to the foundation of the buildings, followed minutes later by a sudden withdrawal of the sea near the port of Ulee Lheue. This was succeeded by the appearance of two large black-coloured steep waves which then travelled inland into the capital city as a large turbulent bore. Eyewitnesses described the tsunami as a "black giant", "mountain" and a "wall of water". Video footage revealed torrents of black water, surging by windows of a two-story residential area situated about inland. Additionally, amateur footage recorded in the middle of the city captured an approaching black surge flowing down the city streets, full of debris, inundating them. The level of destruction was extreme on the northwestern areas of the city, immediately inland of the aquaculture ponds, and directly facing the Indian Ocean. The tsunami height was reduced from at Ulee Lheue to a further to the north-east. The inundation was observed to extend inland throughout the city. Within of the shoreline, houses, except for strongly-built reinforced concrete ones with brick walls, which seemed to have been partially damaged by the earthquake before the tsunami attack, were swept away or destroyed by the tsunami. The area toward the sea was wiped clean of nearly every structure, while closer to the river, dense construction in a commercial district showed the effects of severe flooding. The flow depth at the city was just at the level of the second floor, and there were large amounts of debris piled along the streets and in the ground-floor storefronts. In the seaside section of Ulee Lheue, the flow depths were over . Footage showed evidence of back-flowing of the Aceh River, carrying debris and people from destroyed villages at the coast and transporting them up to inland. A group of small islands: Weh, Breueh, Nasi, Teunom, Bunta, Lumpat, and Batee lie just north of the capital city. The tsunami reached a run-up of on the western shorelines of Breueh Island and Nasi Island. Coastal villages were destroyed by the waves. On the island of Pulau Weh, strong surges were experienced in the port of Sabang, yet there was little damage with reported runup values of , most likely due to the island being sheltered from the direct attack by the islands to the south-west. Lhoknga is a small coastal community about south-west of Banda Aceh, located on a flat coastal plain in between two rainforest-covered hills, overlooking a large bay and famous for its large swathe of white sandy beach and surfing activities. The locals reported 10 to 12 waves, with the second and third being the highest and most destructive. Interviews with the locals revealed that the sea temporarily receded and exposed coral reefs. In the distant horizon, gigantic black waves about high made explosion-like sounds as it broke and approached the shore. The first wave came rapidly landward from the south-west as a turbulent bore about high. The second and third waves were high at the coast and appeared like gigantic surfing waves but "taller than the coconut trees and was like a mountain". The second wave was the largest; it came from the west-southwest within five minutes of the first wave. The tsunami stranded cargo ships, barges and destroyed a cement mining facility near the Lampuuk coast, where it reached the fourth level of the building. Meulaboh, a remote coastal city, was among the hardest hit by the tsunami. The waves arrived after the sea receded about , followed by an advancing small tsunami. The second and third destructive waves arrived later, which exceeded the height of the coconut trees. The inundation distance is about . Other towns on Aceh's west coast hit by the disaster included Leupung, Lhokruet, Lamno, Patek, Calang, and Teunom. Affected or destroyed towns on the region's north and east coast were Pidie Regency, Samalanga, Panteraja, and Lhokseumawe. The high fatality rate in the area was mainly due to lack of preparation of the community towards a tsunami and limited knowledge and education among the population regarding the natural phenomenon. Helicopter surveys showed entire settlements virtually destroyed with destruction within miles inland, and only some mosques left standing. The greatest run-up height of the tsunami was measured at a hill between Lhoknga and Leupung, on the western coast of the northern tip of Sumatra, near Banda Aceh, and reached . The tsunami heights in Sumatra: on the west coast of Aceh on the Banda Aceh coast on the Krueng Raya coast on the Sigli coast on the north coast of Weh Island directly facing the tsunami source on the opposite side of the coast of Weh Island facing the tsunami Sri Lanka The island country of Sri Lanka, located about from Sumatra, was ravaged by the tsunami around 2 hours after the earthquake. The tsunami first struck the eastern coastline and subsequently refracted around the southern point of Sri Lanka (Dondra Head). The refracted tsunami waves then inundated the southwestern part of Sri Lanka after some of its energy was reflected from impact with the Maldives. In Sri Lanka, the civilian casualties were second only to those in Indonesia, with approximately 35,000 killed. The eastern shores of Sri Lanka were the hardest hit since it faced the epicentre of the earthquake, while the southwestern shores were hit later, but the death toll was just as severe. The southwestern shores are a hotspot for tourists and fishing. The degradation of the natural environment in Sri Lanka contributed to the high death tolls. Approximately 90,000 buildings and many wooden houses were destroyed. The tsunami arrived on the island as a small brown-orange colored flood. Moments later, the ocean floor was exposed as much as in places, which was followed by massive second and third waves. Amateur video recorded at the city of Galle showed a large deluge flooding the city, carrying debris and sweeping away people while in the coastal resort town of Beruwala, the tsunami appeared as a huge brown-orange colored bore which reached the first level of a hotel, causing destruction and taking people unaware. Other videos recorded showed that the tsunami appeared like a flood raging inland. The construction of seawalls and breakwaters reduced the power of waves at some locations. The largest run-up measured was at with inundation distance of in Yala. In Hambantota, run-ups measured with the greatest inundation distance of . Run-up measurements along the Sri Lankan coasts are at . Waves measured on the east coast ranged from at Pottuvill to Batticaloa at in the north-east around Trincomalee and in the west coast from Moratuwa to Ambalangoda. Sri Lanka tsunami height survey: at Koggala at Galle port around the Galle coast at Nonagama at Weligama at Dodundawa at Ambalangoda at Hikkaduwa Fishery Harbour at Kahawa at North Beach of Beruwala at Paiyagala A regular passenger train operating between Maradana and Matara was derailed and overturned by the tsunami and claimed at least 1,700 lives, the largest single rail disaster death toll in history. Estimates based on the state of the shoreline and a high-water mark on a nearby building place the tsunami above sea level and higher than the top of the train. Thailand The tsunami travelled eastward through the Andaman Sea and hit the south-western coasts of Thailand, about 2 hours after the earthquake. Located about from the epicentre, at the time, the region was popular with tourists because of Christmas. Many of these tourists were caught off-guard by the tsunami, as they had no prior warning. The tsunami hit during high tide. Major locations damaged included the western shores of Phuket island, the resort town of Khao Lak in Phang Nga Province, the coastal provinces of Krabi, Satun, Ranong and Trang and small offshore islands like Ko Racha Yai, the Phi Phi islands, the Surin Islands and the Similan archipelago. Approximately 8,000 people were killed. Thailand experienced the second largest tsunami run-up. The tsunami heights recorded: in Khao Lak along the west coast of Phuket island along the south coast of Phuket island along the east coast of Phuket island on the Phi Phi Islands at Ban Thung Dap at Ramson at Ban Thale Nok at Hat Praphat (Ranong Coastal Resources Research Station) at Thai Mueang District at Rai Dan The province of Phang Nga was the most affected area in Thailand. The quiet resort town of Khao Lak is located on a stretch of golden sandy beach, famed for its hotels overlooking the Andaman Sea and hilly rainforests. A video, taken by a local restaurant manager from a hill adjacent to the beach, showed that the tsunami's arrival was preceded by a sudden retreat of the sea exposing the seafloor. Many tourists and locals can be seen trying to gather fish. Moments later, the tsunami arrives as a wall of foaming water that slams into the coast, washing away numerous people who had no time to escape. Another amateur video, captured by a German family at beach level, showed the tsunami appearing as a white horizontal line in the distant horizon, gradually becoming bigger (bore-like), engulfing a jet skier and lifting two police boats. A maximum inundation of approximately was measured, the inundated depths were and there was evidence that the tsunami reached the third floor of a resort hotel. The tsunami in Khao Lak was bigger due to offshore coral reefs and shallow seafloor which caused the tsunami to pile-up. This was similar to eyewitness accounts of the tsunami at Banda Aceh. Khao Lak also experienced the largest tsunami run-up height outside of Sumatra.. The highest-recorded tsunami run-up was measured at Ban Thung Dap, on the south-west tip of Ko Phra Thong Island and the second-highest at at Ban Nam Kim. Moreover, the largest death toll occurred at Khao Lak, with about 5,000 people killed. In addition, the tsunami inflicted damage to the popular resort town of Ao Nang in Krabi Province. Video footage showed that the tsunami appeared as multiple white surfs violently lifting up yachts, boats and crashing onto beaches. Footage captured at Koh Lanta showed a wall of water swamping the beach, while another video taken at another location showed a large surfing wave like tsunami approaching the shore, lifting up a yacht and flooding the beach. At Koh Sriboya, the tsunami advanced inland as a turbulent medium bore, while at Koh Phayam, Ranong Province, the tsunami appeared as a wall of water. At Phuket Province, the island province's western beaches were struck by the tsunami. At Patong Beach, a tourist mecca, the tsunami first arrived as a small flood, which swept away cars and unexpected people. About 10 minutes later, the sea receded for a while before the tsunami arrived again as a large wall of water looming over the skyline and flooding the coast. Another video from Kamala Beach showed the tsunami flooding the ground floor of a restaurant sweeping away an elderly couple. On Karon Beach, Kamala Beach and Kata Beach, the tsunami came in like a surging flood inland carrying people and cars. On some locations, a coastal road was built which was higher than the shore, protecting a hotel which was behind it. On the east coast of Phuket Island, the tsunami height was about 2 m. In one river mouth, many boats were damaged. The tsunami moved counter-clockwise around Phuket Island, as was the case at Okushiri Island in the 1993 Hokkaido earthquake. According to interviews, the second wave was the largest. The tsunami heights were and the inundated depth was about . The tsunami surprised many tourists at Koh Racha Yai, where it flooded the resorts. About 250 people perished directly in the tsunami. The Phi Phi Islands are a group of small islands that were affected by the tsunami. The north bay of Phi Phi Don Island opens to the north-west in the direction of the tsunami. The measured tsunami height on this beach was . According to eyewitness accounts, the tsunami came from the north and south. The ground level was about 2 m above sea level, where there were many cottages and hotels. The south bay opens to the south-east and faces in the opposite direction from the tsunami. Furthermore, Phi Phi Le Island shields the port of Phi Phi Don Island. The measured tsunami height was in the port. Amateur camcorder footage taken by Israeli tourists showed the tsunami advancing inland suddenly as a small flood, gradually becoming more powerful and engulfing the whole beach and resort, with the tsunami carrying a yacht out to sea. Moreover, the tsunami was detected by scuba divers around offshore islands like the Similan Islands and the Surin Islands. The divers reported being caught in a violent, swirling current suddenly while underwater. Local camcorder footage showed the tsunami surging inland and flooding camping equipment at the Similan Islands while the tsunami caught tourists unaware at the Surin Islands, and dragging them out towards the sea. India The tsunami reached the states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu along the southeastern coastline of the Indian mainland about 2 hours after the earthquake. At the same time, it arrived in the state of Kerala, on the southwestern coast. There were two to five tsunamis that coincided with the local high tide in some areas. The tsunami runup height measured in mainland India by Ministry of Home Affairs includes: at Kerala, inundation distance of with of coastline affected at the southern coastline of Tamil Nadu, inundation distance of with of coastline affected at the eastern coastline of Tamil Nadu facing tsunami source, inundation distance of with of coastline affected at Pondicherry, inundation distance of with of coastline affected at Andhra Pradesh, inundation distance of with of coastline affected Along the coast of Tamil Nadu, the Marina Beach in Chennai was battered by the tsunami which swept across the beach taking morning walkers unaware. Amateur video recorded taken at a resort beach showed the tsunami arriving as a large wall of water as it approached the coast and flooding it as it advanced inland. Besides that, a black muddy tsunami ravaged the city of Karaikal, where 492 lives were lost. The city of Pondicherry, protected by seawalls was relatively unscathed. Local video recorded that before the arrival of the tsunami, people can be seen swarming the beach to check on stranded fish from the exposed beach. Furthermore, at the coastal town of Kanyakumari, the seabed was exposed briefly before a large wall of water can be seen on the horizon and subsequently flooding the town. Other footage showed the tsunami dramatically crashed into the Vivekananda Rock Memorial. The worst affected area in Tamil Nadu was Nagapattinam district, with 6,051 fatalities caused by a tsunami, followed by Cuddalore district, with many villages destroyed. Most of the people killed were members of the fishing community. Velankanni a sea shore town with a Catholic Basilica and a popular pilgrimage destination was also one of the worst hit by this tsunami that struck at around 9.30 am on that Sunday, when pilgrims who were mostly from Kerala among others were inside the church attending the Malayalam Mass. The rising sea water did not enter the shrine, but the receding waters swept away hundreds of pilgrims who were on the beach. The shrine's compound, nearby villages, hundreds of shops, homes and pilgrims were washed away into the sea. About 600 pilgrims died. Rescue teams extricated more than 400 bodies from the sand and rocks in the vicinity and large number of unidentified bodies were buried in mass graves. The state of Kerala experienced tsunami-related damage in three southern densely populated districts, Ernakulam, Alappuzha, and Kollam, due to diffraction of the waves around Sri Lanka. The southernmost district of Thiruvananthapuram, however, escaped damage, possibly due to the wide turn of the diffracted waves at the peninsular tip. Major damage occurred in two narrow strips of land bound on the west by the Arabian Sea and on the east by the Kerala backwaters. The waves receded before the first tsunami with the highest fatality reported from the densely populated Alappad panchayat (including the villages of Cheriya Azhikkal and Azhikkal) at Kollam district, caused by a tsunami. A video recorded by locals showed the tsunami flooding the beach and villages causing despair amongst the villagers. Many villages in the state of Andhra Pradesh were destroyed. In the Krishna district, the tsunami created havoc in Manginapudi and on Machalipattanam Beach. The most affected was Prakasham District, recording 35 deaths, with maximum damage at Singraikonda. Given the enormous power of the tsunami, the fishing industry suffered the greatest. Moreover, the cost of damage in the transport sector was reported in the tens of thousands. The tsunami run-up was only in areas in the state of Tamil Nadu shielded by the island of Sri Lanka but was in coastal districts such as Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu directly across from Sumatra. On the western coast, the runup elevations were at Kanyakumari District in Tamil Nadu and each at Kollam and Ernakulam districts in Kerala. The time between the waves ranged from about 15 minutes to 90 minutes. The tsunami varied in height from to based on survivors' accounts. The tsunami travelled at its maximum inland at Karaikal, Puducherry. The inundation distance varied between in most areas, except at river mouths, where it was more than . Areas with dense coconut groves or mangroves had much smaller inundation distances, and those with river mouths or backwaters saw larger inundation distances. Presence of seawalls at the Kerala and Tamil Nadu coasts reduced the impact of the waves. However, when the seawalls were made of loose stones, the stones were displaced and carried a few metres inland. Andaman and Nicobar Islands Due to close proximity to the earthquake, the tsunami took just minutes to devastate the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Andaman Islands were moderately affected while the island of Little Andaman and the Nicobar Islands were severely affected by the tsunami. In South Andaman island, based on local eyewitnesses, there were three tsunami waves, with the third being the most destructive. Flooding occurred at the coast and low-lying areas inland, which were connected to open sea through creeks. Inundation was observed, along the east coast of South Andaman Island, restricted to Chidiyatapu, Burmanallah, Kodiaghat, Beadnabad, Corbyn's cove and Marina Park/Aberdeen Jetty areas. Along the west coast, the inundation was observed around Guptapara, Manjeri, Wandoor, Collinpur and Tirur regions. Several near-shore establishments and numerous infrastructures such as seawalls and a 20 MW diesel-generated power plant at Bamboo Flat were destroyed. At Port Blair, the water receded before the first wave, and the third wave was the tallest and caused the most damage. Results of the tsunami survey in South Andaman along Chiriyatapu, Corbyn's Cove and Wandoor beaches: in maximum tsunami height with a run-up of at Chiriyatapu Beach in maximum tsunami height and run-up at Corbyn's Cove Beach in maximum tsunami height and run-up of at Wandoor Beach Meanwhile, in the Little Andaman, tsunami waves impinged on the eastern shore about 25 to 30 minutes after the earthquake in a four-wave cycle of which the fourth tsunami was the most devastating with a wave height of about . The tsunami destroyed settlements at Hut Bay within a range of from the seashore. Run up level up to have been measured. In Malacca, located on the island of Car Nicobar, there were three tsunami waves. The sea was observed to rise suddenly before the onset of the first wave. The first wave came 5 minutes after the earthquake, preceded by a recession of the sea up to .. The second and third waves came in 10 minutes intervals after the first wave. The third wave was the strongest, with a maximum tsunami wave height of . Waves nearly three stories high devastated the Indian Air Force base, located just south of Malacca. The maximum tsunami wave height of . Inundation limit was found to be up to inland. The impact of the waves was so severe that four oil tankers were thrown almost from the seashore near Malacca to the Air force colony main gate. In Chuckchucha and Lapati, the tsunami arrived in a three-wave cycle with a maximum tsunami wave height of . In Campbell Bay of Great Nicobar Island, the tsunami waves hit the area three times with an inundation limit of . A rise in sea level was observed before the first wave came within 5 minutes of the earthquake. The second and third waves came in 10-minute intervals after the first. The second wave was the strongest. The tsunami waves wreaked havoc in the densely populated Jogindar Nagar area, situated south of Campbell Bay. According to local accounts, tsunami waves attacked the area three times. The first wave came five minutes after the mainshock (0629 hrs.) with a marginal drop in sea level. The second wave came 10 minutes after the first one with a maximum height of to 8 m (26 ft) and caused the major destruction. The third wave came within 15 minutes after the second with lower wave height. The maximum inundation limit due to tsunami water was about . The worst affected island in the Andaman & Nicobar chain is Katchall Island, with 303 people confirmed dead and 4,354 missing out of a total population of 5,312. The significant shielding of Port Blair and Campbell Bay by steep mountainous outcrops contributed to the relatively low wave heights at these locations, whereas the open terrain along the eastern coast at Malacca and Hut Bay contributed to the great height of the tsunami waves. Reports of tsunami wave height: at Diglipur and Rangat at North Andaman Island high at Campbell Bay on Great Nicobar Island high at Malacca (in Car Nicobar Island) and at Hut Bay on Little Andaman Island high at Port Blair on South Andaman Island Maldives The tsunami severely affected the Maldives at a distance of from the epicentre. Similar to Sri Lanka, survivors reported three waves with the second wave being the most powerful. Being rich in coral reefs, the Maldives provides an opportunity for scientists to assess the impact of a tsunami on coral atolls. The significantly lower tsunami impact on the Maldives compared to Sri Lanka is mostly due to the topography and bathymetry of the atoll chain with offshore coral reefs, deep channels separating individual atolls and its arrival within low tide which decreased the power of the tsunami. After the tsunami, there was some concern that the country might be submerged entirely and become uninhabitable. However, this was proven untrue. The highest tsunami wave measured was at Vilufushi Island. The tsunami arrived approximately 2 hours after the earthquake. The greatest tsunami inundation occurred at North Male Atoll, Male island at along the streets. Local footage recorded showed the tsunami flooding the streets up to knee level in town, while another video taken at the beach showed the tsunami slowly flooding and gradually surging inland. The Maldives tsunami wave analysis: at North Male Atoll, Male Island at North Male Atoll, Huhule Island at South Male Atoll, Embudhu Finothu at Laamu Atoll, Fonadhoo Island at Laamu Atoll, Gan Island at North Male Atoll, Dhiffushi Island at North Male Atoll, Huraa Island more than at North Male Atoll, Kuda Huraa Island Myanmar In Myanmar, the tsunami caused only moderate damage, which arrived between 2 and 5.5 hours after the earthquake. Although the country's western Andaman Sea coastline lies at the proximity of the rupture zone, there were smaller tsunamis than the neighbouring Thai coast, because the main tsunami source did not extend to the Andaman Islands. Another factor is that some coasts of Taninthayi Division were protected by the Myeik Archipelago. Based on scientific surveys from Ayeyarwaddy Delta through Taninthayi Division, it was revealed that tsunami heights along the Myanmar coast were between . Eyewitnesses compared the tsunami with the "rainy-season high tide"; although at most locations, the tsunami height was similar or smaller than the "rainy-season high tide" level. Tsunami survey heights: around the Ayeyarwady delta at Dawei area around Myeik around Kawthaung Interviews with local people indicate that they did not feel the earthquake in Taninthayi Division or Ayeyarwaddy Delta. The 71 casualties can be attributed to poor housing infrastructure and additionally, the fact that the coastal residents in the surveyed areas live on flat land along the coast, especially in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta, and that there is no higher ground to which to evacuate. The tsunami heights from the 2004 December earthquake were not more than along the Myanmar coast, the amplitudes were slightly large off the Ayeyarwaddy Delta, probably because the shallow delta caused a concentration in tsunami energy. Somalia The tsunami travelled west across the open ocean before striking the East African country of Somalia. Around 289 fatalities were reported in the Horn of Africa, drowned by four tsunami waves. The hardest-hit was a stretch of the Somalia coastline between Garacad (Mudug region) and Xaafuun (Bari region), which forms part of the Puntland province. Most of the victims were reported along the low-lying Xaafuun Peninsula. The Puntland coast in northern Somalia was by far the area hardest hit by the waves to the west of the Indian subcontinent. The waves arrived around noon local time. Consequently, tsunami runup heights vary from to with inundation distances varying from to . The maximum runup height of almost was recorded in Bandarbeyla. An even higher runup point was measured on a cliff near the town of Eyl, solely on an eyewitness account. The highest death toll was in Hafun, with 19 dead and 160 people presumed missing out of its 5,000 inhabitants. This was the highest number of casualties in a single African town and the largest tsunami death toll in a single town to the west of the Indian subcontinent. In Xaafuun, small drawbacks were observed before the third and most powerful tsunami wave flooded the town. Other locations The tsunami also reached Malaysia, mainly on the northern states such as Kedah, Perak and Penang and on offshore islands such as Langkawi island. Peninsular Malaysia was shielded by the full force of the tsunami due to the protection offered by the island of Sumatra, which lies just off the western coast. Bangladesh escaped major damage and deaths because the water displaced by the strike-slip fault was relatively little on the northern section of the rupture zone, which ruptured slowly. In Yemen, the tsunami killed two people with a maximum runup of . The tsunami was detected in the southern parts of east Africa, where rough seas were reported, specifically on the eastern and southern coasts that face the Indian Ocean. A few other African countries also recorded fatalities; one in Kenya, three in Seychelles, ten in Tanzania, and South Africa, where two were killed as a direct result of the tsunami—the furthest from the epicentre. Tidal surges also occurred along the Western Australian coast that lasted for several hours, resulting in boats losing their moorings and two people needing to be rescued. Impact Countries affected According to the U.S. Geological Survey, a total of 227,898 people died. Measured in lives lost, this is one of the ten worst earthquakes in recorded history, as well as the single worst tsunami in history. Indonesia was the worst affected area, with most death toll estimates at around 170,000. An initial report by Siti Fadilah Supari, the Indonesian Minister of Health at the time, estimated the death total to be as high as 220,000 in Indonesia alone, giving a total of 280,000 fatalities. However, the estimated number of dead and missing in Indonesia were later reduced by over 50,000. In their report, the Tsunami Evaluation Coalition stated, "It should be remembered that all such data are subject to error, as data on missing persons especially are not always as good as one might wish". A much higher number of deaths has been suggested for Myanmar based on reports from Thailand. The tsunami caused severe damage and deaths as far as the east coast of Africa, with the furthest recorded fatality directly attributed to the tsunami at Rooi-Els, close to Cape Town, from the epicentre. In total, eight people in South Africa died due to high sea levels and waves. Relief agencies reported that one third of the dead appeared to be children. This was a result of the high proportion of children in the populations of many of the affected regions and because children were the least able to resist being overcome by the surging waters. Oxfam went on to report that as many as four times more women than men were killed in some regions because they were waiting on the beach for the fishers to return and looking after their children in the houses. States of emergency were declared in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and the Maldives. The United Nations estimated at the outset that the relief operation would be the costliest in human history. Then-UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated that reconstruction would probably take between five and ten years. Governments and non-governmental organizations feared that the final death toll might double as a result of diseases, prompting a massive humanitarian response. In addition to a large number of local residents, up to 9,000 foreign tourists (mostly Europeans) enjoying the peak holiday travel season were among the dead or missing, especially people from the Nordic countries. The European nation hardest hit was Sweden, with a death toll of 543. Germany was close behind with 539 identified victims. Environmental impact Beyond the heavy toll on human lives, the Indian Ocean earthquake has caused an enormous environmental impact that will affect the region for many years to come. It has been reported that severe damage has been inflicted on ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, forests, coastal wetlands, vegetation, sand dunes and rock formations, animal and plant biodiversity and groundwater. Also, the spread of solid and liquid waste and industrial chemicals, water pollution and the destruction of sewage collectors and treatment plants threaten the environment even further, in untold ways. The environmental impact will take a long time and significant resources to assess. According to specialists, the main effect is being caused by poisoning of the freshwater supplies and of the soil by saltwater infiltration and a deposit of a salt layer over arable land. It has been reported that in the Maldives, 16 to 17 coral reef atolls that were overcome by sea waves are without fresh water and could be rendered uninhabitable for decades. Uncountable wells that served communities were invaded by sea, sand, and earth; and aquifers were invaded through porous rock. On the island's east coast, the tsunami contaminated wells on which many villagers relied for drinking water. The Colombo-based International Water Management Institute monitored the effects of saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality one-and-a-half years after the event. The IWMI developed protocols for cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were subsequently officially endorsed by the World Health Organization as part of its series of Emergency Guidelines. Salted-over soil becomes sterile, and it is difficult and costly to restore for agriculture. It also causes the death of plants and important soil micro-organisms. Thousands of rice, mango, and banana plantations in Sri Lanka were destroyed almost entirely and will take years to recover. In addition to other forms of aid, the Australian government sent ecological experts to help develop strategies for reef-monitoring and rehabilitation of marine environments and coral reefs in the Maldives, Seychelles and other areas. Scientists had developed significant ecological expertise from work with the Great Barrier Reef, in Australia's northeastern waters. In response to the unprecedented situation, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) worked with governments in the region to determine the severity of the ecological impact and how to address it. UNEP established an emergency fund, set up a Task Force to respond to requests for assistance from countries affected by the tsunami, and was able to mobilize and distribute approximately US$9.3 million for environmental recovery and disaster risk reduction between 2004-2007. Funding came from other international agencies and from countries including Finland, Norway, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Evidence suggested that the presence of mangroves in coastal areas had provided some protection, when compared to areas that had been cleared for aquaculture or development. As a result, mangrove restoration become a focus of a number of projects, with varied success. Such approaches to ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction appear to be most successful when local communities are closely involved as stakeholders throughout the process, and when careful attention is paid to the physical conditions of chosen sites to ensure that mangroves can thrive there. Economic impact The level of damage to the economy resulting from the tsunami depends on the scale examined. While the overall impact on the national economies was minor, local economies were devastated. The two main occupations affected by the tsunami were fishing and tourism. Some economists believe that damage to the affected national economies will be minor because losses in the tourism and fishing industries are a relatively small percentage of the GDP. However, others caution that damage to infrastructure is an overriding factor. In some areas drinking water supplies and farm fields may have been contaminated for years by saltwater from the ocean. The impact on coastal fishing communities and the people living there, some of the poorest in the region, has been devastating with high losses of income earners as well as boats and fishing gear. In Sri Lanka artisanal fishery, where the use of fish baskets, fishing traps, and spears are commonly used, is an important source of fish for local markets; industrial fishery is the major economic activity, providing direct employment to about 250,000 people. In recent years the fishery industry has emerged as a dynamic export-oriented sector, generating substantial foreign exchange earnings. Preliminary estimates indicate that 66% of the fishing fleet and industrial infrastructure in coastal regions have been destroyed by the wave surges, which will have adverse economic effects both at local and national levels. While the tsunami destroyed many of the boats vital to Sri Lanka's fishing industry, it also created a demand for fibreglass reinforced plastic catamarans in boatyards of Tamil Nadu. Since over 51,000 vessels were lost to the tsunami, the industry boomed. However, the huge demand has led to lower quality in the process, and some important materials were sacrificed to cut prices for those who were impoverished by the tsunami. Even though only coastal regions were directly affected by the waters of the tsunami, the indirect effects have spread to inland provinces as well. Since the media coverage of the event was so extensive, many tourists cancelled vacations and trips to that part of the world, even though their travel destinations may not have been affected. This ripple effect could especially be felt in the inland provinces of Thailand, such as Krabi, which acted as a starting point for many other tourist destinations in Thailand. Countries in the region appealed to tourists to return, pointing out that most tourist infrastructure is undamaged. However, tourists were reluctant to do so for psychological reasons. Even beach resorts in parts of Thailand which were untouched by the tsunami were hit by cancellations. Both the earthquake and the tsunami may have affected shipping in the Malacca Straits, which separate Malaysia and the Indonesian island of Sumatra, by changing the depth of the seabed and by disturbing navigational buoys and old shipwrecks. In one area of the Strait, water depths were previously up to , and are now only in some areas, making shipping impossible and dangerous. These problems also made the delivery of relief aid more challenging. Compiling new navigational charts may take months or years. Officials also hoped that piracy in the region would drop off, since the tsunami had killed pirates and destroyed their boats. Due to multiple factors, there was a 71.6% drop in the number of piracy incidents between 2004 and 2005, from 60 to 17 incidents. Levels remained relatively low for some years. However, between 2013 and 2014, piracy incidents rose dramatically by 73.2% to exceed pre-tsunami levels. Historical context The last major tsunami in the Indian Ocean was about A.D. 1400. In 2008, a team of scientists working on Phra Thong, a barrier island along the hard-hit west coast of Thailand, reported evidence of at least three previous major tsunamis in the preceding 2,800 years, the most recent from about 700 years ago. A second team found similar evidence of previous tsunamis in Aceh, a province at the northern tip of Sumatra; radiocarbon dating of bark fragments in the soil below the second sand layer led the scientists to estimate that the most recent predecessor to the 2004 tsunami probably occurred between A.D. 1300 and 1450. The 2004 earthquake and tsunami combined is the world's deadliest natural disaster since the 1976 Tangshan earthquake. The earthquake was the third-most-powerful earthquake recorded since 1900. The deadliest-known earthquake in history occurred in 1556 in Shaanxi, China, with an estimated death toll of 830,000, though figures from this period may not be as reliable. Before 2004, the tsunami created in both Indian and Pacific Ocean waters by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, thought to have resulted in anywhere from 36,000 to 120,000 deaths, had probably been the deadliest in the region. In 1782, about 40,000 people are thought to have been killed by a tsunami (or a cyclone) in the South China Sea. The deadliest tsunami before 2004 was Italy's 1908 Messina earthquake on the Mediterranean Sea where the earthquake and tsunami killed about 123,000. Other effects Many health professionals and aid workers have reported widespread psychological trauma associated with the tsunami. Traditional beliefs in many of the affected regions state that a relative of the family must bury the body of the dead, and in many cases, no body remained to be buried. Women in Aceh required a special approach from foreign aid agencies, and continue to have unique needs. The hardest-hit area, Aceh, is a religiously conservative Islamic society and has had no tourism nor any Western presence in recent years due to the insurgency between the Indonesian military and Free Aceh Movement (GAM). Some believe that the tsunami was divine punishment for lay Muslims shirking their daily prayers or following a materialistic lifestyle. Others have said that Allah was angry that Muslims were killing each other in an ongoing conflict. Saudi cleric Muhammad Al-Munajjid attributed it to divine retribution against non-Muslim vacationers "who used to sprawl all over the beaches and in pubs overflowing with wine" during Christmas break. The widespread devastation caused by the tsunami led GAM to declare a cease-fire on 28 December 2004 followed by the Indonesian government, and the two groups resumed long-stalled peace talks, which resulted in a peace agreement signed 15 August 2005. The agreement explicitly cites the tsunami as a justification. In a poll conducted in 27 countries, 15% of respondents named the tsunami the most significant event of the year. Only the Iraq War was named by as many respondents. The extensive international media coverage of the tsunami, and the role of mass media and journalists in reconstruction, were discussed by editors of newspapers and broadcast media in tsunami-affected areas, in special video-conferences set up by the Asia Pacific Journalism Centre. The tsunami left both the people and government of India in a state of heightened alert. On 30 December 2004, four days after the tsunami, Terra Research notified the India government that its sensors indicated there was a possibility of 7.9 to 8.1 magnitude tectonic shift in the next 12 hours between Sumatra and New Zealand. In response, the Indian Minister of Home Affairs announced that a fresh onslaught of deadly tsunami was likely along the southern Indian coast and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, even as there was no sign of turbulence in the region. The announcement generated panic in the Indian Ocean region and caused thousands to flee their homes, which resulted in jammed roads. The announcement was a false alarm, and the Home Affairs minister withdrew their announcement. On further investigation, the India government learned that the consulting company Terra Research was run from the home of a self-described earthquake forecaster who had no telephone listing and maintained a website where he sold copies of his detection system. The tsunami had a severe humanitarian and political impact in Sweden. The hardest-hit country outside Asia, Sweden, lost 543 tourists, mainly in Thailand. The Persson Cabinet was heavily criticized for its inaction. Smith Dharmasaroja, a meteorologist who had predicted that an earthquake and tsunami "is going to occur for sure" way back in 1994, was assigned the development of the Thai tsunami warning system. The Indian Ocean Tsunami warning system was formed in early 2005 to provide an early warning of tsunamis for inhabitants around the Indian Ocean coasts. The changes in the distribution of masses inside the Earth due to the earthquake had several consequences. It displaced the North Pole by . It also slightly changed the shape of the Earth, specifically by decreasing Earth's oblateness by about one part in 10 billion, consequentially increasing Earth's rotation a little and thus shortening the length of the day by 2.68 microseconds. Humanitarian response A great deal of humanitarian aid was needed because of widespread damage to the infrastructure, shortages of food and water, and economic damage. Epidemics were of particular concern due to the high population density and tropical climate of the affected areas. The main concern of humanitarian and government agencies was to provide sanitation facilities and fresh drinking water to contain the spread of diseases such as cholera, diphtheria, dysentery, typhoid and hepatitis A and . There was also a great concern that the death toll could increase as disease and hunger spread. However, because of the initial quick response, this was minimized. In the days following the tsunami, significant effort was spent in burying bodies hurriedly due to fear of disease spreading. However, the public health risks may have been exaggerated, and therefore this may not have been the best way to allocate resources. The World Food Programme provided food aid to more than 1.3 million people affected by the tsunami. Nations all over the world provided over US$14 billion in aid for damaged regions, with the governments of Australia pledging US$819.9 million (including a US$760.6 million aid package for Indonesia), Germany offering US$660 million, Japan offering US$500 million, Canada offering US$343 million, Norway and the Netherlands offering both US$183 million, the United States offering US$35 million initially (increased to US$350 million), and the World Bank offering US$250 million. Also, Italy offered US$95 million, increased later to US$113 million of which US$42 million was donated by the population using the SMS system Four countries, Australia, India, Japan and the United States formed an ad-hoc corroborative group, and it was the origin of Quadrilateral Security Dialogue. According to USAID, the US has pledged additional funds in long-term U.S. support to help the tsunami victims rebuild their lives. On 9 February 2005, President Bush asked Congress to increase the U.S. commitment to a total of US$950 million. Officials estimated that billions of dollars would be needed. Bush also asked his father, former President George H. W. Bush, and former President Bill Clinton to lead a U.S. effort to provide private aid to the tsunami victims. In mid-March, the Asian Development Bank reported that over US$4 billion in aid promised by governments was behind schedule. Sri Lanka reported that it had received no foreign government aid, while foreign individuals had been generous. Many charities were given considerable donations from the public. For example, in the United Kingdom, the public donated roughly £330 million sterling (nearly US$600 million). This considerably outweighed the allocation by the government to disaster relief and reconstruction of £75 million and came to an average of about £5.50 (US$10) donated by every citizen. In August 2006, fifteen local aid staff working on post-tsunami rebuilding were found executed in north-east Sri Lanka after heavy fighting between government troops and the Tamil Tiger rebels, the main umbrella body for aid agencies in the country said. In popular culture Film and television Children of Tsunami: No More Tears (2005), a 24-minute documentary The Wave That Shook The World (2005), educational television-series documentary about the tsunami Tsunami: The Aftermath (2006), a two-part television miniseries about its aftermath Hereafter (2010), a main character's life is affected after surviving the tsunami while on vacation Hafalan Shalat Delisa (2011), an Indonesian movie The Impossible (2012), an English-language Spanish film based on the story of María Belón and her family Kayal (2014), a Tamil drama film which culminates with the tsunami Literature Paint the Sky with Stars, Selected Poetry in Remembrance of the Boxing Day Tsunami 2004 (2005) edited by Stephen Robert Kuta The Killing Sea (2006), two teenagers struggle to survive in the days after the tsunami Wave (2013), a memoir by Sonali Deraniyagala Music "12/26" by Kimya Dawson, about the event and the humanitarian efforts, from the perspective of a victim whose family died in the disaster See also Deaths in December 2004 – notable people killed in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami List of earthquakes in 2004 List of earthquakes in Japan List of natural disasters by death toll Lists of earthquakes List of megathrust earthquakes References External links The Sumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake – IRIS Consortium M9.1 Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake & Tsunami, 2004 – Amateur Seismic Centre (ASC) Asian Tsunami Anniversary – Thailand Tsunami Then and Now Comparison Series – Zoriah Miller 2004 disasters in India 2004 earthquakes 2004 in Indonesia 2004 in the Maldives 2004 in Somalia 2004 in Sri Lanka 2004 in Thailand 2004 tsunamis Articles containing video clips December 2004 events in Asia History of Southeast Asia History of the Indian Ocean Megathrust earthquakes in India Megathrust earthquakes in Sumatra Natural disasters in India Natural disasters in Indonesia Natural disasters in Somalia Natural disasters in Sri Lanka Natural disasters in Thailand Tsunamis in India 2000s in Andhra Pradesh 2000s in Kerala 2000s in Tamil Nadu Tsunamis in Thailand

Dragon's Lair II: Time Warp

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Dragon's Lair II: Time Warp is a 1991 laserdisc video game by the Leland Corporation. It is the first true sequel to Dragon's Lair. As with the original, Dragon's Lair II: Time Warp consists of an animated short film that requires the player to move the joystick or press a fire button at certain times in order to continue. It takes place years after the original Dragon's Lair. Dirk has married Daphne, and the marriage has produced many children. When Daphne is kidnapped by the evil wizard Mordroc in order to be forced into marriage, Dirk's children and his mother-in-law are clearly upset by the abduction of Daphne, and Dirk must once again save her. Home ports were announced for the Sega Saturn, Philips CD-i, 3DO Interactive Multiplayer, and Atari Jaguar CD. Only the CD-i version was released. The game was later ported to the Wii as part of the compilation release Dragon's Lair Trilogy. A PlayStation 3 port was released on June 1, 2011. A Nintendo Switch port of the Wii Dragon's Lair Trilogy compilation was released on January 17, 2019. Story Dirk the Daring must find and rescue Daphne with the help of a well-spoken time machine. It seems that the time machine is (or has been) possessed by the brother of Mordroc, the foul wizard that has kidnapped Daphne. Dirk travels through several dimensions and historical eras searching for Daphne, some inspired by classic stories and fairy tales such as Alice in Wonderland and Sleeping Beauty, to prevent Mordroc from enslaving Daphne to his whim with the dreaded Death Ring. Voice actor Michael Rye reprises his role as the narrator in the attract sequence, as he did with Dragon's Lair as well as Space Ace. Gameplay Gameplay differs from the original in two important ways. First, it follows a linear sequence of events which flow one into the next, as opposed to the randomized sequences of rooms from the first game; "dying" in the sequel also forces the player to resume from a checkpoint in the level rather than starting a randomly different level as in the original. Second, golden treasures are scattered throughout the game; getting each treasure is required to reach the final scenes. If the player misses any, at the end of the game it loops back to the first treasure missed. As well, unlike in the first game, the actions the player must do are prompted by a brief flash of what Dirk should use or where he should go next. However, to retrieve a golden treasure, the player may need to make a move in a direction other than what is flashing. Some scenes are randomly mirrored from left to right on a replay, limiting the player's ability to rely on memorising the input sequence and requiring them to pay close attention to the events on screen during repeat attempts. Development Development on the game began in 1983 after the success of the original Dragon's Lair, and finally reached arcades eight years later, hence Leland Interactive's credit on the title screen, although a commercial from Don Bluth Productions featuring completed animation from stage 3 in the game had aired on television in 1984. Creating the game's animation took three years. The Amiga, Atari ST, and DOS versions of Dragon's Lair II: Time Warp were released in November 1990, and cost £44.95. The home computer versions of Dragon's Lair II by ReadySoft were developed over the course of 'about' a year. In a January 1991 issue of British gaming magazine The One, The One interviewed David Foster, the founder of ReadySoft and a programmer for the home computer versions of Dragon's Lair II, for information regarding the game's development. Dragon's Lair II spans six floppy disks, and Foster expressed that this is due to higher resolution imagery than previous laserdisc games by the Bluth Group, such as Space Ace. Due to the arcade version of Dragon's Lair II having been unreleased at this stage in development, the game's home computer versions were made using a VHS tape as a reference, as opposed to a laserdisc. Foster expressed in regards to this that "conversion is obviously easier with the laser disc as you can get a good quality freezeframe. We digitise a series of images from the laser disc, then we separate the foreground from the background, giving each element to the respective artists to touch up, which includes outlining all the characters ... when you're converting from a high-resolution laser disc to a lower resolution screen a lot of detail is lost, so a lot has to be put back in". The conversion is then edited to match the 16-colour palette to that of the original footage, and compressed; Foster stated that "On average it takes about two hours of 68030 computer time to compress a single frame - that's thousands of computer hours in all. So we have four machines with 25Mhz processor speed working on it - two Great Valley Products '030s, a Commodore '030 board, and an Amiga 3000." Stages Stage 1; Singe's Castle - Dirk is terrified and horrified to death of his angered mother-in-law trying to smack him with a rolling pin or toss destructible objects towards him for her revenge on him because of the kidnapping to his married Princess Daphne by Mordroc. He must flee from her while getting past several creatures and obstacles in the deceased Singe's old castle, including a ravenous snake wearing a Tam o' Shanter, in order to reach the time machine that will allow him to pursue Mordroc. Stage 2; Land Before Time - In prehistoric times, Mordroc takes a moment to taunt Dirk as he battles pterodactyls, a T-rex, and two bat-winged centaurs that carry Daphne away. As this happens, the tiny island they are on gradually crumbles into the sea. – "Connections-Reference: The Land Before Time (1988)". Stage 3; Dirk in Wonderland - In 1865, Dirk is materialized in Alice Liddell's house and goes through the looking-glass that hangs over the fireplace. While being dressed as Alice by enemy characters, he tumbles into Wonderland where he faces Tweedledum and Tweedledee, the Queen of Hearts, her army of playing card soldiers, the Mad Hatter and the March Hare, the Jabberwock and the Cheshire Cat. – "Connections-Reference: Alice in Wonderland (1951)". Stage 4; Garden of Eden - In the Garden of Eden, Dirk has to escape from guardian angels, the advances of Eve the fat Lady, two snakes (one wanting to eat Dirk and the other a smooth-talker), and finally, the ruin of Eden itself when Eve accidentally eats the forbidden apple. Stage 5; Beethoven's Creative Gust - In 1808, Dirk is shrunk to the size of a mouse in Ludwig van Beethoven's study, where he must avoid the predations of the composer's constant playing the piano with his hands, his wicked hungry cat and the sheer chaos of his creative gust. Stage 6; Ancient Egypt - In Ancient Egypt, Dirk finds what appears to be Daphne (wrapped completely in linen bandages) but is actually Mordroc in disguise, leading Dirk on a wild goose chase as he explores an ancient tomb while narrowly avoiding poison gas, spiders, giant bats, corrosive acid, scarabs, and a giant mummy. Stage 7; The Ring - At his castle, Mordroc puts the Death Ring on Daphne's finger, which transforms her into a monstrous banshee. Dirk must avoid the monstrous Daphne's mindless attempts to devour him. He must get the ring off her finger, restore her to normal, and defeat Mordroc at the same time. In addition to the alternate scene in the non-arcade version, Dirk has to remove the ring from Daphne and throw it at Mordroc. Final Stage; Daphne Awakens - Although Mordroc is defeated, Dirk must fight off Mordroc's last surviving minions, who are trying to get their revenge on him for defeating their master, so that Dirk safely escapes the crumbling castle with Daphne. During the course of the game, the player must find and collect "treasures" in order to reach Mordroc. In the Director's Cut version of the game, gathering all the treasures offers an alternate, shorter and easier second-to-last stage. In it, Dirk must get the Death Ring and then throw it at Mordroc. This also includes three death scenes that were not used in the final release. Pop-culture references Alice in Wonderland (1951) Sleeping Beauty (1959) The Land Before Time (1988) Ports Home computers Around the time the Arcade was out, an abridged version was released for the Amiga home computers by ReadySoft. It included only some of the scenes and most stages were absent altogether. It included the introduction reaching the machine, followed by the prehistoric stage, the Garden of Eden, and the final stage. The game was followed by Dragon's Lair III: The Curse of Mordread also by ReadySoft. It presented an original storyline with Mordroc's sister, the evil witch "Mordread". She arrives at Dirk's and Daphne's home, and absorbing both the house and Daphne into an orb. This game incorporated the stages of Wonderland and Beethoven's piano from Time Warp but also included some original sequences: an intro, a stage on a pirate ship, a stage in the time realm, and an original ending. DVD release Dragon's Lair II was released on DVD in 1998. Blu-ray release Following the release of Dragon's Lair and Space Ace in high-definition for Blu-ray, Digital Leisure said they were working on a Blu-ray version of Dragon's Lair II for some time in 2008. The disc was released on June 2, 2009. An easter egg on the Space Ace Blu-ray allows the player to play the first scene of Dragon's Lair II in Blu-ray format. PlayStation 3 release Dragon's Lair II was released on the PlayStation 3 on June 1, 2011. Nintendo Switch release Time Warp was released as part of Dragon's Lair Trilogy (includes Dragon's Lair, Dragon's Lair II: Time Warp, and Space Ace) in January 2019. Reception In the United States, it was the top-grossing new video game on the RePlay arcade charts in October 1991. Computer Gaming World called Dragon's Lair II "an exceptional program which suffers from uninteresting game-play". The magazine criticized the game for, like its predecessor, being "a long series of trial and error" instead of testing the player's ability. The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly gave the CD-i version a 7.25 out of 10, commenting that it looks and plays just as good as the arcade version, and praising the addition of collectable items. One of the reviewers dissented with the majority opinion, saying that FMV games had lost their novelty and that the game was lacking in interaction. GamePro gave it a rave review. They applauded the sharp and colorful graphics, absence of slowdown, high frame rate, realistic sound effects, and outstanding controls, elaborating that "the CD-i's circular directional pad gives you quicker, more accurate button presses that help you get past every snake, dragon, and mother-in-law in sight". References External links Detailed Info on Dragon's Lair II: TimeWarp 1990 video games Amiga games Arcade video games Cancelled 3DO Interactive Multiplayer games Cancelled Atari Jaguar games Cancelled Sega Saturn games CD-i games Cinematronics games Cultural depictions of Ludwig van Beethoven Dinosaurs in video games DOS games Dragon's Lair DSiWare games DVD interactive technology Fiction set in 1808 Fiction set in 1865 Full motion video based games Interactive movie video games IOS games LaserDisc video games Multiplayer and single-player video games PlayStation Network games ReadySoft Incorporated games Video game sequels Video games about time travel Video games based on Alice in Wonderland Video games developed in the United States Video games set in the 19th century Windows games

Los Angeles Olympics

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Los Angeles Olympics may refer to three different Olympic Games held in Los Angeles: 1932 Summer Olympics, games of the X Olympiad 1984 Summer Olympics, games of the XXIII Olympiad 2028 Summer Olympics, games of the XXXIV Olympiad See also Los Angeles Olympics, one of several bids to host the Summer Olympics Los Angeles bid for the 2024 Summer Olympics 2015 Special Olympics World Summer Games 2028 Summer Paralympics

The Alamo: 13 Days to Glory

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The Alamo: 13 Days to Glory is a 1987 American Western television miniseries later edited into a feature film about the 1836 Battle of the Alamo written and directed by Burt Kennedy, starring James Arness as James Bowie, Brian Keith as Davy Crockett, Alec Baldwin as William Barrett Travis, Raul Julia as Antonio López de Santa Anna, and featuring a single scene cameo by Lorne Greene as Sam Houston. Unlike most other films about the Alamo — the most prominent other exception being the 1955 film The Last Command (which was released during the cultural frenzy created by Walt Disney's Davy Crockett television miniseries) — it focuses on Bowie as the main character rather than Crockett. The production was shot at Alamo Village, the Alamo replica built by John Wayne for his lavish 1960 film The Alamo. Much of the footage of the final battle scene was recycled from earlier films. Premise Against orders and no help of relief Texas patriots led by Bill Travis (Alec Baldwin), Jim Bowie (James Arness) and Davy Crockett (Brian Keith) defend the Alamo against the overwhelming Mexican forces led by the merciless General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna (Raul Julia). Cast James Arness as Jim Bowie Brian Keith as Davy Crockett Alec Baldwin as Bill Travis Raul Julia as General Antonio López de Santa Anna David Ogden Stiers as Colonel Black Jon Lindstrom as Captain Almaron Dickinson Lorne Greene as Sam Houston (in his final film role) Jim Metzler as Major James Bonham Tom Schanley as Private Danny Cloud Fernando Allende as Colonel Alamonte, Santa Anna's Nephew Kathleen York as Susannah Dickinson Isela Vega as Senora Cos Gene Evans as McGregor Michael Wren as Juan Seguin Hinton Battle as Joe, Travis' Servant David Sheiner as Luis Noble Willingham as Dr. Pollard Eloy Casados as Gregorio Tony Becker as George Taylor Thomas Callaway as Colonel James W. Fannin Buck Taylor as "Colorado" Smith Jerry Potter as Jacob Walker Grainger Hines as Charles Despelier Tom Everett as Major Evans Stan Ivar as "Doc" Sutherland Ethan Wayne as Edward Taylor Jan Tríska as General Wolf Gary Kasper as Major Wheelwright John Furlong as Zanco Jay Baker as Hayes Dale Swann as Lieutenant Kimball Laura Fabian as Lucia Loyda Ramos as Senora Esparza Bel Sandre Laura Martinez Harring as Santa Anna's Bride Nicky Blair as John Jones Red West as Cockran (uncredited) References External links 1987 television films American television films Cultural depictions of Davy Crockett English-language films Films directed by Burt Kennedy Films set in 1836 Films shot in Texas Siege films Texas Revolution films Western (genre) television films

Appalachian Spring

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Appalachian Spring is a musical composition by Aaron Copland that was premiered in 1944 and has achieved widespread and enduring popularity as an orchestral suite. The music, scored for a thirteen-member chamber orchestra, was created upon commission of the choreographer and dancer Martha Graham with funds from the Coolidge Foundation. It was premiered on Monday, October 30, 1944, at the Library of Congress in Washington D.C., with Martha Graham dancing the lead role. The set was designed by the American sculptor Isamu Noguchi. Copland was awarded the 1945 Pulitzer Prize for Music for his achievement. Music In 1942, Martha Graham and Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge commissioned Copland to write a ballet with "an American theme". Copland did the bulk of the work in 1943–44, and the work was premiered at the Library of Congress on October 30, 1944, with Graham dancing the lead role. In 1945, Copland was commissioned by conductor Artur Rodziński to rearrange the ballet as an orchestral suite, preserving most of the music. Copland cut about 10 minutes from the original 13-instrument score to make the suite. From the preface in the original Boosey & Hawkes publication of the suite: The original scoring called for a chamber ensemble of thirteen instruments. The present arrangement for symphony orchestra was made by the composer in the Spring of 1945. It is a condensed version of the ballet, retaining all essential features but omitting those sections in which the interest is primarily choreographic. The Orchestral Suite from 1945 was first recorded by Serge Koussevitzky with the Boston Symphony Orchestra. In 1954, Eugene Ormandy asked Copland to expand the orchestration for the full score of the ballet. In 1972, Boosey & Hawkes published a version of the suite using the scoring of the original ballet. Thus, there are four versions of Appalachian Spring: 1944, 13-player complete; 1945, orchestral suite; 1954, orchestral complete; and 1972, 13-player suite. The 1944 version was recorded in 1973 by Copland himself directing the Columbia Chamber Orchestra, and by Hugh Wolff and the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra for Teldec in 1991. The 1954 version was recorded by Michael Tilson Thomas and the San Francisco Symphony for RCA Victor in May 1999. The original ballet and the orchestral suite were well received. The latter was credited as more important in popularizing the composer. Originally, Copland did not have a title for the work, referring to it simply as "Ballet for Martha" – a title as simple and direct as the Shaker tune, Simple Gifts, quoted in the music. Shortly before the premiere, Graham suggested Appalachian Spring, a phrase from a Hart Crane poem, "The Dance", from a collection of poems in his book, The Bridge. O Appalachian Spring! I gained the ledge; Steep, inaccessible smile that eastward bends And northward reaches in that violet wedge Of Adirondacks! The word spring denotes a source of water in the Crane poem; however, the ballet is a journey to meet springtime. Because he composed the music without the benefit of knowing what the title was going to be, Copland was often amused when people told him he captured the beauty of the Appalachians in his music, a fact he alluded to in an interview with NPR's Fred Calland. Instrumentation The original 1944 version was scored for: 1 flute 1 clarinet in B 1 bassoon piano 2 violin I 2 violin II 2 violas 2 cellos 1 double bass Ballet storyline The story tells of a spring celebration of the American pioneers of the 19th century, after building a new Pennsylvania farmhouse. Among the central characters are a bride, a groom, a pioneer woman, a preacher, and his congregation. The Los Angeles Times provides a concise summary of the storyline in its transitions between the choreographed sequences stating:Created in 1944, the ballet tells a simple story. A young farm couple ruminate on their lives before getting married and setting up house in the wilderness. An itinerant preacher delivers a sermon. An older pioneer woman oversees the events with sympathy and wisdom. The newlyweds muse on their future as night falls. In the course of the dance, Graham reveals the inner lives of the four principal characters – Wife, Husbandman, Pioneer Woman and Preacher. She shows that the couple will face a future that will not be all sweetness and light, but she also draws out the private and shared emotional resources they will be able to bring to the challenges. Such is the power of Graham's images, however, that this very particular story broadens out to become a parable about Americans conquering a new land. Form of the piece The orchestral suite is divided into eight sections. Copland describes each scene thus: Very slowly. Introduction of the characters, one by one, in a suffused light. (A major) Fast/Allegro. Sudden burst of unison strings in A major arpeggios starts the action. A sentiment both elated and religious gives the keynote to this scene. (A major) Moderate/Moderato. Duo for the Bride and her Intended – scene of tenderness and passion. (B-flat major) Quite fast. The Revivalist and his flock. Folksy feeling – suggestions of square dances and country fiddlers. (B major) Still faster/Subito Allegro. Solo dance of the Bride – presentiment of motherhood. Extremes of joy and fear and wonder. (E-flat major) Very slowly (as at first). Transition scene to music reminiscent of the introduction. (A-flat major) Calm and flowing/Doppio Movimento. Scenes of daily activity for the Bride and her Farmer husband. There are five variations on a Shaker theme. The theme, sung by a solo clarinet, was taken from a collection of Shaker melodies compiled by Edward D. Andrews, and published under the title "The Gift to Be Simple." The melody borrowed and used almost literally is called "Simple Gifts." (A-flat major) Moderate. Coda/Moderato – Coda. The Bride takes her place among her neighbors. At the end the couple are left "quiet and strong in their new house." Muted strings intone a hushed prayerlike chorale passage. The close is reminiscent of the opening music. (C major) Themes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Variations The original ballet version is divided into 14 movements. The movements that do not appear in the orchestral suite occur mostly between the 7th and last movement as variations on the Shaker melody Simple Gifts (1848). The second variation provides a lyrical treatment in the low register while the third contrasts starkly in a fast staccato. The last two variations of this section use only a part of the folk tune, first an extraction treated as a pastoral variation and then as a majestic closing. In the ballet, but not the suite, there is an intermediary section that moves away from the folk tune preceding the final two variations. Shaker melody Copland used a Shaker song, "Simple Gifts", composed in 1848 and usually attributed to Elder Joseph Brackett. The song is often called, in the context of discussions of Appalachian Spring, "Shaker Melody", "Shaker Song", and the "Shaker Hymn". Copland published independent arrangements of this section for band (1958) and orchestra (1967) titled Variations on a Shaker Melody. This same Shaker tune was used by Sydney Carter in a widely recognized hymn entitled "Lord of the Dance". In popular culture For many years, part of the seventh movement of the orchestral suite was used as the opening music to CBS Reports. References Further reading Kamien, Roger. Music: An Appreciation. Mcgraw-Hill College; 3rd edition (August 1, 1997) Aaron Copland Collection: Works List. Retrieved May 16, 2005. DeLapp, Jennifer. The Aaron Copland Centennial: Program Notes. Retrieved May 16, 2005. Hall, Roger Lee. Aaron Copland and Simple Gifts Retrieved June 5, 2010. Appalachian Spring. Dance Pages. Retrieved May 17, 2005. Ledbetter, Steven. Copland, Appalachian Spring. Pro Arte, 1996. Retrieved May 17, 2005. Mack, Linda. St. Joseph Pro Musica Program Notes. May 31, 1992. Retrieved May 18, 2005. Scher, Valerie. "A 'fortuitous collaboration' led to Appalachian Spring". The San Diego Union-Tribune, March 6, 2005. Retrieved May 17, 2005. External links Aaron Copland Meets the Shakers Correspondence of Aaron Copland concerning Appalachian Spring held by the Library of Congress Keeping Score: Copland and the American Sound Multimedia website produced by the San Francisco Symphony NPR's Performance Today Milestones of the Millennium: Appalachian Spring with Rob Kapilow and John Adams Press Release of Air & Simple Gifts featured on Yo-Yo Ma's website. Program notes from Los Angeles Chamber Orchestra Tales from the Stave: Appalachian Spring – BBC Radio 4 explores the manuscript score. , 2 of 4 (09:04), 3 of 4 (07:33), 4 of 4 (07:10) Ballets by Martha Graham Ballets by Aaron Copland Compositions by Aaron Copland Music commissioned by Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge Pulitzer Prize for Music-winning works 1944 ballet premieres Ballets with sets by Isamu Noguchi 1944 compositions Orchestral suites Compositions for chamber orchestra Works based on Simple Gifts United States National Recording Registry recordings

Ductile iron

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Ductile iron, also known as ductile cast iron, nodular cast iron, spheroidal graphite iron, spheroidal graphite cast iron and SG iron, is a type of graphite-rich cast iron discovered in 1943 by Keith Millis. While most varieties of cast iron are weak in tension and brittle, ductile iron has much more impact and fatigue resistance, due to its nodular graphite inclusions. On October 25, 1949, Keith Dwight Millis, Albert Paul Gagnebin and Norman Boden Pilling received US patent 2,485,760 on a cast ferrous alloy for ductile iron production via magnesium treatment. Augustus F. Meehan was awarded a patent in January 1931 for inoculating iron with calcium silicide to produce ductile iron subsequently licensed as Meehanite, still produced in 2017. Metallurgy Ductile iron is not a single material but part of a group of materials which can be produced with a wide range of properties through control of their microstructure. The common defining characteristic of this group of materials is the shape of the graphite. In ductile irons, graphite is in the form of nodules rather than flakes as in grey iron. Whereas sharp graphite flakes create stress concentration points within the metal matrix, rounded nodules inhibit the creation of cracks, thus providing the enhanced ductility that gives the alloy its name. Nodule formation is achieved by adding nodulizing elements, most commonly magnesium (magnesium boils at 1100 °C and iron melts at 1500 °C) and, less often now, cerium (usually in the form of mischmetal). Tellurium has also been used. Yttrium, often a component of mischmetal, has also been studied as a possible nodulizer. Austempered ductile iron (ADI; i.e., austenite tempered) was discovered in the 1950s but was commercialized and achieved success only some years later. In ADI, the metallurgical structure is manipulated through a sophisticated heat treating process. Composition Other ductile iron compositions often have a small amount of sulfur as well. Carbon, 3.2–3.60% Silicon, 2.2–2.8% Manganese, 0.1–0.2% Magnesium, 0.03–0.04% Phosphorus, 0.005–0.04% Sulfur, 0.005–0.02% Copper, <0.40% Iron, balance Elements such as copper or tin may be added to increase tensile and yield strength while simultaneously reducing ductility. Improved corrosion resistance can be achieved by replacing 15–30% of the iron in the alloy with varying amounts of nickel, copper, or chromium. Silicon as a graphite formation element can be partially replaced by aluminum to provide better oxidation protection. Applications Much of the annual production of ductile iron is in the form of ductile iron pipe, used for water and sewer lines. It competes with polymeric materials such as PVC, HDPE, LDPE and polypropylene, which are all much lighter than steel or ductile iron; being softer and weaker, these require protection from physical damage. Ductile iron is specifically useful in many automotive components, where strength must surpass that of aluminum but steel is not necessarily required. Other major industrial applications include off-highway diesel trucks, class 8 trucks, agricultural tractors, and oil well pumps. In the wind power industry ductile iron is used for hubs and structural parts like machine frames. Ductile iron is suitable for large and complex shapes and high (fatigue) loads. Ductile iron is used in many grand piano harps (the iron plates to which high-tension piano strings are attached). See also Malleable iron References Bibliography External links Ductile Iron Society Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association Cast iron Ferrous alloys

Modulo operation

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In computing, the modulo operation returns the remainder or signed remainder of a division, after one number is divided by another (called the modulus of the operation). Given two positive numbers and , modulo (abbreviated as ) is the remainder of the Euclidean division of by , where is the dividend and is the divisor. The modulo operation is to be distinguished from the symbol , which refers to the modulus (or divisor) one is operating from. For example, the expression "5 mod 2" would evaluate to 1, because 5 divided by 2 has a quotient of 2 and a remainder of 1, while "9 mod 3" would evaluate to 0, because the division of 9 by 3 has a quotient of 3 and a remainder of 0; there is nothing to subtract from 9 after multiplying 3 times 3. Although typically performed with and both being integers, many computing systems now allow other types of numeric operands. The range of values for an integer modulo operation of is 0 to inclusive ( mod 1 is always 0; is undefined, possibly resulting in a division by zero error in some programming languages). See Modular arithmetic for an older and related convention applied in number theory. When exactly one of or is negative, the naive definition breaks down, and programming languages differ in how these values are defined. Variants of the definition In mathematics, the result of the modulo operation is an equivalence class, and any member of the class may be chosen as representative; however, the usual representative is the least positive residue, the smallest non-negative integer that belongs to that class (i.e., the remainder of the Euclidean division). However, other conventions are possible. Computers and calculators have various ways of storing and representing numbers; thus their definition of the modulo operation depends on the programming language or the underlying hardware. In nearly all computing systems, the quotient and the remainder of divided by satisfy the following conditions: However, this still leaves a sign ambiguity if the remainder is non-zero: two possible choices for the remainder occur, one negative and the other positive, and two possible choices for the quotient occur. In number theory, the positive remainder is always chosen, but in computing, programming languages choose depending on the language and the signs of or . Standard Pascal and ALGOL 68, for example, give a positive remainder (or 0) even for negative divisors, and some programming languages, such as C90, leave it to the implementation when either of or is negative (see the table under for details). modulo 0 is undefined in most systems, although some do define it as . As described by Leijen, However, truncated division satisfies the identity . Notation Some calculators have a function button, and many programming languages have a similar function, expressed as , for example. Some also support expressions that use "%", "mod", or "Mod" as a modulo or remainder operator, such as or . For environments lacking a similar function, any of the three definitions above can be used. Common pitfalls When the result of a modulo operation has the sign of the dividend (truncating definition), it can lead to surprising mistakes. For example, to test if an integer is odd, one might be inclined to test if the remainder by 2 is equal to 1: bool is_odd(int n) { return n % 2 == 1; } But in a language where modulo has the sign of the dividend, that is incorrect, because when (the dividend) is negative and odd, mod 2 returns −1, and the function returns false. One correct alternative is to test that the remainder is not 0 (because remainder 0 is the same regardless of the signs): bool is_odd(int n) { return n % 2 != 0; } Another alternative is to use the fact that for any odd number, the remainder may be either 1 or −1: bool is_odd(int n) { return n % 2 == 1 || n % 2 == -1; } Performance issues Modulo operations might be implemented such that a division with a remainder is calculated each time. For special cases, on some hardware, faster alternatives exist. For example, the modulo of powers of 2 can alternatively be expressed as a bitwise AND operation (assuming is a positive integer, or using a non-truncating definition): x % 2n == x & (2n - 1) Examples: In devices and software that implement bitwise operations more efficiently than modulo, these alternative forms can result in faster calculations. Compiler optimizations may recognize expressions of the form where is a power of two and automatically implement them as , allowing the programmer to write clearer code without compromising performance. This simple optimization is not possible for languages in which the result of the modulo operation has the sign of the dividend (including C), unless the dividend is of an unsigned integer type. This is because, if the dividend is negative, the modulo will be negative, whereas will always be positive. For these languages, the equivalence x % 2n == x < 0 ? x | ~(2n - 1) : x & (2n - 1) has to be used instead, expressed using bitwise OR, NOT and AND operations. Optimizations for general constant-modulus operations also exist by calculating the division first using the constant-divisor optimization. Properties (identities) Some modulo operations can be factored or expanded similarly to other mathematical operations. This may be useful in cryptography proofs, such as the Diffie–Hellman key exchange. Identity: . for all positive integer values of . If is a prime number which is not a divisor of , then , due to Fermat's little theorem. Inverse: . denotes the modular multiplicative inverse, which is defined if and only if and are relatively prime, which is the case when the left hand side is defined: . Distributive: . . Division (definition): , when the right hand side is defined (that is when and are coprime), and undefined otherwise. Inverse multiplication: . In programming languages In addition, many computer systems provide a functionality, which produces the quotient and the remainder at the same time. Examples include the x86 architecture's instruction, the C programming language's function, and Python's function. Generalizations Modulo with offset Sometimes it is useful for the result of modulo to lie not between 0 and , but between some number and . In that case, is called an offset. There does not seem to be a standard notation for this operation, so let us tentatively use . We thus have the following definition: just in case and . Clearly, the usual modulo operation corresponds to zero offset: . The operation of modulo with offset is related to the floor function as follows: (To see this, let . We first show that . It is in general true that for all integers ; thus, this is true also in the particular case when ; but that means that , which is what we wanted to prove. It remains to be shown that . Let and be the integers such that with (see Euclidean division). Then , thus . Now take and add to both sides, obtaining . But we've seen that , so we are done. □) The modulo with offset is implemented in Mathematica as  . Implementing other modulo definitions using truncation Despite the mathematical elegance of Knuth's floored division and Euclidean division, it is generally much more common to find a truncated division-based modulo in programming languages. Leijen provides the following algorithms for calculating the two divisions given a truncated integer division: /* Euclidean and Floored divmod, in the style of C's ldiv() */ typedef struct { /* This structure is part of the C stdlib.h, but is reproduced here for clarity */ long int quot; long int rem; } ldiv_t; /* Euclidean division */ inline ldiv_t ldivE(long numer, long denom) { /* The C99 and C++11 languages define both of these as truncating. */ long q = numer / denom; long r = numer % denom; if (r < 0) { if (denom > 0) { q = q - 1; r = r + denom; } else { q = q + 1; r = r - denom; } } return (ldiv_t){.quot = q, .rem = r}; } /* Floored division */ inline ldiv_t ldivF(long numer, long denom) { long q = numer / denom; long r = numer % denom; if ((r > 0 && denom < 0) || (r < 0 && denom > 0)) { q = q - 1; r = r + denom; } return (ldiv_t){.quot = q, .rem = r}; } For both cases, the remainder can be calculated independently of the quotient, but not vice versa. The operations are combined here to save screen space, as the logical branches are the same. See also Modulo (disambiguation) and modulo (jargon) – many uses of the word modulo, all of which grew out of Carl F. Gauss's introduction of modular arithmetic in 1801. Modulo (mathematics), general use of the term in mathematics Modular exponentiation Turn (unit) Notes References External links Modulorama, animation of a cyclic representation of multiplication tables (explanation in French) Computer arithmetic Articles with example C++ code Operators (programming) Modular arithmetic Operations on numbers de:Division mit Rest#Modulo

Area code 252

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Area code 252 is a telephone area code in the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) for the northeastern corner of the U.S. state of North Carolina. The numbering plan area comprises the municipalities of Kinston, Elizabeth City, Greenville, Henderson, Kitty Hawk, New Bern, Roanoke Rapids, Rocky Mount, Morehead City, Warrenton and Wilson. The area code was created on March 22, 1998 in a split of area code 919. See also List of North Carolina area codes List of North American area codes References External links List of exchanges from AreaCodeDownload.com, 252 Area Code Telecommunications-related introductions in 1998 252 252

Bacterial capsule

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The bacteria capsule is a large structure common to many bacteria. It is a polysaccharide layer that lies outside the cell envelope, and is thus deemed part of the outer envelope of a bacterial cell. It is a well-organized layer, not easily washed off, and it can be the cause of various diseases. The capsule—which can be found in both gram negative and gram-positive bacteria—is different from the second lipid membrane – bacterial outer membrane, which contains lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins and is found only in gram-negative bacteria. When the amorphous viscid secretion (that makes up the capsule) diffuses into the surrounding medium and remains as a loose undemarcated secretion, it is known as a slime layer. Capsule and slime layer are sometimes summarized under the term glycocalyx. Composition Most bacterial capsules are composed of polysaccharide, but some species use other materials, such as poly-D-glutamic acid in Bacillus anthracis. Because most capsules are so tightly packed, they are difficult to stain because most standard stains cannot penetrate the capsule. To visualize encapsulated bacteria using a microscope, a sample is treated with a dark stain, such as India ink. The structure of the capsule prevents the stain from penetrating the cell. When viewed, bacterial capsules appear as a bright halo around the cell on a dark background. Function The capsule is considered a virulence factor because it enhances the ability of bacteria to cause disease (e.g. prevents phagocytosis). The capsule can protect cells from engulfment by eukaryotic cells, such as macrophages. A capsule-specific antibody may be required for phagocytosis to occur. Capsules also contain water which protects the bacteria against desiccation. They also exclude bacterial viruses and most hydrophobic toxic materials such as detergents. Immunity to one capsule type does not result in immunity to the other types. Capsules also help cells adhere to surfaces. As a group where the capsule is present they are known as polysaccharide encapsulated bacteria or encapsulated bacteria. Diversity The capsule is found most commonly among gram-negative bacteria: Escherichia coli (in some strains) Neisseria meningitidis Klebsiella pneumoniae Haemophilus influenzae Pseudomonas aeruginosa Salmonella Acinetobacter baumannii However, some gram-positive bacteria may also have a capsule: Bacillus megaterium for example, synthesizes a capsule composed of polypeptide and polysaccharides. Bacillus anthracis Streptococcus pyogenes synthesizes a hyaluronic acid capsule. Streptococcus pneumoniae has at least 91 different capsular serotypes. These serotypes are the basis for the pneumococcal vaccines. Streptococcus agalactiae produces a polysaccharide capsule of nine antigenic types that all contain sialic acid (Ia, Ib, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII). Staphylococcus epidermidis Staphylococcus aureus The yeast Cryptococcus neoformans, though not a bacterium, has a similar capsule. Capsules too small to be seen with an ordinary microscope, such as the M protein of Streptococcus pyogenes, are called microcapsules. Demonstration of capsule India ink staining: the capsule appears as a clear halo around the bacterium as the ink can't penetrate the capsule. Maneval's capsule stain: the capsule appears as a clear halo between the pink-stained bacterium and the bluish-grey stained background. The background stain is the acidic stain Congo red (which changes color to bluish-grey due to the pH), and the pink stain is acid fuschin. Serological methods: Capsular material is antigenic and can be demonstrated by mixing it with a specific anticapsular serum. When examined under the microscope, the capsule appears 'swollen' due to an increase in its refractivity. This phenomenon is the basis of quellung reaction. Use in vaccination Vaccination using capsular material is effective against some organisms (e.g., H. influenzae type b, S. pneumoniae, and N. meningitidis). However, polysaccharides are not highly antigenic, especially in children, so many capsular vaccines contain polysaccharides conjugated with protein carriers, such as the tetanus toxoid or diphtheria toxoid. This stimulates a much more robust immune response. See also Bacterial cell structure Quellung reaction, a method to visualize capsule under a microscope References Bacteriology

Berenice Troglodytica

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Berenice Troglodytica, also called Berenike (Greek: ) or Baranis, is an ancient seaport of Egypt on the western shore of the Red Sea. It is situated about 825 km south of Suez, 260 km east of Aswan in Upper Egypt and 140 km south of Marsa Alam. It was founded in 275 BCE by Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–246 BCE), who named it after his mother, Berenice I of Egypt. A high mountain range runs along the African coast and separates the Nile Valley from the Red Sea; Berenice was sited upon a narrow rim of shore between the mountains and the Red Sea, at the head of the Sinus Immundus, a south-facing bay sheltered on the north by a high peninsula then called Lepte Extrema, and to the south by a chain of small islands scattered across the mouth of the bay. One of them was called the Island of Ophiodes () and was one of a few sources of gemstones local to Berenice. The harbour is marginal, but was improved by engineering. Etymology The name Troglodytica refers to the native people of the region, the "Troglodytai" or "cave dwellers". Although the name is attested by several ancient writers, the more ancient Ptolemaic inscriptions read Trogodytai, which Huntingford (1980) speculated could be derived from the same root as Tuareg. It is possible that later copyists confused this name with the more common term Troglodytai. History Ptolemaic era Berenice was prosperous and quite famous in antiquity. The city is noted by most ancient geographers, including Strabo, Pliny the Elder, and Stephanus of Byzantium. Its prosperity after the third century was mostly due to three reasons: patronage by the Ptolemaic kings safe anchorage being at the eastern terminus of the main road from Upper Egypt. The other terminus of that road is Coptos (now Qift), an Egyptian city on the Nile, which made Berenice and Myos Hormos the two main shipping centers for trade between Aethiopia and Egypt on the one hand, and Syria, Tamilakkam, and Tamraparni (ancient Sri Lanka) on the other. The road across the desert from Coptos was 258 Roman miles long, or 11 days' journey. Watering stations (Greek hydreumata, see Hadhramaut) were built along the road; the wells and resting places for caravans are listed by Pliny, and in the Itineraries. In the 19th century Belzoni found traces of several of the watering stations. Berenice was able to generate some commerce locally: The mines of Gebel Zabara and Wadi Sikait in the adjacent mountains, and the island of Ophiodes (now Zabargad Island) in the mouth of Berenice's harbor, were rich sources of gemstones (peridot?) at that time called “topaz” and “emerald”. Imperial Roman era From the 1st century BCE until the 2nd century CE, Berenice was one of the critical way-stations for trade between India, Sri Lanka, Arabia, and Upper Egypt. It was connected to Antinoöpolis on the River Nile in Lower Egypt by the Via Hadriana in 137 CE. The trade from Berenice along the Red Sea coast is described in the 1st century CE travelogue Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, written by a Greek merchant based in Alexandria. The Periplus states that "on the right-hand coast next below Berenice is the country of the Berbers", thereby placing Berenice Troglodytica just north of ancient Barbara. In the 4th century Berenice again become an active port. Under the Roman administration, Berenice itself formed an entire district with its own prefect, who was called Praefectus Berenicidis, or P. montis Berenicidis. Despite its favorable location, after the 6th century the port was abandoned and the bay has since nearly filled with sediment; it has a sand-bar at its entrance that can only be crossed by shallow-draft boats. The gemsites on Zabargad Island are flooded. 19th century archaeology In 1818, the ruins of Berenice were identified by Giovanni Battista Belzoni, confirming an earlier opinion of d'Anville. Belzoni wrote that the city measured from north to south, and from east to west. He estimated the ancient population at 10,000. Since then, several excavations have been undertaken. The most important ruin is a temple; the remnants of its sculptures and inscriptions preserve the name of Tiberius and the head magistrate of the Jews in Alexandria under Ptolemaic and Roman rule. Excavations have also produced small figures of many deities, some obscure, including a (goddess?) Alabarch or Arabarch. The temple is Egyptian style, made of sandstone and a soft calcareous stone. It is long, and wide. A portion of its walls are sculptured with well-executed basso relieves, of Greek workmanship; occasionally the walls are decorated with hieroglyphics. Recent archaeology Excavations were launched at Berenike in 1994 by a team of archaeologists from the University of Delaware led by Prof. Steven E. Sidebotham, with partners from several other institutions and continued until 2001. Work was resumed by teams from the University of Delaware and the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw, Poland, in the winter of 2007–2008 and is still continuing. Apart from the excavations, non-invasive magnetic prospecting was carried out. Tomasz Herbich from the Institute of Archeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences made a magnetic map of the western part of the site. A large number of significant finds have been made providing evidence of the cargo from the Malabar Coast and the presence of Tamil people from South India and Jaffna being at this last outpost of the Roman Empire. "Among the unexpected discoveries at Berenike were a range of ancient Indian goods, including the largest single concentration (7.55 kg) of black peppercorns ever recovered in the classical Mediterranean world (“imported from southern India” and found inside a large vessel made of Nile silt in a temple courtyard); substantial quantities of Indian-made fine ware and kitchen cooking ware and Indian style pottery; Indian-made sail cloth, basketry, matting, etc. from trash dumps; a large quantity of teak wood, black pepper, coconuts, beads made of precious and semi-precious stones, cameo blanks; “a Tamil Brahmi graffito mentioning Korra, a South Indian chieftain”; evidence that “inhabitants from Tamil South India (which then included most of Kerala) were living in Berenike, at least in the early Roman period”; evidence that the Tamil population implied the probable presence of Buddhist worshippers; evidence of Indians at another Roman port 300 km north of Berenike; Indian-made ceramics on the Nile road; a rock inscription mentioning an Indian passing through en route; “abundant evidence for the use of ships built and rigged in India”; and proof “that teak wood (endemic to South India), found in buildings in Berenike, had clearly been reused” (from dismantled ships)." In 2009 the first find of frankincense was reported and "two blocks of resin from the Syrian fir tree (Abies cilicica), one weighting about 190 g and the other about 339 g, recovered from 1st century CE contexts in one of the harbor trenches. Produced in areas of greater Syria and Asia Minor, this resin and its oil derivative were used in mummification, as an antiseptic, a diuretic, to treat wrinkles, extract worms and promote hair growth."“Extensive and intensive research initiated by Iwona Zych in the area of the southern harbor bay has uncovered workshop buildings, remains of ship boards, ropes, mooring lines, as well as a so-called harbor temenos with two structures probably of sacral character – the Lotus Temple and the Square Feature. Berenike in the early Roman period was a vibrant town in the desert where the greatest fortunes of the time were made. The archaeological excavations have uncovered remains of luxury goods, precious glass, bronze figurines, ostraca, papyri.” The expedition also discovered a cemetery of small animals dated , which has been excavated by Marta and Piotr Osypiński from the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences since 2011. In 2019, a 2,300 year-old fortress was discovered by a team of archaeologists from the University of Warsaw and the Polish Academy of Sciences. The structure, built near the southern frontier, had thicker walls to the west, and served as a hub to transport war elephants from East Africa. In the same year was excavated an Isis temple and there, there were found fragments of a statue of the Meroitic god Sebiumeker. In 2020–2021, 2,000 year-old remains of monkeys, cats, and dogs were discoverer at Berenike to be considered the oldest pet cemetery in the world. See also Red Sea Riviera Berenice Epideires Footnotes References I. Zych, J. K. Rądkowska (2019). "Exotic cults in Roman Berenike? An investigation into two temples in the harbour temenos". [In] A. Manzo, C. Zazzaro, & D. Joyce de Falco (eds), Stories of Globalisation: The Red Sea and the Persian Gulf from late prehistory to early modernity, Selected Papers of Red Sea Project VII, Brill nv, Leiden, NL. pp. 225–245 J. Then-Obłuska (2018). "Beads and pendants from the Hellenistic to early Byzantine Red Sea port of Berenike, Egypt. Season 2014 and 2015." Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean, 27 (1), pp. 203–234 M. Woźniak (2017). "Shaping a city and its defenses: fortifications of Hellenistic Berenike Trogodytika." Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean, 26 (2), pp. 43–60. I. Zych (2017). "The harbor of early Roman “Imperial” Berenike: overview of excavations from 2009 to 2015." Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean, 26 (2), pp. 93–132. M. Osypińska & P. Osypiński (2017). "New evidence for the emergence of a human–pet relation in early Roman Berenike (1st–2nd century AD)". Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean, 26 (2), pp. 167–192. S. E. Sidebotham, I. Zych, J. K. Rądkowska, & M. Woźniak (2015). "The Berenike Project: Hellenistic fort, Roman harbor and late Roman temple. Archaeological fieldwork and studies in the 2012 and 2013 seasons". Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean, 24 (1), pp. 297–322. David Meredith (Dec 1957). "Berenice Troglodytica". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, vol. 43, pp. 56–70 S. Sidebotham and W. Wendrich, (2001). "Roms Tor am Roten Meer nach Arabien und Indien". AW 32 (3), p. 251-263. Berenike Project run by Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw External links Fordham.edu: Periplus of the Erythraean Sea — Schoff translation. The Berenike Project Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Egypt Roman sites in Egypt Ptolemaic colonies in the Red Sea Buildings and structures completed in the 3rd century BC Archaeological sites in Egypt Former populated places in Egypt Red Sea Governorate 3rd-century BC establishments in Egypt

Mike Berry (singer)

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Mike Berry (born Michael Hubert Bourne, 24 September 1942) is an English singer and actor. He is known for his top ten hits "Don't You Think It's Time" (1963) and "The Sunshine of Your Smile" (1980) in a singing career spanning nearly 60 years. He became an actor in the 1970s, and was best known for his appearances as Mr. Spooner on the British sitcom Are You Being Served? in the early 1980s. Early life Berry was born in Northampton. His parents grew up in Rhodesia but met in England and his mother was an amateur actress and singer. Six months after his birth his mother moved with him to North Wales for two years. The family then moved to Stoke Newington where he attended William Pattern Primary School and passed his eleven plus exam, winning a scholarship to Hackney Downs Grocers' School. He left the school aged 16 without qualifications to become an apprentice compositor. Singer Berry was a fan of skiffle and rock and roll music as a teenager and he formed his own skiffle group called "The Rebels" and then introduced electric guitars as "Kenny Lord and the Statesmen." Joe Meek became their recording manager and producer, and he signed up a group called the Stormers as his new back-up band, naming the new group "Mike Berry and the Outlaws." He had three hits in the 1960s in the UK Singles Chart, his most successful being "Don't You Think It's Time", reaching No. 6 in January 1963. His "Tribute To Buddy Holly" is also noted for having been banned by the BBC for being "morbid." The hit singles were all produced by Joe Meek. In the mid-1970s he returned to the charts in the Netherlands and Belgium, as pirate radio station Radio Mi Amigo and Radio Veronica played his new record material, released on Dutch record label Pink Elephant Records. "Don't Be Cruel" made No. 14 in the Dutch Nationale Hitparade in May 1975. His next record, a remake of his 1960 debut song "Tribute to Buddy Holly", hit No. 2 in October of that same year. In 1977, "I'm A Rocker," released on Flemish record label Scramble Records (owned by Radio Mi Amigo DJ Norbert), failed to chart. In 1980, he had a chart success in the UK, with "The Sunshine of Your Smile," a cover version of a romantic song which was produced by Chas Hodges; this had originally been written before the First World War and recorded by Jessie Broughton in about 1915. In 1985, his song "Everyone's A Wally" was included as the b-side to the video game by Mikro-Gen of the same name. His most recent CD was About Time Too!, recorded in Nashville, Tennessee with The Crickets and released on the UK Rollercoaster Records label, Berry's label of choice since their reissue of Joe Meek productions and new material from the 1990s. In 1988, Berry co-wrote "This is the Kiss" with Mel Simpson which was chosen to be among the final eight songs in "A Song for Europe" (the UK selection vehicle for the Eurovision Song Contest) performed by Two-Che. The song placed second with 73,785 televotes. In 2016, Berry auditioned for the fifth series of The Voice but was not successful. In 2017, Berry went on a UK tour with The Solid Gold Rock'n'Roll Show, which also featured Eden Kane, Marty Wilde, Mark Wynter and the Wildcats. In 2019, he toured again with The Solid Gold Rock'n'Roll Show, alongside Marty Wilde, Charlie Gracie, Nancy Ann Lee (Little Miss Sixties) and the Wildcats. Acting career In the 1970s, Berry developed a career as an actor and he appeared in many television commercials. In 1979, he was cast as the father (Mr. Peters) of the two children in the TV version of the Worzel Gummidge books, along with Jon Pertwee and Una Stubbs. In 1981, he replaced Trevor Bannister's character (Mr. Lucas) in the British sitcom Are You Being Served? and stayed until the end of the show's run in 1985. Upon the death of Nicholas Smith in December 2015, he is the lone surviving actor from the show who played a major recurring character. Berry also starred in a series of commercials for Blue Riband in the 1980s. His most recent film work was acting in Julie and the Cadillacs (1999). Family His brother is the actor, performer and activist Bette Bourne. Discography Singles "Will You Love Me Tomorrow" / "My Baby Doll" (with The Outlaws – Decca 11314 – 1961) "Tribute to Buddy Holly" / "What's the Matter" (with The Outlaws – HMV 912 – 1961) - UK No. 24 "It's Just a Matter of Time" / "Little Boy Blue" (with The Admirals (Outlaws) – HMV 979 – 1962) "Every Little Kiss" / "How Many Times" (HMV 1042 – 1962) "Don't You Think it's Time" / "Loneliness" (with The Outlaws – HMV 1105 – 1962) - UK No. 6 "My Little Baby" / "You'll Do It You'll Fall in Love" (with The Outlaws – HMV 1142 – 1963) - UK No. 34 "It Really Doesn't Matter" / "Try a Little Bit Harder" (HMV 1194 – 1963) "Intro" / "Brown Eyed Handsome Man" (Graham Dean / The Innocents - Columbia 1536 – 1963) "My Little Baby" / "More Than I Can Say" (with The Innocents – Columbia 1536 – 1963) "La Bamba" / "Don't You Think it's Time" (with The Innocents – Columbia 1536 – 1963) "On My Mind" / "This Little Girl" (with The Innocents – HMV 1257 – 1964) "Lovesick" / "Letters of Love" (with The Innocents – HMV 1284 – 1964) "Who Will It Be" / "Talk" (with The Innocents – HMV 1314 – 1964) "Two Lovers" / "Don't Try to Stand in My Way" (HMV 1362 – 1964) "That's All I Ever Want from You" / "She Didn't Care" (HMV 1449 – 1965) "It Comes and Goes" / "Gonna Fall in Love" (HMV 1484 – 1965) "Warm Baby" / "Just Thought I´d Phone" (HMV 1530 – 1966) "Raining in My Heart" / "Eyes" (Polydor 56182 – 1967) "Can't You Hear My Heartbeat" / "Alice" (D-Metronome – 1967) "Don't Be Cruel" / "It's All Over" (Pink Elephant Records - 1975) "Tribute to Buddy Holly" (remake) / "Dial My Up" (Pink Elephant Records - 1975) "I'm a Rocker" / "It's a Hard Hard Hard World" (Scramble Records - 1977) "Don't Ever Change" (Polydor - 1978) "The Sunshine of Your Smile" (Polydor - 1980) - UK No. 9 "If I Could Only Make You Care" (Polydor - 1980) - UK No. 37 "Memories" (Polydor - 1981) - UK No. 55 "Diana" (Polydor - 1981) "What'll I Do" (Polydor - 1982) "Everyone's a Wally" (B-side to cassette release of computer game - 1985) "It's Time For Mike Berry - Vinyl EP" - (Rollercoaster Records - 1990) "Sounds Of The Sixties" (Rollercoaster Records - 1992) "Rock'n'Roll Daze" (Rollercoaster Records - 1998) "Keep Your Hands To Yourself - Live In Sweden" (Rollercoaster Records - 2001) "About Time Too! - with The Crickets, Recorded in Nashville" (Rollercoaster Records -2005) "Befor I Grow Too Old - CD EP" - (Rollercoaster Records - 2006) "Hi There Darlin'! Merry Christmas" - Mr. Bert Spooner with instrumental accompaniment by Mike Berry & The Outlaws - (Rollercoaster Records - 2007) "Sunshine Of Your Smile - Hits and Memories from the 1980s" - (Rollercoaster Records - 2016) "Drift Away" - (Rollercoaster Records - 2019) References External links [ Mike Berry biography @ Allmusic.com] Mike Berry discography Interview with Mike Berry, The Spectrum, Accessed July 6, 2017 1942 births Living people English male television actors English male singers English pop singers People from Northampton People educated at Hackney Downs School 20th-century English male actors 20th-century English singers British male comedy actors 20th-century British male singers

Night Safari, Singapore

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The Night Safari is the world's first nocturnal zoo and is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Singapore. The concept of a nocturnal park in Singapore was suggested in the 1980s by the former executive chairman of the Singapore Zoo, Dr Ong Swee Law. Constructed at a cost of S$63 million, the Night Safari was officially opened on 26 May 1994 and occupies of secondary rainforest adjacent to the Singapore Zoo and Upper Seletar Reservoir. The Night Safari currently houses over 900 animals representing over 100 species, of which 41% are threatened species. The Night Safari is managed by Mandai Wildlife Reserve, and about 1.3 million visitors visit the safari per year. The Night Safari received its 11 millionth visitor on 29 May 2007. Highlights Unlike traditional nocturnal houses, which reverse the day-night cycle of animals so they will be active by day, the Night Safari is an entire open-air zoo set in a humid tropical forest that is only open at night. It is divided into seven geographical zones, which can be explored either on foot via four walking trails, or by tram. The animals of the Night Safari, ranging from chital deer and gaur to Indian rhinoceros and pangolins to lions and Asian elephants, are made visible by lighting that resembles moonlight. Although it is brighter than full moonlight by a few orders of magnitude, it is dim enough not to disturb nocturnal and crepuscular animals' behaviour. London based lighting designer Simon Corder created the lighting for Night Safari. The naturalistic enclosures simulate the animals' native habitat. Animals are separated from visitors with natural barriers, rather than caged, similar to the Singapore Zoo's open concept. Instead of vertical prison-like cages, cattle grids were laid all over the park to prevent hoofed animals from moving one habitat to another. These are grille-like metal sheets with gaps wide enough for animals' legs to go through. Moats were designed to look like streams and rivers to enable fishing cats and servals to be put on show in open areas, and hot wires were designed to look like twigs to keep animals away from the boundaries of their enclosures. Cultural performances are a regular feature at the safari, and include tribal dances, blowpipe demonstrations and fire eating displays. Thumbuakar Performance This show is performed by trained actors acting as tribe members of Africa. The actors amaze viewers by dancing and "eating" fire. By drinking a certain hydrogenised formula, they can put on a magnificent fire-blowing act. Creatures of the Night Show This show is a performance presented by the animals in the Night Safari. Civets show of their excellent sense of smell, a spotted hyena displays its powerful jaws, otters spread awareness to recycle reusable items and many more animals. Food and beverage outlets in the Night Safari include Ulu Ulu Safari Restaurant, Bongo Burgers, and Casa Italia. Visitors can dine in the "Evening in the Wild" at Night Safari's only Tepee Tent. Also experience dining on the move with the Cocktail Safari Express and Gourmet Safari Express. Awards ASEAN Tourism Association – Aseanta Awards For Excellence (1995) Best New Attraction in ASEAN Singapore Tourism Awards Top 10 Best Family Experience (2006) Best Leisure Attraction Experience (2003, 2004, 2006) Leisure Attraction of the Year (1996, 1997, 1999, 2000) Best Trail Marshall of the Year, Mohammed Munzir Aziz. (2008) Best Trail Marshall of the Year, Mohammad Ridhwan Shahril. (2009) Best Ground crew of the Year, Vijayeswaran Visvalingam. (2009) Best Animal Caretaker of the Year, Hadi Akmal (2015) Transportation Night Safari is not served directly by any MRT line, with the nearest station being Springleaf MRT station which opened on 28 August 2021. There are three bus services operated by SBS Transit and SMRT Buses which calls at the bus stop near to the Zoo. Bus A shuttle service, known as the Mandai Khatib Shuttle, plies daily between Khatib MRT station and the Zoo. A one-way trip cost $1 for everyone above the age of three. References Lin Xinyi, "Night Safari: From trailblazer to tourism icon", The Straits Times, 31 May 2007 External links Night Safari official website Map of Night Safari Safari parks Tourist attractions in Singapore Zoos in Singapore 1994 establishments in Singapore Zoos established in 1994

French language in Canada

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French is the mother tongue of approximately 7.2 million Canadians (20.6 per cent of the Canadian population, second to English at 56 per cent) according to the 2016 Canadian Census. Most Canadian native speakers of French live in Quebec, the only province where French is the majority language and the only province in which it is the sole official language. Of Quebec's people, 71.2 percent are native francophones and 95 percent speak French as their first or second language. About one million native francophones live in other provinces, forming a sizable minority in New Brunswick, which is officially bilingual; about a third of New Brunswick's people are francophones. There are also French-speaking communities in Manitoba and Ontario, where francophones are about 4 percent of the population, and smaller communities (about 1 to 2 percent of the population) in Alberta, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Saskatchewan. Many of these communities are supported by French-language institutions. In 2016, 29.8 percent of Canadians reported being able to conduct a conversation in French. By the 1969 Official Languages Act, both English and French are recognized as official languages in Canada and granted equal status by the Canadian government. While French, with no specification as to dialect or variety, has the status of one of Canada's two official languages at the federal government level, English is the native language of most Canadians. The federal government provides services and operates in both languages. The provincial governments of Ontario, New Brunswick, and Manitoba are required to provide services in French where provision is justified by the number of francophones. French is also an official language of all three Canadian territories: the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon. Whatever that status of the French or English languages in a province or territory, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms requires all provinces and territories to provide primary and secondary education to their official-language minorities. History and evolution 16th century In 1524, the Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano, working for Italian bankers in France, explored the American coast from Florida to Cape Breton Island. In 1529, Verrazzano mapped a part of the coastal region of the North American continent under the name Nova Gallia (New France). In 1534, King Francis I of France sent Jacques Cartier to explore previously unfamiliar lands. Cartier found the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, sealed an alliance with the local people and obtained passage to go farther. During his second expedition (1535–1536), Cartier came upon the Saint Lawrence River, a path into the heart of the continent. However, Cartier failed to establish a permanent colony in the area, and war in Europe kept France from further colonization through the end of the 16th century. 17th century At the beginning of the 17th century, French settlements and private companies were established in the area that is now eastern Canada. In 1605, Samuel de Champlain founded Port Royal (Acadia), and in 1608 he founded Quebec City. In 1642, the foundation of Ville Marie, the settlement that would eventually become Montreal, completed the occupation of the territory. In 1634, Quebec contained 200 settlers who were principally involved in the fur trade. The trade was profit-making and the city was on the point of becoming more than a mere temporary trading post. In 1635, Jesuits founded the secondary school of Quebec for the education of children. In 1645, the Compagnie des Habitants was created, uniting the political and economic leaders of the colony. French was the language of all the non-native people. In 1685, the revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV (1654–1715), which had legalized freedom of religion of the Reformed Church, caused the emigration from France of 300,000 Huguenots (French Calvinists) to other countries of Europe and to North America. 18th century With the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, the British began their domination of eastern North America, some parts of which had been controlled by the French. The British took mainland Nova Scotia in 1713. Present-day Maine fell to the British during Father Rale's War, while present-day New Brunswick fell after Father Le Loutre's War. In 1755 the majority of the French-speaking inhabitants of Nova Scotia were deported to the Thirteen Colonies. After 1758, they were deported to England and France. The Treaty of Paris (1763) completed the British takeover, removing France from Canadian territory, except for Saint Pierre and Miquelon at the entrance of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The French language was relegated to second rank as far as trade and state communications were concerned. Out of necessity, the educated class learned the English language and became progressively bilingual, but the great majority of the French-speaking inhabitants continued to speak only French, and their population increased. Anglicization of the French population failed, and it became obvious that coexistence was required. In 1774, Parliament passed the Quebec Act, restoring French civil laws and abrogating the Test Act, which had been used to suppress Catholicism. Canada as a federal state In 1791, Parliament repealed the Quebec Act and gave the king authority to divide the Canadian colony into two new provinces: Upper Canada, which later became Ontario, and Lower Canada, which became Quebec. In 1867, three colonies of British North America agreed to form a federal state, which was named Canada. It was composed of four provinces: Ontario, formerly Upper Canada Quebec, formerly Lower Canada Nova Scotia New Brunswick, former Acadian territory In Quebec, French became again the official language; until then it was the vernacular language but with no legal status. Dialects and varieties As a consequence of geographical seclusion and as a result of British conquest, the French language in Canada presents three different but related main dialects. They share certain features that distinguish them from European French. All of these dialects mix, to varying degrees, elements from regional languages and folk dialects spoken in France at the time of colonization. For instance, the origins of Quebec French lie in 17th- and 18th-century Parisian French, influenced by folk dialects of the early modern period and other regional languages (such as Norman, Picard and Poitevin-Saintongeais) that French colonists had brought to New France. It has been asserted that the influence of these dialects has been stronger on Acadian French than on French spoken in Quebec. The three dialects can also be historically and geographically associated with three of the five former colonies of New France: Canada, Acadia and Terre-Neuve (Newfoundland). In addition, there is a mixed language known as Michif, which is based on Cree and French. It is spoken by Métis communities in Manitoba and Saskatchewan as well as within adjacent areas of the United States. Immigration after World War II has brought francophone immigrants from around the world, and with them other French dialects. Francophones across Canada Quebec Quebec is the only province whose sole official language is French. Today, 71.2 percent of Quebecers are first language francophones. About 95 percent of Quebecers speak French. However, many of the services the provincial government provides are available in English for the sizeable anglophone population of the province (notably in Montreal). For native French speakers, Quebec French is noticeably different in pronunciation and vocabulary from the French of France, sometimes called Metropolitan French, but they are easily mutually intelligible in their formal varieties, and after moderate exposure, in most of their informal ones as well. The differences are primarily due to changes that have occurred in Quebec French and Parisian French since the 18th century, when Britain gained possession of Canada. Different regions of Quebec have their own varieties: Gaspé Peninsula, Côte-Nord, Quebec City, Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean, Outaouais, and Abitibi-Témiscamingue have differences in pronunciation as well as in vocabulary. For example, depending on one's region, the ordinary word for "kettle" can be or . In Quebec, the French language is of paramount importance. For example, the stop signs on the roads are written (which has the literal meaning of "stop" in French), even if other French-speaking countries, like France, use STOP. On a similar note, movies originally made in other languages than French (mostly movies originally made in English) are more literally named in Quebec than they are in France (e.g. The movie The Love Guru is called in France, but in Quebec it is called ). The Maritimes The colonists living in what are now the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were principally constituted of Bretons, Normans, and Basques. Conquered by the English, they suffered massive deportations to the United States and France. Others went into exile to Canada or to nearby islands. Those who stayed were persecuted. At the end of the 18th century, more liberal measures granted new lands to those who had stayed, and measures were taken to promote the return of numerous exiled people from Canada and Miquelon. The number of Acadians rose rapidly, to the point of gaining representation in the Legislative Assembly. French is one of the official languages, with English, of the province of New Brunswick. Apart from Quebec, this is the only other Canadian province that recognizes French as an official language. Approximately one-third of New Brunswickers are francophone, by far the largest Acadian population in Canada. The Acadian community is concentrated in primarily rural areas along the border with Quebec and the eastern coast of the province. Francophones in the Madawaska area may also be identified as Brayon, although sociologists have disputed whether the Brayons represent a distinct francophone community, a subgroup of the Acadians or an extraprovincial community of Québécois. The only major Acadian population centre is Moncton, home to the main campus of the Université de Moncton. Francophones are, however, in the minority in Moncton. In addition to New Brunswick, Acadian French has speakers in portions of mainland Quebec and in the Atlantic provinces of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland. In these provinces, the percentage of francophones is much smaller than in New Brunswick. In some communities, French is an endangered language. Linguists do not agree about the origin of Acadian French. Acadian French is influenced by the langues d'oïl. The dialect contains, among other features, the alveolar r and the pronunciation of the final syllable in the plural form of the verb in the third person. Acadia is the only place outside Jersey (a Channel Island close to mainland Normandy) where Jèrriais speakers can be found. Ontario Although French is the native language of just over half a million Canadians in Ontario, francophone Ontarians represent only 4.7 per cent of the province's population. They are concentrated primarily in the Eastern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario regions, near the border with Quebec, although they are also present in smaller numbers throughout the province. Francophone Ontarians form part of a larger cultural group known as Franco-Ontarians, of whom only 60 per cent still speak the language at home. The city of Ottawa counts the greatest number of Franco-Ontarians in the province. Franco-Ontarians are originally from a first wave of immigration from France, from a second wave from Quebec. The third wave comes from Quebec, but also from Haiti, Morocco, Africa, etc. The province has no official language defined in law, although it is a largely English-speaking province. Ontario law requires that the provincial Legislative Assembly operate in both English and French (individuals can speak in the Assembly in the official language of their choice), and requires that all provincial statutes and bills be made available in both English and French. Furthermore, under the French Language Services Act, individuals are entitled to communicate with the head or central office of any provincial government department or agency in French, as well as to receive all government services in French in 25 designated areas in the province, selected according to minority population criteria. The provincial government of Ontario's website is bilingual. Residents of Ottawa, Toronto, Windsor, Sudbury and Timmins can receive services from their municipal government in the official language of their choice. There are also several French-speaking communities on military bases in Ontario, such as the one at CFB Trenton. These communities have been founded by francophone Canadians in the Canadian Forces who live together in military residences. The term Franco-Ontarian accepts two interpretations. According to the first one, it includes all French speakers of Ontario, wherever they come from. According to second one, it includes all French Canadians born in Ontario, whatever their level of French is. The use of French among Franco-Ontarians is in decline due to the omnipresence of the English language in a lot of fields. Newfoundland The island was discovered by European powers by John Cabot in 1497. Newfoundland was annexed by England in 1583. It is the first British possession in North America. In 1610, the Frenchmen became established in the peninsula of Avalon and went to war against the Englishmen. In 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht acknowledged the sovereignty of the Englishmen. The origin of Franco-Newfoundlanders is double: the first ones to arrive are especially of Breton origin, attracted by the fishing possibilities. Then, from the 19th century, the Acadians who came from the Cape Breton Island and from the Magdalen Islands, an archipelago of nine small islands belonging to Quebec, become established. Up to the middle of the 20th century, Breton fishers, who had Breton as their mother tongue, but who had been educated in French came to settle. This Breton presence can explain differences between the Newfoundland French and the Acadian French. In the 1970s, the French language appears in the school of Cape St. George in the form of a bilingual education. In the 1980s, classes of French for native French speakers are organized there. Western Canada Manitoba also has a significant Franco-Manitoban community, centred especially in the St. Boniface area of Winnipeg, but also in numerous surrounding towns. The provincial government of Manitoba boasts the only bilingual website of the Prairies; the Canadian constitution makes French an official language in Manitoba for the legislature and courts. Saskatchewan also has a Fransaskois community, as does Alberta with its Franco-Albertans, and British Columbia hosts the Franco-Columbians. Michif, a dialect of French originating in Western Canada, is a unique mixed language derived from Cree and French. It is spoken by a small number of Métis living mostly in Manitoba and in North Dakota. Northern Canada French is an official language in each of the three northern territories: the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. Francophones in the Yukon are called Franco-Yukonnais, those from the Northwest Territories, Franco-Ténois (from the French acronym for the Northwest Territories, T.N.-O.), and those in Nunavut, Franco-Nunavois. French-speaking communities in Canada outside of Quebec Franco-Ontarians (or Ontarois) Acadians (in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island; also present in portions of Quebec and Newfoundland) Franco-Manitobans Fransaskois (in Saskatchewan) Franco-Albertans Franco-Columbians Franco-Terreneuviens Franco-Ténois (in the Northwest Territories) Franco-Yukon(n)ais (in the Yukon) Franco-Nunavois (in Nunavut) See also Office québécois de la langue française Charter of the French Language Canadian French Quebec French Official bilingualism in Canada Québécois Joual Chiac Quebec French lexicon French Canadian Languages of Canada Acadian French Metis French Influence of French on English French language in the United States French language French phonology Michif language American French (disambiguation) Notes External links "French language: Canadian French today" The Canadian Encyclopedia. Toronto: Hurtig Publishers. Canadian French – English Dictionary 2001 Census: Language Office québécois de la langue française Grand dictionnaire terminologique Salon Québécois Internet's Largest Canadian French Glossary Language

Molding (decorative)

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Moulding (also spelled molding in the United States though usually not within the industry), also known as coving (United Kingdom, Australia), is a strip of material with various profiles used to cover transitions between surfaces or for decoration. It is traditionally made from solid milled wood or plaster, but may be of plastic or reformed wood. In classical architecture and sculpture, the molding is often carved in marble or other stones. A "plain" molding has right-angled upper and lower edges. A "sprung" molding has upper and lower edges that bevel towards its rear, allowing mounting between two non-parallel planes (such as a wall and a ceiling), with an open space behind. Moldings may be decorated with paterae as long, uninterrupted elements may be boring for eyes. Types Decorative mouldings have been made of wood, stone and cement. Recently mouldings have been made of extruded PVC and Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) as a core with a cement-based protective coating. Synthetic moldings are a cost-effective alternative that rival the aesthetic and function of traditional profiles. Common moldings include: Archivolt: Ornamental molding or band following the curve on the underside of an arch. Astragal: Semi-circular molding attached to one of a pair of doors to cover the gap where they meet. Baguette: Thin, half-round molding, smaller than an astragal, sometimes carved, and enriched with foliages, pearls, ribbands, laurels, etc. When enriched with ornaments, it was also called chapelet. Bandelet: Any little band or flat molding, which crowns a Doric architrave. It is also called a tenia (from Greek ταινία an article of clothing in the form of a ribbon). Baseboard, "base molding" or "skirting board": Used to conceal the junction of an interior wall and floor, to protect the wall from impacts and to add decorative features. A "speed base" makes use of a base "cap molding" set on top of a plain 1" thick board, however there are hundreds of baseboard profiles. Baton: See Torus Batten or board and batten: Symmetrical molding that is placed across a joint where two parallel panels or boards meet Bead molding: Narrow, half-round convex molding, when repeated forms reeding Beading or bead: Molding in the form of a row of half spherical beads, larger than pearling Other forms: Bead and leaf, bead and reel, bead and spindle Beak: Small fillet molding left on the edge of a larmier, which forms a canal, and makes a kind of pendant. See also: chin-beak Bed molding: Narrow molding used at the junction of a wall and ceiling. Bed moldings can be either sprung or plain. Bolection: Raised molding projecting proud of a face frame at the intersection of the different levels between the frame and an inset panel on a door or wood panel. It will sometimes have a rabbet on its underside the depth of the lower level so it can lay flat over both. It can leave an inset panel free to expand or contract with temperature and humidity. Cable molding or ropework: Convex molding carved in imitation of a twisted rope or cord, and used for decorative moldings of the Romanesque style in England, France and Spain and adapted for 18th-century silver and furniture design (Thomas Sheraton) Cabled fluting or cable: Convex circular molding sunk in the concave fluting of a classic column, and rising about one-third of the height of the shaft Casing: Finish trim around the sides of a door or window opening covering the gap between finished wall and the jam or frame it is attached to. Cartouche escutcheon: Framed panel in the form of a scroll with an inscribed centre, or surrounded by compound moldings decorated with floral motifs Cavetto: cavare("to hollow"): Concave, quarter-round molding sometimes employed in the place of the cymatium of a cornice, as in the Doric order of the Theatre of Marcellus. It forms the crowning feature of Egyptian temples and took the place of the cymatium in many Etruscan temples. Chair rail or dado rail: Horizontal molding placed part way up a wall to protect the surface from chair-backs, and used simply as decoration Chamfer: Beveled edge connecting two adjacent surfaces Chin-beak: Concave quarter-round molding, rare in ancient buildings, more common today. Corner guard: Used to protect the edge of the wall at an outside corner, or to cover a joint on an inside corner. Cornice: Generally any horizontal decorative moulding Cove molding or coving: Concave-profile molding that is used at the junction of an interior wall and ceiling Crown molding: Wide, sprung molding that is used at the junction of an interior wall and ceiling. General term for any molding at the top or "crowning" an architectural element. Cyma: Molding of double curvature, combining the convex ovolo and concave cavetto. When the concave part is uppermost, it is called a cyma recta but if the convex portion is at the top, it is called a Cyma reversa (See diagram at Ogee.) When crowning molding at the entablature is of the cyma form, it is called a cymatium. Dentils: Small blocks spaced evenly along the bottom edge of the cornice Drip cap: Molding placed over a door or window opening to prevent water from flowing under the siding or across the glass Echinus: Similar to the ovolo molding and found beneath the abacus of the Doric capital or decorated with the egg-and-dart pattern below the Ionic capital Egg-and-dart: egg shapes alternating with V-shapes; one of the most widely used classical moldings. Also: Egg and tongue, egg and anchor, egg and star Fillet: Small, flat band separating two surfaces, or between the flutes of a column. Fillet is also used on handrail applications when the handrail is "plowed" to accept square shaped balusters. The fillet is used on the bottom side of the handrail between each of the balusters. Fluting: Vertical, half-round grooves cut into the surface of a column in regular intervals, each separated by a flat astragal. This ornament was used for all but the Tuscan order Godroon or Gadroon: Ornamental band with the appearance of beading or reeding, especially frequent in silverwork and molding. It comes from the Latin word Guttus, meaning flask. It is said to be derived from raised work on linen, applied in France to varieties of the, bead and reel, in which the bead is often carved with ornament. In England the term is constantly used by auctioneers to describe the raised convex decorations under the bowl of stone or terracotta vases. The godroons radiate from the vertical support of the vase and rise halfway up the bowl. Also: Gadrooning, lobed decoration, (k)nukked decoration, thumb molding Guilloché: Interlocking curved bands in a repeating pattern often forming circles enriched with rosettes and found in Assyrian ornament, classical and Renaissance architecture. Keel molding : Sharp-edged molding resembling a cross-section of a ship's keel, common in the Early English and Decorated styles. Lamb's Tongue: Lambs Tongue is a moulding having a deep, symmetrical profile ending in a narrow edge. Muntin: Narrow strip of wood or metal separating and holding panes of glass in a window. Ogee: see "Cyma" Order: Each of a series of mouldings Ovolo: Simple, convex quarter-round molding that can also be enriched with the egg-and-dart or other pattern Neck molding Panel Mould: A moulding that is flat on the back and profiled on the face. Panel mould is applied directly on a flat surface like a wall or flush door. The moulding is mitered before applying and installed in squares or rectangles on a surface to simulate a panel. : Functional molding installed 7–9 feet above the floor from which framed art is hung, common in commercial buildings and homes with plaster walls. Rosette: Circular, floral decorative element found in Mesopotamian design and early Greek stele, common in revival styles of architecture since the Renaissance. Scotia: Concave molding with a lower edge projecting beyond the top and so used at the base of columns as a transition between two torus moldings with different diameters Screen molding: Small molding used to hide and reinforce where a screen is attached to its frame. Shoe molding, toe molding or quarter-round: Small flexible molding used at the junction of a baseboard and floor as a stylistic element or to cover any gap between the two. Strapwork: Imitates thick lengths of leather straps applied to a surface to produce pattern of ribs in connected circles, squares, scrolls, lozenges etc. Popular in England in 16th & 17th. centuries, used in plaster on ceilings, also sculpted in stone on exterior of buildings, e.g. around entrance doors. Also carved in wood, and used for topiary designs for parterres. Torus: Convex, semi-circular molding, larger than an astragal, often at the base of a column, which may be enriched with leaves or plaiting. In the Ionic orders there are generally two torus mouldings separated by a scotia with annulets. Trim molding: General term used for moldings used to create added detail or cover up gaps, including corner moldings, cove moldings, rope moldings, quarter rounds, and accent moldings. Use At their simplest, moldings hide and help weather seal natural joints produced in the framing process of building a structure. As decorative elements, they are a means of applying light- and dark-shaded stripes to a structural object without having to change the material or apply pigments. Depending on their function they may be primarily a means of hiding or weather-sealing a joint, purely decorative, or some combination of the three. As decorative elements the contrast of dark and light areas gives definition to the object. If a vertical wall is lit at an angle of about 45 degrees above the wall (for example, by the sun) then adding a small overhanging horizontal molding, called a fillet molding, will introduce a dark horizontal shadow below it. Adding a vertical fillet to a horizontal surface will create a light vertical shadow. Graded shadows are possible by using moldings in different shapes: the concave cavetto molding produces a horizontal shadow that is darker at the top and lighter at the bottom; an ovolo (convex) molding makes a shadow that is lighter at the top and darker at the bottom. Other varieties of concave molding are the scotia and congé and other convex moldings the echinus, the torus and the astragal. Placing an ovolo directly above a cavetto forms a smooth s-shaped curve with vertical ends that is called an ogee or cyma reversa molding. Its shadow appears as a band light at the top and bottom but dark in the interior. Similarly, a cavetto above an ovolo forms an s with horizontal ends, called a cyma or cyma recta. Its shadow shows two dark bands with a light interior. Together the basic elements and their variants form a decorative vocabulary that can be assembled and rearranged in endless combinations. This vocabulary is at the core of both classical architecture and Gothic architecture. Design Classical Moldings When practiced in the Classical tradition the combination and arrangement of moldings are primarily done according to preconceived compositions. Typically, moldings are rarely improvised by the architect or builder, but rather follows established conventions that define the ratio, geometry, scale, and overall configuration of a molding course or entablature in proportion to the entire building. Classical moldings have their roots in ancient civilizations, with examples such the 'cornice cavetto' and 'papyriform columns' appearing in ancient Egyptian architecture, while Greek and Roman practices developed into the highly the regulated classical orders. Necessary to the spread of Classical architecture was the circulation of pattern books, which provided reproducible copies and diagrammatic plans for architects and builders. Works containing sections and ratios of moldings appear as early as the Roman era with Vitruvius and much later influential publications such as Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola's, Five Orders of Architecture, and James Gibbs's, Rules for Drawing the Several Parts of Architecture. Pattern books can be credited for the regularization and continuity of classical architectural moldings across countries and continents particularly during the colonial era, contributing to the global occurrence of Classical moldings and elements. Pattern books remained common currency amongst architects and builders up until the early 20th century, but soon after mostly disappeared as Classical architecture lost favor to Modernist and post-war building practices that conscientiously stripped their buildings of moldings. However, the study of formalized pattern languages, including moldings, has since been revived through online resources and the popularity of new classical architecture in the early 21st century. Gothic Moldings The middle ages are characterized as a period of decline and erosion in the formal knowledge of Classical architectural principles. This eventually resulted in an amateur and 'malformed' use of molding patterns that eventually development into the complex and inventive Gothic style. While impressive and seemingly articulate across Europe, Gothic architecture remained mostly regional and no comprehensive pattern books were developed at the time, but instead likely circulated through pilgrimage and the migration of trained Gothic masons. These medieval forms were later imitated by prominent Gothic Revivalists such as Augustus Pugin and Eugène Viollet-le-Duc who formalized Gothic moldings, developing them into its own systematic pattern books which could be replicated by architects with no native Gothic architecture. See also Ancient Greek architecture Ancient Roman architecture Architrave Entablature Glossary of architecture Molding plane Renaissance architecture References Further reading Theory of Mouldings (Classical America Series in Art and Architecture); C Howard Walker (Author); Richard Sammons (Foreword); W. W. Norton & Co. (July 31, 2007); External links Architectural elements Ceilings Ornaments (architecture) Woodworking

Lego timeline

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This article lists notable events and releases in the history of the Lego Group. 1890s 1895: The woodworking shop, "Billund Woodworking and Carpenter's Shop", which would eventually evolve into the Lego company, was founded in Billund. 1910s 1916: Ole Kirk Christiansen purchases the small woodworking shop in Billund. 1920: Godtfred Kirk Christiansen is born. 1920s 1924: Ole's shop burns down when a fire ignites some wood shavings. Ole then builds a larger workshop, renting out most of the space, and using the rest for his own shop. 1930s 1932: Ole Kirk Christiansen's shop nearly goes bankrupt in the depression. With a lack of normal carpentry jobs, Ole Kirk starts producing toys, many of which were wooden pull toys. 1934: The company name Lego is coined by Christiansen from the Danish phrase leg godt, meaning "play well". Coincidentally, "Lego" also means "I assemble" in Latin. 1935: The Lego Duck (a wooden toy) is featured. 1937: Godtfred Kirk Christiansen starts creating models. 1939: The company grows to 10 employees. 1940s 1942: A fire breaks out in the factory, forcing the company to rebuild. 1943: The company grows to 40 employees. 1947: Ole purchases the first plastic moulding machine in Denmark, and the company begins manufacturing plastic toys. The Christiansens are inspired by samples of the "Kiddicraft Self-Locking Building Brick", a design patented by the Briton Hilary Fisher Page. December 27 - Kjeld Kirk Kristiansen is born. 1948: The company grows to 50 employees. 1949: Lego begins producing similar plastic bricks, calling them "Automatic Binding Bricks." 1950s 1951: The first ever film about Lego is shot. The photographer is Christian Lund, and the film is black and white with no sound. 1953: Automatic Binding Bricks are renamed Lego Mursten, or "Lego Bricks." First baseplates are created. Godtfred Kirk Christiansen creates "system of play" that leads to the formation of Lego sets. 1954: Godtfred Kirk Christiansen becomes junior managing director of Lego, and soon has the idea to turn Lego bricks into a toy system. Lego windows and doors are introduced. The word Lego is officially registered in Denmark. First beam bricks are released. 1955: Lego releases its first toy "system" of the Town Plan along with 27 other sets. Lego bricks begin selling better, but are not yet the core Lego product. Lego first exports toys to Sweden. Godtfred Kirk Christiansen demonstrates the Lego bricks at a toy fair in Nuremberg, Germany. First Lego trees are released. 1956: A sales company for Lego is built in Hohenwestedt, Germany. 1957: Godtfred Kirk Christiansen is appointed Managing Director. First Lego flags, lights, and windows. 1958: The Lego brick design is improved to allow better versatility and "locking" ability. Ole Kirk Christiansen dies; Godtfred inherits leadership of the Lego Company. The Workshop burnt down the third time. The Lego company patents the stud-and-tube coupling system. This new system makes models much more stable. Sloping roof tile bricks are featured. The company in Billund grows to 140 employees. 1959: A small staff at Lego, the "Futura" division, is established to develop ideas for new sets. Lego begins selling its products in other countries such as Norway, Germany, Switzerland, and the UK. Lego France, British Lego Ltd., Lego Belgium and Lego Sweden are established. 1960s 1960: February: Another warehouse fire consumes most of Lego inventory of wooden toys. Production of wooden toys is discontinued; the company changes its focus to the plastic building bricks. Lego Finland and Lego Netherlands are established. By the end of the year, the company grows to 450 employees. 1961: The Lego wheel is introduced. Sales start in the United States and Canada through a license agreement with Samsonite Corp. Lego Italy established 1961–1962: Lego makes an arrangement allowing Samsonite to begin producing and selling Lego products in Canada, an arrangement that would continue until 1988. 1962: Lego sells toys in Singapore, Hong Kong, Australia, Morocco, and Japan. Lego 1/3 elements are introduced. 1963: Cellulose acetate is abandoned in favor of the more stable ABS plastic in making Lego bricks. Samsonite begins producing Lego bricks under a license in North America. Lego Austria is established. The Lego Group starts Modulex. 1964: The first Lego sets containing instruction manuals are introduced. Lego sells toys in Lebanon. A production plant, Lego Werkzeugbau GmbH, is opened in Hohenwestedt, Germany. 1965: The company in Billund grows to more than 600 employees. 1966: One of Lego most successful series, the Lego train system is released. Initial train sets include a 4.5-volt motor and rails. Lego is now sold in 42 countries. 1967: First Lego hinges. 1968: Train sets with a 12-volt motor are introduced. On June 7, the Legoland Park in Billund is opened, at which 3,000 people visit on the opening day. Lego bricks with magnets are introduced. 1969: The Duplo system, using larger bricks and targeting younger children but also compatible with existing Lego bricks, is released. The company in Billund grows to 843 employees. 1970s 1970: The company grows to 1,000 employees. 1971: Lego introduces furniture pieces and dollhouses for girls. 1972: Lego adds boat and ship sets, with hull pieces that float. Lego Samsonite license agreement ends Lego USA established in Brookfield, Connecticut. 1973: Lego USA moves to its present-day location in Enfield, Connecticut. All Lego products are placed under one logo, a red square with the word, Lego, in white bordered by black and yellow. Lego first sells toys to Hungary. Lego Portugal is established. The first known stop motion brickfilm is made. 1974: Lego figures are launched, starting with the Lego family. Bricks and Pieces, the first official Lego newsletter, is introduced in the United Kingdom. Lego Spain is established. 1975: The company grows to 2,500 employees. The Expert Series sets are introduced. 1977: The Lego Technic (known as the Expert Builder) series is launched. Lego Town is launched. Lego Boats is launched. Kjeld Kirk Kristiansen joins the Lego Group management. Duplo people are introduced. 1978: Lego introduces the minifigure with movable limbs and hands that can grasp utensils. This was the company's second most important design, after the brick itself. Lego Castle is introduced. Lego Space is introduced. 1979: Kjeld Kirk Kristiansen becomes president of Lego. Lego introduces the Fabuland and Scala themes. Lego Singapore is established. 1980s 1980: Lego establishes the Educational Products Department. New factories are opened in Switzerland and Jutland, Denmark. It is revealed in a survey that seventy percent of all Western European families with youngsters under the age of 14 years own Lego bricks. Lego train tracks are introduced. Lego Education was introduced. 1981: The second generation of Lego trains is produced, including a wider variety of accessories. 1982: Expert Builder series matures and becomes Technic. The Lego Group celebrates its 50th anniversary on August 13. The book, 50 years of play is published. Lego South Africa is established. First Lego wind-up engine. 1983: Lego launches the Duplo Baby series. The company grows to 3,700 employees worldwide. 1984: Lego Castle series is launched. Lego pneumatics are added to the Technic series. Lego Brazil is established. Lego Korea is established. 1985: Lego company grows to 5,000 employees worldwide; 3,000 of them being in Billund. The gearstick is introduced. Danish Foreign Minister, Uffe Ellemann-Jensen, opens the LEGO Centre at Birkenhead Point in Sydney Australia, the first permanent LEGO shop outside Billund 1986: Lego Technic robots controlled by computers are placed in schools. Light and Sound sets are launched of Lego Town and Space themes; these were the first products of the new-generation 9V "Electric System". Another factory in Manaus, Brazil is opened. Godtfred Kirk Christiansen resigns as chairman of the board of Lego System A/S and Lego Overseas. Kjeld Kirk Kristiansen takes over for Godtfred Kirk Christiansen. 1987: Forestman, Crusaders, and Black Knights, sub-lines of Lego Castle, are introduced. Blacktron I and Futuron, sub-lines of Lego Space, are introduced. Lego reaches almost 6,000 employees. Lego South Africa is closed. Lego Club is established. 1988: The first Lego World Cup building contest is held in Billund. Lego Canada is established. The "Brick Separator" is introduced. 1989: Lego Pirates theme is launched. Lego Educational Products Department is renamed Lego Dacta. Brick Kicks, the first official Lego Club magazine, is introduced. Space Police I, a sub-line of Lego Space is introduced. 1990s 1990 Lego Model Team sets are released. Lego is one of the top 10 toy companies of 1990. Forestman is discontinued. The Blacktron I and Futuron themes are discontinued. Space Police I is discontinued. M:Tron, a sub-line of Lego Space is introduced. Lego Malaysia is established. The Duplo Zoo is launched. The 9V "Electric System" is now extended to the Technic range with new motors, replacing the old 4.5V/12V motors. 1991 9V Trains motors are made 9V to bring the system into line with the rest of the Lego range. Lego Paradisa is launched. Blacktron II, a sub-line of Lego Space is introduced. Imperial Guards, a sub-line of Lego Pirates is introduced. The company grows to 7,550 employees. 1992 Lego sets two Guinness World Records. Lego Castle and Lego Tower are released Paradisa and Duplo Toolo sets are introduced. On Swedish television, the world's largest Lego Castle is built. The Crusaders theme is discontinued. Wolfpack, a sub-line of Lego Castle is introduced. Space Police II, a sub-line of Lego Space is introduced. Lego Japan is established. Lego Hungary is established. The first Lego Imagination Center is opened in Mall of America (owned by Triple Five Group) in Bloomington, Minnesota, United States. 1993 Duplo introduces a train and a parrot-shaped "brickvac" that could scoop Lego pieces up off the floor. Space Police I is re-released. Wolfpack, a sub-line of Lego Castle is discontinued. Dragon Masters is introduced. M:Tron, a sub-line of Lego Space is discontinued. Blacktron II, a sub-line of Lego Space is discontinued. Space Police II, a sub-line of Lego Space is discontinued. Ice Planet 2002, a sub-line of Lego Space is introduced. Lego South Africa re-established. The orange transparent brick is introduced. 1994 The Black Knights theme is discontinued. Ice Planet 2002, a sub-line of Lego Space is discontinued. Unitron, a sub-line of Lego Space is introduced. Spyrius, a sub-line of Lego Space is introduced. Islanders, a sub-line of Lego Pirates is introduced. Lego Mexico is established. The company grows to 8,880 employees worldwide. First pink Lego bricks. Brick Kicks, the official Lego Club Magazine, is renamed Lego Mania Magazine. 1995 Lego Primo series is introduced. Lego Aquazone is introduced. Royal Knights, a sub-line of Lego Castle is introduced. Unitron is discontinued. Imperial Guards, a sub-line of Lego Pirates is discontinued. Lego TechBuild, a sub-line of Lego Technic is introduced. Lego TechPlay, another sub-line of Lego Technic is introduced. Godtfred Kirk Christiansen, son of the company's founder, dies. Lego Belgium and Lego Netherlands become Lego Benelux. Lego dolphin element is introduced. 1996 Legoland Windsor is opened in the United Kingdom. The Lego Watch System is launched. Lego Wild West is introduced. Lego.com is launched. Dark Forest, a sub-line of Lego Castle is introduced. Time Cruisers is introduced. Spyrius theme is discontinued. Exploriens, a sub-line of Lego Space is introduced. Imperial Armada, a sub-line of Lego Pirates is introduced. Legoland Billund reaches 25 million visitors since its opening in 1968. It is estimated that 180 billion Lego elements have been made and over 300 million people worldwide play with them. 1997 Lego launches its first computer game, Lego Island. Lego introduces fiber-optic elements. Lego Paradisa is discontinued. Lego Divers is introduced. Fright Knights, a sub-line of Lego Castle is introduced. Time Twisters, a sub-line of Time Cruisers is introduced. Roboforce, a sub-line of Lego Space is introduced. UFO, a sub-line of Lego Space is introduced. Aquaraiders, a sub-line of Lego Aquazone is introduced. 1998 Lego launches the Lego Creator, Loco, and Chess computer games. Lego introduces beige bricks. Lego Adventurers and Insectoids series are introduced. Lego releases Mindstorms, a programmable computerized brick with Lego-compatible sensors and motors. The red Lego logo introduced in 1973 is updated. It is a graphically tightened version of the logo used for the past 25 years. Lego rereleases the Crusaders, Black Knights, and Dragon Masters themes. Insectoids, a sub-line of Lego Space is introduced. Lego Cyberslam, is introduced. 1999 Legoland California opens in Carlsbad, California. Lego Rock Raiders series is introduced. Lego produces the first licensed theme with Lucasfilm - Star Wars UFO and Insectoids themes are discontinued. Jungle a sub-line of Lego Adventurers is introduced. Lego Underground is introduced. Lego Slizers (Throwbots) are introduced. Lego Education is introduced. 2000s 2000 Knights' Kingdom, Life on Mars, and Soccer/Football are introduced. Dino Island, a sub-line of Lego Adventurers is introduced, then discontinued. RoboRiders are also introduced, then discontinued. Lego Underground (Rock Raiders) and Lego Throwbots are discontinued. Lego Studios is introduced. The British Association of Toy Retailers names the Lego brick "Toy of the Century". 2001 Lego Bionicle is launched both in Europe and United States. Lego Brand Retail stores are opened in England, Germany, and Russia. Lego Life on Mars is introduced, then discontinued. Lego Alpha Team and Lego Harry Potter are introduced. Lego Serious Play is unveiled. Lego Jack Stone is introduced. Jorgen Vig Knudstorp joined The LEGO Group 2002 Company slogan changes from "Just Imagine..." to "Play On". Lego Wild West is discontinued. Lego Island Xtreme Stunts, Spider-Man, and Lego Racers are introduced. Lego Mania Magazine issues are changed to Lego Magazine. Legoland Germany opened May 17, 2002 in Günzburg. 2003 Lego introduces new skin tones for mini-figures based on actual people. Clikits, Lego Designer, Lego Hockey, Lego Basketball, and Lego Gravity Games are introduced. Orient Expedition, a sub-line of Adventurers is introduced. Lego 4+ known as Lego 4 Juniors is introduced. Lego Island Xtreme Stunts is discontinued. Lego Inventor is introduced, then discontinued. Lego World City is introduced. Lego minifigure celebrates its 25th birthday. The first full-length CGI LEGO movie, Bionicle: Mask of Light is released. 2004 Lego Quatro brick is introduced for children ages 1–3. Lego Knights' Kingdom II is introduced. Orient Expedition, a sub-line of Lego Adventurers is discontinued. Lego Spider-Man, Lego World City, and Lego Gravity Games are discontinued. Lego Group reports record loss for 2003 fiscal year. The colors Dark Stone Grey (199), Medium Stone Grey (194) and Bright Purple (221) replaces Dark Grey, Grey and Medium Reddish Violet, respectively. The color Medium Lilac (268) is introduced. Jorgen Vig Knudstorp is appointed CEO of The LEGO Group (The first non-family CEO in Lego history) 2005 Lego System celebrates its 50th anniversary. Lego Group sells Legoland parks to Merlin Entertainments Group. Lego Alpha Team is discontinued. Lego City is introduced. Lego Dino Attack/Dino 2010 is introduced. Lego Vikings is introduced. 2006 Lego Exo-Force is introduced. Lego Batman is introduced. Avatar: The Last Airbender is introduced then discontinued. Lego SpongeBob SquarePants is introduced. Lego Sports is reintroduced. Remote control (RC) trains are introduced. Lego Mindstorms NXT 1.0 is released. Lego Quatro is discontinued. The color Medium Azure is introduced. 2007 Lego Aqua Raiders, and Mars Mission are introduced. Lego Castle is reintroduced. Lego 9V trains discontinued. Lego Aqua Raiders is discontinued. 2008 On January 28, 2008, Lego celebrated the 50th anniversary of the patent on its interlocking blocks. Lego Mindstorms celebrates its 10th anniversary. Lego minifigure celebrates its 30th birthday. Lego Architecture is introduced Lego Indiana Jones, Speed Racer, and Agents are introduced. Lego Exo-Force is discontinued. Mars Mission is discontinued. Speed racer is discontinued 2009 Lego Mindstorms NXT 2.0 is released. Agents 2.0 is released. Lego Star Wars' 10th anniversary. Legoland California 10th anniversary. Lego Power Miners is introduced. Lego Ninjago Concept of the theme were created by Creators Lego Pirates is reintroduced. Lego Batman is discontinued. Lego Games are introduced. Lego Space Police III is introduced. Lego Muji is introduced. 2010s 2010 Lego Ben 10: Alien Force is introduced. Lego Atlantis is introduced. Lego Toy Story is introduced. Duplo Cars is introduced. Lego Harry Potter is reintroduced. Lego Prince of Persia is introduced. Lego Hero Factory is introduced Lego Space Police III is discontinued. Lego World Racers is introduced. Lego Kingdoms is introduced. Bionicle is discontinued. Lego Universe is launched. Lego Minifigures Series 1 and 2. 2011 Lego Minifigures Series 3, 4 and 5. Lego Ninjago is introduced. Lego Cars 2 is introduced. Lego Pirates of the Caribbean. Lego Alien Conquest is introduced. Lego Power Miners is discontinued. Lego SpongeBob SquarePants is reintroduced. Duplo Winnie The Pooh is introduced. Lego Life of George is introduced. Lego City Space theme is reintroduced. Lego Master Builders Academy (MBA) is introduced. Legoland Florida opens. Lego Pharaoh's Quest is discontinued. Lego Harry Potter is discontinued. The color Olive Green (330) is introduced as part of Lego Cars. Lego Super Heroes theme is introduced. 2012 Lego Universe is discontinued. Lego Dino is introduced. Lego Minifigures Series 6, 7 and 8. Legoland Malaysia opens. Lego Friends theme is introduced. Lego Monster Fighters is introduced. Lego Disney Princess is introduced. Lego Alien Conquest is discontinued. Lego Build and Rebuild is introduced. Lego The Lord of the Rings is introduced. Lego The Hobbit is introduced. The colors Dark Azure (321), Medium Azure (322), Aqua (323), Medium Lavender (324), Lavender (325), are introduced as part of the Friends theme. The color Spring Yellowish Green (326) is introduced as part of Disney Princess. 2013 Lego Minifigures Series 9, 10 and 11. Lego Galaxy Squad is introduced. Lego Ninjago is discontinued Lego Legends of Chima is introduced. Lego Mindstorms EV3 is introduced. Duplo Mickey Mouse & Friends is introduced. Lego Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles is introduced. Lego The Lone Ranger is introduced. 2014 Lego Mixels is introduced. Lego Minifigures Series 12 is introduced. Lego Ninjago is re-introduced. The Lego Movie, released theatrically in movie cinemas on February 7, 2014. Lego 30th anniversary of Ghostbusters is introduced. Ecto-1. The Lego Movie (Lego theme) is introduced. Lego Fusion is introduced. Lego The Simpsons is introduced. Lego Ultra Agents is introduced. Lego The Hobbit is discontinued. 2015 Lego Minifigures Series 13 and 14. Bionicle is re-released. Lego Speed Champions is introduced. Lego Scooby-Doo is released. Warner Bros announce that there would be a LEGO Batman Movie and a sequel to The LEGO Movie. Lego Jurassic World is released. 2016 Lego Nexo Knights is introduced Lego Minifigures Series 15 and 16. Lego Ghostbusters is introduced. Lego Stranger Things is introduced. Lego DC Super Hero Girls is introduced. Lego The Angry Birds Movie sets are released. Lego BrickHeadz is introduced. Bionicle Reboot is discontinued for the final time. Lego Ninjago celebrate 5th anniversary with TV Halloween Special. 2017 The Lego Batman Movie Minifigures Series The Lego Batman Movie released in Cinemas, distributed by Warner Bros. The Lego Batman Movie (Lego theme) is introduced. Lego Minifigures Series 17 is introduced. The Lego Ninjago Movie released in Cinemas on September 22, 2017. The Lego Ninjago Movie Video Game releases on PS4, Xbox One and, Microsoft Windows on September 22, 2017. The Lego Ninjago Movie (Lego theme) is introduced. It is revealed that Unikitty, a character from The Lego Movie, would have her own TV show on Cartoon Network, titled "Unikitty!". Jorgen Vig Knurdstrom steps down as CEO and Bali Padda is appointed CEO on 1 January 2017 Bali Padda steps down as CEO and Niels B. Christiansen is appointed new CEO 1 October 2017 The social media app Lego Life is launched. 2018 Lego J.K. Rowling's Wizarding World, Lego Unikitty!, Lego The Powerpuff Girls and Lego Overwatch are introduced. 2019 Lego City Sky Police is introduced. The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part released in Cinemas on February 8, 2019. The Lego Movie 2 (theme) is introduced. It is announced that Warner Bros. to sell rights to The Lego Movie franchise to Universal Pictures. Lego Hidden Side is introduced. 2020s 2020 Lego Trolls World Tour, Lego Minions: The Rise of Gru, Lego DOTS, Lego Super Mario and Lego Art are introduced. Lego Brick Sketches is introduced. Lego Star Wars 20th Anniversary. It was revealed that the deal with Universal was set 5-years deal for The Lego Movie franchise. Lego Monkie Kid is introduced. 2021 Lego Ninjago theme celebrate 10th anniversary with upcoming Seasons. Lego Vidiyo is introduced. 2022 Lego Friends theme celebrate 10th anniversary of building friendships and future creators. References 50 Years of Play - Internal Lego publication from 1982 The World of LEGO Toys, Henry Wiencek, 1987 External links Timeline on the official Lego website Culture-related timelines Timeline Company timelines

Paul Kaye

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Paul Kaye (born 15 December 1964) is an English comedian and actor. He is known for his portrayals of shock interviewer Dennis Pennis on The Sunday Show, New York lawyer Mike Strutter on MTV's Strutter, Thoros of Myr in HBO's Game of Thrones, and Vincent the Fox on the BBC comedy Mongrels. Early life Kaye was born in the Clapham area of London on 15 December 1964. He and his twin sister were adopted by Jackie and Ivan Kaye and raised in Wembley, where their adoptive parents ran a sportswear shop. He is of Jewish background. He was a promising schoolboy athlete who achieved an impressive time in the 100-metre race. He later became a fan of punk rock, particularly the Sex Pistols bassist Sid Vicious. At the age of 16, he entered Harrow Art School on a two-year foundation course, and achieved a distinction before earning a first-class degree in Theatre Design from Nottingham Trent University (then called Trent Polytechnic). Career Early career On graduation, Kaye designed theatre posters for the King's Head, the Bush Theatre, and the Gate Theatre, Notting Hill. He was a scene painter at the Old Vic Theatre in Waterloo and illustrated regularly for the NME, i-D, Literary Review, Time Out and International Musician magazines between 1987 and 1989. He had two exhibitions of illustration and poster work between 1989 and 1990, firstly at the Soho House Theatre, and then at The Drill Hall. Kaye formed and sang in many bands, notably the dark psychedelic outfit We Are Pleb, who played extensively in Camden during 1988–89 (at the same time as Blur and Suede) and had a penchant for setting the stage on fire. Kaye was signed to Go Discs in 1992 with a group called TV Eye (formed with ex-members of the band Eat), which released two singles, "Killer Fly" and "Eradicator". In 1993, Kaye filmed a prototype Dennis Pennis, interviewing his own band on a late-night indie music show on Granada TV called Transmission. After the interview, Kaye then went out with the crew, got very drunk and offended as many people as possible up and down Oxford Street. This tape somehow arrived on the desk of producers at Planet 24 six months later, and they offered Kaye the job of knocking on people's doors at 6.00am on The Big Breakfast. Kaye turned them down, preferring to stay on the dole and stick with We Are Pleb; Mark Lamarr eventually took the job. Kaye was the in-house graphic designer for Tottenham Hotspur. He had an office in White Hart Lane and designed merchandise for Spurs, Derby County, Southampton and Aston Villa for Danish sportswear brand Hummel International (doing caricatures of Paul Gascoigne for school lunchboxes etc.). As an Arsenal fan, Kaye has said there are subliminal cannons contained within his work for Spurs, most notably a pen and ink drawing of Tottenham's new stand on a catalogue cover which features a minute cannon in the crowd: 70,000 were printed. Kaye became in-house theatre designer of the Bet Zvi Drama Academy in Tel Aviv for 12 months in 1994, designing all the in-house productions in their studio theatre. His TV debut was on The Word being secretly filmed in Oliver Reed's dressing room. Kaye recalls "Reed had drunk two bottles of vodka, taken all his clothes off and I honestly thought he was going to kill me on live television. I swore in bed that I'd never do a celebrity interview again. Typically, six months later I'd come up with Dennis Pennis." In 1994, Kaye convinced his old friend Anthony Hines (a car mechanic and some time roadie for TV Eye) to help him write Dennis Pennis when he was offered the job on The Sunday Show. (Hines was later poached by Sacha Baron Cohen to write for Ali G on The Eleven O'Clock Show and went on to receive an Oscar nomination for co-writing Borat in 2006). Dennis Pennis Celebrity interviewer Dennis Pennis, created by Kaye and Hines, was one of Kaye's best-known characters. With dyed red hair, gaudy jackets adorned with punk-style badges, and thick glasses, Pennis stood out from the crowd and asked celebrities atypical questions, ranging from playful to cruel. After brief stints presenting two episodes of Transmission (ITV's early 1990s indie music magazine show) as Pennis, the character next appeared in 1995 on BBC2's The Sunday Show. The basic premise was that Kaye and a camera crew would visit film premieres, press functions, and other assorted celebrity gatherings to attempt to get an "interview" with stars, in between short skits and sketches featuring the character. Originally, the celebrities would be mainly British stars harassed at assorted London-based events, such as actor Hugh Grant, TV host Ulrika Jonsson, and sports pundit Des Lynam. A 1995 video release of these early clips, Anyone For Pennis, assured success for Kaye, who sought to broaden Pennis' scope. When the Pennis character took off, Kaye was afforded a budget large enough to travel to Cannes, Hollywood, and Venice to record footage for his 1996 video VIP – Very Important Pennis. His victims from this point on were much more renowned, the most famous of whom were Arnold Schwarzenegger, Demi Moore, Kevin Costner, Morgan Freeman and Bruce Willis, amid a raft of other Hollywood A-list stars. It was apparent that these victims were unsettled and unhappy with Pennis' unique line of questioning. Some stars, such as Costner, insulted him back, while others, such as Moore, simply declined to comment and left. Pennis was visibly amused at the look of disgust on some of the stars' faces. There was some controversy when Pennis asked of Steve Martin, "How come you're not funny any more?" Martin subsequently cancelled all scheduled press interviews. Kaye later said that he regretted this interview for a while, but nevertheless said, "Anyone who thinks they can improve on Bilko and Inspector Clouseau needs a slap, don't they?" The final video release, Dennis Pennis RIP: Too Rude to Live, released in 1997, saw the character killed off. As Kaye reportedly explained, "Dennis Pennis had become too expensive. Taking a film crew out every night with no guarantee of getting even a minute's worth of footage of me harassing celebs was just stupid. And then the programme would take months to compile, and it was just boring, man... hanging out in the rain, twiddling your thumbs, playing with your hip flask... he had to go... at the risk of sounding a bit wanky, Pennis was more of an art project in my mind, living out my fantasy of being a naughty boy. Once I'd packed it in, I had no intention of ever doing anything like it again." Post-Pennis career In 1998, Kaye appeared in the video to the Fat Les song "Vindaloo" as a Richard Ashcroft look-alike. That same year, he also appeared as the character DI Lindsay De Paul in the TV comedy movie You Are Here. Kaye also appeared as the singer of a fictional punk band called Spunk in a 1999 mock-documentary of the same name, which appeared as the 'wrath' part of a Channel 4 series on the seven deadly sins. In 2000, Kaye starred in the comedy series Perfect World, a sitcom about a down-on-his-luck marketing manager. He also briefly presented a BBC2 quiz show, Liar, in which six contestants would all have a supposed claim to fame and the studio audience voted on which one they believed was telling the truth. In the same year, Kaye took a dramatic role alongside Michelle Collins in Two Thousand Acres of Sky. In 2004, Kaye played the leading role in the film Blackball. His role as deaf DJ Frankie Wilde in the 2005 mockumentary It's All Gone Pete Tong won him the Film Discovery Jury Award at the 2005 US Comedy Arts Festival. He played in two episodes of the BBC drama series Waking the Dead, playing Dr. David Carney in "Shadowplay". Television appearances in 2006 and 2007 include episodes of Hustle, EastEnders and Kingdom. Kaye is now the chief interviewer on rockworld.tv, in which he interviews up-and-coming punk/indie bands. Kaye appeared in Hotel Babylon (11 March 2008, BBC One), Pulling (Series 2, March 2008, BBC Three), and as Uncle Gorwel in A Child's Christmases in Wales by Mark Watson (17 December 2009, BBC Four and 24 December 2009, BBC One Wales). From November 2010 to January 2011, Kaye played Matilda's father Mr. Wormwood in the Royal Shakespeare Company's musical Matilda, based on the classic Roald Dahl novel of the same name. Kaye reprised the role when the musical transferred to the Cambridge Theatre in London's West End in October 2011. In April 2012, Kaye was nominated for an Olivier Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Musical. From August 2012, he appeared as a character called Maurice in UK TV adverts for betting website BetVictor. In 2013, Kaye appeared as Thoros of Myr in the third season of the HBO series Game of Thrones, and as Danno in the BBC Radio 4 series Love in Recovery. In 2016, he reprised his role as Thoros of Myr in the sixth season of Game of Thrones, and returned for the seventh season. In 2014, Kaye played Brother Lucian in the movie Dracula Untold. In 2015 he played a criminal in the BBC drama The Interceptor. In 2015, he featured as the drunken, haunted Naval Officer Harry Brewer in the National Theatre's revival of Our Country's Good. He also appeared in Doctor Who as an alien funeral director. That same year, He played Vinculus in Susanna Clarke's Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell. Kaye's other television credits include The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge, an episode of Reece Shearsmith and Steve Pemberton's anthology series Inside No. 9, Netflix's first original TV series Lilyhammer, the BAFTA winning Murder in Successville, BBC miniseries Three Girls, Sky comedy Zapped, Drunk History, The Windsors, Urban Myths, Terry Pratchett: Back in Black, and the adaptation of Terry Pratchett and Neil Gaiman's Good Omens. In 2017, Kaye appeared onstage as Chilean bomb maker Jose Miguel in B, a new play by Guillermo Calderón at the Royal Court Theatre. He appears as Dr. Malcolm Donahue, the pathologist in ITV's Vera. Kaye has appeared as Danno, who is a recovering alcoholic attending Alcoholic Anonymous (AA) meetings in Pete Jackson's BBC Radio 4 comedy drama series Love in Recovery. In 2019, Kaye debuted as hospital chaplain Daniel Booth in the ITV dramedy Cold Feet, and played a psychiatrist in the Netflix comedy series After Life. In 2020, he appeared in the Netflix drama The Stranger, as Patrick Katz, and portrayed "The Cowboy" in the HBO miniseries The Third Day. In 2021, he played Guy Forks in a Bonfire Night special of Mackenzie Crook's re-working of Worzel Gummidge for the BBC. Personal life In 1983, Kaye took a year out of university and lived on Israel's Gvar'am kibbutz, where he met an Israeli woman, Orly Katz. They were married in 1989. They have two sons and live in the Hendon area of London. In January 2009, Kaye wrote an article for The Guardian in which he called for peace between Israel and Palestine after his mother-in-law was killed by a Hamas rocket strike on the Gvar'am kibbutz. He stated, "My eldest son has Israeli citizenship and in two years he will have to choose either to relinquish that citizenship or to fight in the Israeli army. It can be only his choice. But, unlike the Palestinians in Gaza, at least he has one." In March 2019, Kaye gave a reading at the funeral of The Prodigy frontman Keith Flint. Filmography Film Television Web Video games Awards Kaye has been nominated for a number of film awards: Best Actor – US Comedy Arts Festival (Won) (It's All Gone Pete Tong) Best Actor – Method Fest (Nominated) (It's All Gone Pete Tong) Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role – Genie Awards (Nominated) (It's All Gone Pete Tong) He has been nominated for two major theatre awards: Best Supporting Actor in a Musical – WhatsOnStage Awards (Nominated) (Matilda the Musical) Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical – Olivier Awards (Nominated) (Matilda the Musical) References External links 4 Nov 2006 Guardian Inverview of Paul Kaye & Mike Strutter BBC Interview with Paul Kaye about Two Thousand Acres of Sky Official site for It's all gone Pete Tong Paul Kaye Exclusive Interview The Velvet Onion: Interview 1964 births 20th-century English male actors 21st-century English male actors Alumni of Nottingham Trent University Comedians from London English adoptees English male comedians English male film actors English male musical theatre actors English male television actors English male voice actors Jewish English male actors Jewish male comedians Living people Male actors from London Pranksters People from Clapham Actors from Wembley Twin people from England Comedians from Wembley

I Love New York

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I Love New York (stylized ) is a slogan, a logo, and a song that are the basis of an advertising campaign developed by the marketing firm of Wells, Rich, Greene under the directorship of Mary Wells Lawrence used since 1977 to promote tourism in the state of New York, including New York City. The trademarked logo, owned by the New York State Department of Economic Development, appears in souvenir shops and brochures throughout the state, some licensed, many not. "I Love New York" is the official state slogan of New York. The logo was designed by graphic designer Milton Glaser in 1976 in the back of a taxi and was drawn with red crayon on scrap paper. The original drawing is held in the Museum of Modern Art in Manhattan. The song was written by Steve Karmen and its copyright was donated by him to the state. Logo The logo consists of the capital letter I, followed by a red heart symbol (❤), below which are the capital letters N and Y, set in the rounded slab serif typeface American Typewriter. In 1977, William S. Doyle, Deputy Commissioner of the New York State Department of Commerce hired advertising agency Wells Rich Greene to develop a marketing campaign for New York State. Doyle also recruited Milton Glaser, a productive graphic designer to work on the campaign and create a design based on Wells Rich Greene's advertising campaign. Glaser's initial sketch to accompany the agency's "I Love New York" slogan was conceived in a taxi. It comprised the letter I and a heart shape followed by NY, all on the same line. As the idea developed he decided to stack the I and heart shape on a line above the NY characters, later stating that he may have been "subliminally" influenced by Robert Indiana's LOVE pop art image. Glaser expected the campaign to last only a couple months and did the work pro bono. The innovative pop-style icon became a major success and has continued to be sold for years. In the popular mind (though this was not the original intention) the logo has become closely associated with New York City, and the placement of the logo on plain white T-shirts readily sold in the city has widely circulated the appearance of the image, making it a commonly recognized symbol. Glaser's original concept sketch and presentation boards were donated by Doyle to the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art, New York. The image became especially prominent following the September 11 attacks on the city, which created a sense of unity among the populace. Many visitors to the city following the attacks purchased and wore the shirts bearing the I Love New York logo as a sign of their support. Glaser created a modified version to commemorate the attacks, reading "I Love NY More Than Ever", with a little black spot on the heart symbolizing the World Trade Center site. The black spot approximates the site's location on lower Manhattan Island. The poster was printed in the New York Daily News and was a fundraiser for New York charities supporting those affected by the attacks. Added text at the bottom encouraged people to "Be generous. Your city needs you. This poster is not for sale." New York state anthem "I Love New York" was written and composed by Steve Karmen in 1977 as part of the advertising campaign. In 1980, Governor Hugh Carey declared it as New York's state anthem, although not officially enacted into law. In a move that was remarkable for Karmen, who is well known for retaining the publishing rights to his songs, he gave the rights to the song to the state for free. Karmen wrote a new verse for the song in 2020 during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City to emphasize the city's resilience. However, it was never commercially recorded nor used. Imitations The logo has become a pop-culture icon, inspiring imitations in every corner of the globe. Merchandise proclaiming "I ❤ ..." can be found wherever tourists gather. Parodies, such as "I ♠ My Pets" or "I ♣ Seals", have also appeared. Facetious expressions beginning "I heart…", are based on a literal reading of the logo (e.g., the 2004 Independent film I Heart Huckabees and the audio conglomerate iHeartMedia). NYS-licensed pin-back buttons with a red version of the Apple logo replacing the heart (I  NY) were distributed at the 2001 Macworld Expo in New York. New York has repeatedly attempted to uphold its trademark; by 2005, the state had filed nearly 3,000 objections against imitators, and 100 "trademark objections and cease-and-desist letters" were filed in 2012 alone. Some objections have been ruled void, such as when a court concluded in 1980 that the producers of Saturday Night Live did not infringe on the copyrights of the “I Love New York” campaign with its “I Love Sodom” skit, ruling instead that it was a parody. See also Friday the 13th Part VIII: Jason Takes Manhattanhorror film criticized for using the "I Love New York" logo Heart in Oregon I Love L.A. I Love New York 355 at The Glen Tourism in New York City References Further reading External links The History of New York's Marketing Campaigns, from the Gotham Gazette The Museum of Modern Art Collection Browser The Museum of Modern Art Collection Browser 1977 neologisms American advertising slogans American logos Symbols of New York (state) Songs about New York (state) Tourism in New York (state) Cultural history of New York City Jingles Symbols introduced in 1977 Tourism campaigns 1977 establishments in New York (state) Heart symbols

Tryst with Destiny

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"Tryst with Destiny" was an English-language speech delivered by Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, to the Indian Constituent Assembly in the Parliament, on the eve of India's Independence, towards midnight on 14 August 1947. The speech spoke on the aspects that transcended Indian history. It is considered to be one of the greatest speeches of the 20th century and to be a landmark oration that captures the essence of the triumphant culmination of the Indian independence movement against British colonial rule in India. Popular culture The speech is referenced in the 1998 Hindi film Earth directed by Deepa Mehta. The film portrays the main characters listening to the speech over the radio, against the backdrop of the Hindu-Muslim riots following the Partition of India. This provides an interesting juxtaposition between the realities of Partition and the optimism that followed Independence. Hazaaron Khwaishein Aisi, a Hindi film by Sudhir Mishra that portrayed the political and social turbulence of the late 1960s and the '70s in India contains a clip of the speech and the narrative voice speaks of the souring of Nehru's dream within two decades of Independence. In the 2000 film Hey Ram directed by Kamal Haasan, parts of the speech are heard in the background providing the audience a timeline of the happenings in the movie. The book Midnight's Children by Salman Rushdie has a reference to this speech as does the novel Train to Pakistan by Khushwant Singh. The speech is sampled by trance artist John 00 Fleming in the album One Hundred Ten WKO during the fifth track, "The Stroke of the Midnight Hour". The musical group Kobo Town uses sound clips from this speech in their song "Sing Out, Shout Out" from their album Independence. The Salman Khan film Bharat also used clips from the speech in their trailer. The film Student of the Year mentioned the name of the speech as a clue in the treasure hunt game. The Let's Crack It song owned by Unacademy made its intro using the actual speech voice clips. The movie “Gangs of Wasseypur” used the clips from this speech in one of the shots featuring the character Shahid Khan. See also The light has gone out of our lives References External links Video of Nehru's "Tryst with Destiny" address Indian independence movement History of the Republic of India 1947 in India Nehru administration 1947 speeches Jawaharlal Nehru

The Way It Is (song)

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"The Way It Is" is a song by American rock group Bruce Hornsby and the Range. It was released in September 1986 as the second single from their debut album The Way It Is. It topped the charts in the United States, Canada and the Netherlands in 1986, and peaked inside the top twenty in such countries as Australia, Ireland, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. Written by Bruce Hornsby, it made explicit reference to the Economic Opportunity Act, also known as the 1964 Poverty Act, as well as the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Musically, the song is characterized by two long piano solos. The song has been sampled by rapper E-40 for his song "Things'll Never Change", by 2Pac for "Changes", by DJ Don Diablo for his song "Never Change", and rapper Polo G for "Wishing for a Hero" in 2020. Content The opening verse recounts a story taking place at a line for welfare that illustrates a divide between the rich and poor; the second verse recounts ongoing social issues from the voice of someone supporting racial segregation. The final verse recounts the passage of the Economic Opportunity Act in 1964 "to give those who ain't got a little more", and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 as a victory in the civil rights movement against job discrimination, but insists that more is needed. Charts Weekly charts Year end charts All-time charts Undercover version Scottish band Undercover covered "The Way It Is" in 1993. It is included on their album Check Out the Groove. Track listings CD-Maxi The Way It Is (7-inch Edit) - 3:42 The Way It Is (12-inch Essential Mix) - 4:20 The Way It Is (Deep Undercover Mix) - 4:41 The Way It Is (Macca At Work Mix) - 4:38 12-inch Maxi The Way It Is (12-inch Essential Mix) - 4:20 The Way It Is (Deep Undercover Mix) - 3:48 7-inch single The Way It Is (7-inch Edit) - 3:42 The Way It Is (Deep Undercover Mix) - 3:48 Charts In popular culture An adapted version of "The Way It Is" was used as the theme tune for BBC One's City Hospital, a medical documentary television series which ran from 1998 to 2007. In the Community episode "Advanced Criminal Law", Pierce Hawthorne (played by Chevy Chase) writes a school song entitled "The Way It Goes", a parody of "The Way It Is". The song was used for many years on Grandstand in the league tables segment. See also Civil rights movement in popular culture City Hospital (UK TV series) References 1980s ballads 1986 singles 1986 songs 1987 singles 1993 singles Bruce Hornsby songs Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles Cashbox number-one singles Civil rights movement Dutch Top 40 number-one singles RCA Records singles Rock ballads RPM Top Singles number-one singles Songs against racism and xenophobia Undercover (dance group) songs

F.C. Crotone

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Football Club Crotone S.r.l., commonly referred to as Crotone, is an Italian football club based in Crotone, Calabria. They play in the second division of Italian football, the Serie B. Founded in 1910, it holds its home games at Stadio Ezio Scida, which has a 16,547-seat capacity. History The club is based in the ancient Greek settlement of Kroton, one of the first Greek colonies in what is now known as modern day Italy. The club is proud of their Greek origins with their banners and slogans and regularly depicting Greek icons such as soldiers of Sparta. The first team from Crotone, Società sportiva Crotona, was founded as soon as September 1910, but without adhering to Italian Football Federation, and the following main teams of Crotone, like Milone Crotone, did not participated before 1921-1923 in several minor leagues including Prima Divisione (which later would be known as Serie C). Following World War II, a new club, Unione Sportiva Crotone replaced the previous one, playing seven seasons in Serie C. In 1963, the club was relegated to Serie D, but returned to the third division the following year, remaining there for fourteen consecutive seasons, missing promotion in 1977 when finishing third behind Bari and Paganese. In 1978, following the Italian football league reorganisation, Crotone was relegated to Serie C2 and the following year was declared bankrupt. A new club, Associazione Sportiva Crotone, began competing again in the Prima Categoria (eighth division). Crotone was promoted to Serie C2 in 1984–85, but only for one season. The team's name was changed to Kroton Calcio, and the club was promoted again to C2 after the 1986–87 season, where it played until 1991. A second bankruptcy led to the foundation of Football Club Crotone Calcio with Raffaele Vrenna as chairman, starting in the Promozione (7th level). Crotone gained successive promotions to Serie C2 and C1, winning in the play-offs against Locri and Benevento, respectively. Under Antonello Cuccureddu, Crotone first reached Serie B in 2000, returning to the second level two seasons later. Again in division two in 2004, after disposing of Viterbese in the promotion play-offs, it remained in the category until the 2006–07 season. After being beaten by Taranto in the 2008 play-offs, Crotone returned to the second division the following season, defeating Benevento. The team was promoted to Serie A, the Italian top flight, for the first time in its history in 2016. In the 2016–17 season, the club finished 17th, securing a place in the next Serie A season. This was despite the Calabrian side only winning two points from the first ten matches, one of the poorest starts the Italian top-flight had seen in years. Crotone remained in the relegation positions for almost the entire season before an impressive revival saw the club achieve a seven-match unbeaten run from matchdays 30 to 36, including five wins in that time, and the season was concluded with a 3-1 victory over Lazio on the last matchday, a result that saw Crotone jump above Empoli to 17th place and thus secured another season in Serie A in what was hailed as a football miracle, led by 13-goal top scorer Diego Falcinelli and coach Davide Nicola. In the following season, Crotone failed to avoid relegation after losing against Napoli in the last match of the Serie A campaign, returning to Serie B after two seasons. Following the 2019-20 season, the club was promoted to Serie A once more in second place, only behind Benevento in the table. However, the club's top-flight campaign was less than satisfactory. After spending the majority of the season in the last spot of the table, and losing incredible matches that were an early indicator of the hardship the club would endure, Crotone was mathematically relegated to Serie B after 34 games, following a loss to would-be champions Inter. This relegation came in contrast with several excellent performances from individual players, particularly striker Simy, who scored 20 league goals during the season, a record for a relegated team. Nevertheless, the 92 goals Crotone conceded was one more than Casale conceded in 1933-34, setting a new Serie A record for goals against in a single season. Colors and badge Team colours are dark blue and white due to their Greek origins and also red. The club's kits are traditionally dark blue and red stripes. The team's mottos are "Salutate la Magna Grecia" (Salute Greater Greece) and "Noi siamo la Magna Grecia" (We are Greater Greece). Players Current squad Out on loan Coaching staff Managers Giorgio Tricoli (1954–1955) Bruno Giordano (1996–1997) Antonello Cuccureddu (1999–2001) Giuseppe Papadopulo (2000–2001) Antonio Cabrini (2001) Stefano Cuoghi (2001–2002) Franco Selvaggi (2002) Gian Piero Gasperini (2003–2004) Andrea Agostinelli (2004–2005) Gian Piero Gasperini (2005–2006) Elio Gustinetti (2006–2007) Guido Carboni (2007) Francesco Moriero (2008–2009) Franco Lerda (2009–2010) Leonardo Menichini (2010) Eugenio Corini (2010–2011) Leonardo Menichini (2010–2012) Massimo Drago (2012–2015) Ivan Jurić (2015–2016) Davide Nicola (2016–2017) Walter Zenga (2017–2018) Giovanni Stroppa (2018–2021) Serse Cosmi (2021) Francesco Modesto (2021) Pasquale Marino (2021) Francesco Modesto (2021-) References External links Official website Football clubs in Calabria Association football clubs established in 1910 Serie A clubs Serie B clubs Serie C clubs 1910 establishments in Italy

First engagement of neutral United States in World War II before the attack on Pearl Harbor

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Scholars have identified various events as being the first engagement of neutral United States in World War II before the attack on Pearl Harbor. They disagree on which events led to formal entry of the United States into the conflict. Attacks on Americans On 22 February 1932 while delivering a China Republic biplane, the prototype Boeing 218, US Lt [Reserve] Robert McCawley Short is killed in aerial combat with IJN aircraft. On 20 August 1937 In a friendly fire incident Chinese artillery strikes USS Augusta (CA-31) killing seaman 2/c F.J. Falgout of Raceland, Louisiana and wounding 18. On 31 August 1937 In a friendly fire incident Chinese warplanes accidentally attack killing Mess Steward S. Haskell and wounding 1 crewman and six passengers. On 30 November 1937 the American tugboat Felting at the French concession at Shanghai is seized by the Japanese; the U.S. Flag is thrown overboard and a wooden plaque on the ships origin is torn off and used to strike a Chinese crewman; the tug was "returned" 1 December 1937. On 12 December 1937 the attack on the United States gunboat by Japanese forces in China (usually referred to as the Panay incident) could be considered as the first hostile American action during World War II. Two U.S. Navy crewmen and two civilians were killed; 43 Navy crewmen and five civilians were wounded. Although the war was not officially declared in Europe until Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, Japan had been involved in military actions against China since 1931. On 26 January 1938, in what was known as the Allison incident, John M. Allison, at the time consul at the American embassy in Nanking, was struck in the face by a Japanese soldier. Even though the Japanese apologized formally on 30 January (after the Americans demanded they do so), this incident, together with the looting of American property in Nanking that took place at the same time, further strained relations which had already been damaged by the Panay incident less than two months earlier. On 24 August 1938 in the Kweilin incident a CNAC DC-2 at Zhongshan China was strafed by Japanese fighters; American pilot Hugh Leslie Woods was one of only 3 survivors of 17 passengers and crew; the plane was later destroyed on 29 October 1940 as CNAC DC-2 number 39 On 3 September 1939 was the first British liner to be torpedoed and sunk after Britain declared war on Germany, by . Total casualties were 112, including 28 US citizens. On 21 April 1940 the first American military death in the European Theatre occurred during the German invasion of Norway. Military attaché Captain Robert M. Losey was killed during a German bombardment of Dombås while assisting with the evacuation of U.S. embassy personnel and others to Sweden. On 29 October 1940 CNAC DC-2 number 39 was attacked by Japanese Fighter planes at rural Changyi Airfield in Yunnan; American Pilot Walter "Foxie" Kent killed along with 1 crew and 7 passengers. On 4 September 1941 during the "Greer Incident" the destroyer was fired upon with torpedoes by . On 18 October 1941 was sunk by . Among the fatalities was Lt John Stanley Parker RNVR an American Either the casualties inflicted on by on 17 October 1941 (11 KIA) or the sinking of the by on 31 October 1941, (115 KIA) might be considered the first American naval losses of World War II. The United States was neither officially involved in the war at the time nor did the incidents cause it to declare war. Attacks by the U.S. military Germany The first American hostile action against Axis forces was on 10 April 1941, when the destroyer attacked a German U-boat: the , which had just sunk the Dutch freighter Saleier near Iceland. Niblack was picking up survivors from the freighter when U-52 was detected preparing to attack. The Niblack attacked with depth charges and drove off the U-boat. There were no casualties on board Niblack or the U-boat. By coincidence, USS Niblack was later in the same convoy as, and picked up survivors from, the USS Reuben James when that ship was sunk. The first American hostile action against Axis forces that resulted in physical destruction was on 14 September 1941, when destroyed a German weather station in northeast Greenland. The action was based on an agreement with Danish Ambassador to the United States Henrik Kauffmann in April 1941 to patrol the Danish island. Japan The first American-caused casualties in the Pacific occurred on 7 December 1941 when the attacked and sank a Japanese midget submarine near the entrance to Pearl Harbor hours before the Japanese air attack. As a result of the attack on Hawaii and the destruction of all seven US battleships, America declared war on Japan on 8 December 1941. Germany and Italy declared war on the United States three days later, and the US reciprocated. The first planned offensive action by the United States in World War II came in January 1942 when the aircraft carrier attacked Japanese bases in the Marshall Islands. See also SS Robin Moor References External links USS Niblack site USS Ward, Report of Pearl Harbor Attack Naval History & Heritage Command Attack on Pearl Harbor

Kazuya Nakai

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is a Japanese voice actor and narrator who was born in Kobe, Japan. He is affiliated with Aoni Production. His most notable role is Roronoa Zoro from One Piece. Other major voice roles include Toshiro Hijikata from Gintama, Date Masamune from Sengoku Basara, Xiahou Dun and Dian Wei from Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi series, Shinjiro Aragaki from the Persona series, Mugen from Samurai Champloo, Mondo Owada from the Danganronpa series, Ultraman Max in Ultraman Max and Jin Sakai in the Japanese dub of the video game Ghost of Tsushima. He won a Best Supporting Actor award at the 5th Seiyu Awards in 2011 for his roles in One Piece and Gin Tama. Filmography Anime Films Video games Drama CDs Tokusatsu Dubbing Animated TV-Series The Cuphead Show (2022) King Dice - Originally Performed by Wayne Brady References Notes External links Official agency profile Kazuya Nakai at Oricon 1967 births Living people Male voice actors from Kobe Japanese male video game actors Japanese male voice actors 20th-century Japanese male actors 21st-century Japanese male actors Aoni Production voice actors

Webster (TV series)

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Webster is an American sitcom television series that aired on ABC from September 16, 1983, to May 8, 1987, and in first-run syndication from September 21, 1987, to March 10, 1989. The series was created by Stu Silver. The show stars Emmanuel Lewis in the title role as a young boy who, after losing his parents, is adopted by his NFL-pro godfather, portrayed by Alex Karras, and his new socialite wife, played by Susan Clark. The focus was largely on how this impulsively married couple had to adjust to their new lives and sudden parenthood, but it was the congenial Webster himself who drove much of the plot. The series was produced by Georgian Bay Ltd., Emmanuel Lewis Entertainment Enterprises, Inc. (1986–1989) and Paramount Television (Network 1983–1987, Domestic 1987–1989). Like NBC's earlier series Diff'rent Strokes, Webster featured a young African-American boy adopted by a wealthy white family. Synopsis The show, set in Chicago, revolves around Webster Long (Emmanuel Lewis), a 5-year-old African American orphan whose biological parents, Travis and Gert Long, were recently killed in a car accident. He is taken in by his godfather, retired football star George Papadopolis (Alex Karras), with whom Travis had played professional football in the 1970s, and his wife Katherine (Susan Clark), an upper crust socialite with zero housekeeping skills. George and Katherine's new married life was part of the premise, but it was Webster who was the main focus of the show. The Papadopolises lived in a luxurious high-rise apartment in Chicago, with burly George now working as a sportscaster at local station WBJX-TV, and Katherine working as a consumer advocate, later becoming a family psychologist. Although the series is set in Chicago, the apartment complex shown in exterior shots of the first two seasons is actually The Mirabella condominium building, located at 10430 Wilshire Blvd, in the Westwood district of Los Angeles, California. Sarcastic social climber Jerry Silver (Henry Polic II) was Katherine's secretary, as well as her professional and personal confidant. Webster also had an uncle, Phillip Long (Ben Vereen) who first appeared near the end of the first season. Phillip had issues with Webster living with a white couple (creating acrimony between him and George) and sought to adopt him and take him to live in Chicago's South Side. After his numerous attempts at this during the second season, Phillip moved to Hollywood to launch an acting career. In the later seasons, Phillip would return in a few guest appearances. Shortly after being adopted, Webster starting calling George by his first name but calling Katherine "Ma'am." In one episode Katherine asked Webster why he used such a formal name, and he explained that he was calling her as close to "Mom" as he could without disrespecting his birth mother. George often called Webster "Web." Shortly into the second season, Webster accidentally burned down the family's apartment with a science kit, and the Papadopolises had to leave the high-rise. In the next episode, the family moved to a large Victorian house located at 1432 North State Parkway in Chicago's Gold Coast (). Bill and Cassie Parker (Eugene Roche and Cathryn Damon) were the gregarious middle-aged couple who leased the house to the Papadopolises while they moved into a basement apartment below. Bill, a craftsman/shop teacher, and Cassie, an editor of high-profile romantic and crime novels, were raking in rent in order to complete the numerous additions they were making to the property. George and Bill, despite the competitiveness that occurred between them, became good buddies; Cassie and Katherine became each other's confidants; and Webster easily became the apple of the Parkers' eye, often retreating to the basement for special quality time with them. Later in the second season, a thread of drama was added when the Parkers' estranged daughter Maggie Parker (guest star Jennifer Holmes) appeared for a tearful-reunion episode, complete with a son. Bill and Cassie also had a son named Regis, who was referred to but never seen. Many more of Webster's friends and classmates passed through, including Rob Whitaker (Chad Allen). A recent "divorce kid" living with his mother, Rob was kidnapped by his father in one episode, and the Papadopolises and the community rallied to help Rob's mother find him. When he returned, it was Katherine who successfully intervened with his father. Later in the third season, Rob's last name inexplicably became Joiner. Bill and Cassie disappeared after the third season; Cathryn Damon had left the series upon having been diagnosed with ovarian cancer (which ultimately took her life in May 1987), and instead of recasting her role, Eugene Roche was dropped as well so that their characters would not have to be used. Damon and Roche were no longer credited on the show beginning with the season four premiere, nor were their characters evident in that episode; in the second episode of the season ("The Landlords", aired September 26, 1986), it was finally explained that the Parkers had moved to Florida, resulting in George and Katherine buying their house outright. Jerry, who was a more prominent member of the show in the first season (receiving the "co-starring" heading in the opening credits after the show's three leads), had since become an occasional character, but would continue for the entire series. George's jovial aging father, George Sr. (Jack Kruschen), known to all as "Papa" Papadopolis, first showed up in a couple of guest appearances in the second season, before joining as a recurring cast member in the fall of 1985. The following season, three more of Webster's friends/classmates had recurring roles—Roger (Carl Steven), Timmy (Danny McMurphy) and Tommy (Gabe Witcher). Benny (Nick DeMauro) was the proprietor of "Benny's", a malt shop in downtown Chicago where many of the series regulars started frequenting midway through the fourth season. This setting was in many respects a revival of "The Trocadero", an earlier malt shop featured in a few second-season episodes, whose owner, Maurice, was played in guest appearances by Richard Karron. Production history When Alex Karras and Susan Clark married in real life, they started their own production company, Georgian Bay Ltd. ABC approached the couple about a sitcom development deal which resulted in a proposed romantic-comedy series, Another Ballgame, to star Karras as an ex-NFL player who quickly found true love with a socialite consumer advocate (Clark) on a cruise. ABC picked it up for the fall 1983 schedule, with Paramount Television as packager, but major changes would occur before the premiere. After seeing Emmanuel Lewis in a Burger King commercial, ABC's programming chief, Lew Erlicht, wanted to give the actor his own series. At this time, Another Ballgame creator Stu Silver desired to develop an original show based on the lead characters portrayed by Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy in the film Woman of the Year and saw Alex Karras and Susan Clark's on-screen chemistry as being strikingly reminiscent of this. The network felt the need to cast Lewis in a project quickly, before he grew another inch (like child actor Gary Coleman, who was also small for his age, Lewis would end up at 4'3".) With the number of comedy pilots ABC had greenlit for that fall's schedule, it was likely that Lewis would not be able to get his own series and timeslot unless he was worked into already-existing comedy projects. So, among others shows, co-producers on Another Ballgame were approached about working Lewis into the show. Stars Karras and Clark liked the idea of the sudden marriage and instant adoption of a young black boy, and the Webster character was thus created. The premise of Webster's parents' death, and his inclusion into the Papadopoulos household, originated with the second phase of the pilot, which had the show's title changed to Then Came You. Executives soon made it clear that the show's major focus would be on the Webster character, instead of it being a split romantic/family comedy. The character of George Papadopolis' buddy and broadcasting colleague, played by Art LaFleur, was summarily dropped from the regular cast; once getting to air, LaFleur only appeared in the pilot. Karras and Clark did not approve this round of changes, as creative control was still in their hands with Georgian Bay. However, Clark originally prevented their co-producers and ABC from changing the series' title to Webster, since she wanted to maintain the ensemble aspect of the series. While early promotions for the sitcom carried the title Then Came You, network politics would end up violating Clark's request; the brass ultimately settled on Webster just before its fall premiere. Webster premiered in September 1983 and was an instant hit. From the start, the final product was drawing close comparisons to NBC's popular Diff'rent Strokes, which featured the diminutive Gary Coleman as a young black boy adopted by a white family. The main differences, however, were that Lewis' character of Webster Long had an adoptive mother and father from the start who had no children, whereas Coleman's character Arnold Jackson and his older brother Willis (Todd Bridges) were adopted by a widower with a daughter. Also, Coleman's short stature was due to a congenital kidney condition, whereas Lewis was completely healthy and had no pre-existing condition to explain his height. Eventually, in the fall of 1985, Webster would be joined on ABC's Friday night lineup by Diff'rent Strokes, when the latter moved to ABC for what turned out to be its eighth and final season. Despite the early success, the show that made it to the air as Webster was not what Karras and Clark foresaw as their ideal starring vehicle. The first season was fraught with tension, between the couple's disagreements and their protests with Paramount and ABC. After the initial episodes that set up the show's premise (George and Katherine's wedding, Webster's arrival, and the resulting adjustments) were shot, most of the plots became exclusively Webster-driven, even though it was the writers' intention to include story elements that focused on George and Katherine as much as possible. The show's married stars did win many of the early script disputes, and several first-season episodes did get to focus on the new marriage and lives of the adult leads. The in-fighting on set continued, and especially had an effect on Lewis. Reportedly, Lewis was often whisked away from the set whenever Karras and Clark argued and demanded rewrites. It became so severe that Lewis blamed the trouble on himself. After the first season ended, ABC stopped pushing hard for "all Webster, all the time"; Paramount eventually came to an agreement with Karras and Clark that they would continue to get prominent storylines for their characters. In the long run, the series did become part romantic and part family-oriented, as Clark and Karras wanted it to be; the series was also regarded for handling Webster's childhood stories in a more sophisticated, intelligent fashion than other comedies of the time that relied on preachy, heavy-handed morals to tell a story. The only condition that Paramount laid out for Clark and Karras was that Lewis, who ABC saw as a money maker above all else, would get production credit alongside them. As a result, "Emmanuel Lewis Entertainment Enterprises, Inc." was launched in 1986, acting as another production company for Webster starting in its fourth season. By season three at the latest, the stormy relations of the first season disappeared on set. The main cast bonded well from then on, with Karras becoming a surrogate father figure to Lewis. Webster director Joel Zwick, in his interview for the 2003 E! True Hollywood Story on Lewis, remarked that, "As far as TV sitcom families go, it took them longer than most to acclimate to each other." Over the course of the fourth season, ratings dropped sharply. The show, which had been a Nielsen top 30 series, ranked 46th by the end of the season. Although ABC still saw Lewis especially as a bankable star, having recently featured him in his first self-headlined prime-time special (Emmanuel Lewis: My Very Own Show, which aired in February 1987 and featured Lewis performing alongside Sammy Davis, Jr., Bob Hope and other big-name celebrities), the network felt that Webster was past its peak in terms of ratings, and was unsure that it would ever regain the higher numbers it had during the early seasons. Having been the Friday night 8 p.m. anchor since March 1985, Webster moved back to the "protected" time slot of 8:30/7:30 on Fridays in March 1987. ABC announced the series' cancellation in May. Cancellation and move to syndication Even though Webster had seen its overall ratings decline leading into its cancellation, the series had always drawn a large audience of younger viewers; in fact, Websters largest audience was children. At the time of the cancellation of Webster by ABC, there was a trend in syndication of seeing various television series that had been cancelled by the three major networks find new life as weekly syndicated series (examples of the time including Too Close for Comfort, Mama's Family, Charles in Charge, Fame, 9 to 5, It's a Living, and Punky Brewster). Even before Webster fell out of the Nielsen top 30 on ABC, Paramount had signed an exclusive deal with the show's producers to continue the show in first-run syndication if the network eventually had reason to cancel it before it reached its 100th episode. (This package deal also gave the same option to the Paramount-produced Cheers and Family Ties, if either of them were to see an early demise on NBC, but both series enjoyed long runs on that network.) Although Webster managed to hit its hundredth episode at the end of its final season on ABC, Paramount decided to exercise their option to keep the show in production. By doing this Paramount was no longer bound by network standards and could easily target the young audience that made up the majority of its Webster viewer base. Paramount's syndication arm began a drive to sell the series to local stations, and enough bought the series to enable a fifth season to be produced. Webster'''s fifth season premiered in syndication on September 21, 1987, with a three-episode story arc which saw Webster, George, and Katherine head to San Francisco. Beginning with the fourth episode of the season, the Papadopolis household gained a new member in George's nephew Nicky (Corin Nemec), who moved in when his parents went off to work in Nigeria on assignment for the United Nations. Nicky provided Webster with a sort of "brother figure", and the two got along famously. However, Nicky was gone from the show at the start of season six (Nemec would later reach greater fame as the star of Fox's Parker Lewis Can't Lose). Although no longer a regular when the series moved to first-run syndication, Papa Papadopolis continued to make a few guest appearances during the fifth and sixth seasons, as did Webster's friend Tommy and malt shop owner Benny. While the lead character's plots continued to mature somewhat with Webster's onset of pre-teendom, the same "cutesy factor" remained, thanks in part to Lewis' timing and portrayal. However, this was something Lewis was slowly tiring of, despite the fact that he had more creative control over Webster at this point. Now 17 years old and about to complete his high school education (which was followed by his enrollment at Clark Atlanta University in 1989), Lewis did not have the desire to continue portraying a character roughly half his age. Ultimately, due to Lewis' height, the character of Webster Long was only depicted between the ages of 6 and 12 years old over the show's six seasons. Early in the 1988–89 season, with Lewis clearly outgrowing the title role, Karras and Clark also decided that the time was right to move on. Websters sixth season was announced to be its last, with the finale airing on March 10, 1989. Instead of a typical series finale, the last episode—titled "Webtrek"—saw Webster go on an adventure aboard the Starship Enterprise from the series' Paramount-produced sibling, Star Trek: The Next Generation. There, he interacts with Lt. Worf (Michael Dorn) from TNG, whom Webster attempts to humanize, while a series of Webster flashbacks are shown that depict the concept of feelings. Cast Main cast Emmanuel Lewis as Webster Long Alex Karras as George Papadopolis Susan Clark as Katherine Calder-Young Papadopolis Henry Polic II as Jerry Silver Eugene Roche as Bill Parker (1984–1988) Cathryn Damon as Cassie Parker (1984–1986) Ben Vereen as Uncle Phillip Long (1984–1985) Recurring cast Jack Kruschen as George "Papa" Papadopolis, Sr. (1985–1987) Chad Allen as Rob Whitaker/Joiner (1985–1986) Carl Steven as Roger (1986–1987) Danny McMurphy as Timmy (1986–1987) Gabe Witcher as Tommy (1987) Nick DeMauro as Benny (1987) Corin Nemec as Nicky Papadopolis (1987–1988) (credited as Corin "Corky" Nemec) Notable guest stars Heather O'Rourke as Melanie (season 1) Harrison Page as Travis Long (flashback sequence, season 1) Bumper Robinson as Curtis (season 1) Richard Karron as Maurice (seasons 1–2) Neva Patterson as Emily Calder-Young, Katherine's mother (seasons 2–3) The Four Tops as themselves (seasons 4, 5 and 6) Tiffany Brissette as Kathy (season 2) Alison Sweeney as Beth ("The Uh-Oh Feeling", season 2) Mayim Bialik as Frieda (season 6) Frank Gifford as himself (season 2) Diahann Carroll as herself (season 2) Jack Elam as Dusty ("How the West Was Once", season 3) Alan Autry as Jack ("How the West Was Once", season 3) Norman Fell as Charlie ("Almost Home", season 3) Mac Davis as "Uncle" Jake Tyler ("Almost Home", season 3) Faith Ford as Terry Berman ("Almost Home", season 3) Patrick Ewing as himself ("One More Shot", season 3) John Thompson as himself ("One More Shot", season 3) Harold Sylvester as Mr. Moorepark ("McGruff", season 4) Julia Migenes as herself ("Leave it to Diva", season 4) Michael Dorn as Lt. Worf ("Webtreak", season 6) Episodes Backdoor pilot The season three episode "Almost Home" (February 21, 1986) served as a backdoor pilot for a proposed spinoff of Webster. In it, Webster flies out to visit "Uncle" Jake Tyler (country music star Mac Davis), a former college classmate of George Papadapolis and Travis Long and country music recording artist who was now caring for several foster children. Jake's background was promptly explained, in which the death of his young son and subsequent divorce from his wife prompted him to start working in a foster home. During Webster's stay with him, the young mother of one of Jake's foster sons (Faith Ford) arrives to regain custody of her child, and Jake endures a lot of pain as a result of his emotional attachment to the boy. The foster children, who ranged from preschool age to teenage, were played by Edan Gross, Billy Lombardo (also known for starring in the Punky Brewster backdoor pilot "Fenster Hall" in 1985), Shannon and Robin Lynch, Larry O. Williams, Jr. (who had previously guest starred as different characters on Webster, both in the first season and earlier in the third), and Ben Ryan Ganger. There were also appearances by Norman Fell and Allyn Ann McLerie, who could have been part of the spinoff cast as well if the concept had made it to series. Nielsen ratings 1983–84: #26 (17.47 rating) 1984–85: #22 (17.46 rating) 1985–86: #41 (15.30 rating) 1986–87: #46 (13.80 rating) Syndicated reruns In addition to its continuation as a weekly series in syndication for 1987, and since Webster reached the so-called "magic number" of 100 episodes before ABC's cancellation decision, Paramount began distributing reruns of the four previous seasons to local stations alongside the new episodes produced for syndication. When the series ended in 1989, the syndicated Webster episodes were added to the rerun package. USA Network aired reruns of the show from September 22, 1997, to March 13, 1998. It also aired on Superstation WGN from September 21, 1998, to September 2, 1999 (which was, until 2016, the last time that Webster appeared on national television).The Syracuse Herald Journal, March 13, 1998.Webster also aired on Chicago's local station MeTV and WMEU-CA (now known as MeTV's sister station MeToo since March 2008) from 2006 to 2009. It aired on Antenna TV on weekend afternoons from June 4, 2016, as the leadoff program of its "Saturday Summerthons" marathon programming stunt when it first began, to December 27, 2020. Home media Shout! Factory (under license from CBS Home Entertainment) has released the first four seasons on DVD in Region 1. On October 9, 2012, Shout! Factory released a 20 episode best-of set entitled Webster- 20 Timeless Episodes''. ♦ - Shout! Factory Exclusives title, sold exclusively through Shout's online store. See also References External links 1980s American sitcoms 1980s American black sitcoms 1983 American television series debuts 1989 American television series endings American Broadcasting Company original programming American television series revived after cancellation English-language television shows First-run syndicated television programs in the United States Television series about families Television series by CBS Studios Television shows set in Chicago

Director of New Netherland

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This is a list of Directors, appointed by the Dutch West India Company, of the 17th century Dutch province of New Netherland (Nieuw-Nederland in Dutch) in North America. Only the last, Peter Stuyvesant, held the title of Director General. As the colony grew, citizens advisory boards – known as the Twelve Men, Eight Men, and Nine Men – exerted more influence on the director and thus affairs of province. There were New Netherland settlements in what later became the US states of New York, New Jersey, and Delaware, with short-lived outposts in areas of today's Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania. The capital, New Amsterdam, became the city of New York when the New Netherlanders provisionally ceded control of the colony to the English, who renamed the city and the rest of the province in June 1665. During the restitution to Dutch rule from August 1673 to November 1674, when New Netherland was under the jurisdiction of the City of Amsterdam, the first Dutch governor, Anthony Colve, was appointed. List of directors From 1624–1664 Restoration of the colony, 1673–1674 In 1673, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch were able to recapture New Amsterdam (renamed "New York" by the British) under Admiral Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and Captain Anthony Colve. Evertsen renamed the city "New Orange." Evertsen returned to the Netherlands in July 1674, and was accused of disobeying his orders. Evertsen had been instructed not to retake New Amsterdam but instead to conquer the British colonies of Saint Helena and Cayenne (now French Guiana). In 1674, the Dutch were compelled to relinquish New Amsterdam to the British under the terms of the Second Treaty of Westminster. See also Joris Andringa Johan Björnsson Printz List of colonial governors of Delaware List of colonial governors of New Jersey List of colonial governors of New York Dutch colonization of the Americas List of mayors of New York City History of New York City References New Netherland New Netherland Governors of Delaware Governors of New Jersey Governors of New York (state)

Ain't Too Proud to Beg

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"Ain't Too Proud to Beg" is a 1966 song and hit single by The Temptations for Motown Records' Gordy label, produced by Norman Whitfield and written by Whitfield and Edward Holland Jr. The song peaked at number 13 on the Billboard Pop Chart, and was a number-one hit on the Billboard R&B charts for eight non-consecutive weeks. The song's success, in the wake of the relative underperformance of the previous Temptations single, "Get Ready", resulted in Norman Whitfield replacing Smokey Robinson, producer of "Get Ready", as The Temptations' main producer. In 2004 it finished #94 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs poll thanks to its inclusion in The Big Chill soundtrack. Background Motown had a policy that the producer who had the biggest hits on a particular artist was assigned as the main producer for that artist, and was given preference when singles were selected for release by Motown's Quality Control department. By 1966, Motown artist, songwriter, and producer Smokey Robinson had by that default earned creative control over The Temptations, after a string of hits such as "The Way You Do the Things You Do", "My Girl", and "Since I Lost My Baby". Norman Whitfield, an up-and-coming songwriter and producer at Motown who'd had some success with Marvin Gaye and The Velvelettes, had worked with the Temptations on singles such as "Girl (Why You Wanna Make Me Blue)" (1964), and coveted Robinson's role as their producer. Finally creating an instrumental track he thought would make it, Whitfield enlisted lyricist Edward Holland Jr. (of Holland–Dozier–Holland fame) to write lyrics to Whitfield's instrumental. Although Holland didn't think Whitfield had a chance of stealing Robinson's act (especially since Robinson was Motown CEO Berry Gordy's best friend), he contributed his services to the song, resulting in "Ain't Too Proud to Beg". Composition The song's lyrics feature its narrator pleading for a second chance with his departing lover, opening with the determined statement "I know you wanna leave me/but I refuse to let you go." The narrator goes on to state that he "ain't too proud to beg" or "plead" his lover to stay. The Temptations were pleased with the composition, feeling that the song's blues-inspired melody and James Brown-esque horn stabs would help to update their sound. David Ruffin was tapped to sing lead on the song, and Whitfield submitted the mix to Motown's Quality Control department. Cash Box described the song as a "plaintive, slow-shufflin’ blues-soaked ode about a love-sick fella who’ll go any lengths to keep his gal at his side." Personnel David Ruffinlead vocals Eddie Kendricks, Melvin Franklin, Paul Williams, and Otis Williamsbacking vocals The Funk Brothersinstrumentation Henry Cosbytenor saxophone solo Earl Van DykeHammond organ Johnny GriffithWurlitzer electronic piano Joe Messinaguitar James Jamersonbass guitar Uriel Jonesdrums Jack Ashfordtambourine Eddie "Bongo" Brownpercussion Production On Friday mornings at Motown's Hitsville USA offices, the creative team held Quality Control meetings, at which potential single releases were voted for or against release. To Whitfield's disappointment, "Ain't Too Proud to Beg" failed twice to make it through Motown's Friday morning Quality Control meetings, with Berry Gordy commenting that the song was good, but "needed more story". For the third recorded version of "Ain't Too Proud", Whitfield had David Ruffin's lead vocal arranged just above his actual vocal range. As a result, the singer was forced to strain through numerous takes in order to get out all of the song's high notes. By the end of the "Ain't Too Proud" recording session, recalls Temptation Otis Williams, Ruffin was "drowning in sweat and his glasses were all over his face". By this point, both the Temptations and Whitfield were confident they had a major hit on their hands. However, both "Ain't Too Proud" and "Get Ready", a Temptations track produced by Smokey Robinson with Eddie Kendricks on lead, turned up at the same Quality Control meeting. Since Robinson was the Temptations' main producer, his song was released and Whitfield's was shelved. Cornelius Grant, the Temptations' road guitarist, band director, and songwriter, recalled that after that decision was made, "it was as if the veins jumped out of Norman's neck." Whitfield was less than pleased at the Quality Control department's decision, and stated plainly that "never again am I gonna lose out on a release like that".. As a compromise, Gordy promised Whitfield that "Ain't Too Proud" would be the next single if "Get Ready" failed to reach the Top 20 on the Billboard Pop Chart. Release "Get Ready" reached number one on the Billboard R&B charts, but only number 29 on the pop charts. As promised, "Ain't Too Proud To Beg" was released as the next single. It also reached number one on the R&B charts, but made it into the top twenty at number thirteen. "Ain't Too Proud" replaced Sam & Dave's "Hold On! I'm a Comin'" as the R&B number-one single during the week of June 18, 1966, and held the position for four weeks until being replaced by Ray Charles' "Let's Go Get Stoned" during the week of July 16. The following week, Ain't Too Proud returned to the number-one position, where it remained for four more weeks until being replaced the week of August 20 by another Motown single, Stevie Wonder's cover of Bob Dylan's "Blowin' in the Wind". The Temptations had been on tour during all of the office politics involving the release of "Ain't Too Proud to Beg", and only learned about the record being a hit when they were contacted by Motown an hour before an August 20, 1966, performance on American Bandstand and ordered to perform it. Temptation Paul Williams quickly devised a dance routine for the song, and the group lip-synched the song for the American Bandstand viewing audience. Much of the song's success, according to the Temptations themselves, is due to Whitfield's production, which was leaner and hit harder than Robinson's smoother style, and also to David Ruffin's pained lead vocal. The tactic of having Ruffin record above his register worked well enough that Whitfield went on to use it on later Temptations records such as "Beauty Is Only Skin Deep" and "(I Know) I'm Losing You", and also did the same to Marvin Gaye when he recorded his now-famous version of "I Heard It Through the Grapevine". Rick Astley Version Rick Astley covered the song for his 1988 album Hold Me in Your Arms, and released it as a single in the US and Japan in the summer of 1989. This was Astley's last single with producers Stock Aitken Waterman. On New Year's Eve 2019, Astley performed the song with YolanDa Brown on the BBC's Jools' Annual Hootenanny. Chart Performance The single peaked at number 89 on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number 16 on the Adult Contemporary charts. Charts Other Versions The Rolling Stones recorded the song for their album It's Only Rock 'n Roll (1974). They also released it as a single, which reached 17 in the Billboard's Hot 100 singles chart. The official promotional video features the band, in bright clothing, performing the song on a stage. In 2007 the band performed the song at Isle of Wight Festival with Amy Winehouse. Notes Williams, Otis and Romanowski, Patricia, Temptations. Weinger, Harry, "Sunshine on a Cloudy Day". References Bibliography Posner, Gerald (2002). Motown : Music, Money, Sex, and Power. New York: Random House. . Weinger, Harry (1994). "Sunshine on a Cloudy Day". The Temptations: Emperors of Soul [CD Box Set]. New York: Motown Record Co., L.P. Williams, Otis and Romanowski, Patricia (1988, updated 2002). Temptations. Lanham, MD: Cooper Square. . 1966 singles 1974 singles 1989 singles The Temptations songs Rick Astley songs Songs written by Norman Whitfield Songs written by Eddie Holland The Rolling Stones songs Song recordings produced by Jagger–Richards Song recordings produced by Norman Whitfield 1966 songs 1988 songs Gordy Records singles

Iambic pentameter

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Iambic pentameter () is a type of metric line used in traditional English poetry and verse drama. The term describes the rhythm, or meter, established by the words in that line; rhythm is measured in small groups of syllables called "feet". "Iambic" refers to the type of foot used, here the iamb, which in English indicates an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable (as in a-bove). "Pentameter" indicates a line of five "feet". Iambic pentameter is the most common meter in English poetry; it is used in the major English poetic forms, including blank verse, the heroic couplet, and some of the traditionally rhymed stanza forms. It is used both in early forms of English poetry and in later forms; William Shakespeare famously used iambic pentameter in his plays and sonnets. As lines in iambic pentameter usually contain ten syllables, it is considered a form of decasyllabic verse. Meter Example An iambic foot is an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. The rhythm can be written as: da DUM The da-DUM of a human heartbeat is the most common example of this rhythm. A standard line of iambic pentameter is five iambic feet in a row: da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM Straightforward examples of this rhythm can be heard in the opening line of William Shakespeare's Sonnet 12: When I do count the clock that tells the time and in John Keats' Ode To Autumn: To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells It is possible to notate this with a "/" marking ictic syllables (experienced as beats) and a "×" marking nonictic syllables (experienced as offbeats). In this notation a standard line of iambic pentameter would look like this: × / × / × / × / × / The scansion of the examples above can be notated as follows: × / × / × / × / × / When I do count the clock that tells the time × / × / × / × / × / To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells The iamb in classical and English verse The term "iamb" originally applied to the quantitative meter of classical poetry. The classical terms were adapted to describe the equivalent meters in English accentual-syllabic verse. Different languages express rhythm in different ways. In Ancient Greek and Latin, the rhythm was created through the alternation of short and long syllables. In English, the rhythm is created through the use of stress, alternating between unstressed and stressed syllables. An English unstressed syllable is equivalent to a classical short syllable, while an English stressed syllable is equivalent to a classical long syllable. When a pair of syllables is arranged as a short followed by a long, or an unstressed followed by a stressed, pattern, that foot is said to be "iambic". The English word "trapeze" is an example of an iambic pair of syllables, since the word is made up of two syllables ("tra—peze") and is pronounced with the stress on the second syllable ("tra—PEZE", rather than "TRA—peze"). A line of iambic pentameter is made up of five such pairs of short/long, or unstressed/stressed, syllables. Rhythmic variation Although strictly speaking, iambic pentameter refers to five iambs in a row (as above), in practice, poets vary their iambic pentameter a great deal, while maintaining the iamb as the most common foot. However, there are some conventions to these variations. Iambic pentameter must always contain only five feet, and the second foot is almost always an iamb. The first foot, in contrast, often changes by the use of inversion, which reverses the order of the syllables in the foot. The following line from Shakespeare's Richard III begins with an inversion: / × × / × / × / × / Now is the winter of our discontent Besides inversion, whereby a beat is pulled back, a beat can also be pushed forward to create an indivisible 4-syllable unit: x x / /. In the following example, the 4th beat has been pushed forward: x / x / x / x x / / A mote it is to trouble the mind's eye Another common departure from standard iambic pentameter is the addition of a final unstressed syllable, which creates a weak or feminine ending. One of Shakespeare's most famous lines of iambic pentameter has a weak ending: × / × / × / / × × / (×) To be or not to be, | that is the question This line also has an inversion of the fourth foot, following the caesura (marked with "|"). In general a caesura acts in many ways like a line-end: inversions are common after it, and the extra unstressed syllable of the feminine ending may appear before it. Shakespeare and John Milton (in his work before Paradise Lost) at times employed feminine endings before a caesura. Here is the first quatrain of a sonnet by John Donne, which demonstrates how he uses a number of metrical variations strategically. This scansion adds numbers to indicate how Donne uses a variety of stress levels to realize his beats and offbeats (1 = lightest stress, 4 = heaviest stress): 4 1 1 4 3 4 1 4 1 2 / × × / × / × / × / Batter my heart three-personed God, for you 1 3 2 4 3 4 1 4 1 4 × / × / × / × / × / As yet but knock, breathe, shine and seek to mend. 1 2 1 4 1 4 2 4 1(1) 4 × / × / × / × / ×(×) / That I may rise and stand o'erthrow me and bend 1 4 1 4 3 4 1 4 1 4 × / × / × / × / × / Your force to break, blow, burn and make me new. Donne uses an inversion (DUM da instead of da DUM) in the first foot of the first line to stress the key verb, "batter", and then sets up a clear iambic pattern with the rest of the line (da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM). In the second and fourth lines he uses strongly-stressed offbeats (which can be interpreted as spondees) in the third foot to slow down the rhythm as he lists monosyllabic verbs. The parallel rhythm and grammar of these lines highlights the comparison Donne sets up between what God does to him "as yet" ("knock, breathe, shine and seek to mend"), and what he asks God to do ("break, blow, burn and make me new"). Donne also uses enjambment between lines three and four to speed up the flow as he builds to his desire to be made new. To further the speed-up effect of the enjambment, Donne puts an extra syllable in the final foot of the line (this can be read as an anapest (dada DUM) or as an elision). As the examples show, iambic pentameter need not consist entirely of iambs, nor need it have ten syllables. Most poets who have a great facility for iambic pentameter frequently vary the rhythm of their poetry as Donne and Shakespeare do in the examples, both to create a more interesting overall rhythm and to highlight important thematic elements. In fact, the skillful variation of iambic pentameter, rather than the consistent use of it, may well be what distinguishes the rhythmic artistry of Donne, Shakespeare, Milton, and the 20th century sonneteer Edna St. Vincent Millay. Several scholars have argued that iambic pentameter has been so important in the history of English poetry by contrasting it with the one other important meter (tetrameter), variously called "four-beat," "strong-stress," "native meter," or "four-by-four meter." Four-beat, with four beats to a line, is the meter of nursery rhymes, children's jump-rope and counting-out rhymes, folk songs and ballads, marching cadence calls, and a good deal of art poetry. It has been described by Attridge as based on doubling: two beats to each half line, two half lines to a line, two pairs of lines to a stanza. The metrical stresses alternate between light and heavy. It is a heavily regular beat that produces something like a repeated tune in the performing voice, and is, indeed, close to song. Because of its odd number of metrical beats, iambic pentameter, as Attridge says, does not impose itself on the natural rhythm of spoken language. Thus iambic pentameter frees intonation from the repetitiveness of four-beat and allows instead the varied intonations of significant speech to be heard. Pace can be varied in iambic pentameter, as it cannot in four-beat, as Alexander Pope demonstrated in his "An Essay on Criticism": When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, The line, too, labours and the words move slow. Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain, Flies o'er th'unbending corn, and skims along the main. The last line is in fact an alexandrine — an iambic hexameter, which occurs occasionally in some iambic pentameter texts as a variant line, most commonly the final line of a passage or stanza, and has a tendency, as in this example, to break in the middle, producing a symmetry, with its even number of syllables split into two halves, that contrasts with the asymmetry of the 5-beat pentameter line. Pope exemplifies "swiftness" partly through his use of contraction: two extra implied syllables squeezed into the metrical template between the first 2 ictuses:- / ×(×) (×)× / × / × / × / × / Flies o'er th'unbending corn, and skims along the main. Moreover, iambic pentameter, instead of the steady alternation of lighter and heavier beats of four-beat, permits principal accents, that is accents on the most significant words, to occur at various points in a line as long as they are on the even–numbered syllables, or on the first syllable, in the case of an initial trochaic inversion. It is not the case, as is often alleged, that iambic pentameter is "natural" to English; rather it is that iambic pentameter allows the varied intonations and pace natural to significant speech to be heard along with the regular meter. Theories of iambic pentameter Halle–Keyser Linguists Morris Halle and Samuel Jay Keyser developed the earliest theory of generative metrics — a set of rules that define those variations that are permissible (in their view) in English iambic pentameter. Essentially, the Halle–Keyser rules state that only "stress maximum" syllables are important in determining the meter. A stress maximum syllable is a stressed syllable surrounded on both sides by weak syllables in the same syntactic phrase and in the same verse line. In order to be a permissible line of iambic pentameter, no stress maxima can fall on a syllable that is designated as a weak syllable in the standard, unvaried iambic pentameter pattern. In the Donne line, the word God is not a maximum. That is because it is followed by a pause. Similarly the words you, mend, and bend are not maxima since they are each at the end of a line (as required for the rhyming of mend/bend and you/new.) Rewriting the Donne quatrain showing the stress maxima (denoted with an "M") results in the following: / × × M × M × / × / Batter my heart three-personed God, for you × M × / × / × M × / As yet but knock, breathe, shine and seek to mend. × / × M × / × / ×(×) / That I may rise and stand o'erthrow me and bend × M × / × / × M × / Your force to break, blow, burn and make me new. The Halle–Keyser system has been criticized because it can identify passages of prose as iambic pentameter. Other scholars have revised Halle–Keyser, and they, along with Halle and Keyser, are known collectively as “generative metrists.” Later generative metrists pointed out that poets have often treated non-compound words of more than one syllable differently from monosyllables and compounds of monosyllables. Any normally weak syllable may be stressed as a variation if it is a monosyllable, but not if it is part of a polysyllable except at the beginning of a line or a phrase. Thus Shakespeare wrote in The Merchant of Venice, Act I, Scene 2: × × / / × / × /(×)× / For the four winds blow in from every coast but wrote "vanishingly few" lines of the form of "As gazelles leap a never-resting brook". The stress patterns are the same, and in particular, the normally weak third syllable is stressed in both lines; the difference is that in Shakespeare's line the stressed third syllable is a one-syllable word, "four", whereas in the un-Shakespearean line it is part of a two-syllable word, "gazelles". (The definitions and exceptions are more technical than stated here.) Pope followed such a rule strictly, Shakespeare fairly strictly, Milton much less, and Donne not at all—which may be why Ben Jonson said Donne deserved hanging for "not keeping of accent". Derek Attridge has pointed out the limits of the generative approach; it has “not brought us any closer to understanding why particular metrical forms are common in English, why certain variations interrupt the metre and others do not, or why metre functions so powerfully as a literary device.” Generative metrists also fail to recognize that a normally weak syllable in a strong position will be pronounced differently, i.e. “promoted” and so no longer "weak." History Latin verse included lines of ten syllables. It is widely thought that some line of this length, perhaps in the Alcmanian meter, led to the ten-syllable line of some Old French chansons de geste such as The Song of Roland. Those Old French lines invariably had a caesura after the fourth syllable. This line was adopted with more flexibility by the troubadours of Provence in the 12th century, notably Cercamon, Bernart de Ventadorn, and Bertran de Born. In both Old French and Old Provençal, the tenth syllable of the line was accented and feminine endings were common, in which case the line had eleven syllables. Italian poets such as Giacomo da Lentini, Boccaccio, Petrarch, and Dante adopted this line, generally using the eleven-syllable form (endecasillabo) because most Italian words have feminine endings. They often used a pattern where the fourth syllable (normally accented) and the fifth (normally unaccented) were part of the same word, the opposite of the Old French line with its required pause after the fourth syllable. This pattern came to be considered typically Italian. Geoffrey Chaucer followed the Italian poets in his ten-syllable lines, placing his pauses freely and often using the "Italian" pattern, but he deviated from it by introducing a strong iambic rhythm and the variations described above. This was an iambic pentameter. Chaucer's friend John Gower used a similar meter in his poem "In Praise of Peace." Chaucer's meter depended on the pronunciation of final e'''s that even by his time were probably silent. It was soon forgotten that they were ever pronounced, so later readers could not recognize his meter and found his lines rough. His Scottish followers of the century from 1420 to 1520—King James I, Robert Henryson, William Dunbar, and Gavin Douglas—seem to have understood his meter (though final e had long been silent in Scots) and came close to it. Dunbar, in particular, wrote poems in true iambic pentameter. In England, the poems of the 15th and early 16th centuries are in a wide variety of meters. Thomas Wyatt, for example, often mixed iambic pentameters with other lines of similar length but different rhythm. Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, on the other hand, used a strict ten-syllable line that was similar to the Old French line, with its pause after the fourth syllable, but typically had a regular iambic pattern, and had many of the modern types of variation. Thomas Sackville, in his two poems in the Mirror for Magistrates, used a similar line but with few caesuras. The result was essentially the normal iambic pentameter except for the avoidance of the "Italian" line. It was Philip Sidney, apparently influenced by Italian poetry, who used large numbers of "Italian" lines and thus is often considered to have reinvented iambic pentameter in its final form. He was also more adept than his predecessors in working polysyllabic words into the meter. However, Sidney avoided feminine endings. They appear more often in the work of such masters of iambic pentameter as Edmund Spenser and Shakespeare. Iambic pentameter became the prevalent meter in English. It was estimated in 1971 that at least three-quarters of all English poetry since Chaucer has been written in this meter. Reading in drama There is some debate over whether works such as Shakespeare's were originally performed with the rhythm prominent, or whether the rhythm was embedded in the patterns of contemporary speech. In either case, when read aloud, such verse naturally follows an iambic beat. Scholars have explained that there are few stage directions in Shakespeare "because the verse serves that purpose. The dramatic action of the lines is related to the physical action required." The rhythm of iambic pentameter was emphasised in Kenneth Branagh's 2000 production of Love's Labour's Lost'', in a scene where the protagonists tap-dance to the "Have at you now, affection's men-at-arms" speech. In this case, each iamb is underscored with a flap step. See also Notes References Types of verses Sonnet studies

Phenol red

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Phenol red (also known as phenolsulfonphthalein or PSP) is a pH indicator frequently used in cell biology laboratories. Chemical structure and properties Phenol red exists as a red crystal that is stable in air. Its solubility is 0.77 grams per liter (g/l) in water and 2.9 g/l in ethanol. It is a weak acid with pKa = 8.00 at . A solution of phenol red is used as a pH indicator, often in cell culture. Its color exhibits a gradual transition from yellow (λmax = 443 nm) to red (λmax = 570 nm) over the pH range 6.8 to 8.2. Above pH 8.2, phenol red turns a bright pink (fuchsia) color. In crystalline form, and in solution under very acidic conditions (low pH), the compound exists as a zwitterion as in the structure shown above, with the sulfate group negatively charged, and the ketone group carrying an additional proton. This form is sometimes symbolically written as and is orange-red. If the pH is increased (pKa = 1.2), the proton from the ketone group is lost, resulting in the yellow, negatively charged ion denoted as HPS−. At still higher pH (pKa = 7.7), the phenol's hydroxy group loses its proton, resulting in the red ion denoted as PS2−. In several sources, the structure of phenol red is shown with the sulfur atom being part of a cyclic group, similar to the structure of phenolphthalein. However, this cyclic structure could not be confirmed by X-ray crystallography. Several indicators share a similar structure to phenol red, including bromothymol blue, thymol blue, bromocresol purple, thymolphthalein, and phenolphthalein. (A table of other common chemical indicators is available in the article on pH indicators.) Phenolsulfonphthalein test Phenol red was used by Leonard Rowntree and John Geraghty in the phenolsulfonphthalein test to estimate the overall blood flow through the kidney in 1911. It was the first test of kidney function and was used for almost a century but is now obsolete. The test is based on the fact that phenol red is excreted almost entirely in the urine. Phenol red solution is administered intravenously; the urine produced is collected. By measuring the amount of phenol red excreted colorimetrically, kidney function can be determined. Indicator for cell cultures Most living tissues prosper at a near-neutral pH—that is, a pH close to 7. The pH of blood ranges from 7.35 to 7.45, for instance. When cells are grown in tissue culture, the medium in which they grow is held close to this physiological pH. A small amount of phenol red added to this growth medium will have a pink-red color under normal conditions. Typically, 15 mg/l are used for cell culture. In the event of problems, waste products produced by dying cells or overgrowth of contaminants will cause a change in pH, leading to a change in indicator color. For example, a culture of relatively slowly dividing mammalian cells can be quickly overgrown by bacterial contamination. This usually results in an acidification of the medium, turning it yellow. Many biologists find this a convenient way to rapidly check on the health of tissue cultures. In addition, the waste products produced by the mammalian cells themselves will slowly decrease the pH, gradually turning the solution orange and then yellow. This color change is an indication that even in the absence of contamination, the medium needs to be replaced (generally, this should be done before the medium has turned completely orange). Since the color of phenol red can interfere with some spectrophotometric and fluorescent assays, many types of tissue culture media are also available without phenol red. Estrogen mimic Phenol red is a weak estrogen mimic, and in cell cultures can enhance the growth of cells that express the estrogen receptor. It has been used to induce ovarian epithelial cells from post-menopausal women to differentiate into cells with properties of oocytes (eggs), with potential implications for both fertility treatment and stem cell research. Use in swimming pool test kits Phenol red, sometimes labelled with a different name, such as "Guardex Solution #2", is used as a pH indicator in home swimming pool test kits. Chlorine can result in the bleaching of the dye in the absence of thiosulfate to inhibit the oxidizing chlorine. High levels of bromine can convert phenol red to bromophenol red (dibromophenolsulfonephthalein, whose lowered pKa results in an indicator with a range shifted in the acidic direction – water at pH 6.8 will appear to test at 7.5). Even higher levels of bromine (>20 ppm) can result in the secondary conversion of bromophenol red to bromophenol blue with an even lower pKa, erroneously giving the impression that the water has an extremely high pH despite being dangerously low. References External links Video of phenol red activity demonstration and medium preparation PH indicators Triarylmethane dyes Phenols Benzenesulfonates

Korean pronouns

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Korean pronouns pose some difficulty to speakers of English due to their complexity. The Korean language makes extensive use of speech levels and honorifics in its grammar, and Korean pronouns also change depending on the social distinction between the speaker and the person or persons spoken to. In general, Koreans avoid using second person singular pronouns, especially when using honorific forms. Overview of pronouns For each pronoun there is a humble/honorific and an informal form for first and second person. In the above table, the first pronoun given is the humble one, which one would use when speaking to someone older or of high social status. Dangsin (당신) is also sometimes used as the Korean equivalent of "dear" as a form of address. Also, whereas uses of other humble forms are straightforward, dangsin must be used only in specific social contexts, such as between two married partners. In that way, it can be used in an ironic sense when used between strangers, usually during arguments and confrontations. It is worth noting that dangsin is also an honorific third-person pronoun, used to refer to one's social superior who is not present. There are no pure third-person pronoun systems in Korean. Unlike in English, Korean allows any part of a sentence except for the verb to be omitted when context is clear, which is usually done instead of using pronouns. It also uses personal names, titles, or kinship terms to refer to third persons in both oral and written communication. For this reason, repetitive use of names or titles in a discourse is allowed in Korean, which is very different from other languages such as English. For translation and creative writing, there is restrictive use of third-person pronouns"geu"(그) and "geu-nyeo" (그녀). A gender-neutral third person pronoun, geu (그), which was originally a demonstrative, meaning 'that' could mean she or he. The second has been coined in the combination of the demonstrative "geu" (그) [geu] "that" and 녀(nyeo) "woman" to refer anaphorically to a third person female. Although, in recent years, the pronoun geu-nyeo (그녀) is slowly gaining ground as a female counterpart from the influence of translations from European languages, it is usually restricted to specific styles of written language because Korean generally uses subjectless or modifier + noun constructions. Pronouns in detail Korean has personal pronouns for the 1st and 2nd person, with distinctions for honorifics, and it prefers demonstrative pronouns in the 3rd person, which make a three-way distinction between close, distant, and previously mentioned. The plural suffix -deul is also used with pronouns, both if it is necessary, as in geudeul (그들, "they"), and sometimes in some cases, like urideul (우리들), in which it is redundant. Geu (그) has a range of meanings, "he," "she," or "it." Ambiguity and the ability of the Korean language to drop pronouns which can be reconstructed from context make geu be seldom used by itself, but it has enjoyed a revival recently as the translation of "he" in works translated from European languages. The monosyllabic pronouns na (나), neo (너), and jeo (저), add -i (이) or -i ga (이가) rather than the expected -ga (가) to form the nominative case (see below). That produces the forms nae (내), ne (네), and je (제). Additionally, because many Koreans have lost the distinction between the vowels ae (애) and e (에), ne (네, "you") is dissimilating to ni (니). In colloquial Korean, the topic forms naneun (나는, "me") and neoneun (너는, "you") are often pronounced and sometimes written as nan (난, "me") and neon (넌, "you"). Similarly, the accusative forms nareul (나를) and neoreul (너를) tend to become nal (날) and neol (널). The possessives na-ui (나의, "my"), neo-ui (너의, "your"), and jeo-ui (저의, "my") have the alternate forms nae (내), ne (네), and je (제). The classifier jjog (쪽, "side") is also used when referring to people. Ijjog (이쪽, "this side") then means "this person, these people" (that is, he, she, or they), but it is further extended via "our side" as a polite form for "us" or "me". The "given" series is often called "medial" and is said to be close to the addressee rather than the speaker. However, they actually refer to referents already established in the conversation, whether near or far. (I.e., they are actually anaphoric, not demonstrative.) With new referents, the near or far forms will be used. In colloquial speech, the object words, composed of the prefix followed by the generic noun classifier geos (것), frequently omit the final s (pronounced t), with proximate igeos (이것) becoming igeo (이거) That occurs before case clitics as well, with the nominative form igeos-i (이것이) becoming ige (이게), topical igeos-eun (이것은) becoming igeon (이건), and accusative igeos-eul (이것을) becoming igeol (이걸, "this"). In colloquial Korean, interrogative mu-eos (무엇) contracts to mwo (뭐, "what") (often pronounced meo, as w tends to drop after m), and the accusative mu-eos-eul (무엇을) contracts to mwol (뭘, "what"). In literature, another set of contraction for mu-eos is available for senior or archaic speakers: "mu-eo" (무어) for mu-eos, "mu-e" (무에) for mu-eos-i, "mu-eol" (무얼) for mu-eos-eul. In addition is "mwos" (뭣), seldom used. The word for "who" is nugu (누구) whose nominative is nuga (누가). "How many" is myeoch (몇). An archaic alternative for nuga is "nwi" (뉘). Second person reference Korean has a T-V distinction in the second person. Neo (너) is the pronoun corresponding to Latin tu, but instead of a single equivalent to vos, several strategies of pronoun avoidance are used: Leaving out the subject of the sentence if it can be implied by the context. In English, sentences need explicit subjects, but this is not so in conversational Korean, since it is a null-subject language. Using the person's name when talking to someone younger. With older people, it is custom to use either a title or kinship term (see next point). Using a kinship term: 언니 (eonni, "older sister" if speaker is female), 누나 (nuna, "older sister" if speaker is male), 오빠 (oppa, "older brother" if speaker is female), 형 (hyeong, "older brother" if speaker is male), 아줌마 (ajumma, "middle-aged woman"), 아주머니 (ajumeoni, also "middle aged woman" but more polite), 아저씨 (ajeossi, "middle-aged man"), 할머니 (halmeoni, "grandmother") of 할아버지 (harabeoji, "grandfather"). In Korea, it is common to use kinship terms for people who are not family at all. The term 아가씨 (agassi, "young lady") is preferable when addressing a young girl of unknown age. It is seen mostly used in public places like restaurants, but it will also sometimes be used by men in pick-up lines. By definition, the actual difference between 아가씨 and 아줌마 reside in marriage status and not age. Using the appropriate title, usually ending in -nim: seonsaengnim ( 선생님, "teacher" although it is also often used as a general honorific term for other professions like managers) or gwajangnim (과장님 "director"), etc. Using the plural yeoreobun (여러분, "ladies and gentlemen") where applicable. If none of the above is possible, an honorific common noun, such as dangsin (당신, "said body") or jane (자네, "oneself") (used for "you" in the familiar speech level). The pseudo-pronoun dangsin is actually a noun, from the Sino-Korean loanword 當身 "the aforementioned body". There are many such pseudo-pronouns in Korean. The methods are ambiguous: they can indicate a third person as well as a second person. For an honorific noun to be interpreted as a second person pronoun, it must agree with the speech level of the verb: the level of respect used must be consistent throughout the sentence. Korean verbs reflect the social status of the person being spoken to so if that same person or group of people listening is also mentioned in the sentence, neither reference should be higher than the other. A lowly noun used with a high speech level, or an honorific noun used with a low speech level, will be interpreted as a third person pronoun. For example, jane is used for "you" in the familiar speech level and is appropriate only as long as the familiar speech level itself is. The familiar speech level is used to talk in a friendly way to close friends and family who are younger or subordinate. In situations for which that speech level would be inappropriate or insulting, jane is too. Even when the pronoun used and the speech level agree, there is still some possible ambiguity, but it can be resolved by context. See also Korean language Korean grammar Korean honorifics Korean numerals References Dong Jae Lee. Some Problems in Learning Korean Second-Person Pronouns, in The Korean Language: Its Structure and Social Projection, Ho-min Sohn, editor. Hawaii: University of Hawaii, c1975. Korean language Pronouns by language

Automotive navigation system

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An automotive navigation system is part of the automobile controls or a third party add-on used to find direction in an automobile. It typically uses a satellite navigation device to get its position data which is then correlated to a position on a road. When directions are needed routing can be calculated. On the fly traffic information (road closures, congestion) can be used to adjust the route. Dead reckoning using distance data from sensors attached to the drivetrain, a gyroscope and an accelerometer can be used for greater reliability, as GNSS signal loss and/or multipath can occur due to urban canyons or tunnels. Mathematically, automotive navigation is based on the shortest path problem, within graph theory, which examines how to identify the path that best meets some criteria (shortest, cheapest, fastest, etc.) between two points in a large network. Automotive navigation systems are crucial for the development of self-driving cars. History Automotive navigation systems represent a convergence of a number of diverse technologies, many of which have been available for many years, but were too costly or inaccessible. Limitations such as batteries, display, and processing power had to be overcome before the product became commercially viable. 1961: Hidetsugu Yagi designed a wireless-based navigation system. This design was still primitive and intended for military-use. 1966: General Motors Research (GMR) was working on a non-satellite-based navigation and assistance system called DAIR (Driver Aid, Information & Routing). After initial tests GM found that it was not a scalable or practical way to provide navigation assistance. Decades later, however, the concept would be reborn as OnStar (founded 1996). 1973: Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) and Fuji Heavy Industries sponsored CATC (Comprehensive Automobile Traffic Control), a Japanese research project on automobile navigation systems. 1979: MITI established JSK (Association of Electronic Technology for Automobile Traffic and Driving) in Japan. 1980: Electronic Auto Compass with new mechanism on the Toyota Crown. 1981: The earlier research of CATC led to the first generation of automobile navigation systems from Japanese companies Honda, Nissan and Toyota. They used dead reckoning technology. 1981: Honda's Electro Gyrocator was the first commercially available car navigation system. It used inertial navigation systems, which tracked the distance traveled, the start point, and direction headed. It was also the first with a map display. 1981: Navigation computer on the Toyota Celica (NAVICOM). 1983: Etak was founded. It made an early system that used map-matching to improve on dead reckoning instrumentation. Digital map information was stored on standard cassette tapes. 1987: Toyota introduced the World's first CD-ROM-based navigation system on the Toyota Crown. 1989: Gregg Howe of Design Works USA applied Hunter Systems $40,000 navigational computer to the Magna Torrero Concept Car. Originally developed to locate hydrants for fire departments, this system utilized both satellite signals & dead reckoning improving overall system accuracy due to civilian GPS limitations. This system also boast a color raster scan monitor, rather than the monochromatic vector mapping displays used by predecessors. 1990: Mazda Eunos Cosmo became the first production car with built-in GPS-navigation system 1991: General Motors partnered with the American Automotive Association, Florida Department of Transportation, as well as the city of Orlando to create TravTek (short for Travel Technology) which was a computerized in-car navigation system. A fleet of 100 Oldsmobile Toronados were rolled out with the system with 75 available for rent through Avis' Orlando International Airport office, the other 25 were test-driven by local drivers. A computer system was installed in the trunk of the vehicle with a special antenna mounted in the back and was hooked up to the video screen in the Oldsmobile Toronado (an option in the standard Toronado) to display the navigation. TravTek covered a 12,000 square mile area in Orlando and its metro areas, as well as contained listings for restaurants, AAA-approved hotels and attractions. 1991: Toyota introduced GPS car navigation on the Toyota Soarer. 1991: Mitsubishi introduced GPS car navigation on the Mitsubishi Debonair (MMCS: Mitsubishi Multi Communication System). 1992: Voice assisted GPS navigation system on the Toyota Celsior. 1993: The Austrian channel ORF airs a presentation of the software company bitMAP and its head Werner Liebig's invention, an electronic city map including street names and house numbers, using a satellite-based navigation system. bitMAP attends Comdex in Las Vegas the same year, but doesn't manage to market itself properly. 1994: BMW 7 series E38 first European model featuring GPS navigation. The navigation system was developed in cooperation with Philips (Philips CARIN). 1995: Oldsmobile introduced the first GPS navigation system available in a United States production car, called GuideStar. 1995: Device called "Mobile Assistant" or short, MASS, produced by Munich-based company ComRoad AG, won the title "Best Product in Mobile Computing" on CeBit by magazine Byte. It offered turn-by-turn navigation via wireless internet connection, with both GPS and speed sensor in the car. 1995: Acura introduced the first hard disk drive-based navigation system in the 1996 RL. 1997: Navigation system using Differential GPS developed as a factory-installed option on the Toyota Prius 1998: First DVD-based navigation system introduced on the Toyota Progres. 2000: The United States made a more accurate GPS signal available for civilian use. 2003: Toyota introduced the first Hard disk drive-based navigation system and the industry's first DVD-based navigation system with a built-in Electronic throttle control 2007: Toyota introduced Map on Demand, a technology for distributing map updates to car navigation systems, developed as the first of its kind in the world 2008: World's first navigation system-linked brake assist function and Navigation system linked to Adaptive Variable Suspension System (NAVI/AI-AVS) on Toyota Crown 2009: With a release of mobile navigation app from Sygic for iOS new era of a mobile device navigation systems had begun gaining in popularity since Technology The road database is a vector map. Street names or numbers and house numbers, as well as points of interest (waypoints), are encoded as geographic coordinates. This enables users to find a desired destination by street address or as geographic coordinates. (See map database management.) Map database formats are almost uniformly proprietary, with no industry standards for satellite navigation maps, although some companies are trying to address this with SDAL (Shared Data Access Library) and Navigation Data Standard (NDS). Map data vendors such as Tele Atlas and Navteq create the base map in a GDF (Geographic Data Files) format, but each electronics manufacturer compiles it in an optimized, usually proprietary manner. GDF is not a CD standard for car navigation systems. GDF is used and converted onto the CD-ROM in the internal format of the navigation system. CDF (CARiN Database Format) is a proprietary navigation map format created by Philips. SDAL is a proprietary map format developed by Navteq, which was released royalty free in the hope that it would become an industry standard for digital navigation maps, has not been very widely adopted by the industry. Vendors who used this format include: Microsoft Magellan Pioneer Panasonic Clarion InfoGation Navigation Data Standard (NDS) The Navigation Data Standard (NDS) initiative, is an industry grouping of car manufacturers, navigation system suppliers and map data suppliers whose objective is the standardization of the data format used in car navigation systems, as well as allow a map update capability. The NDS effort began in 2004 and became a registered association in 2009. Standardization would improve interoperability, specifically by allowing the same navigation maps to be used in navigation systems from 20 manufacturers. Companies involved include BMW, Volkswagen, Daimler, Renault, ADIT, Aisin AW, Alpine Electronics, Navigon, Navis-AMS, Bosch, DENSO, Mitsubishi, Harman International Industries, Panasonic, Preh Car Connect formerly TechniSat, PTV, Continental AG, Clarion, Navteq, Navinfo , TomTom and Zenrin. Media The road database may be stored in solid state read-only memory (ROM), optical media (CD or DVD), solid state flash memory, magnetic media (hard disk), or a combination. A common scheme is to have a base map permanently stored in ROM that can be augmented with detailed information for a region the user is interested in. A ROM is always programmed at the factory; the other media may be preprogrammed, downloaded from a CD or DVD via a computer or wireless connection (bluetooth, Wi-Fi), or directly used utilizing a card reader. Some navigation device makers provide free map updates for their customers. These updates are often obtained from the vendor's website, which is accessed by connecting the navigation device to a PC. Real-time data Some systems can receive and display information on traffic congestion using either TMC, RDS, or by GPRS/3G data transmission via mobile phones. In practice, Google has updated Google Maps for Android and iOS to alert users when a faster route becomes available in 2014. This change helps integrate real-time data with information about the more distant parts of a route. Integration and other functions The color LCD screens on some automotive navigation systems can also be used to display television broadcasts or DVD movies. A few systems integrate (or communicate) with mobile phones for hands-free talking and SMS messaging (i.e., using Bluetooth or Wi-Fi). Automotive navigation systems can include personal information management for meetings, which can be combined with a traffic and public transport information system. Original factory equipment Many vehicle manufacturers offer a satellite navigation device as an option in their vehicles. Customers whose vehicles did not ship with GNSS can therefore purchase and retrofit the original factory-supplied GNSS unit. In some cases this can be a straightforward "plug-and-play" installation if the required wiring harness is already present in the vehicle. However, with some manufacturers, new wiring is required, making the installation more complex. The primary benefit of this approach is an integrated and factory-standard installation. Many original systems also contain a gyrocompass and/or an accelerometer and may accept input from the vehicle's speed sensors and reverse gear engagement signal output, thereby allowing them to navigate via dead reckoning when a GPS signal is temporarily unavailable. However, the costs can be considerably higher than other options. SMS Establishing points of interest in real-time and transmitting them via GSM cellular telephone networks using the Short Message Service (SMS) is referred to as Gps2sms. Some vehicles and vessels are equipped with hardware that is able to automatically send an SMS text message when a particular event happens, such as theft, anchor drift or breakdown. The receiving party (e.g., a tow truck) can store the waypoint in a computer system, draw a map indicating the location, or see it in an automotive navigation system. See also Augmented reality Automatic vehicle location Autonomous car Electronic Route Guidance System GPS eXchange Format GPS navigation device Global Positioning System (GPS) Map database management Mapscape BV Mobile data terminal Navigation Data Standard (NDS) NavPix Navteq Personal navigation assistant (PNA) TomTom Traffic Message Channel (TMC) Hybride Navigation References Global Positioning System Automotive navigation systems Computer systems Dedicated application electronic devices Japanese inventions Applications of geographic information systems