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Kansas City preventive patrol experiment

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The Kansas City preventive patrol experiment was a landmark experiment carried out between 1972 and 1973 by the Kansas City Police Department of Kansas City, Missouri. It was evaluated by the Police Foundation. It was designed to test the assumption that the presence (or potential presence) of police officers in marked cars reduced the likelihood of a crime being committed. It was the first study to demonstrate that research into the effectiveness of different policing styles could be carried out responsibly and safely. Design The experiment was designed to answer the following questions: Would citizens notice changes in the level of police patrol and crime? Would different levels of visible police patrol affect recorded crime or the outcome of victim surveys? Would citizen fear of crime and attendant behavior change as a result of differing patrol levels? Would their degree of satisfaction with police change? The design took three different police beats in Kansas City, and varied patrol routine in them. The first group received no routine patrols, instead the police responded only to calls from residents. The second group had the normal level of patrols, while the third had two to three times as many patrols. The experiment had to be stopped and restarted three times because some patrol officers believed the absence of patrols would endanger citizens. This was upheld for 12 months, from 1 October 1972 to 30 September 1973. Victim surveys, reported crime rates, arrest data, a survey of local businesses, attitudinal surveys, and trained observers who monitored police-citizen interaction were used to gather data. These were taken before the start of the experiment (September 1972), and after (October 1973), giving 'before' and 'after' conditions for comparison. Major findings Citizens did not notice the difference when the frequency of patrols was changed. Increasing or decreasing the level of patrol had no significant effect on resident and commercial burglaries, auto thefts, larcenies involving auto accessories, robberies, or vandalism–crimes. The rate at which crimes were reported did not differ significantly across the experimental beats. Citizen reported fear of crime was not affected by different levels of patrol. Citizen satisfaction with police did not vary. Conclusions drawn The Kansas City Police Department drew the conclusion that routine preventive patrol in marked police cars has little value in preventing crime or making citizens feel safe and that resources normally allocated to these activities could safely be allocated elsewhere. A significant factor realised was that crime prevention was more highly dependent on the willingness of citizens to report suspicious and/or criminal behaviour to police than the levels or types of patrol. References External links Police Foundation report Police Foundation summary (pdf) Law enforcement in Missouri Law enforcement theory

Philippine tarsier

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The Philippine tarsier (Carlito syrichta), known locally as mawumag in Cebuano and other Visayan languages, and magô in Waray, is a species of tarsier endemic to the Philippines. It is found in the southeastern part of the archipelago, particularly on the islands of Bohol, Samar and Leyte. It is a member of the approximately 45-million-year-old family Tarsiidae, whose name is derived from its elongated "tarsus" or ankle bone. Formerly a member of the genus Tarsius, it is now listed as the only member of the genus Carlito, a new genus named after the conservationist Carlito Pizarras. Its geographic range also includes Maripipi Island, Siargao Island, Basilan Island and Dinagat Island. Tarsiers have also been reported in Sarangani, although they may be different subspecies. Tribal people like the B'laans and T'bolis have been, for a long time, reporting sightings in the province of Sarangani. Unfortunately, these reports were merely discarded as a hoax until March 30, 2002 when a pair of these tiny nocturnal mammals was captured in the mountainous areas of the municipalities of Maitum and Kiamba and was brought to the public, proving that this species exists in this coastal province. Etymology and taxonomic history The tarsier is named for its elongated "tarsus" or ankle bone. The genus Carlito is named after conservationist Carlito Pizarras. The Philippine tarsier is known as mawumag in Cebuano and other Visayan languages, and magô in Waray, It is also known as mamag, magau, malmag, and magatilok-iok. Taxonomic classification The Philippine tarsier is the only member of the genus Carlito and a member of the family Tarsiidae. Three subspecies are presently recognised. Family Tarsiidae Genus Tarsius: found in Sulawesi Genus Cephalopachus: found in Sundaland Genus Carlito: found in Greater Mindanao Species Carlito syrichta Subspecies Carlito syrichta syrichta from Leyte and Samar Subspecies Carlito syrichta fraterculus from Bohol Subspecies Carlito syrichta carbonarius from Mindanao Changes in taxonomy Previously all living tarsiers had been placed in the genus Tarsius, but a 2010 taxonomic revision by Shekelle and Groves placed the distinctive Philippine tarsier in its own genus, Carlito. The Philippine tarsier was introduced to Western biologists in the 18th century through the missionary J.G. Camel's description given to J. Petiver of an animal said to have come from the Philippines. Petiver published Camel's description in 1705 and named the animal Cercopithecus luzonis minimus which was the basis for Linnaeus' (1758) Simia syrichta and eventually Carlito syrichta, the current scientific name. The IUCN taxonomic note lists two subspecies, but the non-nominate one is poorly defined at present, so the species is treated as a whole. Tarsius syrichta carbonarius and Tarsius s. fraterculus were recognized by Hill (1955) as weakly defined subspecies. Niemitz (1984) found the differences to be insignificant based upon comparisons with museum specimens. Musser and Dagosto (1987) felt that the available museum specimens were insufficient to resolve the issue, but mentioned that Heaney felt that a single male tarsier from Dinagat might be distinct. Groves (2001) did not recognize any subspecies of C. syrichta, but Groves and Shekelle (2010) recognized the subspecies C. s. fraterculus, C. s. syrichta, and C. s. carbonarius when splitting the species of Tarsius into Carlito. Anatomy and morphology The Philippine tarsier measures in height, making it one of the smallest primates. The small size makes it difficult to spot. The mass for males is between , usually lighter for females, somewhat heavier than other tarsiers such as the pygmy tarsier. The average adult is about the size of an adult human fist. The female tarsier has multiple sets of breasts, but the only functional set is at the pectoralis. The other breasts are used as anchor points for the newborn tarsiers. The gestation period lasts 180 days, or 6 months, after which only one tarsier is born. The newborn tarsier is born with much fur and eyes open. Its body and head length is about 70 mm, and its tail is around 115 mm long. Like all tarsiers, the Philippine tarsier's eyes are fixed in its skull; they cannot move in their sockets. Instead, a special adaptation in the neck allows its round head to be rotated 180°. Their eyes are disproportionately large, having the largest eye-to-body weight ratio of all mammals. These huge eyes provide this nocturnal animal with excellent night vision. In bright light, the tarsier's eyes can constrict until the pupil appears to be only a thin spot. In low light or darkness, the pupil can dilate and fill up almost the entire eye. The large membranous ears are mobile, appearing to be almost constantly moving, allowing the tarsier to hear any movement. The Philippine tarsier has thin, rough fur which is colored gray to dark brown. The narrow tail, usually used for balance, is bald except for a tuft of hair at the end, and is about twice the body length. Its elongated "tarsus", or ankle bone, which gives the tarsier its name, allows it to jump at least 3 m from tree to tree. Its long digits are tipped with rounded pads that allow C. syrichta to cling easily to trees and to grip almost any surface. The thumb is not truly opposable, but the first toe is. All of the digits have flattened nails, except for the second and third toes, which have sharp claws specialized for grooming. The dental formula is , with relatively small upper canines. Ecology The Philippine tarsier is primarily insectivorous, its diet consists of insects, spiders, small crustaceans, and small vertebrates such as small lizards and birds. C. syrichta preys on live insects, particularly crickets and grasshoppers. Upon seizing its prey, the tarsier carries it to its mouth using both hands. Geographic range and habitat The Philippine tarsier, as its name suggests, is endemic to the Philippine archipelago. C. syrichta populations are generally found in the southeastern part of the archipelago. Established populations are present primarily on the islands of Bohol, Samar, Leyte and Mindanao. It has also been found on various isolated islands within its known range, such as Maripipi Island, Siargao Island, Basilan Island and Dinagat Island. The Philippine tarsier's habitat is the second-growth, secondary forest, and primary forest from sea level to . Its habitat also includes tropical rainforest with dense vegetation and trees that offer it protection such as tall grasses, bushes, and bamboo shoots. It prefers dense, low-level vegetation in secondary forests, with perching sites averaging 2 m above the ground. Early studies showed that the Philippine tarsier has a home range of 1 to 2 hectares, but more recent research shows that home ranges averaged 6.45 ha for males and 2.45 ha for females , allowing for a density of 16 male and 41 female tarsiers per 100 ha. Both males and females are solitary, but will occasionally cross paths at night. They travel up to 1.5 km across the forest and the optimal area is more than 6 ha. Predators Besides human hunters, feral cats banished from nearby communities are the species' main predators, though some large birds are known to prey on it, as well. Because of its nocturnal and arboreal habits, the Philippine tarsier is most likely to fall prey to owls, or to small carnivores which it can encounter in its canopy homes. Behavior The Philippine tarsier is a shy, nocturnal animal that leads a mostly hidden life. During the day, it sleeps in dark hollows close to the ground, near tree trunks and shrubs deep in the impenetrable bushes and forests. It becomes active only at night; with its keen sight and ability to manoeuvre around trees, it is able to avoid humans. It is arboreal, habitually clinging vertically to trees and capable of leaping from branch to branch. The Philippine tarsier is solitary. However, populations and individuals have been found to have either monogamous or polygamous mating patterns. Communication Three different audible calls have been documented. One is its "loud call"—a piercing single note. The second sound is a soft, sweet, bird-like twill, a sound of contentment. When several tarsiers come together, the combined effect of this chirping is a locust-like sound. These mammals can also vocalize in an ultrasound frequency range of 70 kHz and can pick up frequencies above 90 kHz. This form of vocal communication is used as a distress call made by infants when they are separated from their mothers. It is also the call made by males to their mates during mating season. Tarsiers also communicate through a scent from the circumoral gland located around the mouth, which the female uses to mark her mate. The males mark their territory with their urine. Tarsiers perform tactile communication through social grooming, removing dead skin and parasites, a behaviour observed in females on adult males, as well as in females on their offspring. Reproduction The Philippine tarsier's gestation period lasts about six months, while the female's estrous cycle lasts 25–28 days. The mating season lasts from April to May. The males deposit a mating plug in the female's vagina after intercourse. The female gives birth to one offspring per gestation. The infant is born with hair and with its eyes open. The females carry their infants in their mouths. A newborn can already cling to branches and in less than a month after birth, it can start leaping. Newborns are breastfed until 60 days after birth. After two years of age, the tarsier is sexually mature and able to reproduce. Conservation In 1986, 1988, and 1990, the Philippine tarsier was assessed as endangered by the IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre. On September 13, 1991, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources issued DENR Administrative Order Number 48 (DAO 48), which also listed the Philippine tarsier as endangered. In 1996, it was assessed as lower risk/conservation-dependent by Baillie and Groom-bridge. In 2000, the IUCN assessed the Philippine tarsier as data deficient, which means that inadequate information was available to make a direct or indirect assessment of its risks of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status. The most recent IUCN red list assessment, in 2008, classified the Philippine tarsier as near threatened. This classification is based on an estimated significant decline over the last three generations (about 20 years), but less than 30%, due to habitat loss and because of poaching for the pet trade. The Philippine tarsier is listed in Appendix II of CITES, and the U.S. ESA classifies it as threatened. A Tarsier sanctuary is maintained in the town of Corella (Bohol). Run by the Philippine Tarsier Foundation, it has a visitor centre and habitat preserve/sanctuary of 7000 m2 in a natural forest. Threats in the wild For the past 45 million years, tarsiers have inhabited rainforests around the world, but now they exist on only a few islands in the Philippines, Borneo, and Indonesia. In Bohol, the Philippine tarsier was a common sight in the southern part of the island until the 1960s. Since then, the number has dropped to around 700 on the island according to the Philippine Tarsier Foundation. Due to the quickly growing human population, which causes more and more forests to be converted to farmland, housing areas, and roads, the place where the Philippine tarsier can live its secluded life is disappearing. The dwindling of Philippine forests—the Philippine tarsier's natural forest habitat—has posed a grave and significant threat to the survival of the Philippine tarsier. Indiscriminate and illegal logging, cutting of trees for firewood, kaingin or slash and burn method of agriculture, and human urbanization have encroached on the habitats of the tarsier. Paradoxically, indigenous superstition, coupled with relatively thick rainforest, particularly in Sarangani province, has apparently preserved this endangered species. Indigenous tribes leave the Philippine tarsiers in the wild because they fear that these animals could bring bad luck. Survival in captivity Tarsiers in the Philippines have been sought out as pets or sold for trade, despite their low survival rate outside of their natural habitat, where they feed on live insects. Displays by private people in Loboc, Bohol tend to diminish the lives of tarsiers. Further, some feel that the display of captive tarsiers might encourage tourists to acquire them illegally as pets. Tarsiers do not do well in captivity. Life expectancy decreases by 2 to 12 years (if taken from the wild), as compared to the 24 years the tarsier can live to in the wild. The tarsier can develop sore eyes, which is an indication of a poor diet. Also, the lighting usually used in captivity can cause long-lasting damage to the eyes. Another danger of captivity is the creature's tendency to commit suicide. Because the tarsier is often shy and nervous, many activities associated with captivity (such as camera flashes, being touched, and being kept in an enclosure) stresses the animal. Such stress leads to the tarsier hitting its head against objects, thus killing it because of its thin skull. Conservation legislation Several laws have been passed to protect and conserve the Philippine tarsier. DENR Administrative Order No. 38, Series of 1991 (DAO No. 38) included the Philippine tarsier among the national protected wildlife species and proposed its listing under Appendix 1 of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Moreover, the IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group had given the species Conservation Priority Rating 4, which means that the species is highly vulnerable and threatened by habitat destruction and/or hunting. Republic Act No. 7586, otherwise known as the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act of 1991 mandates the establishment of appropriate sanctuaries to preserve and protect the Philippine tarsier. Proclamation 1030 was enacted on June 23, 1997, declaring the Philippine tarsier a specially protected faunal species. Also, legislation at other local levels includes provincial ordinances and proclamations (Bohol Province), municipal ordinances (Corella), and Barangay ordinances (Canapnapan, etc.). On July 30, 2001, Republic Act No. 914, also known as the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act, was enacted. The law provided for the conservation and protection of wildlife resources and their habitats, including the Philippine tarsier, and its inclusion as a flagship species. Conservation initiatives Two groups are involved in the conservation of the Philippine tarsier: Endangered Species International (ESI) and the Philippine Tarsier Foundation. ESI works in Mindanao Island where the conservation group created a tarsier sanctuary, planted endangered trees to reforest tarsier habitat, and conducts research and educational activities. In partnership with local groups and government, ESI established the tarsier trail including a viewpoint on habitat. Interpretative boards about plants and animals found in the sanctuary are displayed. References External links More tarsier images Tarsiers, traditions and tourism all in one trip to Tupi CITES Appendix I, II, III DENR Administrative Order No. 48 First Philippine National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity It’s more fun for tarsiers in Mindanao Video: Govt forbids display of tarsiers, GMA News View the tarsier genome in Ensembl Philippine tarsier Endemic fauna of the Philippines Primates of Southeast Asia Mammals of the Philippines Fauna of Bohol Fauna of Leyte Fauna of Mindanao Fauna of Samar Philippine tarsier Near threatened animals Near threatened biota of Asia Philippine tarsier

3,000 hit club

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The 3,000 hit club is the group of batters who have collected 3,000 or more regular-season hits in their careers in Major League Baseball (MLB). Cap Anson was the first to do so, although his precise career hit total is unclear. Two players—Nap Lajoie and Honus Wagner—reached 3,000 hits during the 1914 season. Ty Cobb did so in 1921 and became the first player in MLB history to reach 4,000 hits in 1927, ultimately finishing his career with 4,189. Pete Rose, the current hit leader, was the second player to reach 4,000 hits on April 13, 1984 and surpassed Cobb in September 1985, finishing his career with 4,256. Roberto Clemente's career ended with precisely 3,000 hits, which he reached in the last at bat of his career on September 30, 1972. In total, 32 players have reached the 3,000 hit mark in MLB history. Of these, 17 were right-handed batters, 13 were left-handed, and two were switch hitters. Ten of these players have played for only one major league team. Six players—Hank Aaron, Willie Mays, Eddie Murray, Rafael Palmeiro, Albert Pujols and Alex Rodriguez—are also members of the 500 home run club. Cobb holds the highest career batting average at .366, while Cal Ripken Jr. holds the lowest at .276. Rodriguez, Derek Jeter and Wade Boggs are the only players to hit a home run for their 3,000th hit, and Paul Molitor and Ichiro Suzuki are the only players to hit a triple for their 3,000th; all others hit a single or double. Craig Biggio was thrown out at second base attempting to stretch his 3,000th hit into a double. Biggio and Jeter are the only players whose 3,000th hit came in a game where they had five hits; Jeter reached base safely in all of his at bats. The most recent player to join the club is Pujols, who collected his 3,000th hit on May 4, 2018, while playing for the Los Angeles Angels. Baseball writer Josh Pahigian writes that reaching 3,000 hits has been "long considered the greatest measure of superior bat handling", and it is often described as a guarantee of eventual entry into the Baseball Hall of Fame. All eligible players with 3,000 or more career hits with the exception of Palmeiro and Rodriguez, whose careers have been tainted by steroid allegations, have been elected to the Hall, and since 1962 all except Biggio were elected on the first ballot. Rose is ineligible for the Hall of Fame because he was permanently banned from baseball in 1989. After four years on the ballot Palmeiro failed to be named on 5% of ballots in 2014, after which his name was removed from the Baseball Writers' Association of America ballots, although it is possible that the Veterans Committee could select him. Rodriguez garnered 34.3% of the vote during his first year of eligibility in 2022. Twenty-one different teams have had a player reach 3,000 hits. Key Members Statistics are updated through October 1, 2021. See also List of lifetime Major League Baseball hit leaders through history List of Major League Baseball hit records List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders Mr. 3000 Chasing 3000 Notes References General Specific Major League Baseball statistics Hits 3000

Astragalus

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Astragalus is a large genus of over 3,000 species of herbs and small shrubs, belonging to the legume family Fabaceae and the subfamily Faboideae. It is the largest genus of plants in terms of described species. The genus is native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Common names include milkvetch (most species), locoweed (in North America, some species) and goat's-thorn (A. gummifer, A. tragacantha). Some pale-flowered vetches (Vicia spp.) are similar in appearance, but they are more vine-like than Astragalus. Description Most species in the genus have pinnately compound leaves. There are annual and perennial species. The flowers are formed in clusters in a raceme, each flower typical of the legume family, with three types of petals: banner, wings, and keel. The calyx is tubular or bell-shaped. Ecology Astragalus species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including many case-bearing moths of the genus Coleophora: C. cartilaginella, C. colutella, C. euryaula, and C. onobrychiella feed exclusively on Astragalus, C. astragalella and C. gallipennella feed exclusively on the species Astragalus glycyphyllos, and C. hippodromica is limited to Astragalus gombo. Taxonomy The genus was formally described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum. The name Astragalus is Greek, an old name for this group of plants which were believed to have a positive effect on goat milk production. Selected species Uses Traditional medicine Astragalus has been used in traditional Chinese medicine over centuries to treat various disorders, but there is no high-quality evidence that it is effective or safe for any medical purpose. Phytochemicals and supplements Extracts of astragalus root include diverse phytochemicals, such as saponins and isoflavone flavonoids, which are purported in traditional practices to increase lactation in nursing mothers. There is no valid clinical evidence to indicate such use is effective or safe for the mother or infant. Dietary supplement products containing astragalus extracts may not have been adequately tested for efficacy, safety, purity or consistency. The root extracts of astragalus may be used in soups, teas or sold in capsules. Side effects and toxicology Although astragalus supplements are generally well tolerated, mild gastrointestinal upset, diarrhea, and allergic reactions may occur. Because astragalus may affect regulation of blood sugar and blood pressure, it may be risky for people with blood disorders, diabetes, or hypertension to use it as a supplement. Astragalus may interact with prescribed drugs that suppress the immune system, such as medications used by people being treated for cancer or recovery from organ transplants. Some astragalus species can be toxic, such as those found in the United States containing the neurotoxin, swainsonine, which causes "locoweed" poisoning in animals. Some astragalus species may contain high levels of selenium, possibly causing toxicity. Ornamental use Several species, including A. alpinus (bluish-purple flowers), A. hypoglottis (purple flowers), and A. lotoides, are grown as ornamental plants in gardens. Notes References External links Astragalus — Genus of vascular plants Astragalus – Clinical summary and constituents, MSKCC Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center Dietary supplements Fabaceae genera Forages Medicinal plants Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Philtrum

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The philtrum ( from Ancient Greek phíltron, lit. "love charm"), or medial cleft, is a vertical indentation in the middle area of the upper lip, common to therian mammals, extending in humans from the nasal septum to the tubercle of the upper lip. Together with a glandular rhinarium and slit-like nostrils, it is believed to constitute the primitive condition for at least therian mammals. Monotremes lack a philtrum, though this could be due to the specialised, beak-like jaws in living species. Function In most mammals, the philtrum is a narrow groove that may carry dissolved odorants from the rhinarium or nose pad to the vomeronasal organ via ducts inside the mouth. For humans and most primates, the philtrum survives only as a vestigial medial depression between the nose and upper lip. The human philtrum, bordered by ridges, also is known as the infranasal depression, but has no apparent function. That may be because most higher primates rely more on vision than on smell. Strepsirrhine primates, such as lemurs, still retain the philtrum and the rhinarium, unlike monkeys and apes. Development In humans, the philtrum is formed where the nasomedial and maxillary processes meet during embryonic development. When these processes fail to fuse fully, a cleft lip may result. Variation A flattened or smooth philtrum may be a symptom of fetal alcohol syndrome or Prader–Willi syndrome. A study of boys diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders found that a broader than average philtrum is one of a cluster of physical attributes associated with autism. Society and culture In Jewish mythology, each embryo has an angel teaching it all of the wisdom in the world while it is in utero. The angel lightly taps an infant's upper lip before birth, to prevent the infant revealing all the secrets in the universe; the infant then forgets the Torah it has been taught. Some believers of the myth speculate that this is the cause of the philtrum, but it does not have a basis in traditional Jewish texts. In Key Largo (1948), Frank McCloud (Humphrey Bogart) tells a fairy tale, saying that, before birth, the soul knows all the secrets of heaven, but at birth an angel presses a fingertip just above one's lip, which seals us to silence. This is also cited in the Stephen King short story "Afterlife". In the movie Mr. Nobody, unborn infants are said to have knowledge of all past and future events. As an unborn infant is about to be sent to its mother, the "Angels of Oblivion" lightly tap its upper lip, whereupon the unborn infant forgets everything it knows. The movie follows the life story of an infant whose lip had not been tapped. In the book Prince Ombra by Roderick MacLeish, the "cleft on our upper lips" is attributed to being hushed by a "cavern angel" just before we are born. In Philippine mythology the enchanted creature diwata (or encantado) has smooth skin, with no wrinkles even at the joints, and no philtrum. In Les Misérables by Victor Hugo, translated by Isabel F. Hapgood, Fantine's philtrum is described thus, "in the very characteristic interval which separates the base of the nose from the upper lip, she had that imperceptible and charming fold, a mysterious sign of chastity, which makes Barberousse fall in love with a Diana found in the treasures of Iconia." Book Third—In The Year 1817, Chapter III—Four And Four. See also Cupid's bow Intermaxillary segment Toothbrush moustache (philtrum moustache) Philtrum piercing References Mammal anatomy Facial features Lips Primate anatomy Horse anatomy Rodent anatomy Dog anatomy

Randolph Air Force Base

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Randolph Air Force Base was a United States Air Force base located at Universal City, Texas ( east-northeast of Downtown San Antonio). Opened in 1931, Randolph has been a flying training facility for the United States Army Air Corps, the United States Army Air Forces, and the Air Force during its entire existence. On 1 October 2010, Randolph AFB merged with Lackland Air Force Base and the US Army's Fort Sam Houston to form Joint Base San Antonio. Etymology Randolph AFB was named after Captain William Millican Randolph, a native of Austin, who was on the base naming committee at the time of his death in a crash. The base served as headquarters of the Air Education and Training Command (AETC) as well as the Air Force Personnel Center (AFPC) and was known as "the Showplace of the Air Force" because of the Spanish Colonial Revival Style architecture in which all structures including hangars were constructed. The symbol of the base was a large water tower atop Building 100, housing the headquarters for Randolph's major flying unit, the 12th Flying Training Wing (12 FTW). With its distinctive architecture, the wing's headquarters became known throughout the Air Force as "the Taj Mahal," or simply "The Taj". History 1920s and 1930s The idea for Randolph began soon after passage in the United States Congress of the Air Corps Act of 1926, which changed the name of the Army Air Service to the Army Air Corps, created two new brigadier general positions and provided a five-year expansion program for the under-strength Air Corps. One of the new general officer positions was given to Frank P. Lahm, who was placed in charge of all flying training. General Lahm established the Air Corps Training Center in August 1926 and set up its headquarters at Duncan Field, next to Kelly Field, Texas. He soon learned that the facilities at Kelly and Brooks Fields were not sufficient for proper training. The buildings, erected during World War I with a life expectancy of five years, had no suitable areas for ground training, and the living quarters were inadequate. San Antonio's rapid growth was also beginning to interfere with flying training operations. Maj. Gen. Mason Patrick, Chief of the Air Corps, visited San Antonio in December and recommended that an additional training field be built, and in April 1927 a board of officers appointed by Gen. Lahm approved an unusual circular layout. In 1927, newly assigned to Kelly Field as a dispatch officer in the motor pool, First Lieutenant Harold Clark designed a model four-quadrant airfield having a circular layout of facilities between parallel runways, after learning a new field was to be constructed. Having trained as an architect prior to entering the military during World War I, Clark sketched ideas for a perfect "Air City" on the back of old dispatch sheets, aligning the runways with prevailing winds and placing facilities by function between the runways to keep planes from having to make landing approaches over hangars, as they were forced to do at Kelly. Clark took his drawings to Lahm's executive officer, who immediately brought him before the planning board. On 1 November 1927, Clark submitted a finished plan to Lahm, and impressed with Clark's designs, Lahm detailed him to ACTC Headquarters on 8 December, to revise and develop the plans. The Military Affairs Committee of the San Antonio Chamber of Commerce quickly took the forefront in the search for an airfield location, which had to be suited to the airfield design, rather than the other way around as commonly done. A site east on San Antonio was chosen in May 1927 but rejected for those reasons. A second site near Schertz, Texas, was acquired and offered to the Air Corps on 31 December 1927. The land had to have clear title, be donated to the government, and have no restrictions as to use. Legal processes delayed the acceptance of the donated property until 16 August 1928. In the meantime, after a dispute with a blue ribbon committee of senior Air Corps officers who did not favor the circular design, Clark's layout was approved, also on 16 August, and construction began on 1 November 1927. It was "the largest construction project undertaken by the Army, up to that time, with the exception of the Panama Canal." Clark's design was submitted to and drawn upon by George B. Ford, a city planner and civilian advisor to the Construction Service of the Quartermaster Corps whose approval of all site plans for the Army was required between 1926 and 1930. The 2001 National Park Service nomination for the Randolph Field Historic District as a National Historic Landmark commented on the architectural layout of the field: It appears that Clark's plan, submitted by the Air Corps Training Center, was one of the new layouts that George B. Ford, in his position as City Planning Adviser to the War Department, chose for extensive revisions. Other than the circular roads at the center of the layout and the location of flight lines at the edges, Lt. Clark's plan and the final layout for Randolph Field have few major features in common. The "official post layout," signed by George B. Ford, A.I.A., was approved by the Chief of the Air Corps, the Quartermaster General, and the Chief of Staff for the Secretary of War in January 1929. It elegantly combined the Air Corps' operational and training needs with advanced city planning principles. Key features of Ford's design (and which do not appear in Lt. Clark's plan) include the dramatic, impressive entranceway, its termination at Washington Circle (a smaller circle below Main Circle, formerly known as North Circle), and the siting of three notable buildings around Washington Circle on the east, west, and south. The final layout for Randolph Field is clearly the work of a master planner. Once the site for the field was selected, a committee decided to name the base after Captain William Millican Randolph, a native of Austin and graduate of Texas A&M, who was killed on 17 February 1928, in the crash of a Curtiss AT-4 Hawk, 27–220, on takeoff from Gorman Field, Texas. Ironically, Captain Randolph was serving on the committee to select a name for the new field at the time of his death. Captain Randolph is buried at Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery. Although barely half-completed, Randolph Field was dedicated 20 June 1930, with an estimated 15,000 people in attendance and a fly-by of 233 planes. The mayor of San Antonio, C.M. Chambers, formally presented the "West Point of the Air" to the Chief of the Air Corps, Maj. Gen. James Fechet. Early in 1931, the School of Aviation Medicine from Brooks Field and the initial service squadron began relocating to Randolph. On 1 October, the Air Corps Training Center moved its headquarters from Duncan Field to Randolph and the principal movement of personnel followed. The flying school at Brooks Field closed on 20 October, followed by the school at March Field on 25 October, and the Primary Flying School opened at Randolph on 2 November 1931. Between October 1931 and March 1935, more than 2,000 candidates reported for pilot training at Randolph, which began a new class every fourth months. 47% of them graduated as pilots and went on to advanced flying training. 75% of all primary training was conducted at Randolph Field. By May 1932 the field had 251 primary trainers, most the venerable Consolidated PT-3 "Trusty", but gradually supplemented by the Consolidated PT-11D, which became the Air Corps standard in the 1930s. In 1936, the famous Stearman PT-13 Kaydet began to appear in the skies over San Antonio. Basic training followed primary, at first with Douglas BT-1s and BT-2Bs. The Seversky BT-8 was later introduced as a basic trainer, but was soon deemed too difficult to handle and was replaced by North American BT-9s in 1935. Increased flying hours for cadets and an expanded syllabus resulted in a need for auxiliary fields within a ten-mile radius of Randolph to handle the volume of takeoffs and landings, and in 1932 Randolph was encircled by seven (clockwise from west to southwest): Dodd, Cade, Davenport, Marion, C.A. Krueger, Zuehl, and Martindale. Primary training continued at Randolph until September 1939 when expansion of the Air Corps forced it to contract primary out to civilian schools, and Randolph's mission shifted to basic pilot training only. The Air Corps Act of 1926 mandated that rated pilots comprise 90% of all commissioned officers of the Air Corps. Because of this requirement, nearly all new officers of the Air Corps underwent Randolph's rigorous pilot training program and, in combination with the architectural beauty of the base, Mayor Chamber's term West Point of the Air became the unofficial nickname for Randolph Field. A 1935 Hollywood film, West Point of the Air, was filmed on location at Randolph. 1940s to 1970s In June 1941, the Air Corps became the Army Air Forces. Basic flying training at Randolph continued until March 1943, when the Army Air Forces Central Instructors School (CIS) was created. For the next two years, training instructors for ground schools, instructor pilots (including civilian contract instructors) for all three phases of flying training, and officers destined for administrative duties at air training command bases were trained by the CIS. Randolph produced 15,396 instructor graduates from this course before it moved to Waco Field in 1945. When the CIS moved to Waco Field it was replaced by the Army Air Forces pilot school, which specialized in transition training for B-29 bomber pilots, copilots and engineers. Primary pilot training returned to Randolph from Goodfellow Field in December 1945. Class 42-X gave 235 pilots their wings in an experimental course that sent pilot candidates directly to instructor training without first attending primary school, but though the course was considered a success, AAF Flying Training Command rejected its adoption. The Central Instructors School returned to Randolph in November 1945, was redesignated the AAF Pilot Instructors School, and relocated to Barksdale Field, Louisiana, on 12 March 1946. Like many military installations during World War II, Randolph fielded an intercollegiate football team, nicknamed the Randolph Field Ramblers. Under coach Frank Tritico, the 1943 team achieved a 9–1 record and was invited to play in the 1944 Cotton Bowl Classic, where they battled the Texas Longhorns to a 7–7 tie. The 1944 team, stocked with such stars as former All-American and National Football League (NFL) Rookie of the Year Bill Dudley and All-American running back Glenn Dobbs, as well as eight other former NFL players, went undefeated and untied in 11 games, and was ranked No. 3 in the nation by the AP Poll. The Army Air Forces also planned to return basic pilot training to Randolph on 1 February 1946. Even though basic training transferred from Goodfellow Field in February 1946, the Army Air Forces suspended all pilot training when it found itself with a shortfall of maintenance personnel. The U.S. Air Force became a separate service on 18 September 1947, and Randolph Field was officially renamed Randolph Air Force Base on 13 January 1948. When Randolph resumed flying training activities in March 1948, primary pilot training was deleted from its program, and in August 1948 the 3510th Pilot Training Wing (Basic) was activated. On 7 August 1950, during the Korean War, the 3511th Combat Crew Training Group was established as part of the 3510th PTW to train crews for the B-29 Superfortress, and the instructor pilot school was transferred to Craig Air Force Base, Alabama. On 11 June 1952 the pilot training wing was redesignated as the 3510th Flying Training Wing (Medium Bomber), and again in October 1954 (to reflect more accurately its actual mission) to the 3510th Combat Crew Training Wing. On 1 April 1952, the Air Force established the Crew Training Air Force (CTAF) with its headquarters at Randolph to administer nine bases and combat crew training wings, including the 3510th. B-29 training by the 3511th Flying Training Group (Medium Bomber) continued for five years, ultimately producing 21,519 crew members. In 1954, with the requirements for B-29 crewmen reduced, the CTAF instituted instrument training for four-engine transport crews using the Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar, and added Martin B-57 Canberra crew training to Randolph's activities, although a shortage of qualified instructors cut short the latter program after two years. The USAF Helicopter School was based at Randolph from June 1956 to July 1958. The 3510th conducted Boeing KC-97 Stratofreighter crew training from June 1957 to July 1958, after which the Strategic Air Command assigned a tenant wing to Randolph, the 4397th Air Refueling Wing, to instruct crews until 15 June 1962. The Crew Training Air Force was discontinued on 1 July 1957, and the headquarters of the Flying Training Air Force relocated to Randolph. Shortly after, between 1 August and 30 September, the headquarters of ATC itself relocated to Randolph from Scott Air Force Base, Illinois. In early 1958 ATC assumed responsibility for all Air Force training activities and all other training commands including the Flying Training Air Force were abolished. The 3510th CCTW was redesignated the 3510th Flying Training Wing on 1 June 1958 with the primary mission of qualifying USAF jet pilots. The Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star was the workhorse trainer during the 1950s and 1960s at Randolph AFB. In 1961 pilot instructor training (PIT) returned to the 3510th Flying Training Wing. Randolph became the Air Force's primary PIT base as the Air Force completely revamped its pilot training program, abolishing the nine independent pilot training squadrons (contract instructors) that had been performing primary training for a decade and gearing up to conduct all undergraduate pilot training (UPT) in jet aircraft. Class 62-FZ produced 25 pilots who completed their training in the new Northrop T-38 Talon, then undergoing test and evaluation, only the second class of candidates to receive their wings at Randolph (Class 42-X was the first class to do so). Requirements for new pilots during the Vietnam War saw PIT shifted again, from Randolph to Perrin and Tyndall Air Force Bases, and on 16 May 1967, while retaining its "flying training" designation, Randolph resumed primary training in the Cessna T-37 to become the ninth UPT wing. 1,269 pilots earned their wings at Randolph before UPT was discontinued at Randolph on 2 October 1971. The PIT squadrons at Perrin and Tyndall both returned to Randolph in June 1971 and it became the only source of UPT instructor pilots for the USAF. To preserve the lineage and histories of combat units, the Air Force directed ATC to replace its four-digit flying and pilot training wings with two-digit designations. The 3510th FTW became the 12th Flying Training Wing (12 FTW) on 1 May 1972, taking on the designation of the tactical fighter wing inactivated in Vietnam the previous November. 1980s to 2010 Today, the 12 FTW provides instructor pilot training and refresher/recurrency training in the T-6A Texan II, T-38C Talon and T-1A Jayhawk. The wing also operates the T-1A in support of Specialized Undergraduate Navigator Training (SUNT), a mission it assumed following the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) closure of Mather AFB, California and inactivation of the 323d Flying Training Wing. SUNT trains prospective USAF Navigators/Combat Systems Officers destined for the B-52 Stratofortress, E-3 Sentry, E-8 Joint STARS, RC-135, non-PACER CRAG KC-135 Stratotanker, and C-130 Hercules variants, as well as prospective Naval Flight Officers en route to fly land-based U.S. Navy P-3C Orion, EP-3 Aries and E-6 Mercury aircraft. The 12 FTW also provides training to numerous NATO/Allied officer students via SUNT, as well as supporting Marine Corps and Coast Guard enlisted navigator training via the Marine Aerial Navigation School (MANS). The Marine Aerial Navigation School remained at Randolph until the school was decommissioned with the graduation of Class 04–01 on 31 July 2004. Advanced Electronic Warfare Officer (EWO) training is also conducted by the 12 FTW for those navigators/CSOs destined for eventual assignment as USAF EWOs. The 12 FTW also operates an additional airfield for practice approaches and touch-and-go landings approximately 12 miles east-northeast of Randolph in Seguin, Texas. Known as Randolph AFB Auxiliary Field/Seguin Field, this airfield was originally constructed with three runways in 1941. Normally unattended, the airfield has a single active 8350-ft runway and is supported by a manned runway supervisor unit (RSU) and aircraft rescue and fire fighting (ARFF) vehicles when conducting flight operations. Randolph has also completed major renovations to the Base Commissary as well as completely re-paving Harmon Drive, the main entrance to the base leading to "The Taj". Additional plans include construction of a new Base Exchange, which is managed by the Army and Air Force Exchange Service (AAFES). Merger (2010) The 12th FTW remained the host unit at Randolph AFB for nearly 38 years, until 31 January 2010, when the 502d Air Base Wing became the host unit after Randolph became a component of Joint Base San Antonio. The base was listed as a census-designated place for statistical purposes, with a population of 1,241 counted at the 2010 census. Previous names Aviation Field, San Antonio, 18 August 1928 Randolph Field, 27 September 1928 Randolph Air Force Base, 13 January 1948 Command assignments Air Corps Training Center, 1 January 1931 Gulf Coast Air Corps Training Center, 22 August 1940 Air Corps Flying Training Command, 23 January 1942 AAF Flying Training Command, 15 March 1942 Gulf Coast Training Center, 15 March 1942 AAF Training Command, 31 July 1943 AAF Central Flying Training Command, 31 July 1943 AAF Western Flying Training Command, 1 November 1945 Flying Training Command, 1 January 1946 Air Training Command, 1 July 1946 Flying Division, 1 November 1946 – 25 August 1948 Crew Training Air Force, 16 March 1952 – 30 June 1957 Flying Training Air Force, 1 July 1957 – 1 April 1958 Air Education and Training Command, 1 June 1992 Units assigned 46th School Squadron, 12 October 1931 – 30 April 1944 Re-designated: 46th Basic Flying Training Squadron, 1 September 1940 47th School Squadron, 2 June 1931 – 30 April 1944 Re-designated: 47th Basic Flying Training Squadron, 1 September 1940 52d School Squadron, 9 October 1931 – 30 April 1944 Re-designated: 52d Basic Flying Training Squadron, 1 September 1940 53d School Squadron, 12 October 1931 – 30 April 1944 Re-designated: 53d Basic Flying Training Squadron, 1 September 1940 Air Corps School of Aviation Medicine, 30 October 1931 – 15 September 1944 43d Basic Flying Training Squadron, 1 September 1940 – 29 February 1944 44th Basic Flying Training Squadron, 1 September 1940 – 30 April 1944 45th Basic Flying Training Squadron, 1 September 1940 – 29 February 1944 734th Basic Flying Training Squadron, 9 May 1942 – 29 February 1944 1052d Basic Flying Training Squadron, 11 September 1942 – 29 February 1944 1053d Basic Flying Training Squadron, 11 September 1942 – 30 April 1944 1054th Basic Flying Training Squadron, 11 September 1942 – 30 April 1944 27th AAF Base Unit (School of Aviation Medicine), 15 September 1944 – 27 August 1948 Demobilizing ATC wings: 31st Flying Training Wing, 2 July 1945 – 13 October 1946 32d Flying Training Wing, 31 October 1945 – 13 October 1946 33d Flying Training Wing, 31 October 1945 – 13 October 1946 30th Flying Training Wing, 31 July 1946 – 13 October 1946 3510th Basic Pilot Training Wing, 26 August 1948 – 1 May 1972 Re-designated: 3510th Pilot Training Wing Re-designated: 3510th Flying Training Wing USAF School of Aviation Medicine, 27 August 1948 – 3 August 1959 8601st Basic Pilot Training Wing, 27 June 1949 – 28 February 1951 Re-designated: 8601st Pilot Training Wing USAF Air Crew School, 7 August 1950 – 8 March 1967 Re-designated: USAF Advanced Flying School 3511th Combat Training Group, 7 August 1950 – 1 July 1971 Re-designated: 3511th Flying Training Group Re-designated: 3511th Combat Crew Training Group USAF Helicopter Pilot School, 1 July 1956 – 1 July 1958 HQ Air Training Command, 15 September 1957 – 1 June 1992 3300 Support Squadron 4937th Air Refueling Wing, 1 July 1958 – 15 June 1962 2310th Air Transport Group, 14 December 1959 – 1 October 1962 Re-designated: 4430th Air Transport Group USAF Basic Pilot Instructor School, 1 September 1960 – 8 March 1967 USAF Instrument Pilot Instructor School, 1 September 1961 Re-designated: USAF Instrument Flight Center 1 June 1992–2008 HQ USAF Recruiting Service, 15 June 1965 Re-designated: Air Force Recruiting Service, 1 September 1994 HQ AF Military Personnel Center, 31 December 1971 Re-designated: Air Force Military Personnel Center, 1 January 1986 Re-designated: Air Force Personnel Center, 1 October 1995 – present Community College of the Air Force, 1 April 1972 – 15 January 1977 12th Flying Training Wing, 1 May 1972 – present Nineteenth Air Force, 1 July 1993 – 13 July 2012; 1 October 2014 – present 340th Flying Training Group, 1 April 1998 – present 902d Mission Support Group, 1 October 2010 – present Education Randolph Air Force Base is served by Randolph Field Independent School District. Randolph Field ISD is one of three school districts in the state whose boundaries are coterminous with a military installation; the other two (also in the San Antonio area) are Fort Sam Houston ISD and Lackland ISD. Randolph offers Elementary through High School education for both the residents of the base and the children of former or active Air Force members. The high school, Randolph Field ISD, has 3A teams in the following sports: Basketball, Baseball, Football, Track and Field, Cross Country, Golf, Powerlifting, Softball, Swimming, Tennis, Volleyball, and marching band. Historic District Randolph Field Historic District, located at the center of Randolph Air Force Base, is a National Historic Landmark. The district consists of 350 contributing buildings, 47 non-contributing buildings, and other features, most of which were built between 1929 and 1932, in an area of about 405 acres (1.6 km2). See also Air Training Command Texas World War II Army Airfields 32d Flying Training Wing (World War II) References External links 1928 establishments in Texas Installations of the United States Air Force in Texas Buildings and structures in Bexar County, Texas Military in San Antonio Spanish Colonial Revival architecture in Texas Initial United States Air Force installations USAF Air Training Command Installations Census-designated places in Bexar County, Texas

That Girl

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That Girl is an American sitcom that ran on ABC from 1966 to 1971. It starred Marlo Thomas as the title character Ann Marie, an aspiring (but only sporadically employed) actress, who moves from her hometown of Brewster, New York, to try to make it big in New York City. Ann has to take a number of offbeat "temp" jobs to support herself in between her various auditions and bit parts. Ted Bessell played her boyfriend Donald Hollinger, a writer for Newsview Magazine. Lew Parker and Rosemary DeCamp played Lew Marie and Helen Marie, her concerned parents. Bernie Kopell, Ruth Buzzi, and Reva Rose played Ann and Donald's friends. That Girl was developed by writers Bill Persky and Sam Denoff, who had served as head writers on The Dick Van Dyke Show (with which Thomas's father, Danny Thomas, was closely associated) earlier in the 1960s. Storyline That Girl was one of the first sitcoms to focus on an unmarried woman who was not a domestic or living with her parents. Some consider this show the forerunner of The Mary Tyler Moore Show, and an early indication of the changing roles of American women in feminist-era America. Thomas's goofy charm, together with Bessell's dry wit, made That Girl a solid performer on the ABC Television Network, and while the series, in the overall ratings, never made the top thirty during its entire five-year run, it did respectably well. At the end of the 1969–1970 season, That Girl was still doing moderately well in the ratings, but after four years Thomas had grown tired of the series and wanted to move on. ABC convinced her to do one more year. In the beginning of the fifth season, Don and Ann became engaged, but they never actually married. The decision to leave the couple engaged at the end of the run was largely the idea of Thomas. She did not want to send a message to young women that marriage was the ultimate goal for them, and she worried that it would have undercut the somewhat feminist message of the show. Intro Every episode started with a small cold open; the dialogue would always turn to Ann Marie, as one of the characters would make an assertive reference to her as "that girl;" the camera would freeze frame on a surprised Ann Marie (although it is sometimes a picture or a reflection of her in a mirror). This was followed by the opening credits and theme music. During the first four seasons, the theme song was instrumental only; in the fifth and final season, lyrics were added: Diamonds, daisies, snowflakes, That girl. Chestnuts, rainbows, springtime... Is that girl. She's tinsel on a tree... She's everything that every girl should be! Sable, popcorn, white wine, That girl Gingham, bluebirds, Broadway... Is that girl. She's mine alone, but luckily for you... If you find a girl to love, Only one girl to love, Then she'll be That Girl too... That Girl! Production notes According to Marlo Thomas, she was approached by ABC executive Edgar Scherick, who saw her in a screen test for a failed pilot, but still wanted to feature her in a project. Scherick gave Thomas several scripts to read, none of which she liked, as they all focused on a woman who was either a traditional girlfriend, wife or secretary to someone else; Thomas wanted a show in which the main character was a young, modern woman focused on her own dreams and aspirations. Although never officially credited as such (Persky and Denoff were the series' creators and official executive producers), Thomas was also a de facto executive producer of the series through her Daisy Productions, which she formed specifically for the series; it was credited on-screen as the production company. She originally wanted to name the sitcom Miss Independence, the nickname given to her by her parents. Manhattan exterior shots were filmed in several days. The apartment - initially - was located off the East River on the Upper East Side, in the former East End Hotel (originally known as the Junior League Hotel for Working Women) at 78th Street and the FDR Drive, as seen in several first season episodes, including "What's in a Name" where Ann Marie can be seen exiting a taxicab. In the episode entitled "Señorita," Ann Marie lists her address as 627 East 54th Street. In the second-season - with a new exterior - in the episode "Nothing to Be Afreud of but Freud Himself", Donald gives out her address as 344 West 78th Street, Apartment D. Ann Marie's acting school was modeled after the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre on East 54th Street between First and Second Avenues. That Girl was filmed at Desilu-Cahuenga Studios (for many years called Ren-Mar Studios and now called Red Studios Hollywood), located at 846 North Cahuenga Boulevard in Hollywood. Characters Ann Marie (Marlo Thomas), a beautiful young would-be actress from Brewster, New York, who moves to New York City in order to seek stardom, often tries to balance temporary jobs and auditions with having a boyfriend. Donald Hollinger (Ted Bessell), writer for NewsView magazine, who becomes Ann's boyfriend after meeting her working in the lobby of the building where he works. Lew Marie (Harold Gould pilot only; Lew Parker), Ann's father and the owner of the La Parisienne restaurant in Brewster, New York. Helen Marie (Penny Santon pilot only; Rosemary DeCamp), Ann's mother. Dr. Leon Bessemer (Dabney Coleman), a neighbor of Ann and an obstetrician. Judy Bessemer (Bonnie Scott), Leon's wife and Ann's neighbor, the first person Ann meets as she moves into her new apartment. Jerry Bauman (Bernie Kopell), a fellow employee of Donald's at NewsView magazine. After the first season, Jerry and Ruth lived next door to Ann in Apt. C. Margie Bauman (Arlene Golonka), Jerry's wife in the episode "Rain, Snow and Rice" in the first season. Ruth Bauman (Carol Ann Daniels), Jerry's wife in the episode "There's Nothing to be Afreud of But Freud Himself" in the second season. Ruth Bauman (Alice Borden), Jerry's wife beginning in the episode "Write is Wrong" in the fourth season. Margie "Pete" Peterson (Ruth Buzzi), a friend of Ann. Harvey Peck (Ronnie Schell), one of Ann's agents at the Gilliam and Norris Theatrical Agency. George Lester (George Carlin), another one of Ann's agents in a single episode. Mildred Hollinger (Mabel Albertson), Donald's mother. Bert Hollinger (George Cisar, later Frank Faylen), Donald's father. Jules Benedict (Billy De Wolfe), head of the Benedict Workshop of the Dramatic Arts. Episodes Five complete seasons of That Girl aired, with the series finale airing on March 19, 1971. Over the five seasons, a total of 136 episodes aired. Thomas' sister Terre, her brother Tony, and father Danny Thomas all appeared in a 1969 episode called "My Sister's Keeper". Pilot The only episode never shown during the series' original network run was the pilot produced in 1965. The major differences were evident in its opening credits. Bessell's character was Don Blue Sky, Ann Marie's talent agent who was part Cherokee, and Harold Gould and Penny Santon played her parents. By the time the series aired on ABC, Thomas and Bessell were the only actors to receive top billing. The pilot episode centered on Ann Marie's attempt to adopt a stage name based on her agent's suggestion. After her use of "Marie Brewster" (the names of her family and hometown combined) was met with disapproval from her parents, she decided to not make the change in the end. This storyline and numerous scenes were recycled into the 11th episode of Season 1 titled "What's in a Name?" from November 17, 1966. The pilot was included in the 5-disc set of That Girl: Season One, which was released by Shout! Factory in 2006. It has since been added to the series' broadcast syndication package; it led off a New Year's Day marathon on Me-TV at the start of 2012. Syndication and home media On January 1, 2012, That Girl returned to national television on MeTV with episodes shown on weekday mornings and Sunday afternoons until September 1, 2013. On September 1, 2014, the show returned to MeTV. Reruns have previously aired on TV Land from the network's launch in 1996 to 1998. The series is distributed by CBS Television Distribution. Beginning January 2, 2020, the show currently airs on Antenna TV. As of 2020, the series is available on Tubi and Amazon Prime. Shout! Factory has released all five seasons on DVD in Region 1. Each release contains extensive bonus features including episodic promos, featurettes, commentary tracks and the original pilot episode. In Region 4, Madman Entertainment has released all five seasons on DVD in Australia/New Zealand. On April 21, 2010, Madman released That Girl: The Complete Series, a 21-disc box set that features all 136 episodes, as well as extensive bonus features. Novel Paul W. Fairman, That Girl, New York: Popular Library, 1971. 125 pp. Newly engaged Ann travels to Maine to take the role of Cathy in a production of Wuthering Heights but finds herself embroiled in a real-life gothic. Spin-offs In 1973, Rankin/Bass produced That Girl in Wonderland, an animated television special in which Marlo Thomas reprised the role of Ann Marie. It aired as an episode of The ABC Saturday Superstar Movie on January 13, 1973. The special also featured the voices of Patricia Bright, Dick Hehmeyer, Rhoda Mann, and Ted Schwartz. Popular culture The series' theme song and opening visuals have been parodied in pop culture several times. They appeared as a series of T-shirts, then as a Saturday Night Live skit featuring Danitra Vance in an African American remake "That Black Girl", and as a sequence on episodes of Animaniacs, The Simpsons, Family Guy, Clarissa Explains It All, Arthur, Friends and Roseanne. It was also parodied in the cold opening of an episode of The Nanny where Maxwell's mother encounters Fran at the florist. The 2011 advertising campaign for the launch of Fox's sitcom New Girl featured posters of that sitcom's star, Zooey Deschanel, in the make-up, pose and graphic look of Marlo Thomas from the original That Girl series. An episode from Ugly Betty had Fabia forcing Wilhelmina Slater into making an exchange: she'll give up her wedding date to Wilhelmina in exchange for the services of Wilhelmina's assistant, Marc St. James, after Fabia evokes the opening lines. In 1968, shortly after the feminist protest against bras and other feminine products at the Miss America pageant, Marlo Thomas began going braless on That Girl. "God created women to bounce," Thomas said. "So be it." In season 7, episode 2 of Mad Men, episode 80 of That Girl ("There Was a Time Ann Met a Pie Man") which originally aired February 13, 1969 can be seen playing in Donald Draper's home. Further reading "Tuning in to Women in Television" (National Women's History Museum) References External links That Girl page on Shout! Factory 1966 American television series debuts 1971 American television series endings 1960s American sitcoms 1970s American sitcoms 1960s American workplace comedy television series American Broadcasting Company original programming English-language television shows Television series by CBS Studios Television shows set in New York City Television series by Metromedia Feminist television

Economic order quantity

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Economic Order Quantity (EOQ), also known as Economic Purchase Quantity (EPQ), is the order quantity that minimizes the total holding costs and ordering costs in inventory management. It is one of the oldest classical production scheduling models. The model was developed by Ford W. Harris in 1913, but R. H. Wilson, a consultant who applied it extensively, and K. Andler are given credit for their in-depth analysis. Overview EOQ applies only when demand for a product is constant over the year and each new order is delivered in full when inventory reaches zero. There is a fixed cost for each order placed, regardless of the number of units ordered; an order is assumed to contain only 1 unit. There is also a cost for each unit held in storage, commonly known as holding cost, sometimes expressed as a percentage of the purchase cost of the item. While the EOQ formulation is straightforward there are factors such as transportation rates and quantity discounts to consider in actual application. We want to determine the optimal number of units to order so that we minimize the total cost associated with the purchase, delivery, and storage of the product. The required parameters to the solution are the total demand for the year, the purchase cost for each item, the fixed cost to place the order for a single item and the storage cost for each item per year. Note that the number of times an order is placed will also affect the total cost, though this number can be determined from the other parameters. Variables = total annual inventory cost = purchase unit price, unit production cost = order quantity = optimal order quantity = annual demand quantity = fixed cost per order, setup cost (not per unit, typically cost of ordering and shipping and handling. This is not the cost of goods) = annual holding cost per unit, also known as carrying cost or storage cost (capital cost, warehouse space, refrigeration, insurance, opportunity cost (price x interes), etc. usually not related to the unit production cost) The total cost function and derivation of EOQ formula The single-item EOQ formula finds the minimum point of the following cost function: Total Cost = purchase cost or production cost + ordering cost + holding cost Where: Purchase cost: This is the variable cost of goods: purchase unit price × annual demand quantity. This is P × D Ordering cost: This is the cost of placing orders: each order has a fixed cost K, and we need to order D/Q times per year. This is K × D/Q Holding cost: the average quantity in stock (between fully replenished and empty) is Q/2, so this cost is h × Q/2 . To determine the minimum point of the total cost curve, calculate the derivative of the total cost with respect to Q (assume all other variables are constant) and set it equal to 0: Solving for Q gives Q* (the optimal order quantity): Therefore: Q* is independent of P; it is a function of only K, D, h. The optimal value Q* may also be found by recognizing that where the non-negative quadratic term disappears for which provides the cost minimum Example annual requirement quantity (D) = 10000 units Cost per order (K) = 40 Cost per unit (P)= 50 Yearly carrying cost per unit = 4 Market interest = 2% Economic order quantity = = 400 units Number of orders per year (based on EOQ) Total cost Total cost If we check the total cost for any order quantity other than 400(=EOQ), we will see that the cost is higher. For instance, supposing 500 units per order, then Total cost Similarly, if we choose 300 for the order quantity, then Total cost This illustrates that the economic order quantity is always in the best interests of the firm. Extensions of the EOQ model Quantity discounts An important extension to the EOQ model is to accommodate quantity discounts. There are two main types of quantity discounts: (1) all-units and (2) incremental. Here is a numerical example: Incremental unit discount: Units 1–100 cost $30 each; Units 101–199 cost $28 each; Units 200 and up cost $26 each. So when 150 units are ordered, the total cost is $30*100 + $28*50. All units discount: an order of 1–1000 units costs $50 each; an order of 1001–5000 units costs $45 each; an order of more than 5000 units costs $40 each. So when 1500 units are ordered, the total cost is $45*1500. In order to find the optimal order quantity under different quantity discount schemes, one should use algorithms; these algorithms are developed under the assumption that the EOQ policy is still optimal with quantity discounts. Perera et al. (2017) establish this optimality and fully characterize the (s,S) optimality within the EOQ setting under general cost structures. Design of optimal quantity discount schedules In presence of a strategic customer, who responds optimally to discount schedules, the design of an optimal quantity discount scheme by the supplier is complex and has to be done carefully. This is particularly so when the demand at the customer is itself uncertain. An interesting effect called the "reverse bullwhip" takes place where an increase in consumer demand uncertainty actually reduces order quantity uncertainty at the supplier. Backordering costs and multiple items Several extensions can be made to the EOQ model, including backordering costs and multiple items. In the case backorders are permitted, the inventory carrying costs per cycle are: where s is the number of backorders when order quantity Q is delivered and is the rate of demand. The backorder cost per cycle is: where and are backorder costs, , T being the cycle length and . The average annual variable cost is the sum of order costs, holding inventory costs and backorder costs: To minimize impose the partial derivatives equal to zero: Substituting the second equation into the first gives the following quadratic equation: If either s=0 or is optimal. In the first case the optimal lot is given by the classic EOQ formula, in the second case an order is never placed and minimum yearly cost is given by . If or is optimal, if then there shouldn't be any inventory system. If solving the preceding quadratic equation yields: If there are backorders the reorder point is: ; with m being the largest integer and μ the lead time demand. Additionally, the economic order interval can be determined from the EOQ and the economic production quantity model (which determines the optimal production quantity) can be determined in a similar fashion. A version of the model, the Baumol-Tobin model, has also been used to determine the money demand function, where a person's holdings of money balances can be seen in a way parallel to a firm's holdings of inventory. Malakooti (2013) has introduced the multi-criteria EOQ models where the criteria could be minimizing the total cost, Order quantity (inventory), and Shortages. A version taking the time-value of money into account was developed by Trippi and Lewin. Imperfect quality Another important extension of the EOQ model is to consider items with imperfect quality. Salameh and Jaber (2000) are the first to study the imperfect items in an EOQ model very thoroughly. They consider an inventory problem in which the demand is deterministic and there is a fraction of imperfect items in the lot and are screened by the buyer and sold by them at the end of the circle at discount price. See also Reorder point Safety stock Constant fill rate for the part being produced: Economic production quantity Orders placed at regular intervals: Fixed time period model Demand is random: classical Newsvendor model Demand varies over time: Dynamic lot size model Several products produced on the same machine: Economic lot scheduling problem Renewal Demand and (s, S) Optimality by Perera, Janakiraman, and Niu References Further reading Harris, Ford W. Operations Cost (Factory Management Series), Chicago: Shaw (1915) Camp, W. E. "Determining the production order quantity", Management Engineering, 1922 Plossel, George. Orlicky's Material Requirement's Planning. Second Edition. McGraw Hill. 1984. (first edition 1975) Tsan-Ming Choi (Ed.) Handbook of EOQ Inventory Problems: Stochastic and Deterministic Models and Applications, Springer's International Series in Operations Research and Management Science, 2014. . External links The EOQ Model http://www.inventoryops.com/economic_order_quantity.htm http://www.scmfocus.com/supplyplanning/2014/04/10/economic-order-quantity-calculator/ Inventory optimization de:Klassische Losformel

Looney Tunes: Back in Action

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Looney Tunes: Back in Action is a 2003 American live-action/animated comedy film directed by Joe Dante and written by Larry Doyle. The plot follows the Looney Tunes characters Daffy Duck and Bugs Bunny (both voiced by Joe Alaskey) as they help aspiring daredevil Damian "D.J." Drake, Jr. (Brendan Fraser) and Warner Bros. executive Kate Houghton (Jenna Elfman) find the "blue monkey" diamond in order to prevent the evil Mr. Chairman (Steve Martin) of the Acme Corporation from using it to turn mankind into monkeys that will manufacture his products; the group also attempts to rescue D.J.'s father (Timothy Dalton), an actor and spy who has been captured by Mr. Chairman. The animation was directed by Eric Goldberg. It was made following the success of Space Jam (1996), to which it was originally developed as a direct sequel, titled Spy Jam. The film was theatrically released in the United States on November 14, 2003 by Warner Bros. Pictures and was a box-office flop, grossing $68.5 million worldwide against an $80 million budget. It received mixed reviews from critics, who praised its sense of fun but criticized the screenplay. This was the final film to be scored by composer Jerry Goldsmith, who died less than a year after the film's release. This was also the final film to be produced by Warner Bros. Feature Animation. Along with this, it was also the last theatrically released feature film to prominently feature the Looney Tunes characters until 2021’s Space Jam: A New Legacy. Plot Disillusioned of playing the fall guy to Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck demands his own cartoon from Warner Bros., but is promptly fired by the "Vice-President of Comedy", Kate Houghton. Security guard and struggling stuntman DJ Drake is asked to escort Daffy off the studio lot, but the ensuing chase leads to the Batmobile demolishing the studio water tower, resulting in DJ also being fired. He returns home with Daffy following him, where he receives a message from his father, film star, Damian Drake, who is actually a secret agent. Damian instructs his son to travel to Las Vegas, find his associate, Dusty Tails, and find a mystical diamond called the "blue monkey", he is shortly thereafter captured by the Acme Corporation, led by the eccentric Mr. Chairman. DJ and Daffy head for Vegas. Meanwhile, Bugs' routines fail without Daffy, so Kate is forced to locate and rehire Daffy or face being terminated herself. Bugs informs Kate of the situation, so they head to DJ's home where they find Damian's spy car, and use it to pursue DJ and Daffy. In Las Vegas, DJ and Daffy meet Dusty in a casino owned by Yosemite Sam, who happens to be an associate of the Acme Corporation. Dusty gives them a strange playing card, which is a clue to finding the diamond. Sam and his henchmen attempt to kill them and take the card, but they manage to elude him and flee in the spy car with Bugs and Kate. The spy car, which can also fly, crashes in the Nevada desert. As they travel through the desert, Wile E. Coyote tries to stop them, but is foiled. The group eventually stumbles upon Area 52, run by a woman called 'mother', who informs them of the situation. She plays a video recording, which reveals that the Blue Monkey has the power to devolve humans into monkeys and evolve them back again. Acme intends on using the blue monkey on all of mankind to manufacture their products, and then turn them back to purchase them. Marvin the Martian, who was imprisoned in the facility, escapes and leads a group of fellow alien inmates to obtain the playing card, but the heroes escape. Seeing that the card has Mona Lisa's face on it, the group conclude they must view the painting in the Louvre, located in Paris. At the Louvre, they discover that the card contains a viewing window, and looking through it, the window reveals that the Mona Lisa has a map of Africa hidden beneath. Bugs and Daffy's co-star, Elmer Fudd, appears, revealing himself as an Acme henchman, and chases Bugs and Daffy through the gallery to obtain the card whilst Kate is kidnapped by Mr. Chairman's bodyguard, Mr. Smith with help of Beaky Buzzard. DJ rescues Kate while Elmer is disintegrated by Bugs after jumping out of a pointillism artwork. Bugs and Daffy reunite with DJ and Kate, and they leave Paris. DJ, Kate, Bugs, and Daffy travel to Africa, meeting Granny, Sylvester, and Tweety, who escort them to the ruins of a jungle temple where they find the blue monkey. However, Granny and company reveal themselves to be Mr. Chairman, Smith, and the Tasmanian Devil in disguise. Mr. Chairman uses a disintegration gun to transport himself and the heroes to the Acme headquarters where he forces DJ to give him the diamond, when Damian is revealed to be his prisoner, but goes back on his word to release him. Marvin is sent to place the blue monkey on an Acme satellite which will emit an energy beam around the world to turn everyone, except Mr. Chairman, into monkeys. DJ and Kate rescue Damian from a death trap, whilst Bugs and Daffy chase Marvin into space. Bugs is thwarted by Marvin, prompting Daffy to become Duck Dodgers, in order to destroy the blue monkey. The transforming energy beam only strikes Mr. Chairman, turning him into a monkey. Bugs and Daffy return to Earth, where Daffy discovers the whole adventure was staged to make a film. However, Bugs promises Daffy they will be equal partners, but just as Daffy's luck seems to be improving, he is crushed by the Looney Tunes iris, where Porky Pig attempts to close the film with "That's all folks!" only for the studio to shut down before he can finish, and he bitterly tells the audience to go home. Cast Brendan Fraser as Damian "D. J." Drake, Jr. / himself Fraser also voiced Tasmanian Devil and Tasmanian She-Devil Jenna Elfman as Kate Houghton Steve Martin as Mr. Chairman Heather Locklear as Dusty Tails Joan Cusack as Mother Timothy Dalton as Damian Drake Bill Goldberg as Bob Smith Don Stanton as Mr. Warner Dan Stanton as Mr. Warner's brother Matthew Lillard as himself (cameo) Jeff Gordon as himself (cameo) Kevin McCarthy as Dr. Miles Bennell (cameo) Michael Jordan as himself (cameo via archive footage from Space Jam) Marc Lawrence as Acme VP, Stating the Obvious Ron Perlman as Acme VP, Never Learning Robert Picardo as Acme VP, Rhetorical Questions Voices Joe Alaskey as Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Sylvester, Beaky Buzzard, and Mama Bear Jeff Bennett as Foghorn Leghorn, Yosemite Sam, and Nasty Canasta Billy West as Elmer Fudd and Peter Lorre Eric Goldberg as Marvin the Martian, Speedy Gonzales, and Tweety Bruce Lanoil as Pepé Le Pew June Foray as Granny Bob Bergen as Porky Pig Casey Kasem as Shaggy Rogers Frank Welker as Scooby-Doo Danny Chambers as Cottontail Smith Stan Freberg as Junior Bear Will Ryan as Papa Bear Danny Mann as Robo Dog and Spy Car Mel Blanc as Gremlin Car (archive recordings) Paul Julian as Road Runner (archive recordings) (uncredited) Bill Roberts as Michigan J. Frog (archive recordings) (uncredited) Johnnie Davis as Owl Jolson (archive recordings) (uncredited) Production Looney Tunes: Back in Action was initially developed as a follow-up to Space Jam (1996). As development began, the film's plot was going to involve a new basketball competition with Michael Jordan and the Looney Tunes against a new alien villain named Berserk-O!. Artist Bob Camp was tasked with designing Berserk-O! and his henchmen. Joe Pytka would have returned to direct and Spike Brandt and Tony Cervone signed on as the animation supervisors. However, Jordan did not agree to star in a sequel. According to Camp, a producer lied to the studio, claiming that Jordan had signed on in order to keep development going. Without Jordan involved with the project, Warner Bros. was not interested, and cancelled plans for Space Jam 2. The film then re-entered development as Spy Jam and was to star Jackie Chan. Warner Bros. was also planning a film titled Race Jam, which would have starred racing driver Jeff Gordon. Both projects were ultimately cancelled. Warner Bros. eventually asked Joe Dante to direct Back in Action. In the early 1990s, Dante wanted to produce a biographical comedy with HBO, called Termite Terrace. It centered around director filmmaker and cartoonist Chuck Jones' early years at Warner Bros. in the 1930s. On the project, Dante recalled, "It was a hilarious story and it was very good except that Warner Bros. said, 'Look, it's an old story. It's got period stuff in it. We don't want that. We want to rebrand our characters and we want to do Space Jam.'" Dante agreed to direct Back in Action as tribute to Jones. He and screenwriter Larry Doyle reportedly wanted the film to be the "anti-Space Jam" as Dante disliked how that film represented the Looney Tunes brand and personalities. Dante said, "I was making a movie for them with those characters [Looney Tunes: Back in Action] and they did not want to know about those characters. They didn't want to know why Bugs Bunny shouldn't do hip-hop. It was a pretty grim experience all around." Warner Bros. hired Walt Disney Feature Animation's Eric Goldberg, most known for his fast-paced, Warner Bros.-inspired animation of the Genie in Aladdin (1992), to direct the animation. On the film, Dante stated, "It's a gagfest. Not having a particularly strong story, it just goes from gag to gag and location to location. It's not a particularly compelling narrative, but, of course, that's not where the charm of the movie is supposed to lie." On the subject of filming, Dante said, "[w]e would shoot each scene three times. First we'd rehearse with a stand-in—a 'stuffy,' we called it. Then, we'd shoot the scene without anything in it; then, we'd shoot the scene again with this mirror ball in the shot which shows the computers where the light sources are. Then the animators would go to work and put characters into the frame." According to Dante, a "problem" occurred when the studio executives got tired of the film's jokes and wanted them to be changed. As a result, the studio brought in twenty-five gag writers to try to write jokes that were short enough to fit into an animated character's mouth. Despite this, the film has only one credited writer. Despite being directed by acknowledged fans of the original cartoons, Dante stated that he had no creative freedom on the project, and called it "the longest year and a half of my life." Dante felt that he and Goldberg managed to preserve the original personalities of the characters. However, the opening, middle, and end of the film are different from what Dante envisioned. Music This was the final film scored by composer Jerry Goldsmith. Due to Goldsmith's failing health, the last reel of the film was actually scored by John Debney, though Goldsmith was the only credited composer in marketing materials and the Varèse Sarabande soundtrack album only contains Goldsmith's music (although the first and last cues are adaptations of compositions heard in Warner Bros. cartoons). Debney receives an "Additional Music by" credit in the closing titles of the film and "Special Thanks" in the soundtrack album credits. Goldsmith died in July 2004, eight months after the film's release. Reception Box office Looney Tunes: Back in Action was released on November 14, 2003, originally planned to open earlier that summer. The film grossed $68.5 million worldwide against a budget of $80 million. Warner Bros. was hoping to start a revitalized franchise of Looney Tunes media and products with the success of Back in Action. New animated shorts and a Duck Dodgers TV series were commissioned to tie-in with Back in Action. However, due to the film's financial failure, the Looney Tunes franchise remained primarily on television for nearly two decades. Warner Bros. would not produce another theatrical Looney Tunes film until Space Jam: A New Legacy, which was released in 2021. Critical response On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 56% based on 138 reviews, with an average rating of 6/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "The plot is a nonsensical, hyperactive jumble and the gags are relatively uninspired compared to the classic Looney Tunes cartoons." At Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score a 64 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews" Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale. Chicago Sun-Times critics Roger Ebert and Richard Roeper gave the film "Two Thumbs Up"; Roeper called it a "cheerful and self-referential romp blending animation with live action in a non-stop quest for silly laughs," while Ebert called it "goofy fun." The film was also nominated for Saturn Award for Best Animated Film, Annie Award for Best Animated Feature and Satellite Award for Best Animated or Mixed Media Feature. Home media Warner Home Video released Looney Tunes: Back in Action on VHS and DVD on March 2, 2004. The film was re-released on DVD in separate widescreen and full screen editions on September 7, 2010. It was also released on Blu-ray with bonus features on December 2, 2014. A double DVD and Blu-ray release, paired with Space Jam, was released on June 7, 2016. Video game The film has a platform game of the same name developed by Warthog Games and published by Electronic Arts for the PlayStation 2, GameCube and Game Boy Advance. Xbox and Microsoft Windows versions were planned, but were cancelled due to the financial failure of the film. References External links 2003 films 2003 fantasy films 2003 animated films 2003 action comedy films 2000s American animated films 2000s action comedy films 2000s adventure comedy films 2000s fantasy-comedy films 2000s English-language films American films American action comedy films American adventure comedy films American fantasy-comedy films Animated crossover films Self-reflexive films Looney Tunes films Films featuring Beaky Buzzard Films featuring Bugs Bunny Films featuring Daffy Duck Films featuring Elmer Fudd Films featuring Marvin the Martian Films featuring Pepe Le Pew Films featuring Porky Pig Films featuring Speedy Gonzales Films featuring Sylvester the Cat Films featuring the Tasmanian Devil (Looney Tunes) Films featuring Tweety Films featuring Yosemite Sam Father and son films Flying cars in fiction Animated films about revenge Films set in Burbank, California Films set in the Las Vegas Valley Animated films set in Paris Films set in Africa Films set in jungles Films with live action and animation Films directed by Joe Dante Films with screenplays by Larry Doyle Films scored by Jerry Goldsmith Warner Bros. films Warner Bros. animated films Warner Bros. Animation animated films

Muhammad of Ghor

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Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad (), born Shihab ad-Din (1149 – March 15, 1206), also known as Muhammad of Ghor, was the Sultan of the Ghurid Empire along with his brother Ghiyath ad-Din Muhammad from 1173 to 1202 and as the sole ruler from 1202 to 1206. He is credited with laying the foundation of Muslim rule in the Indian subcontinent, which lasted for several centuries. He reigned over a territory spanning over parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Iran, Northern India, Pakistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan. Mu'izz ad-Din took the city of Ghazni in 1173 to avenge the death of his ancestor Muhammad ibn Suri at the hands of Mahmud of Ghazni and used it as a launching pad for expansion into northern India. In the meantime, he assisted his brother Ghiyath in his contest with the Khwarazmian Empire for the lordship of Khorasan in Western Asia. In 1175, Mu'izz captured Multan from the Hamid Ludi dynasty, and also took Uch in 1175. He also annexed the Ghaznavid principality of Lahore in 1186, the last haven of his Persianised rivals. After consolidating his rule in the North-West domain Mu'izz al-Din wish to invade the heart of Northern India which was then under the control of Rajputs. In 1191 CE, he was defeated by a united Rajput Confederacy led by Prithviraj Chauhan in First Battle of Tarain. However In 1192 CE, Shihabuddin returned with an army of mounted archers and defeated the Rajputs under Prithviraj at the same field, opening the way to occupy most of Northern India within a generation. The battle also lead to a large scale destruction of Hindu powers in North India and firmly established a Muslim presence. After the death of Ghiyath in 1201, a confused struggle ensued among the remaining Ghurid leaders, and the Khwarizmi were able to take over the Ghurid Sultanate in about 1215. Though the Ghurid empire was short-lived, and Ghori states remained in power until the arrival of the Timurids, Mu'izz's conquests laid the foundations of Muslim rule in India. Qutbuddin Aibak, a former slave (Mamluk) of Mu'izz, became the first Sultan of Delhi in 1206. Early life Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad was born in 1149 in the Ghor region of Khorasan. The exact date of his birth is unknown. His father, Baha al-Din Sam I, was the local ruler of the Ghor region at the time. Mu'izz also had an elder brother named Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad. During their early life, Mu'izz and Ghiyath were imprisoned by their uncle Ala al-Din Husayn but were later released by the latter's son Sayf al-Din Muhammad. When Sayf died in 1163, the Ghurid nobles supported Ghiyath and helped him ascend the throne. Ghiyath shortly gave Mu'izz control over Istiyan and Kajuran. However, the throne was challenged by several Ghurid chiefs; Mu'izz aided Ghiyath in defeating and killing a rival Ghurid chief named Abu'l Abbas. Early campaigns Ghiyath was then challenged by his uncle Fakhr al-Din Masud, who claimed the throne for himself and had allied with Tadj al-Din Yildiz, the Seljuq governor of Herat, and Balkh. However, the coalition was defeated by Ghiyath and Mu'izz at Ragh-i Zar. The brothers managed to kill the Seljuq governor during the battle, and then conquered Zamindawar, Badghis, Gharjistan, and Urozgan. Ghiyath, however, spared Fakhr al-Din and restored him as the ruler of Bamiyan. Mu'izz, after returning from an expedition from Sistan, was shortly awarded Kandahar by his brother. In 1173, the two brothers invaded Ghazni, and defeated the Oghuz Turks who had captured the city from the Ghaznavids. Mu'izz was then appointed as the ruler of Ghazni. In 1175, the two brothers conquered Herat from its Seljuq governor, Baha al-Din Toghril, and also managed to conquer Pushang. The ruler of Sistan, Taj al-Din Harb ibn Muhammad, shortly acknowledged the sovereignty of the Ghurids, and so did the Oghuz Turks dominating Kirman. During the same period, the Khwarazmian Sultan Shah, who was expelled from Khwarezm by his brother Tekish, took refuge in Ghor and requested military aid from Ghiyath. Ghiyath, however, did not help the latter. Sultan Shah managed to get help from the Kara-Khitan Khanate, and began plundering the northern Ghurid domains. Invasion of India After having helped his brother in expanding the western frontiers of the Ghurid Empire, he began to focus on India. Mu'izz's campaign against the Qarmatians rulers of Multan in 1175 had ended in victory. He turned south, and led his army from Multan to Uch and then across the desert towards the Chaulukya capital of Anhilwara (modern-day Patan in Gujarat) in 1178. On the way, Muizz suffered a defeat at the Battle of Kayadara, during his first campaign against an Indian ruler. Gujarat was ruled by the young Chaulukya ruler Mularaja II; the Chaulukya forces included the armies of their feudatories such as the Naddula Chahamana ruler Kelhanadeva, the Jalor Chahamana ruler Kirtipala, and the Arbuda Paramara ruler Dharavarsha. Mu'izz's army had suffered greatly during the march across the desert, and the Chalukyas inflicted a major defeat on him at the village of Kayadara (near to Mount Abu, about forty miles to the north-east of Anhilwara). The invading army suffered heavy casualties during the battle, and also in the retreat back across the desert to Multan. However, Mu'izz was able to take Peshawar and Sialkot. In 1186, Mu'izz, along with Ghiyath, ended the Ghaznavid dynasty after having captured Lahore and executed the Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau-Malik. Mu'izz shortly returned to Ghor, and along with the rulers of Bamiyan and Sistan, aided his brother Ghiyath in defeating the forces of Sultan Shah at Merv in 1190. He also annexed most of the latter's territories in Khorasan. First Battle of Tarain In 1191, Mu'izz proceeded towards the Indian subcontinent through the Khyber Pass in modern-day Pakistan and was successful in reaching Punjab. Mu'izz captured a fortress, Bathinda in present-day Punjab state on the northwestern frontier of Prithvīrāj Chauhān's kingdom. After appointing a Qazi Zia-ud-Din as governor of the fortress, he received the news that Prithviraj's army, led by his vassal prince Govind Tai were on their way to besiege the fortress. The two armies eventually met near the town of Tarain, 14 miles from Thanesar in present-day Haryana. The battle was marked by the initial attack of mounted Mamluk archers to which Prithviraj responded by counter-attacking from three sides and thus dominating the battle. Mu'izz mortally wounded Govind Tai in personal combat and in the process was himself wounded, whereupon his army retreated and Prithvīrāj's army was deemed victorious. According to Rima Hooja and Kaushik Roy, Govind Tal was wounded by Ghori and later fought at the second battle of Tarain, where he was killed. Second Battle of Tarain On his return to Ghor, Mu'izz made preparations to strike again. According to Firishta, the Rajput army consisted of 3,000 elephants, 300,000 cavalry and infantry (most likely a gross exaggeration). Minhaj-i-Siraj, stated Mu'izz brought 120,000 fully armored men to the battle in 1192. Prithviraj had called his banners but hoped to buy time as his banners (other Rajputs under him or his allies) had not arrived. Before the next day, Mu'izz attacked the Rajput army before dawn. Although they were able to quickly form formations, they suffered losses due to surprise attacks before sunrise. The Rajput army was eventually defeated and Prithviraj was taken prisoner and subsequently executed. After Prithviraj's defeat, Mu'izz raided Varanasi. Further campaigns When the State of Ajmer failed to fulfil the tribute demands as per the custom after a defeat, Qutbu l-Din Aibak, in 1193 took over Ajmer and soon established Ghurid control in northern and central India. Hindu kingdoms like Saraswati, Samana, Kohram and Hansi were captured without any difficulty. Finally, his forces advanced on Delhi, capturing it soon after the Battle of Chandwar, defeating Raja Jaichand of Kannauj. Within a year, Mu'izz controlled northern Rajasthan and the northern part of the Ganges-Yamuna Doab. The Kingdom of Ajmer was then given over to Golā, on the condition that he send regular tributes to the Ghurids. Mu'izz returned west to Ghazni to deal with the threat to his western frontiers from the unrest in Iran, but he appointed Aibak as his regional governor for northern India. His armies, mostly under Turkic and Khalaj generals such as Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, continued to advance through northern India, raiding as far east as Bengal. Followed by his conquest of Delhi, an army led by Aibak invaded and plundered Anahilapataka in ca. 1195–97. War with the Khwarezmians and supreme leader of the Ghurids In 1200, Tekish died and was succeeded by Muhammad II of Khwarezm (who took the honorific name 'Ala' al-Din). Among the first to hear of this were Ghiyath and Mu'izz al-Din. Within weeks the two brothers had moved their armies westwards into Khorasan. Once they had captured Nishapur, Mu'izz al-Din was sent on an expedition towards Ray, but he let his troops get out of control and got little further than Gurgan, earning criticism from Ghiyath which led to the only reported quarrel between the brothers. Ghiyath died at Herat in 1202 after months of illness. Mu'izz, who had quickly returned to Ghor from India, obtained the support of Ghurid nobles, and was crowned as Sultan of the Ghurid Empire at Firuzkuh. Just after his ascension, Muhammad II invaded his domains and besieged Herat. Mu'izz managed to repel him from Herat and then pursued him to Khwarezm, besieging Gurganj, their capital. Muhammad desperately requested aid from the Kara-Khitan Khanate, who sent an army to aid Muhammad. Mu'izz, because of the pressure from the Kara-Khitans, was forced to relieve the siege and retreat. However, on his way to his domains in Ghur, he was defeated at Andkhud in 1204. Mu'izz, however, managed to reach Ghur and prepared a counter-attack against the Khwarmezians and Kara-Khitans. A revolt shortly broke out in Punjab and the surrounding regions, which forced Mu'izz to make order in the region before mounting a counter-attack against his enemies. Final days and death In 1206, Mu'izz, having settled the affairs in India, left all the affairs in India in hands of his slave Qutb al-Din Aibak. On his way back to Ghazni, his caravan rested at Dhamiak near Sohawa (which is near the city of Jhelum in the Punjab province of modern-day Pakistan). He was assassinated on March 15, 1206 while offering his evening prayers. His killers are unconfirmed. It may have been the Khokhars or Ismāʿīlīs. In Indian folklore, the death of Mu'izz was caused by Prithviraj Chauhan, but this is not borne out by historical documents and Prithviraj died much earlier before the death of Mu'izz. Succession Mu'izz had no offspring, but he treated his Turkic slaves as his sons, who were trained both as soldiers and administrators and provided with the best possible education. Many of his competent and loyal slaves rose to positions of importance in Mu'izz's army and government. When a courtier lamented that the Sultan had no male heirs, Mu'izz retorted: "Other monarchs may have one son or two sons; I have thousands of sons, my Turkish slaves who will be the heirs of my dominions, and who, after me, will take care to preserve my name in the Khuṭbah (Friday sermon) throughout these territories." Mu'izz's prediction proved true. After his assassination, his Empire was divided amongst his slaves. Most notably: Qutbu l-Din Aibak became ruler of Delhi in 1206, establishing the Sultanate of Delhi, which marked the start of the Slave dynasty.* Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha became ruler of Multan in 1210. Tajuddin Yildoz became ruler of Ghazni. Ikhtiyar Uddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji became ruler in parts of Bengal. Legacy A mausoleum for Muhammad Ghori was built at his gravesite in Dhamiak by Pakistani scientist Abdul Qadeer Khan in 1994-1995 and was later handed over to the Punjab archaeology department. Pakistani military named three of its medium-range ballistic missile Ghauri-I, Ghauri-II and Ghauri-III, in the memory of Mu'izz. In the 2022 Bollywood film Prithviraj, Muhammad Ghori is portrayed by actor Manav Vij. Notes References Sources Further reading A History of India By August Friedrich Rudolf Hoernle, Herbert Alick Stark The history of India from the earliest ages By James Talboys Wheeler Outline of Indian history By Sri Ram Sharma Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy) External links Islamic rule in the Indian subcontinent 1149 births 1206 deaths 12th-century Iranian people 13th-century Iranian people Ghurid dynasty Murdered Persian monarchs Assassinated Iranian people 13th-century murdered monarchs

Golden Arches

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The Golden Arches are the symbol of McDonald's, the global fast food restaurant chain. Originally, real arches were part of the restaurant design. They were incorporated into the chain's logo in 1962, which resembled a stylized restaurant, and in the current Golden Arches logo, introduced 1968, resembling an "M" for "McDonald's". They are widely regarded to be one of the most recognizable logos in the world. History In 1952, brothers Richard and Maurice McDonald decided they needed a new building to house their hamburger restaurant in San Bernardino, California. They wanted this building to have an entirely new design which would achieve two goals: even greater efficiency, and an eye-catching appearance. They interviewed at least four architects altogether, finally choosing Stanley Clark Meston, an architect practicing in nearby Fontana, in late 1952. The arches had a direct bearing on the interviewing process and their choice of Meston: the first architect they interviewed objected to the arches the brothers wanted; a second wanted to change the arches; a third, prominent Los Angeles architect Douglas Honnold, said that if the brothers were going to tell him what to do they would be better off doing it themselves. Along with their practical knowledge, the brothers brought Meston a rough sketch of two half-circle arches drawn by Richard. The idea of an arch had struck Richard as a memorable shape to make their stand more visible. After considering one arch parallel to the front of the building, he had sketched two half-circles on either side of the stand. Meston, together with his assistant Charles Fish, responded with a design which included two yellow sheet-metal arches trimmed in neon, called "golden arches" even at the design stage. His design also included a third, smaller arch sign at the roadside with a pudgy character in a chef's hat, known as Speedee, striding across the top, trimmed in animated neon. According to architectural historian Alan Hess, "Meston and Fish turned the crude half-circle suggested by Richard McDonald's sketch into a tapered, sophisticated parabola, with tense, springing lines conveying movement and energy." In the same article Hess added this footnote: "Who first suggested the parabola is unclear. Richard McDonald and George Dexter, the sign contractor who fabricated the first arches, recalled that Dexter came up with the idea and added them to the plans. Charles Fish, who did the working drawings and aided Meston in the design, attributes the idea to his familiarity with the form from a school project in which he used structural parabolas for a hangar. The form was one of many advanced engineering solutions, including folded plate roofs, that were in common currency." The first franchised outlet bearing Meston's design opened in May 1953 in Phoenix, Arizona. Subsequent franchisees of the McDonald brothers were also required to use Meston's design, although Meston adapted the plans for each to the conditions and building codes of each site. In 1962, seeking to upgrade its image, the company sought a new logo. Fred Turner sketched a stylized "V", but the company's head of engineering and design, Jim Schindler, extended the "V" into an "M" resembling a McDonald's store viewed from an angle, with a red isosceles trapezoid "roof" serving as background for lettering. While , the Golden Arches have remained in the logo, and as a commonly understood term for the company. This was partially due to Louis Cheskin's argument that the arches, which he likened to "mother McDonald's breasts", had "Freudian applications to the subconscious mind of the consumer and were great assets in marketing McDonald's food." In Canada, all McDonald's stores and commercials have a maple leaf in the middle of the Golden Arches. Alan Hess summarized the arch's origin in Googie architecture and ultimate significance as follows: The term "Golden Arches" is sometimes used as metonym, symbolizing capitalism or globalization in phrases such as the "Golden Arches Theory of Conflict Prevention", since McDonald's is one of the more prominent American corporations that have become global in their reach (along with Coca-Cola and Nike). A simple analysis of the logo's shape shows that is actually based on the catenary which is the basic shape for most arches. Alternate versions The McDonald's arches in Sedona, Arizona were made turquoise when the yellow color had been deemed by government officials to be contrasting too much against the scenic red rock. As of 2019, seven McDonald's signs only have one arch, including locations in Magnolia, New Jersey, Winter Haven, Florida, Montrose, Colorado, and Pine Bluff, Arkansas. The McDonald's restaurant at 610 Del Monte Ave., Monterey, California, has black arches. The McDonald's in North Scottsdale on 18241 N Pima Rd also has black arches. The McDonald's restaurant at 2172 Sunset Blvd. in Rocklin, CA has dark red arches. The restaurant at Champs-Elysées in Paris, France, includes a neon McDonald's sign with white arches. Also a recently built McDonald's in Bruges, Belgium, has the white arches. In 2018 and again in 2019, McDonald's turned the arches upside down on its social media accounts in celebration of International Women's Day, changing the "M" to a "W." A McDonald's franchise operated by Patricial Williams in Lynwood, California, also flipped the arches on its sign. This prompted a mild backlash, with some arguing that the move was hypocritical due to the chain's underpaying of employees, and others observing that the "M" in the logo could just as easily stand for "men" as it could for "McDonald's." See also Golden Arches theory, which holds that "No two countries that both had McDonald's had fought a war against each other since each got its McDonald's" McDonald's sign (Pine Bluff, Arkansas) References McDonald's Commercial logos Yellow symbols Symbols introduced in 1962 Monograms

Cheaters

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Cheaters is an American weekly syndicated reality television series featuring couples with one partner who is committing adultery, or cheating, on the other partner. Investigations are headed by the "Cheaters Detective Agency". It began airing in 2000, and as of December 2020, it has aired 21 seasons. It has been hosted by Tommy Habeeb, Joey Greco, Clark James Gable, and currently, it is being hosted by Peter Gunz. Show's format Actor Joey Greco was the show's longest-running host, hosting from late 2002 to mid-2012 and returning in 2019. At the onset of the show's 13th season, he was replaced by Clark James Gable, the grandson of legendary actor Clark Gable. He would host the series until his untimely passing in 2019 due to a drug overdose. In February 2020, it was announced via social media that Love & Hip Hop star Peter Gunz would become the new host beginning in October 2020 (Season 21). Filming of season 21 took place in Dallas during the summer of 2020, despite the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. The show's complainants can be either married or long-term significant others, and have included both opposite-sex and same-sex couples. Each episode begins with a brief interview of the complainant, detailing how the complainant met their partner and what has led them to believe that the partner is cheating, citing suspicious activities or behavior. Next, the narrator (originally Robert Magruder, then Ken Eaken since 2015) describes the progress of the investigation of the partner (referred to as "the suspect"). Private investigators follow the suspect over the course of several days or weeks at their home, workplace, and/or in public with their alleged paramour (dubbed "the companion"). If the complainant and suspect live together, hidden cameras are occasionally installed in their home. A recorded telephone conversation between the complainant and suspect, in which the suspect lies about his or her whereabouts, is also played. When the investigation turns up enough evidence of the suspect's infidelity, the show enters its second segment, "the confrontation." The host meets with the complainant to reveal the findings of the investigation and shows them the evidence collected (originally on a video camera, then on an iPad). The host sometimes warns the complainant that the footage is disturbing or upsetting but the complainant nonetheless requests to see it. Graphic footage from the investigators—for example, the suspect and their companion engaged in a sexual act—is shown uncensored to the complainant but digitally blurred to the show's viewers; however, uncensored versions of the encounters have been released on DVD. The briefing takes place when the suspect and their companion are concurrently being observed together nearby; the intent is to allow the complainant to catch the suspect in the act of infidelity. After contacting the detective on his cell phone to find out their whereabouts, the host and the complainant, along with a full crew of production personnel all carrying 35 mm cameras, and security personnel travel in a van and seek out and confront the alleged cheater. The confrontation often takes place in public places, such as bars, restaurants and parks, with the complainant and host both demanding an explanation from the suspect for their behavior. Confrontations are often violent in nature, forcing security guards to restrain the complainant, suspect and/or companion. Confrontations also have the potential to end badly, as in one episode where host Joey Greco was stabbed during a confrontation and transported to a hospital. However, it has been disputed whether or not the stabbing was real. Suspects also have been known to push the security guards, which causes the security guards to push back and let them know that they will retaliate. In very rare cases, animals unwittingly featured will have their heads blurred out for humorous effect. The final segment, "the conclusion," presents parting thoughts from the complainant, the suspect and their companion as they depart the scene of the confrontation. Next, updates from previous cases, including interviews from suspects and their companions, are presented. Lastly, the narrator describes what became of the complainant, the suspect and the companion (and in rare cases, others that may also be involved) after the show. History The show was created by Bobby Goldstein, an attorney in Dallas, Texas. It made its debut in 2000. The original host of the show was actor Tommy Habeeb aka "Tommy Grand" (2000–2002). 2004 brought syndication reruns of previous seasons, edited into a half-hour Monday-through-Friday strip format with new intros by Joey Greco as host. When Cheaters began airing in high-definition, the show's title card, used for eleven seasons, was altered to 3D, and more high-definition graphics were incorporated into the show. Syndication Cheaters airs on Saturday nights on The CW Plus. It also aired on G4TV from 2006 to 2012. The CW Plus airs two episodes: a one-hour-long episode followed by a 30-minute episode. A 10-minute version of the show called Cheaters: Amazing Confrontations is available through on-demand services. In 2006, G4 began showing the strip version with faster-paced editing and music due to complaints that the show seemed boring and contrived, as well as a different narrator, for weekly airings on its Midnight Spank block. On December 9, 2009, G4 moved this show to the short-lived "Junk Food TV" block. G4 stopped airing the show December 2012. In January 2017, the syndicated half-hour strip format version of Cheaters returned to cable television, this time on VH1 during late Friday nights/early Saturday morning slots. Cheaters also re-aired on MTV2. Controversy and incidents In 2002, the Houston Press tracked down several people who said they were paid $400 per show by one of the detectives of the agency to act on the show, and were paid $50 per referral of other actors. One performer said, "What [the show's private detective] told me was that some of the episodes are real, but... they would do these ringer episodes to supplement the show." The show's private investigator denies that he staged anyone's scenario and further added that the number of inquiries the agency receives made this unnecessary. The producers of Cheaters currently reiterate the reality of each episode in a legalistic message at its end, though a Federal Communications Commission representative confirmed to the Houston Press that "there's no law or regulation against presenting acted-out scenarios as reality on television." On December 16, 2005, four employees of the show, the host Joey Greco, director Hunter Carson and two security guards, were indicted on charges of restraining a woman. On November 9, 2006, the four were acquitted. In another episode, Greco was detained at the scene of a bachelor party while helping a man confront his cheating fiancée. After Greco explained the situation about the couple to police, he was given a short talk about disturbing the peace and released with a written warning. On November 3, 2009, Inside Edition reiterated the claim that the show was staged, citing several more actors who said they were paid to appear. One of them appeared in the Greco stabbing episode and claimed it was staged. Despite the depiction of a male being placed under arrest for stabbing Greco, Inside Edition found that no actual arrest matching that description was made by the Rowlett, Texas police department, where the episode took place. The ambulance shown, along with the EMS personnel appeared to be from "Greater Dallas EMS". Greater Dallas EMS was a private transfer ambulance in the Dallas area but would have never been dispatched for a 911 emergency. They are now out of business after being raided by the FBI in an investigation known as Operation Easy Rider. Physician–patient privilege would prevent the hospital that treated Greco from releasing records to Inside Edition. Nothing prevents the producers of Cheaters from voluntarily displaying the records, yet they have not done so. Despite the lack of records, Goldstein denied in an interview that the episode was staged. In a follow-up, aired on Inside Edition the following week (November 9, 2009), Greco was interviewed by investigative reporter Matt Meagher about the previous week's accusations. Greco declined to respond, claiming that he could not legally do so. On August 8, 2010, an Equal Employment Opportunity Commission press release reported that Bobby Goldstein Productions, Inc., and Cheaters II, Ltd. (Civil Action No. 3:08-CV-1912-P) paid $50,000 to settle a sexual harassment lawsuit. The suit was brought on the behalf of two female office assistants who were the target of frequent sexual jokes and comments, unwanted physical advances, and propositions for sex. The alleged perpetrators included members of upper management. Says attorney Robert A. Canino, a regional attorney from the EEOC Dallas District Office, "just because the creator of Cheaters promotes a TV show business which thrives on featuring sexual transgressions, it is no justification for engaging in sexual improprieties which violate the employment rights of his female employees behind the scenes." Merchandise Visual Entertainment of Canada has released several best-of collections of Cheaters on DVD in Region 1. In addition the Cheaters Spy Shop was launched in September 2011 to sell items used on the show and has been promoted in episodes beginning in the Season 12. Cheaters DVD releases are uncensored, with language and sexual content (including occasional views of acts such as fellatio and penetration) shown unfiltered. References in pop culture The show has been parodied and referenced in several films and television shows, such as Janky Promoters (2009), George Lopez, Disturbia (2007), Sex Drive (2008), Just Go With It (2011), Mind of Mencia, TV: The Movie (2007), Talkshow with Spike Feresten, Workaholics, Unhitched, The Simpsons, and The Jay Leno Show. In the song, Need It, released in 2020 as the lead single to Migos' fourth studio album, Culture III, Offset from the Atlanta trio sings during the chorus: "Then I leave her, I can not get caught up, I can not be on Cheaters". Referencing his past, Offset seeks to avoid an appearance on Cheaters. In the song, "Hats Off" by Lil Baby & Lil Durk (off their collaborative project, The Voice of the Heroes, released in 2021), featured artist on the track, Travis Scott, raps during his verse: "Sorry, gotta f--k on the low, I can't make Cheaters." Similar to Offset, Travis Scott is looking to avoid appearing on Cheaters. Travis Scott was accused of cheating during his high-profile relationship with model/socialite and businesswoman Kylie Jenner. References External links 2000 American television series debuts 2000s American reality television series First-run syndicated television programs in the United States Adultery in television 2010s American reality television series 2020s American reality television series

Chinese head tax in Canada

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The Chinese Head Tax was a fixed fee charged to each Chinese person entering Canada. The head tax was first levied after the Canadian parliament passed the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 and it was meant to discourage Chinese people from entering Canada after the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR). The tax was abolished by the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, which outright prevented all Chinese immigration except for that of business people, clergy, educators, students, and some others. Tax Through the mid- to late nineteenth century, some 17,000 labourers were brought from China to do construction work on the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), though they were only paid a third or a half less than their co-workers (about /day). The provincial legislature of British Columbia passed a strict law to virtually prevent Chinese immigration in 1878. However, this was immediately struck down by the courts as ultra vires ('beyond the powers of') the provincial legislative assembly, as it impinged upon federal jurisdiction over immigration into Canada. Responding to the anti-immigration sentiment in British Columbia, the Canadian government of John A. Macdonald introduced the Chinese Immigration Act, receiving Royal Assent and becoming law in 1885. Under its regulations, the law stipulated that all Chinese entering Canada must first pay a fee, later referred to as a head tax. This was amended in 1887, 1892, and 1900, with the fee increasing to in 1901 and later to its maximum of in 1903, representing a two-year salary of an immigrant worker at that time. However, not all Chinese arrivals had to pay the head tax; those who were presumed to return to China based on the apparent, transitory nature of their occupation or background were exempt from the penalty. These included arrivals identifying themselves as: students, teachers, missionaries, merchants, or members of the diplomatic corps. The Government of Canada collected about $23 million ($ in dollars) in face value from about 81,000 head tax payers.</ref> The head tax did discourage Chinese women and children from joining their men, but it failed to meet its goal, articulated by contemporary politicians and labour leaders, of the complete exclusion of Chinese immigration. Such was achieved through the same law that ended the head tax: the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, which stopped Chinese immigration entirely, albeit with certain exemptions for business owners and others. It is sometimes referred to by opponents as the Chinese Exclusion Act, a term also used for its American counterpart. Redress After the Chinese Immigration Act was repealed in 1948, various community activists including Wong Foon Sien campaigned the federal government to make its immigration policies more inclusive. However, the redress movement did not begin until 1984, when Vancouver Member of Parliament (MP) Margaret Mitchell raised in the House of Commons of Canada the issue of repaying the Chinese Head Tax for two of her constituents. Over 4,000 other head tax payers and their family members then approached the Chinese Canadian National Council (CCNC) and its member organizations across Canada to register their Head Tax certificates and ask CCNC to represent them to lobby the government for redress. The redress campaign included holding community meetings, gathering support from other groups and prominent people, increasing the media profile, conducting research and published materials, making presentations at schools, etc. The Chinese Canadian National Council, the longtime advocate for the head Tax redress, suffered a split after the Tiananmen Square Massacre. The CCNC had strongly condemned the human-rights record of the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Don Lee and his friends, who supported the PRC's assault on the protesters in Tiananmen Square, formed the National Congress of Chinese Canadians (NCCC). Don Lee, a former Vancouver NPA city councillor and the son of a deceased head-tax payer, has "acknowledged that some people see head-tax payers as victims, but he disagrees with this interpretation." Lee said his father had the "'foresight' to pay the head tax and suffer the economic consequences, because it provided tremendous benefits to his descendants." Preliminary negotiations In 1993, prime minister Brian Mulroney made an offer of individual medallions, a museum wing, and other collective measures involving several other redress-seeking communities. These were rejected outright by the Chinese Canadian national groups. In the same year, after Jean Chrétien became prime minister, the Cabinet openly refused to provide an apology or redress. Multiculturalism Minister Sheila Finestone announced in a letter that the government "cannot rewrite history" and would not grant financial compensation or redress to groups for past injustices. Instead, the letter confirmed $24 million in financing for a Canadian Race Relations Foundation, an idea raised by the previous Conservative government. Still, the CCNC and its supporters continued to raise the issue whenever they could, including a submission to the United Nations Human Rights Commission and eventually undertaking court action against the Crown-in-Council, arguing that the federal Crown should not be profiting from racism and that it had a responsibility under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and international human rights law. In addition, it argued the 1988 apology and compensation for the internment of Japanese Canadians during the Second World War established a precedent for redressing other racially motivated policies. Legal challenge In a $1.2 billion legal challenge, an Ontario court declared in 2001 that the Government of Canada had no obligation to redress the head tax levied on Chinese immigrants because the Charter had no retroactive application and the case of internment of Japanese Canadians was not a legal precedent. Two subsequent appeals in 2002 and 2003 were also unsuccessful. Following the legal setbacks, community activism continued once again across the country. In 2003, Canadian historian Pierre Berton gave a ceremonial iron railway spike to redress activists who toured the historical icon around the country as part of a "Last Spike Campaign", rebuilding support for a public demand for redress. When Paul Martin won the leadership of the federal Liberal Party and became prime minister in 2003, there was a sense of urgency in the Chinese Canadian community as it became clear that there were perhaps only a few dozen surviving Chinese Head Tax payers left (they were paid $20,000) maybe a few hundred spouses or widows. Several regional and national events had been organised to revitalize the redress campaign: Report of the United Nations Rapporteur In 2004, Doudou Diène, the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, concluded that Canada should redress the head tax to Chinese Canadians in response to a submission by May Chiu, legal counsel to the Chinese Canadian Redress Alliance. In 2005, Gim Wong, an 82-year-old son of two head tax payers and a World War II veteran, conducted a cross-country Ride for Redress on his Harley Davidson motorcycle, where upon his arrival in Ottawa Prime Minister Paul Martin refused to meet him. Bill C-333 On November 17, 2005, a group calling itself the National Congress of Chinese Canadians (NCCC) announced that an agreement had been reached between 11 Chinese-Canadian groups and the federal Cabinet, wherein the Queen-in-Council would pay $12.5 million for the creation of a new non-profit foundation to educate Canadians about anti-Chinese discrimination, with a specific pre-condition that no apology would be expected from any government figure. The NCCC was formed in the early 1990s and negotiated with the mantra "no apology and no individual compensation," so the Liberal government selected them as the representative group to negotiate the deal. The Department of Canadian Heritage's announcement on November 24, 2005 stated that the agreed upon funding would be reduced to $2.5 million. It was later revealed that the Minister for Asia and Pacific affairs, Raymond Chan, who claimed to have negotiated the deal, had purposely misled both the ministers of the Crown and the public. Some of the groups named as being party to the agreement stated publicly that their names had been used without permission and several other groups listed did not even exist. Taco Chan stated that "apology is not on" and argued "that to apologize would be tantamount to giving up immunity that has been granted to the government by the court." Don Lee, the co-founder and national director of the NCCC has claimed that his organization had no direct ties to the Liberals; however, Toronto First Radio host Simon Li asked "Why, Mr. Prime Minister, on the eve of a federal election, was so much money given to a single organization that sent out squads of volunteers to campaign for Liberals in Toronto's Chinatown in the last election?" The Liberal deal with the NCCC upset the CCNC and its affiliates, as this purported deal had been reached without their input. Other community groups including the B.C. Coalition of Head Tax Payers and the Ontario Coalition of Chinese Head Tax Payers and Families criticized the agreement as well. Bill C-333, the Chinese Canadian Recognition and Redress Act, a private member's bill, was tabled in the federal parliament in order to implement the deal in November 2005. While C-333 sought to acknowledge, commemorate and educate about past government wrongdoings, it fell far short of the apology demanded by generations of Chinese Canadians. Furthermore, the clause in C-333 which stated "1.1 The Government of Canada shall undertake negotiations with the NCCC towards an agreement concerning measures that may be taken to recognize the imposition of exclusionary measures on immigrants of Chinese origin from 1885 to 1947" essentially excluded the CCNC, and its representation by proxy of more than 4,000 head tax payers, their spouses and families, from any settlement talks with the government. The Ontario Coalition of Head Tax Payers and Families lobbied the Conservative Party to stop the passage of Bill C-333. The Conservatives exercised a procedural prerogative and switched the order of Bill C-333 with Bill C-331, a bill to recognize past wrongs against Ukrainian Canadians during wartime, causing Bill C-333 to die when Prime Minister Martin's Liberals lost a motion of non-confidence and parliament was dissolved on November 28, 2005. Political campaigning As they had done while campaigning for the federal election in 2004, the New Democratic Party and Bloc Québécois stated, during the leadup to the January 2006 election, their support for an apology and redress for the head tax. Similarly, on December 8, 2005, Conservative Party leader Stephen Harper released a press statement expressing his support for an apology for the head tax. As a part of his party platform, Harper promised to work with the Chinese community on redress, should the Conservatives be called to form the next government. Before his party ultimately lost the election, Martin issued a personal apology on a Chinese language radio program. However, he was quickly criticized by the Chinese Canadian community for not issuing the apology in the House of Commons and for then trying to dismiss it completely in the English-speaking media on the very same day. Several Liberal candidates with significant Chinese-Canadian populations in their ridings, including Vancouver-Kingsway MP David Emerson and the Minister of State for Multiculturalism and Richmond MP Raymond Chan, also made futile attempts to change their positions in the midst of the campaign. Others, such as Edmonton Centre MP Anne McLellan lost her riding to Conservative MP Laurie Hawn. Apology The 2006 federal election was won by the Conservative Party, forming a minority government. Three days after the ballots had been counted on January 23, but before he had been appointed prime minister, Harper reiterated his position on the head tax issue in a news conference: "Chinese Canadians are making an extraordinary impact on the building of our country. They've also made a significant histo rical contribution despite many obstacles. That's why, as I said during the election campaign, the Chinese Canadian community deserves an apology for the head tax and appropriate acknowledgement and redress." Formal discussions on the form of apology and redress began on March 24, 2006, with a preliminary meeting between Chinese Canadians representing various groups (including some head tax payers), heritage minister Bev Oda, and Parliamentary Secretary to the Prime Minister resulting in the "distinct possibility" of an apology being issued before July 1, 2006, to commemorate the anniversary of the enacting of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1923. The meeting was followed by the government's acknowledgement, in the Speech from the Throne delivered by Governor General Michaëlle Jean on April 4, 2006, that an apology would be given along with proper redress. That year, from April 21 to 30, the Crown-in-Council hosted public consultations across Canada, in cities most actively involved in the campaign: Halifax, Vancouver, Toronto, Edmonton, Montreal, and Winnipeg. They included the personal testimony of elders and representatives from a number of groups, among them the Halifax Redress Committee; the British Columbia Coalition of Head Tax Payers, Spouses and Descendants; ACCESS; the Ontario Coalition of Head Tax Payers and Families; the CCNC; and the Edmonton Redress Committee of the Chinese Canadian Historical Association of Alberta and Chinese Canadian Redress Alliance. Some considered that the major issues revolve around the content of any settlement, with the leading groups demanding meaningful redress, not only for the handful of surviving "head tax" payers and widows/spouses, but first-generation sons/daughters who were direct victims, as told in the documentary Lost Years: A People's Struggle for Justice. Some have proposed that the redress be based on the number of "Head Tax" Certificates (or estates) brought forward by surviving sons and daughters who are still able to register their claims, with proposals for indivi dual redress, ranging from $10,000 to $30,000 for an estimated 4,000 registrants. On June 22, 2006, in the House of Commons for the first session of the 39th Parliament, Prime Minister Stephen Harper delivered an official apology to Chinese Canadians. During his address Harper spoke a few words in Cantonese, "Ga Na Daai Doe Heep" (, 'Canada Apologizes'), breaking the Parliamentary tradition of speaking either English and French in the House of Commons. The apology and compensation was for the head tax once paid by Chinese immigrants. Survivors or their spouses were paid approximately CAD$20,000 in compensation. There were only an estimated 20 Chinese Canadians who paid the tax still alive in 2006. As no mention of redress for the children was made, the Chinese Canadian community continues to fight for a redress from the Canadian government. A national day of protest was held to coincide with Canada Day 2006 in major cities across Canada, and several hundred Chinese Canadians joined in local marches. Documentaries See also Chinese Canadian National Council New Zealand head tax White Australia Policy Anti-Chinese legislation in the United States Chinese Exclusion Act Chinese Immigration Act, 1923 Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 Lost Years: A People's Struggle for Justice Internment of Japanese Canadians References External links Search for names in Canadian government head tax records LOST YEARS: A People's Struggle for Justice - International Award-winning epic documentary, 2011 Transcript of Prime Minister Harper's apology in Parliament National Post-Chinese Cdns Speak of Anger, Anguish - April 23, 2006 Redress.ca HeadTaxRedress.org ChineseHeadTax.ca Anti-Chinese legislation Chinese Canadian Head Tax History of immigration to Canada Human rights abuses in Canada Political history of Canada Taxation in Canada Anti-Chinese sentiment in Canada Poll taxes zh:人頭稅

Northstar engine series

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The Northstar engine is a family of high-performance 90° V engines produced by General Motors between 1993 and 2011. Regarded as GM's most technically complex engine, the original double overhead cam, four valve per cylinder, aluminum block/aluminum head V8 design was developed by Oldsmobile R&D, but is most associated with Cadillac's Northstar series. Displacing in its basic form, the direct family line transitioned to longitudinal and supercharged versions. Variants were used at Oldsmobile (as the Aurora L47 V8 and "Shortstar" LX5 V6), as well as in several top-end 2000s Pontiacs and Buicks. The related Northstar System was Cadillac's trademarked name for a package of performance features introduced in mid-1992 that coupled the 4T80E transmission, a 100,000 mile service interval, road sensing suspension, variable power steering, and 4-wheel disc brakes to the Division's high-output and high-torque Northstar engines. GM ceased production of the Northstar in 2011. The final cars to receive it, the Cadillac DTS, Buick Lucerne, and Cadillac STS, rolled off the line in 2011. It was replaced by the GM LS small-block OHV engine, used in newer Cadillac V8 models like the CTS-V, marking a step back to a simpler, more reliable pushrod engine design. These LS V8 engines were the only V8 engines used by Cadillac for the next eight years, until the clean sheet Blackwing V8 was introduced in 2018 in the 2019 Cadillac CT6-V. A Cadillac-exclusive, it was discontinued after just two years in early 2020. Development and features GM initiated what ultimately became the Northstar's design at Oldsmobile R&D some time in 1984 in anticipation of the advanced dual overhead cam V8 engines to be introduced by European and Japanese competitors later in the decade. At that time, Cadillac was using the aluminum HT Overhead Valve (OHV) V8 which GM pushed hastily into production because the CAFE standards for 1982 would preempt using 1981's V8-6-4. At the time it was GM's corporate policy not to pass the gas guzzler tax on to the consumer. Cadillac was developing new models which they hoped would compete against the best luxury cars from BMW, Mercedes-Benz, and Asian rivals like Lexus, Acura, and Infiniti. GM developed a laundry list of items to be included in the Allanté and updated Eldorado and Seville STS, including sophisticated steering, braking, and suspension technologies, and an engine exclusive to "Cadillac" the Division's dealers were clamoring for. This group of features became known as the Northstar System. Central to it was a high-tech V8 with the performance and sophistication to compete with an ever-expanding list of imported challengers. Capable of producing out of its displacement, the Northstar featured a cast aluminum 90° V8 block with bore spacing split into unitary upper and lower halves. The lower crankcase assembly supported the crankshaft without conventional main bearing caps. An oil manifold plate with an integrated silicone gasket forms the oil gallery under this. A typical oil change used of oil. GM specified cast-iron cylinder liners and the cast aluminum pistons included valve clearance. Northstar is an interference engine: the valves will strike the pistons if they lose timing. It has bronze piston pin bushings and free-floating piston pins. GM used cast aluminum cylinder heads featuring 4 valves per cylinder. The heads used dual overhead cams driven through the "maintenance-free" cam-drive chain case. The cams act directly on hydraulic lifters on the ends of the valves and are fed with a lubrication passage drilled through the cylinder head lengthwise. The intake valves are inclined at 25°, while the exhaust valves are canted to 7° with center-mounted platinum-tipped spark plugs. The cam covers are magnesium for light weight and sound damping. Sequential fuel injection was delivered via eight thermoplastic tubes. Ignition was distributorless, with a waste spark setup. The powertrain control module (PCM) controlled spark and fuel injection timing as well as the shift points for the new four-speed, transverse GM 4T80 transmission. All engines of this family share the same Northstar bellhousing pattern. One notable feature advertised at the time was the "limp home" fail-safe mode, which allowed the engine to continue running for a limited time without any coolant. Supplying fuel to only one cylinder bank in turn, the engine would "air cool" the inactive bank. This technique, combined with its all-aluminum construction and large oil capacity, allows the engine to maintain safe temperatures, allowing a Northstar-equipped car to be driven with no coolant for about without damage. Another unusual feature of some heavily electronic-laden Northstar-equipped cars such as the Seville, DeVille, and Eldorado is a liquid-cooled alternator. Although this was intended to prolong alternator life, GM reverted to a traditional air-cooled setup for 2001 to eliminate potential leak points and extraneous tubing. Later developments included direct coil-on-plug ignition, roller lifters, and variable valve timing, which can vary intake by up to 40° and the exhaust by up to 50°. VVT was devised for the longitudinal LH2 version, and has not, to date, been used on the transverse front wheel drive engines due to packaging considerations. Northstar series The engine was introduced in mid-1992 in the 1993 Cadillac Allanté; in 1996 the Northstar became the standard engine on all Cadillacs except the Fleetwood, but is now phased out of all Cadillac models. The Northstar engine was used on all Northstar equipped Cadillacs while the Deville Concours, Eldorado ETC, Seville STS, and in 2000 the Deville DTS, were fitted with the version. The original Northstar Allanté also introduced the Northstar System which included traction control, adaptive suspension, and antilock brakes. Early Northstar required premium grade gasoline to run safely. The Northstar was sold exclusively by that name by Cadillac for over a decade before being introduced in the 2004-2005 Pontiac Bonneville and 2006 Buick Lucerne. However, the L47 V8 Northstar variant was used in the Oldsmobile Aurora and the 3.5L LX5 V6 in the Oldsmobile Intrigue. The LH2 engine variant received a forged steel crankshaft in October 2003. The LD8 and L37 variants received a forged crankshaft for the 2006 model year. Cadillac had planned to introduce a V12 Northstar this decade, likely for use in the Escalade, but economics and new CAFE standards killed the idea. Most Northstar engines produce , with power reaching as high as in the supercharged LC3. The engines were revised for 2000 with coil-on-plug ignition and roller follower valvegear for improved fuel economy and reduced emissions. Though power output did not change, this update made premium fuel merely recommended, rather than required. All but the supercharged Northstars displaced with a bore and stroke. For better head gasket sealing between cylinders, the supercharged version is de-bored to for a total displacement of . The block is believed to be capable of expansion up to 5.4 L, though no such engine has been produced. The Northstar was on the Ward's 10 Best Engines list for 1995, 1996, and 1997. Northstar System The Northstar System was Cadillac's trademarked name for a package of automobile performance features introduced in mid-1992 on the 1993 Cadillac Allanté and later on the 1993 Seville and Eldorado. The Northstar System included the following components: L37 high-output and LD8 high-torque and Variable valve timing (VVT), a continuously variable system throughout the rpm range, increasing fuel economy. GM engines use the double overhead cam, varying both intake and exhaust for better performance. GM 4T80-E 4-speed automatic transmission Road Sensing Suspension (RSS), which monitored damping rates of the shock absorbers every 15 milliseconds, selecting between two settings. RSS was available in both standard and CV-RSS (continuously-variable) systems. 4-wheel disc brakes with Bosch antilock brakes Magnasteer speed-variable power steering, which combines conventional hydraulic power steering and magnetized "doughnuts" mounted around the output shaft, which stiffen the steering as vehicle speed increases. Later versions of the Northstar engine included the 4.6L and LH2 which began in 2004, and supercharged 4.4L LC3 created for the STS-V which are detailed below. L37 The L37 (VIN "9") was the original Northstar. It is tuned for responsiveness and power, while the later LD8 is designed for more sedate use. The L37 code had been used on all high-output transverse Northstars, even as the exact engine specifications evolved. The compression ratio for the L37 is 10.3:1 for engines built prior to 2000, and 10.0:1 afterwards. The original L37 was specified at , but 1993 production examples were rated at . The engine topped out at from 1996 through 2004 on the STS, DTS and ETC models, making these some of the most powerful domestic front wheel drive cars ever built. For 2005 the high output Northstar became Northstar NHP, and was downrated to under the new SAE certified horsepower rating system. In 2006, the updated DTS "Performance Package" model got a slight bump to . Vehicles using the L37 include: LD8 The LD8 (VIN "Y") is a transverse V8 for front-wheel drive cars. Introduced in 1994, it is designed to provide more torque than the high-revving L37. The LD8 code had been used on all torque-tuned transverse Northstars, even as the exact engine specifications evolved. Compression ratio is 10.3:1 for engines built prior to model year 2000, and 10.0:1 for those built afterwards. The 1998 revision is quieter than previous Northstar engines, due to hydraulic engine mounts, and performs better due to a tuned intake system. Most LD8 Northstars are rated at and . LH2 (VIN "A") The Northstar was designed originally for transverse front-wheel drive applications. It was modified substantially in 2004 for longitudinal rear- and all-wheel drive use in the STS, SRX, and XLR, as well as receiving continuously variable valve timing on both intake and exhaust sides. The RWD (LH2) Northstar produces and . The addition of variable valve timing enables most of the increase in power from the L37 and LD8 Northstars. LC3 A supercharged Northstar was used in the 2006 Cadillac STS-V and Cadillac XLR-V. The bore was reduced for increased strength and improved head gasket sealing. Variable valve timing is used on both the intake and exhaust sides. The STS-V engine produces at 6400 rpm and at 3900 rpm with 9.0:1 compression and the XLR-V engine produces at 6400 rpm and at 3900 rpm. L47 The L47 Aurora engine was a special V8 designed for the Oldsmobile Aurora, based on the Northstar engine, used during the 1995-1999 and 2001-2003 model years. It is a DOHC V8 which produced and of torque. The bore and stroke was . The L47 had a 10.3:1 compression ratio and used premium fuel. Although most of the Northstar's features, including the coolant loss system, remained intact, the decreased bore increased weight unacceptably. To reduce it, Oldsmobile used a one-piece glass-filled thermoplastic intake manifold and simplified AC Rochester sequential fuel injection. A new die-cast structural aluminum oil pan incorporated baffling to reduce oil starvation in hard driving. A starter interlock prevented the starter from engaging if the quiet L47 was already running. An early version or prototype of this engine was used in the 2nd generation Oldsmobile Aerotech. A highly modified version of this engine was used by General Motors racing division initially for IMSA sports car competition in an Oldsmobile Aurora GTS-1 and Riley&Scott LMP prototypes in 1995, Indy Racing League competition starting in 1997, then was later used in the Cadillac Northstar LMP program in 2000. Both engines retained the 4.0 L displacement, but the Northstar LMP version was twin-turbocharged. The Aurora was also used in the Shelby Series 1 car. In the inaugural DTM season, Opel would debut their Astra with a V8 derived from the L47. The Aurora engine was introduced in 1994 for the 1995 model year, and General Motors has not used this engine since the retirement of Oldsmobile in 2004. LX5 (Shortstar) The LX5 is a DOHC V6 from Oldsmobile, introduced in 1999 with the Intrigue. It was produced by the Premium engine group at GM and was thus called the Premium V6, or PV6, while it was being developed. It is based on the L47 Aurora V8, which is itself based on the Northstar engine, so engineers called it the Short North, though Oldsmobile fans have taken to calling it the Shortstar. It is not a simple cut-down V8. Although it has a 90° V-angle like the Northstar, the engine block was engineered from scratch, so bore centers are different. It has chain-driven dual overhead cams and four valves per cylinder, but is an even-firing design with a split-pin crankshaft similar to the Buick 3800 engine. The LX5 displaced and produced at 5,600 rpm and at 4,400 rpm. Bore and stroke is . It was also one of GM's first engines to use coil-on-plug ignition. Compression ratio is 9.3:1. The cost of building this engine was high, and it was not used in many vehicles. It was said at the time that a family of premium V6s would follow, with displacements ranging from 3.3 L to 3.7 L, but only the LX5 was ever produced before GM discontinued the Shortstar in favor of their current flagship V6, the High Feature engine, in 2004. The LX5 was entirely different from any other V6 in the GM inventory - the only other DOHC V6 engines ever offered by GM included the Chevrolet Twin Dual Cam produced from 1991-1997, which was made by modifying the traditional Chevy 60-degree OHV block V6 for the dual overhead cams rather than building a DOHC engine from the ground up, and the Cadillac/Holden HFV6 available from 2004 to the present day. These three designs are completely unrelated and leave two gaps in 1998 and 2003 where no DOHC V6 was available from GM (except for the 54 degree Opel V6 used most notably in the first generation Cadillac CTS at launch as well as the Saturn L Series and Catera). This contrasts starkly with competitors practices of evolving engineering over multiple, continuously improving designs. As with the Aurora V8, production stopped with the demise of Oldsmobile. The 3.5L LX5 was on the Ward's 10 Best Engines list for 1999 and 2000. See also GM 60-degree DOHC V6 engine GM High Feature engine Cadillac V8 engine GM Ultra Engine List of GM engines Notes References External links Technical article from AutoSpeed Wiebe Patent #8,740,532, Cylinder Head Stud Kit for the Northstar engine Cadillac engines Automotive technology tradenames 1992 introductions V6 engines V8 engines Gasoline engines by model

Extreme points of Europe

eng_Latn

This is a list of the extreme points of Europe: the geographical points that are higher or farther north, south, east or west than any other location in Europe. Some of these positions are open to debate, as the definition of Europe is diverse. The most western town of continental Europe is Peniche with coordinates: 39°21′N 9°22′W Extremes of the European continent, including islands Northernmost point. Cape Fligely, Rudolf Island, Franz Josef Land, Russia (81° 48′ 24″ N). Franz Josef Land is near the ill-defined border between Europe and Asia; if it is not considered a part of Europe, then the northernmost point is on the island of Rossøya, Svalbard, Norway (81°N). Southernmost point. Cape Trypiti, Gavdos Island, Greece (34° 48′ 02″ N) is the least ambiguous southernmost point of Europe. However, there are other contenders, depending on definition. The island of Cyprus has cultural links with Europe and it is also part of European Union; Cyprus's southernmost point is the British base at Akrotiri (34°35′N). The Portuguese islands of Madeira are borderline between Europe and Africa; their southernmost point is the Savage Islands (30°8′43″N). La Restinga on the island of El Hierro (27°45′N) in the Spanish Canary Islands is yet further south and could be considered politically, though not physiographically as part of Europe. Westernmost point. Monchique Islet, Azores Islands, Portugal (31° 16′ 30″ W) (If considered part of Europe, though it sits on the North American Plate). If not, then the Capelinhos Volcano, Faial Island, Azores Islands, Portugal (28° 50′ 00″ W), the westernmost point of the Eurasian Plate above sea level. Easternmost point. Cape Flissingsky (69° 02′ E), Severny Island, Novaya Zemlya, Russia. Mainland Europe Northernmost point. Cape Nordkinn (Kinnarodden), Norway (71°08′02″N 27°39′00″E) Southernmost point. Punta de Tarifa, Spain (36° 00′ 15″ N) Westernmost point. Cabo da Roca, Portugal (9°29'56.44 W). Easternmost point. The easternmost point is dependent upon the various definitions of Europe's eastern border. Utilizing the most common definition of Europe's eastern edge (the watershed divide of the Ural Mountains), the easternmost point of the Ural watershed (and thus mainland Europe) lies on an unnamed 545 metre peak at as shown on various detailed maps such as the Soviet General Staff maps and as shown on Google Earth/Maps. This peak is 17 km northeast of an 875-metre peak named Gora Anoraga and 60 km southwest of Ostrov Lediyev (island) on Arctic waters south of the Kara Sea. Elevation Highest point. The highest point is dependent upon the definition of Europe: The Caucasus Mountains watershed divide is the most common definition for the European/Asian border. This places the highest point at Mount Elbrus, Russia (5,642 metres; 18,506 feet), which is 11 km onto the European side of the Caucasus watershed divide. If the Caucasus mountains are excluded, the highest point is Mont Blanc, on the border between France and Italy (4,810 metres; 15,781 feet). Lowest point (natural, with open sky). Caspian Sea shore, Russia (28 metres; 92 feet below sea level). Lowest point (natural, under water). Calypso Deep, Ionian Sea, Greece (5,267 metres; 17,280 feet below sea level). Lowest point (natural, underground). Dependent upon the definition of Europe: either Krubera Cave, Abkhazia, Georgia (2196 metres; 7205 feet below surface) (also the deepest cave in the world) or Lamprechtsofen, Austria (1,632 metres; 5,354 feet below surface). Lowest point (artificial, with open sky). Hambach surface mine (open-pit mine), Germany (293 metres; 961 feet below sea level). Also deepest of the world. Lowest point (artificial, underground). Kola Superdeep Borehole, Russia (12,262 metres; 40,230 feet below surface). Also the deepest artificial point on Earth. Highest attainable by transportation Cable car (and lift) – Klein Matterhorn, Switzerland (3,883 metres; 12,736 feet) Funicular – Mittelallalin, Switzerland (3,456 metres; 11,339 feet) Train (dead end) – Jungfraujoch, Switzerland (3,454 metres; 11,330 feet) Train (mountain pass) – Bernina Pass, Switzerland (2,253 metres; 7390 feet) Restricted access paved road (dead end) – Veleta (Sierra Nevada), Spain (3,300 metres; 10,827 feet) Paved road (dead end) – Ötztal Glacier Road, Austria (2,830 metres; 9,285 feet) Paved road (mountain pass) – Col de l'Iseran, France (2,770 metres; 9,090 feet) See also: List of highest paved roads in Europe and List of highest railways in Europe Lowest attainable by transportation Lowest public tunnel – Ryfast Tunnel, Norway ( below sea level) See also Extreme points of Africa-Eurasia Extreme points of Earth Extreme points of Eurasia Extreme points of the European Union Geographical midpoint of Europe Geography of Europe List of highest points of European countries The world's most northern city, capital, island etc. Notes References External links Franz-Joseph-Land, the northernmost islands picture of the westernmost point of Europe Geography of Europe Europe Europe

Stahlhelm

eng_Latn

The Stahlhelm () is a German military steel helmet intended to provide protection against shrapnel and fragments of grenades. The term Stahlhelm refers both to a generic steel helmet and more specifically to the distinctive German military design. The armies of major European powers introduced helmets of this type during World War I. The German Army began to replace the traditional boiled leather Pickelhaube () with the Stahlhelm in 1916. The Stahlhelm, with its distinctive "coal scuttle" shape, was instantly recognizable and became a common element of propaganda on both sides, just like the Pickelhaube before it. The name was also used by Der Stahlhelm, a German first World War ex-servicemen's organization existing from 1918 to 1935. After World War II, the German () continued to call their standard helmet Stahlhelm, but the design was based on the American M1 helmet. The Bundesgrenzschutz (), however, continued to use the original German design, until both troops switched to the new M92 Aramid helmet. Development At the beginning of World War I, none of the combatants were issued with any form of protection for the head other than cloth and leather caps, designed at most to protect against sabre cuts. When trench warfare began, the number of casualties on all sides suffering from severe head wounds (more often caused by shrapnel bullets or shell fragments than by gunfire) increased dramatically, since the head was typically the most exposed part of the body when in a trench. The French were the first to see a need for more protection—in late 1915 they began to issue Adrian helmets to their troops. The British and Commonwealth troops followed with the Brodie helmet (a development of which was also later worn by US forces) and the Germans with the Stahlhelm. As the German army behaved hesitantly in the development of an effective head protection, some units developed provisional helmets in 1915. Stationed in the rocky area of the Vosges the Army Detachment "Gaede" recorded significantly more head injuries caused by stone and shell splinters than did troops in other sectors of the front. The artillery workshop of the Army Detachment developed a helmet that consisted of a leather cap with a steel plate (6 mm thickness). The plate protected not only the forehead but also the eyes and nose. The helmet was quite deep relative to the thickness of the steel; one American company that tried to press similar thickness steel into the shape of the much shallower Brodie helmet was unable to do so. The helmet was bullet-resistant to pistol such as 9mm Luger and 45 ACP that would only dent the surface. History The design of the Stahlhelm was carried out by Dr Friedrich Schwerd of the Technical Institute of Hanover. In early 1915, Schwerd had carried out a study of head wounds suffered during trench warfare and submitted a recommendation for steel helmets, shortly after which he was ordered to Berlin. Schwerd then undertook the task of designing and producing a suitable helmet, broadly based on the 15th-century sallet, which provided good protection for the head and neck. After lengthy development work, which included testing a selection of German and Allied headgear, the first stahlhelm were tested in November 1915 at the Kummersdorf Proving Ground and then field-tested by the 1st Assault Battalion. Thirty thousand examples were ordered, but it was not approved for general issue until New Year of 1916, hence it is most usually referred to as the "Model 1916". In February 1916 it was distributed to troops at Verdun, following which the incidence of serious head injuries fell dramatically. The first German troops to use this helmet were the stormtroopers of the Sturm-Bataillon Nr. 5 (Rohr), which was commanded by captain Willy Rohr. In contrast to the Hadfield steel used in the British Brodie helmet, the Germans used a harder martensitic silicon/nickel steel. As a result, and also due to the helmet's form, the Stahlhelm had to be formed in heated dies at a greater unit cost than the British helmet, which could be formed in one piece. Like the British and French, German troops identified highly with their helmets, as it became a popular symbol of paramilitary groups after the First World War. Such was the attachment of the World War One generation to the design that it was reportedly the reason that Hitler rejected a modernised, sloping helmet design to replace it. Stahlhelm use in other countries Germany exported versions of the M1935 helmet to various countries. Versions of the M1935 Stahlhelm were sent to Republic of China from 1935 to 1936 and the M1935 was the main helmet of the Chinese Nationalist Army during World War II. Spain also received shipments of the helmet. During the inter-war years, several military missions were sent to South America under the command of Hans Kundt, after Chaco War the Bolivian army used to wear the helmet up until recently. The exported M1935 helmets were similar to the German issue, except for a different liner. Some countries manufactured their own helmets using the M1935 design, and this basic design was in use in various nations as late as the 1970s. The Germans allowed and assisted the Hungarians in copying their design of the M1935 steel helmet. Therefore, the WWII-produced M38 Hungarian steel helmet is nearly identical to the German M1935. Both have almost the same shape, riveted ventilation holes, and the classic rolled edge. Differences include somewhat rougher Hungarian finishing, a different liner and different rivets position – the split pins are situated behind the ventilation holes. A square metal bracket is riveted on the rear, above the back brim; used to secure the helmet to the knapsack while marching. It was typically painted in Hungarian brown-green, albeit blue-grey versions existed. It is sometimes called the "Finnish M35" due to its extensive use by the Finnish Army during the Continuation War 1941–44. After the end of World War I Poland seized large quantities of M1918 helmets. Most of those were later sold to various countries, including Spain. However, at the end of the 1930s, it was discovered that the standard Polish wz. 31 helmet was unsuitable for tank troops and motorized units; while offering decent protection, it was too large and heavy. As a stop-gap measure before a new helmet was developed, the General Staff decided to issue M1918 helmets to the 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade, which used them during the Polish Defensive War. During the time of the Warsaw Uprising the helmet was also worn by the members of the Polish Home Army and it was during this time that the helmet became the symbol of the resistance, as every Stahlhelm worn by a soldier of the underground army signified a dead German occupier it was taken from. In November 1926, the Irish Defence Forces decided upon adopting the German Stahlhelm. However, when the Irish government contacted the German Foreign Office with a request for a sample they were informed that Germany was barred from exporting steel helmets by the Treaty of Versailles. The Irish then turned to London based Vickers, ordering 5,000 copies of a model closely resembling the M1918 helmet. The helmet remained in use until it was replaced by the British Mark II model in 1940. Following the outbreak of World War II, the helmets became the subject of anti-Irish propaganda originating in Britain. A large number of the withdrawn helmets were reissued to various emergency services after being painted white. Switzerland used a helmet, designated the M1918, that was roughly similar to the M1916 but had a shallower, wider and more rounded crown and skirt. This was to protect against the harsh winter winds of the alpine regions. The Chilean Army was a prolific user of the Vulkanfiber models, bought before the Second World War, along with a few M1935 and Czechoslovak M32 helmets. After the war, local production of lightweight fiber and plastic models started, which are still in ceremonial & garrison use today. Small runs of steel helmets were made by FAMAE in the 80's, but ultimately were not adopted due to the ascendance of kevlar and synthetic ballistic fiber helmets by that time. A Stahlhelm with crossed bayonets and the corresponding number is the standard insignia of infantry regiments. The Argentine Army adopted a similar model, made of pressed fibre, during World War II, reflecting the traditional sympathy towards Germany found in many of the officers. For combat and provincial police use, imported Swiss M1918 Helmets were still in service as late as 1976. In the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, due to large quantities captured by World War II Partisans, the Stahlhelm was used in Yugoslav People's Army up to 1959, when it was phased out and replaced by the M59/85 steel helmet. Postwar After World War II, West Germany's Bundesgrenzschutz border guards and some West German police units kept the Stahlhelm in their inventories (police units can be seen wearing them during footage of the Black September hostage crisis in 1972), and the Fallschirmjäger variant was used for some time by the GSG 9. With the re-armament of West Germany the Bundeswehr introduced the United States Army M1 Helmet which was replaced by a Kevlar helmet (Gefechtshelm), similar to the modern US helmets, in the 1990s. German firefighter units today still use Stahlhelm-shaped helmets in a fluorescent colour. East Germany's National People's Army M-56 helmet was modelled on an unused 1942 German design with a more conical shape. The Chilean Army still uses the Stahlhelm design for ceremonial purposes, as well as the Bolivian Army. There are also some Japanese bicycle helmets (with accompanying goggles) that resemble the Stahlhelm. Many schools and universities in Mexico such as the Autonomous University of Baja California have military bands that use or resemble the M35 Stahlhelm. The U.S. Army's 1980s and 1990s era Kevlar Personnel Armor System for Ground Troops Helmet was sometimes called the "Fritz helmet" for its resemblance to the Stahlhelm. The U.S. Army and Marines have continued to use a design akin to the PASGT helmet with the MICH TC-2000 Combat Helmet and Lightweight Helmet, respectively. The Chinese People's Liberation Army soldiers still used M1935 helmets which were captured from the Chinese Nationalist Army during the Chinese Civil War until the 1970s. Since 2012, El Salvador's Policia Nacional Civil use a navy/indigo blue-coloured helmet that strongly resembles the Stahlhelm; this helmet is used by some members of the riot-control unit and rarely used by the Police's assault teams. Variants The different Stahlhelm designs are named for their year of introduction. For example, the Modell 1942 which was introduced in 1942 is commonly known as M1942 or simply M42. Here, they are referred to by their M19XX names. M1916 and M1917 The Stahlhelm was introduced into regular service during the Verdun campaign in early 1916. The M1916 design had side-mounted horn-like ventilator lugs which were intended to be support for an additional steel brow plate or Stirnpanzer, which only ever saw limited use by snipers and trench raiding parties, as it was too heavy for general use. The shell came in different sizes, from 60 to 68, with some size 70s reported. Helmet weight varied from 0.98 kg to 1.4 kg, depending on shell size. The suspension, or liner, consisted of a headband with three segmented leather pouches, each holding padding materials, and leather or fabric cords could be adjusted to provide a comfortable fit. The one-piece leather chin strap was attached to the shell by M1891 chinstrap lugs, the same kind used in the Pickelhaube helmet. The M1916 design provided excellent protection: Reserve Lieutenant Walter Schulze of 8th Company Reserve Infantry Regiment 76 described his combat introduction to the helmet on the Somme, 29 July 1916: ... suddenly, with a great clanging thud, I was hit on the forehead and knocked flying onto the floor of the trench... a shrapnel bullet had hit my helmet with great violence, without piercing it, but sufficiently hard to dent it. If I had, as had been usual up until a few days previously, been wearing a cap, then the Regiment would have had one more man killed. But the helmet was not without its flaws. The ventilator horns often let cold air in during the winter, requiring the wearer to block the vents with mud or fabric. The large, flared skirt tended to make it difficult for soldiers to hear, distorting surrounding sounds and creating an echo when the wearer spoke. Originally painted Feldgrau (field grey), the Stahlhelm was often camouflaged by troops in the field using mud, foliage, cloth covers, and paint. Official issue cloth covers in white and grey appeared in late 1916 and early 1917. Camouflage paint was not formally introduced until July 1918, when German Army Order II, No 91 366, signed by General Erich Ludendorff on 7 July 1918, outlined official standards for helmet camouflage. The order stipulated that helmets should be painted in several colours, separated by a finger-wide black line. The colours should be relevant to the season, such as using green, brown and ochre in summer. After the effectiveness of the M1916 design was validated during the 1916 campaigns, incremental improvements were subsequently made. The M1917 version saw improvements to the liner but was otherwise identical to the original design. M1918 Extensive redesigns were made for the M1918 model. A new two-piece chin strap was introduced and was attached directly to the helmet liner rather than the shell. Certain examples of the M1918 had cutouts in the rim along the sides of the helmet. It has incorrectly been said that these cutouts were to accommodate using headphones while wearing the helmet. These cutouts were actually done to improve hearing and to reduce echo created by the large, flared skirt. The M1918 Stahlhelm can be distinguished from the M1916, as the M1918 shell lacks the chinstrap rivet on the lower side of the helmet skirt found on earlier models. Austro-Hungarian variants Austria-Hungary purchased about 416,000 German helmets from November 1916 until the end of the war and also began its own licensed production starting in May 1917. Around a million Stahlhelm of all variants were issued until the end of the war. Austrian M17 The Austrian M17 helmet was similar to the German M16 but was coloured golden-brown (known as Isonzo-braun), had a cloth chinstrap and had the chinstrap rivet located higher up on the steel shell. From May 1917 till the end of World War I 534,013 were produced, many of which were manufactured at the Krupp in Berndorf, Lower Austria. Other production locations included: Adolf Westen factory Celje, present day Slovenia Brunn am Gebirge, present day Austria C. A. Scholtz Mateocz, present day Slovakia Bruder Lapp, Rottenman u. Warcholowsky Nădrag, present day Romania Reșița, present day Romania Gebruder Bohler & Co. in Kapfenberg, present day Austria. Hungarian M18 The Hungarian M18 variant was similar to the Austrian M17 design, but the chinstrap rivet was smaller in size and located even higher up than the Austrian version. It was coloured in golden-brown (known as Isonzo-braun). These were manufactured at the Krupp in Berndorf, Lower Austria. Berndorfer variant There was also a quite different, domestically developed Berndorfer variant. 139,968 were produced from May till November 1917 at the Krupp in Berndorf, Lower Austria Ottoman variant The formation in 1917 by the Ottoman Empire of stormtrooper battalions following the German model prompted the requirement for steel helmets, as these had not previously been adopted. Although German helmets were ordered, Ottoman officers believed that the design impeded the soldiers' ability to hear orders in the field and requested that the visor, ear and neck protectors be removed, which was done using grinding machines. Germany delivered 5,400 visorless versions of the M1918 helmet for the Ottoman Empire. The missing front visor was thought by the Germans to be for religious reasons, and it was claimed that it was to allow Turkish soldiers to touch their foreheads to the ground during prayer, without removing their helmets. However, this story has been disputed. The Turks rejected any more than the 5,400 delivered and an unknown number from the overrun were issued to German armed forces and were used by German Freikorps units after the war. M1933 In 1932 the Army High Command ordered the testing of a new prototype helmet intended to replace the older models. It was made entirely from a composite plastic material called "Vulkanfiber". The Model 1933 Vulkanfiber helmet kept the basic form of previous helmets but was much lighter. It was put into limited production following favourable field tests in early 1933 and small numbers were issued to Reichswehr infantry, artillery and communications units. It was removed from service following the introduction of the M1935 helmet and most of the remaining stock were reissued to civil organizations such as fire brigades and police forces. Some examples were also retained for parade use by senior officers, who were not generally issued with the Stahlhelm. M1935 In 1934 tests began on an improved Stahlhelm, whose design was a development of World War I models. The Eisenhüttenwerke company of Thale carried out prototype design and testing, with Dr Friedrich Schwerd once again taking a hand. The new helmet was pressed from sheets of molybdenum steel in several stages. The size of the flared visor and skirt was reduced, and the large projecting lugs for the obsolete armour shield were eliminated. The ventilator holes were retained but were set in smaller hollow rivets mounted to the helmet's shell. The edges of the shell were rolled over, creating a smooth edge along the helmet. Finally, a completely new leather suspension, or liner, was incorporated that greatly improved the helmet's safety, adjustability, and comfort for each wearer. These improvements made the new M1935 helmet lighter, more compact, and more comfortable to wear than the previous designs. The Army's Supreme Command within the Third Reich's Wehrmacht combined armed forces officially accepted the new helmet on June 25, 1935 and it was intended to replace all other helmets in service. More than 1 million M1935 helmets were manufactured in the first two years after its introduction, and millions more were produced until 1940 when the basic design and production methods were changed. Civil defence variant In 1938, the Germans developed a variant of the Stahlhelm with a wider, flared peak and ventilation holes originally intended for firefighters, civil defense, Reichsarbeitsdienst, and Luftschutz personnel. Known as the gladiator pattern, the privately purchased Luftschutz helmet was originally made from three pieces of steel and typically painted black or dark blue. Later in the war these were issued to Volkssturm personnel, and sometimes repainted in Feldgrun. By 1944, the helmets were stamped from a single steel sheet, and the original cloth lining replaced with vinyl to reduce costs. Due to the relatively small number produced, original helmets from the war years are considered rare. However, a modified postwar version in fluorescent green, white or yellow continued to be issued to rescue workers in the Bundesrepublik until the early 1990s. M1940 The M1935 design was slightly modified in 1940 to simplify its construction, the manufacturing process now incorporating more automated stamping methods. The principal change was to stamp the ventilator hole mounts directly onto the shell, rather than utilizing separate fittings. In other respects, the M1940 helmet was identical to the M1935. The Germans still referred to the M1940 as the M1935, while the M1940 designation were given by collectors. Fallschirmjäger version A variant of the M1935 helmet with a shell lacking the projecting visor and deep flared rim was issued to Fallschirmjäger (German paratrooper) units. It was so designed in order to lessen the risk of head injury on landing after a parachute jump; also to reduce the significant wind resistance and resulting neck trauma. Early Fallschirmjäger helmets were manufactured from existing M1935 helmets by removing the undesirable projections, which were omitted when the new design entered full production. The modified shell also incorporated a completely different and more substantial liner and chinstrap design that provided far more protection for German airborne troops. The chinstrap featured a four-point retention system that has come into use again by modern combat helmets such as the MICH since the late 1990s. M1942 The M1942 design was a result of wartime demands. From direct orders of the Führer, to ‘maintain intimidation but reduce cost’. The rolled edge on the shell was eliminated, creating an unfinished edge along the rim. This edge slightly flared out, along the base of the skirt, reducing the protection the helmet gave. The elimination of the rolled edge expedited the manufacturing process and reduced the amount of metal used in each helmet. Shell paint colours were typically matte grey-green (Heer) or grey-blue (Luftwaffe), and the decals were eliminated in 1943 to speed up production and reduce the helmet's combat visibility. Greater manufacturing flaws were also observed in M1942 helmets made late in the war. M1944 A simpler variant, designed in 1942 by the Institute for Defence Technical Materials Science in Berlin, was also stamped out of one piece of metal, but with sloped sides. It was similar in appearance to the British 1944 Type Mk III helmet. M1945 There have been reports of a variant manufactured in the last months of the war. The M1945 was reported to have been similar to the M1942 design but did away completely with the ventilator. These helmets are reported to be extremely rare. Many collectors and historians are of the opinion that the M1945 helmet is just a regular M1942 helmet that lacked the vents simply because of machine malfunctions in the factory, or unfinished M1942 that were completed in the post-war era. M1954 A variant of the M1944 with a modified suspension system developed further into the M1956. M1956 East German The East German M-56 helmet was originally designed in 1942 as a replacement for the M1935/M1940 model Stahlhelm. It was initially developed for the Wehrmacht by the Institute for Defense Technical Materials Science in Berlin (see M1944 above). The helmet had seen trials since 1943 but was not adopted during World War II. The design was not used until the requirement for a distinct German helmet for the Volkspolizei and the National People's Army arose. The East German leadership was motivated in large part by a desire to avoid provoking the offence that using a traditional Stahlhelm design would have caused East Germany's Warsaw Pact allies (especially Czechoslovakia, Poland and the Soviet Union), but a more practical military necessity was also present due to the continued use of surplus Stahlhelmen by West German units, in particular border guards. Moreover, the East Germans suspected the West could re-issue the Stahlhelm on a general basis in the Bundeswehr at any time and therefore needed a helmet that was easily distinguishable from that of their potential enemy. For both reasons, the 1942 design was likely chosen because it was the most similar of all German designs to the most recognizable Soviet helmets, in particular the iconic SSh-40 design. Such a design not only served a political purpose but was one that NATO armies were unlikely to closely duplicate. Indeed, the M-56 was similar enough in appearance to the SSh-40 that some Westerners failed to realize its German origins altogether and assumed the East Germans had adopted a Soviet design. The M-56 helmet came in three basic versions, Mod 1 or I/56, Mod 2 or I/57 and Mod 3 or I/71, and was widely sold (or given) to Third World armies. West German The West German M-56 Stahlhelm was a direct copy of the U.S. M1 helmet. It was properly called "zweiteiliger Stahlhelm" (two-piece steel helmet). In 1958 the helmet was made as a one-piece helmet and renamed Stahlhelm M1A1. The M1A1 came in three sizes: 66, 68, and 71. This helmet was used until 1981 when a modified version was released and renamed the Helm1A1. Modifications included a 3-point chin strap with the third point connecting at the nape, extra-large sizes, and a further adjustable liner. The M1A1 Stahlhelm remained in service until 1992 when the Bundeswehr replaced it with a PASGT-derived kevlar helmet called the Gefechtshelm ("Combat helmet"). Decals and insignia After Stahlhelm shells were painted, the colours of which varied by organization, small identification or insignia decals usually were affixed to one or both sides of the helmet. Almost every military, naval, and political organization had its own distinctive insignia, which was applied as decals to the sides of helmets. The right side of early M35 helmets bore the tricolored shield of black, white, and red stripes, the traditional national colors of the pre-WWI German Empire (cf. the black, red, and gold of today's Federal Republic of Germany, harking back to the 1848 Revolt). The left side of the shell often received decal insignia denoting the branch of the armed forces, or Wehrmacht, or an organization within the Nazi Party. The combined Wehrmacht military forces of Nazi Germany consisted of the Heer (army), the Kriegsmarine (navy), and the Luftwaffe (air force). While not technically part of the Wehrmacht, the Waffen-SS ("Armed-SS") tactically operated as such and was considered part of Germany's armed forces during the war. The same was true of some Sturmabteilung (SA) units, along with other subsidiary organizations, which functioned as part of the armed forces particularly towards the end of the war. Wehrmacht branches typically displayed distinctive emblems in the form of decals on their helmets. The Heer, or army, displayed a black shield bearing the frontal view of a silver-coloured German eagle holding a swastika in its talons (known as the Reichsadler), while the navy used the same eagle emblem in gold. Luftwaffe decals displayed the side view of an eagle in flight, also holding a swastika. The SS was both a paramilitary and a political organization, and its black runic initials on a silver-coloured shield (normally applied to the right side of the shell) looked like twin lightning bolts. Other military, political, and civil or defence organizations used similar decal insignia to distinguish their helmets. Such visible identification devices were gradually abandoned as the war progressed, however, so that by war's end most Wehrmacht helmet insignia had been eliminated to reduce the wearer's visibility in combat. For the Chinese Nationalist Army soldiers, their M35 helmets were stencilled with the Chinese Nationalist Insignia on the left side. Bolivian Army personnel carry the national flag decal on their Stahlhelms when in the full dress. Fiction The German army Stahlhelm, as well as the Japanese Kabuto, served as a template for the fictional character's Darth Vader outfit in the Star Wars franchise. Members of the Wolf Brigade, a fictional Japanese unit in the anime Jin-Roh: The Wolf Brigade are equipped with Stahlhelme, as well as Wehrmacht weapons of the Second World War, including StG 44s and MG 42s. Users (M1918) (M35~M42) (M56) (for Bundesgrenzschutz use, copies of M35) in 1926-1940 (M16-18) (Försökshjälm Modell B. A variant to the M1926) (limited use by ELAS) A hardboard local made helmet called M38 was used between 1938 and 1956. (limited use of M1916, replaced by M26 Adrian Helmets in 1938) (M1916, M1918) (M1918) – interwar Polish state issued WW1 stahlhelms to Border Protection Corps, 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade, and state police units. During the World War II helmets captured from the German occupying force were used by Polish underground formations. Russian White movement - supplied by Germany to West Russian Volunteer Army troops in the Russian Civil War. (used by National Guard in 60s and spotted in Battle of Ben Guerdane picture of tunisian national guard officer wearing Stahlhelm ) (The M56 East German helmet was supplied to People's Army of Vietnam and Viet Cong troops in the Vietnam War, picture of a PAVN rally or paradepicture of a U.S P.O.W being guarded by a PAVN troop with an M56 Helmet PAVN drivers with a M56 helmets, they were commonly used by drivers. See also Pickelhaube Sallet Der Stahlhelm Wehrmacht uniforms Brodie helmet Adrian helmet Notes References Special exhibition at Bayerisches Armeemuseum, Ingolstadt. External links 1916 establishments in Germany 20th-century fashion Combat helmets of Germany Combat helmets of Poland German words and phrases German military uniforms Products introduced in 1916 World War I military equipment of Austria-Hungary World War I military equipment of Germany World War II military equipment of China World War II military equipment of Germany

Vibe (comics)

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Vibe (real name Paco Ramone or Francisco "Cisco" Ramon) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Carlos Valdes portrayed Cisco Ramon in The CW's Arrowverse, especially The Flash, in which he was one of the Flash's teammates. Publication history Vibe's first appearance was in Justice League of America Annual #2 (October 1984), and he was created by Gerry Conway and Chuck Patton. Fictional character biography Cisco Ramon began his career as Vibe shortly after Aquaman disbanded the original Justice League. When young Cisco heard that a new Justice League was forming in his own hometown Detroit, he decided to give up his position as the leader of a local street gang, Los Lobos, to join. What made Cisco a candidate was his metahuman ability to emit powerful vibratory shock waves. Vibe's presence on the team caused Aquaman and the Martian Manhunter to harbor some strong doubts about the new JLA, particularly after he got the League involved in a rumble with a rival gang. Vibe soon proved his mettle during the League's battles against Cadre, Anton Allegro and Amazo. He stayed with the League through the Crisis on Infinite Earths crossover, when his powers played a vital role in defeating Despero. During Darkseid's assault on Earth during the Legends mini-series, the Justice League of America was disbanded and Cisco left his JLA comrades to seek the familiar solace of the streets. Vibe was attacked by one of Professor Ivo's androids, and became the first Justice League member to be killed in the line of duty. The Martian Manhunter brought Vibe's body back to the League's mountain sanctuary, where Vibe was laid to rest in a cryogenic chamber. Cisco's dead form has twice been resurrected by evil-doers. One of Vibe's brothers, Armando Ramon, developed a similar set of vibratory powers. In the Trinity maxi-series, reality is altered, and a living Cisco is shown as a member of The League, an underground version of the Justice League. Soon after Superman, Batman and Wonder Woman return, his head is disintegrated by an energy blast, killing him again. In a Justice League of America tie-in to the "Blackest Night" storyline, Vibe was reanimated as a member of the Black Lantern Corps, rising from his coffin in the Hall of Justice. Alongside the Black Lantern Steel, Vibe attacked his former teammates, Gypsy and Vixen, until Doctor Light destroyed him. The New 52 In DC's Free Comic Book Day 2012 sample during The New 52, a gatefold revealed various characters who would make an appearance in Justice League over the coming year, one of which was Vibe. Geoff Johns revealed that Vibe's return would be explored in greater detail in the third story arc of Justice League. On August 26, 2012, DC announced a new Justice League of America title which would feature Vibe. On November 5, 2012, DC announced that Vibe would star in his own ongoing monthly title. It was written by Andrew Kreisberg and drawn by Pete Woods and debuted in February 2013. In new continuity, Vibe's powers derive from being "caught in the event horizon of a Boom Tube", in which "interdimensional forces rewrote his DNA". Justice League of America's Vibe lasted for ten issues, with the final issue released on December 18, 2013. Powers and abilities As his name suggests, Vibe's powers revolve around vibration, frequency, and resonance. His powers enabled him to create shock waves of considerable strength that could shatter concrete or steel as well as affect the physical world as seismic vibrations (and even earth manipulation) or the fabric of spacetime (interdimensional, transdimensional and extradimensional portals). Vibe's reintroduction in 2013 redefined his powers as having to do with interdimensional physics. Vibe's waves have the power to disrupt the Speed Force, making him one of the few characters who poses a serious threat to the Flash. For this reason, Steve Trevor recruits him into the JLA, which exists to guard against the threat of the main Justice League going rogue. Amanda Waller says that "Cisco Ramon might be one of the most powerful super-humans on the planet. He wields vibrational powers that could in theory shake the Earth apart. And he's the only person we know of who can find and track inter-dimensional breaches." He is also undetectable by security cameras. In addition, his agility is above average (and he was a super breakdancer). Under Batman's secret tutelage, Vibe became a more skilled combatant. In the 2014 series The Flash, Vibe's powers first manifested as precognitive/retrocognitive visions brought-on by touch or by a strong-enough imprint. In time, he developed his powers to the point where he can produce focused waves of concussive, vibrational force and interdimensional breaches. In other media Television Animation Vibe made several non-voiced appearances in Justice League Unlimited. This version was often seen next to the Detroit League's other members (but did not get a major role in any episode). His most prominent action is in the episode "Flashpoint" helping rescue New Mexico's civilians in the aftermath of the Cadmus facility's destruction. He is also shown with fellow Detroit-era members Vixen, Steel and Gypsy in the final 'curtain call' of the series finale "Destroyer". Vibe made an appearance in his 2-part DC Nation Shorts cartoon short Enter Extremo, voiced by Carlos Alazraqui. In an episode of Teen Titans Go! entitled "My Name is Jose", Raven casts a spell giving Robin Vibe's powers. Vibe also appears as a judge in the episode "Justice League's Next Top Talent Idol Star: Dance Crew Edition". Cisco Ramon appeared in Young Justice: Outsiders, voiced by Jacob Vargas. Vibe made a non-speaking cameo appearance in Harley Quinns season 2 finale "The Runaway Bridesmaid", where he received a key to the city from the mayor of Gotham for his role in saving the city alongside the Justice League. Arrowverse Carlos Valdes portrays Cisco Ramon/Vibe in The CW's Arrowverse, being part of the main cast of The Flash. This version of the character is a mechanical engineering genius at S.T.A.R. Labs within Central City with known metahuman powers to detect anomalies within reality and sonic manipulation. He is a part of Team Flash, who support Barry Allen/The Flash saving lives and fighting crime. A talented engineer and creative mind, Cisco builds much of the Flash's equipment and is fond of assigning colorful nicknames to criminal metahumans. In season one, he becomes good friends with Barry. Although Cisco initially appears unaffected by S.T.A.R. Labs' particle accelerator blast which was behind the Flash's and many others' powers, he begins having visions of people from other timelines and is eventually revealed to be a metahuman. Cisco's abilities later helps Team Flash discover Harrison Wells is actually the future speedster Eobard Thawne/Reverse-Flash. Cisco is also shown to have a rocky relationship with his brother Dante Ramon. In season two, Cisco embraces his metahuman status and takes the "Vibe" nickname. After witnessing the abilities of his evil Earth-2 doppelgänger Reverb, Cisco starts developing his powers to a greater degree; learning to open dimensional portals and emit powerful destructive blasts. In season three, Cisco's relationship with Barry is temporarily strained after finding out that Barry's timeline changes lead to Dante's death. But after he changes history himself during an alien invasion, he understands why Barry did what he did and reconciles with him. He also grows more confident in using his powers offensively, to trigger visions, and to open up portals across Central City and to other worlds. In the season five finale, Cisco chooses to get rid of his powers by taking the metahuman cure he had developed earlier in the season so he can live a normal life. However, the Monitor gives Cisco his powers back in the "Crisis on Infinite Earths" crossover event so he can help avert Crisis. His character has also made appearances on other Arrowverse shows (Arrow, Legends of Tomorrow, and Supergirl). Film The character's Earth-3 counterpart Breakdance is shown in Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths, voiced by Carlos Alazraqui. He is a member of the Crime Syndicate of America and first appears as part of Owlman's clean-up crew. Breakdance is shown with the Detroit-era Justice League's evil counterparts. Video games Vibe appears as playable character in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Dee Bradley Baker. Vibe from The Flash appears as a playable character in the DC TV Super-Heroes DLC pack in Lego DC Super-Villains. Web series Cisco Ramon appears in the animated web series Vixen, voiced by Carlos Valdes. In episode 3, Cisco has been running a modified facial recognition algorithm created by Felicity Smoak at S.T.A.R. Labs in an attempt to locate Meta-humans outside Central City. The software picks up Mari McCabe's encounter with the thugs from episode 1, and Cisco alerts the distracted Barry Allen attempting to locate a missing USB drive containing crime scene statistics. Cisco gives the Vixen name to Mari, and tells Barry that Vixen's currently in Detroit before asking to check out the situation. Cisco Ramon is the main character in Chronicles of Cisco, reprised by Carlos Valdes, which details Cisco Ramon being alone at S.T.A.R. Labs at night, where he encounters the intruder Peek-a-Boo. Vibe is one of the background students in DC Super Hero Girls. Cisco Ramon and his Earth-X doppelgänger appear in the animated web series Freedom Fighters: The Ray, both voiced by Carlos Valdes. References External links DCU Guide: Vibe (Cisco Ramone) DCU Guide: Hardline (Armando Ramone), Characters created by Chuck Patton Characters created by Gerry Conway Comics characters introduced in 1984 DC Comics male superheroes DC Comics metahumans DC Comics orphans Fictional characters from Detroit Fictional characters who can manipulate sound Fictional characters with dimensional travel abilities Fictional dancers Fictional Hispanic and Latino American people Latin American superheroes Fictional hackers

List of extreme points of Australia

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This is a list of the extreme points of Australia (the country, not the continent). The list includes extremes of cardinal direction, elevation, and other points of peculiar geographic interest. The location of some points depend on whether islands and the Australian Antarctic Territory (which is not universally recognised) are included. Northernmost point Bramble Cay, Torres Strait Islands, Queensland (9°8'23" S) Continental Australia: Cape York, Cape York Peninsula, Queensland (10°41' S) Southernmost point Bishop and Clerk Islets, Tasmania (55°03′ S) Tasmania main island: South East Cape, (43°38′ S) Continental Australia: South Point, Wilsons Promontory, Victoria (39°08' S) Easternmost point Steels Point, Norfolk Island (167°57' E) Excluding external territories: Ball's Pyramid, New South Wales (159°15' E) Continental Australia: Cape Byron, New South Wales (153°38' E) Westernmost point Meyer Rock, McDonald Islands (72°34' E) Excluding external territories: Dirk Hartog Island, Western Australia (112°56' E) Continental Australia: Steep Point, Western Australia (113°09' E) Highest point Mawson Peak, Heard Island () Continental Australia: Mount Kosciuszko, New South Wales () Furthest Point from the centre of the earth: Thornton Peak. Queensland (6,377.866 kilometres) Tallest Mountain, as measured from ocean floor: Mount Hamilton, Macquarie Island (5,000 + metres) Including Australian Antarctic Territory: Dome A (4,093 metres) Including Australian Antarctic Territory on rocky terrain: Mount McClintock, () Lowest natural point Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre, South Australia () Including Australian Antarctic Territory: Deep Lake, Vestfold Hills, () Other points Planimetric centre of gravity for continental Australia – Lambert Gravitational Centre, Northern Territory () Furthest point from the coastline – Between Papunya and Lake Lewis, Northern Territory () Northwestern point of continental Australia - North West Cape, Western Australia Southwestern point of continental Australia - Cape Leeuwin, Western Australia Northeastern point of continental Australia - Cape York, Queensland Southeastern point - Cape Howe, New South Wales/Victoria See also Centre points of Australia Extreme points of Earth Extreme points of Oceania Pole of inaccessibility § Australia References Headlands of Australia Extreme points of Australia Australia

Unified Extensible Firmware Interface

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The Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) is a publicly available specification that defines a software interface between an operating system and platform firmware. UEFI replaces the legacy Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) firmware interface originally present in all IBM PC-compatible personal computers, with most UEFI firmware implementations providing support for legacy BIOS services. UEFI can support remote diagnostics and repair of computers, even with no operating system installed. Intel developed the original Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) specifications. Some of the EFI's practices and data formats mirror those of Microsoft Windows. In 2005, UEFI deprecated EFI 1.10 (the final release of EFI). The Unified EFI Forum is the industry body that manages the UEFI specifications throughout. History The original motivation for EFI came during early development of the first Intel–HP Itanium systems in the mid-1990s. BIOS limitations (such as 16-bit real mode, 1MB addressable memory space, assembly language programming, and PC AT hardware) had become too restrictive for the larger server platforms Itanium was targeting. The effort to address these concerns began in 1998 and was initially called Intel Boot Initiative. It was later renamed to Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI). In July 2005, Intel ceased its development of the EFI specification at version 1.10, and contributed it to the Unified EFI Forum, which has developed the specification as the Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI). The original EFI specification remains owned by Intel, which exclusively provides licenses for EFI-based products, but the UEFI specification is owned by the UEFI Forum. Version 2.0 of the UEFI specification was released on 31 January 2006. It added cryptography and security. Version 2.1 of the UEFI specification was released on 7 January 2007. It added network authentication and the user interface architecture ('Human Interface Infrastructure' in UEFI). The latest UEFI specification, version 2.9, was published in March 2021. The first open source UEFI implementation, Tiano, was released by Intel in 2004. Tiano has since then been superseded by EDK and EDK2 and is now maintained by the TianoCore community. In December 2018, Microsoft announced Project Mu, a fork of TianoCore EDK2 used in Microsoft Surface and Hyper-V products. The project promotes the idea of Firmware as a Service. In October 2018, Arm announced Arm ServerReady, a compliance certification program for landing the generic off-the-shelf operating systems and hypervisors on Arm-based servers. The program requires the system firmware to comply with Server Base Boot Requirements (SBBR). SBBR requires UEFI, ACPI and SMBIOS compliance. In October 2020, Arm announced the extension of the program to the edge and IoT market. The new program name is Arm SystemReady. Arm SystemReady defined the Base Boot Requirements (BBR) specification that currently provides three recipes, two of which are related to UEFI: 1) SBBR: which requires UEFI, ACPI and SMBIOS compliance suitable for the enterprise level operating environment such as Windows, Red Hat Enterprise Linux, VMware ESXi; and 2) EBBR: which requires compliance to a set of UEFI interfaces as defined in the Embedded Base Boot Requirements (EBBR) suitable for the embedded environment such as Yocto. Many Linux and BSD distros can support both recipes. Advantages The interface defined by the EFI specification includes data tables that contain platform information, and boot and runtime services that are available to the OS loader and OS. UEFI firmware provides several technical advantages over a traditional BIOS system: Ability to boot a disk containing large partitions (over 2 TB) with a GUID Partition Table (GPT) Flexible pre-OS environment, including network capability, GUI, multi language 32-bit (for example IA-32, ARM32) or 64-bit (for example x64, AArch64) pre-OS environment C language programming Modular design Backward and forward compatibility Compatibility Processor compatibility As of version 2.5, processor bindings exist for Itanium, x86, x86-64, ARM (AArch32) and ARM64 (AArch64). Only little-endian processors can be supported. Unofficial UEFI support is under development for POWERPC64 by implementing TianoCore on top of OPAL, the OpenPOWER abstraction layer, running in little-endian mode. Similar projects exist for MIPS and RISC-V. As of UEFI 2.7, RISC-V processor bindings have been officially established for 32-, 64- and 128-bit modes. Standard PC BIOS is limited to a 16-bit processor mode and 1 MB of addressable memory space, resulting from the design based on the IBM 5150 that used a 16-bit Intel 8088 processor. In comparison, the processor mode in a UEFI environment can be either 32-bit (x86-32, AArch32) or 64-bit (x86-64, Itanium, and AArch64). 64-bit UEFI firmware implementations support long mode, which allows applications in the preboot environment to use 64-bit addressing to get direct access to all of the machine's memory. UEFI requires the firmware and operating system loader (or kernel) to be size-matched; that is, a 64-bit UEFI firmware implementation can load only a 64-bit operating system (OS) boot loader or kernel (unless the CSM-based Legacy boot is used) and the same applies to 32-bit. After the system transitions from "Boot Services" to "Runtime Services", the operating system kernel takes over. At this point, the kernel can change processor modes if it desires, but this bars usage of the runtime services (unless the kernel switches back again). As of version 3.15, the Linux kernel supports 64-bit kernels to be booted on 32-bit UEFI firmware implementations running on x86-64 CPUs, with UEFI handover support from a UEFI boot loader as the requirement. UEFI handover protocol deduplicates the UEFI initialization code between the kernel and UEFI boot loaders, leaving the initialization to be performed only by the Linux kernel's UEFI boot stub. Disk device compatibility In addition to the standard PC disk partition scheme that uses a master boot record (MBR), UEFI also works with the GUID Partition Table (GPT) partitioning scheme, which is free from many of the limitations of MBR. In particular, the MBR limits on the number and size of disk partitions (up to four primary partitions per disk, and up to 2 TB per disk) are relaxed. More specifically, GPT allows for a maximum disk and partition size of 8 ZB . Linux Support for GPT in Linux is enabled by turning on the option CONFIG_EFI_PARTITION (EFI GUID Partition Support) during kernel configuration. This option allows Linux to recognize and use GPT disks after the system firmware passes control over the system to Linux. For reverse compatibility, Linux can use GPT disks in BIOS-based systems for both data storage and booting, as both GRUB 2 and Linux are GPT-aware. Such a setup is usually referred to as BIOS-GPT. As GPT incorporates the protective MBR, a BIOS-based computer can boot from a GPT disk using a GPT-aware boot loader stored in the protective MBR's bootstrap code area. In the case of GRUB, such a configuration requires a BIOS boot partition for GRUB to embed its second-stage code due to absence of the post-MBR gap in GPT partitioned disks (which is taken over by the GPT's Primary Header and Primary Partition Table). Commonly 1 MB in size, this partition's Globally Unique Identifier (GUID) in GPT scheme is and is used by GRUB only in BIOS-GPT setups. From GRUB's perspective, no such partition type exists in case of MBR partitioning. This partition is not required if the system is UEFI-based because no embedding of the second-stage code is needed in that case. UEFI systems can access GPT disks and boot directly from them, which allows Linux to use UEFI boot methods. Booting Linux from GPT disks on UEFI systems involves creation of an EFI system partition (ESP), which contains UEFI applications such as bootloaders, operating system kernels, and utility software. Such a setup is usually referred to as UEFI-GPT, while ESP is recommended to be at least 512 MB in size and formatted with a FAT32 filesystem for maximum compatibility. For backward compatibility, most UEFI implementations also support booting from MBR-partitioned disks, through the Compatibility Support Module (CSM) that provides legacy BIOS compatibility. In that case, booting Linux on UEFI systems is the same as on legacy BIOS-based systems. Microsoft Windows The 64-bit versions of Windows Vista SP1 and later and 32-bit versions of Windows 8, 8.1, and 10 can boot from a GPT disk which is larger than 2 TB. Features Services EFI defines two types of services: boot services and runtime services. Boot services are available only while the firmware owns the platform (i.e., before the ExitBootServices() call), and they include text and graphical consoles on various devices, and bus, block and file services. Runtime services are still accessible while the operating system is running; they include services such as date, time and NVRAM access. Graphics Output Protocol (GOP) services The Graphics Output Protocol (GOP) provides runtime services; see also Graphics features section below. The operating system is permitted to directly write to the framebuffer provided by GOP during runtime mode. UEFI Memory map services SMM services ACPI services SMBIOS services Device tree services (for RISC processors) Variable services UEFI variables provide a way to store data, in particular non-volatile data. Some UEFI variables are shared between platform firmware and operating systems. Variable namespaces are identified by GUIDs, and variables are key/value pairs. For example, UEFI variables can be used to keep crash messages in NVRAM after a crash for the operating system to retrieve after a reboot. Time services UEFI provides time services. Time services include support for time zone and daylight saving fields, which allow the hardware real-time clock to be set to local time or UTC. On machines using a PC-AT real-time clock, by default the hardware clock still has to be set to local time for compatibility with BIOS-based Windows, unless using recent versions and an entry in the Windows registry is set to indicate the use of UTC. Applications Beyond loading an OS, UEFI can run UEFI applications, which reside as files on the EFI System Partition. They can be executed from the UEFI Shell, by the firmware's boot manager, or by other UEFI applications. UEFI applications can be developed and installed independently of the original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). A type of UEFI application is an OS boot loader such as GRUB, rEFInd, Gummiboot, and Windows Boot Manager; which loads some OS files into memory and executes them. Also, an OS boot loader can provide a user interface to allow the selection of another UEFI application to run. Utilities like the UEFI Shell are also UEFI applications. Protocols EFI defines protocols as a set of software interfaces used for communication between two binary modules. All EFI drivers must provide services to others via protocols. The EFI Protocols are similar to the BIOS interrupt calls. Device drivers In addition to standard instruction set architecture-specific device drivers, EFI provides for a ISA-independent device driver stored in non-volatile memory as EFI byte code or EBC. System firmware has an interpreter for EBC images. In that sense, EBC is analogous to Open Firmware, the ISA-independent firmware used in PowerPC-based Apple Macintosh and Sun Microsystems SPARC computers, among others. Some architecture-specific (non-EFI Byte Code) EFI drivers for some device types can have interfaces for use by the OS. This allows the OS to rely on EFI for drivers to perform basic graphics and network functions before, and if, operating-system-specific drivers are loaded. In other cases, the EFI driver can be filesystem drivers that allow for booting from other types of disk volumes. Examples include efifs for 37 file systems (based on GRUB2 code), used by Rufus for chain-loading NTFS ESPs. Graphics features The EFI 1.0 specification defined a UGA (Universal Graphic Adapter) protocol as a way to support graphics features. UEFI did not include UGA and replaced it with GOP (Graphics Output Protocol). UEFI 2.1 defined a "Human Interface Infrastructure" (HII) to manage user input, localized strings, fonts, and forms (in the HTML sense). These enable original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) or independent BIOS vendors (IBVs) to design graphical interfaces for pre-boot configuration. Most early UEFI firmware implementations were console-based. Today many UEFI firmware implementations are GUI-based. EFI system partition An EFI system partition, often abbreviated to ESP, is a data storage device partition that is used in computers adhering to the UEFI specification. Accessed by the UEFI firmware when a computer is powered up, it stores UEFI applications and the files these applications need to run, including operating system boot loaders. Supported partition table schemes include MBR and GPT, as well as El Torito volumes on optical discs. For use on ESPs, UEFI defines a specific version of the FAT file system, which is maintained as part of the UEFI specification and independently from the original FAT specification, encompassing the FAT32, FAT16 and FAT12 file systems. The ESP also provides space for a boot sector as part of the backward BIOS compatibility. Booting UEFI booting Unlike the legacy PC BIOS, UEFI does not rely on boot sectors, defining instead a boot manager as part of the UEFI specification. When a computer is powered on, the boot manager checks the boot configuration and based on its settings, then executes the specified OS boot loader or operating system kernel (usually boot loader). The boot configuration is defined by variables stored in NVRAM, including variables that indicate the file system paths to OS loaders or OS kernels. OS boot loaders can be automatically detected by UEFI, which enables easy booting from removable devices such as USB flash drives. This automated detection relies on standardized file paths to the OS boot loader, with the path varying depending on the computer architecture. The format of the file path is defined as ; for example, the file path to the OS loader on an x86-64 system is , and on ARM64 architecture. Booting UEFI systems from GPT-partitioned disks is commonly called UEFI-GPT booting. Despite the fact that the UEFI specification requires MBR partition tables to be fully supported, some UEFI firmware implementations immediately switch to the BIOS-based CSM booting depending on the type of boot disk's partition table, effectively preventing UEFI booting to be performed from EFI System Partition on MBR-partitioned disks. Such a boot scheme is commonly called UEFI-MBR. It is also common for a boot manager to have a textual user interface so the user can select the desired OS (or setup utility) from a list of available boot options. CSM booting To ensure backward compatibility, UEFI firmware implementations on PC-class machines could support booting in legacy BIOS mode from MBR-partitioned disks through the Compatibility Support Module (CSM) that provides legacy BIOS compatibility. In this scenario, booting is performed in the same way as on legacy BIOS-based systems, by ignoring the partition table and relying on the content of a boot sector. BIOS-style booting from MBR-partitioned disks is commonly called BIOS-MBR, regardless of it being performed on UEFI or legacy BIOS-based systems. Furthermore, booting legacy BIOS-based systems from GPT disks is also possible, and such a boot scheme is commonly called BIOS-GPT. The Compatibility Support Module allows legacy operating systems and some legacy option ROMs that do not support UEFI to still be used. It also provides required legacy System Management Mode (SMM) functionality, called CompatibilitySmm, as an addition to features provided by the UEFI SMM. An example of such a legacy SMM functionality is providing USB legacy support for keyboard and mouse, by emulating their classic PS/2 counterparts. In November 2017, Intel announced that it planned to phase out support for CSM by 2020. Network booting The UEFI specification includes support for booting over network via the Preboot eXecution Environment (PXE). PXE booting network protocols include Internet Protocol (IPv4 and IPv6), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) and iSCSI. OS images can be remotely stored on storage area networks (SANs), with Internet Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI) and Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE) as supported protocols for accessing the SANs. Version 2.5 of the UEFI specification adds support for accessing boot images over the HTTP protocol. Secure Boot The UEFI 2.3.1 Errata C specification (or higher) defines a protocol known as Secure Boot, which can secure the boot process by preventing the loading of UEFI drivers or OS boot loaders that are not signed with an acceptable digital signature. The mechanical details of how precisely these drivers are to be signed are not specified. When Secure Boot is enabled, it is initially placed in "setup" mode, which allows a public key known as the "platform key" (PK) to be written to the firmware. Once the key is written, Secure Boot enters "User" mode, where only UEFI drivers and OS boot loaders signed with the platform key can be loaded by the firmware. Additional "key exchange keys" (KEK) can be added to a database stored in memory to allow other certificates to be used, but they must still have a connection to the private portion of the platform key. Secure Boot can also be placed in "Custom" mode, where additional public keys can be added to the system that do not match the private key. Secure Boot is supported by Windows 8 and 8.1, Windows Server 2012 and 2012 R2, Windows 10, Windows Server 2016, 2019, and 2022, and Windows 11, VMware vSphere 6.5 and a number of Linux distributions including Fedora (since version 18), openSUSE (since version 12.3), RHEL (since version 7), CentOS (since version 7), Debian (since version 10), and Ubuntu (since version 12.04.2). , FreeBSD support is in a planning stage. UEFI shell UEFI provides a shell environment, which can be used to execute other UEFI applications, including UEFI boot loaders. Apart from that, commands available in the UEFI shell can be used for obtaining various other information about the system or the firmware, including getting the memory map (memmap), modifying boot manager variables (bcfg), running partitioning programs (diskpart), loading UEFI drivers, and editing text files (edit). Source code for a UEFI shell can be downloaded from the Intel's TianoCore UDK/EDK2 project. A pre-built ShellBinPkg is also available. Shell v2 works best in UEFI 2.3+ systems and is recommended over Shell v1 in those systems. Shell v1 should work in all UEFI systems. Methods used for launching UEFI shell depend on the manufacturer and model of the system motherboard. Some of them already provide a direct option in firmware setup for launching, e.g. compiled x86-64 version of the shell needs to be made available as <EFI_SYSTEM_PARTITION>/SHELLX64.EFI. Some other systems have an already embedded UEFI shell which can be launched by appropriate key press combinations. For other systems, the solution is either creating an appropriate USB flash drive or adding manually (bcfg) a boot option associated with the compiled version of shell. Commands The following is a list of commands supported by the EFI shell. help guid set alias dh unload map mount cd echo pause ls mkdir mode cp comp rm memmap type dmpstore load ver err time date stall reset vol attrib cls bcfg edit Edd30 dblk pci mm mem EddDebug Extensions Extensions to UEFI can be loaded from virtually any non-volatile storage device attached to the computer. For example, an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) can distribute systems with an EFI system partition on the hard drive, which would add additional functions to the standard UEFI firmware stored on the motherboard's ROM. UEFI Capsule UEFI Capsule defines a Firmware-to-OS firmware update interface, marketed as modern and secure. Windows 8, Windows 8.1, Windows 10 and Fwupd for Linux support the UEFI Capsule. Hardware Like BIOS, UEFI initializes and tests system hardware components (e.g. Memory training, PCIe link training, USB link training), and then loads the boot loader from mass storage device or network booting. In x86 systems, the UEFI firmware is usually stored in the NOR flash chip of the motherboard. UEFI classes UEFI machines can have one of the following "classes", which were used to help ease the transition to UEFI. Intel has ended Legacy BIOS in 2020. Starting from the 10th Gen Intel Core, Intel no longer provides Legacy Video BIOS for the iGPU (Intel Graphics Technology). Legacy boot requires a Legacy Video BIOS, which can still be provided by a video card. Class 0: Legacy BIOS Class 1: UEFI in CSM-only mode (i.e. no UEFI booting) Class 2: UEFI with CSM Class 3: UEFI without CSM Class 3+: UEFI with Secure Boot Enabled Boot stages SEC – Security Phase This is the first stage of the UEFI boot but may have platform specific binary code that precedes it. (e.g., Intel ME, AMD PSP, CPU microcode). It consists of minimal code written in assembly language for the specific architecture. It initializes a temporary memory (often CPU cache as RAM) and serves as the system's software root of trust with the option of verifying PEI before hand-off. PEI – Pre-EFI Initialization The second stage of UEFI boot consists of a dependency-aware dispatcher that loads and runs PEI modules (PEIMs) to handle early hardware initialization tasks such as main memory initialization and firmware recovery operations. Additionally, it is responsible for discovery of the current boot mode and handling many ACPI S0ix/ACPI S3 operations. In the case of ACPI S0ix/ACPI S3 resume, it is responsible for restoring many hardware registers to a pre-sleep state. PEI also uses CPU cache as RAM. DXE – Driver Execution Environment This stage consist of C modules and a dependency-aware dispatcher. With main memory now available, CPU, chipset, mainboard and boot devices are initialized in DXE and BDS. BDS – Boot Device Select BDS is a part of the DXE. In this stage, boot devices are initialized, UEFI drivers or Option ROMs of PCI devices are executed according to system configuration, and boot options are processed. TSL – Transient System Load This is the stage between boot device selection and hand-off to the OS. At this point one may enter UEFI shell, or execute an UEFI application such as the OS boot loader. RT – Runtime The UEFI hands off to the operating system (OS) after is executed. A UEFI compatible OS is now responsible for exiting boot services triggering the firmware to unload all no longer needed code and data, leaving only runtime services code/data, e.g. SMM and ACPI. A typical modern OS will prefer to use its own programs (such as kernel drivers) to control hardware devices. When a legacy OS is used, CSM will handle this call ensuring the system is compatible with legacy BIOS expectations. Implementation and adoption Intel EFI Intel's implementation of EFI is the Intel Platform Innovation Framework, codenamed Tiano. Tiano runs on Intel's XScale, Itanium, x86-32 and x86-64 processors, and is proprietary software, although a portion of the code has been released under the BSD license or Eclipse Public License (EPL) as TianoCore. TianoCore can be used as a payload for coreboot. Phoenix Technologies' implementation of UEFI is branded as SecureCore Technology (SCT). American Megatrends offers its own UEFI firmware implementation known as Aptio, while Insyde Software offers InsydeH2O. In December 2018, Microsoft released an open source version of its TianoCore EDK2-based UEFI implementation from the Surface line, Project Mu. Das U-Boot An implementation of the UEFI API was introduced into the Universal Boot Loader (Das U-Boot) in 2017. On the ARMv8 architecture Linux distributions use the U-Boot UEFI implementation in conjunction with GNU GRUB for booting (e.g. SUSE Linux), the same holds true for OpenBSD. For booting from iSCSI iPXE can be used as a UEFI application loaded by U-Boot. Platforms using EFI/UEFI Intel's first Itanium workstations and servers, released in 2000, implemented EFI 1.02. Hewlett-Packard's first Itanium 2 systems, released in 2002, implemented EFI 1.10; they were able to boot Windows, Linux, FreeBSD and HP-UX; OpenVMS added UEFI capability in June 2003. In January 2006, Apple Inc. shipped its first Intel-based Macintosh computers. These systems used EFI instead of Open Firmware, which had been used on its previous PowerPC-based systems. On 5 April 2006, Apple first released Boot Camp, which produces a Windows drivers disk and a non-destructive partitioning tool to allow the installation of Windows XP or Vista without requiring a reinstallation of Mac OS X. A firmware update was also released that added BIOS compatibility to its EFI implementation. Subsequent Macintosh models shipped with the newer firmware. During 2005, more than one million Intel systems shipped with Intel's implementation of UEFI. New mobile, desktop and server products, using Intel's implementation of UEFI, started shipping in 2006. For instance, boards that use the Intel 945 chipset series use Intel's UEFI firmware implementation. Since 2005, EFI has also been implemented on non-PC architectures, such as embedded systems based on XScale cores. The EDK (EFI Developer Kit) includes an NT32 target, which allows EFI firmware and EFI applications to run within a Windows application. But no direct hardware access is allowed by EDK NT32. This means only a subset of EFI application and drivers can be executed at the EDK NT32 target. In 2008, more x86-64 systems adopted UEFI. While many of these systems still allow booting only the BIOS-based OSes via the Compatibility Support Module (CSM) (thus not appearing to the user to be UEFI-based), other systems started to allow booting UEFI-based OSes. For example, IBM x3450 server, MSI motherboards with ClickBIOS, HP EliteBook Notebook PCs. In 2009, IBM shipped System x machines (x3550 M2, x3650 M2, iDataPlex dx360 M2) and BladeCenter HS22 with UEFI capability. Dell shipped PowerEdge T610, R610, R710, M610 and M710 servers with UEFI capability. More commercially available systems are mentioned in a UEFI whitepaper. In 2011, major vendors (such as ASRock, Asus, Gigabyte, and MSI) launched several consumer-oriented motherboards using the Intel 6-series LGA 1155 chipset and AMD 9 Series AM3+ chipsets with UEFI. With the release of Windows 8 in October 2012, Microsoft's certification requirements now require that computers include firmware that implements the UEFI specification. Furthermore, if the computer supports the "Connected Standby" feature of Windows 8 (which allows devices to have power management comparable to smartphones, with an almost instantaneous return from standby mode), then the firmware is not permitted to contain a Compatibility Support Module (CSM). As such, systems that support Connected Standby are incapable of booting Legacy BIOS operating systems. In October 2017, Intel announced that it would remove legacy PC BIOS support from all its products by 2020, in favor of UEFI Class 3. Operating systems An operating system that can be booted from a (U)EFI is called a (U)EFI-aware operating system, defined by (U)EFI specification. Here the term booted from a (U)EFI means directly booting the system using a (U)EFI operating system loader stored on any storage device. The default location for the operating system loader is <EFI_SYSTEM_PARTITION>/BOOT/BOOT<MACHINE_TYPE_SHORT_NAME>.EFI, where short name of the machine type can be IA32, X64, IA64, ARM or AA64. Some operating systems vendors may have their own boot loaders. They may also change the default boot location. The Linux kernel has been able to use EFI at boot time since early 2000s, using the elilo EFI boot loader or, more recently, EFI versions of GRUB. Grub+Linux also supports booting from a GUID partition table without UEFI. The distribution Ubuntu added support for UEFI Secure Boot as of version 12.10. Furthermore, the Linux kernel can be compiled with the option to run as an EFI bootloader on its own through the EFI bootstub feature. HP-UX has used (U)EFI as its boot mechanism on IA-64 systems since 2002. OpenVMS has used EFI on IA-64 since its initial evaluation release in December 2003, and for production releases since January 2005. The x86-64 port of OpenVMS also uses UEFI to boot the operating system. Apple uses EFI for its line of Intel-based Macs. Mac OS X v10.4 Tiger and Mac OS X v10.5 Leopard implement EFI v1.10 in 32-bit mode even on newer 64-bit CPUs, but full support arrived with OS X v10.8 Mountain Lion. The Itanium versions of Windows 2000 (Advanced Server Limited Edition and Datacenter Server Limited Edition) implemented EFI 1.10 in 2002. MS Windows Server 2003 for IA-64, MS Windows XP 64-bit Edition and Windows 2000 Advanced Server Limited Edition, all of which are for the Intel Itanium family of processors, implement EFI, a requirement of the platform through the DIG64 specification. Microsoft introduced UEFI for x64 Windows operating systems with Windows Vista SP1 and Windows Server 2008 however only UGA (Universal Graphic Adapter) 1.1 or Legacy BIOS INT 10h is supported; Graphics Output Protocol (GOP) is not supported. Therefore, PCs running 64-bit versions of Windows Vista SP1, Windows Vista SP2, Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 and Windows Server 2008 R2 are compatible with UEFI Class 2. 32-bit UEFI was originally not supported since vendors did not have any interest in producing native 32-bit UEFI firmware because of the mainstream status of 64-bit computing. Windows 8 finally introduced further optimizations for UEFI systems, including Graphics Output Protocol (GOP) support, a faster startup, 32-bit UEFI support, and Secure Boot support. Microsoft began requiring UEFI to run Windows with Windows 11. On 5 March 2013, the FreeBSD Foundation awarded a grant to a developer seeking to add UEFI support to the FreeBSD kernel and bootloader. The changes were initially stored in a discrete branch of the FreeBSD source code, but were merged into the mainline source on 4 April 2014 (revision 264095); the changes include support in the installer as well. UEFI boot support for amd64 first appeared in FreeBSD 10.1 and for arm64 in FreeBSD 11.0. Oracle Solaris 11.1 and later support UEFI boot for x86 systems with UEFI firmware version 2.1 or later. GRUB 2 is used as the boot loader on x86. OpenBSD 5.9 introduced UEFI boot support for 64-bit x86 systems using its own custom loader, OpenBSD 6.0 extended that support to include ARMv7. Use of UEFI with virtualization HP Integrity Virtual Machines provides UEFI boot on HP Integrity Servers. It also provides a virtualized UEFI environment for the guest UEFI-aware OSes. Intel hosts an Open Virtual Machine Firmware project on SourceForge. VMware Fusion 3 software for Mac OS X can boot Mac OS X Server virtual machines using UEFI. VMware Workstation prior to version 11 unofficially supports UEFI, but is manually enabled by editing the .vmx file. VMware Workstation version 11 and above supports UEFI, independently of whether the physical host system is UEFI-based. VMware Workstation 14 (and accordingly, Fusion 10) adds support for the Secure Boot feature of UEFI. The vSphere ESXi 5.0 hypervisor officially support UEFI. Version 6.5 adds support for Secure Boot. VirtualBox has implemented UEFI since 3.1, but limited to Unix/Linux operating systems and Windows 8 and later (does not work with Windows Vista x64 and Windows 7 x64). QEMU/KVM can be used with the Open Virtual Machine Firmware (OVMF) provided by TianoCore. The VMware ESXi version 5 hypervisor, part of VMware vSphere, supports virtualized UEFI as an alternative to the legacy PC BIOS inside a virtual machine. The second generation of the Microsoft Hyper-V virtual machine supports virtualized UEFI. Google Cloud Platform Shielded VMs support virtualized UEFI to enable Secure Boot. Applications development EDK2 Application Development Kit (EADK) makes it possible to use standard C library functions in UEFI applications. EADK can be freely downloaded from the Intel's TianoCore UDK / EDK2 SourceForge project. As an example, a port of the Python interpreter is made available as a UEFI application by using the EADK. The development has moved to GitHub since UDK2015. A minimalistic "hello, world" C program written using EADK looks similar to its usual C counterpart: #include <Uefi.h> #include <Library/UefiLib.h> #include <Library/ShellCEntryLib.h> EFI_STATUS EFIAPI ShellAppMain(IN UINTN Argc, IN CHAR16 **Argv) { Print(L"hello, world\n"); return EFI_SUCCESS; } Criticism Numerous digital rights activists have protested against UEFI. Ronald G. Minnich, a co-author of coreboot, and Cory Doctorow, a digital rights activist, have criticized UEFI as an attempt to remove the ability of the user to truly control the computer. It does not solve the BIOS's long-standing problems of requiring two different drivers—one for the firmware and one for the operating system—for most hardware. Open-source project TianoCore also provides UEFI interfaces. TianoCore lacks the specialized drivers that initialize chipset functions, which are instead provided by coreboot, of which TianoCore is one of many payload options. The development of coreboot requires cooperation from chipset manufacturers to provide the specifications needed to develop initialization drivers. Secure Boot In 2011, Microsoft announced that computers certified to run its Windows 8 operating system had to ship with Microsoft's public key enrolled and Secure Boot enabled. Following the announcement, the company was accused by critics and free software/open source advocates (including the Free Software Foundation) of trying to use the Secure Boot functionality of UEFI to hinder or outright prevent the installation of alternative operating systems such as Linux. Microsoft denied that the Secure Boot requirement was intended to serve as a form of lock-in, and clarified its requirements by stating that x86-based systems certified for Windows 8 must allow Secure Boot to enter custom mode or be disabled, but not on systems using the ARM architecture. Windows 10 allows OEMs to decide whether or not Secure Boot can be managed by users of their x86 systems. Other developers raised concerns about the legal and practical issues of implementing support for Secure Boot on Linux systems in general. Former Red Hat developer Matthew Garrett noted that conditions in the GNU General Public License version 3 may prevent the use of the GNU GRand Unified Bootloader without a distribution's developer disclosing the private key (however, the Free Software Foundation has since clarified its position, assuring that the responsibility to make keys available was held by the hardware manufacturer), and that it would also be difficult for advanced users to build custom kernels that could function with Secure Boot enabled without self-signing them. Other developers suggested that signed builds of Linux with another key could be provided, but noted that it would be difficult to persuade OEMs to ship their computers with the required key alongside the Microsoft key. Several major Linux distributions have developed different implementations for Secure Boot. Garrett himself developed a minimal bootloader known as a shim, which is a precompiled, signed bootloader that allows the user to individually trust keys provided by Linux distributions. Ubuntu 12.10 uses an older version of shim pre-configured for use with Canonical's own key that verifies only the bootloader and allows unsigned kernels to be loaded; developers believed that the practice of signing only the bootloader is more feasible, since a trusted kernel is effective at securing only the user space, and not the pre-boot state for which Secure Boot is designed to add protection. That also allows users to build their own kernels and use custom kernel modules as well, without the need to reconfigure the system. Canonical also maintains its own private key to sign installations of Ubuntu pre-loaded on certified OEM computers that run the operating system, and also plans to enforce a Secure Boot requirement as wellrequiring both a Canonical key and a Microsoft key (for compatibility reasons) to be included in their firmware. Fedora also uses shim, but requires that both the kernel and its modules be signed as well. It has been disputed whether the operating system kernel and its modules must be signed as well; while the UEFI specifications do not require it, Microsoft has asserted that their contractual requirements do, and that it reserves the right to revoke any certificates used to sign code that can be used to compromise the security of the system. In Windows, only WHQL kernel driver is allowed if Secure Boot enabled. In February 2013, another Red Hat developer attempted to submit a patch to the Linux kernel that would allow it to parse Microsoft's authenticode signing using a master X.509 key embedded in PE files signed by Microsoft. However, the proposal was criticized by Linux creator Linus Torvalds, who attacked Red Hat for supporting Microsoft's control over the Secure Boot infrastructure. On 26 March 2013, the Spanish free software development group Hispalinux filed a formal complaint with the European Commission, contending that Microsoft's Secure Boot requirements on OEM systems were "obstructive" and anti-competitive. At the Black Hat conference in August 2013, a group of security researchers presented a series of exploits in specific vendor implementations of UEFI that could be used to exploit Secure Boot. In August 2016 it was reported that two security researchers had found the "golden key" security key Microsoft uses in signing operating systems. Technically, no key was exposed, however, an exploitable binary signed by the key was. This allows any software to run as though it was genuinely signed by Microsoft and exposes the possibility of rootkit and bootkit attacks. This also makes patching the fault impossible, since any patch can be replaced (downgraded) by the (signed) exploitable binary. Microsoft responded in a statement that the vulnerability only exists in ARM architecture and Windows RT devices, and has released two patches; however, the patches do not (and cannot) remove the vulnerability, which would require key replacements in end user firmware to fix. Many Linux distributions support UEFI Secure Boot now, such as RHEL (RHEL 7 and later), CentOS (CentOS 7 and later), Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian (Debian 10 and later), OpenSUSE, SUSE Linux. Firmware problems The increased prominence of UEFI firmware in devices has also led to a number of technical problems blamed on their respective implementations. Following the release of Windows 8 in late 2012, it was discovered that certain Lenovo computer models with Secure Boot had firmware that was hardcoded to allow only executables named "Windows Boot Manager" or "Red Hat Enterprise Linux" to load, regardless of any other setting. Other problems were encountered by several Toshiba laptop models with Secure Boot that were missing certain certificates required for its proper operation. In January 2013, a bug surrounding the UEFI implementation on some Samsung laptops was publicized, which caused them to be bricked after installing a Linux distribution in UEFI mode. While potential conflicts with a kernel module designed to access system features on Samsung laptops were initially blamed (also prompting kernel maintainers to disable the module on UEFI systems as a safety measure), Matthew Garrett discovered that the bug was actually triggered by storing too many UEFI variables to memory, and that the bug could also be triggered under Windows under certain conditions. In conclusion, he determined that the offending kernel module had caused kernel message dumps to be written to the firmware, thus triggering the bug. See also OpenBIOS UEFI Platform Initialization (UEFI PI) Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) System Management BIOS (SMBIOS) Trusted Platform Module (TPM) UEFITool Notes References Further reading External links UEFI Specifications Intel-sponsored open-source EFI Framework initiative Intel EFI/UEFI portal Microsoft UEFI Support and Requirements for Windows Operating Systems How Windows 8 Hybrid Shutdown / Fast Boot feature works Securing the Windows 10 Boot Process LoJax: First UEFI rootkit found in the wild, courtesy of the Sednit group Articles with example C code

State constitution (United States)

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In the United States, each state has its own written constitution. Usually, they are much longer than the United States Constitution, which only contains 4,543 words. State constitutions are all longer than 8,000 words because they are more detailed regarding the day-to-day relationships between government and the people. The shortest is the Constitution of Vermont, adopted in 1793 and currently 8,295 words long. The longest is Alabama's sixth and current constitution, ratified in 1901, about 345,000 words long. Both the federal and state constitutions are organic texts: they are the fundamental blueprints for the legal and political organizations of the United States and the states, respectively. The Bill of Rights provides that "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." The Guarantee Clause of Article 4 of the Constitution states that "The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government." These two provisions indicate states did not surrender their wide latitude to adopt a constitution, the fundamental documents of state law, when the U.S. Constitution was adopted. Typically state constitutions address a wide array of issues deemed by the states to be of sufficient importance to be included in the constitution rather than in an ordinary statute. Often modeled after the federal Constitution, they outline the structure of the state government and typically establish a bill of rights, an executive branch headed by a governor (and often one or more other officials, such as a lieutenant governor and state attorney general), a state legislature, and state courts, including a state supreme court (a few states have two high courts, one for civil cases, the other for criminal cases). They also provide general governmental framework for what each branch is supposed to do and how it should go about doing it. Additionally, many other provisions may be included. Many state constitutions, unlike the federal constitution, also begin with an invocation of God. Some states allow amendments to the constitution by initiative. Many states have had several constitutions over the course of their history. The territories of the United States are "organized" and, thus, self-governing if the United States Congress has passed an Organic Act. Two of the 14 territories without commonwealth status – Guam and the United States Virgin Islands – are organized, but haven't adopted their own constitutions. One unorganized territory, American Samoa, has its own constitution. The remaining 13 unorganized territories have no permanent populations and are either under direct control of the U.S. Government or operate as military bases. The commonwealths of Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) do not have organic acts but operate under local constitutions. Pursuant to the acquisition of Puerto Rico under the Treaty of Paris, 1898, the relationship between Puerto Rico and the United States is controlled by Article IV of the United States Constitution. Constitutional law in the CNMI is based upon a series of constitutional documents, the most important of which are the 1976 Covenant to Establish a Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands in political union with the United States of America, which controls the relationship between the CNMI and the United States; and the local commonwealth constitution, drafted in 1976, ratified by the people of the CNMI in March 1977, accepted by the United States Government in October 1977, and effective from 9 January 1978. List of constitutions The following is a list of the current constitutions of the states in the United States. Each entry shows the ordinal number of the current constitution, the official name of the current constitution, the date on which the current constitution took effect, and the estimated length of the current constitution. Also below are a description of organic instruments with respect to additional territory. Note that constitutions of states that were independent countries prior to admission, and constitutions used by rebelling states participating in the American Civil War are not counted. Federal district charter The District of Columbia has a charter similar to charters of major cities, instead of having a constitution like the states and territories. The District of Columbia Home Rule Act establishes the Council of the District of Columbia, which governs the entire district and has certain devolved powers similar to those of major cities. Congress has full authority over the district and may amend the charter and any legislation enacted by the Council. Attempts at statehood for the District of Columbia have included the drafting of three constitutions in 1982 1987, and 2016 all referring to the district as the "State of New Columbia". Commonwealth and Territorial constitutions The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, July 25, 1952. It was ratified by Puerto Rico's electorate in a referendum on March 3, 1952, approved by the United States Congress. The Constitution of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands was drafted by thirty-nine elected delegates meeting in a constitutional convention on Saipan in 1976. Their proposed constitution was subsequently ratified by Northern Mariana Islands voters on March 6, 1977, and became effective January 9, 1978. Pursuant to the provisions of Section 202 of the Covenant, the Constitution of the Northern Mariana Islands was deemed to have been approved by the Government of the United States six months after the date of submission to the president. The six-month period having expired on October 22, 1977, President Carter issued a proclamation announcing the Constitution of the Northern Mariana Islands was deemed approved. The Constitution of the Territory of American Samoa was signed by 68 members of the 1960 constitutional convention and was approved by United States Secretary of the Interior Fred Andrew Seaton on 27 April 1960. It became effective 17 October 1960. Several amendments to the Constitution were approved in a referendum in the general elections in 1966, subsequently by Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall on 2 June 1967, and became effective 1 July 1967. Organic acts The Territory of Guam does not have its own constitution, but operates under the Guam Organic Act of 1950 and other federal statutes. The United States Virgin Islands, an unincorporated organized territory, does not have its own constitution, instead operating under various federal statutes. See politics of the United States Virgin Islands. See also State constitution gubernatorial qualifications in the United States State constitution (Australia) References Further reading Bryce, James, viscount. The American Commonwealth (2nd ed., rev.; London: Macmillan and Co., 1891), vol. 1, p. [413]-445, [683]-724, et passim. Hammons, Christopher W. (1999). Was James Madison wrong? Rethinking the American preference for short, framework-oriented constitutions. American Political Science Review. Dec. 1999. The appendices to this article contain substantial data on state constitutions. Robinson Woodward-Burns. 2021. Hidden Laws: How State Constitutions Stabilize American Politics. Yale University Press. External links The Green Papers: Constitutions of the states The Green Papers: State constitutions, an explanation The Green Papers: Links to state constitutions Citings of Religious Influence in First State Constitutions State government in the United States Constitutions of country subdivisions

Extreme points of North America

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This is a list of the extreme points of North America: the points that are highest and lowest, and farther north, south, east or west than any other location on the continent. Some of these points are debatable, given the varying definitions of North America. North America and surrounding islands Northernmost point — Kaffeklubben Island, Greenland . Although politically part of the Kingdom of Denmark, Greenland is geologically part of the North American plate. If non-permanent islands are included, then the northernmost point is Qeqertaq Avannarleq. If Greenland is excluded from North America, the northernmost point is Cape Columbia, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canada . Southernmost point — Cocos Island, Costa Rica Westernmost point — The westernmost point depends on the definition of "westernmost". If following the International Date Line, it would be Cape Wrangell on Attu Island, Alaska, United States , or the tiny (ca. 200m diameter) Peaked Island, just off the coast to the west. However, if the border between east and west is defined by the 180th meridian, the westernmost point is the West Point of Amatignak Island , as Attu Island is in the Eastern Hemisphere. Easternmost point — Nordostrundingen, Greenland . If Greenland is excluded, then the easternmost point is Cape Spear, Newfoundland, Canada . Again, if one uses the technical definition of longitude, it is Pochnoi Point on Semisopochnoi Island, Alaska, since the state stretches into the Eastern Hemisphere. However, other sources argue it would be Cape Wrangell on Attu Island, Alaska, United States at , as well as the tiny (ca. 200m diameter) Peaked Island, just off the coast to the west. Continental North America Northernmost point — Murchison Promontory, Canada 71°58′N 94°57′W Southernmost point — Punta Mariato, Panama Westernmost point — Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska Easternmost point — Cape Saint Charles, Labrador Highest points Denali (Mount McKinley), Alaska, United States — highest summit of North America at . Pico de Orizaba (Volcán Citlaltépetl), Puebla and Veracruz, Mexico — highest volcano summit of North America at . https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Whitney Grays Peak, Colorado, United States — highest point on the Continental Divide of North America at . Volcán Tajumulco, San Marcos, Guatemala — highest summit of Central America at . Gunnbjørn Fjeld, Sermersooq, Island of Greenland, Greenland — highest island summit of the Americas and highest summit of the entire Arctic at . Pico Duarte, Dominican Republic, Hispaniola — highest summit of the Caribbean at . Ixchiguán, San Marcos Department, Guatemala — highest town of North America at 3200 m (10,500 feet) Leadville, Colorado, United States — highest city of North America at 3094 m (10,152 feet) Lake County Airport, Colorado, United States — highest airfield of North America at 3026 m (9,927 feet) Lowest points Badwater Basin, Death Valley, California, United States — lowest land surface of North America at Salton Sea, California, United States — lowest lake of North America at −69 m (−226 feet) Furnace Creek Airport, California, United States — lowest airfield of the Americas at −64 m (−210 feet) Furnace Creek, California, United States — lowest settlement of the Americas at −58 m (−190 ft) Calipatria, California, United States — lowest city of the Americas at −56 m (−184 feet) Lago Enriquillo, Dominican Republic, Hispaniola — lowest lake on an island and lowest surface point on any ocean island on Earth at −27 m (−89 feet) New Orleans, Louisiana, United States — lowest city of the Americas with an average elevation of −0.5 m (−1.5 feet) Isthmus of Rivas, Rivas, Nicaragua — lowest pass between Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean (on the Continental Divide of the Americas) at 56 m (184 feet) Great Slave Lake bottom, Northwest Territories, Canada — lowest fresh water point of the Americas at −458 m (−1,503 feet) Other points The geographic center of the North American continent is located at , about 6 miles west of Balta in Pierce County, North Dakota, United States. The North American pole of inaccessibility is located at , about eleven miles southeast of the town of Kyle on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in Bennett County, South Dakota, United States, 1650 km (1025 miles) from the nearest coastlines. Islands Island of Greenland — most extensive island on Earth at 2,130,800 km2 (822,700 square miles) and tallest island of Western Hemisphere. Highest point is Gunnbjørn Fjeld at . Island of Cuba — most extensive island of the Caribbean at 104,556 km2 (40,369 square miles). Highest point is Pico Turquino at convert . Hispaniola — tallest island of the Caribbean and second most extensive island of the Caribbean at 76,480 km2 (29,529 square miles). Highest peak is Pico Duarte at . Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron, Ontario, Canada — most extensive lake island on Earth at 2,766 km2 (1,068 square miles) Unimak Island — highest point is Shishaldin Volcano at . Ellesmere Island — highest point is Barbeau Peak at . Jamaica — highest point is Blue Mountain Peak at . Axel Heiberg Island — highest point is Outlook Peak at . Vancouver Island — highest point is Golden Hinde at . Baffin Island — highest point is Mount Odin at . Umnak Island — highest point is Mount Vsevidof at . Unalaska Island — highest point is Makushin Volcano at . Lakes Lake Superior, Canada and the United States — most voluminous lake in Western Hemisphere at 11,600 km3 (2,800 cubic miles) Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada — deepest lake in Western Hemisphere at 614 m (2,014 feet) Lake Michigan–Huron, Canada and the United States — most extensive lake in Western Hemisphere and the most extensive fresh water lake on Earth at 117,702 km2 (45,445 square miles) Nettilling Lake on Baffin Island, Nunavut, Canada — most extensive lake on an island on Earth at 5,066 km2 (1,956 square miles) Great Salt Lake, Utah, United States — most extensive endorheic lake at 4,400 km2 (1,700 square miles) Lake Manitou on Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron, Ontario, Canada — most extensive lake on an island in a lake on Earth at 104 km2 (40 square miles) Rivers Mississippi Basin, Canada and the United States — most extensive river basin at 2,981,076 km2 (1,151,000 square miles) Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson Rivers, United States — longest river system at 6,275 km (3,902 miles) Missouri River, United States — longest main stem river at 3,768 km (2,341 miles) Mississippi River, United States — longest Gulf of Mexico main stem river at 3,544 km (2,202 miles) Yukon River, Canada and the United States — longest Bering Sea main stem river at 3,185 km (1,979 miles) Nelson River, Manitoba, Canada — longest Hudson Bay main stem river at 2,575 km (1,600 miles) Colorado River, United States and Mexico — longest Gulf of California main stem river at 2,330 km (1,450 miles) Columbia River, Canada and the United States — longest Pacific Ocean main stem river at 2,000 km (1,243 miles) Mackenzie River, Northwest Territories, Canada — longest Arctic Ocean main stem river at 1,738 km (1,080 miles) Saint Lawrence River, United States and Canada — longest Atlantic Ocean main stem river at 965 km (600 miles) Extreme points of North American countries Extreme points of Canada Extreme points of Cuba Extreme points of Greenland Extreme points of Mexico Extreme points of the United States See also Geography of North America Extreme points of the Earth Extreme points of the Americas Extreme points of North America Extreme points of Canada Extreme points of Canadian provinces Extreme communities of Canada Extreme points of Greenland Extreme points of Mexico Extreme points of the United States Extreme points of U.S. states Extreme points of New England Extreme points of Central America Extreme points of the Caribbean Extreme points of Cuba Extreme points of South America Notes References External links Geography of North America North America North America North America

Bronx–Whitestone Bridge

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The Bronx–Whitestone Bridge (colloquially referred to as the Whitestone Bridge or simply the Whitestone) is a suspension bridge in New York City, carrying six lanes of Interstate 678 over the East River. The bridge connects Throggs Neck and Ferry Point Park in the Bronx, on the East River's northern shore, with the Whitestone neighborhood of Queens on the southern shore. Although the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge's construction was proposed as early as 1905, it was not approved until 1936. The bridge was designed by Swiss-American architect Othmar Ammann and design engineer Allston Dana and opened to traffic with four lanes on April 29, 1939. The bridge's design was similar to that of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, which collapsed in 1940. As a result, extra stiffening trusses were added to the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge in the early 1940s, and it was widened to six lanes during the same project. The Bronx–Whitestone Bridge was also renovated in 1988–1991 to repair the anchorages, roadways, and drainage. The stiffening trusses were removed during a renovation in the mid-2000s, and the bridge's deck and approach viaducts were replaced soon afterward. The Bronx–Whitestone Bridge is owned by New York City and operated by MTA Bridges and Tunnels, an affiliate agency of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority. With a center span of , the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge once had the fourth-largest center span of any suspension bridge in the world. The bridge has a total length of , and its towers reach above water level. Description The Bronx–Whitestone Bridge has a main span between its two suspension towers, with the span rising above mean high water. The side spans, between suspension towers and anchorages at each end, are . Thus, the overall length, from anchorage to anchorage, is . As originally designed, the bridge approach on the Queens side descended to ground level via a -long plate girder viaduct, then another on a concrete ramp. The Bronx side's approach descended on a plate girder viaduct, then another on a concrete ramp. A toll booth was located on the Bronx side immediately after the end of the concrete ramp. The span is supported by two main cables, which suspend the deck and are held up by the suspension towers. Each cable is long and contains 9,862 wires, amounting to around of cable length. Each of the suspension towers has a height of above mean high water. At each end of the suspension span are two anchorages that hold the main cables, both of which are freestanding concrete structures measuring . The width of the bridge deck between the cables is . Unlike other suspension bridges, the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge originally did not have a stiffening truss system. Instead, I-beam girders gave the bridge an Art Deco streamlined appearance. After the 1940 collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, a bridge of similar design, trusses were added on the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge to minimize the span's oscillations. Further modifications to the bridge were made in 1988–1991 and in 2003–2005. Highway connections The Bronx–Whitestone Bridge carries Interstate 678 (I-678). In Queens, the Whitestone Expressway (I-678) extends south to an interchange with the Cross Island Parkway, located just past the end of the bridge's approach ramps. There is an exit from the bridge to the southbound Whitestone Expressway service road, and an entrance and exit from the northbound Whitestone Expressway to the northbound service road. In the Bronx, the bridge leads to the Hutchinson River Expressway (I-678). The expressway has exits and entrances in both directions to the Hutchinson River Expressway service roads, which in turn connect to Lafayette Avenue. The expressway continues north to the Bruckner Interchange, where I-678 ends and becomes the Hutchinson River Parkway; there are also connections to the Cross Bronx Expressway (I-95) and to Bruckner Expressway (I-278 and I-95). As most trucks carrying over have been prohibited from using the Throgs Neck Bridge (approximately east) since 2005, the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge is suggested as an alternative route for heavy trucks. Tractor-trailers exceeding and traveling between central Queens and the Bronx, as well as all heavy trucks over 53 feet that are banned from the Throgs Neck Bridge, are required to use the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge. History Predecessors The idea for a crossing between Ferry Point at Clason Point, the Bronx, and Whitestone Point at Whitestone, Queens, was first proposed in 1905 by real estate speculators who wanted to develop Whitestone. At the time, residents around the proposed area of the bridge protested construction in fear of losing the then-rural character of the community. Plans for the bridge were submitted to the Whitestone Improvement Association in 1909, but they were not acted upon. Queens public administrator Alfred J. Kennedy later recalled that in 1911, while he was in the New York State Assembly, he had proposed such a bridge but that his plan was "ridiculed". In 1907, the Clason Point, College Point and Malba Ferry Company proposed a ferry route between Clason Point, the Bronx, and Malba, Queens, close to the site of the planned bridge. The company was incorporated in 1909, and two years later it started constructing ferry terminals. Ferry operations between Clason Point and Malba began on July 2, 1914. Planning In 1929, the Regional Plan Association (RPA) proposed a bridge from the Bronx to northern Queens to allow motorists from upstate New York and New England to reach Queens and Long Island without having to first travel through the traffic congestion in western Queens. The RPA believed that it was necessary to connect the proposed Belt Parkway (now Cross Island Parkway) on the Queens side with the Hutchinson River Parkway and Bruckner Boulevard on the Bronx side. The next year, urban planner Robert Moses formally proposed a Clason Point-to-Whitestone bridge as part of the Belt Parkway around Brooklyn and Queens. At the time, it was expected that the bridge would cost $25 million to construct. In 1932, the New York City Board of Estimate started soliciting applications from private companies to build and operate the crossing as a toll bridge. One such application was made by Charles V. Bossert, who submitted his plan to the Board of Estimate in 1933. Bossert's plan went as far as U.S. Congress, where in 1935, a bill to approve the construction of Bossert's plan was introduced in the House of Representatives. However, the idea of a private company operating a publicly used toll bridge was unpopular, so it was dropped. At the same time, the Queens Topological Bureau, Long Island State Park Commission, and Triborough Bridge Authority (TBA; later Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority, or TBTA) was conducting a study on the proposed Bronx–Whitestone Bridge. In 1935, the agencies jointly released a report on the connecting roads to be built as part of the bridge plans, and projected that the bridge would cost $20 million (). The bridge would directly link the Bronx, and other points on the mainland, to the 1939 New York World's Fair and to LaGuardia Airport (then known as North Beach Airport), both located in Queens. In addition, the Whitestone Bridge was to provide congestion relief to the Triborough Bridge, further to the west, which also connected Queens to the Bronx. Real estate speculators predicted that the new bridge would also spur a wave of industrial development in the Bronx. New residential units in the Bronx were being planned before construction on the bridge itself even started. The RPA had also recommended that the Whitestone Bridge should have rail connections, or at least be able to accommodate them in the future, but Moses ultimately did not include any provisions for rail connections on the bridge. Construction In 1936, Governor Herbert H. Lehman signed a bill that authorized the construction of the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge, which would connect Queens and the Bronx. The TBA began preliminary studies for the bridge and, in February 1937, TBA chief engineer Othmar Ammann announced that the bridge was both "practical and necessary". Allston Dana was also hired as the engineer of design. The same month, approval of a suspension span between Ferry Point and Whitestone was given by Harry Hines Woodring, the United States Secretary of War. Around the same time, the state started issuing bonds to fund the construction of the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge. The TBA was to construct the bridge. Moses argued that the TBA and the city should each be responsible for half of the bridge's $17.5 million cost. The bridge's construction was expedited, and in April 1937, the TBA started selling bonds to fund the bridge's construction. A $1.13 million contract for the construction of the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge's towers was awarded in June 1937 to the American Bridge Company, which had beaten the only other competitor, Bethlehem Steel. The same month, the city started buying property that was in the right-of-way for the Whitestone Bridge and Parkway, and shortly afterward, the rights-of-way for the bridge and parkway were legally designated. By late August, the city had started evicting residents in the path of the bridge's approaches, and notified seventeen households in Whitestone that they had ten days to find new housing. This raised controversy because of the short notice given, but Moses argued that such measures were necessary to complete the bridge on schedule. In addition, land in Ferry Point was taken for the construction of the bridge; this land would become Ferry Point Park upon the completion of the bridge. A groundbreaking ceremony was held that November, when the Mayor of New York City, Fiorello H. La Guardia, laid the cornerstone for the bridge's Bronx anchorage. Construction on the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge, along with several other road-improvement projects, was sped up so that the regional road network would be ready in time for the 1939 World's Fair. Moses anticipated that the bridge and connecting roads would need to be complete by June 1, 1939. The project also included the construction of the Flushing River Lift Bridge, a drawbridge over the Flushing River a few miles south of the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge. The four sections of each of the two suspension towers were assembled in only 18 days. The tower on the Bronx side was finished first, and in late May 1938, work began on the Queens tower. At the time, it was expected that the spinning of the suspension cables would begin that September. By the first week of July 1938, the TBA reported that both of the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge's towers were completed, and that the bridge was on schedule to open on April 30, 1939, ahead of schedule. In addition, the construction of connecting roadways on the Queens and Bronx sides of the bridge was being sped up. The Bronx side of the bridge would connect to the Hutchinson River Parkway, while the Queens side would connect to the Whitestone and Cross Island Parkways. The process of spinning the bridge's cables commenced in September 1938. The first cable, which contained 266 strands, was completed within a week. The suspender cables were completed within 41 days. That October, work started on the Cross Island Parkway approach to the bridge in Queens. By February 1939, the bridge was nearly complete, and the construction of the approach roads were being sped up in anticipation of the 1939 World's Fair. During construction, one worker died when he fell off the bridge deck. There was another incident in August 1938 in which a 35-ton steel girder dropped from the side of the Whitestone Bridge, though no one was severely injured. Opening The Bronx–Whitestone Bridge opened on April 29, 1939, with a ceremony led by La Guardia. The bridge featured pedestrian walkways as well as four lanes of vehicular traffic, and initially charged passenger vehicles a toll of 25 cents. The center span was the fourth longest in the world at the opening, behind the George Washington Bridge and the double spans of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge. The bridge's opening, two months earlier than originally scheduled, coincided with the first day of the 1939 World's Fair. At its north end, the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge was to connect with Eastern Boulevard (later known as Bruckner Boulevard) via the Hutchinson River Parkway. At its south end, the bridge was to connect with the new Whitestone Parkway, which led southwest off the bridge to Northern Boulevard. The connection between the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge and Whitestone Parkway opened in November 1940. The extension of the Hutchinson River Parkway between Pelham Bay Park and the bridge opened in October 1941. A specialized set of lampposts, the "Whitestone" or Type 41 lamppost, was made for the bridge. The lamppost design was later used in many other projects, though it was no longer being actively installed by the 1960s, and only a few such lamps remained . In preparation for the 1939 World's Fair, amber street lights were installed on the bridge's approach roads, as well as other key corridors around the city. These lamps were distinctly colored so motorists headed to the fair could follow them while driving. Within the first two months of the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge's opening, it had carried just over a million vehicles, and the bridge was collecting an average of $4,232 a day in tolls. In 1940, the American Institute of Steel Construction recognized the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge for being the "most beautiful monumental steel bridge completed during the last year". Additionally, two parks were opened following the bridge's completion. A park under the Queens side of the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge, named for Declaration of Independence signatory Francis Lewis, was opened in 1940. On the Bronx side, the blueprint for Ferry Point Park had been developed in conjunction with the bridge's construction, and additional facilities were added in the early 1940s. Truss installation The original Tacoma Narrows Bridge in Tacoma, Washington, collapsed during heavy winds in November 1940. It had employed an -deep girder system, much like the I-beam girders of the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge. However, the Whitestone Bridge was shorter and wider than the Tacoma Narrows Bridge. The Bronx–Whitestone Bridge's deck was also thicker than that of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, which was only thick to the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge's . Overall, the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge was less prone to oscillation and critical failure, as it was not as flimsy as the Tacoma Narrows Bridge. After performing a series of experiments on the bridge's design, Ammann concluded that additional measures to stiffen the Whitestone Bridge were unnecessary. Even so, the public was scared by the fact that the two bridges were similar in design, and this led to a belief that the Whitestone Bridge might be unstable, as Moses later related. Shortly after the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse, Moses announced that steel cable stays would be installed on the bridge's towers to reduce oscillation. To mitigate the risk of failure from high winds, eight stay cables, two on each side of both suspension towers, were proposed for installation. Although $1 million was initially allocated for the bridge-stiffening project, construction was deferred due to material and labor shortages during World War II. Planning for the project resumed in September 1945 at the end of the war, and a low bidder for the project was announced that November. The project's primary goal was to reinforce the bridge with trusses, thus ensuring the bridge's stability. The four lanes of roadway traffic were widened to six lanes, with the two additional lanes replacing the pedestrian walkways on each side. On both sides of the deck, -high steel trusses were installed to weigh down and stiffen the bridge in an effort to reduce oscillation. The stiffening project was completed in 1947. Increases in traffic In the late 1950s, the Whitestone Parkway and the portion of the Hutchinson River Parkway between the bridge and the Bruckner Interchange were converted to Interstate Highway standards. The Whitestone Parkway became the Whitestone Expressway, and the upgraded part of the Hutchinson River Parkway became the Hutchinson River Expressway. In addition, the Van Wyck Expressway between John F. Kennedy International Airport and Kew Gardens was extended northward to connect with the Whitestone Expressway and the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge. By 1965, the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge and the Whitestone, Van Wyck, and Hutchinson River Expressways had been designated as part of Interstate 678. These highway upgrades were performed in preparation for the 1964 New York World's Fair, which was also held in Flushing Meadows-Corona Park. Around this time, the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge was nearing its traffic capacity because it was the easternmost crossing of the East River between the Bronx and Queens. In 1957, to alleviate traffic loads on the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge, construction started on the Throgs Neck Bridge to the east. After the Throgs Neck Bridge opened in 1961, the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge recorded a corresponding 40% decline in traffic; according to a TBTA executive, traffic on the bridge ultimately decreased by more than half. Soon afterward, the 1964 World's Fair resulted in an increase in traffic on the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge. In the long run, use of the bridge continued to grow, and by 1978, there were about 31 million vehicles using the bridge annually. By 1985, the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge carried 35 million vehicles annually, more than the 33 million recorded in 1960, before the Throgs Neck Bridge had opened as an alternate route. There had been several plans to build a Long Island Sound bridge east of the Bronx–Whitestone and Throgs Neck bridges to relieve traffic on these crossings, although such a bridge remains unbuilt. On November 11, 1968, a heavy storm with winds of up to caused the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge's deck to bounce, causing about 30 motorists to abandon their cars. No one was injured, and the abandoned cars were towed away. Officials later stated that the bridge was not in danger of collapsing during the storm. Major repairs In March 1990, the TBTA announced that the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge would undergo a $20.3 million refurbishment. The anchorages, roadways, and drainage were to be repaired during off-peak hours for two years. Actual work took place between December 1989 and December 1991. As the Throgs Neck Bridge was being repaired simultaneously, this caused major traffic jams at both bridges. During the renovation, the bridge's expansion joints were replaced by the American Bridge Company, which had originally built the suspension towers. However, in 1993, the sealant around the joints was observed to be deteriorating, necessitating additional repairs. By 2001, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA; the TBTA's successor) planned to spend $286 million in bridge renovations. In 2003, the MTA restored the classic lines of the bridge by removing the stiffening trusses and installing fiberglass fairing along both sides of the road deck. The lightweight fiberglass fairing is triangular in shape, giving it an aerodynamic profile that allows crosswinds to flow through the bridge rather than hit the trusses. The removal of the trusses and other changes to the decking reduced the bridge's weight by 6,000 tons, accounting for some 25% of the mass suspended by the cables, In addition, with the truss removals, the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge was able to withstand crosswinds of up to , whereas the trusses could resist crosswinds of no more than . The truss removal project also involved upgrading the lighting systems, including the bridge's lightbulbs and the beacons atop the suspension towers, as well as replacing the sprinkler and electrical systems. In 2005, it was announced that the bridge's deck had to be replaced with a new steel orthotropic deck composed of prefabricated panels. One lane at a time needed to be closed and replaced, so as to minimize traffic disruptions. During the deck replacement, five lanes were kept open at all times using a movable barrier, with three Bronx-bound lanes during the morning rush hour and three Queens-bound lanes during the evening rush. Other renovations included adding mass dampers to stabilize the bridge deck; repainting the two towers and the bridge deck; and installing variable-message signs. The deck replacement was completed by 2007. However, cracks were soon observed in some of the new panels, and by 2014, cracks had been observed in 66 of 408 panels, necessitating approximately of rib welds. The renovations were intended to extend the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge's lifespan indefinitely. These improvements also accommodated the bridge's high traffic volumes: by 2008, the bridge was being used by an average of 120,000 vehicles a day, amounting to 43 million crossings that year. The Queens and Bronx approaches were replaced in a project that started in 2008. As part of the project, each of the approaches' lanes was widened to . The replacement of the bridge's approaches involved replacing 15 supporting piers and of roadway on the Bronx side, as well as of viaduct on the Queens side, which helped support the wider lanes. The contract for the Bronx viaduct replacement was awarded in 2008, and it was completed in late 2012 at a cost of $212 million. The replacement of the Queens approach, which cost $109 million, was completed in May 2015. During the renovation of that approach, the exit from northbound I-678 to Third Avenue was closed and rehabilitated. Tolls , drivers pay $10.17 per car or $4.28 per motorcycle for tolls by mail/non-NYCSC E-Z Pass. E-ZPass users with transponders issued by the New York E‑ZPass Customer Service Center pay $6.55 per car or $2.85 per motorcycle. Mid-Tier NYCSC E-Z Pass users pay $8.36 per car or $3.57 per motorcycle. All E-ZPass users with transponders not issued by the New York E-ZPass CSC will be required to pay Toll-by-mail rates. The toll plaza of the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge, located on the Bronx side, originally contained 10 toll lanes but was later expanded. E-ZPass was introduced at the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge in June 1996. Open-road cashless tolling began on September 30, 2017. The tollbooths, which were at the Bronx end of the bridge, were dismantled, and drivers are no longer able to pay cash at the bridge. Instead, cameras and E-ZPass readers are mounted on new overhead gantries near where the booths were located. A vehicle without E-ZPass has a picture taken of its license plate and a bill for the toll is mailed to its owner. For E-ZPass users, sensors detect their transponders wirelessly. Historical tolls Public transportation The bridge carries two MTA Regional Bus Operations routes, the operated by MTA New York City Transit, and the Limited (formerly part of the QBx1), operated by the MTA Bus Company. After the removal of the sidewalks starting in 1943, bicyclists were able to use QBx1 buses of the Queens Surface Corporation, which could carry bicycles on the front-mounted bike racks. However, since the Metropolitan Transportation Authority absorbed the bus routes formerly operated by Queens Surface, the bike racks were eliminated. In April 1994, bike racks were installed onto QBx1 buses, but the bike-on-bus program was eliminated on February 27, 2005, the same day as the MTA's takeover of the QBx1 route. After the QBx1 was replaced by the Q50, the MTA reintroduced bike racks on Q50 buses in early 2018. See also Lists of crossings of the East River List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in New York References External links NYCRoads.com Bronx–Whitestone Bridge Bridges on the Interstate Highway System Suspension bridges in New York City Toll bridges in New York City Bridges completed in 1939 Robert Moses projects Bridges over the East River Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority Tolled sections of Interstate Highways Interstate 78 Bridges in the Bronx Historic American Engineering Record in New York City Road bridges in New York City Bridges by Othmar Ammann Whitestone, Queens Bridges in Queens, New York 1939 establishments in New York City Steel bridges in the United States Throggs Neck, Bronx

Hospital-acquired infection

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A hospital-acquired infection, also known as a nosocomial infection (from the Greek nosokomeion, meaning "hospital"), is an infection that is acquired in a hospital or other health care facility. To emphasize both hospital and nonhospital settings, it is sometimes instead called a healthcare–associated infection. Such an infection can be acquired in hospital, nursing home, rehabilitation facility, outpatient clinic, diagnostic laboratory or other clinical settings. Infection is spread to the susceptible patient in the clinical setting by various means. Health care staff also spread infection, in addition to contaminated equipment, bed linens, or air droplets. The infection can originate from the outside environment, another infected patient, staff that may be infected, or in some cases, the source of the infection cannot be determined. In some cases the microorganism originates from the patient's own skin microbiota, becoming opportunistic after surgery or other procedures that compromise the protective skin barrier. Though the patient may have contracted the infection from their own skin, the infection is still considered nosocomial since it develops in the health care setting. An easy way to understand the term is that the infection tends to lack evidence that it was incubating, or present when the patient entered the healthcare setting, thus meaning it was acquired post-admission. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimated that roughly 1.7 million Healthcare-Associated infections, from all types of microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi combined, cause or contribute to 99,000 deaths each year. In Europe, where hospital surveys have been conducted, the category of gram-negative infections are estimated to account for two-thirds of the 25,000 deaths each year. Nosocomial infections can cause severe pneumonia and infections of the urinary tract, bloodstream and other parts of the body. Many types display antimicrobial resistance, which can complicate treatment. Types Hospital-acquired pneumonia Ventilator-associated pneumonia Urinary tract infection Gastroenteritis Puerperal fever Central line-associated blood stream infection Organisms Staphylococcus aureus Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus Candida albicans Pseudomonas aeruginosa Acinetobacter baumannii' Stenotrophomonas maltophilia Clostridium difficile Escherichia coli Tuberculosis Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus Legionnaires' disease Cause Transmission In-dwelling catheters have recently been identified with hospital acquired infections. To deal with this complication, procedures are used, called intravascular antimicrobial lock therapy that can reduce infections that are unexposed to blood-borne antibiotics. Introducing antibiotics, including ethanol, into the catheter (without flushing it into the bloodstream) reduces the formation of biofilms. Contact transmission is divided into two subgroups: direct-contact transmission and indirect-contact transmission. Prevention Controlling nosocomial infection is to implement QA/QC measures to the health care sectors, and evidence-based management can be a feasible approach. For those with ventilator-associated or hospital-acquired pneumonia, controlling and monitoring hospital indoor air quality needs to be on agenda in management, whereas for nosocomial rotavirus infection, a hand hygiene protocol has to be enforced. To reduce the number of hospital-acquired infections, the state of Maryland implemented the Maryland Hospital-Acquired Conditions Program that provides financial rewards and penalties for individual hospitals. An adaptation of the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services payment policy causes poor-performing hospitals to lose up to 3% of their inpatient revenues, whereas hospitals that are able to decrease hospital-acquired infections can earn up to 3% in rewards. During the program's first two years, complication rates fell by 15.26% across all hospital-acquired conditions tracked by the state (including those not covered by the program), from a risk-adjusted complication rate of 2.38 per 1,000 people in 2009 to a rate of 2.02 in 2011. The 15.26% decline translates into more than $100 million in cost savings for the health care system in Maryland, with the largest savings coming from avoidance of urinary tract infections, sepsis and other severe infections, and pneumonia and other lung infections. If similar results could be achieved nationwide, the Medicare program would save an estimated $1.3 billion over two years, while the US health care system as a whole would save $5.3 billion. Sanitation Hospitals have sanitation protocols regarding uniforms, equipment sterilization, washing, and other preventive measures. Thorough hand washing and/or use of alcohol rubs by all medical personnel before and after each patient contact is one of the most effective ways to combat nosocomial infections. More careful use of antimicrobial agents, such as antibiotics, is also considered vital. As many hospital-acquired infections caused by bacteria such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus, and Clostridium difficile are caused by a breach of these protocols, it is common that affected patients make medical negligence claims against the hospital in question. Sanitizing surfaces is part of control measures to reduce nosocomial infections in health care environments. Modern sanitizing methods such as Non-flammable Alcohol Vapor in Carbon Dioxide systems have been effective against gastroenteritis, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and influenza agents. Use of hydrogen peroxide vapor has been clinically proven to reduce infection rates and risk of acquisition. Hydrogen peroxide is effective against endospore-forming bacteria, such as Clostridium difficile, where alcohol has been shown to be ineffective. Ultraviolet cleaning devices may also be used to disinfect the rooms of patients infected with Clostridium difficile or methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus after discharge. Despite sanitation protocol, patients cannot be entirely isolated from infectious agents. Furthermore, patients are often prescribed antibiotics and other antimicrobial drugs to help treat illness; this may increase the selection pressure for the emergence of resistant strains. Sterilization Sterilization goes further than just sanitizing. It kills all microorganisms on equipment and surfaces through exposure to chemicals, ionizing radiation, dry heat, or steam under pressure. Isolation Isolation is the implementation of isolating precautions designed to prevent transmission of microorganisms by common routes in hospitals. (See Universal precautions and Transmission-based precautions.) Because agent and host factors are more difficult to control, interruption of transfer of microorganisms is directed primarily at transmission for example isolation of infectious cases in special hospitals and isolation of patient with infected wounds in special rooms also isolation of joint transplantation patients on specific rooms. Handwashing Handwashing frequently is called the single most important measure to reduce the risks of transmitting skin microorganisms from one person to another or from one site to another on the same patient. Washing hands as promptly and thoroughly as possible between patient contacts and after contact with blood, body fluids, secretions, excretions, and equipment or articles contaminated by them is an important component of infection control and isolation precautions. The spread of nosocomial infections, among immunocompromised patients is connected with health care workers' hand contamination in almost 40% of cases, and is a challenging problem in the modern hospitals. The best way for workers to overcome this problem is conducting correct hand-hygiene procedures; this is why the WHO launched in 2005 the GLOBAL Patient Safety Challenge. Two categories of micro-organisms can be present on health care workers' hands: transient flora and resident flora. The first is represented by the micro-organisms taken by workers from the environment, and the bacteria in it are capable of surviving on the human skin and sometimes to grow. The second group is represented by the permanent micro-organisms living on the skin surface (on the stratum corneum or immediately under it). They are capable of surviving on the human skin and to grow freely on it. They have low pathogenicity and infection rate, and they create a kind of protection from the colonization from other more pathogenic bacteria. The skin of workers is colonized by 3.9 x 104 – 4.6 x 106 cfu/cm2. The microbes comprising the resident flora are: Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus hominis, and Microccocus, Propionibacterium, Corynebacterium, Dermobacterium, and Pitosporum spp., while transient organisms are Staphylococcus aureus, and Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Acinetobacter, Enterobacter and Candida spp. The goal of hand hygiene is to eliminate the transient flora with a careful and proper performance of hand washing, using different kinds of soap, (normal and antiseptic), and alcohol-based gels. The main problems found in the practice of hand hygiene is connected with the lack of available sinks and time-consuming performance of hand washing. An easy way to resolve this problem could be the use of alcohol-based hand rubs, because of faster application compared to correct hand-washing. Improving patient hand washing has also been shown to reduce the rate of nosocomial infection. Patients who are bed-bound often do not have as much access to clean their hands at mealtimes or after touching surfaces or handling waste such as tissues. By reinforcing the importance of handwashing and providing sanitizing gel or wipes within reach of the bed, nurses were directly able to reduce infection rates. A study published in 2017 demonstrated this by improving patient education on both proper hand-washing procedure and important times to use sanitizer and successfully reduced the rate of enterococci and Staphylococcus aureus. All visitors must follow the same procedures as hospital staff to adequately control the spread of infections. Moreover, multidrug-resistant infections can leave the hospital and become part of the community flora if steps are not taken to stop this transmission. It is unclear whether or not nail polish or rings affected surgical wound infection rates. Gloves In addition to hand washing, gloves play an important role in reducing the risks of transmission of microorganisms. Gloves are worn for three important reasons in hospitals. First, they are worn to provide a protective barrier for personnel, preventing large scale contamination of the hands when touching blood, body fluids, secretions, excretions, mucous membranes, and non-intact skin. In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration has mandated wearing gloves to reduce the risk of bloodborne pathogen infections. Second, gloves are worn to reduce the likelihood that microorganisms present on the hands of personnel will be transmitted to patients during invasive or other patient-care procedures that involve touching a patient's mucous membranes and nonintact skin. Third, they are worn to reduce the likelihood that the hands of personnel contaminated with micro-organisms from a patient or a fomite can transmit those micro-organisms to another patient. In this situation, gloves must be changed between patient contacts, and hands should be washed after gloves are removed. Antimicrobial surfaces Micro-organisms are known to survive on inanimate ‘touch’ surfaces for extended periods of time. This can be especially troublesome in hospital environments where immunodeficient patients are at enhanced risk for contracting nosocomial infections. Patients with hospital-acquired infections are predominantly hospitalized in different types of intensive care units (ICUs). Touch surfaces commonly found in hospital rooms, such as bed rails, call buttons, touch plates, chairs, door handles, light switches, grab rails, intravenous poles, dispensers (alcohol gel, paper towel, soap), dressing trolleys, and counter and table tops are known to be contaminated with Staphylococcus, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (one of the most virulent strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria) and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus. Objects in closest proximity to patients have the highest levels of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus. This is why touch surfaces in hospital rooms can serve as sources, or reservoirs, for the spread of bacteria from the hands of healthcare workers and visitors to patients. A number of compounds can decrease the risk of bacteria growing on surfaces including: copper, silver, and germicides. There have been a number of studies evaluating the use of no-touch cleaning systems particularly the use of ultraviolet C devices. One review was inconclusive due to lack of, or of poor quality evidence. Other reviews have found some evidence, and growing evidence of their effectiveness. Treatment Two of the bacteria species most likely to infect patients are the Gram-positive strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and Gram-negative Acinetobacter baumannii. While antibiotic drugs to treat diseases caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus are available, few effective drugs are available for Acinetobacter. Acinetobacter bacteria are evolving and becoming immune to antibiotics, so in many cases, polymyxin-type antibacterials need to be used. "In many respects it’s far worse than MRSA," said a specialist at Case Western Reserve University. Another growing disease, especially prevalent in New York City hospitals, is the drug-resistant, Gram-negative Klebsiella pneumoniae. An estimated more than 20% of the Klebsiella infections in Brooklyn hospitals "are now resistant to virtually all modern antibiotics, and those supergerms are now spreading worldwide." The bacteria, classified as Gram-negative because of their color on the Gram stain, can cause severe pneumonia and infections of the urinary tract, bloodstream, and other parts of the body. Their cell structures make them more difficult to attack with antibiotics than Gram-positive organisms like methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. In some cases, antibiotic resistance is spreading to Gram-negative bacteria that can infect people outside the hospital. "For gram-positives we need better drugs; for gram-negatives we need any drugs," said Dr. Brad Spellberg, an infectious-disease specialist at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, and the author of Rising Plague'', a book about drug-resistant pathogens. Hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP) is the second most common nosocomial infection and accounts for approximately one-fourth of all infections in the intensive care unit (ICU). HAP, or nosocomial pneumonia, is a lower respiratory infection that was not incubating at the time of hospital admission and that presents clinically 2 or more days after hospitalization. Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is defined as HAP in patients receiving mechanical ventilation. The incidence of VAP is 10%-30% among patients who require mechanical ventilation for >48 h. A standard treatment protocol is based on accurate diagnosis definitions, microbiological confirmation of VAP, and the administration of imipenem plus ciprofloxacin as initial empirical antibiotic treatment. One-third of nosocomial infections are considered preventable. The CDC estimates 2 million people in the United States are infected annually by hospital-acquired infections, resulting in 99,000 deaths. The most common nosocomial infections are of the urinary tract, surgical site and various pneumonias. An alternative treatment targeting localised infections is the use of irradiation by ultraviolet C. Epidemiology The methods used differ from country to country (definitions used, type of nosocomial infections covered, health units surveyed, inclusion or exclusion of imported infections, etc.), so the international comparisons of nosocomial infection rates should be made with the utmost care. Belgium In Belgium the prevalence of nosocomial infections is about 6.2%. Annually about 125,500 patients become infected by a nosocomial infection, resulting in almost 3000 deaths. The extra costs for the health insurance are estimated to be approximately €400 million/year. France Estimates ranged from 6.7% in 1990 to 7.4% (patients may have several infections). At national level, prevalence among patients in health care facilities was 6.7% in 1996, 5.9% in 2001 and 5.0% in 2006. The rates for nosocomial infections were 7.6% in 1996, 6.4% in 2001 and 5.4% in 2006. In 2006, the most common infection sites were urinary tract infections (30,3%), pneumopathy (14,7%), infections of surgery site (14,2%). Infections of the skin and mucous membrane (10,2%), other respiratory infections (6,8%) and bacterial infections / blood poisoning (6,4%). The rates among adult patients in intensive care were 13,5% in 2004, 14,6% in 2005, 14,1% in 2006 and 14.4% in 2007. Nosocomial infections are estimated to make patients stay in the hospital four to five additional days. Around 2004–2005, about 9,000 people died each year with a nosocomial infection, of which about 4,200 would have survived without this infection. Finland Rate was estimated at 8.5% of patients in 2005. Italy Since 2000, estimates show about a 6.7% infection rate, i.e. between and patients, which caused between and deaths. A survey in Lombardy gave a rate of 4.9% of patients in 2000. Switzerland Estimates range between 2 and 14%. A national survey gave a rate of 7.2% in 2004. United Kingdom In 2012 the Health Protection Agency reported the prevalence rate of hospital-acquired infectionIs in England was 6.4% in 2011, against a rate of 8.2% in 2006. with respiratory tract, urinary tract and surgical site infections the most common types of infections reported. In 2018 it was reported that in-hospital infections had risen from 5,972 in 2008 to 48,815 in 2017. United States The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated roughly 1.7 million hospital-associated infections, from all types of bacteria combined, cause or contribute to 99,000 deaths each year. Other estimates indicate 10%, or 2 million, patients a year become infected, with the annual cost ranging from $4.5 billion to $11 billion. In the US, the most frequent type of hospital infection is urinary tract infection (36%), followed by surgical site infection (20%), and bloodstream infection and pneumonia (both 11%). History In 1841, Ignaz Semmelweis, a Hungarian obstetrician was working at a Vienna maternity hospital. He was "shocked" by the death rate of women who developed puerperal fever. He documented that mortality was three times higher in the ward where the medical students were delivering babies than in the next ward that was staffed by midwifery students. The medical students were also routinely working with cadavers. He compared the rates of infection with a similar hospital in Dublin, Ireland and hypothesized that it was the medical students who somehow were infecting the women after labor. He instituted mandatory hand-washing in May 1847 and infection rates dropped dramatically. Louis Pasteur proposed the germ theory of disease and began his work on cholera in 1865 by identifying that it was microorganisms that were associated with disease. See also Cubicle curtain ESKAPE Infection control Iatrogenesis NAV-CO2 Phototherapy Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures References External links Health care quality Infectious diseases Intensive care medicine Medical hygiene Occupational diseases Healthcare-associated infections

Shooting Star

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Shooting star refers to a meteor. Shooting star may also refer to: Film, television, and theater Shooting Star (2015 film), a 2015 Bulgarian short film Shooting Star (2020 film), a 2020 Canadian short film Shooting Stars (British TV series), a British comedy television show Shooting Stars (Singaporean TV series), a 2005 Singaporean TV drama Shooting Star (animated series), a 2020 television series by 41 Entertainment Star Trek: Phaser Strike (called Shooting Star in Germany, Italy and UK), a 1979 video game for the Microvision "Shooting Stars" (CSI), a 2005 sixth-season episode of CSI Shooting Star, a play by Steven Dietz Shooting Stars, a play by Molly Newman Shooting Stars (1927 film), a 1927 British drama film Shooting Stars (1950 film), a 1950 film Shooting Stars (1952 film), a 1952 West German drama film Shooting Stars (1983 film), a 1983 television film, starring Billy Dee Williams Shooting Stars (1997 film) ((), a 1997 French comedy produced by Richard Sadler "Shooting Star" (Glee), a 2013 episode of the television show Glee Shooting Stars Award, annually presented to 10 young European actors at the Berlin International Film Festival The Shooting Star, the name of Racer X's car in Mach GoGoGo media Shooting Stars (South Korean TV series), a 2022 television series Literature Shooting Stars, a 2016 novel by Brian Falkner Shooting Star, a 1958 novel by Robert Bloch Shooting Star (Temple novel), by Australian Peter Temple The Shooting Star, a 1942 Tintin adventure Shooting Star (comics), a character from Marvel Comics Music Shooting Star (band), a rock band from Kansas City, Missouri Albums Shooting Star (Elkie Brooks album), 1978 Shooting Star (Shooting Star album), 1980 Shooting Stars (album), a 1979 album by Dollar Shooting Star (EP), a 2012 EP by Owl City, and the title song Songs "Baby Can I Hold You/Shooting Star", by Boyzone "Shooting Star" (Air Traffic song), 2007 "Shooting Star" (Bad Company song), 1975 "Shooting Star" (David Rush song), 2009 "Shooting Star" (Deepest Blue song), 2004 "Shooting Star" (Disney song), from Disney's Hercules "Shooting Star" (Bob Dylan song), 1989 "Shooting Star" (Elton John song), 1978 "Shooting Star" (Modern Talking song), 2006 "Shooting Star" (Poison song), 2002 "Shooting Star" (Owl City song), 2012 "Shooting Star" (Tara McDonald song), 2013 "Shooting Stars" (Bag Raiders song), 2010 "Shooting Stars" (Dragon song), 1977 "Shooting Star" by The Mamas & the Papas, from the 1971 album People Like Us "Shooting Star", by Lou Reed, from the 1978 album Street Hassle "Shooting Star", by Cross Gene "Shooting Star", a 1997 dance single by Bang!, covered by Flip & Fill "Shooting Star" by Harry Chapin, from the 1974 album Verities & Balderdash "Shooting Star" by Dollar, from the album Shooting Stars "Shooting Star" by the Australian band Expatriate, from the 2007 album In the Midst of This "Shooting Star" by Riyu Kosaka, from the 2003 album BeForU "Shooting Star" by Cliff Richard and The Shadows, from the 1966 film Thunderbirds Are Go "Shooting Star" by Órla Fallon, from the 2009 album Distant Shore "Shooting Star" by Elliott Smith, from the 2004 album From a Basement on the Hill "Shooting Stars" by Amy Diamond, from the 2005 album This Is Me Now "Shooting Star" by everset, Kamen Rider Meteor's theme on the series Kamen Rider Fourze "The Shooting Star" by Gojira, from the 2016 album Magma "Shooting Star" by VIXX from the 2016 album Kratos Science and mathematics Hypervelocity star, a type of star that moves at unusually high velocities across the galaxy Dodecatheon, a genus of herbaceous flowering plants Dodecatheon pulchellum, also known as pretty shooting star, few-flowered shooting star, dark throat shooting star and prairie shooting star Sport Shooting Stars F.C., a Nigerian football club NBA All-Star Weekend Shooting Stars Competition, a basketball competition A professional wrestling aerial technique Transportation P-80 Shooting Star, a United States Army Air Forces jet fighter T-33 Shooting Star, an American-built jet trainer Shooting Star (clipper), an extreme clipper ship built in 1851 Another 1851 extreme clipper, USS Ino, which served in the Civil War. It was renamed Shooting Star in 1867. A BR 'Britannia' class steam locomotive A GWR Star Class, steam locomotive A logo displayed on many Hokutosei locomotives, including: JNR Class DD51, a diesel-hydraulic locomotive type operated in Japan since 1962 JR Freight Class EF510, a multi-voltage AC/DC electric locomotive type operated in Japan since 2002 Other uses Shooting Star (spacecraft), an expendable cargo module for the Dream Chaser spacecraft Shooting Star (drone), quadcopter drone by Intel Tecumseh (1768–1813), whose Shawnee name has been translated as Shooting Star Shooting Star Casino, in Minnesota Bay 101 Shooting Star, a World Poker Tour tournament Shooting star (candlestick pattern), in finance Shooting Star Tommy Gun, a carnival amusement game Shooting Star, Ace's aircraft from TwinBee Yahho! and Sexy Parodius See also Falling star (disambiguation) Ryūsei (disambiguation)

List of governors of the Gold Coast

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This is a list of colonial administrators in the Gold Coast (modern Ghana) from the start of English presence in 1621 until Ghana's independence from the United Kingdom in 1957. In addition to the Gold Coast Colony, the Governor of Gold Coast was for most of the period also responsible for the administration of the Ashanti Colony, the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast Protectorate and the League of Nations/United Nations mandate/trust territory of British Togoland. Governors of the Gold Coast (1621–1751) Governors of the Committee of Merchants of the Gold Coast (1751–1822) Governors of the Gold Coast (1822–1828) Sir Charles MacCarthy, 27 March 1822 – 17 May 1822, first time James Chisholm, 17 May 1822–December 1822, first time Sir Charles MacCarthy, December 1822–21 January 1824, second time James Chisholm, 21 January 1824 – 17 October 1824, second time Edward Purdon, 17 October 1824 – 22 March 1825 Major-general Sir Charles Turner, 22 March 1825 – 8 March 1826 Sir Neil Campbell, 18 May 1826 – 15 November 1826 Major Henry John Ricketts, 15 November 1826 – 11 October 1827, first time Hugh Lumley, 11 October 1827 – 10 March 1828 George Hingston, 10 March 1828 – 5 June 1828 Major Henry John Ricketts, 5 June 1828 – 25 June 1828, second time Governors of the Committee of Merchants of the Gold Coast (1828–1843) John Jackson, 25 June 1828 – 19 February 1830 George Maclean, 19 February 1830 – 26 June 1836, first time William Topp, 26 June 1836 – 15 August 1838 George Maclean, 15 August 1838 – 1843, second time Governors of the Gold Coast (1843–1960) In 1843 a governor was appointed subordinate to the Governor of Sierra Leone until 1850. After the Third Anglo-Ashanti War of 1873–74, the Gold Coast was formally declared a crown colony. Henry Worsley Hill, 1843–8 March 1845 James Lelley, 8 March 1845 – 15 April 1846 William Winniett, 15 April 1846 – 31 January 1849, first time James Coleman Fitzpatrick, 31 January 1849 – 13 January 1850 Sir William Winniett, 13 January 1850 – 4 December 1850, second time James Bannerman, 4 December 1850 – 14 October 1851 Stephen John Hill, 14 October 1851–December 1854 Henry Connor, December 1854–March 1857, acting Sir Benjamin Chilley Campbell Pine, March 1857–April 1858 Henry Bird, April 1858–20 April 1860, acting Edward B. Andrews, 20 April 1860 – 14 April 1862 William A. Ross, 14 April 1862 – 20 September 1862, acting Richard Pine, 20 September 1862 – 1865 Rokeby Jones, 1865, acting William Elliot Mockler, 1865, acting Edward Conran, April 1865–February 1867 Herbert Taylor Ussher, February 1867–April 1872, first time John Pope Hennessy, April 1872 – 1872 Charles Spencer Salmon, 1872–September 1872, acting Robert William Keate 7 Mar 1873 – 17 Mar 1873 Robert William Harley, September 1872–2 October 1873 Garnet Joseph Wolseley, 2 October 1873 – 4 March 1874 James Maxwell, 4 March 1874 – 30 March 1874, acting Charles Lees, 30 March 1874–June 1874, acting, first time George Cumine Strahan, June 1874–7 April 1876 Charles Lees, 7 April 1876–December 1876, acting, second time Sanford Freeling, December 1876–13 May 1878, acting to 5 June 1877 Charles Lees, 13 May 1878–June 1879, acting, third time Herbert Taylor Ussher, June 1879–1 December 1880, second time William Brandford Griffith, 1 December 1880 – 4 March 1881, acting, first time Sir Samuel Rowe, 4 March 1881 – 29 April 1884 W. A. G. Young, 29 April 1884 – 24 April 1885 William Brandford Griffith, 24 April 1885 – 7 April 1895, second time William Edward Maxwell, 7 April 1895 – 6 December 1897 Frederick Mitchell Hodgson, 6 December 1897 – 29 August 1900, acting to 29 May 1898 W. Low, 29 August 1900 – 17 December 1900, acting Sir Matthew Nathan, 17 December 1900 – 9 February 1904 Herbert Bryan, 9 February 1904 – 3 March 1904, acting, first time John Pickersgill Rodger, 3 March 1904 – 19 September 1910 Herbert Bryan, 19 September 1910 – 20 November 1910, acting, second time James Jamieson Thorburn, 21 November 1910 – 29 June 1912 Herbert Bryan, 29 June 1912 – 26 December 1912, acting, third time Sir Hugh Charles Clifford, 26 December 1912 – 1 April 1919 Alexander Ransford Slater, 1 April 1919 – 8 October 1919, acting, first time Frederick Gordon Guggisberg, 9 October 1919 – 24 April 1927 Sir James Crawford Maxwell, 24 April 1927 – 5 June 1927, acting John Maxwell, 5 June 1927–July 1927, acting Sir Alexander Ransford Slater, July 1927–5 April 1932, second time Geoffrey Northcote, 5 April 1932 – 29 November 1932, acting, first time Sir Shenton Thomas, 30 November 1932 – 13 May 1934 Geoffrey Northcote, 13 May 1934 – 23 October 1934, acting, second time Sir Arnold Weinholt Hodson, 24 October 1934 – 24 October 1941 Sir George Ernest London, 24 October 1941 – 29 June 1942, acting, first time Sir Alan Cuthbert Maxwell Burns, 29 June 1942 – 2 August 1947 Sir George Ernest London, 2 August 1947 – 12 January 1948, acting, second time Sir Gerald Hallen Creasy, 12 January 1948 – 15 February 1949 Sir Robert Scott, 15 February 1949 – 28 March 1949, acting, first time Thorleif Rattray Orde Mangin, 28 March 1949 – 11 June 1949, acting Sir Robert Scott, 11 June 1949 – 11 August 1949, acting, second time Sir Charles Noble Arden-Clarke, 11 August 1949 – 6 March 1957. Governor-General of Ghana (1957–1960) Lord Listowel, March 1957 – July 1960 In 1957, the Gold Coast Colony, the Ashanti Colony, the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast Protectorate and the British Togoland Trust Territory, became an independent dominion within the British Commonwealth of Nations called Ghana. The Governor-General of Ghana served as the representative of the Queen of Ghana, whose formal title in Ghana was ‘Her Majesty Elizabeth the Second, Queen of Ghana and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth’. The entire dominion formed part of Her Majesty's dominions until the country became a republic in 1960. See also History of Ghana List of heads of state of Ghana List of Ghana governments List of colonial heads of Sierra Leone Lists of incumbents References http://www.rulers.org/rulg1.html#ghana http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Ghana.html http://www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/goldcoast/goldcoastadmin.htm Governor of the Gold Coast Governor of the Gold Coast Gold Coast

Halloween (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

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"Halloween" is episode six of season two of Buffy the Vampire Slayer. It was written by freelance writer Carl Ellsworth and directed by Bruce Seth Green. The narrative follows Ethan Rayne who sells Halloween costumes that transform their wearers into a more real version of that costume. Plot Buffy and Angel finally agree to a date, but Buffy is delayed by a vampire. As Angel waits at The Bronze, Cordelia shows up and starts flirting with him. When Buffy finally arrives, she sees Angel talking to Cordelia and turns to leave. The next day, Principal Snyder forces Buffy and her friends to chaperone small children while they trick-or-treat. Larry, the school bully, threatens Xander while asking him about Buffy, who smashes Larry into a soda machine. Buffy and Willow speculate on what type of women Angel was attracted to when he was human. To find out they sneak into Giles' office and borrow the passed-down Watchers' Diary. The gang head to Ethan's Costume Shoppe, where Willow gets a Halloween ghost costume and Xander buys a toy gun to go with his army fatigue outfit. Buffy gets a beautiful pink 18th-century gown—one that matches what she has spied from Giles' files on Angel. While Spike reviews a video of Buffy fighting, Drusilla tells him that someone will make Buffy weak on Halloween night. Meanwhile, Ethan chants to a statue of Janus in the back room of his shop. Later that night, Ethan's spell takes effect and everyone wearing a costume from his store turns into their respective personas. Willow becomes a real ghost, able to walk through walls, Xander a U.S. soldier, and Buffy an 18th-century noble woman; the latter two suffering from amnesia as a result of the spell. With Buffy incapable of fighting the threats around them, Willow is forced to take the lead and rushes them to Buffy's house. Outside, Cordelia, wearing a costume bought from elsewhere, screams and Xander goes out to save her. Angel shows up and takes Buffy into the kitchen. As Angel tries to kill a vampire that has sneaked in, he reveals his vampire face. Buffy is horrified and runs from the house. Arriving at the library by walking through walls, Willow tells Giles about Ethan's costumes. They head to the shop, where Giles reveals that he knows Ethan and forces him to tell him how to reverse the spell. Spike is hunting for Buffy, who enters an alley and meets Larry, now a pirate. Xander arrives to beat up Larry while Willow shows up to warn them of Spike. The gang tries to barricade themselves inside a warehouse, but Spike's gang breaks in. At Ethan's discretion, Giles smashes the statue, breaking the spell. Buffy recovers just in time to defeat Spike, who flees. Buffy admits to Angel that she was dressing to impress him. He tells her that he hated those women; he found them dull and wanted someone exciting like Buffy. They kiss. The next day, Giles returns to the store to find the stock gone and a note from Ethan - "Be seeing you". External links Buffy the Vampire Slayer (season 2) episodes Halloween television episodes 1997 American television episodes it:La riunione

List of colonial governors and administrators of Kenya

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This article contains a list of chairmen, administrators, commissioners and governors of British Kenya Colony. The office of Governor of Kenya was replaced by the office of Governor General in 1963 and then later replaced by a President of Kenya, upon Kenya becoming a Republic in 1964. For continuation after independence, see: List of heads of state of Kenya. Chairmen/Administrators of the Imperial British East Africa Company Commissioners and Governors of the East Africa Protectorate/Kenya See also Kenya List of heads of state of Kenya Prime Minister of Kenya Deputy President of Kenya Lists of office-holders References Colonial governors and administrators Colonial governors and administrators Colonial governors and administrators, Kenya Kenya Colonial governors and administrators Kenya and the Commonwealth of Nations

Safeway Inc.

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Safeway is an American supermarket chain founded by Marion Barton Skaggs in April 1915 in American Falls, Idaho. The chain provides grocery items, food and general merchandise and feature a variety of specialty departments, such as bakery, delicatessen, floral and pharmacy, as well as Starbucks coffee shops and fuel centers. It is a subsidiary of Albertsons after being acquired by private equity investors led by Cerberus Capital Management in January 2015. Safeway's primary base of operations is in the Western United States with some stores located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the Eastern Seaboard. The subsidiary is headquartered in Pleasanton, California, with its parent company, Albertsons, headquartered in Boise, Idaho. Safeway stores operate under the logo of a stylized white "S" inside a rounded red square with the slogan "Ingredients for life". Following the organics trend, the stores have expanded the number of organic fruits and vegetables in the produce section and offer other items under the "O Organics" label. Stores may have a Starbucks, a deli counter, a meat department, a produce section, a flower department, a bakery, a pharmacy, a liquor section, and/or many aisles of nonperishable items. The stores offer many in-house private label brands as well as name brands across all product categories. History S.M. Skaggs, a Baptist minister, was convinced that the prevailing system of allowing customers to buy food from stores on credit increased prices, because grocers and storekeepers had to wait to get paid, and it made the customers overly dependent on those grocers and storekeepers. He described selling items on credit as "the growing evil of installment purchasing". S.M. Skaggs established a store in American Falls, Idaho, and he sold groceries for cash at the time of sale. Skaggs was also against the prevailing high-cost system of the grocer having clerks serving all the needs of each customer. He was an early proponent of the self-service concept. Items were kept within the customers' reach, on shelves that hugged the walls, with aisles clear for customers to walk comfortably. Customers picked up baskets as they entered the store, selected what they wanted from the shelves, and paid for their purchases at a checkout counter. When S.M. Skaggs decided he wanted to focus on his Baptist ministry, his son M.B. Skaggs purchased the grocery store from him for $1,088 (). His second store opened in Burley, Idaho, in 1918. By 1921, M.B. Skaggs owned multiple stores in Idaho and Montana. M.B. Skaggs moved to Portland, Oregon in 1921, and he established four groceries in town that year, in part by buying a grocer and a coffee company. The chain, which operated as two separate businesses, Skaggs Cash Stores and Skaggs United Stores, grew quickly, and Skaggs enlisted the help of his five brothers to grow the network of stores. M.B.'s business strategy, to give his customers value and to expand by keeping a narrow profit margin, proved spectacularly successful. By 1926, he had opened 428 Skaggs stores in 10 states. M.B. almost doubled the size of his business that year when he merged his company with 322 Sam Seelig Company stores and incorporated as Safeway, Inc., because he thought that a chain that would outlive him should not carry his name. The point of the name was that the grocery operated on a cash-and-carry basis – it did not offer credit, as grocers traditionally had done. It was the "safe way" to buy because a family could not get into debt via its grocery bill (as many families did at the time, especially during the Great Depression). In 1926, Charles E. Merrill, the founder of the Merrill Lynch brokerage firm, saw an opportunity to consolidate the West Coast grocery industry. Towards this end, he purchased the 322-store Safeway chain of W.R.H. Weldon, who wished to exit retailing and concentrate on wholesale. Then, in June 1926, Merrill offered Skaggs either $7 million outright or $1.5 million plus 30,000 shares in the merged firm. Skaggs took the latter. On July 1, 1926, Safeway merged with the 673 stores from Skaggs United Stores of Idaho and Skaggs Cash Stores of California. On completion of the Skaggs/Safeway merger, M. B. Skaggs became the Chief Executive of the business. Two years later, Skaggs listed Safeway on the New York Stock Exchange. In the 1930s, Safeway introduced produce pricing by the pound, adding "sell by" dates on perishables, nutritional labeling, and some of the first parking lots. The merger instantly created the largest chain of grocery stores west of the Mississippi. In the 1930s, Charles E. Merrill temporarily left Merrill Lynch to help manage Safeway. At the time of the merger, the company was headquartered in Reno, Nevada. In 1929, it was relocated to a former grocery warehouse in Oakland, California. Safeway headquarters remained there until the move to Pleasanton, California in 1996. In the late 1930s the New Negro Alliance boycotted the Sanitary Grocery Company (then a Safeway subsidiary) to pressure store owners to employ African Americans, especially in predominantly black neighborhoods. The Sanitary Grocery Company successfully sought an injunction against the New Negro Alliance, which was upheld by the Washington, D.C. Court of Appeals. This led to the 1938 landmark decision of New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co., which defended the right to peaceful protest in the resolution of labor disputes. Expansion The initial public offering price of Safeway stock was $226 in 1927. A five for one split in 1928 brought the price down to under $50. Over the next few years, Charles Merrill, with financing supplied by Merrill Lynch, then began aggressively acquiring numerous regional grocery store chains for Safeway in a rollup strategy. Early acquisitions included significant parts of Piggly Wiggly chain as part of the breakup of that company by Merrill Lynch and Wall Street. Most transactions involved the swap of stock certificates, with little cash changing hands. Most acquired chains retained their own names until the mid-1930s. In 1929, there were rumors of a Safeway-Kroger merger. The number of stores peaked at 3,400 in 1932, when expansion ground to a halt. The Great Depression had finally impacted the chain, which began to focus on cost control. In addition, numerous smaller grocery stores were being replaced with larger supermarket stores. By 1933, the chain ranked second in the grocery industry behind The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company and ahead of Kroger. In 1935, Safeway sold its nine stores in Honolulu, Hawaii "because of the inconvenience of proper supervision". Also in 1935, independent groceries in California convinced the California legislature to enact a progressive tax on chain stores. Before the act took effect, Safeway filed a petition to have the law put to a referendum. In 1936, the California electorate voted to repeal the law. In 1936, Safeway introduced a money back guarantee on meat. International expansion The company expanded into Canada in 1929 with 127 stores (which became Canada Safeway Limited and which was sold to Sobeys in 2013); into the United Kingdom in 1962 (which became Safeway plc); into Australia in 1963 (which became Safeway Australia); and into West Germany in 1964. The company also has operations in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait in a licensing and management agreement with the Tamimi Group during the 1980s. In 1981, it acquired 49% of Mexican retailer Casa Ley. Safeway usually achieved international expansion by acquiring one or more small chains in a given country. It expanded into Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, however, through a joint venture. This initial nucleus of stores received Safeway systems and technology and then expanded organically. International chains acquired include: 1940s–1970s In 1941, Marion B. Skaggs retired from the Safeway board of directors. In 1947, the company's sales exceeded $1 billion for the first time. By 1951, total sales had reached nearly $1.5 billion. The company adopted the S logo, which it still uses, in 1962. In 1955, Robert A. Magowan became Chairman of the Board of Safeway. Magowan had married Charles Merrill's daughter, Doris. Magowan also assumed the title of President in 1956. He remained President until 1968, and a member of the board until 1978. In 1966, Robert A Magowan brought his star Meat Processing Plant Manager, Michael F. Concannon to Oakland to become the Head of Meat Processing in North America. He retired in 1978 as well. Mike was instrumental in opening the Stockton plant. The Wichita plant and Meat Processing in Canada began in the 1970s. In 1959, Safeway opened its first store in the new state of Alaska—the first major food retailer to enter that market. The company opened three stores in Anchorage and one in Fairbanks over the next several years. The store in downtown Fairbanks was built on the site of a red-light district, known as The Line, which operated for close to a half century. Most of these stores were in buildings constructed by Anchorage real estate developer Wally Hickel, who later became governor of Alaska and U.S. Secretary of the Interior. Also in 1959, the firm also opened the first "marina-style" store on the Marina in San Francisco. Hundreds of stores in this barrel-vaulted-roof style opened during the next decade. In 1961, the company sold its New York operations to Finast. In 1963, Safeway again opened stores in Hawaii, having exited this market in 1934. It leased one store in Culver City to animator/filmmaker Don Bluth, who used it as a theater until 1967. In 1969, Safeway entered the Toronto market in Canada and the Houston market in Texas through opening new stores, rather than by acquisition. The firm ultimately failed against entrenched competition in both these markets. In 1977, Safeway management instituted a program to fight counterfeit $100 bills by, among other things, telling employees that bills that lacked the words "In God We Trust" were counterfeit. Because Safeway had not sufficiently investigated the history of $100 bills, it was unaware that some bills still in circulation did not have the phrase. Eventually, an innocent shopper was incorrectly reported to Oakland, California, police for passing a "counterfeit" bill. He was arrested and strip-searched before Oakland police contacted the Treasury Department and realized the error. The 1981 jury verdict of joint and several liability for $45,000 against Safeway Stores and the City of Oakland was upheld in full by the Supreme Court of California on December 26, 1986. In 1979, Peter Magowan, son of Robert Magowan and grandson of Charles Merrill, was appointed chairman and CEO of Safeway. Magowan managed Safeway for the next 13 years—presiding over the dramatic decline of the firm in terms of store numbers 1980s: Takeover and sell-offs Following a hostile takeover bid from corporate raiders Herbert and Robert Haft, the chain was acquired by Kohlberg Kravis Roberts (KKR) acting as a white knight in 1986. With the assistance of KKR, the company was taken private and assumed tremendous debt. To pay off this debt, the company began selling off a large number of its operating divisions. The divested domestic divisions of Safeway proved to be poisoned chalices for almost all those who acquired them. Essentially every purchasing entity hit financial troubles and either went bankrupt or was later acquired. (Hy-Vee and Fareway are the exceptions with the locations they acquired, having made them work.) The international stores were more successful for their acquirers. Safeway plc, the operator of the UK stores, was sold to Argyll Foods, which itself was ultimately absorbed by Morrisons in 2004. Safeway Australia was sold to the Australian-based Woolworths Limited in 1985. Safeway sold its stores in Southern California, including those in established markets like Los Angeles and San Diego, to The Vons Companies in 1988 in exchange for a 30 percent interest in the company. Safeway also scaled back its operations in Fresno, Modesto, Stockton, and Sacramento. Save Mart Supermarkets purchased the few remaining Fresno Safeway stores in 1996. Many stores in the Eastern Division were also closed or sold in the 1987–1989 timeframe, including many recent additions in the DelMarVa Eastern Shore area. Safeway's national presence was now reduced to several western states and Northern California, plus the Washington, D.C. area. Altogether, nearly half the 2,200 stores in the chain were sold. Expansion in the 1990s The company was taken public again in 1990, with the Jordan stores sold to the Masri family in 1991. In December 2003, the Masri family sold it to The Sultan Center of Kuwait. The late 1990s and early 2000s once again saw Safeway rapidly expand into new territories under a variety of regional names. In 1997, Safeway bought out the rest of The Vons Companies, giving it Southern California stores once more. In 1998, Chicago-based Dominick's Finer Foods was acquired from Yucaipa Companies. While Safeway had stores in Alaska, in 1999 they bought Carrs-Safeway, with the same year bringing the purchase of Houston-based Randall's Food Markets, which also had stores in Austin, Texas. Randalls also had stores in the Dallas-Fort Worth area through Randalls' other brand, Tom Thumb, along with gourmet grocery store Simon David. The purchase of Randalls also started the practice of Safeway-owned gas stations, as Randalls already had stations at their stores. In 2000, Safeway started grocery delivery operations and in 2001 acquired the family-owned Genuardi's chain, with locations in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. While Safeway also created the subsidiary Blackhawk Network, a prepaid and payments network, a card-based financial solutions company, and a provider of third-party prepaid cards, around this time, Genuardi's would be the last grocery purchase Safeway would make. Lifestyle stores By the early 2000s, Safeway's expansion beyond the West Coast had been poorly received, citing Safeway's brands and West Coast-based buyers, with Dominick's on the sale block, and Randalls and Genuardi's losing market share. To reinvigorate the flagging divisions, increase brand involvement, and to differentiate itself from its competitor, Safeway began a $100 million brand repositioning campaign labeled "Ingredients for life". in 2005. The launch included a redesigned logo, a new slogan "Ingredients for life" alongside a four-panel life icon to be used throughout stores and advertising, and a web application called "FoodFlex" to improve consumer nutrition. Many locations are being converted to the "Lifestyle" format. The new look was designed by Michigan-based PPC Design. In addition to the "inviting decor with warm ambiance and subdued lighting", the move required heavy redesign of store layout, new employee uniforms, sushi and olive bars, and the addition of in-store Starbucks kiosks (with cupholders on grocery carts). The change also involved differentiating the company from competitors with promotions based on the company's extensive loyalty card database. This would be the design going forward for new and remodeled stores. At the end of 2004, there were 142 "Lifestyle" format stores in the United States and Canada, with plans to open or remodel another 300 stores with this type of theme the following year. "Lifestyle" format stores have seen significantly higher average weekly sales than its other stores. By the end of 2006, shares were up, proving this rebranding campaign had a major impact on sale figures. In July 2007, the company stock rose on speculation that Sears Holdings Corporation was seeking to purchase Safeway. Decline and sale to Albertsons In 2012, the company dissolved the Genuardi's chain in the Philadelphia metro through a combination of store selloffs and closures. Giant acquired 15 of the chain's stores and made an offer for a 16th which was instead sold to a local chain, McCaffrey's, as part of an antitrust settlement. Weis also bought three Genuardi's locations. A number of unprofitable Genuardi's units also had closed in 2010 and 2011 as their leases expired. The Genuardi's stores in Wilmington, Delaware, were converted to the Safeway name in 2004 due to legal issues stemming from a union contract signed by the management of early Safeway stores in Delaware that closed in 1982. The current Safeway locations in Delaware are served by division offices in the Baltimore–Washington metropolitan area, where Safeway has long been a major grocer. In 2011, Safeway signed an agreement with UNFI, for the distribution to all of Safeway's banners in the United States for non-proprietary natural, organic and specialty products effective October 2011. In 2013, it was announced that Cerberus Capital Management were exploring a deal for all or part of Safeway. On June 12, 2013, Sobeys announced it would acquire Safeway's operations in Canada for CAD$5.8 billion, subject to regulatory approval. The move will bolster its presence in Western Canada, where Safeway was predominant. Sobeys completed the sale five months later while keeping the Safeway banner on its newly acquired stores while changing private labels to be more inline with those used by its new parent. In October 2013, Safeway announced that it would close and sell its remaining Dominick's stores in the Chicago area by early 2014. The announcement spurred its competitors to seek employees and desirable store locations they could purchase. One location would remain open in Bannockburn, Illinois until January 25, 2014. On February 19, 2014, Safeway began to explore selling itself. On March 6, 2014, longtime rival Albertsons, backed by Cerberus Capital Management announced it would purchase Safeway for $9.4 billion in a deal expected to close in the 4th quarter of the year. Many of Safeway's private brands and IT systems were integrated and replaced Albertsons legacy equipment. As part of the purchase, Blackhawk Network was spun off into an independent company. Blackhawk remained Safeway's sole gift card provider until 2021, when Albertsons switched to InComm for branded gift cards and network activation. Blackhawk still provides Safeway with store gift cards and store credit. Safeway as a supermarket brand On January 30, 2015, the merger between Safeway and Albertsons was finalized. As part of the merger, Bellingham, Washington-headquartered grocery chain Haggen announced it would buy 146 Vons, Albertsons, and Pavilions stores across Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, and Arizona as part of anti-monopoly requirements following the merger. Some of the major metropolitan areas affected were Los Angeles, Portland, Phoenix, Tucson, San Diego, Bakersfield, Seattle, and Las Vegas. Other stores in the West Coast, along with the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex market, also saw divestments. Following the purchase, Safeway and its remaining brands, Randalls, Tom Thumb, Vons, and Pavilions, along with their respective divisions, were integrated into the operations of Albertsons, and Safeway's proprietary food products were distributed in all of the Albertsons-Safeway banners, replacing Albertsons' SuperValu branded products. All former Albertsons banners had their telephones and NCR POS systems replaced with Safeway's Toshiba/IBM hardware. Until the stores' sale to Publix in 2018, on January 11, 2016, it was announced that the three remaining Albertsons stores in Florida, located in Largo, Altamonte Springs and Oakland Park, would be re-bannered as Safeway; this marks the first time that the Safeway brand would exist on a supermarket operation in Florida. Beginning in 2018, Safeway and Albertsons began remodeling stores with a new theme that moved away from the "Lifestyle" decor first introduced in the early 2000s. The new theme features brighter colors and tiled backsplashes on department signage. The company has also begun to replace most of its lighting setup in favor of LEDs. Most older stores used fluorescent tubes in the main aisles with halogen spotlights in the departments or to accent display cases for a relaxed ambiance. The new standard is LED retrofit tubes for the old fluorescent fixtures, and completely replacing the halogen spot lamps with LED strips or office-style ceiling fixtures that focus on overall illumination instead of targeted, accented lighting. They also replaced lighting in employee areas and offices throughout 2021. In August 2021, Safeway launched FreshPass, a paid subscription service that allows for free unlimited delivery/pickup and gives members exclusive discounts and offers. The program was launched with a refreshed mobile app that supports scan-and-pay shopping in select markets. Safeway also activated QR payments and digital receipts with the updated mobile app. The "Just for U" rewards program (commonly branded J4U), first launched in 2012, was simplified to "for u" as part of the FreshPass launch. Other Albertsons stores in various markets have rebannered as Safeway, including Denver and Seattle. Private brands "Signature Select" is the company's signature private label that offers an everyday range of products. "Signature Reserve" is the company's private label for more upscale products. The label "Primo Taglio" is used for upscale deli products and "Lucerne" is the main dairy line for the company. In 2006, Safeway introduced an organically grown and processed line of products named "O Organics". A number of prepared dishes and soups are available under "Signature Cafe". After its acquisition by Albertsons, the combined company adopted Safeway's private label brand program, previously named "Safeway Select". Brand list Some of the brands in use are: Signature Select - Main line of grocery products Signature Reserve - Premium alternative to products in the Signature Select line Value Corner - Cheaper alternative to products in the Signature Select/Lucerne line O Organics - Organic products Open Nature - 100% natural products Lucerne Dairy Farms - Main dairy brand, used for ice cream, cheese, yogurt, and milk Signature Cafe - Brand used for food sold at the deli counter, soups, and refrigerated food made by the deli and sold in the Deli Department Signature Farms - Produce Department brand for fresh fruits and vegetables Signature Care - Home and wellness products Primo Taglio - Deli brand for meat and cheese Debi Lilly Design - Floral and home décor products waterfrontBISTRO - Frozen seafood products Signature Select / Refreshe Brand Cola is produced by Cotts Beverages for Safeway; it is bottled in San Bernardino, California. Safeway Refreshe brand bottled water is bottled by Advanced H2O, LLC in Stockton, California. Safeway closed its water bottling plant in downtown Los Angeles in January 2012. Safeway grocery delivery Safeway has offered online grocery delivery service in select markets starting in the American Northwest region in 2000. The service grew to deliver in six states and the District of Columbia, mostly along the west and east coast. Fueled by rising demand from the COVID-19 pandemic, Safeway has been rapidly expanding the number of locations offering contactless curbside pickup (marketed as "DriveUp & Go"), and continues to offer traditional prescheduled delivery services along with on-demand deliveries filled via Instacart. In early 2020, Safeway began offering deli department items and prepared-to-order sandwiches on DoorDash, and eventually began offering grocery delivery as well once they introduced DoorDash Marketplace. Curbside pickup orders are processed by Store Employees with items off the shelf in a manner similar to Instacart. In January 2021, Albertsons announced that it would be laying off union company-employed grocery delivery drivers at Safeway stores in the Northern California region, stating that they would be transferring those services to app-based delivery platforms, such as Instacart. This decision only affected employees working in the 'traditional' scheduled delivery department inside the stores, and all employees were offered other positions within the company. This announcement came several weeks after Proposition 22 was passed in California, which allowed app-based services to classify their employees as independent contractors instead of full-time employees. Past concepts Safeway throughout the decades has ventured and experimented with different concepts and themes for its locations and stores. In 1963, Safeway developed the Super S format—which combined a general merchandise and drug store and a new Safeway supermarket in the same building. The stores shared a common entrance, but operated as separate businesses with their own checkstands. The first outlet opened in Anchorage, Alaska. In 1965, 22 existing Super S stores were sold to Skaggs Drug Stores. Safeway sold the remaining stores in 1971. Some of these stores, such as #1526 outside the Valley Fair Mall in San Jose, were walled off and subdivided to allow chain drugstores to sign leases while the Safeway remained operating in its original configuration. In 1964, Safeway opened a trial two-level International Store at 12th and F Street in Washington, D.C., with a conventional Safeway downstairs and a gourmet store on the upper floor. The Safeway International Store range included wild boar steaks, snow hare, suckling pig, and reindeer steaks. The company also made a number of attempts to repurpose older, smaller store sites, opening Food Barn, a discount grocery outlet, and Liquor Barn, a discount liquor outlet, in the 1970s. Safeway also trialed Town House in Washington, D.C., small stores targeting apartment dwellers, and a gourmet store concept, Bon Appetit in San Francisco and Tiburon, California. In 1969, Safeway formed a joint venture with Holly Farms Poultry Industries (now part of Tyson Foods) to open Holly Farms Fried Chicken in an effort to diversify into fast food restaurants and compete with KFC. The first store opened in Colonial Heights, Virginia in August 1969. Safeway also acquired Pak 'n Save Foods, a box warehouse concept, as part of the 1983 purchase of Brentwood in Northern California. While these stores were initially distinct in price points and bulk sales, today they are functionally and operationally the same as regular Safeway supermarkets. As of 2021, only 3 remaining Pak 'n Save locations remain in San Leandro, Emeryville, and Madera; all of the other remaining locations were either permanently closed or remodeled into standard Safeway locations. Logos The S Medallion (1946–1982): The red "S" part was slightly thinned in the late 1950s, and remained that way through 1982. The Ribbon Leaf (1982–2006): Safeway used this logo from 1982 to 2006. The red stylized "S" was still in the center. The Yin-Yang – Life logo (2006–present): The stylized "S" is still located in the center of a red "tube TV screen-style" shape, but is now white. Slogans "An Admonition and an Invitation to Drive the Safeway, Buy the Safeway" (original) "People on the Go, Go Safeway" (pre-1969) "Since We're Neighbors, Let's Be Friends" (1969–1979) was probably the first Safeway advertising campaign to make use of a singalong jingle. This slogan was used by the U.S. stores until July 16, 1979, when the "Everything" slogan was adopted. "Everything You Want from a Store and a Little Bit More" (1979 – December 1981) was the campaign launched on July 16, 1979, and was adopted, perhaps, to reflect the image of Safeway stores as "one stop shopping centers". This campaign was used through December 1981, although it was in use in the UK into the 1990s. "Today's Safeway: Where You Get a Little Bit More" (January 1982 – 1983) was the first Safeway ad campaign to make use of the company's new "ribbon leaf" logo. "America's Favorite Food Store" (1983–1986) "I Work an Honest Day and I Want an Honest Deal" (1985–1987) and "America's favorite food store" tagline were used with this campaign through 1986, until the buyout and divestitures, which reduced the store count and made the "America's favorite" line inaccurate; it also featured a song. "Nobody Does It Better" (1992 – late 1990s): This campaign is unique for being adapted from a pop song. In this case, the song was a hit for Carly Simon in 1977. Simon sang it as the theme song to 1977's James Bond movie, The Spy Who Loved Me. The 1993 version used in the commercials was recorded by R&B Grammy Award–winning singer Patti LaBelle. "Giving Our Best" (2001–2005) "Vons Is Value" (mid-to-late 1990s) was used only for Vons stores in Southern California. This was the first Vons ad campaign since Safeway took over ownership of the chain. "Ours Is Bigger Than Yours" (mid-1990s), in reference to the expansion of produce departments in Northern California. "Delivering Our Best" (late 1990s – 2005) was used only for grocery delivery "Ingredients for life" (2005–2015): Was introduced during the relaunch, as part of its lifestyle "branding". "fresh to your door" (2012–2019): used only for grocery delivery "It's Just Better" (2015–present): used by both Albertsons and Safeway as a combined company. "Fresh Foods, Local Flavors" (2019–present): used in Albertsons/Safeway Denver Division Safeway corporate information Safeway ATM Network The Safeway ATM Network, run for Safeway by Cardtronics, operates in Colorado, Oregon, Wyoming and Washington. Usually, one machine is located near the front of each store that has an ATM. Cirrus, Plus, Star, and NYCE are on the network. The network started late 1998 in Denver and expanded into Wyoming, Washington, and Oregon. Support offices California Pleasanton, California (Headquarters), Corporate Call Center, IT Support Services, Retail Pricing Colorado Denver, Colorado (Offices, Safeway Security, Trucking) Arizona Phoenix, Arizona (Offices, Accounting Offices, IT) Maryland Lanham, Maryland (Eastern US Headquarters) Philippines Manila, Philippines (IT Support Services) Safeway Category Optimization Process Safeway transitioned from regional control of its product assortments to national category management, known as the Safeway Category Optimization Process (SCOP). With all dry grocery corporate buying done from Safeway's Pleasanton offices, it is said it will increase representation of manufacturers by experienced sales professionals with extensive product and category knowledge. Corporate produce buying offices are located in Phoenix, Arizona. This will mean consistency across the Safeway chain, meaning one could go into a store in Winnipeg or San Francisco and find the same products at the same price, as all negotiation is now done at the corporate level. Animal welfare concerns In 2012, Mercy for Animals conducted an undercover investigation at Christensen Farms, a pork supplier to Safeway, Walmart, Costco, Kroger, and Kmart. Before the public release of Mercy for Animals' investigation at Christensen Farms, Safeway announced it would begin requiring pork suppliers to phase out gestation crates. In 2008, Greenpeace started ranking America's major supermarket chains on their seafood sustainability practices because, according to Phil Radford, Greenpeace U.S. CEO, "three quarters of global fish stocks are suffering from overfishing, and 90% of top marine predators are already gone". Criteria included the number of threatened fish species supermarkets sold, their seafood purchasing policies, and ocean legislation policies it supported. Greenpeace annual Carting Away the Oceans (CATO) report ranks supermarkets on a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 being least sustainable with seafood policies and 10 being the most sustainable with seafood policies. Safeway ranked second best (7.1 out of 10) on the 2013 CATO Report by ensuring that its store brand of canned tuna was sustainably fished and by lobbying for science-based ocean conservation policies. In 2016, Safeway parent company Albertsons joined a growing wave of companies moving toward "cage-free" egg production and announced a planned shift to cage-free eggs by 2025 following campaigns by The Humane League, Mercy for Animals, The Humane Society of the United States, and others. Safeway music Safeway music is provided by InStore Broadcasting Network. The satellite network also beams commercials and advertisements for Safeway products and brands that play intermittently with the music. See also List of supermarket chains in the United States List of online grocers Safeway (Australia)—Sold to Woolworths Limited Australia in 1985. All locations renamed to Woolworths Supermarkets from 2008 to 2017. Safeway (Canada)—Sold to Sobeys in 2013. Continues to use the Safeway banner. Safeway (UK)—Sold to Argyll Foods in 1987. Continued to use the Safeway name until 2005, after they were acquired by Morrisons in 2004. References External links Supermarkets of the United States Superstores in the United States Online grocers Companies based in Pleasanton, California American companies established in 1915 Retail companies established in 1915 1915 establishments in Idaho Economy of the Western United States Companies formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange Private equity portfolio companies Cerberus Capital Management companies Kohlberg Kravis Roberts companies Skaggs family Supermarkets based in California 2015 mergers and acquisitions

Christa B. Allen

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Christa B. Allen (born November 11, 1991) is an American actress. She is known for playing the younger version of Jennifer Garner's character in 13 Going on 30 (2004) and Ghosts of Girlfriends Past (2009), as well as for her role as socialite Charlotte Grayson on the ABC drama series Revenge. Early life Allen was born in Wildomar, California. She is the youngest of nine siblings, with four elder brothers as well as four elder stepbrothers. She once spent a summer in a circus. Career Allen made a brief appearance on The Man Show, and appeared in several students films and commercials. She played the younger version of Jennifer Garner's character in the comedy film 13 Going on 30 (2004), and later again in Ghosts of Girlfriends Past (2009). 13 Going on 30 was a commercial success, earning $22 million in its first week and grossing over $96 million, becoming one of the year's biggest-selling DVD rental titles. She also had roles in numerous films, including A Merry Little Christmas (2006), Youth in Revolt (2009), One Wish (2010), One Kine Day (2011) and Detention of the Dead (2012). Allen starred as the title character in the CBS sitcom Cake in 2006. In 2011, Allen landed one of the main roles as socialite Charlotte Grayson in ABC's drama series Revenge. The show focuses on a young woman named Emily, who moves into a beach house next door to the mansion of a wealthy family, the Graysons. Emily has a plan to destroy every individual who played a role in her father's imprisonment. Allen's last credited appearance as a series regular was the sixth episode of the fourth season. She later returned for the final two episodes of the season, and was credited as a guest star. She had guest roles in television shows such as Medium, Cory in the House, The Suite Life on Deck, Grey's Anatomy, ER, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, Wizards of Waverly Place and Cold Case. In 2015, she had a recurring role as Robyn on the ABC Family sitcom Baby Daddy. In May 2021, she wrote an essay about turning 30 years old for Yahoo!'s website. Allen is part of a musical act called Pour Vous, which means “for you” in French, with Johnny What. In April 2018, the duo's first single called "Scorpio" was released. Filmography References External links 1991 births Living people 21st-century American actresses Actresses from California American child actresses American film actresses American television actresses People from Wildomar, California

List of colonial governors of Nyasaland

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List of Colonial Heads of Malawi (Nyasaland) (Dates in italics indicate de facto continuation of office) {|class="wikitable" Term Incumbent Notes |- |colspan=3|Nyasaland Districts Protectorate |- |1 February 1891 to 1893||Harry Hamilton Johnston, Commissioner|| |- |colspan=3|British Central Africa Protectorate |- |1893 to 16 April 1896||Harry Hamilton Johnston, Commissioner|| |- |16 April 1896 to 1 April 1907||Alfred Sharpe, Commissioner|| from 1 January 1902 he was Commissioner, Commander-in-Chief and Consul-General |- |colspan=3|Nyasaland |- |1 April 1907 to September 1907||Francis Barrow Pearce, acting Commissioner|| |- |October 1907 to 1 May 1908||William Henry Manning, acting Governor||1st Term |- |1 May 1908 to 1 April 1910||Alfred Sharpe, Governor|| |- |1 April 1910 to 4 July 1910||Francis Barrow Pearce, acting Governor|| |- |4 July 1910 to 6 February 1911||Henry Richard Wallis, acting Governor|| |- |6 February 1911 to 23 September 1913||William Henry Manning, acting Governor||2nd Term |- |23 September 1913 to 12 April 1923||George Smith, Governor||Knighted during tenure |- |12 April 1923 to 27 March 1924||Richard Sims Donkin Rankine, acting Governor|| |- |27 March 1924 to 30 May 1929||Charles Calvert Bowring, Governor|| |- |30 May 1929 to 7 November 1929||Wilfred Bennett Davidson-Houston, acting Governor|| |- |7 November 1929 to 22 November 1932||Shenton Thomas, Governor ||Knighted during tenure |- |22 November 1932 to 9 April 1934||Hubert Winthrop Young, Governor|| |- |9 April 1934 to 21 September 1934||Kenneth Lambert Hall, acting Governor|| |- |21 September 1934 to 20 March 1939||Harold Baxter Kittermaster, Governor|| |- |20 March 1939 to 8 August 1942||Donald Mackenzie-Kennedy, Governor|| |- |8 August 1942 to 27 March 1947||Edmund Charles Smith Richards, Governor|| |- |30 March 1947 to 10 April 1956||Geoffrey Francis Taylor Colby, Governor||Knighted during tenure |- |1 August 1953 to 31 December 1963||colspan=2|Incorporated into the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland |- |10 April 1956 to 10 April 1961||Robert Perceval Armitage, Governor|| |- |10 April 1961 to 6 July 1964||Glyn Smallwood Jones, Governor|| |- |6 July 1964||colspan=2|Independence as Malawi |} For continuation after independence, see: List of heads of state of Malawi References See also History of Malawi Governor-General of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland History of Malawi Malawi-related lists

Foodstuffs

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Foodstuffs (NZ) Ltd is a New Zealand grocery company owned by the retailers' cooperatives, Foodstuffs North Island Limited and Foodstuffs South Island Limited. Together, the two cooperatives collectively control an estimated 53% of the New Zealand grocery market. The group owns retail franchises Four Square, New World and Pak'nSave, in-store private labels Pam's, Pam's Finest, and Value (formerly named Budget) Foodstuffs' major competitor is Australian-owned supermarket chain Woolworths NZ, creating an effective duopoly in New Zealand's supermarket industry. History The first Foodstuffs co-operative was formed in Auckland in 1922. On 6 July 1922, Foodstuffs founder J Heaton Barker called together members of the Auckland Master Grocers' Association to discuss plans for the formation of a co-operative buying group. The buying group expanded in 1925 with the introduction of Four Square branding on members' stores. Similar co-operatives were set up in other parts of the country, with Wellington commencing also in 1922, Christchurch in 1928 and Dunedin in 1948. Initially the buying groups traded under different names but in 1935, the name Foodstuffs was applied to all the original co-operatives. There have been various mergers between the small regional co-operatives, and until recently there were three co-operative companies: Foodstuffs (Auckland) Ltd; Foodstuffs (Wellington) Co-operative Society Ltd, and Foodstuffs South Island Ltd. Each operated independently and autonomously with its own board of directors, chief executive officer and management structure. There were no common members or shareholders. The organisation has continued to evolve, adopting supermarkets early in their evolution with the formation of the New World group in 1963. The Pak'nSave group began later and the first store was opened in Kaitaia in 1985. On 7 February 2013 Foodstuffs (Auckland) Ltd and Foodstuffs (Wellington) Co-operative Society Ltd announced that a merger was being planned to bring the two companies together under the name Foodstuffs North Island Ltd. The merged Foodstuffs North Island started trading on 1 September 2013. Four Square Four Square is a trans-Tasman chain of small scale grocery stores – ranging from small dairies to small supermarkets. During the 1950s the Foodstuffs advertising department designed the famous "Mr 4 Square" who initially appeared only in newspaper advertising and posters, but was developed to become part of the Four Square identity, appearing in every Four Square store and eventually becoming a nationally recognised symbol in New Zealand, remaining famous to this day. The image is often closely associated with the art of New Zealand artist Dick Frizzell, who has used the iconic character in many of his works. The current Four Square brand was designed by Auckland branding and design studio Sanders Design. New World New World is a full-service supermarket chain. Founded in 1963, New World was the first American-style full-service supermarket brand of Foodstuffs, and the second in New Zealand (after Foodtown). There is a total of 140 New World supermarkets across the North and South Islands of New Zealand (as of October 2017). New World stores tend to be smaller () and more upscale than their competitors. Prices tend to be higher in most stores, due to the cost of upscale presentation, large employee numbers (200–300 in some large stores), and often a lack of competition, especially in smaller towns. New World has been a member of the Fly Buys programme since the programme started in September 1996; Foodstuffs has a 25% stake in the Fly Buys company. The New World brand was designed by Auckland design and branding studio Sanders Design. Pak'nSave Pak'nSave is a New Zealand discount supermarket chain owned by the Foodstuffs cooperative. Founded in 1985, Pak'nSave is the most recent of the three current major New Zealand supermarkets (Countdown, New World, and Pak'nSave) to be founded. There are 57 Pak'nSave stores operating across the North and South Islands of New Zealand as of September 2017. Stores are large and have a no-frills environment, often with unlined interiors and concrete floors. Customers are left to pack their own bags or boxes. Pak'nSave was developed following a trip by a group of Foodstuffs executives to the United States in 1985. On that visit they saw Cub Foods, operated by SuperValu, Pak 'n Save operated by Safeway, and other box warehouse supermarkets. Foodstuffs then copied this format in New Zealand. The original Pak'nSave format was almost an identical copy of Safeway's Pak 'n Save chain in Northern California. The PAK'nSAVE brand was designed by Auckland design and branding studio Sanders Design. The stores are supplied daily from their co-operative distributor Foodstuffs. Pak'nSave stores often buys stock in bulk. This process means that stores don't offer a wide variety of products as full-service supermarkets – a 2009 Consumer magazine survey noticed this especially in the pet food and toilet paper categories. On September 13, 2017, Levin's Write Price supermarket was rebranded as Pak'nSave Mini. Pak'nSave Mini is a small format store that stocks around 2,500 products. In comparison, standard Pak'nSave stores stock approximately 8,000 SKUs. On the Spot On the Spot is a chain of over one hundred convenience stores in the South Island. Liquor retailers Foodstuffs operates two franchises of independently owned liquor stores: LiquorLand and Henry's Beer, Wine & Spirits. LiquorLand is run by Foodstuffs North Island and Foodstuffs South Island. It has 147 stores, including 45 Auckland stores. The chain sells a range of spirits, liqueurs, beer, wine, cider, RTDs and snack food, including confectionary. Henry's Beer, Wine & Spirits is run by Foodstuffs South Island. It has 16 stores in the South Island and also sells a range of beer, wine, spirits and snack food. Wholesalers Gilmours (part of Foodstuffs North Island). Trents (part of Foodstuffs South Island) References External links Foodstuffs Foodstuffs South Island Henry's Beer, Wine and Spirits Gilmours Trents Retail companies of New Zealand Companies based in Auckland Supermarkets of New Zealand New Zealand brands New Zealand companies established in 1922 Retail companies established in 1922

Skittles (confectionery)

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Skittles are multicolored fruit-flavored button-shaped candies produced and marketed by the Wrigley Company, a division of Mars, Inc. Skittles consist of hard sugar shells imprinted with the letter 'S', similar to M&M's which have the letter "M". The interior consists mainly of sugar, corn syrup, and hydrogenated palm kernel oil along with fruit juice, citric acid, natural and artificial flavors. Skittles are sold in a variety of flavor collections, such as Tropical, Wild Berry, Dessert, Sweet Heat, Smoothie, and Sour. History and overview Skittles were first made commercially in 1974 by a British company. The name of the candy, Skittles, comes from the sports game of the same name, named as such for the resemblance of the sweet to items used in the game. They were first introduced in North America in 1979 as an import confectionery. In 1982, domestic production of Skittles began in the United States. Skittles' "taste the rainbow" theme was created by the New York ad agency D'Arcy Masius Benton & Bowles. On March 2, 2009, Skittles launched a web-based marketing campaign where their official website became a small overlay with options to view different social media sites in the main area, including its official YouTube channel, a Facebook profile, and a Twitter account. The move was debated by people interested in social media. Skittles' marketing has become known for its avant-garde viral marketing techniques, particularly in conjunction with the Super Bowl. In 2018, it produced a Super Bowl commercial that was viewed by only one person. In 2019, it conducted a pre-Super Bowl campaign featuring Skittles Commercial: The Broadway Musical, which was performed one time only at The Town Hall in New York City. In 2016, Skittles faced controversy over temporarily changing the color of the candies from their signature rainbow appearance to white in support of Pride month, LGBT rights and London Pride. The Wrigley Company, a separate representing party of the Skittles brand, mass-produced the limited-edition colorless candies. Skittles' rainbow themed packaging had also been altered temporarily to complement the achromatic confectionery within. On the back of each monochrome package, the Wrigley Company included an explanation for the company's marketing decision: "So this is kind of awkward, but we're just gonna go ahead and address the rainbow-colored elephant in the room. You have the rainbow... we have the rainbow... and usually that's just hunky-dory. But this Pride, only one rainbow deserves to be the centre of attention - yours. And we're not going to be the ones to steal your rainbow thunder, no siree." However, the message was met with confusion in some areas, with the Huffington Post publishing an article titled "Some People Think Skittles' All-White Pride Candies Are Racist," exploring the idea that by going all-white, the company failed to acknowledge the diversity defined by the LGBT community. Every June, Skittles repeats the colorless marketing to spread Pride awareness and raise proceeds for an LGBT charity, such as the Switchboard helpline in the United Kingdom. For the 2020 Pride edition, Skittles changed the color of their candies from a rainbow to all gray in the United States, with the tagline "Only one rainbow matters during PRIDE". However, the white colour continued to be used in countries such as the United Kingdom. Skittles were involved in two political incidents in the 2010s. In the aftermath of the killing of Trayvon Martin, protestors used Skittles, which Martin had reportedly been carrying along with AriZona watermelon fruit juice, as a symbol during rallies. Though Mars' brief statement of condolences was criticized by some outlets, such as Adweek, for being too subdued, Mars' response in 2016 to a Skittles-based image macro (which was posted by Donald Trump's presidential campaign as an analogy for immigration) was praised for its tact and directness. MWWPR said Mars' responses could influence public relations best practices. In 2009, animal-derived gelatin was removed from Skittles, making them suitable for vegetarians and vegans. Varieties Skittles are produced in a wide variety of flavors and colors, including sour varieties. Skittles has hinted at new flavor releases on its Facebook page, using such statuses as "Locking myself in the Rainbow kitchen until I see some results!" A 2011 posting contained confirmation of a new flavor: "Putting the last touches on a new Skittles flavor. Tweak the Rainbow." In the US and Canada, in 2013, Skittles replaced the lime-flavored Skittles with green apple, causing a backlash from many consumers. The lime became part of their Darkside packets, which were discontinued in 2015 and followed up by their Orchards packets, which were discontinued in 2017. Lime was part of the "Long Lost Lime" packets that came out in summer 2017 and 2018. The Darkside packets were revived in 2019. In 2021, "All Lime" packets were released for a limited time. In September 2021, Skittles announced that the green apple-flavored Skittles would be replaced with the original lime flavor. See also Smarties (tablet candy) Jelly beans M&M's Skittles Commercial: The Broadway Musical Mars, Incorporated List of confectionery brands References External links Official U.S. website Mars confectionery brands Wrigley Company brands Products introduced in 1974 British confectionery Brand name confectionery

Jeep Wrangler

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The Jeep Wrangler is a series of compact and mid-size four-wheel drive off-road SUVs manufactured by Jeep since 1986, and currently in its fourth generation. The Wrangler JL, the most recent generation, was unveiled in late 2017 and is produced at Jeep's Toledo Complex. The Wrangler is a direct progression from the World War II Jeep, through the CJ (Civilian Jeeps) produced by Willys, Kaiser-Jeep and American Motors Corporation (AMC) from the mid-1940s through 1980s. Although neither AMC nor Chrysler (after its purchase of AMC in 1987) have claimed that the Wrangler was a direct descendant of the original military model — both the CJ Jeeps and the conceptually consistent Wrangler, with their solid axles and open top, have been called the Jeep model as central to Jeep's brand identity as the rear-engined 911 is to Porsche. Similar to the Willys MB and the CJ Jeeps before it, all Wrangler models continue to use a separate body and frame, rigid live axles both front and rear, a tapering nose design with flared fenders, a fold-flat windshield, and can be driven without doors. Also, with few exceptions, they have part-time four-wheel drive systems, with the choice of high and low gearing, and standard are open bodies with removable hard- or soft-tops. However, the Wrangler series was specifically redesigned to be safer and more comfortable on-road, to attract more daily drivers, by upgrading its suspension, drivetrain, and interior, compared to the CJ line. The suspension on all Wranglers included trackbars and anti-roll bars, and, from the 1997 TJ onwards, front and rear coil springs instead of the previous leaf-springs. From 2004 on, the Wrangler has been complemented with long-wheelbase versions, called Wrangler Unlimited. 2004-2006 models were longer versions with 2 doors. In 2004 only automatic transmission-equipped “Unlimited” versions were sold. In 2005 both an automatic and manual 6-speed (NSG-370) were offered. Since 2007, the long-wheelbase Wranglers were four-door models, offering over more room. By mid 2017 the four-door models represented three-quarters of all new Wranglers on the market. Background Outwardly strongly resembling the Jeep CJ-7, the first Wrangler, which was formally announced in February 1986 at the 1986 Chicago Auto Show, was based on a new set of design parameters. "The product philosophy behind the two vehicles" François Castaing (AMC VP of Product Engineering) explained, "is completely different". The new car had a wider track, slightly less ground clearance, more comfort and improved handling. The YJ still had leaf spring suspension similar to that of the CJ – however, the springs were wider, and the first Wrangler sported trackbar suspension links and anti-roll bars for improved handling and safety, making it less easy to flip by untrained or unwary drivers. The Wrangler debuted in 1986 as a new model after the discontinuance of the Jeep CJ series. It was revised in 1996, and completely redesigned in 2006. In addition to the model name Wrangler, each model received a designation corresponding to its generation: YJ (1986–1995), TJ (1997–2006), TJU's (commonly known as LJs- 2004–2006 Unlimited models, or YJL, in the Egyptian owners manual.), JKU (2007–2017 Unlimited models) and JK (2007–2017), and the latest JL model, introduced for the 2018 model year. Foreign military versions of the Wrangler have carried the J8 designation which was initially dubbed TJL when first produced at Arab American Vehicle's Egyptian plant. Jeep YJ models were manufactured between 1986 and 1995 at Brampton Assembly, and subsequently at the Toledo South Assembly plant. A major difference in the 1987–1995 models were the rectangular headlights, which reverted to rounded ones in the TJ and then JK versions. In 2006, Wrangler production was moved to Toledo Complex. Post-2006 Wranglers were set apart from their predecessors by the angle of the grille. In all previous models, the grille was flat and even with the front fenders. The newer Wrangler was constructed with a grille that angled out from the top and then continued in a straight line from the midway point, toward the bottom. This decreased the hood length while increasing the length of the fenders. In more recent models, this angle has been lowered more toward the bottom of the grille. In Egypt, the YJ was produced as well as a long wheel-base version, dubbed LJ (or labeled as YJL in Egypt's Owners Manual), and which has retained the 2-door design. The YJL is considered as the first predecessor of the JK's long wheel-base by continuing as TJL (aka J8) which has directly inspired the JK's 4-door. There is a Wrangler-based pickup truck, the Gladiator, which began production in 2019 for the 2020 model year. YJ (1987) Although introduced in 1986 (under control of Renault), and by 1987 (the first model year) under the new ownership of Chrysler, the first-generation Wrangler had been developed by American Motors Corporation (AMC). It featured rectangular headlamps, differing from the round ones on its predecessors, the CJ Jeeps. Although continuing many essentials, such as an open body with only minor modifications, on a separate frame, with the same wheelbase, part-time 4WD and live rigid axles on leaf-springs, both front and rear, just like the CJ-7 – the new 'Wrangler' was promoted by the manufacturer as a significantly new design with a wider track, slightly less ground clearance, more comfort and improved safety and handling. Israeli military carmaker Automotive Industries Ltd. introduced its first generation of the AIL Storm, the workhorse off-road vehicle of the Israeli Security Forces, as a variant of the 1991 Wrangler YJ, but on the CJ-6 / CJ-8 wheelbase. AIL builds the whole vehicles themselves, save for various externally sourced engines. Long and short wheelbase versions were also available for civilian purchase. Aside from this, there was a Jeep-managed production line in Egypt, whose jeeps are used by the Egyptian armed forces – but this was absorbed into the AIL Storm production after it closed in 1995. TJ (1996) Introduced in 1996 as a 1997 model, the second-generation Wrangler reintroduced the round headlamps from the classic Jeep models. The main engine was the AMC 242 4.0L inline 6. From the Wrangler TJ onwards, all Wranglers were fitted with coil-spring instead of leaf-spring suspension. Late in the TJ's life cycle, in 2004, a long-wheelbase "Unlimited" model was introduced for the first time. Furthermore, starting 2006, Israeli Automotive Industries Ltd. produced the first five-door Jeep Wrangler derivative, built under license from Chrysler, for the Israel Defense Forces, based on a wheelbase Wrangler (TJ). JK (2007) The third-generation Wrangler was released in 2006 for the 2007 model year. Developed under the ownership of DaimlerChrysler, the JK was Jeep's first Wrangler that was a completely clean-sheet design of the body, frame, and suspension. New features for the Wrangler included power windows, remote power door locks, navigation, as well as electronically detachable sway bars on some models. Along with the traditional 2-door model, a 4-door "Unlimited" model was released, offering considerably more room, thanks to an over 20 inches (50 cm) longer wheelbase. These became quite successful sellers. By mid-2017 the four-door models represented three-quarters of all new Wranglers on the market. On September 2, 2011, Jeep announced a partnership with Activision for the second year in a row, to make a special edition Modern Warfare 3 Jeep based on the Wrangler Rubicon model. The Jeep comes with various features including the interior and exterior being designed with a Modern Warfare 3 theme. Jeep dealers started selling this model in November 2011. JL (2018) The fourth-generation Wrangler was unveiled in late 2017 for the 2018 model year. The JL features that include: additional powertrains over the Pentastar V6, a redesigned 8-speed automatic transmission, an easier fold-flat windshield, new zipperless soft tops, blind-spot monitoring, a backup camera, and a more modern interior. Powertrains for the 2018 models included a 2.0L Turbo I4 making 270 hp and 295 lb-ft of torque and the 3.6L Pentastar V6 gasoline engine making 285 Hp and 260 lb-ft of torque. Additionally, a 2.2 I4 Turbodiesel that was first available in Europe and since 2020 in North America with EcoDiesel engines. For the 2021 model year, Jeep introduced a plug-in hybrid version of the Wrangler, dubbed the Wrangler 4xe, that went on sale in early 2021. The Wrangler 4xe will provide an estimated 25 miles of all-electric range. Advertisements have mentioned the release of a 392 model 6.4L Hemi V8 Wrangler Rubicon that is expected to be producing approximately 470 hp. Sales of the new 392 are expected to be available in early 2021. Recognition The Jeep Wrangler received the 2009 Best Resale Value Award from Kelley Blue Book (KBB) in the sport utility vehicle category. In 2012 and for 2013, it was also awarded the Best Resale Value Award from Kelly Blue Book in the compact sport utility vehicle category. The Wrangler also holds the Models to Best Hold Its Value recognition from Kelley Blue Book for 1998, 1999, 2003, 2011, and 2012. The 2011, 2012, and 2013 Jeep Wranglers have received Canadian Black Book's Best Retained Value Award for the compact SUV category. In 2007, The Jeep Wrangler had set the Guinness World Record for highest altitude attained by a four-wheeled vehicle after ferrying Matthias Jeschke and his Extrem Events adventure team up Chile's Ojos del Salado, the highest volcano on Earth (record reached the same year by a Suzuki Samurai). The trek from base camp to the world record height ran from March 7 to March 13, when the team's pair of Wrangler Rubicon Unlimiteds checked in at . In 2007 and for 2013, the magazine Four Wheeler awarded the Jeep Wrangler with its Four-Wheeler of the Year Award and in January 2010, they awarded the Jeep Wrangler Unlimited Rubicon its title of 4x4 of the Decade. In 1997, 2007, and 2012, the magazine Petersen's 4-Wheel & Off-Road awarded the Jeep Wrangler with its 4x4 of the Year award. The 2008 edition of Forbes Autos lists the four-wheel-drive convertible Jeep Wrangler at number four among the top ten vehicles with the highest resale value. In May 2009, Business Week magazine named the Wrangler One of the Most Iconic Cars of the Last 20 Years. A 2018 iSeeCars.com study named the Jeep Wrangler as the vehicle with the lowest depreciation after five years. Electric Wrangler In September 2008, Chrysler Vice Chairman Tom LaSorda unveiled a range-extended electric 4-door Wrangler along with similarly engineered Town and Country minivan and a purely electric sports car. The Wrangler would have a range before a gas engine starts and begins supplying additional electricity. However, in November 2009 Fiat SpA disbanded Chrysler's ENVI electric car division and dropped these models from future product plans. Sales See also Jeep Jamboree: Off Road Adventure – a video game based on the then-current Jeep Wrangler YJ model Notes References External links Wrangler Wrangler Off-road vehicles Convertibles All-wheel-drive vehicles Rear-wheel-drive vehicles 1980s cars 1990s cars 2000s cars 2010s cars Retro-style automobiles Mini sport utility vehicles Compact sport utility vehicles Motor vehicles manufactured in the United States Military light utility vehicles Plug-in hybrid vehicles Cars introduced in 1986

List of political term limits

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This is a list of term limits for heads of state, heads of government and other notable public office holders by country. Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania See also Term limit Reelection References Sources CIA World Factbook Term limits Term limits

Mouse Trap (game)

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Mouse Trap (originally Mouse Trap Game) is a board game first published by Ideal in 1963 for two to four players. It is one of the first mass-produced three-dimensional board games. Over the course of the game, players at first cooperate to build a working Rube Goldberg-like mouse trap. Once the mouse trap has been built, players turn against each other, attempting to trap opponents' mouse-shaped game pieces. Gameplay Original version The basic premise of Mouse Trap has been consistent over time, but the turn-based gameplay has changed. Its concept was first invented by Marvin Glass and his company, Marvin Glass and Associates, who were later granted a US patent in 1967. The original published version of the game in 1963 was then designed by Hank Kramer of Ideal Toy Company, filling in the details Glass had left open, and allows the players almost no decision-making, in keeping with other games for very young children such as Candyland or Chutes and Ladders (Snakes and Ladders). Players take turns rolling a die to advance their mouse piece along a path around the game board, from the start space to a continuous loop at the end. The Rube Goldberg-like mouse trap is assembled in the center of the board, with players adding one or more of its pieces when they land on specified "build" spaces. The trap is always assembled in a specified order, and is attached to the board by inserting tabs into holes and locking them into place. Along the ending loop are additional "build" spaces (in case the trap is still not completed), a "cheese" space positioned directly underneath the trap's cage, and a "turn crank" space. If a player lands on the "turn crank" space when an opponent is on the "cheese" space, the crank can be turned on the machine to launch it; if the machine works properly and the cage falls on the "cheese" space, that opponent is eliminated from the game. The winner is then the last one remaining after all the other players are captured. Revised versions In 1975, the board game surrounding the trap was redesigned by Sid Sackson, adding the cheese pieces and allowing the player to maneuver opponents onto the trap space. Players collect cheese-shaped tokens during the game, and if the trap space is vacant when they land on the "turn crank" space, the tokens can be redeemed for a die roll to move an opponent. A modified version was released in the United Kingdom in 2004, featuring three mousetraps (with a specialized trigger working at random) and a completely different board and plastic components. Among the changed trap components in this version is the inclusion of a model toilet (which serves as the random trigger) instead of a model bathtub. A version of the game featuring characters from the Elefun and Friends universe was introduced in 2014. Among the changes in this version, the trap is built before the start of the game, a spin wheel is used instead of dice, and the cheese pieces and their relevant rules are not included. Also in the 2010s, Hasbro introduced Classic Mousetrap with several major changes from the previous versions. The object in this game is to collect six cheese pieces. Instead of being eliminated from the game when caught by the trap, a player only forfeits a cheese piece to the opponent. The trap machine was modified, such as with the elimination of crank gears in favor of launching the trap by directly pulling the lever with the plastic stop sign. Similar games Game designer Marvin Glass (and his company, Marvin Glass and Associates) acknowledged that Mouse Trap had obviously been greatly influenced by Rube Goldberg's illustrations, though they refused to pay licensing or royalty fees. Glass later developed two lesser-known games based on Goldberg designs, Crazy Clock Game (Crazy Clock) (1964) and Fish Bait Game (Fish Bait) (1965), neither of which credit Goldberg's influence. Elderly and near retirement, Goldberg declined to take legal action against Glass, primarily because inspiration and ideas are not intellectual property that can be protected with a copyright, trademark, or patent. He instead chose to sell licensing rights for his drawings to another toy company, Model Products, to help secure the rights to specific intellectual property that he could own and receive royalties from. In Crazy Clock Game, players race to build a Rube Goldberg machine. The game comes with a pack of cards, each illustrating how one piece of the machine fits in. The deck is dealt out to the players. The player starts with the first card, card 1; players then play as many cards (install as many machine components) as they can, then pass to the next player. After fully assembling, they take turns trying to operate the machine, starting with the player who installed the last component; the winner is the one who first succeeds. Fish Bait Game is simpler than Mouse Trap. Players play as fishermen and build a contraption to catch a man eating fish. Each time a player lands on an empty white space, the player must build a part of the contraption. Other spaces can either give the player an extra turn, take a turn, or go back a space. The game keeps going until the contraption is fully built and a player lands on the "FISH BAIT" space, when the player must take their piece on the plastic dock and hook the rubber band inside of the fish's mouth around the legs. Players keep moving until someone lands on the "CATCH FISH" space and starts the contraption to catch the other player's piece. Once caught, the player is out of the game (although if the trap fails, the one getting caught and the one catching the fish have to switch places until there is a successful catch) and the game continues; the winner is the last one standing. Legacy In the 1990s, Mouse Trap was adapted into a game show within the British children's television show Motormouth. Child contestants take the place of the mice in a life-size board game. Mouse Trap has been lampooned by Mark Perez of San Francisco in the form of a giant traveling spectacle called Life Size Mouse Trap. KRON4 described it at Maker Faire of 2014 as "a fantastically hand crafted, 16 piece, 50,000-lb. interactive kinetic sculpture set atop a 6,500-square-foot game board ... complete with a Vaudevillian style show, original musical score by the one woman band Esmerelda Strange, Sexy Mice can-can dancers, clown workers, acrobatic hijinks, and other spectacular scenes dedicated to the pursuit of spectacle-laden fun!" It is hauled to fairs and events by 25 tons of cranes and equipment in a semi truck, it has a bowling ball instead of a ball bearing, and it ends in the destruction of a real automobile. The Mercury News said in 2016 "instead of trapping a rodent — they drop a huge old bank safe on a car. Sweet. ... It's all very awesome, a masterpiece of engineering. But kind of a bummer you can't actually play on it — as the ball." Smithsonian Magazine reported the exhibit's merit in teaching physics and simple machines. See also Crazy Machines and Crazy Machines 2 References External links Mouse Trap product page at Hasbro Games The original 1963 Mouse Trap box cover Life Size Mouse Trap Board games introduced in 1963 Children's board games Roll-and-move board games Milton Bradley Company games Ideal Toy Company American board games

Judith Chapman

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Judith Chapman (born Judith Shepard on November 15, 1951) is an American actress, best known for soap opera roles, particularly as Natalie Bannon Hughes in As the World Turns, Charlotte Greer on Ryan's Hope, Ginny Blake Webber on General Hospital, Sandra Montaigne on One Life to Live, Anjelica Deveraux Curtis on Days of Our Lives, and Gloria Abbott Bardwell on The Young and the Restless. Life and career Chapman was born in Greenville, South Carolina. She is the daughter of retired United States Air Force brigadier general Leland C. Shepard Jr. Her older sister Patty Shepard (born 1945) also worked as an actress. She debuted at the age of 16 in the Spaghetti Western Sette donne per i MacGregor. In 1977 she tested for the role of Pam Ewing on CBS primetime soap opera, Dallas. Chapman has appeared on several daytime dramas since the mid-1970s. Her first soap role was scheming Natalie Bannon (one of Tom Hughes' wives) on As the World Turns from 1975-1978. A four-month stint as the mysterious Charlotte Greer on Ryan's Hope in 1983 brought her critical acclaim. Her role had her character as part of a revenge plot against the Ryan family after lying to the press that she was Frank Ryan's ex-wife. She joined the cast of General Hospital the following year as the devious Ginny Blake who was the biological mother of Mike Webber, adopted by Rick and Lesley. After Lesley's "death", Rick and Ginny married in an attempt to share custody and fell in love after Ginny was found to be the killer of D.L. Brock. After that stint ended, she had a brief role on One Life to Live as Sandra Montaigne, a con-artist out to scam ex-boyfriend Jonathan Russell. She was the third former General Hospital actress to play the role of Anjelica Devereaux Curtis on Days of Our Lives, playing that part from 1989-1990 and briefly in 1991. She made her first appearance on The Young and the Restless after that, briefly subbing for Jess Walton as Jill Abbott. She joined the cast of The Young and the Restless full-time in January 2005, replacing Joan Van Ark in the contract role of Gloria Fisher. In March 2011, it was announced that Chapman had been taken off her contract and bumped to recurring. In October 2014, it was announced that she would make a guest appearance as Gloria on The Bold and the Beautiful. She appeared in a few more episodes of The Young and the Restless in 2015 and 2016. She played Diana Cooper on Days of Our Lives for two months in 2019, then returned to Y&R. Chapman guest starred on the final episode of Galactica 1980. She appeared in two episodes of Magnum, P.I. (as different characters) and three episodes of Murder, She Wrote. Her most recent film role was the mother of Judy (Parker Posey) in the 2002 romantic comedy, The Sweetest Thing. Partial filmography False Face (1977) as Heather/Jane Desire (1983) as Julie Seaver Return of the Man from U.N.C.L.E. (1983 TV movie) as Z-65 And God Created Woman (1988) as Alexandra Dead Space (1991) as Stote Fire on the Amazon (1993) as Sandra Night of the Running Man (1994) as Roz Chambers Scorpio One (1998) as Gibson 28 Days (2000) as Deirdre The Sweetest Thing (2002) as Judy's Mother Liz & Dick as (2013 TV movie) BelasAir Socialite Saugatuck Cures (2015) as Maggie Callaghan Partial television credits As the World Turns (1975–1978) as Natalie Bannon Hughes Kojak (1976) as Gretchen Hodges Barnaby Jones (1978) as Rita Lockwood Fantasy Island (1978) as Evelyn Wallace The Paper Chase (1979) as Amelia Hutton B. J. and the Bear (1980) as Pamela Gerard Beyond Westworld (1980) as Laura Garvey (Pilot episode only) Buck Rogers in the 25th Century (1980) as Lara Teasian Galactica 1980 (1980) as Angela Family (1980) as Jo Hamlin The Incredible Hulk (1980) as Nancy Fitz and Bones (1981) as Clementine Magnum, P.I. (1981) as Lisa Page/Sara Clifford / Louise DeBolt Jackson (2 episodes) The Love Boat (1981) as Nancy Atwell The Fall Guy (1981–1983) as Kay Faulkner (4 episodes) Darkroom (1982) as Pamela Knight Rider (1982) as Ms. Elliot Return of the Man from U.N.C.L.E. (1983) as Technical Agent Z Ryan's Hope (1983) as Charlotte Simon & Simon (1983) as Denise Carroll Trapper John, M.D. (1983) as Dr. Robin Yaeger General Hospital (1984–1986) as Ginny Blake Webber One Life to Live (1987) as Sandra Montaigne Stingray (1987) as Carla Murder, She Wrote (1987–1992) (3 episodes) MacGyver (1988) as Dr. Sandra Millhouse In the Heat of the Night (1989) as Charlotte Sinclair The Accident (1991) as Miss Radovich Days of Our Lives (1989–1991) as Anjelica Deveraux Silk Stockings (1996) as Marcia Travers The Young and the Restless (2005–2018, 2020–) as Gloria Abbott Bardwell The Bold and the Beautiful (2014) as Gloria Abbott Bardwell References External links 1951 births Living people 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses Actresses from South Carolina American film actresses American soap opera actresses American stage actresses American television actresses Spaghetti Western actresses Actors from Greenville, South Carolina

Lunar distance (astronomy)

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The instantaneous Earth–Moon distance, or distance to the Moon, is the distance from the center of Earth to the center of the Moon. Lunar distance (LD or ), or Earth–Moon characteristic distance, is a unit of measure in astronomy. More technically, it is the semi-major axis of the geocentric lunar orbit. The lunar distance is approximately 400,000 km, which is a quarter of a million miles or 1.28 light-seconds. This is roughly thirty times Earth's diameter. A little less than 400 Lunar distances make up an astronomical unit. The semi-major axis has a value of . The time-averaged distance between the centers of Earth and the Moon is . The actual distance varies over the course of the orbit of the Moon, from at the perigee to at apogee, resulting in a differential range of . Lunar distance is commonly used to express the distance to near-Earth object encounters. Lunar semi-major axis is an important astronomical datum; the few millimeter precision of the range measurements determines semi-major axis to a few decimeters; it has implications for testing gravitational theories such as general relativity, and for refining other astronomical values such as Earth mass, Earth radius, and Earth's rotation. The measurement is also useful in characterizing the lunar radius, the mass of the Sun and the distance to the Sun. Millimeter-precision measurements of the lunar distance are made by measuring the time taken for light to travel between stations on the Earth and retroreflectors placed on the Moon. The Moon is spiraling away from the Earth at an average rate of per year, as detected by the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment. Value An AU is Lunar distances. A lightyear is 24,611,700 Lunar distances. Geostationary Earth Orbit is from Earth center, or LD LD Variation The instantaneous lunar distance is constantly changing. In fact the true distance between the Moon and Earth can change as quickly as , or more than in just 6 hours, due to its non-circular orbit. There are other effects that also influence the lunar distance. Some factors are described in this section. Perturbations and eccentricity The distance to the Moon can be measured to an accuracy of over a 1-hour sampling period, which results in an overall uncertainty of a decimeter for the semi-major axis. However, due to its elliptical orbit with varying eccentricity, the instantaneous distance varies with monthly periodicity. Furthermore, the distance is perturbed by the gravitational effects of various astronomical bodies – most significantly the Sun and less so Venus and Jupiter. Other forces responsible for minute perturbations are: gravitational attraction to other planets in the Solar System and to asteroids; tidal forces; and relativistic effects. The effect of radiation pressure from the Sun contributes an amount of ± to the lunar distance. Although the instantaneous uncertainty is a few millimeters, the measured lunar distance can change by more than from the mean value throughout a typical month. These perturbations are well understood and the lunar distance can be accurately modeled over thousands of years. Tidal dissipation Through the action of tidal forces, the angular momentum of Earth's rotation is slowly being transferred to the Moon's orbit. The result is that Earth's rate of spin is gradually decreasing (at a rate of ), and the lunar orbit is gradually expanding. The current rate of recession is . However, it is believed that this rate has recently increased, as a rate of would imply that the Moon is only 1.5 billion years old, whereas scientific consensus assumes an age of about 4 billion years. It is also believed that this anomalously high rate of recession may continue to accelerate. It is predicted that the lunar distance will continue to increase until (in theory) the Earth and Moon become tidally locked, as are Pluto and Charon. This would occur when the duration of the lunar orbital period equals the rotational period of Earth, which is estimated to be 47 of our current days. The two bodies would then be at equilibrium, and no further rotational energy would be exchanged. However, models predict that 50 billion years would be required to achieve this configuration, which is significantly longer than the expected lifetime of the Solar System. Orbital history Laser measurements show that the average lunar distance is increasing, which implies that the Moon was closer in the past, and that Earth's days were shorter. Fossil studies of mollusk shells from the Campanian era (80 million years ago) show that there were 372 days (of 23 h 33 min) per year during that time, which implies that the lunar distance was about (383,000 km or 238,000 mi). There is geological evidence that the average lunar distance was about (332,000 km or 205,000 mi) during the Precambrian Era; 2500 million years BP. The giant impact hypothesis, a widely accepted theory, states that the Moon was created as a result of a catastrophic impact between Earth and another planet, resulting in a re-accumulation of fragments at an initial distance of (24,000 km or 15,000 mi). In this theory, the initial impact is assumed to have occurred 4.5 billion years ago. History of measurement Until the late 1950s all measurements of lunar distance were based on optical angular measurements: the earliest accurate measurement was by Hipparchus in the 2nd century BC. The space age marked a turning point when the precision of this value was much improved. During the 1950s and 1960s, there were experiments using radar, lasers, and spacecraft, conducted with the benefit of computer processing and modeling. This section is intended to illustrate some of the historically significant or otherwise interesting methods of determining the lunar distance, and is not intended to be an exhaustive or all-encompassing list. Parallax The oldest method of determining the lunar distance involved measuring the angle between the Moon and a chosen reference point from multiple locations, simultaneously. The synchronization can be coordinated by making measurements at a pre-determined time, or during an event which is observable to all parties. Before accurate mechanical chronometers, the synchronization event was typically a lunar eclipse, or the moment when the Moon crossed the meridian (if the observers shared the same longitude). This measurement technique is known as lunar parallax. For increased accuracy, certain adjustments must be made, such as adjusting the measured angle to account for refraction and distortion of light passing through the atmosphere. Lunar eclipse Early attempts to measure the distance to the Moon exploited observations of a lunar eclipse combined with knowledge of Earth's radius and an understanding that the Sun is much further than the Moon. By observing the geometry of a lunar eclipse, the lunar distance can be calculated using trigonometry. The earliest accounts of attempts to measure the lunar distance using this technique were by Greek astronomer and mathematician Aristarchus of Samos in the 4th century BC and later by Hipparchus, whose calculations produced a result of ( or ). This method later found its way into the work of Ptolemy, who produced a result of ( or ) at its farthest point. Meridian crossing An expedition by French astronomer A.C.D. Crommelin observed lunar meridian transits on the same night from two different locations. Careful measurements from 1905 to 1910 measured the angle of elevation at the moment when a specific lunar crater (Mösting A) crossed the local meridian, from stations at Greenwich and at Cape of Good Hope. A distance was calculated with an uncertainty of , and this remained the definitive lunar distance value for the next half century. Occultations By recording the instant when the Moon occults a background star, (or similarly, measuring the angle between the Moon and a background star at a predetermined moment) the lunar distance can be determined, as long as the measurements are taken from multiple locations of known separation. Astronomers O'Keefe and Anderson calculated the lunar distance by observing four occultations from nine locations in 1952. They calculated a semi-major axis of ( ± ). This value was refined in 1962 by Irene Fischer, who incorporated updated geodetic data to produce a value of ( ± ). Radar An experiment was conducted in 1957 at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory that used the echo from radar signals to determine the Earth-Moon distance. Radar pulses lasting were broadcast from a diameter radio dish. After the radio waves echoed off the surface of the Moon, the return signal was detected and the delay time measured. From that measurement, the distance could be calculated. In practice, however, the signal-to-noise ratio was so low that an accurate measurement could not be reliably produced. The experiment was repeated in 1958 at the Royal Radar Establishment, in England. Radar pulses lasting were transmitted with a peak power of 2 megawatts, at a repetition rate of 260 pulses per second. After the radio waves echoed off the surface of the Moon, the return signal was detected and the delay time measured. Multiple signals were added together to obtain a reliable signal by superimposing oscilloscope traces onto photographic film. From the measurements, the distance was calculated with an uncertainty of . These initial experiments were intended to be proof-of-concept experiments and only lasted one day. Follow-on experiments lasting one month produced a semi-major axis of ( ± ), which was the most precise measurement of the lunar distance at the time. Laser ranging An experiment which measured the round-trip time of flight of laser pulses reflected directly off the surface of the Moon was performed in 1962, by a team from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and a Soviet team at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory. During the Apollo missions in 1969, astronauts placed retroreflectors on the surface of the Moon for the purpose of refining the accuracy and precision of this technique. The measurements are ongoing and involve multiple laser facilities. The instantaneous precision of the Lunar Laser Ranging experiments can achieve few millimeter resolution, and is the most reliable method of determining the lunar distance to date. The semi-major axis is determined to be 384,399.0 km. Amateur astronomers and citizen scientists Due to the modern accessibility of accurate timing devices, high resolution digital cameras, GPS receivers, powerful computers and near-instantaneous communication, it has become possible for amateur astronomers to make high accuracy measurements of the lunar distance. On May 23, 2007, digital photographs of the Moon during a near-occultation of Regulus were taken from two locations, in Greece and England. By measuring the parallax between the Moon and the chosen background star, the lunar distance was calculated. A more ambitious project called the "Aristarchus Campaign" was conducted during the lunar eclipse of 15 April 2014. During this event, participants were invited to record a series of five digital photographs from moonrise until culmination (the point of greatest altitude). The method took advantage of the fact that the Moon is actually closest to an observer when it is at its highest point in the sky, compared to when it is on the horizon. Although it appears that the Moon is biggest when it is near the horizon, the opposite is true. This phenomenon is known as the Moon illusion. The reason for the difference in distance is that the distance from the center of the Moon to the center of the Earth is nearly constant throughout the night, but an observer on the surface of Earth is actually 1 Earth radius from the center of Earth. This offset brings them closest to the Moon when it is overhead. Modern cameras have now reached a resolution level capable of capturing the Moon with enough precision to perceive and more importantly to measure this tiny variation in apparent size. The results of this experiment were calculated as LD = . The accepted value for that night was , which implied a accuracy. The benefit of this method is that the only measuring equipment needed is a modern digital camera (equipped with an accurate clock, and a GPS receiver). Other experimental methods of measuring the lunar distance that can be performed by amateur astronomers involve: Taking pictures of the Moon before it enters the penumbra and after it is completely eclipsed. Measuring, as precisely as possible, the time of the eclipse contacts. Taking good pictures of the partial eclipse when the shape and size of the Earth shadow are clearly visible. Taking a picture of the Moon including, in the same field of view, Spica and Mars – from various locations. See also Astronomical unit Ephemeris Jet Propulsion Laboratory Development Ephemeris Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment Lunar theory On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus) Orbit of the Moon Prutenic Tables of Erasmus Reinhold Supermoon References External links Wolfram Alpha widget – Current Moon Earth distance Orbit of the Moon Units of measurement in astronomy Units of length

List of band name etymologies

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This is a list of band names, with their name origins explained and referenced with reliable sources. # 2Cellos — The band consists of two members, and each one plays a cello. 3 Doors Down — The band started out with drummer/vocalist Brad Arnold, bassist Todd Harrell and guitarist Matt Roberts. As they decided to tour outside of their hometown of Escatawpa, Mississippi and into Foley, Alabama, they came up with their official name as they saw a building with a sign with most of its letters fallen off, reading "Doors Down." Since at the time they started out with 3 band members the name stuck and called themselves 3 Doors Down. 311 — 311 is an Omaha, Nebraska, police code for indecent exposure. One rainy day, 311 bassist P-Nut and some friends went skinny dipping in a public pool. They were apprehended by police. One of P-Nut’s friends, Jim Watson, was arrested, cuffed (naked), and taken home to his parents. He was issued a citation for a code 311. The band found the incident amusing, so they based their name on it. 10cc — By his own account, Jonathan King chose the name for the band after signing them to his record label UK Records, after having a dream in which he was standing in front of the Hammersmith Odeon in London where the boarding read "10cc The Best Band in the World". A widely repeated claim, disputed by King, but confirmed in a 1988 interview by Lol Creme and also on the webpage of Graham Gouldman's current line-up, is that the band name represented a volume of semen that was more than the average amount ejaculated by men ("cc" being an abbreviation of cubic centimetre), thus emphasising their potency or prowess. 50 Cent — The artist adopted the nickname "50 Cent" as a metaphor for change, after having served time at boot camp for selling drugs to an undercover police officer. The name was inspired by Kelvin Martin, a 1980s Brooklyn robber known as "50 Cent"; the artist chose it "because it says everything I want it to say. I'm the same kind of person 50 Cent was. I provide for myself by any means." 100 gecs — The name came from a spray-painted phrase seen by the duo in Chicago. 1349 - Named after the year the Bubonic plague reached Norway. The 1975 — Lead singer Matthew Healy said in an interview that he came up with the name after discovering an old art journal from a beatnik, with one of the dates listed as "June 1st, the 1975". Healy said that he thought the placement of "the" in a recorded date was intriguing, and decided to use it as the name for the band. A a-ha — A title that member Pål Waaktaar contemplated giving to a song. Morten Harket was looking through Waaktaar's notebook and came across the name "a-ha". He liked it and said, "That's a great name. That's what we should call ourselves." After checking dictionaries in several languages, they found out that a-ha was an international way of expressing recognition, with positive connotations. It was short, easy to say, and unusual. A-Teens — The 'A' stands for ABBA since they started as a cover band for the group; their name was originally ABBA-Teens but was changed upon the request from Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson to avoid confusion. The group later did other songs, such as "Upside Down". ABBA — a palindromic acronym from the initials of the first names of the band members: Agnetha Fältskog, Björn Ulvaeus, Benny Andersson and Anni-Frid Lyngstad. A producer of canned fish was already using the name Abba so the band asked permission from them to use the name ABBA. AC/DC — Malcolm and Angus Young developed the idea for the band's name after their sister seeing "AC/DC" on an electric sewing machine, "why not AC/DC". Ace of Base — The band's first studio was in the basement of a car repair shop, and they considered themselves to be the "masters" of the studio. "Ace of Base" was derived from "masters of the basement". A Day to Remember — A former member's ex-girlfriend used the term and the name stuck. Adiemus — Creator Karl Jenkins invented the word, unaware at the time that it means "We will draw near" in Latin. Aerosmith — Name invented by the band's drummer Joey Kramer Aiden — After a character from the 2002 film The Ring. Air Supply — Five years before the band's signing, Graham Russell saw the name in a dream. The Airborne Toxic Event — Named by leader Mikel Jollett after a section in Don DeLillo's novel White Noise in which a poisonous gas cloud results from a chemical spill from a train car. Jollett saw a similarity between the life-altering perspective shift in the novel's protagonist and the life-altering series of events that gave rise to the band, and the themes of mortality and media consumption resulting from the gas cloud in the novel are a source of inspiration for the band. AKB48 — After Tokyo's area Akihabara (colloquially shortened to Akiba), a mecca for electronics shopping and geeks. The group was formed as theater-based, to perform at its own theater at Akihabara on a daily basis, so that fans could always go and see them live. It still performs there every day, although, after the group's popularity went up, tickets started being distributed only via an online lottery. Alexisonfire — from contortionist stripper Alexis Fire, which nearly resulted in a lawsuit from the stripper's representatives. Alice Cooper — Alice Cooper was a band before frontman Vincent Furnier started a solo career under the same name. Allegedly, Alice Cooper was the name of a spirit members of the band came in contact with through a ouija, though Furnier has also claimed that he wanted their name to contrast with their sound, and Alice Cooper sounds like somebody's grandmother. Alice in Chains — The name was taken from lead singer Layne Staley's previous group, the glam metal band Alice N' Chains. Staley shed some light on the subject in a Rolling Stone article in 1992: "The name came from a side project of my old group [Alice N' Chains]. We were going to have this band that dressed up in drag and played heavy metal as a joke." Alice N' Chains' bassist Johnny Bacolas explained the name in the 2011 book Everybody Loves Our Town: A History of Grunge. Bacolas and Russ Klatt (the lead singer of Slaughter Haus 5), were at a party in North Seattle talking about backstage passes. One of the passes said "Welcome to Wonderland", and they started talking about that being an Alice in Wonderland-type thing, until Klatt started saying, "What about Alice in Chains? Put her in bondage and stuff like that." Bacolas thought the name "Alice in Chains" was cool and brought it up to his Sleze bandmates and everyone liked it, so they changed the name of the band. Since three of the members had very Christian mothers, they thought spelling it "Alice N' Chains" made it not sound a bondage name. After Staley left Alice N' Chains, he contacted his former bandmates and asked for permission to use the name with his new band with guitarist Jerry Cantrell. Alien Ant Farm — Bassist Terry Corso said the name was a day dream he had about how Earth is just an experiment for aliens from other planets. The All-American Rejects — The "All-Americans" and "the Rejects", both suggested to the band as names, were merged. All Time Low — When in high school, members Alex Gaskarth, Jack Barakat, Rian Dawson, and Zack Merrick made a list of possible band names, one of which being "All Time Low". The name came from New Found Glory's song "Head On Collision". Alt-J—The spoken form of the band ∆, alt + j is the keyboard shortcut used to type ∆ on a Mac computer. ∆ is a symbol used to show change in mathematical equations. Amber Run — Originally known as Amber, the band changed their name to avoid confusion with a German musician of the same name. AlunaGeorge — From the first names of the members, Aluna Francis and George Reid. Amon Amarth — Named after "Mount Doom", in Tolkien's Elvish speech. Anamanaguchi — The name came about from a member in one of Peter Berkman's former bands pronouncing gibberish in the style of Jabba the Hutt; The band has also explained it as coming from the members' internships at Armani (Berkman and James DeVito), Prada (Ary Warnaar), and Gucci (Luke Silas) while studying fashion at Parsons School of Design. Anberlin — Band member Stephen Christian has offered the explanations that he planned naming his first daughter Anberlin and that the name was a modification of the phrase "and Berlin" from a list of cities Christian wanted to visit. The one story that Christian asserts is true, however, is that he heard the word in the background noise of the Radiohead song "Everything in Its Right Place". ...And You Will Know Us by the Trail of Dead — Initially claimed to be a line in a Mayan ritual chant, though lead singer Conrad Keely has since admitted the story was a joke. Animals as Leaders — Inspired by the 1992 novel Ishmael by Daniel Quinn, guitarist Tosin Abasi coined the name as a reminder that "we're all essentially animals". Abasi went into further depth by saying, "The name is kind of like, a lot of what we do is completely removed from the fact that we’re all essentially animals. We have a niche on the planet and we have a role in sustainable sort of ecology. But we've gone against our natural calling. The name is acknowledging that we do have more of a natural role on the planet. It’s also like, who would follow an animal to do anything? I think of the name as being both nonsensical and really literal." Apollo 440 — From the Greek god Apollo and the frequency of concert pitch — the A note at 440 Hz, often denoted as "A440", and the Sequential Circuits sampler/sequencer, the Studio 440. Apulanta — Means "fertiliser" in Finnish. Invented as a joke when the band had to come up with a "punk" sounding name. Arcade Fire — Based on a story that singer Win Butler heard as a kid. He was told that an arcade in Exeter had burnt down, killing many youths. Arctic Monkeys — The name was made up by the guitarist, Jamie Cook, while at school. Art of Noise — After the 1913 manifesto called The Art of Noises by Italian Futurist Luigi Russolo. Die Ärzte — Decided when the band noticed that the folder with the umlaut "Ä" was empty in most record stores. The band often stylises their name, which is grammatically correct German, with three dots in the umlaut in the letter "Ä", as a parody of the heavy metal umlaut. There is no real diacritic with three dots in any language. As I Lay Dying — After the 1930 novel As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner. Ash — The band chose the first short word they liked in the dictionary, as stated in the CD booklet of Intergalactic Sonic 7"s. Asking Alexandria — According to band member Danny Worsnop, the name was taken from Alexander the Great. Atreyu — After a character in 1979 novel The NeverEnding Story and the 1984 movie of the same name. Audioslave — According to lead guitarist Tom Morello, the name supposedly came to singer Chris Cornell in a vision. Auto-Icon — Derived from the term Auto-Iconization first attributed to Jeremy Bentham, Utility and Democracy: The Political Thought of Jeremy Bentham. Auto-Icon Started as a one-man project in Los Angeles in 1999 with the end of the century and Y2K looming, it seemed to founding member J. Hébert any one could call themselves an "Icon". Automatic Pilot — From psychiatric testimony characterizing Dan White's state of mind while killing George Moscone and Harvey Milk. The Avalanches — Taken from the 1960s surf rock band of the same name. Avenged Sevenfold — Taken from the Book of Genesis, from the passage "If Cain shall be avenged sevenfold, Truly Lamech seventy and sevenfold." Avicii — Stage name of Tim Bergling; he explained that the name Avicii means "the lowest level of Buddhist hell" (Avīci) and he chose the moniker because his real name was already used upon creating his Myspace page. A Wilhelm Scream — The Wilhelm scream is a frequently-used film and television stock sound effect first used in 1951 for the film Distant Drums. The band were previously named 'Koen' and then 'Smackin Isaiah' before finally settling on the current appellation. Awolnation — The name is derived from leader Aaron Bruno's high school nickname. In an interview with Kristin Houser of the LA Music Blog, he stated that he "would leave without saying goodbye" because it was just easier, so that's where the name AWOL (slang from the military acronym for Absent Without Leave) came from." B The B-52's — From the name of a beehive hairstyle, itself named for the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress. Babymetal — According to Kobametal (the band's producer), the name came to him by revelation (as a "divine message"). It is a play on the words "heavy metal". Bachman–Turner Overdrive — A combination of band members' last names and the magazine Overdrive. The band's name had previously been "Bachman-Turner". All band members agreed that Bachman-Turner Overdrive sounded cooler. Backstreet Boys — After a flea market in Orlando, Florida. Bad Religion — Bad Religion's Greg Graffin on their name: You have to remember that we were fifteen-year-old punks - we wanted to piss people off. Anything that might make parents, teachers, and people with authority bristle was up for discussion. We also wanted a name that would suggest a great logo for stickers and T-shirts. Many of the names were compelling but too repulsive. Smegma, Vaginal Discharge, and Head Cheese might make for great logos but were quickly rejected as not representative of our songs. We played around with a lot of names involving the word "bad" - Bad Family Planning, Bad Politics. When we hot [sic] on Bad Religion, it seemed perfect. That year, 1980, was a time of rising prominence for televangelists like Jimmy Swaggart, Pat Robertson, and Jim Bakker. The year before, Jerry Falwell had founded the Moral Majority, which was having a powerful influence on the presidential election between Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan. Religion was a hot topic, and those TV preachers seemed like a good target to us, though we didn't think they could possibly last for more than a few years. We knew that most people were so defensive about their religious ideas that they would be highly offended by our name - a major plus! And then Brett came up with a logo that represented our philosophical stance. We felt complete. Badding — After the children's literary character Paddington Bear. Badfinger — Originally called "The Iveys" after a street in Swansea, Wales. Once the band was signed to Apple Records by The Beatles the band took the opportunity to change their name. The name "Badfinger" was derived from "Bad Finger Boogie", the working title of The Beatles' "With a Little Help from My Friends". The Band — They were originally known as The Hawks, after their original lead singer Ronnie Hawkins. While working with Bob Dylan in the 1960s, they decided to change their name, but were unable to agree on a new name. They finally decided to simply call themselves "The Band" after being derisively referred to as "the band" by critics of Dylan's new electric direction on the 1966 tour. Bananarama — Partially named after the Roxy Music song Pyjamarama. Barenaked Ladies — Two members – Steven Page and Ed Robertson were bored at a Bob Dylan concert and turned to amusing each other, pretending they were rock critics, inventing histories and comments about the Dylan band. They also made up various fictional band names, one of which was "Barenaked Ladies". On another front, Robertson had agreed to perform with his cover band in a battle of the bands at Nathan Phillips Square for the Second Harvest food bank. The band broke up and he forgot about the gig. When he received a phone call a week before the show, asking him to confirm the gig, he improvised that the name of the band had changed to "Barenaked Ladies", recalling the name from the Dylan concert. He then called Page and asked if he wanted to do the gig; Page reportedly could not believe Robertson had given that name. The two played the show on October 1, 1988, They arranged three rehearsals and missed them all. The two played the show on October 1, 1988, but instead of competing, they played while the other bands set up, playing every song they could think of that they both knew. The show went well and the pair continued performing and started writing songs together. Bastille — Lead singer Dan Smith was born on July 14, Bastille Day. Bat & Ryyd — Originally named Batman & Ryydman, but shortened to "Bat & Ryyd" after a complaint from composer Kari Rydman. Bauhaus — Originally named "Bauhaus 1919" after the German Bauhaus art movement, and shortened to "Bauhaus" in 1979. Beastie Boys — Has the backronym "Boys Entering Anarchistic States Towards Inner Excellence" The Beatles — The Crickets were cited as an inspiration for the name. Additionally, the misspelling of "beetles" was a play on words, describing the "beat" of the band. The Beautiful South — The Beautiful South were an English alternative rock group formed at the end of the 1980s by two former members of Hull group The Housemartins, Paul Heaton and Dave Hemingway. Heaton explained at the time that the name was partly a sarcastic reflection of his own dislike of southern England, and partly an attempt to force macho men to utter the word 'beautiful'. Bee Gees — From "B.G.", the initials of all three of band member Barry Gibb, radio DJ Bill Gates and speedway promoter and driver Bill Goode. The similarity to "Brothers Gibb" is just a coincidence. Belle & Sebastian — From Belle et Sébastien, a children's book by French writer Cécile Aubry. Between the Buried and Me — The band name was derived from a phrase in Counting Crows' song "Ghost Train" Biffy Clyro — There are many rumours of the origin of Biffy Clyro's name. These are that, one time, lead singer Simon Neil bought a Cliff Richard pen, which was therefore a "Cliffy biro". They then changed this to Biffy Clyro. Another theory is that 'Biffy Clyro' were a Welsh tribe. The third rumour is that Biffy Clyro was a former player of the band's football team, Ayr United. They have never confirmed any of these. Big Drill Car — The band members have claimed in interviews that their name was inspired by the movie Journey to the Center of the Earth. Billy Talent — After a character in the film Hard Core Logo (although the name in the film and the book by Michael Turner it was adapted from is spelled "Billy Tallent"). The Birthday Massacre — The name of the band's early song. According to their vocalist Chibi: "It kind of works well for the music that we're making. Sort of contrasty, you know? Birthday, and massacre. Light, and dark. Cute, and evil." The band was originally known as Imagica, but adopted the current name to avoid confusion with another group. The song "The Birthday Massacre" was then renamed to "Happy Birthday". The Black Crowes — The group originally called themselves Mr. Crowe's Garden, after a favorite children's book. They performed under that name until they signed with Def American Records in 1989. They renamed themselves in response to the suggestion of a producer. Black Flag — Suggested by guitarist Greg Ginn's brother, Raymond Pettibone, because "if a white flag means surrender, a black flag means anarchy." The Black Keys — When the duo grew up in Akron, Ohio, a schizophrenic man residing in a halfway house used to call their homes to ask for crayons, Diet Coke and cigarettes. His messages would always end with him saying "...don't be a black key. Don't be a b-flat." Black Rebel Motorcycle Club — The film The Wild One featured two motorcycle gangs, the Beetles and Black Rebels Motorcycle Club. In a reference to the story that The Beatles took their name from one motorcycle gang, Peter Hayes (guitarist) and Robert Levon Been (bassist) originally named their band "The Other Gang", but switched to Black Rebel Motorcycle Club when The Other Gang didn't catch on. Black Sabbath — Originally known as Earth, the group wanted to change their name as another group had the same name. The group saw a local cinema playing a film titled Black Sabbath and marvelled that people paid money to be frightened. Blind Melon — Bass player Brad Smith's father used this term to refer to some hippies who lived in a commune near his house. Blink-182 — The "Blink" was thought up by Tom DeLonge when the band consisted of DeLonge, Mark Hoppus, and their friend Scott Raynor. (They previously called themselves Duck Tape.) An Irish electronica artist was already using the name Blink, so they added "182" to the end. Blondie — A nickname given to frontwoman Debbie Harry by truck drivers who catcalled "Hey, Blondie" to Harry as they drove by. Blue October — The front man of Blue October, Justin Furstenfeld, spent a brief stint in a mental hospital in October 1997. Furstenfeld stated that afterwards he wrote songs to keep depression away which led to the forming of the band. Blur — The band had been known as "Seymour" until they were signed to Food Records in 1990. The label disliked the band name and suggested the group pick a new one from a provided list, from which "Blur" was eventually chosen. Boards of Canada — Named in tribute to the National Film Board of Canada. The brothers spent part of their youth growing up in Canada, and credit the Film Board's documentaries as a source of inspiration for their sound. bob hund — From a cartoon dog named Bob that the band once saw on TV. The Boomtown Rats — As revealed in his autobiography, Bound for Glory, this was the name of Woody Guthrie's boyhood gang, named after his hometown, Oklahoma City, known as 'Boomtown' during the oil boom. Bon Iver — Suggested by an episode of Northern Exposure in which, after the first snow of winter, people greet each other with bon hiver (, French for "good winter"). This was initially transcribed by Vernon as "boniverre". When he learned of its proper French spelling, he elected not to use it, deciding "hiver" reminded him too much of liver; he had been bedridden with a liver ailment when he watched the show. Bon Jovi — An alternative spelling of Jon Bon Jovi's last name Bongiovi, following the example of the other famous two-word bands such as Van Halen, as suggested by Pamela Maher. Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band — A combination of Bonzo the dog and the Dada art movement. Boyz II Men — Originally known as Unique Attraction, they were renamed after a song by New Edition. Brainerd — Original guitarist Knife named the band after his hometown, Brainerd, Minnesota. Breaking Benjamin — During a live performance, frontman Benjamin Burnley accidentally knocked a microphone over, causing it to crack once it hit the ground. The microphone's owner appeared on stage to say "I'd like to thank Benjamin for breaking my f*cking microphone." Bring Me the Horizon — From a line said by Captain Jack Sparrow in Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, "Now ... bring me that horizon". Burzum — Means "darkness" in Tolkien's Black Speech. Butthole Surfers — The band, who previously changed their name at every gig, was performing an earlier version of 1984's "Butthole Surfer" when the announcer forgot the band's name and used the title of the song instead. They were forced to keep this name after the performance hit fame. Buzzcocks — The band took their name from a Time Out review of the 1976 T.V. show Rock Follies with the headline "It's the Buzz, Cock!" (Cock was slang for "mate".) The band members liked the subversiveness of it. C Cage The Elephant — After one of their shows, a mentally ill man approached frontman Matt Shultz, hugged him and said "you have to cage the elephant". Cake — Rather than referring to the foodstuff, the name is meant to be "like when something insidiously becomes a part of your life...[we] mean it more as something that cakes onto your shoe and is just sort of there until you get rid of it". Cansei de Ser Sexy — Portuguese for "tired of being sexy", an alleged quote of Beyoncé Knowles, one of the largest musical influences upon this Brazilian band. Carach Angren — From Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, named after a pass in Mordor. (Carach Angren means "Iron Jaws" in Elvish.) Car Seat Headrest — Founder Will Toledo chose the name "Car Seat Headrest" as he would often record the vocals to his early albums in the back seat of his car for privacy. C.C.C.P. — After SSSR, the Russian language abbreviation for the Soviet Union, which when written in the Cyrillic alphabet looks like it spells "CCCP". The Chainsmokers — Founding member Alex Pall explained it as follows: "At the time of conception it was, it was totally just like I was in college. You know I enjoyed smoking weed and you know it was just like such a 'yeah the domain's open'. I don't have to have any like underscores." Charli XCX — When playing at illegal warehouse parties, she needed a stage name and chose Charli XCX, which was her MSN Messenger screen name. The "XCX" stands for "kiss Charli kiss". Cheap Trick — Inspired by the band's attendance of a Slade concert, where bassist Tom Petersson commented that the band used "every cheap trick in the book" as part of their act. Childish Gambino — Donald Glover used a Wu-Tang Clan name generator in his sophomore year of college at NYU, inputting his real name and coming up with Childish Gambino. Children of Bodom — After being told by Spinefarm Records that the band's name had to change (the group having previously been signed to another label under the name Inearthed), the group looked through a local phone book to search for inspiration, coming across Lake Bodom. The band, like most of Finland, was already aware of the unsolved murder of three teenagers camping at the lake. The band believed they had found an impacting name with an interesting story behind it, and so chose the name Children of Bodom. Many of their songs have also been named after the murders, such as "Lake Bodom", "Silent Night, Bodom Night", "Children of Bodom" and "Bodom After Midnight". Chevelle — Named after the car. Chvrches — Pronounced "churches", the band decided on the spelling to distinguish themselves in internet searches. Cirith Ungol — Named after the "Pass of the Spider" in Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. Clean Bandit — Members Grace Chatto and Jack Patterson lived in Moscow for a while; their landlady referred to a friend of theirs using a Russian affectionate phrase meaning something like "utter rascal". "Clean bandit" is a more literal translation. Coldplay — The band were called "Starfish" originally and a friend's group was called "Coldplay". When they did not want the name anymore, "Starfish" asked if they could use it instead. The original Coldplay took the name from a book of collected poems called Child's Reflections: Cold Play. Conchita Wurst — From the German expression "das ist mir doch alles Wurst", meaning "it's all the same to me" and a Cuban friend of the artist's named Conchita. The artist has also explained that conchita is Spanish slang for vagina and Wurst is German slang for penis. Crass — A reference to the line "The kids was just crass" in David Bowie's song "Ziggy Stardust". Creed — Originally known as Naked Toddler, the band changed its name to Creed at bassist Brian Marshall's suggestion, after a band he had previously played for called Mattox Creed. Creedence Clearwater Revival — The band took the three elements from, firstly, Tom Fogerty's friend Credence Newball (to whose first name Credence they added an extra 'e', making it resemble a faith or creed); secondly, "clear water" from a TV commercial for Olympia beer; and finally "revival", which spoke to the four members' renewed commitment to their band. Crime — The band was originally The Space Invaders who looked glam, but played primitive original material in the garage. They turned to a JV look and shortened the name to The Invaders. Tony Greene, who published a short lived SF punk zine No Exit convinced them to change their name to Crime. Crush 40 — Lead singer Johnny Gioeli explained to Gareth Spriggs (aka Fastest Thing Alive) at Summer of Sonic '10 that he never wanted to turn 40 years old, hence the name Crush 40, because he wanted to "Crush 40". The name is also a reference to Crush soda, guitarist Jun Senoue's favorite brand of soft drink. The Cure — The band's original name was Easy Cure, which was taken from the name of one of the group's early songs. The name was later shortened to The Cure because frontman Robert Smith felt the name was too American and "too hippyish". °C-ute (Cute) — The Japanese girl group was named by its producer Tsunku. According to him and the band's official website, the English word cute means "(little and) lovely, pretty". Wanting to somehow express the girls' overflowing fervor (enthusiasm), he substituted "°C" for "C". D Daft Punk — In 1992, being heavily influenced by The Beach Boys, they recorded songs under the name Darlin', which was a Beach Boys single from their 1967 album Wild Honey. A negative review in the UK's Melody Maker described their effort as "a daft punky thrash", which depressed the pair but unwittingly gave them a name for their next project. Danny — Chosen intentionally at the start of the artist's career. The name "Danny" is an acronym of a certain phrase, but according to an interview with Tuulia magazine, Danny will only reveal this phrase after retiring. Danny Wilson — Chosen at the last minute after problems with their initial band name Spencer Tracy due to issues with the dead actor's estate, who threatened to sue their record label Virgin Records if they went ahead and released their debut album in the states under that name. Instead the brothers in the band Gary Clark and Kit Clark chose the titular character from the film Meet Danny Wilson as that was played by Frank Sinatra who was a favourite artist of their father. Darude — After the song "Rude Boy" by Swedish artist Leila K which he played a lot at a classmate's party, gradually morphed first into "Da Rude" and then "Darude". Dashboard Confessional — Derived from the line in the band's song "The Sharp Hint of New Tears" which is "on the way home, this car hears my confessions/I think tonight I'll take the long way home...". David Bowie — From the artist's real first name David and the surname of the 19th-century American pioneer James Bowie and the knife he had popularised. DAY6 — The name was given to the band with an original 6 members representing monday through saturday, and the fans representing sunday. 6+1=7 for 7 days of the week. Deacon Blue — Named after the Steely Dan song Deacon Blues. Dead Kennedys — The name was not meant to insult the assassinated Kennedy brothers, but to quote vocalist Jello Biafra, "to bring attention to the end of the American Dream". The Dead Milkmen — According to the band's official website, band member Joe Genaro said that the name "actually existed before the band was a reality". He created the name in high school for a creative writing project, based on the main character of the Toni Morrison novel Song of Solomon. The character, Macon Dead III, was nicknamed "Milkman" Dead. Deadmau5 — When his computer crashed and emitted a strange odor, Joel Thomas Zimmerman dismantled it and found a dead mouse inside. He later used the name as a username for various chatrooms. The Decemberists — The name refers to the Decembrist revolt, an 1825 revolt in Imperial Russia that Colin Meloy views as an attempted communist revolution. Death Cab for Cutie — named for the song Death Cab for Cutie composed by Vivian Stanshall and Neil Innes and performed by the Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band on their 1967 album Gorilla. The song was named for a headline in a tabloid about a woman killed in a taxi accident. Deep Purple — It was inspired by the song Deep Purple from Mitchell Parish. According to the band, it was one of guitarist Ritchie Blackmore's grandmother's favourite songs. Deftones — Created by lead guitarist Stephen Carpenter, who wanted to pick "something that would just stand out but you know, not be all cheese-ball at the same time". Carpenter combined the hip hop slang term "def", which was used by artists such as LL Cool J and Public Enemy, with the suffix "-tones", which was a popular suffix among 1950s bands (e.g., Dick Dale and the Del-Tones, The Quin-Tones, The Monotones, The Cleftones, and The Harptones). Carpenter said the name is intentionally vague to reflect the band's tendency to not focus on just one style of music. Depeche Mode — After a French fashion magazine, Dépêche Mode (literally "Fashion Dispatch"). Der Plan — Inspired by a quote from a book by British author Gordon Rattray Taylor called "The Biological Timebomb", in which he describes the ability to make a plan as what distinguishes human beings from animals. The Devil Wears Prada — After the novel and comedy/drama movie of the same name. Devo — Inspired "from [the band's] concept of 'de-evolution'—the idea that instead of continuing to evolve, mankind has actually begun to regress, as evidenced by the dysfunction and herd mentality of American society." Dexys Midnight Runners — From the stimulant Dexedrine. Dingo — Originally named Sous-Pierre, which was shortened to Soho. However, a band in London was already using the name Soho, so founding member Pertti "Neumann" Nieminen came up with the name Dingo instead. Dio — Named for vocalist Ronnie James Dio, because his name was already well known at that time. Dire Straits — Comes from the band's financial situation at the time of forming. The Dirty Heads — The band's name comes from an occasion where Jared "Dirty J" Watson and vocalist/guitarist Dustin "Duddy B" Bushnell were stealing a 12-pack of beer, and someone shouted at them "Come here you little dirty heads!" The Dismemberment Plan — According to lead singer Travis Morrison, this Washington, DC band's name was inspired by part of a line in the movie Groundhog Day, in which "[t]here's a guy who chases after Bill Murray and tries to keep selling him different types of insurance and 'the dismemberment plan' was one of them. It just stuck." DNCE — Pronounced "dance", which member JinJoo Lee said "is not a perfect word, but you don't have to be a perfect dancer to dance in life." Don Johnson Big Band — Named after the actor Don Johnson in the series Miami Vice. The band had to come up with a name to reserve a place for training, so the name "Don Johnson Big Band" was invented spontaneously on the spot. The band is not a big band and bears little relation to Don Johnson. The Doors — Allusion to Aldous Huxley's book The Doors of Perception, whose title is taken from William Blake: "When the doors of perception are cleansed, things will appear to man as they truly are... infinite." Double Dagger — The band, founded by two graphic designers, took their name from the typographic symbol ‡, commonly used for footnotes and citations. Dream Theater — After a movie house in Monterey, California. The name was suggested by drummer Mike Portnoy's father, who lived in Monterey. Dropkick Murphys — After wrestler and alcoholic rehabilitation facility operator John "Dropkick" Murphy. Drummer — All of the band members were drummers for other bands. Duran Duran — Dr. Durand-Durand is the name of a character in the cult science fiction film Barbarella. The band played at Birmingham's Barberella's nightclub. E Earth, Wind & Fire — Frontman Maurice White's astrological sign is Sagittarius, which has a primary elemental quality of fire and seasonal qualities of earth and air. The Eastern Dark — The 1980s Australian rock band took their name from a locale in the Phantom comics (referred to as Darcan or Darca in later strips) which was home to a multitude of evil and criminal enterprises. The Phantom is known, among his many names, as Guardian of the Eastern Dark. E Street Band — Bruce Springsteen's band was named after E Street (E, not East) in Belmar, New Jersey, because the band used to practice at the E Street home of pianist David Sancious's mother. Eiffel 65 — A computer chose the name Eiffel randomly from a group of words the three liked. The number 65 was added mistakenly to an early pressing of their first single, Blue (Da Ba Dee). ELO — Electric Light Orchestra is an intended pun based not only on electric light (as in a light bulb as seen on early album covers) but also using "electric" rock instruments combined with a "light orchestra" (orchestras with only a few cellos and violins that were popular in Britain during the 1960s). Emarosa — Previously known as Corsets are Cages, the band made up the current name. Eppu Normaali — After the character Abby Normal in the Mel Brooks movie Young Frankenstein, but renamed as a Finnish name, keeping the original pun ("Eppu Normaali" sounds like "epänormaali", Finnish for "abnormal"). Eurythmics — After Dalcroze eurhythmics, a pedagogical exercise system that founding member Annie Lennox had encountered as a child. Evanescence — When asked where they got their name, they responded, "The dictionary." The word "evanescence" means "a disappearance or dissipation, like vapor". They apparently disliked their previous name and wanted something better. They also wanted to do some artwork (with whatever name they chose) and decided to look under E. They liked the word and definition, likening it to the temporal nature of life. Evergreen Terrace — Named after 742 Evergreen Terrace, the address of the Simpsons. Everything but the Girl — From the slogan used by the Hull shop Turner's Furniture on Beverley Road, which claimed "for your bedroom needs, we sell everything but the girl." . Everything Everything — Derived either from the first two lines of the Radiohead song "Everything In Its Right Place", or from Karl Hyde's "everything, everything" vocal loop in the Underworld song Cowgirl. Exit Ten — After the motorway junction of the M4 to Reading, which constitutes the band's "home". Explosions in the Sky — After leaving a performance on KVRX on July 4, 1999, when the band was still operating under the name Breaker Morant, drummer Chris Hravsky compared the fireworks outside to explosions in the sky. F The Fall — The band took their name from the 1956 Albert Camus novel of the same name. The Fall of Troy — The band reportedly picked their name by "opening a history textbook and pointing at a random location until [they] found a selection they liked". Fall Out Boy — Nameless for their first two shows as a band, at the end of their second show they asked the audience to yell out their ideas for a name. One audience member suggested "Fallout Boy", a reference to the sidekick of comic book superhero Radioactive Man from The Simpsons. The Farm — Originally thought to be named in tribute to Cantril Farm, a former council estate in Liverpool now known as Stockbridge Village, until frontman Peter Hooton confirmed that it was actually named after a farm outside Maghull where the band used to rehearse. Fastball — Originally called "Magneto" until learning of a Mexican boy band of the same name, they first attempted to use the name "Magneto USA", but were ultimately advised against it. The band eventually settled on "Fastball" in reference to a "baseball-themed porn movie." Felt — Bandleader Lawrence is a fan of the group Television, and chose the name in homage to how Tom Verlaine emphasises the word in the song "Venus". FIDLAR — While helping two of his friends from Hawaii find a home in Los Angeles, frontman Zac Carper overheard the pair repeating the skater mantra "FIDLAR". When Carper asked what FIDLAR meant, he was told that it was an acronym for "Fuck It Dog, Life's A Risk". The name stuck when every member of the band, with the exception of guitarist Elvis Keuhn, had the word tattooed on their bodies after a night of heavy drinking. First Aid Kit — Member Klara Söderberg explains: "I was 13, young and naïve and looking through a dictionary, looking for a name. Like I wanted something, if I would ever make music, I wanted to have a name for it, and I found First Aid Kit and just liked the meaning of it. I think music should be like a consolation to help you get through everyday life, and it does for me. I thought, if I ever make music, that's what I want my music to do. And when we started making music, it kinda stuck around." Five Iron Frenzy — According to former bassist Keith Hoerig, a roommate of the band members would defend himself with a golf club, out of fear that he'd get attacked, and called it "putter mayhem". Guitarist Scott Kerr noticed that the roommate's club was a five iron and said, "No, more like a Five Iron Frenzy." Five Finger Death Punch — Named after the fictional martial arts move called the "five point palm exploding heart technique" from the movies Kill Bill, which kills its victim by causing their heart to explode once they take five steps after being struck. Fleetwood Mac — Named after members, Mick Fleetwood and John McVie. Florence + The Machine — The name of Florence and the Machine is attributed to front-woman Florence Welch's teenage collaboration with keyboardist and co-writer Isabella "Machine" Summers. Welch and Summers performed together for a time under the names of "Florence Robot" and "Isa Machine", respectively. Later, this was shortened to Florence and the Machine as it was felt to be too cumbersome. Flying Lotus — The name comes from his ideal superpower. "When I was a kid I would always bother people about super heroes and I was like, 'Ok if you could have any superpower in the creation of comic books what would you have, x-ray vision, you could be like invisible, what would you do?' I wanted to fly. That’s it. That’s all." Foo Fighters — Adopted from a term used by Allied aircraft pilots in World War II to describe various UFOs or mysterious aerial phenomena. Foster the People — Originally called "Foster & the People" by frontman Mark Foster, but changed when many of his friends misunderstood the name as "Foster the People". In a 2011 interview, Foster also recalled, "'Foster the People' — that's like 'Take Care of the People', 'Do Something for the People'... The first few shows that we played were for charities. It kind of clicked: Foster the People, that's us." Fountains of Wayne — Member Adam Schlesinger got his driver's license at the DMV office next to a lawn ornament store (no longer in business) in Wayne, NJ called "Fountains of Wayne". "We just thought it was funny", Schlesinger said. The Four Seasons — Taken from the bowling alley in Union Township, Union County, New Jersey where the band used to audition. Framing Hanley — Originally known as "Embers Fade", they changed their name to Framing Hanley in 2007, shortly after Ashley Hanley, fiancée of a member of the band (and a photographer, whence "Framing"), died. Frankie Goes to Hollywood — The name Frankie Goes to Hollywood taken from a poster on the wall of an old prison cell where the band used to rehearse. The poster has the headline "Frankie Goes to Hollywood", which referred to Frank Sinatra's move from Las Vegas to Los Angeles. It was chosen by a friend and local artist, named Ambrose, from strange Liverpool cult group Pink Military. Frente! — The Australian band took its name from a Spanish word meaning "forehead" or "front". The name originated without the exclamation point at the end; it was added for their 1991 debut EP release, Whirled. The rationale, as stated by lead vocalist Angie Hart, was while " don't write our name like that, but we thought we would on the CD covers because it looks good." Fröbelin Palikat — The name (Finnish for "Fröbel's blocks") derives from the educational toy blocks designed by German pedagogue Friedrich Fröbel. The Fugs — "Fugs" is a euphemism for the F-word in Norman Mailer's novel, The Naked and the Dead. Band member Tuli Kupferberg is credited with choosing the name. G Galaxie 500 - After the Ford Galaxie car owned by a friend of the band's. Gang of Four - Named after the Gang of Four, a political faction in 1960s-1970s -era China. Garbage — Either lead singer Shirley Manson's father yelled down to the band at one of their basement practice sessions, "Play more quietly - you sound like garbage." or from a friend of drummer Butch Vig, who said "This stuff sounds like garbage!" Genesis — Charterhouse School alumnus Jonathan King attended a concert at Charterhouse in 1968 while the band were still in school. King was a songwriter and record producer who had a hit single at the time, "Everyone's Gone to the Moon". King named the band Genesis (after previously suggesting the name Gabriel's Angels after lead singer Peter Gabriel), recalling that he had "thought it was a good name... it suggested the beginning of a new sound and a new feeling." Georgia Wonder — Georgia Wonder was the stage name of Lulu Hurst, a 'magnetic phenomenon' whose vaudeville act toured America in the late 19th century. Stephanie Grant and Julian Moore from the band chose the name after trying to duplicate these powers from an exposé they discovered in a book about the period. Glades — Comes from a ski run that member Cameron Robertson saw during a holiday. Gorgoroth — Means "horror" in Sindarin, one of Tolkien's constructed languages. Grateful Dead — The name was chosen from a dictionary. According to Phil Lesh, in his biography (pp. 62), "...Jerry Garcia picked up an old Britannica World Language Dictionary... In that silvery elf-voice he said to me, 'Hey, man, how about the Grateful Dead?'" The definition there was "the soul of a dead person, or his angel, showing gratitude to someone who, as an act of charity, arranged their burial." According to Alan Trist, director of the Grateful Dead's music publisher company Ice Nine, Garcia found the name in the Funk & Wagnalls Folklore Dictionary, when his finger landed on that phrase while playing a game of "dictionary". In the Garcia biography, Captain Trips, author Sandy Troy states that the band was smoking the psychedelic DMT at the time. The term "grateful dead" appears in folktales of a variety of cultures. Green Day — A slang term for a day spent smoking marijuana. Frontman Billie Joe Armstrong wrote a song called "Green Day" about his first experience with the drug, and it soon replaced "Sweet Children" as the band's name. Guns N' Roses — An early incarnation of the band included Tracii Guns whose band was called L.A. Guns. Axl Rose, who had formed Hollywood Rose, combined his band with Tracii's to form Guns N' Roses. H Hanoi Rocks — From "Hanoi rock", a type of pink heroin produced in Hanoi. The name was invented by Andy McCoy as an allusion to the Johnny Thunders/The Ramones song Chinese Rocks as "Chinese rock" is a type of white heroin that can be further refined into "Hanoi rock". Hard-Fi — "Hard-Fi" is the name given to the sound produced by Lee "Scratch" Perry, a Grammy award-winning reggae and dub artist, at his Black Ark recording studio. Being admirers of Perry's work, the band decided to name themselves after his distinctive sound. Hassisen Kone — Named after "Hassisen kone", a real-life home appliance store in the band's home town Joensuu. The owner of the store was offended by the band's choice of name and renamed the store as "Joensuun konepalvelu". Hawkwind — Named for member Nik Turner's "prodigious habit of spitting and flatulence." Hawthorne Heights — From the famous author Nathaniel Hawthorne. Heaven 17 — From a line in Anthony Burgess' novel A Clockwork Orange, a fictional band mentioned by a young woman in the record store. Hevisaurus — From "hevi", the Finnish spelling of the word "heavy" (as in heavy metal), and "saurus" (as in dinosaur). HIM — An acronym for His Infernal Majesty. The Hollies — After Buddy Holly. Hoobastank — Derived from a street where Doug Robb's brother (the vice president of BMW Motorcycles, who lives in Germany) lives, called Hooba Street "or something like that". Hootie and the Blowfish — Lead singer Darius Rucker derived the name from two friends from college. One had an owlish face and was nicknamed "Hootie", while the other had puffy cheeks and was called "the Blowfish". The Hunna — From the members using the word "hunna" in conversations with each other, and "to influence other people to pick up an instrument, or anything, any passion that they may have, give 100%." Hurriganes — An intentional misspelling of the word "hurricanes". Remu Aaltonen, the band's vocalist, spoke no English at the time the band was formed. Hüsker Dü — Named after Hūsker Dū?, a Scandinavian memory-based board game that means (properly spelled as Husker Du? without the macrons) "Do you remember?" in Danish and Norwegian. The band chose this after it was shouted out by an audience member at one of their early shows. I I Dont Know How But They Found Me — Vocalist Dallon Weekes has said that the name is a Back to the Future quote. Imagine Dragons — Their name is an anagram for a phrase only known to members of the group, that lead singer Dan Reynolds stated each member approved of. Iron & Wine — Stage name of Samuel "Sam" Ervin Beam; the name Iron & Wine is taken from a dietary supplement named "Beef, Iron & Wine" that he found in a general store while shooting a film. Iron Maiden — Steve Harris named the band after the iron maiden torture device as shown in the 1939 film The Man in the Iron Mask. Irwin Goodman — Stage name of Antti Hammarberg; According to his friend Vexi Salmi, the name came from an amalgam of the names of Irving Berlin and Benny Goodman. J Jamiroquai — An interlock of the words, "jam" and "iroquai"; the latter is based on the Iroquois, a Native American confederacy. Jefferson Airplane — Shortened from Blind Lemon Jefferson Airplane, which, according to Jorma Kaukonen, was coined by a friend as a satire of blues pseudonyms such as "Blind Lemon" Jefferson. Jethro Tull — Having trouble getting repeat bookings, the band took to changing their name frequently to continue playing the London club circuit. Band names were often supplied by their booking agents' staff, one of whom, a history enthusiast, eventually christened them "Jethro Tull" after the 18th-century agriculturist. The name stuck because they were using it the first time a club manager liked their show enough to invite them to return. Jimmy Eat World — "Jimmy" is guitarist Tom Linton's younger brother, who had a weight problem. Lead vocalist Jim Adkins' younger brother drew a picture on Jimmy's door of him putting a globe in his mouth, and wrote on it "Jimmy Eat World." It eventually inspired the band's name. Joy Division — In order to avoid confusion with the London punk band Warsaw Pakt, the band renamed themselves from Warsaw to Joy Division in late 1977, borrowing their new name from the prostitution wing of a Nazi concentration camp mentioned in the 1955 novel The House of Dolls. JVG — From the initials of the members of the band, Jare Joakim Brand and Ville-Petteri Galle. K Kaiser Chiefs — After the South African Kaizer Chiefs Football Club, the former team of long-serving former Leeds United captain Lucas Radebe. Kari Tapio — From Kari, the artist's real first name, and Tapio, a modified form of his real second name Tapani. Kasabian — After Linda Kasabian, a member of the Manson Family famous for serving as Charles Manson's getaway driver. Kassidy — Inspired by Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. Keane — After Cherry Keane, an old woman who used to look after the band members when they were children. The Killers — From the bass drum of a fictional band in the music video for the New Order song "Crystal". Killswitch Engage — From an episode of The X-Files. King Crimson — The band name was coined by lyricist Peter Sinfield as a synonym for Beelzebub, prince of demons. According to Robert Fripp, Beelzebub would be an anglicised form of the Arabic phrase "B'il Sabab", meaning "the man with an aim". Historically and etymologically, a "crimson king" was any monarch during whose reign there was civil unrest and copious bloodshed. King Krule — Originally known as Zoo Kid, he chose the name King Krule from the Elvis Presley film King Creole. KISS — Coined by word association with Peter Criss's previous band LIPS. Klaxons — Originally "Klaxons (Not Centaurs)", a quote from Filippo Tommaso Marinetti's futurism text The Futurist Manifesto. Also in an interview a band member stated Klaxons "is to toot to be a loud intrusive noise to disrupt". KJ-52 — Hybrid name of this artist's first rap name "KJ" coupled with the New Testament Miracle of the Feeding of the Multitude, Mark 8:1-9 & Matthew 15:32-39. KMFDM — An initialism for the nonsensical and grammatically incorrect German phrase "Kein Mehrheit Für Die Mitleid", which was intended to translate to "No pity for the majority". Chosen as a motto from words cut of a German newspaper for an exposition for young European artists and afterwards it was initialized as the name of the band. Knife Party — From the song "Knife Prty" by Deftones. The name caused consternation at first as it implied that they supported knife crime, although Rob Swire stated that "...we’re not advocating any type of knife-related crime any more than Swedish House Mafia were advocating organised crime." Krewella — The band's name stems from member Jahan Yousaf's misspelling of the word "cruel" when she and her sister Yasmine began writing music, and is not a reference to Cruella de Vil. L The La's — The band was formed in Liverpool, and "la" is a well-known Scouse phrase meaning "lad" or "mate". Ladytron — From the song "Ladytron" by Roxy Music. La Roux — The band's name refers to singer Elly Jackson's red hair and tomboyish appearance, mingling the masculine ("le roux") and feminine ("la rousse") French terms; she has said: "To me, it means 'red-haired one'—and it does, vaguely. It's just a male version of 'red-haired one'". Lasgo — From the Scottish city Glasgow with the first and last letters removed. Led Zeppelin — The band name "Led Zeppelin" refers to the Hindenburg disaster; and a joke made by Keith Moon and John Entwistle. The two were discussing the idea of forming a band with some prominent young guitarists at the time. Moon and Entwistle suggested that a supergroup containing themselves, Jimmy Page, and Jeff Beck would go down like a "lead balloon", a British idiom for disastrous results. They intentionally misspelled the name to ensure correct pronunciation by announcers. Letters to Cleo — The name refers to lead singer Kay Hanley's childhood pen pal Cleo. Level 42 — From the Hitchhikers Guide To The Galaxy series of books by Douglas Adams. Some confusion surrounded the name in early years outwith their home country of the UK when, bored of journalists asking the same question "What does the band name mean" over and over they started to give different daft answers to amuse themselves, amongst them being that they were named after the worlds highest multi story car park etc. Lights — Born Valerie Poxleitner, "Lights" stemmed as a shortened nickname for her last name. She legally changed her name to Lights at age 18. Lindemann — after lead vocalist Till Lindemann. "Lindemann" is a German occupational surname meaning "woodman". Linkin Park — Their name came from the lead singer, Chester Bennington, because they had to change their name due to copyright issues, and he drove past Lincoln Park on the way home from band practice. However, the domain "lincolnpark.com" was more than they could afford, so they changed the spelling to 'Linkin Park'. Living Colour — From the NBC TV slogan "Broadcasting in Living Color." Lord of the Flies — Band member Alex d'Aquino looked at different band names and saw "Of Mice of Men", so he thought of a great British classic, "Lord of the Flies", about a group of British boys stuck on an uninhabitable island who try to govern themselves with disastrous results. Lothar and the Hand People — Band member Richard Willis had a dream in which an enslaved race called the Hand People was saved by a hero named Lothar. Later, well after the name had been chosen, they decided that Lothar was the name of the theremin used by member John Emelin. Lynyrd Skynyrd — After Leonard Skinner, a gym teacher at Robert E. Lee High School in Jacksonville, Florida who was notorious for strictly enforcing the school's policy against boys having long hair. M Marillion — The band was originally called Silmarillion, taken from the title of a J.R.R. Tolkien novel. The name was eventually shortened to avoid possible legal problems. Marilyn Manson — For Marilyn Monroe and Charles Manson. Marshall Tucker Band — While the band was discussing possible band names one evening in an old warehouse they had rented for rehearsal space, someone noticed that the warehouse's door key had the name "Marshall Tucker" inscribed on it, and suggested they call themselves "The Marshall Tucker Band," not realizing it referred to an actual person. It later came to light that Marshall Tucker, a blind piano tuner, had rented the space before the band, and his name was inscribed on the key. In his book, Top Pop Singles, 1955-2002, music historian Joel Whitburn attributes "Marshall Tucker" to the owner of the band's rehearsal hall. Matchbox Twenty — Originally titled "Matchbox 20," the band took its name from a softball jersey with a "20" on it and a patch that had "Matchbox" written on it. The band altered its name to "Matchbox Twenty" after the release of its debut album Yourself or Someone Like You. Mayday Parade — Members Alex and Jake decided on the name while recording their first EP. McFly — Guitarist/vocalist/songwriter Tom Fletcher took the name from the film Back to the Futures main character Marty McFly. Megadeth — While Dave Mustaine was traveling back to his home in the Bay Area on a bus after getting kicked out of his former band, Metallica, he would write lyrics on the back of a handbill to pass the time. The handbill itself quoted "The arsenal of megadeath can't be rid no matter what the peace treaties come to," which inspired him to use Megadeath as his band name. He dropped the A when he learned that "The Megadeaths" was a former name of Pink Floyd. Metric — Initially, their name was Mainstream. After releasing an EP titled Mainstream EP, they changed the band's name to Metric, after a sound that was programmed by the member James Shaw on his keyboard in 1998. MGMT — Abbreviation of the band's original name, The Management. Minus the Bear — The name comes from an in-joke among the band members, referring to the 1970s television series B. J. and the Bear. "A friend of the band had gone on a date", explained the singer-guitarist Jake Snider, "and one of us asked him afterwards how the date went. Our friend said, 'You know that TV show from the '70s, B.J. and the Bear? It was like that... minus the Bear.' That’s the straight truth." Misery Index — The Baltimore death metal band named themselves after the Misery Index, an economic indicator created by Arthur Okun, defined as the sum of the unemployment rate and the annual inflation rate. Misfits — The band was named after a motion picture released in 1961 entitled The Misfits. The Misfits' skull logo was derived from the villain of the 1946 motion picture The Crimson Ghost. MKTO — The members' initials: Malcolm Kelley and Tony Oller. Modest Mouse — Derives from a passage from the Virginia Woolf story "The Mark on the Wall", which reads, "...and very frequent even in the minds of modest, mouse-coloured people..." Mogwai — Named after the creatures from the film Gremlins. Molly Hatchet — A 17th-century southern prostitute who allegedly beheaded and/or chopped up her clients. Moloko — From the narcotic-filled milk drink, Moloko Plus, in the Anthony Burgess novel A Clockwork Orange, based on the Russian for milk, "молоко" ("moloko"). The Moody Blues — The band were originally named The M&B 5 after the Birmingham brewery Mitchells & Butlers. This was changed and the new name was inspired by a Duke Ellington song named "Mood Indigo". Moottörin Jyrinä — "Moottorin jyrinä" means "the rumble of an engine" in Finnish. The band added a heavy metal umlaut to the word "moottorin" as a parody of Motörhead. Morgoth — The principal antagonist in Tolkien's Silmarillion. The Mothers of Invention — Originally named The Mothers, renamed to The Mothers of Invention by Frank Zappa after their record label Verve Records suggested that the band rename themselves as "mother" is a slang term for "motherfucker". Mötley Crüe — When Mick Mars was playing with his old cover band White Horse, he heard someone describing them as "motley-looking crew". He instantly took to the phrase and knew that someday he wanted to play in a band by that name. The spelling was eventually changed and umlauts were added. The Mountain Goats — Taken from the Screamin' Jay Hawkins song "Yellow Coat", which contains the line "50 million bulldogs, 20 mountain goats, all gathered 'round at sundown to see my yellow coat." Mumford & Sons — Originates from the fact that Marcus Mumford was always the most visible member, organizing the band and their performances from their beginnings in West London. Vocalist Ben Lovett indicated that the name was meant to invoke the sense of an "antiquated family business name". Muse — Front-man Matthew Bellamy stated that the band's name was mainly chosen because it looked professional on posters and the like. However, Bellamy has also stated that the name could possibly have stemmed from being raised in a family interested in Ouija and spirits. The bandmates first heard the word when someone in their hometown of Teignmouth, England, suggested that the reason for a lot of the town's populace becoming members of bands was a muse hovering over the town. My Bloody Valentine — Kevin Shields and Colm Ó Cíosóig formed My Bloody Valentine in early 1983 with lead vocalist David Conway. Conway, who performed under the pseudonym Dave Stelfox, suggested a number of potential band names, including the Burning Peacocks, before the trio settled on My Bloody Valentine. Shields has since claimed he was unaware that My Bloody Valentine was the title of a 1981 Canadian slasher film when the name was suggested. My Chemical Romance — Bassist Mikey Way, before joining the band, had a job at Barnes & Noble. The name came from Irvine Welsh's Ecstasy: Three Tales of Chemical Romance. Vocalist Gerard Way added the "My" to make the name more personal. It is also said to have been inspired from shoegaze band My Bloody Valentine. N Ned's Atomic Dustbin — Title of an episode of The Goon Show that the mother of vocalist Jonn Penney would read to him. Night Ranger — Originally formed as Stereo by Jack Blades, Kelly Keagy and Brad Gillis, the band changed the name to simply Ranger after adding keyboardist Alan Fitzgerald and guitarist Jeff Watson. Due to a copyright infringement claim by a country band calling itself The Rangers, the band changed the name to Night Ranger. Nine Inch Nails — Sole constant member Trent Reznor chose the name because it "could be abbreviated easily" and denied the name had any "literal meaning". Nine Stories (Lisa Loeb And...) — Named after the J.D. Salinger book of short stories of that name; Loeb, an English major, wanted a literary moniker. Nirvana — Before settling on a permanent name, the band had played under many different names including 'Throat Oyster' and 'Ted, Ed, Fred'. In Buddhism, nirvana means release from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. Kurt Cobain chose the name and defined it to his bandmates as a word that describes the 'attainment of perfection'. No Doubt — Back-flipping original singer John Spence formed an Orange County-based 2 Tone ska group named after his favorite expression, with keyboardist Eric Stefani. After Spence's death, the name stuck. NOFX — guitarist Eric Melvin says that he came up with the name, inspired by the broken up punk band "Negative FX". The name is also meant to symbolize the band's rejection of gimmickry that the band was seeing in music at the time. The Notorious B.I.G. — From a childhood nickname "Big", because he was overweight at the age of 10. NSYNC — received its name after Justin Timberlake's mother commented on how "in sync" the group's singing voices were. The group's name is also a play on the last letter of each of the initial members' names: JustiN, ChriS, JoeY, JasoN, and JC. O Oasis — Evolved from an earlier band called The Rain, composed of Paul "Guigsy" McGuigan (bass guitar), Paul "Bonehead" Arthurs (guitar), Tony McCarroll (drums) and Chris Hutton (vocals). Unsatisfied with Hutton, Arthurs auditioned acquaintance Liam Gallagher as a replacement. After Gallagher joined the group, the band's name was changed to Oasis, which was inspired by a place where Inspiral Carpets played, the Oasis Leisure Centre in Swindon. Odesza — the band's name was taken from the name of Harrison Mills' uncle's sunken vessel, which itself was named after the Ukrainian city of Odesa. Only his uncle and one other crew mate survived. Since the spelling "Odessa" was already being used by a Scottish synth band, they instead chose to use a form of the Hungarian spelling, replacing the "ss" with "sz". The correct spelling in Hungarian is: Odessza. The Offspring — Band members Dexter Holland and Greg K decided to form a band after attending a Social Distortion concert. The band was called Manic Subsidal, who suddenly changed their name to The Offspring in 1986. Of Mice & Men — After the novel by John Steinbeck. Steinbeck himself took the name from a line in the poem "To A Mouse" by Robert Burns, which reads "The best-laid schemes o' mice an 'men Gang aft agley" OK Go — Came from an art teacher of Damian Kulash and Tim Nordwind saying "OK... Go!" while they were drawing during the Interlochen Arts Camp. Okilly Dokilly - From the signature phrase of the Simpsons character Ned Flanders. The band plays "Nedal" music and even dress up as Ned Flanders. One Night Only — Came about when the band were asked to play a gig; they did not have a name at the time and so came up with One Night Only, intending for the title to, literally, last for only one night. However, the name stuck and they continued to use it. One Ok Rock — Comes from "one o'clock", the time that the band used to practice on weekends, but due to the Japanese language making no distinction between R's and L's, they changed "O'CLOCK" to "O'CROCK" (or "O'KROCK"), which was then separated to become "OK ROCK". OneRepublic — Originally called "Republic", the name was changed after Columbia Records mentioned that the name might result in legal action from other, similarly-named bands. Opeth — Derived from the word "Opet", taken from the Wilbur Smith novel Sunbird. In this novel, Opet is the name of a (fictional) Phoenician city in South Africa whose name is translated as "City of the Moon" in the book. P Panic! at the Disco — Lifted from the lyrics of a song called "Panic," by Name Taken: "Panic at the disco/Sat back and took it so slow." Pantera — Named after guitarist Dimebag Darrell's car, a De Tomaso Pantera. Paramore — According to lead singer Hayley Williams, the name "Paramore" came from the maiden name of the mother of one of their first bass players. Once the group learned the meaning of the homophone paramour ("secret lover"), they decided to adopt the name, using the Paramore spelling. Paris Match — From the title of a song by The Style Council. Passion Pit — The band culled their name from the Variety Slanguage Dictionary, a glossary of Variety's frequently used slang, which was provided by the Hollywood insider publication to help not-so-savvy readers decipher its content. The magazine used the term to refer to drive-in theatres, because of their privacy and romantic allure for teenagers. Pearl Jam — The band's first name was "Mookie Blaylock" after the All-Star basketball player, but the name was changed to "Pearl Jam" due to trademark concerns. Vocalist Eddie Vedder claimed in an early interview that the name was a reference to his great-grandmother Pearl Brunner. In 2006 guitarist Mike McCready said that bass player Jeff Ament came up with "Pearl" and that "Jam" was added after seeing Neil Young live. Pet Shop Boys — From friends who worked in a pet shop in Ealing, and were known as the "pet shop boys". Phantogram — Formerly known as Charlie Everywhere, they wanted to change their name to "something [they] liked". They came up with the word 'phantogram' and thought it was interesting. Upon looking it up and finding it referred to an optical illusion, they found parallels with their band and music. Phish — A portmanteau of drummer Jon Fishman's nickname "Fish" and "phshhhh", an onomatopoeia of the sound of a brush on a snare drum. Phoenix — After the song "Phoenix" from Daft Punk's debut album Homework. It has also been speculated that the band named themselves after actor Joaquin Phoenix, who, like the two main guitar players/brothers, has a scar left over from cleft palate surgery in childhood. Piirpauke — Comes from the Karelian father of founding member Sakari Kukko, means a noise or a racket. Pilot - The name came from the last initials of the founding members of the band, David Paton (lead vocals/bass), Billy Lyall (keyboards), and Stuart Tosh (drums). In an interview with David Paton, he said that the idea came from the producer's girlfriend. While Ian Bairnson was involved with the band's first album, he wasn't an official member of the band until their second album, Second Flight. Pink Floyd — Playing under multiple names, including "Tea Set", when the band found themselves on the same bill as another band with the same name, Syd Barrett came up with the alternative name The Pink Floyd Sound, after two blues musicians, Pink Anderson and Floyd Council. For a time after this they oscillated between The Tea Set and The Pink Floyd Sound, with the latter name eventually winning out. The Sound was dropped fairly quickly, but the definite article was still used regularly until 1970. The group's UK releases during the Syd Barrett era credited them as The Pink Floyd as did their first two U.S. singles. The albums More and Ummagumma (both 1969) credit the band as Pink Floyd, produced by The Pink Floyd, while Atom Heart Mother (1970) credits the band as The Pink Floyd, produced by Pink Floyd. David Gilmour is known to have referred to the group as The Pink Floyd as late as 1984. Pixies — Selected randomly from a dictionary by guitarist Joey Santiago. The band took a liking to the word's definition, "mischievous little elves". The name was shortened from the original "Pixies In Panoply". +44 — Pronounced "plus forty four", a reference to the international dialing code of the United Kingdom, where band members Mark Hoppus and Travis Barker first discussed the project. PMMP — From the names of the band members, Paula Vesala and Mira Luoti. The abbreviation originally meant "Paulan ja Miran molemmat puolet" ("both sides of Paula and Mira") but the band has also explained it simply means "Paula, Mira, Mira, Paula" in a similar fashion as the Swedish band ABBA chose their name. The Pogues — Originally called Póg mo Thóin - Irish for "Kiss my arse". Shortened to The Pogues after complaints received by the BBC. Poliça — According to singer Channy Leaneagh, Poliça is Polish for "policy", and she sees it as a reference to an unwritten code that guides the members when they play together, as well as its work ethic. (Contrary to this explanation, the Polish word for "policy" is actually polityka.) In another interview, Leaneagh claimed that they wanted something unique, and she had a file on her computer which, following a corruption during a computer crash, had come back as "Poliça". Popeda — an intentional misspelling of the name of the iconic Soviet car GAZ-M20 Pobeda. Porno for Pyros — Inspired by the 1992 Los Angeles riots. Portishead — After the English town of Portishead, Somerset, the hometown of one of the band's founding members, Geoff Barrow. The Postal Service — Chosen because of the band's production method: producer Jimmy Tamborello would mail raw versions to vocalist Ben Gibbard, who would edit them and mail them back through the United States Postal Service. Press Play On Tape - From the message displayed by the Commodore 64 home computer when starting to load a program from the cassette tape drive. The band's music consists of remixes of tunes from famous Commodore 64 games. Procol Harum — From the pedigree name of a Siamese cat that belonged to a friend of Guy Stevens, the band's manager. The name was Procul Harum, which is Latin for "beyond these things", but was written down incorrectly by Keith Reid. The band would say in interviews that the cat was a Burmese Blue, though all cats with the name are the Devon Rex breed. The Prodigy — Bandleader Liam Howlett's first synthesiser was a Moog Prodigy. Q Queen — Were originally called Smile. Singer Freddie Mercury came up with the new name for the band, later saying: "Years ago I thought up the name 'Queen' ... It's just a name, but it's very regal obviously, and it sounds splendid ... It's a strong name, very universal and immediate. It had a lot of visual potential and was open to all sorts of interpretations. I was certainly aware of gay connotations, but that was just one face of it." Queens of the Stone Age — A name given by Criss Goss, who said the name implied they were "heavy enough for the boys and sweet enough for the girls", while 'Kings of the Stone Age' was described to be "too macho" and lopsided. Queensrÿche — Were originally called "The Mob". The name is derived from a song on their EP "Queen of the Reich", and is the only known use of the letter Y with an umlaut in English. It was used to soften "Queensreich" and not confuse the band with Nazism. Qntal — In a dream, vocalist Sigrid Hausen saw the letters in flames. R Radiohead — Originally known as "On a Friday", the band was given two weeks after signing to Parlophone to change their name. The band renamed themselves after the 1986 Talking Heads song "Radio Head" on the album True Stories, claiming it was the "least annoying song" on the album. Rage Against the Machine — When the band formed in 1991, they chose the name of a song Zack de la Rocha had written for his old band, Inside Out. Rammstein — The band was named after the 1988 Ramstein air show disaster. At first, the band had denied this and said that their name was inspired by the giant doorstop type devices found on old gates, called Rammsteine. The extra "m" in the band's name makes it translate literally as "ramming stone". The Ramones — Paul McCartney used the alias Paul Ramon when booking hotel rooms. So the band decided to use the last name Ramone even though it's not their surname. R.E.M. — Vocalist Michael Stipe drew the initialism randomly out of the dictionary. The term refers to the rapid eye movement phase of sleep. Stipe says that is not the reason why the band is named R.E.M. Reel Big Fish — The band chose this name in favor of "The Fisher King", a reference to the film of the same name, as well as "Dull Boy Jack", a reference to The Shining. The final name was chosen almost arbitrarily, under the notion that it could be changed later. Bassist Matt Wong suggested "Real Big Fish", and Aaron Barrett suggested changing the "A" to a second "E". However, the name stuck, much to the chagrin of the band. Relient K — Named after the car that guitarist Matt Hoopes drove in high school, a Plymouth Reliant K car. The spelling was intentionally altered to avoid a lawsuit. The Replacements — Originally named the Impediments, the band changed its name to the Replacements following a June 1980 church hall gig in Minneapolis in which they were banned due to disorderly behavior. The Residents — In 1971 the group sent a reel-to-reel tape to Hal Halverstadt at Warner Brothers. Because the band had not included any name in the return address, the rejection slip was simply addressed to "The Residents". The members of the group then decided that this would be the name they would use, first becoming Residents Unincorporated, then shortening it to the current name. REO Speedwagon — After Ransom E. Olds's REO Speed Wagon, which band founder Neal Doughty studied in his transportation history class at the University of Illinois. The Rolling Stones — From the Muddy Waters song, "Rollin' Stone". Röyksopp — From "røyksopp", the Norwegian word for the puffball mushroom, substituting a Swedish "ö" for the Norwegian "ø". Rush — The band was in need to quickly find a name for themselves just before a gig, when John Rutsey's brother suggested: "Why don't you call your band Rush?". Russian Circles — Originally the title of their first piece, which was later called "Carpe". Russian Circles is a drill in hockey. S Saving Abel — From the ancient biblical story of Cain and Abel, about a brother who killed his own brother. Band member Jason Null thought up the band title saying "I Googled the story of Cain and Abel and found a line about 'there was no saving Abel', which just jumped out at me." School of Seven Bells — A mythical South American pickpocket training academy. Seagull Screaming Kiss Her Kiss Her — After a song by XTC on their album The Big Express. Seether — Originally Saron Gas. The band was asked to change their name due to Saron Gas being a homophone of sarin gas, a deadly nerve agent. The band changed its name to Seether in honor of Veruca Salt's song titled, "Seether". Sepultura — Means "Grave" in Portuguese. The name was chosen after co-founder Max Cavalera translated the lyrics to the Motörhead song "Dancing on Your Grave". Sevendust — After discovering their name Crawlspace was already taken, band bassist Vinnie Hornsby renamed the band after a brand of plant pesticide he found in his grandmother's garage named Sevin dust. Shai Hulud — After the gigantic Sandworms of Arrakis from the 1984 science fiction film Dune, based on the Frank Herbert science fiction novel of the same name. Sigue Sigue Sputnik — The group's name is a very rough translation of the Russian phrase "burn, burn Sputnik" or "burn, burn, satellite" and is claimed by the band to be an adaptation of the name of a Russian street gang. The name is also a nod to the band's anti-conventional rock image; in a 1986 interview, band founder Tony James remembered reading that, after seeing Sputnik pass over the earth, Little Richard gave up rock and roll. James "took that as a good omen" for the band's name choice. Sigur Rós — After the little sister of the band's vocalist, Jón Þór Birgisson (Jónsi), whose name is Sigurrós (without a space). It translates to "victory rose." Silver Apples — Taken from the W.B. Yeats poem "The Song of Wandering Aengus", which references "The silver apples of the moon, the golden apples of the sun." Silversun Pickups — Derived from a liquor store located across from Silverlake Lounge in Los Angeles, where they often played in their early days. A band member would often arrive at the store late at night to buy liquor, making a "Silversun Pickup". In interviews, the band has said its name is more of "a state of mind". Simple Minds — From a line in the David Bowie song "The Jean Genie". Simply Red — The name came about when the manager of a local venue was confused about the band's name and Mick Hucknall replied that it was "Red, simply Red". The resulting misnomer was printed on publicity posters as "Simply Red", and the name stuck. Sleigh Bells — Guitarist Derek Miller wrote "Sleigh Bells" on CD-Rs he distributed his demos on, before forming the band. Skillet — Each starting band member was already in a separate band, and all decided to start a side project together. Since each other band had a different sound and style to it, the side project was said to be like putting all of those styles in a big skillet to come up with something unique. Slipknot — Drummer Joey Jordison suggested renaming the band from "Meld" to "Slipknot" after their song that eventually appeared on the band's demo Mate. Feed. Kill. Repeat. Sloan — According to band member Jay Ferguson, the band's name refers to a friend's nickname. Their friend Jason Larsen was called "slow one" by his French-speaking boss, which with the French accent sounded more like "Sloan". The original agreement was that they could name the band after their friend's nickname as long as he was on the cover of their first album. As a result, it is Larsen who appears on the cover of Sloan's Peppermint EP. Smashing Pumpkins — Frontman Billy Corgan had come up with this name as a joke years before the band had ever formed. Whenever people asked if he was in a band, he would tell them it was called Smashing Pumpkins for a laugh. The name stuck after the band formed, despite dissension from fellow band members. Snow — Darren O'Brien's nickname given to him because he was one of the only white people in an ethnically diverse neighbourhood in Canada. Soilwork — Chosen by the band to symbolize "working from the ground up". Social Distortion — Named after drummer Casey Royer's distortion pedal which he gave to lead vocalist, Mike Ness because he wasn't good at playing back then. Soundgarden — The band took their name from a huge pipe sculpture in Seattle’s Sand Point titled "A Sound Garden". The Soup Dragons — The early 70s animation "Clangers" had a character named the Soup Dragon, who would harvest Green Soup from a volcano. Space — Guitarist Jamie Murphy named the band after the original working title of The Real People's song "My Own Dream". The band had been previously known as The Substitutes, after The Who's song "Substitute". Spandau Ballet — The name was coined after a close friend of the band, the DJ Robert Elms, saw the words Spandau Ballet written on the wall of a lavatory in a Berlin nightclub; it is a reference to Spandau Prison and the "ballet" refers to the jerky movements that prisoners made when they were hanged. Squeeze — The group performed under several names, most frequently "Captain Trundlow's Sky Company" or "Skyco", before settling on the band name "Squeeze" as a facetious tribute to the Velvet Underground's oft-derided 1973 album Squeeze. Squirrel Nut Zippers — A peanut and caramel candy from the 1920s. Stabbing Westward — Christopher Hall and Walter Flakus formed the band Stabbing Westward when they were in college. They came up with the name while working at the college radio station WIUS-FM. During an interview in 1996, Hall stated, "Since we went to Western Illinois University, Stabbing Westward had a certain 'kill everybody in the school' vibe to it! The school's way out in farm country and the country is really close minded. I was walking around like Robert Smith with real big hair, big baggy black clothes, black fingernail polish and eye makeup. They just didn't get it. We hated the town." Staind — The band was originally called "Stain". They added the D when they found another group, which then became Kilgore Smudge and Lit, already had the name. Steeleye Span — John "Steeleye" Span is a character in the song "Horkstow Grange". Steely Dan — A dildo in the novel Naked Lunch by William S. Burroughs. Stereolab — Named after the electronic music division of Vanguard Records, a publisher of classical, folk, and jazz records. Stone Sour — A cocktail made up of one part whiskey and a splash of orange juice. The group describe their music as one part pure rock adrenaline with a splash of melody. Stryper — Originally derived from the King James Version of Isaiah 53:5, drummer Robert Sweet created the acronym: Salvation Through Redemption, Yielding Peace, Encouragement, and Righteousness. Styx — In 1972 the band members decided to choose a new name when they signed to Wooden Nickel Records after being spotted by a talent scout at a concert at St. John of the Cross Parish in Western Springs, Illinois (James "JY" Young's hometown). Several suggestions were made and, according to DeYoung, the name Styx was chosen because it was "the only one that none of us hated". Sum 41 — The band started 41 days into the summer. The band was originally a NOFX cover band named Kaspir; they changed their name to Sum 41 for a Supernova show on September 28, 1996. Sunn O))) — After the Sunn amplifier brand. The O and the three right parentheses come from the sphere and waves depicted in the Sunn logo. Super Furry Animals - Derived from a clothing range set up by singer Gruff Rhys's sister. Switchfoot — A surfing term meaning being able to ride with either foot forward. System of a Down — Derived from a poem written by the guitarist Daron Malakian, named 'Victims of a Down', which was changed to System of a Down to place them closer alphabetically to their idols Slayer. T Taking Back Sunday — A song by Long Island band The Waiting Process who were inspired by their grandmother, Tina, that they should take back Sunday from the Christian people in Long Island. Talking Heads — Bassist Tina Weymouth explained that "A friend had found the name in the TV Guide, which explained the term used by TV studios to describe a head-and-shoulder shot of a person talking as 'all content, no action.' It fit." Tangerine Dream — Edgar Froese, in an interview in Let It Rock magazine, claimed they named themselves 'after the Beatles line in the song Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds'. Clearly, with English not being his first language, he misheard 'Tangerine Trees' as 'Tangerine Dreams'. Tears for Fears — from a line in the book Prisoners of Pain by American psychologist Arthur Janov. Much of the band's early material is influenced by Janov's writings. Teddybears — Invented as a way to stand out at a time when almost every Swedish and Norwegian hard rock band was named something like "Corpse Grinder from Hell". Thee Michelle Gun Elephant — A friend of the band mispronounced the name of The Damned's album Machine Gun Etiquette. Therapy? — The band chose the name because it was a simple word that everyone knows. The reason for the question mark at the end of the name was because when lead singer and guitarist Andy Cairns was writing out the spines for the cassettes to send off to the record companies, he began writing too far to the left, so to centre the writing and make it look more professional, he added a question mark to the end and it stuck with the band. They Might Be Giants — The name of a 1971 film, in which George C. Scott plays a man who believes he is Sherlock Holmes. The film's title is in turn a reference to the literary character Don Quixote, who mistook windmills for giants. The name had previously been used by a ventriloquist friend of the band. Thirty Seconds to Mars — The name of the band came after a thesis of an ex-professor of Harvard. One of the sub-sections was titled as "Thirty Seconds To Mars" and talks about the technological advance that connects with humans and it said that we were literally 30 seconds from Mars. The band on their origins said that that phrase describes their music in a nutshell. Three Days Grace — According to frontman Adam Gontier, the name refers to a sense of urgency, with the question of being whether someone could change something in their life which would take at least three days. Three Dog Night — According to The Three Dog Night Story, 1964–1975, vocalist Danny Hutton's then-girlfriend June Fairchild suggested the name after reading a magazine article about indigenous Australians, in which it was explained that on cold nights they would customarily sleep in a hole in the ground whilst embracing a dingo, a native species of wild dog. On colder nights they would sleep with two dogs and if the night were freezing, it was a "three dog night". Thompson Twins — From Thomson and Thompson, the bumbling detectives in Hergé's comic strip series The Adventures of Tintin. TLC — Acronym for their nicknames T-Boz, Left Eye, and Chilli. Toad the Wet Sprocket — In Eric Idle's monologue "Rock Notes" (heard on Monty Python's Contractual Obligation Album), a journalist reports that "Rex Stardust, lead electric triangle with Toad the Wet Sprocket, has had to have a elbow removed following their recent successful worldwide tour of Finland." Tokio Hotel — After "Tokio", the German spelling of the Japanese city Tokyo, due to the band's love of the city, and "Hotel" due to their constant touring and living in hotels. Toto — In the early 1980s, band members told the press that the band was named after the dog in The Wizard of Oz. Two Door Cinema Club — Came about after band member Sam Halliday mispronounced the name of the local cinema, Tudor Cinema, and this stuck. Trap Them — The band named themselves after the 1977 sexploitation horror film Trap Them And Kill Them, better known as Emanuelle and the Last Cannibals. Tuomari Nurmio — Literally means "Judge Nurmio" in Finnish. The artist has a master's degree in law and thus is eligible to actually formally practice as a judge, but he chose a career in music instead. Turo's Hevi Gee — Originally named "Turo's Hevi Gentlemen" after Pedro Hietanen's band Pedro's Heavy Gentlemen, later changed to "Turo's Hevi Gee" on Hietanen's suggestion, to avoid confusion. Twenty One Pilots — Lead singer Tyler Joseph got the name from studying the play All My Sons by Arthur Miller in a theatre class. The play is set in World War II, and the main character finds that parts to various planes are faulty but lets them fly anyway, resulting in the deaths of 21 pilots. U U2 — Bono once said that the band name came from its interactivity with the audience, as in "you too". U2 is also the designation of a famous spy plane (as U-2), as well as the name of the subway line that connected East and West Berlin, on which Zoo Station (also the name of a song on the album Achtung Baby) is found. UB40 — The UK government's form number for the Unemployment Benefit Attendance Card, as shown on the band's debut album Signing Off. UBBA — An acronym of the Swedish phrase "Utan B, Bara A", meaning "without B, only A". The name is an intentional spoof of the famous Swedish band ABBA, but the resemblance to the Viking chief Ubba is just a coincidence. Ugly Kid Joe — A parody of the LA glam band, Pretty Boy Floyd. Undercover Slut — After Wendy Whitebread, Undercover Slut, an X-rated comic book from 1990. Uriah Heep — Creepy character from the novel David Copperfield by Charles Dickens. V Vampire Weekend — Chris Baio explained that the band's singer, Ezra Koenig, had filmed a low-budget vampire movie with this title two-and-a-half years before the band formed. Van Halen — The last name of the band's lead guitarist Eddie Van Halen and drummer Alex Van Halen. Although initially called Mammoth, the band changed its name when it found out Mammoth was already taken by another band. The Velvet Underground — After a book about sadomasochism by Michael Leigh. Veruca Salt — After the character from the children's novel, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. The Villebillies — From a lyric written by vocalist Derek "Child" Monyhan shortly after joining the group. It is a combination of the words Louisville, the band's hometown and largest urban center in Kentucky (often locally nicknamed "The Ville"), and hillbilly, referring to eastern Kentucky's rural mountain culture. The name references the cross genre nature of the band's music. Violent Femmes — According to bassist Brian Ritchie, he came up with the name of the group as a fake band name when one of his bandmates questioned his assertion that his brother was also in a band—he and percussionist Victor DeLorenzo liked the name, so they used it for themselves. VAST — The acronym VAST stands for Visual Audio Sensory Theater and is the main creation of singer/songwriter and multi-instrumentalist Jon Crosby W Wang Chung — The Chinese word 黃鐘 huang chung means "yellow bell" and the first note in the Chinese classical music scale. Wardruna — Einar Selvik has stated that the name 'Wardruna' means 'warden of the runes'. Weezer — Lead vocalist Rivers Cuomo needed to come up with a name when the band received a big break to open for Keanu Reeves' band Dogstar in 1992. Cuomo quickly nominated Weezer, a nickname given to him when he was a kid by other children who were teasing him about his asthma. Afterwards, the band had a long meeting and kicked around many more names, but nobody could come up with anything better. The Whitlams — After the 21st Prime Minister of Australia, Gough Whitlam. The Who — Were originally called The Detours, then changed their name to The Who after a suggestion by guitarist Pete Townshend's friend Richard Barnes. Their first manager, Pete Meaden, renamed them The High Numbers, and they released one unsuccessful single, "Zoot Suit", under that name. When EMI dropped them, the band sacked Meaden and went back to being called The Who. Another possible reason was because of Townshend's grandmother, who would always refer to popular bands as "The Who?", due to her impaired hearing. Widespread Panic — Due to anxiety problems, lead guitarist Mike Houser used to have the nickname "Panic". One day he came home and announced that he didn't want to be just "Panic", he wanted to be "Widespread Panic". Wilco — After the CB radio Radiotelephony procedure for "Will Comply", a choice which lead singer & guitarist Jeff Tweedy has called "fairly ironic for a rock band to name themselves." Wild Beasts — The band took their name the early 20th century art movement Fauvism (from French fauves meaning 'wild beasts'), pioneered in France by Henri Matisse and André Derain. The band had originally formed under the name 'Fauve' before translating it to English. Will To Power — A dance music band from Miami, Florida whose name is taken from Nietzsche's concept in philosophy The Wombats — The band members used to jokingly call each other wombats; when they needed a name for the promotional materials for their first gig, guitarist Dan Haggis suggested "The Wombats." Woodhands — Member Dan Werb chose the name because he "wanted to let everyone know that there was an organic element to the ambient electronic music I was making." Wu-Tang Clan — RZA and Ol' Dirty Bastard adopted the name for the rap group after seeing the Kung fu film Shaolin and Wu Tang, which features a school of warriors trained in Wu-Tang style. X X Japan — The band added "Japan" in order to distinguish from the American punk group X. Xiu Xiu — From the 1998 Chinese film Xiu Xiu: The Sent Down Girl. XTC — A phonetic spelling of ecstasy, which Andy Partridge claims was inspired by the way actor Jimmy Durante emphasises the word in his song "I'm the Guy Who Found the Lost Chord" from the film This Time for Keeps. The xx — The band's name was inspired by typing two lower-case "X"s together in Microsoft Word. Y The Yardbirds — Grew out of Keith Relf's The Metropolitan Blues Quartet. When the band changed members in 1963, Relf changed the name to The Yardbirds, partly from the nickname of jazz saxophonist Charlie Parker, "Bird", and partly from the American slang for prisoner. Yes — Group members were searching for an appropriate name but needed a name to play their first gig under. They played their first gig on August 3 under the name Yes, suggested by Peter Banks as being short, positive, direct, and memorable. It was originally intended as a temporary solution until a permanent name could be found. Obviously, the name stuck. Yo La Tengo — The name is a reference to a story about the 1962 US Major League Baseball expansion team, the New York Mets. When two players chase the same batted fly ball, customarily one yells "I've got it" and the other then retreats to avoid a collision. But infielder Elio Chacón didn't understand the English term, so he and outfielder Richie Ashburn collided a few times while chasing fly balls. Another teammate suggested that Ashburn yell the words in Spanish instead—"yo la tengo"—so Chacón would understand. After that Ashburn and Chacón no longer ran into each other. But another teammate, Frank Thomas, didn't understand the Spanish term. So one day while chasing a fly ball, despite hearing Ashburn call out "yo la tengo," Howard ran into Ashburn. Young Fathers — The band was named so because all three members have their fathers' names. Youth Lagoon — Inspired by a painting that Trevor Powers described in an early interview as depicting a group of children playing in a giant pool. Z Zox — From the last name of drummer John Zox. Zao — Original vocalist Eric Reeder came up with this name, meaning "alive" in Greek. ZZ Top — Billy Gibbons wrote in his autobiography "Billy F Gibbons: Rock + Roll Gearhead" that he used to live in an apartment decorated with several concert posters and flyers, including Z.Z. Hill and B.B. King. After playing around with names like Z.Z. King and B.B. Hill he ended up with ZZ Top. See also Lists of etymologies List of bands named after other performers' songs List of original names of bands References Bibliography Dolgins, Adam (1998). Rock Names: From Abba to ZZ Top: How Rock Bands Got Their Names. Cidermill Books. . Wilson, Dave (2005). Rock Formations: Categorical Answers to How Band Names Were Formed. Carol Pub. Group. . Name Etymologies Lists of etymologies

Representational state transfer

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Representational state transfer (REST) is a software architectural style that was created to guide the design and development of the architecture for the World Wide Web. REST defines a set of constraints for how the architecture of an Internet-scale distributed hypermedia system, such as the Web, should behave. The REST architectural style emphasises the scalability of interactions between components, uniform interfaces, independent deployment of components, and the creation of a layered architecture to facilitate caching components to reduce user-perceived latency, enforce security, and encapsulate legacy systems. REST has been employed throughout the software industry and is a widely accepted set of guidelines for creating stateless, reliable web APIs. A web API that obeys the REST constraints is informally described as RESTful. RESTful web APIs are typically loosely based on HTTP methods to access resources via URL-encoded parameters and the use of JSON or XML to transmit data. "Web resources" were first defined on the World Wide Web as documents or files identified by their URLs. Today, the definition is much more generic and abstract, and includes every thing, entity, or action that can be identified, named, addressed, handled, or performed in any way on the Web. In a RESTful Web service, requests made to a resource's URI elicit a response with a payload formatted in HTML, XML, JSON, or some other format. For example, the response can confirm that the resource state has been changed. The response can also include hypertext links to related resources. The most common protocol for these requests and responses is HTTP. It provides operations (HTTP methods) such as GET, POST, PUT, and DELETE. By using a stateless protocol and standard operations, RESTful systems aim for fast performance, reliability, and the ability to grow by reusing components that can be managed and updated without affecting the system as a whole, even while it is running. The goal of REST is to increase performance, scalability, simplicity, modifiability, visibility, portability, and reliability. This is achieved through following REST principles such as a client–server architecture, statelessness, cacheability, use of a layered system, support for code on demand, and using a uniform interface. These principles must be followed for the system to be classified as RESTful. Etymology The term representational state transfer was introduced and defined in 2000 by Roy Fielding in his doctoral dissertation. The term is intended to evoke an image of how a well-designed Web application behaves: it is a network of Web resources (a virtual state machine) where the user advances through the application by selecting links (e.g. http://www.example.com/articles/21), resulting in the next resource's representation (the next application state) being transferred to the client and rendered for the user. History The Web began to enter everyday use in 1993-4, when websites for general use started to become available. At the time, there was only a fragmented description of the Web’s architecture and there was pressure in the industry to agree on some standard for the Web interface protocols. For instance, several experimental extensions had been added to the communication protocol (HTTP) to support proxies, and more extensions were being proposed, but there was a need for a formal Web architecture with which to evaluate the impact of these changes. Together the W3C, and IETF working groups, started work on creating formal descriptions of the Web’s three primary standards: URI, HTTP, and HTML. Roy Fielding was involved in the creation of these standards (specifically HTTP 1.0 and 1.1, and URI), and during the next six years he developed the REST architectural style, testing its constraints on the Web’s protocol standards and using it as a means to define architectural improvements — and to identify architectural mismatches. Fielding defined REST in his 2000 PhD dissertation "Architectural Styles and the Design of Network-based Software Architectures" at UC Irvine. To create the REST architectural style, Fielding identified the requirements that apply when creating a world-wide network-based application, such as the need for a low entry-barrier to enable global adoption. He also surveyed many existing architectural styles for network-based applications, identifying which features are shared with other styles, such as caching and client-server features, and those which are unique to REST, such as the concept of resources. Fielding was trying to both categorise the existing architecture of the current implementation and identify which aspects should be considered central to the behavioural and performance requirements of the Web. By their nature, architectural styles are independent of any specific implementation, and while REST was created as part of the development of the Web standards, the implementation of the Web does not obey every constraint in the REST architectural style. Mismatches can occur due to ignorance or oversight, but the existence of the REST architectural style means they can be identified before they become standardised. For example, Fielding identified the embedding of session information in URIs as a violation of the constraints of REST which can negatively affect shared caching and server scalability. HTTP cookies also violated REST constraints because they can become out of sync with the browser's application state making them unreliable; they also contain opaque data that can be a concern for privacy and security. Architectural concepts The REST architectural style is designed for network-based applications, specifically client-server applications. But more than that, it is designed for Internet-scale usage, so the coupling between the user agent (client) and the origin server must be as lightweight (loose) as possible to facilitate large-scale adoption. This is achieved by creating a layer of abstraction on the server by defining resources that encapsulate entities (e.g. files) on the server and so hiding the underlying implementation details (file server, database, etc.). But the definition is even more general than that: any information that can be named can be a resource: an image, a database query, a temporal service (e.g. “today’s weather in London”), or even a collection of other resources. This approach allows the greatest interoperability between clients and servers in a long-lived Internet-scale environment which crosses organisational (trust) boundaries. Clients can only access resources using URIs. In other words, the client requests a resource using a URI and the server responds with a representation of the resource. A representation of a resource is another important concept in REST; to ensure responses can be interpreted by the widest possible number of client applications a representation of the resource is sent in hypertext format. Thus, a resource is manipulated through hypertext representations transferred in messages between the clients and servers. The strong decoupling of client and server together with the text-based transfer of information using a uniform addressing protocol provided the basis for meeting the requirements of the Web: robustness (anarchic scalability), independent deployment of components, large-grain data transfer, and a low-entry barrier for content readers, content authors and developers alike. Architectural properties The constraints of the REST architectural style affect the following architectural properties: performance in component interactions, which can be the dominant factor in user-perceived performance and network efficiency; scalability allowing the support of large numbers of components and interactions among components; simplicity of a uniform interface; modifiability of components to meet changing needs (even while the application is running); visibility of communication between components by service agents; portability of components by moving program code with the data; reliability in the resistance to failure at the system level in the presence of failures within components, connectors, or data. Architectural constraints The REST architectural style defines six guiding constraints. When these constraints are applied to the system architecture, it gains desirable non-functional properties, such as performance, scalability, simplicity, modifiability, visibility, portability, and reliability. A system that complies with some or all of these constraints is loosely referred to as RESTful. The formal REST constraints are as follows: Client–server architecture The client-server design pattern enforces the principle of separation of concerns: separating the user interface concerns from the data storage concerns. Portability of the user interface is thus improved. In the case of the Web, a plethora of web browsers have been developed for most platforms without the need for knowledge of any server implementations. Separation also simplifies the server components, improving scalability, but more importantly it allows components to evolve independently (anarchic scalability), which is necessary in an Internet-scale environment that involves multiple organisational domains. Statelessness In computing, a stateless protocol is a communications protocol in which no session information is retained by the receiver, usually a server. Relevant session data is sent to the receiver by the client in such a way that every packet of information transferred can be understood in isolation, without context information from previous packets in the session. This property of stateless protocols makes them ideal in high volume applications, increasing performance by removing server load caused by retention of session information. Cacheability As on the World Wide Web, clients and intermediaries can cache responses. Responses must, implicitly or explicitly, define themselves as either cacheable or non-cacheable to prevent clients from providing stale or inappropriate data in response to further requests. Well-managed caching partially or completely eliminates some client–server interactions, further improving scalability and performance. Layered system A client cannot ordinarily tell whether it is connected directly to the end server or to an intermediary along the way. If a proxy or load balancer is placed between the client and server, it won't affect their communications, and there won't be a need to update the client or server code. Intermediary servers can improve system scalability by enabling load balancing and by providing shared caches. Also, security can be added as a layer on top of the web services, separating business logic from security logic. Adding security as a separate layer enforces security policies. Finally, intermediary servers can call multiple other servers to generate a response to the client. Code on demand (optional) Servers can temporarily extend or customize the functionality of a client by transferring executable code: for example, compiled components such as Java applets, or client-side scripts such as JavaScript. Uniform interface The uniform interface constraint is fundamental to the design of any RESTful system. It simplifies and decouples the architecture, which enables each part to evolve independently. The four constraints for this uniform interface are: Resource identification in requests - Individual resources are identified in requests, for example using URIs in RESTful Web services. The resources themselves are conceptually separate from the representations that are returned to the client. For example, the server could send data from its database as HTML, XML or as JSON—none of which are the server's internal representation. Resource manipulation through representations - When a client holds a representation of a resource, including any metadata attached, it has enough information to modify or delete the resource's state. Self-descriptive messages - Each message includes enough information to describe how to process the message. For example, which parser to invoke can be specified by a media type. Hypermedia as the engine of application state (HATEOAS) - Having accessed an initial URI for the REST application—analogous to a human Web user accessing the home page of a website—a REST client should then be able to use server-provided links dynamically to discover all the available resources it needs. As access proceeds, the server responds with text that includes hyperlinks to other resources that are currently available. There is no need for the client to be hard-coded with information regarding the structure or dynamics of the application. Classification models Several models have been developed to help classify REST APIs according to their adherence to various principles of REST design, such as the Richardson Maturity Model. Applied to web services Web service APIs that adhere to the REST architectural constraints are called RESTful APIs. HTTP-based RESTful APIs are defined with the following aspects: a base URI, such as http://api.example.com/; standard HTTP methods (e.g., GET, POST, PUT, and DELETE); a media type that defines state transition data elements (e.g., Atom, microformats, application/vnd.collection+json, etc.). The current representation tells the client how to compose requests for transitions to all the next available application states. This could be as simple as a URI or as complex as a Java applet. Semantics of HTTP methods The following table shows how HTTP methods are intended to be used in HTTP APIs, including RESTful ones. The GET method is safe, meaning that applying it to a resource does not result in a state change of the resource (read-only semantics). The GET, PUT, and DELETE methods are idempotent, meaning that applying them multiple times to a resource results in the same state change of the resource as applying them once, though the response might differ. The GET and POST methods are cacheable, meaning that responses to them are allowed to be stored for future reuse. Discussion Unlike SOAP-based web services, there is no "official" standard for RESTful web APIs. This is because REST is an architectural style, while SOAP is a protocol. REST is not a standard in itself, but RESTful implementations make use of standards, such as HTTP, URI, JSON, and XML. Many developers describe their APIs as being RESTful, even though these APIs do not fulfill all of the architectural constraints described above (especially the uniform interface constraint). See also (DAP) Overview of RESTful API Description Languages RAML RESTful Service Description Language (RSDL) Resource-oriented architecture (ROA) Resource-oriented computing (ROC) Service-oriented architecture (SOA) Web-oriented architecture (WOA) References Further reading Cloud standards Hypertext Transfer Protocol Software architecture Web 2.0 neologisms

U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission

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The United States Consumer Product Safety Commission (USCPSC, CPSC, or commission) is an independent agency of the United States government. The CPSC seeks to promote the safety of consumer products by addressing “unreasonable risks” of injury (through coordinating recalls, evaluating products that are the subject of consumer complaints or industry reports, etc.); developing uniform safety standards (some mandatory, some through a voluntary standards process); and conducting research into product-related illness and injury. In part due to its small size, the CPSC attempts to coordinate with outside parties—including companies and consumer advocates—to leverage resources and expertise to achieve outcomes that advance consumer safety. The agency was created in 1972 through the Consumer Product Safety Act. The agency reports to Congress and the President; it is not part of any other department or agency in the federal government. The CPSC has five commissioners, who are nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate for staggered seven-year terms. Historically, the commission was often run by three commissioners or fewer. Since 2009, however, the agency has generally been led by five commissioners, one of whom serves as chairman. The commissioners set policy for the CPSC. The CPSC is headquartered in Bethesda, Maryland. Leadership The commissioners of the CPSC are appointed by the U.S. president and with the consent of the U.S. Senate. As with some other U.S. federal independent agencies, commissioners are selected as members of political parties. Although the president is entitled by statute to select the chairman (with the consent of the Senate), no more than three commissioners may belong to the same party. Thus, the president is generally expected to consult with members of the opposite party in the Senate to select members of the commission from the opposite party. The commissioners (including the chairman) vote on selecting the vice chairman, who becomes acting chairman if the chairman’s term ends upon resignation or expiration. Chairmen The commission is led by Chairman Alexander Hoehn-Saric, a Democrat. The commission has not had a Senate-confirmed chairman since Kaye stepped down as chair following a White House request after Donald Trump’s inauguration. In March 2020, President Trump nominated Nancy Beck, an official at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency who previously worked for an association representing the U.S. chemical industry, to chair the commission, but it was not acted on by the Senate. Current commissioners As of December 2021, the commission had a 2-to-2 partisan split between Republicans and Democrats. The seat formerly held by Ann Marie Buerkle remains vacant as of July 1, 2021, with the nomination of Mary Boyle pending. Scope The CPSC regulates the manufacture and sale of more than 15,000 different consumer products, from cribs to all-terrain vehicles. Products excluded from the CPSC’s jurisdiction include those specifically named by law as under the jurisdiction of other federal agencies. For example, on-road automobiles are regulated by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, guns are regulated by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, and drugs are regulated by the Food and Drug Administration. Activities The CPSC fulfills its mission by banning dangerous consumer products, establishing safety requirements for other consumer products, issuing recalls of products already on the market, and researching potential hazards associated with consumer products. Recalls, voluntary & otherwise The aspect of CPSC’s work that most U.S. citizens might recognize is the “recall,” formally a “corrective action” in which a company develops a “a comprehensive plan that reaches throughout the entire distribution chain to consumers who have the product” and addresses a potential or alleged failure of a product. Recalls are nearly always voluntary. While many recalls involve consumers returning consumer products to the manufacturer for a replacement or, more rarely, a refund, recalls have also involved tasks such as instructing users on how to clean an item or publishing a software patch. Most recalls recover very few consumer products, for a variety of hypothesized reasons. Industry and consumer advocates are often at odds over whether recalls need to be more effective, as many consumers may simply discard products that are the subject of recalls. Whether a consumer learns of a recall in the first place is a different question. One commissioner has called for companies to spend as much on recall advertising as the companies do on their advertising of the products before recalls. Rulemaking The CPSC makes rules about consumer products when it identifies a consumer product hazard that is not already addressed by an industry voluntary consensus standard, or when Congress directs it to do so. Its rules can specify basic design requirements, or they can amount to product bans, as in the case of small high-powered magnets, which the CPSC attempted to ban. For certain infant products, the CPSC regulates even when voluntary standards exist. The CPSC is required to follow a rigorous, scientific process to develop mandatory rules. Failing to do so can justify the revocation of a rule, as was the case in a Tenth Circuit decision vacating the CPSC’s ban on small high-powered magnets. Information gathering & information sharing The CPSC learns about unsafe products in several ways. The agency maintains a consumer hotline through which consumers may report concerns about unsafe products or injuries associated with products. Product safety concerns may also be submitted through SaferProducts.gov. The agency also operates the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS), a probability sample of about 100 hospitals with 24-hour emergency rooms. NEISS collects data on consumer product related injuries treated in ERs and can be used to generate national estimates. The agency also works with and shares information with other governments, both in the U.S. (with states and public health agencies) and with international counterparts. Publicity & communication The CPSC works on a variety of publicity campaigns to raise awareness of safety. Fireworks Annually, the CPSC blows up mannequins to demonstrate the dangers of improper use of fireworks. Drowning prevention See also Virginia Graeme Baker Pool and Spa Safety Act In connection with the U.S. swimming season (the northern hemisphere’s summer, roughly May to September), the CPSC conducts the “Pool Safely” campaign to prevent drowning through methods such as building fences and supporting education programs. Other efforts include attempts to prevent suction entrapment, which can kill by trapping a swimmer underwater, by eviscerating a swimmer’s internal organs (when a suction tube lacks a cover), or otherwise. Enforcement Since February 2015, the average civil penalty has been $2.9 million. In April 2018, Polaris Industries agreed to pay a record $27.25 million civil penalty for failing to report defective off-road vehicles. Funding and staff In 1972 when the agency was created, it had a budget of $34.7 million and 786 staff members. By 2008 it had 401 employees on a budget of $43 million, but the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act passed in 2008 increases funding $136.4 million in 2014 with full-time employees to at least 500 by 2013. Funding dropped to $127 million as of the commission’s fiscal year 2019 appropriation, and it continues to have slightly more than 500 employees. Mid-2000s reform following the “Year of the Recall” The year 2007 was called the “Year of the Recall” by some CPSC-watchers in the United States. The CPSC worked with manufacturers and importers on a record 473 voluntary recalls that year, and other U.S. federal agencies promoted other widely noted recalls. CPSC recalls included many incidents with lead in toys and other children’s products. Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008 These issues led to the legislative interest in the reform of the agency, and the final result of these efforts was the passage of the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act in 2008. The bill increased funding and staffing for the CPSC, placed stricter limits on lead levels in children’s products (redefined from products intended for children age seven and under to children age twelve and under), restricted certain phthalates in children’s toys and child care articles, and required mandatory testing and certification of applicable products. The Danny Keysar Child Product Notification Act required the CPSC to create a public database of recalled products and to provide consumers with a postage-paid postcard for each durable infant or toddler product. This act was named after Danny Keysar, who died in a recalled crib. Danny’s parents, Linda E. Ginzel and Boaz Keysar, founded Kids In Danger and were instrumental in working with the CPSC to strengthen product safety standards. Creation of public database The public database (saferproducts.gov), constructed at a cost of around US$3 million and launched in March 2011, “publicizes complaints from virtually anyone who can provide details about a safety problem connected with any of the 15,000 kinds of consumer goods regulated by the CPSC.” While lauded by consumer advocates for making previously hidden information available, manufacturers have expressed their concern “that most of the complaints are not first vetted by the CPSC before they are made public,” meaning it could be abused and potentially used to target specific brands. As of mid-April 2011, the database was accruing about 30 safety complaints per day. By June 2018, the database had 36,544 reports, with an average of approximately 13.74 reports filed each day. Controversies Recall of inclined infant sleepers In 2019, the CPSC recalled inclined sleepers sold by multiple companies (including Mattel Fisher-Price’s Rock ’n Play as well as Kids II’s and Dorel’s rocking sleepers sold under a variety of brand names). The recalled products were associated with more than 30 infant deaths according to contemporary news reports. The controversy was among those that were tied to Acting Chairman Ann Marie Burekle’s announcement of her intention to step down after waiting for years for the U.S. Senate to act on her nomination to serve an additional term and be formally elevated to full chairmanship. Recall of jogging strollers in 2019 after settlement in 2018 The CPSC sued the maker of Britax jogging strollers, then settled with the company, in 2018. Reports attributed the change to the change in personnel after Republicans gained a majority on the commission, although some commentators noted the unusual circumstances of the commission suing over a product that met existing standards. The 2018 settlement included the company’s agreement to provide a replacement part to consumers. The replacement part—a bolt—itself was later recalled because it broke easily. Attempt to ban small, high-powered magnets In 2012, following reports of consumers (mostly children) ingesting small, high-powered magnets made of rare earth materials such as neodynium, the commission voted to block sales of Maxfield & Oberton’s Buckyballs-branded toys, and later voted to issue a rule that would amount to a ban on all similar toys. Later, however, a federal appellate court overturned the ban, finding that the Commission had moved forward without adequate data. The decision vacating the ban was written by later-Supreme Court Justice Neil Gorsuch. Industry-sponsored travel in the early 2000s On November 2, 2007, The Washington Post reported that between 2002 and the date of their report, former chairman Hal Stratton and current commissioner and former acting chairman Nancy Nord had taken more than 30 trips paid for by manufacturing groups or lobbyists representing industries that are under the supervision of the agency. According to the Post, the groups paid for over $60,000 travel and related expenses during this time. Surviving challenges to the commission’s continued existence The CPSC’s creation was not without controversy, and the agency survived attempts to close it in its first decades. In 1981, President Ronald Reagan’s head of the Office of Management & Budget, David Stockman, sought to end the authorization for the agency to move it inside the Department of Commerce. The agency was given a new lease on life following agreement among U.S. senators. See also Child-resistant packaging Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act Injury prevention Lead-based paint in the United States Title 16 of the Code of Federal Regulations Toy safety References External links Federal Hazardous Substances Act, as amended, in PDF/HTML/details in the GPO Statute Compilations collection Consumer Product Safety Commission in the Federal Register Consumer Product Safety Commission on USAspending.gov The Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) and International Trade: Legal Issues Congressional Research Service Government agencies established in 1972 Bethesda, Maryland Organizations based in Maryland

United States District Court for the District of Alaska

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The United States District Court for the District of Alaska (in case citations, D. Alaska) is a federal court in the Ninth Circuit (except for patent claims and claims against the U.S. government under the Tucker Act, which are appealed to the Federal Circuit). The District was established on July 7, 1958, pending Alaska statehood on January 3, 1959. The United States Attorney's Office for the District of Alaska represents the United States in civil and criminal litigation in the court. the United States Attorney is John E. Kuhn Jr. Organization of the court The United States District Court for the District of Alaska is the sole federal judicial district in Alaska. Court for the District is held at Anchorage, Fairbanks, Juneau, Ketchikan, and Nome. Anchorage Division comprises the following borough/census areas: Aleutians East, Aleutians West, Anchorage, Bethel, Bristol Bay, Dillingham, Kenai Peninsula, Kodiak Island, Lake and Peninsula, Matanuska-Susitna, and Valdez-Cordova. Fairbanks Division comprises the following borough/census areas: Denali, Fairbanks North Star, North Slope, Southeast Fairbanks, and Yukon-Koyukuk. Juneau Division comprises the following borough/census areas: Haines, Hoonah-Angoon, Juneau, Petersburg, Sitka, Skagway, and Yakutat. Ketchikan Division comprises the following borough/census areas: Ketchikan Gateway, Prince of Wales, and Wrangell. Nome Division comprises the following borough/census areas: Nome, Northwest Arctic, and Kusilvak. Current judges : Vacancies and pending nominations Former judges Chief judges Succession of seats Territorial District Court From 1884 through 1959, the highest court in Alaska was a United States territorial court. In 1900, the court was enlarged from one to three judges, with each judge having a district. From 1900 till 1909, the districts were Juneau (First), Nome (Second), and Fairbanks (Third). In 1909, a fourth district and judge was added. From 1909 till 1959, the districts were Juneau (First), Nome (Second), Valdez and Anchorage (Third), and Fairbanks (Fourth). See also Courts of Alaska List of current United States district judges List of United States federal courthouses in Alaska References External links United States District Court for the District of Alaska United States Attorney for the District of Alaska 1960 establishments in Alaska Alaska law Organizations based in Anchorage, Alaska Alaska Courts and tribunals established in 1960

The Coca-Cola Company

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The Coca-Cola Company is an American multinational beverage corporation incorporated under Delaware's General Corporation Law and headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. The Coca-Cola Company has interests in the manufacturing, retailing, and marketing of non-alcoholic beverage concentrates and syrups, and alcoholic beverages. The company produces Coca-Cola, the sugary drink for which it is best known for, invented in 1886 by pharmacist John Stith Pemberton. At the time, the product was made with coca leaves, which added an amount of cocaine to the drink, and with kola nuts, which added caffeine, so that the coca and the kola together provided a stimulative effect. This stimulative effect is the reason the drink was sold to the public as a healthy "tonic", and the coca and the kola are also the source of the name of the product and of the company. In 1889, the formula and brand were sold for $2,300 (roughly $68,000 in 2021) to Asa Griggs Candler, who incorporated The Coca-Cola Company in Atlanta in 1892. The company has operated a franchised distribution system since 1889. The company largely produces syrup concentrate, which is then sold to various bottlers throughout the world who hold exclusive territories. The company owns its anchor bottler in North America, Coca-Cola Refreshments. The company's stock is listed on the NYSE and is part of DJIA and the S&P 500 and S&P 100 indexes. The Coca-Cola Company is the world's largest producer of plastic waste. History In July 1886, pharmacist John Stith Pemberton from Columbus, Georgia invented the original Coca-Cola drink, which was advertised as helpful in the relief of headache, to be placed on sale primarily in drugstores as a medicinal beverage. Pemberton had made many mixing experiments and reached his goal during the month of May, but the new product was as yet unnamed and uncarbonated. Pemberton's bookkeeper, Frank M. Robinson, is credited with naming the product and creating its logo. Robinson chose the name Coca-Cola because of its two main ingredients (coca leaves and kola nuts) and because it sounded like an alliteration. John Pemberton had taken a break and left Robinson to make, promote, and sell Coca-Cola on his own. Robinson promoted the drink with the limited budget that he had, and succeeded. In 1889, American businessman Asa Griggs Candler completed his purchase of the Coca-Cola formula and brand from Pemberton's heirs. In 1892, the Coca-Cola Company was formally founded in Atlanta by Candler. By 1895, Coca-Cola was being sold in every state in the union. In 1919, the company was sold to Ernest Woodruff's Trust Company of Georgia. Coca-Cola's first ad read "Coca Cola. Delicious! Refreshing! Exhilarating! Invigorating!" Candler was one of the first businessmen to use merchandising in his advertising strategy. As of 1948, Coca-Cola had claimed about 60% of its market share. By 1984, The Coca-Cola Company's market share decreased to 21.8% due to new competitors, namely Pepsi. Acquisitions Coca-Cola acquired Minute Maid in 1960 for an undisclosed amount. In 1982, it acquired the movie studio Columbia Pictures for $692 million. Coca-Cola sold Columbia to Sony for $3 billion in 1989. In 1986, Coke sold off two assets, namely Presto Products and Winker-Flexible Products to an investment group led by E.O. Gaylord for $38 million. The company acquired the Indian cola brand Thums Up in 1993, and Barq's in 1995. In 1999, Coca-Cola purchased 50% of the shares of Inca Kola for $200 million, subsequently taking control of overseas marketing and production for the brand. In 2001, it acquired the Odwalla brand of fruit juices, smoothies, and bars for $181 million. It announced Odwalla's discontinuation in 2020. In 2007, it acquired Fuze Beverage from founder Lance Collins and Castanea Partners for an estimated $250 million. The company's 2009 bid to buy Chinese juice maker Huiyuan Juice Group ended when China rejected its $2.4 billion bid, on the grounds the resulting company would be a virtual monopoly. Nationalism was also thought to be a reason for aborting the deal. In 2011, it acquired the remaining stake in Honest Tea, having bought a 40% stake in 2008 for $43 million. In 2013, it finalized its purchase of ZICO, a coconut water company. In August 2014, it acquired a 16.7% (currently 19.36% due to stock buy backs) stake in Monster Beverage for $2.15 billion with an option to increase it to 25%, as part of a long-term strategic partnership that includes marketing and distribution alliance, and product line swap. In 2015, the company took a minority stake ownership in the cold pressed juice manufacturer, Suja Life LLC. In December 2016, it bought many of the former SABMiller's Coca-Cola operations. The Coca-Cola Company owns a 68.3% stake in Coca-Cola Bottlers Africa. Coca-Cola Bottlers Africa's headquarters located in Port Elizabeth South Africa. The Coca-Cola Company acquired a 40% stake in Chi Ltd on January 30, 2016. The Coca-Cola Company acquired the remaining 60% stake in Chi Ltd on January 30, 2019. In 2017, The Coca-Cola Company acquired Mexican sparkling water brand Topo Chico. On August 31, 2018, it agreed to acquire Costa Coffee from Whitbread for £3.9bn. The acquisition closed on January 3, 2019. During August 2018, The Coca-Cola Company acquired Moxie for an undisclosed amount. On August 14, 2018, The Coca-Cola Company announced a minority interest in Body Armor. On September 19, 2018, The Coca-Cola Company acquired Organic & Raw Trading Co. Pty Ltd the manufacturer of MOJO Kombucha in Willunga, Australia. On October 5, 2018, The Coca-Cola Company acquired a 22.5% stake in MADE Group from the company's three founders: Luke Marget, Matt Dennis, and Brad Wilson. The Coca-Cola Company owns a 30.8% stake in Coca-Cola Amatil Ltd; therefore, The Coca-Cola Company owns a further 6.93% stake in MADE Group through its ownership stake in Coca-Cola Amatil Ltd. Revenue and sales According to The Coca-Cola Company's 2005 annual report, it had sold beverage products in more than 200 countries that year. The 2005 report further states that of the more than 50 billion beverage servings of all types consumed worldwide, daily, beverages bearing the trademarks owned by or licensed to Coca-Cola account for approximately $1.5 billion. Of these, beverages bearing the trademark "Coca-Cola" or "Coke" accounted for approximately 78% of the company's total gallon sales. In 2010, it was announced that Coca-Cola had become the first brand to top £1 billion in annual UK grocery sales. In 2017, Coca-Cola sales were down 11% from the year before due to consumer tastes shifting away from sugary drinks. Stock Since 1919, Coca-Cola has been a publicly traded company. Its stock is listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol "KO". One share of stock purchased in 1919 for $40, with all dividends reinvested, would have been worth $9.8 million in 2012, a 10.7% annual increase adjusted for inflation. A predecessor bank of SunTrust received $100,000 for underwriting Coca-Cola's 1919 public offering; the bank sold that stock for over $2 billion in 2012. In 1987, Coca-Cola once again became one of the 30 stocks which makes up the Dow Jones Industrial Average, which is commonly referenced as a proxy for stock market performance; it had previously been a Dow stock from 1932 to 1935. Coca-Cola has paid a dividend since 1920 and, as of 2019, had increased it each year for 57 years straight. Staff and management The following are key management as of July 2021 (excluding VP positions and regional leaders): The following are all directors as of November 2016: Bottlers In general, The Coca-Cola Company and its subsidiaries only produce syrup concentrate, which is then sold to various bottlers throughout the world who hold a local Coca-Cola franchise. Coca-Cola bottlers, who hold territorially exclusive contracts with the company, produce the finished product in cans and bottles from the concentrate, in combination with filtered water and sweeteners. The bottlers then sell, distribute, and merchandise the Coca-Cola product to retail stores, vending machines, restaurants, and food service distributors. Outside the United States, these bottlers also control the fountain business. Since the 1980s, the company has actively encouraged the consolidation of bottlers, with the company often owning a share of these "anchor bottlers." Outside North America The company's largest bottlers outside North America are: Coca-Cola Europacific Partners PLC, based in the United Kingdom (western Europe) (Company owns 19.36%) National Beverage Company Sal, based in Beirut, Lebanon International Beverages Pvt. Ltd., based in Bangladesh (Fully owned subsidiary of The Coca-Cola Company) Coca-Cola Bottling Shqipëria, based in Albania Coca-Cola Beverages Philippines, based in the Philippines (fully owned subsidiary of The Coca-Cola Company) Coca-Cola FEMSA, based in Mexico (Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama, Uruguay and Venezuela) (Company owns 27.8%) Arca Continental, also based in Mexico (parts of Mexico and Latin America and in US under Coca-Cola Southwest Beverages LLC in the state of Texas and parts of New Mexico, Oklahoma and Arkansas ) (independent) Embotelladora Andina S.A, based in Chile (southern South America) (Company owns 14.7% of series A common stock outstanding & 14.7% of series B common stock outstanding) Coca-Cola Beverages Africa, based in Port Elizabeth, South Africa (southern and eastern Africa) (company owns 68.3%) Coca-Cola Beverages Korea, based in South Korea (independent; owned by LG Household & Health Care) Coca-Cola HBC AG, originally based in Greece but now located in Switzerland (Greece, Ireland, Eastern Europe, Russia, and Nigeria) (Company owns 23.2%) Coca-Cola Icecek Based in Turkey (Turkey, South West Asia, Arabia) (Company owns 20.1%) Swire, based in Hong Kong (China, Taiwan, Hong Kong) (independent) Kirin Company, based in Japan (independent) Coca-Cola Bottlers Japan (through a holding company, Company owns 16.3%) PT Coca-Cola Bottling Indonesia (Company owns 29.4%) (Coca-Cola Amatil ltd owns 70.6%) Coca-Cola Bottlers Uzbekistan (Company owns 42.9%) In the United States In the United States, the company bypasses bottlers by manufacturing and selling fountain syrups directly to authorized fountain wholesalers and some fountain retailers. As of 2014, after purchasing the North American assets of Coca-Cola Enterprises, the company directly owns 100% of Coca-Cola Refreshments, the anchor bottler of Coca-Cola products in North America, representing about 90% of Canada and 80% of the United States. Other major bottlers in the United States are: Coca-Cola Bottling Co. Consolidated, based in Charlotte, North Carolina (company owns 34.8%) Coca-Cola Beverages Northeast based in Bedford, New Hampshire, and owned by Kirin Company Coca-Cola Bottling Company United, based in Birmingham, Alabama (independent) Swire Coca-Cola USA, based in Salt Lake City, Utah and owned by Swire Group In September 2015, the company announced the sale of several production plants and territories to Swire, Consolidated, and United, and creation of the Coca-Cola National Product Supply System which controls 95% of the territory in the United States. Consumer relations and civic involvement After Martin Luther King, Jr. won the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize, plans for an interracial celebratory dinner in still-segregated Atlanta were not initially well supported by the city's business elite until Coca-Cola intervened. Throughout 2012, Coca-Cola contributed $1,700,500 to a $46 million political campaign known as "The Coalition Against The Costly Food Labeling Proposition, sponsored by Farmers and Food Producers". This organization was set up to oppose a citizen's initiative, known as Proposition 37, demanding mandatory labeling of foods containing genetically modified ingredients. In 2012, Coca-Cola was listed as a partner of the (RED) campaign, together with other brands such as Nike, Girl, American Express, and Converse. The campaign's mission is to prevent the transmission of the HIV virus from mother to child by 2015 (the campaign's byline is "Fighting for an AIDS Free Generation"). Criticism Since the early 2000s, the criticisms over the use of Coca-Cola products as well as the company itself, escalated with concerns over health effects, environmental issues, animal testing, economic business practices and employee issues. The Coca-Cola Company has been faced with multiple lawsuits concerning these various criticisms. Plastic production and waste The Coca-Cola Company is the world's largest producer of plastic waste, for two years in a row producing over 3 million tonnes of plastic packaging each year including 110 billion plastic bottles. The company's global chief executive has admitted that Coca-Cola has no plans to reduce its use of plastic bottles; in fact, the company has "quietly fought efforts" to reduce the amount of plastic waste it creates, partly by opposing bottle bill legislation. The head of sustainability Bea Perez has said they will continue to use plastic, claiming "customers like them because they reseal and are lightweight". Advertising Coca-Cola advertising has "been among the most prolific in marketing history," with a notable and major impact on popular culture and society as a whole. The company in recent years has spent approximately an annual $4 billion globally to promote its drinks to the public; and spent approximately $4.24 billion on advertising in fiscal year 2019, the lion's share of which was spent to advertise Coca-Cola. Coca-Cola advertises through direct marketing, web-based media, social media, text messaging, and sales promotions. The company also markets via mobile marketing in text messages, e.g. viral marketing campaigns. Fan engagement spans 86 million globally across social media channels: online interaction, and social, cultural, or sporting events. In the retail setting, direct store beverage delivery trucks (mobile advertising) as well as point of sale coolers and vending machines have bright red logo blazoned branding. In terms of foodservice, Coca-Cola is a food pairing suggestion that is now ingrained as a food match, e.g., for popcorn, hamburgers, french fries, and hot dog combos. Products and brands As of 2020, the Coca-Cola Company offers more than 500 brands in over 200 countries. In September 2020, the company announced that it would cut more than half of its brands, as a result of the economic effects caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Non-food assets Columbia Pictures Coca-Cola bought Columbia Pictures in 1982, owing to the low monetary value of the studio. The film company was the first and only studio ever be owned by Coca-Cola. During its ownership of the studio, Columbia released many popular films including Ghostbusters, Stripes, The Karate Kid, and some others. However, two years after the critical and commercial failure of the 1987 film Ishtar, Columbia was spun-off and then sold to Tokyo-based Sony in 1989. World of Coca-Cola Coca-Cola operates a soft drink themed tourist attraction in Atlanta, Georgia; the World of Coca-Cola is a multi-storied exhibition. It features flavor sampling and a history museum, with locations in Las Vegas, Nevada, and Lake Buena Vista, Florida. Brands Other soft drinks The Coca-Cola Company also produces a number of other soft drinks including Fanta (introduced circa 1941) and Sprite. Fanta's origins date back to World War II during a trade embargo against Germany on cola syrup, making it impossible to sell Coca-Cola in Germany. Max Keith, the head of Coca-Cola's German office during the war, decided to create a new product for the German market, made only from products available in Germany at the time, which they named Fanta. The drink proved to be a hit, and when Coke took over again after the war, it adopted the Fanta brand as well. Fanta was originally an orange-flavored soft drink that can come in plastic bottles or cans. It has become available in many different flavors now such as grape, peach, grapefruit, apple, pineapple, and strawberry. In 1961, Coca-Cola introduced Sprite, a lemon-lime soft drink, another of the company's bestsellers and its response to 7 Up. Tab was Coca-Cola's first attempt to develop a diet soft drink, using saccharin as a sugar substitute. Introduced in 1963, the product was sold until fall 2020, although its sales had dwindled since the introduction of Diet Coke. Coca-Cola South Africa also released Valpre Bottled "still" and "sparkling" water. In 1969, the company released Simba, which was a take on Mountain Dew, and had packaging that was African desert-themed, replete with an African Lion as the symbol of the brand. The tagline was "Simba – It Conquers the African Thirst." Also in 1969, the company released a line of products under the name of Santiba, which was targeted for mixing cocktails and party usage, products including Quinine water and Ginger Ale. Like the above-mentioned Simba, the Santiba line of products was short-lived in the marketplace. BreakMate No longer manufactured, the Coca-Cola BreakMate was a three-flavor dispenser introduced by Coca-Cola and Siemens in 1988. Intended for use in offices with five to fifty people, its refrigerated compartment held three individual one-litre plastic containers of soda syrup and a CO2 tank. Like a soda fountain, it mixed syrup in a 1:5 ratio with carbonated water. In North America, Coca-Cola discontinued spare BreakMate parts in 2007 and stopped distributing the syrup in 2010. Healthy beverages During the 1990s, the company responded to the growing consumer interest in healthy beverages by introducing several new non-carbonated beverage brands. These included Minute Maid Juices to Go, Powerade sports beverage, flavored tea Nestea (in a joint venture with Nestlé), Fruitopia fruit drink, and Dasani water, among others. In 2001, the Minute Maid division launched the Simply Orange brand of juices including orange juice. In 2016, Coca-Cola India introduced Vio to enter into the value-added dairy category. The product lays the foundation for Coca-Cola's new segment after carbonated beverages, water and juices. In 2004, perhaps in response to the burgeoning popularity of low-carbohydrate diets such as the Atkins diet, Coca-Cola announced its intention to develop and sell a low-carbohydrate alternative to Coke Classic, dubbed C2 Cola. C2 contains a mix of high fructose corn syrup, aspartame, sucralose, and Acesulfame potassium. C2 is designed to more closely emulate the taste of Coca-Cola Classic. Even with less than half of the food energy and carbohydrates of standard soft drinks, C2 is not a replacement for zero-calorie soft drinks such as Diet Coke. C2 went on sale in the U.S. on June 11, 2004, and in Canada in August 2004; it was replaced in 2013 by Coca-Cola Life. Starting in 2009, The Coca-Cola Company invested in Innocent Drinks, first with a minor stake, increasing to 90% in the first quarter of 2013. It was in May 2014 when Finley, a sparkling fruit-flavored drink, was launched in France. It was launched in other countries later, including Belgium and Luxembourg in September 2014. Coca-Cola first started developing the drink in Belgium in 2001. As of 2014, the drink is targeted for adults, and is low in sugar with four flavors. Best selling Coca-Cola is the best-selling soft drink in most countries, and was recognized as the number one global brand in 2010. While the Middle East is one of the few regions in the world where Coca-Cola is not the number one soda drink, Coca-Cola nonetheless holds almost 25% market share (to Pepsi's 75%) and had double-digit growth in 2003. Similarly, in Scotland, where the locally produced Irn-Bru was once more popular, 2005 figures show that both Coca-Cola and Diet Coke now outsell Irn-Bru. In Peru, the native Inca Kola has been more popular than Coca-Cola, which prompted Coca-Cola to enter in negotiations with the soft drink's company and buy 50% of its stakes. In Japan, the best selling soft drink is not cola, as (canned) tea and coffee are more popular. As such, The Coca-Cola Company's best selling brand there is not Coca-Cola, but Georgia. In May 2016, The Coca-Cola Company temporarily halted production of its signature drink in Venezuela due to sugar shortages. Since then, The Coca-Cola Company has been using "minimum inventories of raw material" to make their signature drinks at two production plants in Venezuela. Information On July 6, 2006, a Coca-Cola employee and two other people were arrested and charged with trying to sell trade secret information to the soft drink maker's competitor PepsiCo for $1.5 million. The recipe for Coca-Cola, perhaps the company's most closely guarded secret, was never in jeopardy; instead, the information was related to a new beverage in development. Coca-Cola executives verified that the trade secret documents in question were genuine and proprietary to the company. At least one glass vial containing a sample of a new drink was offered for sale, court documents said. The conspiracy was revealed by PepsiCo, which notified authorities when it was approached by the conspirators. Green tea The company announced a new "negative calorie" green tea drink, Enviga, in 2006, along with trying coffee retail concepts Far Coast and Chaqwa. Glaceau On May 25, 2007, Coca-Cola announced it would purchase Glaceau, a maker of flavored vitamin-enhanced drinks (vitamin water), flavored waters, and Burn energy drinks, for $4.1 billion in cash. Huiyuan Juice On September 3, 2008, Coca-Cola announced its intention to make cash offers to purchase China Huiyuan Juice Group Limited (which had a 42% share of the Chinese pure fruit juice market) for US$2.4bn (HK$12.20 per share). China's ministry of commerce blocked the deal on March 18, 2009, arguing that the deal would hurt small local juice companies, could have pushed up juice market prices, and limited consumers' choices. Coke Mini can In October 2009, Coca-Cola revealed its new 90-calorie mini can that holds 7.5 fluid ounces. The mini can is often sold in 8 packs. Despite costing nearly 30 percent more per ounce, the mini cans have been met with positive sales figures. Holiday can In November 2011, Coca-Cola revealed a seasonal design for its regular Coke cans as part of a partnership with the World Wildlife Fund. However, it was withdrawn only a month after release due to consumer complaints about a similar look to the silver cans commonly used for Diet Coke. There were also complaints about deviating from traditional red as the color of Coca-Cola cans previously. Stake in Monster Beverage It was announced on August 14, 2014, that Coca-Cola Co is making a cash payment of $2.15 billion for a 16.7 percent stake in Monster Beverage Corp to expand its market for energy drinks. Coke's ownership in Full Throttle and Burn will be transferred to Monster. In return, Monster will transfer its ownership in Hansen's Natural Sodas and Peace Iced Tea and Blue Sky Soda to The Coca-Cola Company. Muhtar Kent, Coke's former chief executive officer, stated that the company has the option to increase its stake to 25 percent but cannot exceed that percentage in the next four years. Due to share buy backs by the board of directors of Monster Beverage Corporation, The Coca-Cola Company's stake has since increased to 19.36% 102121602 shares. Alcoholic beverages In 2021, the Coca-Cola Co used its Mexican sparkling mineral water brand Topo Chico to launch a range of vegan friendly alcoholic hard seltzers in the United Kingdom and in the United States. Front groups As part of its corporate propaganda campaign to deflect public attention away from the harmful health effects of its sugary drinks, the Coca-Cola company has funded front organizations. The company funded creation of the front organization the Global Energy Balance Network (GEBN) to address the growing evidence that the company's products are a leading cause of the epidemic of childhood obesity in the United States and the growing number of Americans, including children, with Type 2 diabetes. GEBN designed its own studies to arrive at conclusions set in advance and cherry picked data to support its corporate public relations agenda. After an August 2015 investigative report exposed the GEBN as a Coca-Cola Company front organization, GEBN was shut down. Three years after the shutdown of GEBN, the company, together with several other junk food giants, was revealed to be behind an initiative in China called "Happy 10 Minutes," funded through a group called the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI). The aim of the initiative was to address decades of research on diet-related diseases, such as Type 2 diabetes and hypertension, by promoting physical exercise to the population but avoiding discussion of the link between such diseases and junk foods, including sugary drinks. ILSI through the 1980s and 1990s had been promoting the tobacco industry's agenda in Europe and the United States. Sponsorship Coca-Cola's advertising expenses accounted for US$3.256 billion in 2011. Sports Coca-Cola sponsored the English Football League from the beginning of the 2004–05 season (beginning August 2004) to the start of 2010–11 season, when the Football League replaced it with NPower. Along with this, Coca-Cola sponsored the Coca-Cola Football Camp, that took place in Pretoria, South Africa during the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Other major sponsorships include the AFL, NHRA, NASCAR, the PGA Tour, NCAA Championships, the Olympic Games, the NRL, the FIFA World Cups, Premier League and the UEFA European Championships. The company partnered with Panini to produce the first virtual sticker album for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, and they have collaborated for every World Cup since. Each fall, Coca-Cola is the sponsor of the TOUR Championship by Coca-Cola held at the East Lake Golf Club in Atlanta, Georgia. The Tour Championship is the season ending tournament of the PGA Tour. In the Philippines, it has a team in the Philippine Basketball Association, the Powerade Tigers. In 2017, Major League Baseball signed a multi-year deal with Coca-Cola to be the official soft drink, replacing Pepsi. Eighteen MLB teams (Los Angeles Angels, Houston Astros, Toronto Blue Jays, Atlanta Braves, St. Louis Cardinals, Los Angeles Dodgers, San Francisco Giants, New York Mets, Washington Nationals, San Diego Padres, Philadelphia Phillies, Pittsburgh Pirates, Texas Rangers, Tampa Bay Rays, Cincinnati Reds, Boston Red Sox, Colorado Rockies and Chicago White Sox ) have Coca-Cola products sold in their ballparks. Since the season of 2019 is the title sponsor of the Uzbekistan Super League in football, and this league is officially called Coca-Cola Uzbekistan Super League. Coca-Cola has also sponsored the Overwatch league since season two. They also sponsor all major Overwatch tournaments such as the world cup . In February 2020, Coca-Cola became the title sponsor for the eNASCAR iRacing series. In October 2018, Coca-Cola started sponsoring the Formula 1 team McLaren with several 1 year deals being signed since then. Television The company sponsored the popular Fox singing-competition series American Idol from 2002 until 2014. Coca-Cola was a sponsor of the nightly talk show on PBS, Charlie Rose in the US. Coca-Cola is also an executive producer of Coke Studio (Pakistan). It was a franchising that started in Brazil, broadcast by MTV Brasil and there are various adaptations of Coke Studio such as Coke Studio (India) and Coke Studio (Africa). Theme parks While not necessarily having naming rights to anything in all locations, the company does sponsor and provide beverages in many theme parks, usually in an exclusive capacity. This includes the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, Merlin Entertainment, Universal Parks & Resorts, Six Flags, Cedar Fair, and SeaWorld Entertainment which are six of the nine largest theme park operators worldwide (it is unknown whether OCT Parks China, the Chimelong Group, or Fantawild, the fourth, seventh, and eighth largest theme park operators respectively, use Coca-Cola). The company also directly sponsors, with naming rights, the Coca-Cola London Eye and the Coca-Cola Orlando Eye. The company also operates "Coca-Cola" visitor centers in Israel, Belgium and Turkey. See also List of assets owned by The Coca-Cola Company Stepan Company – produces coca leaf extract References Notes Citations Further reading External links 1892 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state) 1910s initial public offerings American brands American companies established in 1892 Companies in the Dow Jones Industrial Average Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange Drink companies of the United States Food and drink companies based in Atlanta Food and drink companies established in 1892 Manufacturing companies based in Atlanta Multinational companies headquartered in the United States Multinational food companies

Sevendust

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Sevendust is an American rock band from Atlanta, Georgia, formed in 1994 by bassist Vince Hornsby, drummer Morgan Rose, and guitarist John Connolly. After their first demo, lead vocalist Lajon Witherspoon and guitarist Clint Lowery joined the group. Following a few name changes, the members settled on the name Sevendust and released their self-titled debut album on April 15, 1997, which sold only 310 copies in its first week but ultimately achieved gold certification through touring and support from their label, TVT Records. Since formation, Sevendust have attained success with three consecutive RIAA gold-certified albums, a Grammy nomination, and have sold millions of records worldwide. The group has released a total of thirteen studio albums, including a reissue of their debut as Sevendust: Definitive Edition, which contains five new tracks and a DVD. History Early years and Sevendust (1994–1998) In 1994, bassist Vince Hornsby joined drummer Morgan Rose in a band called Snake Nation. John Connolly, a drummer at the time, joined the group as guitarist. They recorded their first demo, but were displeased with the lead vocals and hired Lajon Witherspoon following a yearlong search. Clint Lowery joined the band, and the group renamed themselves Rumblefish. Rumblefish were forced to rename themselves after discovering another band with the same name. They chose Crawlspace, and released "My Ruin" on the 1996 compilation album Mortal Kombat: More Kombat through TVT Records. However, the band had to change their name again after another group named Crawlspace sent notice that they wanted $2,500 in exchange for the naming rights. The band members elected to rename themselves Sevendust, inspired by the commercial insecticide brand "Sevin Dust". The song "Rumble Fish" was included on the band's second album, Home. Sevendust released their self-titled debut, with partial production by former Twisted Sister guitarist Jay Jay French, on April 15, 1997, known for its heavy riffs, angry vocals and thrash-like drumming, as in the songs "Black" and "Bitch". "Black" became the opening song for nearly every Sevendust concert until 2004. The debut album also contains the song "My Ruin", from the Mortal Kombat soundtrack. Sevendust appeared on the Billboard 200, remained there for sixteen weeks and peaked at 165 on April 4, 1998. The album went gold on May 19, 1999. In 1998, Sevendust performed at Dynamo Open Air (May 29–31) and Ozzfest 1998 (July through August). In the same year they released a compilation called Live and Loud which featured live footage of the band's performance of September 16, 1998, at Chicago's Metro. Home and Animosity (1999–2002) On August 24, 1999, they released their second album, Home. The album peaked at 19 on the Billboard 200 and featured Skin from Skunk Anansie and Chino Moreno from Deftones as guest vocalists. The two singles from the album, "Denial" and "Waffle", gave the band moderate chart success, and the latter of which was played on the Late Night with Conan O'Brien show. They appeared in Woodstock 1999 and have toured with many bands such as Korn, Staind, Nonpoint, Reveille, Godsmack, Mudvayne, Mushroomhead, Powerman 5000, Creed, Kid Rock, Machine Head, Limp Bizkit, Disturbed, and Metallica. In 1999, they gained European exposure by opening for Skunk Anansie at various shows in Germany. Skin from Skunk Anansie provided guest vocals on the track "Licking Cream" off Home. They also opened with Kid Rock and Ted Nugent for Metallica on New Year's Eve in 1999 at the Pontiac Silverdome near Detroit, Michigan. They also joined Slipknot, Coal Chamber and other bands on the Tattoo the Earth Tour in June 2000. Also in 2000, the song "Fall" was recorded by producer Sylvia Massy in 1998 at Southern Tracks in Atlanta, Georgia. "Fall" appears on the soundtrack to the film Scream 3. In November 2001, the band released their third album, Animosity. This album went gold and gained the band commercial success thanks to the success of singles "Praise" and "Angel's Son", which peaked at 15 and 11, respectively, on the Mainstream Rock Tracks. In 2002, they covered "Break the Walls Down", the theme song for professional wrestler Chris Jericho for the WWF Forceable Entry album. The song was never used as an official entry theme for him though. "Angel's Son" was a tribute to Lynn Strait, the lead singer of the band Snot, whom the members of Sevendust were friends with. Strait had died in a car accident in 1998. In addition to being included on Animosity, the song was included on the compilation album Strait Up. The band made an appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman playing an acoustic version of "Angel's Son" featuring Paul Shaffer on keyboards. In the same year Sevendust was seen in the Chris Rock movie Down to Earth as a partial clip of "Waffle" is played. Another friend of the band, Dave Williams, the lead singer of Drowning Pool, died in 2002. Tragedy would strike again when Lajon Witherspoon's younger brother was shot and killed later that year. Due to his death, Sevendust went on hiatus in 2002. Seasons, Clint Lowery's departure and Next (2003–2005) In 2003, Sevendust returned with their fourth album, Seasons. The album debuted at No. 14 in the US, selling around 68,000 copies in its first week. This was one of the band's best received albums and to date features their highest charting single (tied with "Driven"), "Enemy", which peaked at No. 10 on the Mainstream Rock Chart. "Enemy" was made the official theme song for WWE Unforgiven 2003. Other singles released from the album, "Broken Down" and "Face to Face", met with more moderate success charting at 20 and 22, respectively. In 2004, for the first time in the band's career, they released a live album on a CD/DVD double disk package titled Southside Double-Wide: Acoustic Live. Both the CD and the DVD include a cover of "Hurt" by Nine Inch Nails which is dedicated to Johnny Cash. This concert showcased a mellower side to the band with an acoustic performance. On December 11, 2004, after playing a show in Columbus, Ohio, it was announced that Clint Lowery had left the band mid-tour, because he wanted to play with his brother Corey Lowery in his new band Dark New Day, who had reportedly just signed with Warner Bros. Records. A temporary guitarist was found for the rest of the dates, and Lowery was eventually replaced by Sonny Mayo (from Snot and Amen). At roughly the same time, Sevendust and TVT Records parted ways. On October 11, 2005, Sevendust joined forces with good friend Producer/Engineer Shawn Grove and released their fifth studio album, Next, on the WineDark Records label, distributed by Universal Music. In the process, Sevendust also created their own record label, 7Bros Records. The album was actually recorded in a private house-turned-studio owned by a couple outside of the band's hometown of Atlanta, Georgia, where Creed had recorded the Weathered record. The first radio single off "Next" was the track "Ugly", released to radio August 9, 2005, followed by the music video. The track "Pieces" appeared on the soundtrack for the film Saw II. Next debuted at No. 20 in the US, selling around 37,000 copies in its first week. Not much longer after the release of Next, Sevendust's former label TVT Records released a greatest hits package for Sevendust, titled Best of (Chapter One 1997–2004), the label's final Sevendust release. A few months after the October 2005 release date of Next, though, it became clear that WineDark would not live up to the band's expectations. "I had people come up to me and say, 'When is the record coming out?' And it had already been out for five months", Rose grumbles. "Basically, the main person that was in charge of the whole thing fell off the face of the earth. There were no more cheques coming in, and the money had not been paid in full." Alpha, Chapter VII: Hope & Sorrow and Clint Lowery's return (2006–2008) In early 2006, the band themselves were considered bankrupt. WineDark Records had imploded, leaving them without distribution, tour support, or promised advance payments. The band owed money to crew members and other staffers and had a mounting credit card debt. In April, they expected that a tax refund from the US government would help ease the burden. Then, they found out their accountant hadn't paid their taxes and they owed $120,000 to the government. "We were beyond broke", says drummer and lyricist Morgan Rose. "We had a debt load close to a million dollars, and we were in a position where, no matter how much money we thought we were making, we were still having to pay and pay." Sevendust (with Shawn Grove again serving as producer and engineer), released their sixth full-length studio album, entitled Alpha, on March 6, 2007. The album debuted at No. 14 in the US, the band's highest chart position yet, selling over 42,000 copies of the album in its first week of sale. The disc contained the album's preceding internet track "Deathstar", the Hot Mainstream Rock top 10 smash "Driven" and a further Active Rock radio top 40 hit in the form of "Beg to Differ". Alpha is the band's second album featuring Sonny Mayo on rhythm guitar and the first with him as part of the writing process. Alpha is also the first album by the band to be released under the Warner-affiliated Asylum Records, making Sevendust the first rock band on that label. The band also headlined a 57-date tour from February 8, 2007, to April 28, 2007. Boston heavy metal band Diecast, supergroup Invitro, and modern rock Red accompanied Sevendust on the tour. Retrospective 2, a CD/DVD combo including two previously unreleased studio tracks, live concert footage never before seen, as well as the new music videos for the songs "Beg To Differ", "Ugly", "Pieces", and "Driven", was released on December 11, 2007. The song "The Rim" was released on the Alpha CD but only sold in Target retails stores as exclusive 13th track on the Alpha CD. "Feed" and "Driven" were used in the soundtrack to WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008. Sevendust joined Shawn Grove again, and returned to the studio at the end of November 2007 to finish their 7th studio album, titled Chapter VII: Hope & Sorrow. The record was originally slated for a release of March 4, 2008, but was later pushed back to April 1. The album debuted at No. 19 on the Billboard 200 and has appearances from Daughtry frontman Chris Daughtry, Alter Bridge members Myles Kennedy and Mark Tremonti. The first single from Chapter VII was "Prodigal Son", which peaked at No. 19 on the mainstream rock chart. The second single was "The Past" and the third "Inside." On March 26, 2008, Sevendust announced that Lowery had quit his duties as guitarist for Dark New Day and would be returning to the Sevendust lineup in place of Mayo. On Lowery's return, Rose stated "This was extremely tough considering Sonny is our brother and has been amazing to work with. [Sonny] didn't do anything wrong at all; we just owe it to ourselves and all the folks that grew up with us to put our original band back together." Cold Day Memory (2009–2011) In December 2008 Sevendust toured with Black Stone Cherry for a while and then in January 2009, Sevendust geared up to hit the road with Disturbed, as well as multiple shows for US troops in Iraq and Afghanistan in the spring. Sevendust released a very limited-edition box set in November 2008 entitled Packaged Goods. Each five-disc set is personally autographed by the entire band. The box set includes Sevendust's 2005 release Next, 2007's Alpha, 2007's Retrospective 2 (CD + DVD), and 2008's Chapter VII: Hope and Sorrow. Before heading into the studio to record their 8th studio album, the band headlined the End of Summer Scorcher held & sponsored by 98KUPD in Phoenix, Arizona on September 26, 2009. Along with Sevendust, other notable acts such as Corey Taylor, Five Finger Death Punch, Shadows Fall & Otep performed as well. October 2009, Sevendust started recording Cold Day Memory in Chicago with producer Johnny K, who has produced other successful rock acts such as Disturbed, Staind, Finger Eleven, and 3 Doors Down. The band launched a newly designed website, promoting the new album. During the recording process the band posted daily videos on their official site and their YouTube channel; with updates on the new album, recording sessions in the studio and recording sessions from their new house. Stepping out of the box from regular recording sessions, they are showing the fans how the album process is done, and every step in the intricate process. On February 6, 2010, the band leaked the song "Forever Dead" on their website. Also "Unraveling" was released through iTunes on March 2. On March 17, the band streamed "Last Breath" on the radio. The following day, "Confessions (Without Faith)" received play time on the radio, as did "The End is Coming." The band released its eighth album, Cold Day Memory, on April 20, 2010; the 12-song disc marked Sevendust's first studio recording with the band's original line-up since 2003's Seasons. The first official single, "Unraveling", hit No. 29 on The Rock Songs chart while the CD rocketed to No. 12 on The Billboard 200. The album includes two more singles, "Forever" and "Last Breath", both of which were welcomed by Active Rock radio. Sevendust toured with Chevelle, Shinedown, Puddle of Mudd, and 10 Years on the Carnival of Madness during the summer of 2010. The band also re-released their self-titled debut album called Sevendust: Definitive Edition. The re-release contains five new songs. In November 2010, it was announced that Sevendust would play alongside Disturbed, Korn and In This Moment in the "Music As A Weapon 5" tour. In February and March 2011, Sevendust toured in Australia with Iron Maiden, Slayer, Ill Niño and Stone Sour for the Soundwave Festival On October 16, 2011, the band headlined the second stage on the second day of the inaugural 48 Hours Festival in Las Vegas, Nevada. Black Out the Sun and Time Travelers & Bonfires (2012–2014) On June 27, 2012, Sevendust announced that they would enter the studio for their next album on September 5, 2012. They entered Architekt Music studios in Butler, New Jersey with engineer Mike Ferretti. Sevendust has completed recording its ninth album for an early 2013 release. In October 2012 interview, Lowery described the album as "...a basic Sevendust record", stating "There's nothing, like, too completely different than anything we've done before. It's got a darker vibe to it. We've got a good amount of the programming element in there. It's a lot of what we do. it's heavy and it's got its melodic element in it". Additionally, he discussed the possibility of touring in early 2013 with Lacuna Coil. Lowery later confirmed the album's title to be Black Out the Sun as well. Sevendust announced they will release the album on their own 7Bros. Records label (through Warner Music Group's Independent Label Group) on March 26, 2013. The album's debut single, "Decay" was released to radio and retail outlets on January 22, 2013. Sevendust and Coal Chamber have announced a co-headlining tour around the United States that begins on March 28 and runs through April 28, 2013. Black Out The Sun is Sevendust's first album to score No. 1 on the Billboard charts, landing number one on the "Top Hard Music Albums" in the first week of its release and is the band's best selling album in its first week of release since 2007's Alpha. Sevendust later released another single, "Picture Perfect", to rock radio stations. The band recorded an acoustic album in early 2014 and will support the album with an acoustic tour. The album was recorded at Architekt Music in Butler, NJ, the same studio where the band's 2013 album Black Out the Sun was recorded. The record, called Time Travelers & Bonfires, was released on April 15, on 7Bros. Records, in conjunction with ADA Label Services. On April 1, the band hit the road for their first U.S. headlining tour of the year, entitled "An Evening With Sevendust." The album's first single is the acoustic version of Black (acoustic) which was added on radio stations on March 25, 2014. The album sold around 15,000 copies in the United States in its first week of release to debut at position No. 19 on The Billboard 200 chart. In an April 13, conversation with Metalholic.com, guitarist Clint Lowery said the band hopes to record another acoustic album in about two years and wants to make it part of the Sevendust cycle. He also shared that the band plans to release a live DVD with both standard and acoustic concerts as well as a historical retrospective of the band for an early 2015 release. Guitarist John Connolly confirmed on his Facebook page that the live DVD recording was on hiatus due to business decisions and would likely be something the band would still pursue. Kill the Flaw (2015–2017) In February 2015, Sevendust entered the studio to begin recording their new album. It was reported that the band had finished recording their new album in late March 2015. Sevendust titled the new record Kill the Flaw which was self-produced and recorded at Architekt Music studio in Butler, New Jersey and was released on October 2, 2015, via 7Bros. Records with ADA/Warner Brothers distribution. The album debuted at No. 13 on the Billboard 200 Chart, selling over 21,000 units in the first week of release. On July 24 the band released their new single "Thank You" to various rock radio stations around the US, with its official release of July 27. Sevendust also announced as direct support on the upcoming Godsmack tour, which began on September 23, 2015. The band released lyric video for the song "Not Today" from the album on August 28. Sevendust traveled to Australia and New Zealand in March 2016. The tour marked the band's first trip down under in six years after their slated 2014 Soundwave Festival appearance was controversially cancelled. The band suffered considerable backlash from Australian fans who lay the blame on the band for the last minute cancellation. The song "Thank You" was nominated for Best Metal Performance for the 2016 Grammy Awards. On January 27, 2016, the band announced a U.S. headliner tour with Trivium and Like a Storm as direct support. Sevendust would also embark on another headlining tour of North America including Canadian dates in August. Sevendust released the Live In Denver acoustic set on DVD on December 14, 2016. All I See Is War (2017–2019) On March 1, 2017, Sevendust announced that they were writing and demoing for a new album. On July 6, 2017, guitarist John Connolly posted a live video on the Sevendust Facebook page stating that the band would go into the studio in November 2017 with producer Michael Baskette, with a tentative release in the spring of 2018. Additionally he announced that the band had signed a deal with Rise Records. On a podcast, drummer Morgan Rose revealed the name of their 2018 release as All I See Is War. The album was released on May 11, 2018. Sevendust announced that the first single, "Dirty", was premiering on Sirius XM Octane, March 14, 2018. On April 20, 2018, the band began a headlining tour in support of the album. Blood & Stone (2020–present) Blood & Stone was released on October 23, 2020, through Rise Records. The first song to be released off the album, "The Day I Tried to Live", is a tribute to the late singer Chris Cornell's band Soundgarden. It was released on June 26, 2020. Musical style and influences Sevendust has played genres like heavy metal, alternative metal, nu metal, hard rock, and post-grunge. Guitarist John Connolly was asked what the band defined their genre as. Connolly said: "I don't know. I've been trying to figure that out. It was back in the day. People, for five minutes called us progressive, and then it was nu-metal. Then, all of a sudden, we were playing alternative metal. We are some kind of heavy and some kind of rock and some kind of metal." According to AllMusic, Sevendust became one of the rising acts in late 1990s heavy metal with an aggressive blend of bottom-heavy riffs and soulful, accessible melodies. The band's lead singer, Lajon Witherspoon, has been praised for his soulful vocals. Mark Jenkins of Washington Post states, "Witherspoon is more flexible than most heavy-rock vocalists, capable of lilting as convincingly as he growls." Ultimate Guitar mentioned, "He has a fairly distinct voice for metal, which originally helped the band stand out". A major part of the Sevendust sound has always been guitar player Clint Lowery. He is the main contributor to the band's style and sound and is known for his raw melodies and empowering riffs. Lowery incorporates ultra-low baritone tunings, and creative 6-string tunings. Sevendust's influences include Metallica, Anthrax, Testament, Ozzy Osbourne, Pantera, Van Halen, Steve Vai, Iron Maiden, Ronnie James Dio, Nine Inch Nails, and Suicidal Tendencies. Frontman Lajon Witherspoon said he is influenced by "so many" genres of music, "from R&B, to rock, to jazz, and classical." Witherspoon then said he is "influenced by everything." Other projects Clint Lowery and Morgan Rose started a separate band called Call Me No One. They released an album, Last Parade released on June 5, 2012. John Connolly and bassist Vinnie Hornsby have joined forces with Alter Bridge and Creed drummer Scott Phillips and former Submersed guitarist Eric Friedman to form a separate band called Projected. They released their debut album, Human, on September 18, 2012, and a follow-up album, Ignite My Insanity, July 21, 2017. Other appearances On September 16, 2010, Sevendust filmed a video for "Falcons on Top", the official theme song of the Atlanta Falcons football team. Written by Joel Wanasek of JTW Studios. The video shoot took place at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta and included an appearance by the Atlanta Falcons cheerleaders. Band members Current members Vince Hornsby – bass (1994–present), backing vocals (2014–present) Morgan Rose – drums, backing vocals (1994–present), lead vocals (1994) John Connolly – rhythm guitar (1994–2005, 2008–present), lead guitar (1994, 2004–2008), backing vocals (1994–present) Lajon Witherspoon – lead vocals (1994–present) Clint Lowery – lead guitar, backing vocals (1994–2004, 2008–present) Former members Sonny Mayo – rhythm guitar (2005–2008) Kurt Wubbenhorst – keyboards (2013–2015) session/touring Timeline Discography Studio albums Sevendust (1997) Home (1999) Animosity (2001) Seasons (2003) Next (2005) Alpha (2007) Chapter VII: Hope & Sorrow (2008) Cold Day Memory (2010) Black Out the Sun (2013) Time Travelers & Bonfires (2014) Kill the Flaw (2015) All I See Is War (2018) Blood & Stone (2020) References External links 1994 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state) American alternative metal musical groups American nu metal musical groups Asylum Records artists Heavy metal musical groups from Georgia (U.S. state) Musical groups established in 1994 Musical groups from Atlanta Musical quintets Roadrunner Records artists Rise Records artists TVT Records artists Warner Music Group artists

John 3:16

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John 3:16 (chapter 3, verse 16 of the Gospel of John of the New Testament) is one of the most widely quoted verses from the Bible and has been called the most famous Bible verse. It has also been called the "Gospel in a nutshell", because it is considered a summary of the central theme of traditional Christianity. In the King James Version, the verse reads: Biblical context In Exodus 4:22, the Israelites as a people are called "my firstborn son" by God using the singular form. In John, the focus shifts to the person of Jesus as representative of that title. The verse is part of the New Testament narrative in the third chapter of John in the discussion at Jerusalem between Jesus and Nicodemus, who is called a "ruler of the Jews". (v. 1) After speaking of the necessity of a man being born again before he could "see the kingdom of God", (v. 3) Jesus spoke also of "heavenly things" (v. 11–13) and of salvation (v. 14–17) and the condemnation (v. 18–19) of those that do not believe in Jesus. "14 And as Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, even so must the Son of man be lifted up: 15 That whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have eternal life." (John 3:14–15) Note that verse 15 is nearly identical to the latter part of John 3:16. Translations A representative sample of published Bible translations renders it as follows. Since this is perhaps the best-known verse, many translations have tried to maintain a traditional rendering. (See also Modern English Bible translations.) Sense and syntax Recent translation scholarship has struggled most with the Greek adverb οὕτως (houtos) which traditionally has been simply translated as "so" as in "so loved" in the KJV. Theologians Gundry and Howell believe that the sense and syntax of the Greek Οὕτως...ὥστε make it likely that the author of the Gospel of John is emphasizing both (a) the degree to which God loved the world as well as (b) the manner in which God chose to express that love—by sending his only son. Gundry and Howell write that the Οὕτως term more frequently refers to the manner in which something is done (see BDAG 741–42 s.v. οὕτω/οὕτως). However, they add that the ὥστε clause that follows Οὕτως involves the indicative—meaning that it stresses an actual but usually unexpected result. They conclude that the sense and syntax of the Greek construction here focuses on the nature of God's love, addressing its mode, intensity, and extent. Accordingly, it emphasizes the greatness of the gift God has given. There are other scholars agreeing with this assessment. "The 'so' (houtos) is an adverb of degree which points toward the clause which follows and here serves to express the idea of infinity, a love that is limitless, that is fully adequate." "The Greek construction…emphasizes the intensity of the love." This understanding of the intent in the original Greek is reflected in various scholarly commentaries and translations such as these: "For God loved the world so much that he gave his only-begotten Son." (Schnackenburg) "Yes, God loved the world so much that He gave the only Son." (Brown) "God loved the world so much that he gave his only Son." (NEB) "God loved the people of this world so much that he gave his only Son." (CEV) "For God loved the world so greatly that he gave the only Son." (Beasley-Murray) Based on their analysis of the original Greek parallelistic structure of John 3:14–17, Gundry and Howell provide the following English translation showing the grammatical structure of that passage: Interpretations Various translations differ on whether this is a direct quote of Jesus or a comment of the narrator of the Gospel. For example, the Good News Bible ends the quotation marks after verse 13 after which there is a footnote 'The quotation may continue through verse 21.' David Pawson challenged the meaning and interpretation of the verse in his 2007 book Is John 3:16 the Gospel? Popular culture Cultural references to this verse are manifold. Some people (such as the Rainbow Man) display the reference in large letters at sporting events, seeking the attention of fellow fans, the staff controlling the venue's giant video screens and, if the game is televised, the television audience. The Heisman-winning American football player Tim Tebow printed this reference (among other Bible verses) on his eye black, notably during the 2009 BCS championship. Exactly three years later on January 8, 2012, was the game that would become known as "The 3:16 game", where Tebow threw for 316 yards in a playoff upset against the Pittsburgh Steelers; a game in which measurements of 3, 16 and 31.6 were also noted, "John 3 16" became the top Google search in the US. Professional wrestler "Stone Cold" Steve Austin's marquee catchphrase ("Austin 3:16") originated as a reference to John 3:16. Computer scientist Donald Knuth is the author of 3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated, in which he examines the Bible by an analysis of chapter 3, verse 16 of each book. Each verse is accompanied by a rendering in calligraphic art, contributed by a group of calligraphers under the leadership of Hermann Zapf. 3:16 was chosen because of this key passage in John. Images John 3:16 in various languages John 3:16 on various things See also 1 John 3:16 Contrition Conversion to Christianity Modern English Bible translations Monogenēs Only-begotten Son "John Cougar, John Deere, John 3:16", song by Keith Urban References External links John 3:16 in Pop Culture, Time magazine photo essay (2009) Commentary on John 3:16 on TheBibleSays.com 16

Terry McMillan

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Terry McMillan (born October 18, 1951) is an American novelist. Her work centers around the experiences of Black women in the United States. Early life McMillan was born in Port Huron, Michigan. She received a B.A. in journalism in 1977 from the University of California, Berkeley. She also attended the Master of Fine Arts program in film at Columbia University. Career McMillan's first book, Mama, was published in 1987. Unsatisfied with her publisher's limited promotion of Mama, McMillian promoted her own debut novel by writing thousands of booksellers, particularly African-American bookstores, and the book soon sold out of its initial first hardcover printing of 5,000 copies. McMillan achieved national attention in 1992 with her third novel, Waiting to Exhale. The book remained on The New York Times bestseller list for many months and by 1995 it had sold more than three million copies. The novel contributed to a shift in Black popular cultural consciousness and the visibility of a female Black middle-class identity in popular culture. McMillan was credited with having introduced the interior world of Black women professionals in their thirties who are successful, alone, available, and unhappy. In 1995, the novel was adapted into a film of the same title, directed by Forest Whitaker and starring Whitney Houston, Angela Bassett, Loretta Devine, and Lela Rochon. In 1998, another of McMillan's novels, How Stella Got Her Groove Back, was adapted into a film by the same name starring Angela Bassett and Taye Diggs. McMillan's novel Disappearing Acts was subsequently produced as a direct-to-cable feature by the same name in 2000, starring Wesley Snipes and Sanaa Lathan and directed by Gina Prince-Bythewood. In 2014, Lifetime brought McMillan's A Day Late and a Dollar Short to television audiences, starring Whoopi Goldberg and an ensemble cast featuring Ving Rhames, Tichina Arnold, Mekhi Phifer, Anika Noni Rose, and Kimberly Elise. McMillan also wrote The Interruption of Everything (2006) and Getting to Happy (2010), the sequel to Waiting to Exhale. Personal life McMillan married Jonathan Plummer in 1998, who came out as gay during their marriage. In March 2005, she filed for divorce. On July 13, 2012, she sold her 7,000 square feet home in Danville, California, before moving to Los Angeles, California. McMillan has one child, a son, Solomon. Works (Editor) Waiting to Exhale played an instrumental part in promoting a more honest, reflective representation of contemporary black womanhood and played an instrumental role in creating a dialogue in R&B music that was relatable to black women. Her book discussed the everyday needs as well as the sexual desires and pleasures of women that had largely been missing to that point. Daphne A. Brooks argues in her piece "Its not right but its okay" that McMillan's work informed and influenced the woman-centered R&B movement that has become very popular today. In today's R&B artists such as a SZA, Summer Walker, Jazmine Sullivan, among many others articulate the experiences of black women, which is a trend that was jumpstarted by the work of McMillan and the R&B artists who innovated the genre. Who Asked You? Viking, September 2013. References Sources Nishikawa, Kinohi. "Romance Novel." Hans Ostrom and J. David Macey Jr. (eds), The Greenwood Encyclopedia of African American Literature. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005. pp. 1411–15. External links Official Web Site Interview with Terry McMillan on the Tavis Smiley Show. Terry McMillan at the African American Literature Book Club 1951 births Living people 20th-century American novelists 21st-century American novelists African-American novelists American women novelists People from Port Huron, Michigan University of California, Berkeley alumni Novelists from Michigan 20th-century American women writers 21st-century American women writers Columbia University School of the Arts alumni African-American women writers American Book Award winners Women anthologists 20th-century African-American women 20th-century African-American writers 21st-century African-American women 21st-century African-American writers

List of rivers by length

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This is a list of the longest rivers on Earth. It includes river systems over . Definition of length There are many factors, such as the identification of the source, the identification or the definition of the mouth, and the scale of measurement of the river length between source and mouth, that determine the precise meaning of "river length". As a result, the length measurements of many rivers are only approximations (see also coastline paradox). In particular, there seems to exist disagreement as to whether the Nile or the Amazon is the world's longest river. The Nile has traditionally been considered longer, but in 2007 and 2008 some scientists claimed that the Amazon is longer by measuring the river plus the adjacent Pará estuary and the longest connecting tidal canal. A peer-reviewed article published 2009 in the International Journal of Digital Earth concludes that the Nile is longer. Even when detailed maps are available, the length measurement is not always clear. A river may have multiple channels, or anabranches. The length may depend on whether the center or the edge of the river is measured. It may not be clear how to measure the length through a lake or reservoir. Seasonal and annual changes may alter both rivers and lakes. Other factors that can change the length of a river include cycles of erosion and flooding, dams, levees, and channelization. In addition, the length of meanders can change significantly over time due to natural or artificial cutoffs, when a new channel cuts across a narrow strip of land, bypassing a large river bend. For example, due to 18 cutoffs created between 1766 and 1885, the length of the Mississippi River from Cairo, Illinois, to New Orleans, Louisiana, was reduced by . These points make it difficult, if not impossible, to get an accurate measurement of the length of a river. The varying accuracy and precision also makes it difficult to make length comparisons between different rivers without a degree of uncertainty. List of river systems longer than 1000 km One should take the aforementioned discussion into account when using the data in the following table. For most rivers, different sources provide conflicting information on the length of a river system. The information in different sources is between parentheses. Notes When the length of a river is followed by an asterisk, it is an average of multiple information sources. If the difference in lengths between given information sources is significant, all lengths are listed. But if the lengths from secondary information sources are similar, they are averaged and that figure has an asterisk. Scientists debate whether the Amazon or the Nile is the longest river in the world. Traditionally, the Nile is considered longer, but recent information suggests that the Amazon may be longer. Differences in the recorded length of the Amazon mainly depend on whether the course south of the Ilha de Marajó at the Amazon's mouth is to be treated as part of the Amazon, or as part of the separate Tocantins River. New evidence, (dated 16 June 2007) obtained from a high-altitude scientific venture in the Andes, claims that "the Amazon is longer than the Nile by 100 km, with its longest headwater being the Carhuasanta stream originating in the south of Peru on the Nevado Mismi mountain's northern slopes and flowing into the Río Apurímac". However, the origin of the river at Nevado Mismi had already been known more than one decade earlier (see Jacek Palkiewicz), and satellite based measuring from this origin to the Amazon mouth has resulted in not more than 6,400 km. Generally, the most commonly used/anglicised name of the river is used. The name in a native language or alternate spelling may be shown. River systems that may have existed in the past Amazon–Congo The Amazon basin formerly drained westwards into the Pacific Ocean, until the Andes rose and reversed the drainage. The Congo basin is completely surrounded by high land, except for its long narrow exit valley past Kinshasa, including waterfalls around Manyanga. That gives the impression that most of the Congo basin was formerly on a much higher land level and that the Congo River was rejuvenated by much of its lower course being removed, likeliest when Africa split from South America when Gondwanaland broke up due to continental drift, and before that, the Congo would likely have flowed into the Amazon, producing a river around 6000 miles or 10,000 km long. West Siberian Glacial Lake drainage This river would have been about long, in the last Ice Age. Its longest headwater was the Selenga river of Mongolia: it drained through ice-dammed lakes and the Aral Sea and the Caspian Sea to the Black Sea. Lobourg During the last glacial maximum, much of what is now the southern part of the North Sea was land, known to archaeologists as Doggerland. At this time, the Thames, the Meuse, the Scheldt, and the Rhine probably joined before flowing into the sea, in a system known by palaeogeographers as the Loubourg or Lobourg River System. There is some debate as to whether this river would have flowed southwest into what is now the English Channel, or flowed north, emerging into the North Sea close to modern Yorkshire. If the latter hypothesis is true, the Rhine would have attained a length of close to . The former hypothesis would have produced a shorter river, some in length. Current scientific research favours the former opinion, with the Thames and Rhine meeting in a large lake, the outflow of which was close to the present-day Straits of Dover. See also Lists of rivers List of the shortest rivers List of drainage basins by area List of rivers by discharge Notes and references Notes References External links Principal Rivers of the World Length Rivers

List of Mortal Kombat characters

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This is a list of playable and boss characters from the Mortal Kombat fighting game franchise and the games in which they appear. Created by Ed Boon and John Tobias, the series depicts conflicts between various realms. Most characters fight on behalf of their realm, with the primary heroes defending Earthrealm against conquering villains from Outworld and the Netherrealm. Early installments feature the characters participating in the eponymous Mortal Kombat tournament to decide their realm's fate. In later installments, Earthrealm is often invaded by force. A total of 77 playable fighters have been featured in the series, in addition to unplayable bosses and guest characters. Much of the franchise's mainstays were introduced during the first three games. Nearly all of the characters have been killed at a point in the story, but have rarely stayed dead. Introduced in Mortal Kombat (1992) Johnny Cage Kano Liu Kang Raiden Scorpion Sonya Blade Sub-Zero Goro Shang Tsung Reptile Introduced in Mortal Kombat II Baraka Jade Jax Kintaro Voiced by: Rhasaan Orange (MK 2011), Dave B. Mitchell (MKL:BOTR) Kintaro is the sub-boss of Mortal Kombat II and a sub-boss in the 2011 reboot. He is also the penultimate boss of Shaolin Monks. A Shokan, he shares his species' four arms and imposing size, but is distinguished by his tiger-like stripes. Kintaro participates in Shao Kahn's attempt to conquer Earthrealm during the second game's tournament, in which he is defeated by Liu Kang. In the reboot, he is defeated by Kung Lao during the tournament. The reboot also establishes him as being responsible for Kabal's injuries. In the Mortal Kombat X comic, Kintaro is revealed to have been killed by Sonya Blade between the events of the 2011 reboot and Mortal Kombat X while she was being controlled by Havik. The character was a stop-motion clay figure whose design was inspired by the Japanese mythological character Kintarō. He was initially conceived for MKII as an anthropomorphic fur-lined bipedal tiger, but the concept was scrapped due to the difficulty of creating such a complicated outfit. According to series co-creator John Tobias, Kintaro was redesigned as a "Goro spinoff" who was possibly a Shokan general, but not royalty. Kintaro appears in the animated film Mortal Kombat Legends: Battle of the Realms, voiced by Dave B. Mitchell. Kintaro has received a middling reception due to his minor role in the series and is often unfavorably compared to previous sub-boss Goro. UGO Networks opined in 2012 that Kintaro "serves no real purpose except for being a reskinned Goro whose sole purpose is to avenge the aforementioned's death" in the conclusion of the original game. Den of Geek wrote that he "has virtually no story to speak of outside of the [MK9] retcon". Despite this, his "Reverse Rip" finishing move in the reboot was ranked ninth in Gameranx's 2012 selection of the MK series' ten most gruesome Fatalities, and Prima Games placed it 35th in their 2014 list of the series' top fifty Fatalities. Kitana Kung Lao Mileena Noob Saibot Shao Kahn Smoke Introduced in Mortal Kombat 3 and updates Chameleon Portrayed by: John Turk (MKT) Chameleon is a mysterious warrior who possesses the abilities of all the franchise' male ninjas. He is distinguished by his partially transparent appearance and an outfit that constantly changes its colors. Chameleon appeared in the PlayStation, Sega Saturn, and PC versions of Mortal Kombat Trilogy with no biography or ending; he is instead only referred to as "one of Shao Kahn's deadliest warriors". His Armageddon ending is also vague, revealing only that he had sought to become Mortal Kombat champion since the events of the first game. The character was ranked 32nd in UGO's 2012 selection of the top fifty series characters, who wrote "They say copying is a form of flattery, so Chameleon makes our list." Complex rated him tenth in their 2011 selection of the series' ten "most underrated characters". Cyrax Ermac Kabal Khameleon Portrayed by: Becky Gable (MKT) Voiced by: Johanna Añonuevo (Armageddon) Khameleon is a Zaterran who possesses the abilities of the franchise's female ninjas. Introduced in the Nintendo 64 version of Mortal Kombat Trilogy, she is the last known female of her race. Due to Shao Kahn's role in her race's near extinction, Khameleon seeks revenge against him. Khameleon was the franchise's only character excluded in the original release of Armageddon, but was added to the Wii version. Series art director Steve Beran acknowledged that she was included in Armageddon due to heavy fan demand. The character placed 33rd in UGO's selection of the top fifty series characters. Motaro Motaro is the sub-boss of Mortal Kombat 3 and its updates. A four-legged Centaurian, he leads Shao Kahn's extermination squads during the invasion of Earthrealm. In addition to his immense strength, he possesses the abilities to teleport, fire energy blasts from his tail, and deflect opponents' projectiles. He returns in Armageddon as a bipedal minotaur due to a curse placed on his species by the Shokan. Motaro is the only character from the first three installments not present during gameplay of the 2011 reboot; he only appears in the story mode's cinematics, which depict him being killed by Raiden. John Tobias said that Motaro was inspired by a Micronauts toy figure of Baron Karza, which could be turned into a centaur by combining the toy with a horse figure packaged alongside it. Described by Ed Boon as one of the "oddest shaped" Mortal Kombat characters, Motaro was nearly excluded from Armageddon due to the developers' difficulty of compensating for his unique half-horse body shape. With fans desiring to see the character return, the developers removed Motaro's hind legs to allow him in the game. The character appears in the 1997 film Mortal Kombat: Annihilation, played by Deron McBee, where he is one of Shao Kahn's main warriors. In the film's climactic battle, Motaro is defeated by Jax. He has also appeared in the 1996 animated series Mortal Kombat: Defenders of the Realm and the 2020 animated film Mortal Kombat Legends: Scorpion's Revenge. In the 2021 Mortal Kombat reboot, a photo of Motaro in a vase is shown on Sonya Blade's wall. Motaro placed 31st in UGO's 2012 ranking of the top fifty Mortal Kombat characters, noting him being a tough sub-boss to defeat. In 2013, Complex ranked the fight against Motaro in Mortal Kombat 3 as the 31st-hardest boss battle in video games and Motaro as the tenth-most brutal fighter in the series. Fans ranked him the 39th-best character in the series in a 2013 online poll hosted by Dorkly. Den of Geek ranked Motaro 42nd in their 2015 rating of the franchise's 64 playable characters. The bipedal version of the character was ranked as the worst Mortal Kombat character by ScrewAttack, stating that Motaro lost his most defining trait by not having four legs. Nightwolf Rain Sektor Sheeva Sindel Stryker Introduced in Mortal Kombat Mythologies: Sub-Zero Fujin Portrayed by: Anthony Marquez (MKM:SZ); Nic Toussaint (MKX) Voiced by: Herman Sanchez (MK4), David Horachek (MK:A), Troy Baker (MKX), Matthew Yang King (MK11) Fujin is the god of wind. Based on the Japanese deity of the same name, he first appears as a boss in Mythologies: Sub-Zero, where he unsuccessfully guards Shinnok's amulet from Bi-Han. He makes his playable debut in Mortal Kombat 4, which sees him succeed Raiden as Earthrealm's protector after Raiden becomes an Elder God. Fujin returns in Armageddon, where he is defeated by Taven after attempting to prevent him from continuing his quest. In the rebooted timeline, Fujin appears in Mortal Kombat Xs story mode fighting the Netherrealm's forces alongside Raiden, but is not a playable character. He becomes a playable character in the Aftermath expansion for Mortal Kombat 11, which depicts the efforts of him, Shang Tsung, and Nightwolf to save their universe by obtaining Kronika's crown. Fujin is ultimately betrayed by Shang Tsung, who drains his soul, but keeps him alive to continue draining his powers for eternity. In Shang Tsung's ending, Fujin and Raiden become his servants. Fujin placed 40th in UGO's 2012 listing of the top fifty series characters. In 2014, Prima Games included Fujin among their twenty "cheapest" characters in the series due to having a crossbow as his primary weapon. Ed Boon later admitted regret to giving Fujin easy access to a projectile weapon; in his later appearances, Fujin would only be able to use the crossbow for special attacks. Quan Chi Sareena Portrayed by: Lia Montelongo (MKM:SZ); Dana Hee (Konquest) Voiced by: Danielle Nicolet (MKX) Sareena is a demon from the Netherrealm. She debuts in Mythologies: Sub-Zero as an assassin assigned by Quan Chi to kill Bi-Han, the original Sub-Zero. After being spared by Bi-Han, she assists him in defeating Quan Chi, but is killed by Shinnok. Sareena returns as a playable character in the Tournament Edition port of Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance, which reveals Shinnok's attack banished her to a lower plane of the Netherrealm. Escaping through a portal, she is offered asylum in Earthrealm by the younger Sub-Zero. However, the Konquest mode of Armageddon sees her again serving Quan Chi, leading to her being defeated by Taven. Following a background cameo in the 2011 reboot, Sareena appears in the story mode of Mortal Kombat X, where she assists the Special Forces in battling the Netherrealm's forces. The 1996 television series Mortal Kombat: Conquest featured an original character named Siann, played by Dana Hee, who was inspired by Sareena, but remained loyal to Quan Chi. She was ranked 26th on Den of Geek's rating of the series' 64 player characters, with the site deeming her "Sub-Zero's one moment of humanity snowballing into something meaningful". Shinnok Introduced in Mortal Kombat 4 Jarek Performed by: Mark Myers (MK4) Voiced by: Jon Hey (MK4), James Freeman-Hargis (MK:A) Jarek is a member of the Black Dragon clan. Established in Mortal Kombat 4 as the last known Black Dragon, he possesses Kano's special moves and Fatalities. He helps defend Earthrealm against Shinnok, but falls off a cliff in the aftermath when the Special Forces attempt to arrest him. In Armageddon, Jarek is revealed to have survived and develops an obsession with killing all of his opponents. Jarek also appears as one of the bosses in Special Forces, where he is defeated by Jax. In the Mortal Kombat X prequel comic, he is imprisoned in Outworld by Kotal Kahn. Modeled after Midway character artist Herman Sanchez, Jarek received a tepid reception for his similarities to Kano. He is mostly recognized for the Mortal Kombat 4 endings featuring him, which have been maligned for their voice acting and dialogue. John Cheese of Cracked included the endings in a 2013 feature titled "6 Video Game Endings That Are Clearly F#@%ing With Us," mocking Jarek's screams and describing his laughter as "the single stupidest, creepiest, most bizarre laugh I have ever heard in any format as long as I have been alive". Kai Portrayed by: Kimball Uddin (MK4) Voiced by: Ed Boon (MK4) Kai is a Shaolin Monk and member of the White Lotus Society. He debuts in Mortal Kombat 4 as one of the warriors defending Earthrealm from Shinnok. Afterwards, he goes on quest for self-enlightenment, although he returns in Armageddon. According to Ed Boon, Kai was developed as an "African American character who was very nimble like Liu Kang" with vertical fireball projectiles. He was also the first character to perform a handstand during gameplay, which was intended to be his main fighting style in Armageddon, but Boon stated this was prevented by time limitations. Kai came in at 47th on UGO's 2012 list of the top 50 Mortal Kombat characters. Robert Naytor of Hardcore Gaming 101 said, "With all his projectile moves, he's basically the black Liu Kang". Meat Meat was originally as a skin created by art director Tony Goskie that would depict each fighter in Mortal Kombat 4 as a bloodied corpse. After being established as a canonical character in Deceptions Konquest mode, he received a backstory and unique special moves in Armageddon. His Armageddon ending reveals that he is an experiment created by Shang Tsung who escaped the sorcerer's clutches before he could be completed. Prima Games' strategy guide for Armageddon also states that Meat assists Shinnok, although this relationship is not established in the game. Meat placed 49th in UGO's 2012 listing of the top fifty MK characters, noting that he became a fan favorite for his "ridiculously gruesome moves". Conversely, ScrewAttack ranked Meat fourth in its 2011 ranking of the series' ten worst characters for being "a generic [character] model" without flesh. Ryan Aston of Topless Robot placed Meat second in his selection of eight characters "that are goofy even by Mortal Kombat standards," calling him "a gory riff" on Soulcalibur character Charade and his storyline "a truly flimsy excuse for his existence". In 2009, Sam Ashurst of Total Film included Meat in his selection of "7 Nasty Characters" for a third Mortal Kombat film because the character is depicted "spraying blood everywhere". Reiko Portrayed by: Jim Helsinger (Konquest), Nathan Jones (2021 film) Voiced by: Ed Boon (MK:D), David Beron (MK:A), Robin Atkin Downes (MKL:BOTR) Reiko is a general who has served Shinnok and Shao Kahn. He first appears assisting Shinnok's invasion in Mortal Kombat 4, while Armageddon depicts him under Shao Kahn's command. After making a background cameo in the 2011 reboot, he appears in the Mortal Kombat X prequel comics, where he becomes a blood god before being betrayed and killed by Havik. The character was added to Mortal Kombat 4 to replace Noob Saibot after the developers found that the game had too many ninja characters. While his original ending simply depicted him walking through a portal, Reiko's FMV ending showed him wearing the helmet of Shao Kahn. This led to speculation that Reiko was Shao Kahn, which was dispelled when the Konquest mode of Deception revealed that Reiko would sneak into Shao Kahn's throne room to wear his helmet. In an interview, John Tobias stated that Reiko was intended to be a reincarnation of Shao Kahn, but this story would be disregarded in later installments. Nevertheless, Reiko's appearance and special moves in Armageddon would be stylized after Shao Kahn. Outside of the games, Jim Helsinger played Reiko in the 1998 television series Mortal Kombat: Conquest, where he is one of Shao Kahn's generals. Reiko also appeared in the 2021 Mortal Kombat film, portrayed by Nathan Jones, as one of the Outworld champions. He faces off against Jax in the film's final battle, eventually being killed when Jax crushes his head. Reiko appears in the 2020 animated film Mortal Kombat Legends: Battle of the Realms, voiced by Robin Atkin Downes. Reiko placed 42nd on UGO's 2012 list of the top 50 Mortal Kombat characters. Gavin Jasper of Den of Geek rated Reiko last in his 2015 ranking of the series' playable characters for what he considered the wasted potential of his storyline in regards to his connection to Shao Kahn. WhatCulture ranked him fourteenth in their 2015 selection of the series' twenty worst characters for "having zero individuality". Tanya Performed by: Lia Montelongo (MK4) Voiced by: Rosalind Dugas (MK4), Beth Melewski (MK:D), Jennifer Hale (MKX) Tanya is an Edenian who aligns herself with the series' villains. Often acting out of self-preservation, she betrays Edenia to Shinnok in Mortal Kombat 4 and Onaga in Deception. In the story mode of Mortal Kombat X, Tanya joins Mileena's rebellion against Kotal Kahn with the intent of liberating Edenia from Outworld; she is defeated by D'Vorah, but spared at Cassie Cage's behest. Named after Ed Boon's sister Tania, Tanya was created to replace Kitana in Mortal Kombat 4. She placed 34th on UGO's 2012 list of the top 50 MK characters. Complex named Tanya seventh in their 2011 selection of the top ten underrated MK characters, calling her "the traitor of all traitors in the series, switching her allegiance more times than we can count". Conversely, Den of Geek rated her 68th in their 2015 ranking of the franchise's 73 player characters for being "a one-dimensional villain whose only quality is betrayal". Total Film named her among the seven "nasty" characters wanted for a third Mortal Kombat movie, praising her "Thighbone Stab" Fatality from Deception and suggesting she be played by Rosario Dawson. Introduced in Mortal Kombat: Special Forces Tremor Voiced by: Fred Tatasciore (MKX) Tremor is a ninja member of the Black Dragon clan. As implied by his name, he is able to manipulate the Earth with his immense strength. He is initially depicted as a brown-clad ninja, but would be redesigned to have a body made out of rocks. Originally intended as a playable character for Mortal Kombat Trilogy, Tremor instead debuted as a boss in Special Forces, where he is killed by Jax. He made his playable debut as a downloadable character in Mortal Kombat X, although he has no involvement in the story. In the Mortal Kombat X prequel comic, it is revealed that Tremor was imprisoned in Outworld by Kotal Kahn. Introduced in Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance Blaze Voiced by: Simeon Norfleet (MK:A) Blaze is a fire elemental created to monitor the warriors of the realms. He appears as a hidden character in Deadly Alliance, which depicts him being forced to protect the last known dragon egg by Onaga's followers. After the egg hatches, completing Onaga's resurrection, Blaze is able to continue monitoring the warriors, which causes him to discover that they have become too powerful for the realms in his absence. He serves as the final boss of Armageddon, where he brings all the fighters together for a final battle. As part of his mission to prevent an impending Armageddon, Blaze has Taven face him in a fight intended to either kill all the warriors or strip them of their powers. The 2011 reboot reveals that Blaze was instead defeated by Shao Kahn, prompting Raiden's efforts to change the timeline. Prior to becoming to becoming a playable character, Blaze originated in the background of Mortal Kombat IIs Pit II stage as a Liu Kang palette swap covered in flames and facing off against another Liu Kang palette swap. The character was nicknamed "Torch" by fans, but due to the risk of copyright infringement on the Marvel character Human Torch, Midway officially named him Blaze. In reference to his original role, he has made cameo appearances in Shaolin Monks, the 2011 reboot, Mortal Kombat X, and Mortal Kombat 11, which all feature the Pit II. The character placed 37th on UGO's 2012 list of the top 50 Mortal Kombat characters, which remarked, "Although [guarding the Dragon Egg] doesn't sound like the job of a badass, you'll change your mind once you see Blaze steamrolling his way towards you". Garth Kaestner of G3AR ranked Blaze the sixth worst character in the franchise, calling him "an example of how some things should be laid to rest before they have begun". Bo' Rai Cho Voiced by: Carlos Pesina (MK:DA, MK:D, MK:A); Steve Blum (MKX) Bo' Rai Cho is a martial arts master skilled in the style of drunken boxing. His attacks mostly center around his weight and bodily functions. An Outworld native, but an opponent of Shao Kahn's tyranny, he trained Liu Kang and many other Earthrealm warriors for the Mortal Kombat tournament as his participation would be on the behalf of Shao Kahn. For his debut in Deadly Alliance, Bo' Rai Cho trains Kung Lao after he learns of Liu Kang's death. In Deception, he rescues Li Mei from having her soul trapped inside one of the corpses of Onaga's army. Bo' Rai Cho is later tricked by Mileena, posing as Kitana, into leading Kitana's army to certain defeat against Baraka's forces, but Bo' Rai Cho emerges victorious with the help of Liu Kang. He returns in Mortal Kombat X, where he is attacked by Shinnok; his fate afterwards is left unknown. The character's name is a play on "borracho", the Spanish word for "drunk". According to Herman Sanchez, Bo' Rai Cho was created because Ed Boon sought to have a "slob" fighter, while John Vogel found that he filled the "master" role for the franchise. Reception to Bo' Rai Cho has been generally negative for his appearance and gross-out nature. Den of Geek ranked him 55th in their rating of the series' 73 characters, calling Bo' Rai Cho "a Shaw Brothers Boogerman, and the gag wears thin after the third time you use his puke attack". Robert Naytor of Hardcore Gaming 101 unfavorably compared him to Virtua Fighter character Shun Di as "a big, fat guy" who is utilized to "throw up and fart a lot". ScrewAttack rated him tenth in their 2011 list of the series' ten worst characters, noting that his in-game weapon was plain wooden staff. However, Bo' Rai Cho placed 37th on UGO's 2012 list of the top 50 MK characters, which called his comic relief role "a breath of fresh air. Or, in his case, a belch of fresh air". Complex named him one of the series' most underrated characters in 2011. Bo' Rai Cho is mentioned by Liu Kang in the 2021 reboot film, but does not physically appear. Drahmin Voiced by: Rich Carle (MK:D) Drahmin is a demonic Oni who resides in the Netherrealm. He and Moloch are hired by Quan Chi to protect him against Scorpion in exchange for freedom from the Netherrealm, but after Quan Chi betrays them, they align themselves with Shang Tsung to help him counter Quan Chi's treachery. While in Shang Tsung's palace, Drahmin and Moloch encounter Scorpion, whom they defeat by throwing into the palace's Soulnado. Drahmin returns in the Mortal Kombat X prequel comic, where he is killed by Quan Chi. Ed Boon described Drahmin as one of the most difficult characters to program because specific code had to written to prevent Drahmin's arm-mounted club from switching sides whenever the character turned around during gameplay. Drahmin has received a mostly negative reception; G3AR named him among the worst series characters for his "hideous" appearance and lack of combo abilities. Den of Geek rated him 47th in their 2015 ranking of the 64 series characters, describing him as "a collection of cool concepts that doesn't make for much of a sum" whereas "Moloch does a lot more with less". Frost Voiced by: Christine Rios (MK:A); Kelly Hu (MKX); Sara Cravens (MK11) Frost is a Lin Kuei warrior who possesses the ability to control ice. She was trained directly by Sub-Zero due to the similarities between them and the potential he saw in her, but her skills were compounded her arrogant nature. When Sub-Zero has her accompany him in Deadly Alliance to help battle Quan Chi and Shang Tsung, Frost steals his Dragon Medallion, which results in her being frozen by her own powers. Frost is revealed to have survived in the Unchained port of Deception, where Sub-Zero traps her in a block of ice after she attempts to kill him. She is freed by Taven in the Konquest mode of Armageddon, but attacks him after mistaking him for Sub-Zero and is defeated. Following cameos in the 2011 reboot and Mortal Kombat Xs story mode, Frost returns as a playable character in Mortal Kombat 11, which depicts her receiving cybernetic enhancements. Aligning herself with Kronika by leading the Cyber Lin Kuei against Earthrealm's heroes, she is defeated by Raiden, who shuts down the cyborgs by deactivating her link to them. The character was the first designed by Herman Sanchez for Deadly Alliance. She was placed eighth in Complexs selection of the series' ten most underrated characters in 2011. Den of Geek placed Frost 37th in their 2015 ranking of the series' 73 player characters, calling her addition "a nice touch" to Sub-Zero's rebuilding of the Lin Kuei. Hsu Hao Hsu Hao is a member of the Red Dragon clan distinguished by his cybernetic heart. After infiltrating the Special Forces, Hsu Hao destroys their Outerworld Investigation Agency branch with a nuclear device in Deadly Alliance. He is eventually found by Jax, who kills him by ripping out his cybernetic heart. Despite this, he returns in Armageddon. Hsu Hao also appears in the Mortal Kombat X comic prequel, where he is killed by Scorpion. During development, the character was called Kublai Khan after the Mongolian emperor of the same name. Steve Beran described him as "the anti-Jax" whose cybernetic heart was the result of experiments performed on him by the Chinese army. According to Ed Boon, Hsu Hao had a number of different iterations, with his "Hand Clap" special move inspired by superhero comics. Hsu Hao is widely regarded as one of the worst characters in the Mortal Kombat franchise. G3AR ranked him second in their 2013 list of the series' ten worst characters and Den of Geek's 2015 ranking of the series' 73 characters also placed him as the second worst. Robert Naytor of Hardcore Gaming 101 described the character as "a slightly racist take at a Village Person". Naming him the series' worst character in 2014, Destructoid noted that "in a game that was littered with lackluster new additions, he was without a doubt the runt of that litter". This negative reception carried over to the development team, with John Vogel intending his death in Deadly Alliance to be canon and Boon making him the first character officially omitted from Mortal Kombat X. Kenshi Li Mei Voiced by: Lina Chern (MK:D), Tara Strong (MKX), Grey Griffin (MKL:BOTR) Li Mei is an Outworld native from a small village. In Deadly Alliance, she is forced into a tournament by Shang Tsung and Quan Chi with the promise that her victory would free her village. However, upon winning the tournament, Shang Tsung attempts to place her soul into the corpse of one of Onaga's soldiers. Deception reveals that Li Mei was saved by Bo' Rai Cho, but her contact with the corpse causes her to feel a connection with Onaga. She makes a brief appearance in the story mode of Mortal Kombat X, where she leads a number of Outworld refugees into Earthrealm after Mileena uses Shinnok's amulet to destroy her village. Reception to Li Mei has been mixed, with criticism directed towards her Deception design. Den of Geek rated her 57th in their 2015 ranking of the series' entire 73-character roster, feeling she was "only distinguished by her ridiculous outfit of a bandana and underwear". Joe Pring of WhatCulture rated Li Mei sixth in his 2015 selection of the twenty worst Mortal Kombat characters for "[wearing] a bandana while dancing around in metal-plated underwear", which he stated "deserves to be ridiculed". Conversely, Total Film named her among the seven "nasty" characters they wanted for a third Mortal Kombat movie "because of her emotional and moving backstory, but mainly because her outfit makes her look like Batgirl after a fight with Wolverine". Mavado Voiced by: Alex Brandon (MK:A) Mavado is a high-ranking member of the Red Dragon clan. As his clan's top priority is the elimination of the Black Dragon, he aligns himself with Quan Chi and Shang Tsung in Deadly Alliance when they promise to hand over Kano to him for his services. Mavado defeats Kenshi on their behest, but Deception reveals that he was killed by Kabal after an unsuccessful attempt on Kabal's life. Nevertheless, he returns in Armageddon continuing to serve the Red Dragon. Mavado also appears in the Mortal Kombat X comic prequel, where he is killed by Cassie Cage. Originally named "Malvado", the Spanish word for "evil", Steve Beran conceived a matador-style look for the character, but the idea was nixed due to the belief that it didn't fit in with the Mortal Kombat universe. He is the first character in the series to a physical object for a body-propel special attack, which he performs by shooting two bungee cords into the ground and slingshotting himself feet-first to dropkick his opponent. This attack was incorporated into his "Boot Thrust" Fatality. Robert Workman of GamePlayBook ranked him eighth in his 2010 selection of the worst MK characters, describing his Fatality as "stupid," but Den of Geek, placed him 39th in their 2015 ranking of the series' 73 characters "for his bungee hook attacks" and taking Kabal's weapons after killing him. Mokap Mokap is a motion capture actor with an extensive martial arts background. He debuted as a hidden character in Deadly Alliance, but has no involvement with the story; his biography follows Johnny Cage's non-canonical ending of a Deadly Alliance film being created. Mokap also has a limited role in the conflict of Armageddon, where his involvement is said to be by mistake. Named after the abbreviation for motion capture, Mokap is based on Midway graphic artist Carlos Pesina, who provided the motion capture work for Deadly Alliance. Pesina admitted it was "pretty flattering" being included in the game, but also remarked it was "weird" seeing Fatalities performed on him. Reception to Mokap has been mostly negative. Den of Geek rated him 55th in their 2015 ranking of the series characters, stating that he "didn't really work well as a comedy character because the game did little to differentiate the characters in terms of personality". In their ranking of the 10 worst characters, ScrewAttack placed Mokap second because "nobody wants to play as a dude with balls on his body". Despite this, Total Film named Mokap among the seven "nasty" characters wanted in a third Mortal Kombat film, suggesting he be played by motion capture specialist Andy Serkis. Moloch Voiced by: Bob Ladewig (MK:D) Moloch is the sub-boss of Deadly Alliance. An Oni demon of immense size and strength, he and Drahmin are hired by Quan Chi to protect him against Scorpion in exchange for freedom from the Netherrealm. After Quan Chi betrays them by leaving them behind, Moloch and Drahmin align themselves with Shang Tsung to help him counter Quan Chi's treachery. They also defeat Scorpion by throwing him into the Soulnado at Shang Tsung's palace. Moloch also appears in the Mortal Kombat X prequel comic, where Quan Chi has him killed the revenant Kitana. In refence to his comic death, Quan Chi is seen holding Moloch's severed head during his Mortal Kombat X pre-match introductions. Designed by Allen Ditzig, Moloch's concept changed little from his finalized design. Den of Geek rated him 21st in their 2015 ranking of the series' 64 characters, praising his sub-boss role and possessing "some utter brutality that hadn't been felt in a Mortal Kombat boss since Kintaro". Bryan Dawson of Prima Games named Moloch in his 2014 selection of the "cheapest" Mortal Kombat characters for his playable version in Armageddon having "a near infinite combo limited only by the size of the stage" and "ridiculous reach with most of his special moves". Nitara Portrayed by: Mel Jarnson (2021 film) Nitara is a vampire from the realm of Vaeternus. In Deadly Alliance, she seeks to destroy the orb that binds her realm to Outworld. As the orb is inside of a lava pit that Cyrax is able to enter, Nitara orchestrates a series of events to force Cyrax into helping her in exchange for passage back to Earthrealm. She ultimately succeeds in destroying the orb with Cyrax's assistance, freeing Vaeternus. Her biography in Armageddon states that Nitara leaves Vaeternus for Edenia in an effort to prevent her species from being exterminated by Ashrah, although this is not established during the game. The character was designed by Luis Mangubat. A male vampire counterpart was also planned for Deadly Alliance, but the developers were unable to add him to the game in time. In the game's Konquest mode, she was featured in a fictional "Blood" energy drink advertisement. Nitara appears in the 2021 Mortal Kombat film, portrayed by Mel Jarnson. Depicted as one of the Outworld champions, she is killed by Kung Lao with his hat. UGO ranked Nitara 46th on their 2012 list of the top fifty series characters. In 2011, Complex named her one of the series' most underrated characters, stating that "Buffy would get her ass handed to her by this chick". Introduced in Mortal Kombat: Deception Ashrah Voiced by: Johanna Añonuevo (MK:D, MK:A) Ashrah is a demon from the Netherrealm. During the events of Deception, she discovers a magical sword that cleanses her soul when she uses it to kill demons. As having a purified soul will allow her to escape the Netherrealm, Ashrah plots to kill Noob Saibot to complete her redemption. Her Armageddon biography reveals that after leaving the Netherrealm, she is tasked with killing the vampires in Vaeternus. Nitara's Armageddon biography further reveals that Ashrah's sword merely manipulates its wielder into believing it purifies them by killing vampires, setting up a conflict between Nitara and Ashrah; this storyline, however, is not depicted in the game. Ed Boon commented that the character was commonly misconceived as a female version of Raiden due to her similar outfit and believed she would have the "biggest impact" out of the new characters from Deception. Ashrah was ranked 45th on UGO's 2012 list of the top 50 Mortal Kombat characters. Den of Geek placed her 53rd in their 2015 ranking of the 64 series characters, opining that there was "nothing special about her". Robert Naytor of Hardcore Gaming 101 made note of the character's "modest outfit" in contrast to the franchise's other female characters, but criticized her minor role in the story. Although Kevin Wong of Complex found Ashrah to be "a Raiden knockoff", he praised her "Voodoo Doll" Fatality from Deception. Dairou Voiced by: Josh Schmittstenstein (MK:D) Dairou is a mercenary from Orderrealm. He was formerly a member of his realm's guardsmen until was arrested after killing an assailant out of rage and began following his own personal code once he escaped from prison. An alternate biography states he was tricked into killing the individual he believed murdered his family; it is implied that Darrius is the true culprit. In Deception, Dairou is hired by an unknown individual to assassinate Hotaru. According to Darrius' ending, he had also been hired to steal their realm's Declaration of Order. Dairou was slated to appear in Deadly Alliance as an armored samurai-type character wielding a pair of katanas, but was left out of the game due to time constraints and the complexity of the design. For Deception, his original design was eschewed in favor of a more classical Chinese appearance. Ed Boon deemed the character's "Tombstone Drop" maneuver, where he slams backfirst onto the ground and sends his opponent airborne for a combo, one of the best moves in the game. Although Boon had praise for Dairou's appearance, reception to the character has been negative. He was ranked 67th by Den of Geek in their 2015 rating of the series' 73 playable characters, describing him as "unbelievably generic", and Dustin Thomas of Destructoid stated "there really isn't a whole lot to say about him" while ranking him third in his 2014 list of the series' five worst MK characters. Despite this, his "Ribs to the Eyes" Fatality in Deception is regarded as one of the franchise's best. Darrius Voiced by: Steve Jones (MK:D) Darrius is the leader of a resistance movement in Orderrealm. He seeks to overthrow his realm's government, believing they are too oppressive towards their citizens. To accomplish his goal, Darrius exploits the laws of his realm to manipulate others into joining his movement; his Deception biography implies that he had Dairou's family murdered to instigate Dairou's removal from the guardsmen. Designed by Steve Beran, Darrius was the last new addition to the Deception roster. Beran described Darrius as having "a 'take no B.S.' attitude, like a star athlete who had made his way to fame from a rough upbringing and humble beginnings", while Ed Boon considered him a more "Americanized" fighting game character who had an indescribable "appeal" about him and Herman Sanchez called the character "lean and mean, aggressive, [and with] style." According to Beran, the character's look was inspired by 1960s and '70s comic book art, with his final appearance "intended to be a mixture of those elements fused with a sleek modern approach". His alternate costume was a homage to actor Jim Kelly. Lead storyteller John Vogel expressed his desire to see Darrius in future MK installments, although he has not reappeared since Armageddon. Darrius was rated 44th in the 2015 ranking of the series' 73 player characters by Gavin Jasper of Den of Geek, who found him "worth revisiting down the line". Conversely, ScrewAttack named Darrius the sixth worst Mortal Kombat character, calling him a "knock-off" of the Marvel Comics hero Blade. Havik Voiced by: Ryan Rosenberg (MK:D, MK:A) Havik is a denizen of Chaosrealm. As with the rest of his realm, his primary goal is to spread disorder through the universe. In Deception, he pursues his goal by luring the heroes into battle with Onaga. He also convinces Kabal to reform the Black Dragon after saving him from death. Havik is prominently featured in the Mortal Kombat X prequel comic, which sees him killed by Quan Chi. However, Shang Tsung states that he is still alive during the events of Mortal Kombat 11: Aftermath. The character was designed by Steve Beran as an alternate outfit for Noob Saibot before being given a storyline of his own. His original name during development of Deception was "Skab." Ed Boon said that Havik was envisioned as a "decaying" character whose specials would look "disturbing" due to often featuring his limbs breaking. Havik is generally regarded as the best character introduced in Deception. Dustin Thomas of Destructoid called him "the only new character in Deception worthy of being a Mortal Kombat character". Hardcore Gaming 101 described Havik as "probably the least lamest of the newcomers in Deception, even though that's not saying much". Ranking him 30th in their 2015 rating of the series' 73 characters, Den of Geek said, "While the whole Orderrealm/Chaosrealm subplot never quite caught on, Havik is strong enough to exist on his own." Sam Ashurst of Total Film named Havik among his "seven nasty characters" for a third Mortal Kombat film in 2009, describing him as "someone who looks like a zombie version of Genghis Khan walking around and doing the occasional good deed" and stated that he should be played "by Jason Statham in a cheap Skeletor costume". Hotaru Voiced by: Chase Ashbaker (MK:D) Hotaru is a high-ranking guardsman in Orderrealm. Although not inherently evil, he aligns himself with Onaga in Deception due to Onaga's reputation for preserving order. As part of his alignment, Hotaru pursues Sub-Zero for killing many of Onaga's Tarkatan warriors. In turn, Hotaru is pursued by Dairou, who received a contract to assassinate him. He is depicted being killed by Dairou, Darrius, and Kenshi in their respective endings, but the 2011 reboot reveals that his death occurred during the final battle of Armageddon. The character was conceived as a foil to Havik. His name is the Japanese word for firefly, which serves as the motif for his costume that was designed by Jennifer Hedrick. Hotaru was ranked 43rd on UGO's 2012 list of the top 50 Mortal Kombat characters. Ranking him 60th in their 2015 rating of the series' 73 characters, Den of Geek remarked that "order tends to be the more boring [compared to chaos], but Hotaru has just enough of a cool factor". Robert Workman of GamePlayBook rated Hotaru 10th in his selection of the worst series characters for his using lava as a weapon and "stealing" Liu Kang's Bicycle Kick for one of his special moves. Kira Voiced by: Christine Rios (MK:A) Kira is a member of the Black Dragon clan who possesses the abilities of Kano and Sonya Blade. She also wields the same daggers as Kano. Formerly an arms dealer, she becomes the first recruit of Kabal's new clan in Deception. Early into the Konquest mode of Armageddon, Kira is seen guarding a bridge alongside Kobra. Kira, however, abandons Kobra during his battle with Taven, which he loses. John Vogel described Kira as the "most disciplined" of the Black Dragons, while Jay Biondo called her "the Fatal Attraction character." She was among seven "nasty series characters" cited Sam Ashurst of Total Film for a third Mortal Kombat film, suggesting she could be played by "Olga Kurylenko with a pencil mustache". Describing her as an "evil Sonya Blade" who was "a bit easier to take seriously" than Kobra, Den of Geek placed Kira 32nd in their 2015 ranking of the franchise's 64 player characters. Her storyline as an arms dealer who disguised herself as a man was ranked fourth by John Harty of WhatCulture in his 2015 selection of the series' ten "Most Badass Backstories," calling it "a concept that speaks to a person having some serious balls". Kobra Voiced by: Alex Brandon (MK:A) Kobra is a martial artist who serves the Black Dragon clan. Once a disciplined fighter, he turns criminal after he starts using his training to kill others. His bloodlust catches the attention of Kabal, who makes him the second recruit of his clan in Deception. Kobra appears as Taven's first opponent in the Konquest mode of Armageddon, where he unsuccessfully attempts to prevent Taven from crossing a bridge. In Mortal Kombat X, Erron Black claims to have killed him, but this is unconfirmed. The character was nicknamed "Ben Masters" while Deception was in production due to his physical resemblance to Street Fighter character Ken Masters. Ed Boon described Kobra in Deception as "the simple character that everybody can pick up and play" with easy-to-execute special moves. GamePlayBook placed Kobra sixth in their 2010 listing of the 10 worst Mortal Kombat characters, unfavorably comparing him to Ken. He was also ranked as the fifth worst Mortal Kombat character by ScrewAttack, who described him as "a generic white guy". However, Den of Geek rated Kobra 35th in their 2015 ranking of the 64 series characters, calling him an "evil Johnny Cage". Onaga Voiced by: Nigel Casey (MK:D, MK:A) Onaga is the final boss of Deception. Also known as the Dragon King, he was the emperor of Outworld until he was poisoned by Shao Kahn. Resurrected in Deception, Onaga derives his power from the Kamidogu, six mystical relics that contain the essence of each main realm. Unbeknownst to Onaga, however, he is being manipulated by the One Being into unmaking reality through the Kamidogu. The Konquest mode of Deception reveals how he manipulated Shujinko into collecting the Kamidogu for him under the identity of his avatar Damashi. He is ultimately defeated by Shujinko, but returns in Armageddon, where he begrudgingly enters an alliance with Shao Kahn and other major villains to destroy Blaze. Onaga does not appear in the rebooted timeline, although he is occasionally referenced. The character was ranked 39th on UGO's 2012 list of the top 50 Mortal Kombat fighters. Shujinko Voiced by: Max Crawford (MK:D, MK:A) Shujinko is a veteran adventurer with the ability to copy the powers of his opponents. He serves as the protagonist of Deceptions Konquest mode, which depicts how he was deceived into collecting the six mystical Kamidogu for Onaga. Upon learning of the deception, Shujinko seeks redemption by using the power he received from Onaga to defeat him. Shujinko emerges victorious by destroying the Kamidogu, but believing that he has not redeemed himself, he plots to destroy Onaga and the other villains during the events of Armageddon. He appears in the Mortal Kombat X prequel comic, where he guards Chaosrealm's Kamidogu, but becomes possessed by Havik. Ed Boon deemed Shujinko the series' "next-generation Liu Kang", but the character was not well received. Describing him as "one of the most gullible, susceptible dumbasses in video games", Den of Geek placed Shujinko 65th in their 2015 ranking of the series' 73 playable characters. ScrewAttack ranked Shujinko the eighth worst Mortal Kombat character for being an "older and boring" Liu Kang. Bryan Dawson of Prima Games named him one of the series' "cheapest" characters due to his moveset of other fighters' special attacks. Introduced in Mortal Kombat: Armageddon Daegon Voiced by: Tom Taylorson (MK:A) Daegon is the younger of the brothers tasked with preventing Armageddon. Due to being awoken prematurely from his incubation, however, he appears physically older than Taven. The premature awakening causes Daegon to become unbalanced, resulting in him killing his parents and forming the Red Dragon clan. When Taven is properly awoken during the events of Armageddon, Daegon fights him for the right to face Blaze, but he is defeated by his older brother. Along with a background cameo in the 2011 reboot, he appears in the Mortal Kombat X prequel comic, which establishes him as the killer of Takeda's mother. The character was initially called "Doug" during the production of Armageddon as the developers had difficulty finding a name for him. Daegon finished 56th in Den of Geek's 2015 ranking of the series' 73 characters. He was criticized by Hardcore Gaming 101, who opined that his in-development name was "probably the most interesting thing about him". Taven Voiced by: Phil Ridarelli (MK:A) Taven is the older of the brothers tasked with preventing Armageddon. He serves as the protagonist of Armageddons Konquest mode, which depicts his quest to save the realms by claiming Blaze's power. The mode ends with Taven defeating Blaze, but his victory does not stop the final battle as it instead causes the other warriors to become more powerful. The 2011 reboot, however, established that Shao Kahn claimed Blaze's power, implying that Taven was defeated by Blaze. Taven has not been featured in the storyline of the rebooted timeline, although he has appeared in non-canonical endings. Due to difficulty in naming the character, Taven was originally called "Bob" until his final name was determined. Ed Boon revealed that he initially opposed Taven's final name before it made "perfect sense" to him. Reception to Taven was mostly negative; Hardcore Gaming 101 called him "utterly generic". Destructoid named him the series' second-worst fighter, describing him as "the most bland character in MK history". Similar criticism was shared by Den of Geek in their 2015 ranking of the series' 73 playable characters, which placed him 58th and opined "Taven's generic design didn't do him any favors" when Armageddon was "based around including every single playable Mortal Kombat character". Introduced in Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe Dark Kahn Voiced by: Perry Brown and Patrick Seitz Dark Kahn is the final boss of Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe. He is an amalgamation of Shao Kahn and DC Comics supervillain Darkseid, created through the accidental merging of their universes. Deriving his power from conflict, he attempts to fully merge the universes by manipulating the Mortal Kombat and DC warriors into fighting each other. Dark Kahn is ultimately defeated by Raiden and Superman, who manage to overcome his manipulation. Following Dark Kahn's destruction, Shao Kahn and Darkseid become trapped in their counterparts' universe; Darkseid is sent to the Netherrealm, while Shao Kahn is imprisoned in the Phantom Zone. Introduced in Mortal Kombat (2011) Skarlet Introduced in Mortal Kombat X Cassie Cage D'Vorah Voiced by: Kelly Hu (MKX, MK11), Debra Wilson (MKL:BOTR) D'Vorah is a Kytinn, a humanoid race with insect/arachnid traits. Her name is derived from the Hebrew word for bee. She is first seen serving Kotal Kahn in Mortal Kombat X, but is secretly in allegiance with Shinnok, which results in her being defeated by Cassie Cage. In Mortal Kombat 11, D'Vorah joins Kronika's efforts in restarting the timeline. Although she kills the present version of Scorpion, she is forced to retreat after his past counterpart injures her; her subsequent fate is unknown. D'Vorah appears in the 2020 animated film Mortal Kombat Legends: Battle of the Realms, voiced by Debra Wilson. The character has received a polarizing reception; Melody MacReady of ScreenRant noted that while D'Vorah is praised for her design, she has generated controversy for killing popular characters Baraka, Mileena, and Scorpion within the story. Nevertheless, she ranked 25th in Den of Geek's 2015 rating of the series' 73 playable characters, which called her "a great new addition to the roster" and lauded that she was "filled with all sorts of creepy surprises". Erron Black Voiced by: Troy Baker (MKX, MK11) Erron Black is a mercenary from Earthrealm, but in the service of Outworld. Depicted as a 19th-century gunfighter from the Old West, his backstory reveals that his body's aging was slowed by Shang Tsung in exchange for murdering an unidentified Earthrealm warrior. As a result, he utilizes 19th century weaponry. He serves Kotal Kahn in Mortal Kombat X, which puts him into conflict with Earthrealm's warriors. Mortal Kombat 11 features a past version of Erron Black who serves Shao Kahn, while his present counterpart assists Kitana in defeating Shao Kahn's forces. The character placed 10th in Den of Geek's rating of the series' 73 characters in 2015, the highest of any fighter not introduced in the first three games, which described him as "the Boba Fett of Mortal Kombat". Ferra/Torr Voiced by: Tara Strong (Ferra); Fred Tatasciore (Torr) Ferra and Torr are a members of symbiotic species in Outworld. Through their relationship, the diminutive Ferra rides the massive Torr into battle, while Torr serves as their enforcer. During gameplay, the player controls Torr, with Ferra utilized for special attacks; as such, fatalities and brutalities are performed directly on Torr. Their ending in Mortal Kombat X establishes that Ferra is a juvenile who will be mounted by a rider when she reaches maturity, while Torr dies without her. In the story mode of Mortal Kombat X, Ferra and Torr serve Kotal Kahn, which leads to them fighting Earthrealm's warriors; they are ultimately incapacitated by Sub-Zero. Ebenezer Samuel of the New York Daily News called Ferra and Torr a "highlight" of the game, with their in-gameplay mannerisms "distracting enough to take your eye off the battle, and quirky enough that it’s worth watching." They ranked 39th in the ranking of the series characters by Den of Geek, who praised them as "the most original new race the series has introduced in years". Jacqui Briggs Voiced by: Danielle Nicolet (MKX); Megalyn Echikunwoke (MK11) Jacqui Briggs is a Special Forces operative who uses a pair of electronic gauntlets as her primary weapon. The daughter of Jax, she debuts in Mortal Kombat X as a member of Cassie Cage's unit, with whom she helps defeat the threatening forces of Outworld and the Netherrealm. She also becomes the love interest to Takeda. In Mortal Kombat 11, Jacqui and the past version of her father are forced to face the present version of Jax when he aligns himself with Kronika. After the present version realizes his mistakes, she fights alongside both versions of her father in the battle against Kronika's forces. Den of Geek ranked Jacqui 47th in their ranking of the 73 series characters, praising her for being "fun to play as" while finding that "she doesn't stand out nearly enough". Ikhtear Shahrukh of [[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] opined that Jacqui as "fit[s] into typical generic fighter game character stereotypes instead of being Mortal Kombat material". Kotal Kahn Voiced by: Phil LaMarr (MKX, MK11) Kotal Kahn is the emperor of Outworld in Mortal Kombat X and Mortal Kombat 11. He is an Osh-Tekk, an Aztec-inspired species whose powers originate from the sun, and wields a macuahuitl as his primary weapon. Embroiled in a civil war against Mileena in Mortal Kombat X, he receives support from the Earthrealm warriors, but turns against them due to D'Vorah's deception. Kotal Kahn later leads an invasion of Earthrealm, which is driven back by the Lin Kuei. In Mortal Kombat 11, his rule is threatened by the return of Shao Kahn. After Shao Kahn cripples him, he names Kitana the new ruler of Outworld. He does not appear during the battle against Kronika in the original story mode, but Aftermath sees him participate after his injures heal; he is killed by Shao Kahn in a surprise attack. The character was ranked 15th on Den of Geek's list of Mortal Kombat characters, which compared him to Black Adam and Namor as an "honorable" emperor who "will do anything to protect his planetary kingdom". Kung Jin Voiced by: Johnny Yong Bosch Kung Jin is a Shaolin archer. Part of the Great Kung Lao's family, he was previously a thief until Raiden convinced him to join the Shaolin. He is originally depicted as Kung Lao's cousin in Mortal Kombat X, but would be retconned as Kung Lao's nephew in Mortal Kombat 11. In Mortal Kombat X, Kung Jin is a member of Cassie Cage's unit, with whom he helps defeat the threatening forces of Outworld and the Netherrealm. He does not reappear in Mortal Kombat 11 outside of being referenced in dialogue and character endings. Although not explicitly stated in Mortal Kombat X, Kung Jin is the series' first homosexual character.Dominic Cianciolo (@domcianciolo) on Twitter - April 14, 2015. Retrieved April 16, 2015. According to NetherRealm Studios, Kung Jin's primary costume was inspired by Mongolian nomadic archers, with him wearing it as a symbol of his acceptance of his role as a hero. Den of Geek ranked Kung Jin 52nd in their 2015 list of the series' 73 characters, deeming him the "most boring" of Mortal Kombat Xs new characters, although the scene where he acknowledged his homosexuality to Raiden was praised. Takeda Voiced by: Parry Shen Takeda is a member of the Shirai Ryu clan whose primary weapon is a pair of bladed whips. The son of Kenshi, he was raised and trained by Scorpion after his mother's murder as Kenshi wanted him properly prepared to avenge his mother. He is depicted as a member of Cassie Cage's unit in Mortal Kombat X, where he helps defeat the threatening forces of Outworld and the Netherrealm. Takeda also serves as the love interest of Jacqui Briggs. Although he does not appear in Mortal Kombat 11, Jacqui mentions that they have become engaged. The character was ranked 36th in the list of Mortal Kombat characters by Den of Geek, which found that he "works best as an accessory to Scorpion, finally giving him some semblance of family and helping to give him closure". Triborg Voiced by: Vic Chao Triborg is a cybernetic warrior created from the consciousnesses of Sektor, Cyrax, Smoke, and Sub-Zero. As a result, he is able to replicate the abilities of each. Depending on the variation selected by the player, Triborg will appear as one of the Lin Kuei cyborgs and utilize his special moves during gameplay. He debuted as a downloadable character in Mortal Kombat X, where his backstory establishes that he seeks to destroy all organic life. However, he has no involvement in the storyline of the game. Triborg was excluded from the Den of Geek ranking of the series' fighters, as writer Gavin Jasper found him to be "a Voltron of existing characters". Introduced in Mortal Kombat 11 Cetrion Voiced by: Mary Elizabeth McGlynn Cetrion is the Elder Goddess of life and virtue. She utilizes nature and the elements as her primary powers. As the daughter of Kronika and sister of Shinnok, Cetrion is intended to balance the darkness represented by her brother. Despite her benevolent appearance, however, she maintains loyalty to Kronika. This loyalty leads to Cetrion allowing Kronika to absorb her essence in both the original story mode of Mortal Kombat 11 and the Aftermath expansion. Ranking her 38th in his list of the series' characters, Gavin Jasper of Den of Geek called Cetrion "more nightmarish" than Shinnok. Geras Voiced by: Dave B. Mitchell Geras is an artificial construct created by Kronika to serve as her primary enforcer. Named after the Greek deity of old age, his powers are based around manipulating sand and time. The story mode of Mortal Kombat 11 establishes that he also possesses regenerative abilities, effectively rendering him immortal. As the Earthrealm heroes are unable to kill him, Raiden defeats Geras by throwing him into Netherrealm's bottomless Sea of Blood. The Aftermath expansion, however, depicts Geras being killed by Shao Kahn, despite his immortality powers. Gavin Jasper of Den of Geek ranked Geras 20th in his list of the series' characters, with praise for his time manipulation powers and calling his ability to alter the game's match timer "such a wonderful, brilliant asshole move". Kollector Voiced by: Andrew Morgado The Kollector is a Naknadan, a six-armed species in Outworld. His multiple arms allow him to utilize a wide array of weaponry, including a lantern, chain mace, bag bomb, and vials of fire. As implied by his name, he served as tribute collector for Shao Kahn until the emperor's death. When Shao Kahn returns in the story mode of Mortal Kombat 11, the Kollector rejoins his forces, but is defeated by Kitana. In the Aftermath expansion, he is the first to notice the time-displaced Shang Tsung, Fujin, and Nightwolf arrive in Outworld, leading to him being defeated by the lattermost. Ranked 45th in his list of the series' characters, Gavin Jasper of Den of Geek spoke highly of the Kollector's animation and fighting style, but found that "he showed up a little too late to the party". Kronika Voiced by: Jennifer Hale Kronika is the final boss of Mortal Kombat 11. She is a Titan, a deity predating the Elder Gods, and responsible for maintaining the universe's timeline. As such, her powers center around space and time manipulation. Mortal Kombat 11s story mode depicts her efforts to maintain the conflict between good and evil by restarting the timeline, while also removing Raiden from history. Although Kronika succeeds in bringing the timeline back to its beginning, she is destroyed by Liu Kang in his fire god form, who becomes the new keeper of time. Kronika returns in the Aftermath expansion when Shang Tsung goes back in time to retrieve her crown, which is required to control the timeline. She is ultimately erased from existence by Shang Tsung, while either Shang Tsung or Liu Kang becomes the keeper of time, depending on who the player selects in the battle between them. Originally developed as a male deity, Kronika is noted as the first female boss in the Mortal Kombat franchise. She was ranked 23rd in the Den of Geek's series characters list, the second-highest final boss behind Shao Kahn, which praised her as "a great major villain" who was "scary not because of her pure might, but because of her affronting divinity". Others These characters were never featured in games, either because they never existed or were removed during development. Belokk Belokk was originally slated for Mortal Kombat Gold but was cut from the final release. He was created by Eurocom and, according to Ed Boon, was removed from the game as the developers did not have time to complete him. Nevertheless, Eurocom accidentally sent information about the game with Belokk in it to Game Informer, and as a result, six screenshots of him were leaked to the public in a preview, upon special request. Guest characters Guest characters from various media franchises have appeared in subsequent Mortal Kombat games following the 2008 crossover title Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe''. = Playable in the base roster of the game = Playable in later iterations of the game = Appears as a non-playable opponent References Mortal Kombat

Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

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The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah () was an event that took place during the time of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was a pivotal treaty between Muhammad, representing the state of Medina, and the Qurayshi tribe of Mecca in January 628 (corresponding to Dhu al-Qi'dah, AH 6). It helped to decrease tension between the two cities, affirmed peace for a period of 10 years, and authorised Muhammad's followers to return the following year in a peaceful pilgrimage, later known as The First Pilgrimage. Attempted pilgrimage Muhammad had a premonition that he entered Mecca and did tawaf around the Ka'bah. His companions in Madinah were delighted when he told them about it. They all revered Mecca and the Kaaba and they learned to do tawaf there. In 628, Muhammad and a group of 1,400 Muslims marched peacefully without arms towards Mecca, in an attempt to perform the Umrah (pilgrimage). They were dressed as pilgrims, and brought sacrificial animals, hoping that the Quraish would honour the Arabian custom of allowing pilgrims to enter the city. The Muslims had left Medina in a state of ihram, a premeditated spiritual and physical state which restricted their freedom of action and prohibited fighting. This, along with the paucity of arms carried, indicated that the pilgrimage was always intended to be peaceful. Muhammad and his followers camped outside of Mecca, and Muhammad met with Meccan emissaries who wished to prevent the pilgrims' entry into Mecca. After negotiations, the two parties decided to resolve the matter through diplomacy rather than warfare, and a treaty was drawn up. Conditional points of the treaty After a long discussion, both parties agreed with some conditional points, such as: The Messenger of Allah will have to return to Madina instead of having entered Mecca that year. The Muslim shall perform their pilgrimage in the upcoming year and they would stay in peace at Mecca for three days including the years onward with no arms except sheathed swords. There will be a truce between both parties for ten years, whereby during this period all the people may enjoy safety and harmony. Whoever wishes to enter into a covenant with the Prophet will be allowed to do so, and whoever wishes to enter into a covenant with the Quraish will be allowed to do so. Whoever enters into any one of the parties will be considered part of that party.  Likewise, any sort of exaggeration on them will be considered exaggeration against that party. Whoever flees to Muhammad from Mecca without the permission of his guardians will be sent back to the Quraysh, but whoever comes to the Quraysh from the Muslims will not be sent back to the Muslims. The writer of the treaty was Ali Ibn Abi Talib. Umar's opposition After the treaty was signed, some of the pilgrims objected to Muhammad giving in on most points to the Quraysh, use the name of Allah and call himself the Messenger of God. That led to Umar questioning points of the treaty. After that he allegedly used to regret that he used to talk to the Prophet in the manner that he had never done before. This was recorded in Sahih Muslim. Significance The Treaty is very important in Islam, as it was an indirect recognition of the Islamic state in Medina. The treaty also allowed the Muslims who were still in Mecca to practice Islam publicly. Further, as there was no longer a constant struggle between the Muslims and the polytheists, many people saw Islam in a new light, which led to many more people accepting Islam. In addition, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah paved the way for the conquering of other tribes, through the use of treaties with the Muslims. The treaty also serves as an example that Islam was not merely spread with the sword as Muhammad had an army that could have attacked Mecca, but Muhammad chose to make a peace treaty. After the polytheists broke the treaty, he marched on Makkah and conquered the polytheists. The oath that Muhammad took "under the tree" at al-Hudaybiyyah made him a true ruler over parts of western Arabia. In early Islamic Egypt, having a forefather who had "pledged allegiance under the tree" conferred considerable social prestige. A verse of the Quran was revealed about the treaty, which means, "Verily we have granted thee a manifest victory" (Quran 48:1). See also Pledge of the Tree List of treaties Urwah ibn Masʽud References Further reading The Oxford History of Islam by John Esposito (Oxford U. Press, 1999) 628 Treaties of Muhammad Muhammad in Medina 7th-century treaties

List of amendments to the United States Constitution

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Thirty-three amendments to the United States Constitution have been proposed by the United States Congress and sent to the states for ratification since the Constitution was put into operation on March 4, 1789. Twenty-seven of these, having been ratified by the requisite number of states, are part of the Constitution. The first 10 amendments were adopted and ratified simultaneously and are known collectively as the Bill of Rights. The 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments are collectively known as the Reconstruction Amendments. Six amendments adopted by Congress and sent to the states have not been ratified by the required number of states. Four of these amendments are still pending, 1 is closed and has failed by its own terms, and 1 is closed and has failed by the terms of the resolution proposing it. All 33 amendments are listed and detailed in the tables below. Article Five of the United States Constitution details the two-step process for amending the nation's frame of government. Amendments must be properly proposed and ratified before becoming operative. This process was designed to strike a balance between the excesses of constant change and inflexibility. An amendment may be proposed and sent to the states for ratification by either: The U.S. Congress, whenever a two-thirds majority in both the Senate and the House of Representatives deem it necessary; or A national convention, called by Congress for this purpose, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the states (34 since 1959). The convention option has never been used. To become part of the Constitution, an amendment must be ratified by three-fourths of the states (38 since 1959) by either (as determined by Congress): The legislatures of three-fourths of the states; or State ratifying conventions in three-fourths of the states. The only amendment to be ratified through the state convention method thus far is the Twenty-first Amendment in 1933. That amendment is also the only one that explicitly repeals an earlier one, the Eighteenth Amendment (ratified in 1919), establishing the prohibition of alcohol. When a constitutional amendment is sent to the states for ratification, the Archivist of the United States is charged with responsibility for administering the ratification process under the provisions of . Then, upon being properly ratified, the archivist issues a certificate proclaiming that an amendment has become an operative part of the Constitution. Beginning in the early 20th century, Congress has usually, but not always, stipulated that an amendment must be ratified by the required number of states within seven years from the date of its submission to the states in order to become part of the Constitution. Congress's authority to set a ratification deadline was affirmed in 1939 by the United States Supreme Court in Coleman v. Miller (). Approximately 11,770 proposals to amend the Constitution have been introduced in Congress since 1789 (as of January 3, 2019). Collectively, members of the House and Senate typically propose around 200 amendments during each two-year term of Congress. Proposals have covered numerous topics, but none made in recent decades have become part of the Constitution. Historically, most died in the congressional committees to which they were assigned. Since 1999, only about 20 proposed amendments have received a vote by either the full House or Senate. The last time a proposal gained the necessary two-thirds support in both the House and the Senate for submission to the states was the District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment in 1978. Only 16 states had ratified it when the seven-year time limit expired. Ratified amendments Synopsis of each ratified amendment For the full text of amendments to the United States Constitution, see Additional amendments to the United States Constitution on Wikisource Summary of ratification data for each ratified amendment Unratified amendments Synopsis of each unratified amendment Summation of ratification data for each unratified amendment See also History of the United States Constitution Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution References External links U.S. Constitution, FindLaw.com The United States Constitution, USConstitution.net Amendments to the Constitution

Filmfare Award for Best Actor

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The Filmfare Award for Best Actor is an award, begun in 1954, presented annually at the Filmfare Awards to an actor via a jury. This is given by Filmfare as part of its annual Filmfare Awards for Hindi (Bollywood) films. The award was first given in 1954. The 2021 winner of the award is Irrfan Khan. As of 2020, Dilip Kumar and Shah Rukh Khan lead the list, with 8 wins each. Superlatives Dilip Kumar also holds the record for most consecutive wins, having won the award for three years in a row from 1956 to 1958. Six other actors have won the award in consecutive years; in chronological order, they are Rajesh Khanna (1971–72), Sanjeev Kumar (1976–77), Amitabh Bachchan (1978–79), Naseeruddin Shah (1981–82), Shah Rukh Khan (1998–99), and Ranbir Kapoor (2012–13). Actors who have won both Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor awards include Ashok Kumar, Sanjeev Kumar, Amitabh Bachchan, Shammi Kapoor, Anil Kapoor, Anupam Kher, Sunny Deol, Jackie Shroff, Nana Patekar, Farhan Akhtar, Rishi Kapoor and Irrfan Khan. Three actors were nominated for both these awards, Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor, for the same performance: Raaj Kumar for Kaajal (1966), Ashok Kumar for Aashirwad (1970) and Kamal Haasan for Saagar (1986). On both occasions, Ashok Kumar and Kamal Haasan won the Best Actor award and Raaj Kumar won the Best Supporting Actor award. 10 actors have won the Best Actor award in both the Popular and Critics categories; in chronological order they are; Anupam Kher, Shah Rukh Khan, Anil Kapoor, Amitabh Bachchan, Hrithik Roshan, Aamir Khan, Ranbir Kapoor, Rishi Kapoor, Shahid Kapoor, Irrfan Khan and Ranveer Singh. Actors who won both these Best Actor awards (Popular and Critics) in the same year are Shah Rukh Khan (1994), Hrithik Roshan (2004), Amitabh Bachchan (2006) and Ranbir Kapoor (2012). 3 actors have won the Best Actor award for their debut performances: Rishi Kapoor for Bobby (1974), Anupam Kher for Saaransh (1985) and Hrithik Roshan for Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai (2001). Other actors who got nominated in this category for their debut performances are Sunny Deol for Betaab (1984) and Darsheel Safary for Taare Zameen Par (2008). Darsheel Safary became the youngest Best Actor nominee in the history of Filmfare at the age of 11 for Taare Zameen Par (2008). Rishi Kapoor became the youngest winner of the Best Actor award at the age of 21 for Bobby (1974). Aamir Khan has the highest number of consecutive nominations, having been nominated for the award every year from 1989 till 1997, eventually winning in the 9th consecutive nomination for Raja Hindustani (1997); followed by Amitabh Bachchan being nominated consecutive eight times from 1976 to 1983 having total 15 nominations and winning the award twice in 1978 and 1979 for Amar Akbar Anthony and Don respectively. Dilip Kumar achieved supremacy in the 1950s with 4 wins and continued domination in the 1960s with 3 wins. Rajesh Khanna took over in the 1970s with 3 wins. Naseeruddin Shah emerged successful in the 1980s with 3 wins. Shah Rukh Khan triumphed in the 1990s with 4 wins. Hrithik Roshan had 4 wins in the 2000s. Ranbir Kapoor led the 2010s with 3 wins to his credit. Amitabh Bachchan and Shah Rukh Khan hold the record for the highest number of Best Actor nominations in a single year. Amitabh Bachchan has been nominated thrice in 1979 and 1983 and Shah Rukh Khan in 2005. Dilip Kumar, Amitabh Bachchan and Shah Rukh Khan are the most awarded actors in the overall acting categories, with 8 awards each: Dilip Kumar and Shah Rukh Khan are the winners of eight Best Actor awards, and Amitabh Bachchan is the winner of five Best Actor awards and three Best Supporting Actor awards. Amitabh Bachchan is the most nominated actor in any major acting category at Filmfare, with 42 nominations overall. Amitabh Bachchan holds a unique record of receiving nominations in this category in 6 decades (1970s, 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, 2010s and 2020s) and getting an award in 4 decades. Hrithik Roshan, Shah Rukh Khan and Salman Khan are the only actors to be nominated twice for the same role. Hrithik Roshan achieved this feat twice in the Krrish franchise; he was nominated for his role as Krishna Mehra for Krrish in 2007 and 2014 for Krrish 3, and for his role as Rohit Mehra in 2004 for Koi... Mil Gaya and 2014 for Krrish 3 (he won in 2004). Shah Rukh Khan was nominated in 2007 and 2012 for his portrayal of the titular character in Don and Salman Khan was nominated in 2011 and 2013 for his role as Chulbul Pandey in Dabangg and Dabangg 2 respectively. Devdas is the only character to win most Best Actor awards. Both Dilip Kumar and Shah Rukh Khan won for portraying the titular character in Devdas and Devdas, respectively in 1956 and in 2003. Ranbir Kapoor is the only actor to win a Best Actor award for portraying a real Best Actor winner. He won in 2019 for portraying Sanjay Dutt in Sanju. Three occasions where two actors were nominated for Best Actor for the same movie. In 1981, both Amitabh Bachchan and Shatrughan Sinha were nominated Best Actor for the movie Dostana. In 1983, both Dilip Kumar and Amitabh Bachchan were nominated for Best Actor for the movie Shakti. In 2000, both Ajay Devgan and Salman Khan were nominated for the movie Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam. Multiple nominees 33 Nominations: Amitabh Bachchan 26 Nominations: Shah Rukh Khan 19 Nominations: Dilip Kumar, Aamir Khan 14 Nominations: Rajesh Khanna, Hrithik Roshan 11 Nominations: Sanjeev Kumar 10 Nominations: Salman Khan 9 Nominations: Ranbir Kapoor 8 Nominations: Anil Kapoor, Ajay Devgn Multiple winners 8 Wins: Dilip Kumar, Shah Rukh Khan 5 Wins: Amitabh Bachchan 4 Wins: Hrithik Roshan 3 Wins: Rajesh Khanna, Naseeruddin Shah, Aamir Khan, Ranbir Kapoor 2 Wins: Raj Kapoor, Dev Anand, Ashok Kumar, Sunil Dutt, Sanjeev Kumar, Anil Kapoor, Ranveer Singh, Irrfan Khan Winners and nominees 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s See also Cinema of India Filmfare Best Actress Award Filmfare Awards East Filmfare Awards South Filmfare Marathi Awards References External links Filmfare Award Best Actor Actor Film awards for lead actor

Fire and Rain (song)

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"Fire and Rain" is a folk rock song written and performed by James Taylor and released on Warner Bros. Records as a single from his second album, Sweet Baby James, in August 1970. The song follows Taylor's reaction to the suicide of Suzanne Schnerr, a childhood friend, and his experiences with drug addiction and fame. After its release, "Fire and Rain" peaked at number two on RPM Canada Top Singles chart and at number three on the Billboard Hot 100. Background and composition On the VH1 series Storytellers, Taylor said the song was about several incidents during his early recording career. The second line "Suzanne, the plans they made put an end to you" refers to Suzanne Schnerr, a childhood friend of his who died by suicide while he was in London, England, recording his first album. In that same account, Taylor said he had been in a deep depression after the failure of his new band the Flying Machine to coalesce (the lyric "Sweet dreams and Flying Machines in pieces on the ground"; the reference is to the name of the band rather than a fatal plane crash, as was long rumored). Taylor completed writing the song while in rehab. In 2005, during an interview on NPR, Taylor explained to host Scott Simon that the song was written in three parts: The first part was about Taylor's friend Suzanne, who died while Taylor was in London working on his first album after being signed to Apple Records. Friends at home, concerned that it might distract Taylor from his big break, kept the tragic news from him, and he found out six months later. The second part details Taylor's struggle to overcome drug addiction and depression. The third part deals with coming to grips with fame and fortune, looking back at the road that got him there. It includes a reference to James Taylor and The Flying Machine, a band he briefly worked with before his big break with Paul McCartney, Peter Asher, and Apple Records. Carole King played piano on the song. Drummer Russ Kunkel used brushes rather than sticks on his drum kit, and Bobby West played double bass in place of a bass guitar to "underscore the melancholy on the song". King has stated that her song "You've Got a Friend," which Taylor recorded, was a response to the line in the refrain that "I’ve seen lonely times when I could not find a friend." Taylor references the song in another of his compositions, "That's Why I'm Here," title track from his 1985 album, in which he writes, "Fortune and fame's such a curious game. Perfect strangers can call you by name. Pay good money to hear 'Fire and Rain' again and again and again." He also refers to the song in another composition, “Money Machine” (a cynical take on the financial aspects of the recording industry): “When I began the game, see me singing ‘bout Fire and Rain; Lemme just sing it again — I’ve seen fives and I’ve seen tens”. Reception Broadcast Music, Inc. ranked "Fire and Rain" at number 82 on its "Top 100 Songs of the Century" list, while voters for the National Endowment for the Arts and Recording Industry Association of America's Songs of the Century list, which comprises 365 songs of "historical significance" recorded from 1900 to 2000, placed "Fire and Rain" at number 85. In April 2011, the song was named at number 227 on Rolling Stones list of 500 greatest songs of all time. Cover versions Marcia Hines covered "Fire and Rain" on her 1975 debut LP, Marcia Shines. Her version reached #17 in Australia. At the 1975 Australian Record Awards, the song won Hines Female Vocal Single of the Year. Parodies Taylor performs the song on The Simpsons in the episode "Deep Space Homer." While singing the song for a group of astronauts (including Homer Simpson and Buzz Aldrin), he changes the lyric "Sweet dreams and flying machines in pieces on the ground" to "Sweet dreams and flying machines, flying safely through the air" when he realizes the space shuttle may crash. In 2015, Taylor appeared on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, where he sang a version including numerous references to post-1970 popular culture. Chart performance Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications References Bibliography External links Transcript of Kerry O'Brien interview with Taylor about "Fire and Rain" 1970 singles 1975 singles A&M Records singles Herb Alpert songs Atco Records singles CBS Records singles Georgie Fame songs Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients R. B. Greaves songs Tim Hardin songs Marcia Hines songs Imperial Records singles Al Jarreau songs Hubert Laws songs Metasongs Anne Murray songs Willie Nelson songs Reprise Records singles Johnny Rivers songs Song recordings produced by Peter Asher Songs about suicide Songs written by James Taylor James Taylor songs Warner Records singles Andy Williams songs Wizard Records singles Songs in memory of deceased persons Songs about drugs

Orders of magnitude (energy)

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This list compares various energies in joules (J), organized by order of magnitude. Below 1 J 1 to 105 J 106 to 1011 J 1012 to 1017 J 1018 to 1023 J Over 1023 J SI multiples See also Conversion of units of energy Energy conversion efficiency Energy density Metric system Outline of energy Scientific notation TNT equivalent Notes Energy Energy

XOR cipher

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In cryptography, the simple XOR cipher is a type of additive cipher, an encryption algorithm that operates according to the principles: A 0 = A, A A = 0, A B = B A, (A B) C = A (B C), (B A) A = B 0 = B, where denotes the exclusive disjunction (XOR) operation. This operation is sometimes called modulus 2 addition (or subtraction, which is identical). With this logic, a string of text can be encrypted by applying the bitwise XOR operator to every character using a given key. To decrypt the output, merely reapplying the XOR function with the key will remove the cipher. Example For example, the string "Wiki" ( in 8-bit ASCII) can be encrypted with the repeating key as follows: {| | || |- | || |- | = || style="border-top: 1px solid black" | |} And conversely, for decryption: {| | || |- | || |- | = || style="border-top: 1px solid black" | |} Use and security The XOR operator is extremely common as a component in more complex ciphers. By itself, using a constant repeating key, a simple XOR cipher can trivially be broken using frequency analysis. If the content of any message can be guessed or otherwise known then the key can be revealed. Its primary merit is that it is simple to implement, and that the XOR operation is computationally inexpensive. A simple repeating XOR (i.e. using the same key for xor operation on the whole data) cipher is therefore sometimes used for hiding information in cases where no particular security is required. The XOR cipher is often used in computer malware to make reverse engineering more difficult. If the key is random and is at least as long as the message, the XOR cipher is much more secure than when there is key repetition within a message. When the keystream is generated by a pseudo-random number generator, the result is a stream cipher. With a key that is truly random, the result is a one-time pad, which is unbreakable in theory. In any of these ciphers, the XOR operator is vulnerable to a known-plaintext attack, since plaintext ciphertext = key. It is also trivial to flip arbitrary bits in the decrypted plaintext by manipulating the ciphertext. This is called malleability. Usefulness in cryptography The primary reason XOR is so useful in cryptography is because it is "perfectly balanced"; for a given plaintext input 0 or 1, the ciphertext result is equally likely to be either 0 or 1 for a truly random key bit. The table below shows all four possible pairs of plaintext and key bits. It is clear that if nothing is known about the key or plaintext, nothing can be determined from the ciphertext alone. Other logical operations such and AND or OR do not have such a mapping (for example, AND would produce three 0's and one 1, so knowing that a given ciphertext bit is a 0 implies that there is a 2/3 chance that the original plaintext bit was a 0, as opposed to the ideal 1/2 chance in the case of XOR) Example implementation Example using the Python programming language. from os import urandom def genkey(length: int) -> bytes: """Generate key.""" return urandom(length) def xor_strings(s, t) -> bytes: """xor two strings together.""" if isinstance(s, str): # Text strings contain single characters return b"".join(chr(ord(a) ^ ord(b)) for a, b in zip(s, t)) else: # Bytes objects contain integer values in the range 0-255 return bytes([a ^ b for a, b in zip(s, t)]) message = 'This is a secret message' print('Message:', message) key = genkey(len(message)) print('Key:', key) cipherText = xor_strings(message.encode('utf8'), key) print('cipherText:', cipherText) print('decrypted:', xor_strings(cipherText, key).decode('utf8')) # Verify if xor_strings(cipherText, key).decode('utf8') == message: print('Unit test passed') else: print('Unit test failed') See also Block cipher Vernam cipher Vigenère cipher References Notes Citations Sources Transcript of a lecture given by Prof. Tutte at the University of Waterloo Stream ciphers

Telephone numbers in Japan

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Telephone numbers in Japan consist of an area code, an exchange number, and a subscriber number. Dialing prefixes 001, 00xx, 002xx, 0091xx Carrier selection prefix 184 Prefix to withhold caller ID 186 Prefix to provide caller ID Types of numbers 1xx Special numbers 001 and 00xx Carrier selection codes 0x 2-digit geographic area codes 0xx 3-digit geographic area codes 0xxx 4-digit geographic area codes 0xxxx 5-digit geographic area codes 0x0 3-digit non-Geographic area codes (excluding 010) 0xx0 4-digit non-Geographic area codes (01x0, 0570, 0800, 0910, 0990) Length of numbers Special numbers are three digits long Geographic numbers are 10 digits long 0x0 Non-geographic numbers are 10 -or- 11 digits long. 0xx0 Non-geographic numbers are 10 digits long Three-digit numbers (special numbers) Emergency services 110 Police (112 and 911 redirect to 110 on mobile phones) 118 Maritime emergencies 119 Ambulance, Fire brigade 171 Earthquake assistance Operator services 100 NTT operator 106 Operator assisted collect call service 108 Automated collect call service 113 NTT technical faults hotline 116 NTT customer service and general enquiries Directory services 104 NTT national directory enquiries 0057 KDDI international directory enquiries Special services 114 Automated number-busy check 115 Telegram service 117 Speaking clock 136 Information on last incoming call 177 Weather forecast Long distance carrier selection (Myline) 001 KDDI (international) 0032 IPS Inc. 0033 NTT Communications 0034 NTT Communications (international toll free) 0036 NTT East 0037 Fusion Communications 0039 NTT West 0041 SoftBank Telecom (international / former Japan Telecom) 0053 KDDI (Resold) 0056 KDDI (international) 0061 SoftBank Telecom (international / former Cable and Wireless IDC) 0066 SoftBank Telecom (international / former Cable and Wireless IDC) 0070 KDDI Toll Free 0071 Verizon Japan 0077 KDDI (national) 0080 T-Systems 0081 Fusion Communications (former TTNet) 0088 SoftBank Telecom (national / former Japan Telecom) 0089 T-Systems 0091 Brastel 10 digit numbers Non-geographic area codes 0120 NTT Freedial, toll free services 0130 Automated information services 0140 Disaster relief wireless communications 0160 Disaster relief satellite communications 0170 NTT Dengon Dial, chat line services 0180 NTT Telegong, TV/Radio show feedback dial-in 0180 NTT Teledome, automated information services 0190 NTT Angel Line, automated directory services via PC/modem 0190 NTT Annai Jozu, automated directory services via telephone 0570 0800 Other toll free services 020 Paging services (PDC) and data services (UMTS) 030 Mobile telephony services (legacy systems, PDC, J-CDMA, UMTS) - currently not used 040 Mobile telephony services (legacy systems, PDC, J-CDMA, UMTS) - currently not used 050 IP telephony service (via internet service providers) 060 Universal personal number services 070 Mobile telephony and data services (PDC, J-CDMA, UMTS) 080 Mobile telephony and data services (PDC, J-CDMA, UMTS) 090 Mobile telephony and data services (PDC, J-CDMA, UMTS) 0910 Private circuit access, local rate services 0990 NTT DialQ2, premium rate services Decommissioned area codes 0150 formerly used for maritime wireless communications 0450 formerly used for maritime wireless communications 0750 formerly used for maritime wireless communications Area codes (市外局番 "shigai-kyokuban") of selected major cities 11 Sapporo 138 Hakodate 166 Asahikawa 17-7　or 172 Aomori 18-8 Akita 19-6 Morioka 22 Sendai 23-6 Yamagata 24-5 Fukushima 24-6 Iwaki 24-9 Kōriyama 25 Niigata 26 Nagano 27-2 Maebashi 27-3 Takasaki 28-6 Utsunomiya 3 Tokyo (23 Special wards), Komae 4-29 Tokorozawa 4-70 Kamogawa 4-71 Kashiwa 42-6 Hachiōji 42-7 Machida, Sagamihara 43 　Chiba 44 Kawasaki 45 Yokohama 466 Fujisawa 46-8 Yokosuka 47-3 Ichikawa, Matsudo 47-4 (473 for west part of the city) Funabashi 48-2 Kawaguchi 48-6 or 48-7 or 48-8 Saitama 48-9　Soka, Koshigaya 49 Kawagoe 52 Nagoya 53 Hamamatsu 53-2 Toyohashi 54 Shizuoka 55 Kofu 564 Okazaki 565 Toyota 568 Kasugai 569 Handa 58 Gifu 586 Ichinomiya 592 Tsu, Yokkaichi 6 Osaka, Higashiōsaka, Suita, Toyonaka, Amagasaki 72-2 Sakai 726 Takatsuki 72-8 Hirakata 73 Wakayama 742 or 743 Nara 75 Kyoto 76-2 Kanazawa 76-4 Toyama 768 Suzu 77-5 Ōtsu 776 Fukui 78 Kobe 790 Kasai 792 or 793 Himeji 794 Kakogawa 797 or 798 Nishinomiya, Takarazuka 82 Hiroshima 832 or 834 Shimonoseki 839 Yamaguchi 84 Fukuyama 852 Matsue 857 Tottori 862 or 869 Okayama 864 or 865 Kurashiki 87 Takamatsu 88-6 Tokushima 88-8 Kochi 89 Matsuyama 92 Fukuoka 93 Kitakyushu 942 Kurume 95-8 Nagasaki 952 Saga 956 Sasebo 96 Kumamoto 97 Ōita 98-8 or 98-9 Naha 981 or 98-5 Miyazaki 99 Kagoshima Geographic numbers are nine digits long, including the area code, but not including the leading zero. Consequently, densely populated areas have shorter area codes, while less populated areas have longer area codes. For example: 6 xxxx xxxx (Osaka) 75 xxx xxxx (Kyoto) 742 xx xxxx (Nara) 4992 x xxxx (Niijima island, Tokyo pref.) 82486 xxxx (Takano, Hiroshima pref.) Area codes increase from north to south; Sapporo in Hokkaidō (the northernmost prefecture) has 11, and Setouchi's 99-73 is far to the south in Kagoshima. When the telephone system was devised, Okinawa was still under U.S. occupation, so when it was returned to Japan in 1972, its telephone numbers were squeezed between Miyazaki (98x) and Kagoshima (99x) and begin with 988, 989, and 980. During the 1990s, when plans were being drawn up to amalgamate mid-sized cities and towns into larger municipalities, telephone numbering systems were merged in advance. For example, 7442 x xxxx Kashihara (Nara prefecture) 7444 x xxxx Sakurai 74452 xxxx Takatori 74454 xxxx Asuka etc. became: 744 2x xxxx Kashihara 744 4x xxxx Sakurai 744 52 xxxx Takatori 744 54 xxxx Asuka etc. Many of these towns have in fact refused to merge, leaving callers with more digits to dial when making local calls. This is partially balanced by not having to dial an area code for the neighboring city. Area code as local brand naming After entering the 2010s, local products and events have begun using names which come from the area code. 0465net (Odawara, Kanagawa) 0428 T-shirt (Ome, Tokyo) 028 Market (Utsunomiya, Tochigi) 028 Machinaka (Inner-City) Wi-Fi (Utsunomiya, Tochigi) Bar 053 (Hamamatsu, Shizuoka) See also List of dialing codes in Japan Communications in Japan § Telephone services List of telephone operating companies § Japan Telephone numbering plan References ITU allocations list External links Telephone information page of the Japan National Tourist Organization (JNTO) Whitepages.jp Whitepages in English Japan

Donkey Kong (video game)

eng_Latn

is a 1981 arcade platform video game released by Nintendo. Its gameplay maneuvers Mario across platforms to ascend a construction site and rescue Pauline from the giant gorilla named Donkey Kong, all while avoiding or jumping over obstacles. It is the first game in both the Donkey Kong and Mario franchises. Donkey Kong is the product of Nintendo's increasingly desperate efforts to develop a hit to rival Pac-Man (1980) and break into the North American market. Hiroshi Yamauchi, Nintendo's president at the time, assigned the project to first-time video game designer Shigeru Miyamoto. Drawing from a wide range of inspirations including Popeye, Beauty and the Beast, and King Kong, Miyamoto developed the scenario and designed the game alongside chief engineer Gunpei Yokoi. They broke new ground by using graphics as a means of characterization, including cutscenes to advance the game's plot and integrating multiple stages into the gameplay. Although Nintendo's American staff was initially apprehensive, Donkey Kong succeeded commercially and critically in Japan and North America, where it became the highest-grossing arcade game of 1981 and 1982, respectively. It was ported to the Game & Watch, selling units, while Nintendo licensed the game to Coleco, a developer of arcade conversions for home consoles, selling cartridges; the game's various ports sold more than units worldwide. Other companies cloned the game and avoided royalties altogether. Miyamoto's characters were mass marketed in multitudes of products, including breakfast cereal, toys, and television cartoons. Universal City Studios filed a lawsuit alleging Donkey Kong violated its trademark of King Kong, ultimately failing. The phenomenal success of Donkey Kong positioned the company for market dominance from 1981 through the late 1990s. The game debuts Mario, who became Nintendo's mascot and one of the world's most recognizable characters. Donkey Kong is a pioneer of the platform game genre, one of the most important games from the golden age of arcade video games, and one of the most popular arcade games of all time. Gameplay Following 1980's Space Panic, Donkey Kong is one of the earliest examples of the platform game genre even prior to the term being coined; the U.S. gaming press used climbing game for games with platforms and ladders. As the first platform game to feature jumping, Donkey Kong requires the player to jump between gaps and over obstacles or approaching enemies, setting the template for the future of the genre. With its four unique stages, Donkey Kong is the most complex arcade game of the time, and one of the first arcade games with multiple stages, following games such as 1980's Phoenix and 1981's Gorf and Scramble. In addition to the goal of saving Pauline, the player has a score. Points are awarded for the following: leaping over obstacles; destroying objects with a hammer power-up; collecting items such as hats, parasols, and purses (presumably belonging to Pauline); removing rivets from platforms; and completing each stage according to a steadily decreasing bonus counter. The player starts with three lives with a bonus life awarded at 7,000 points, adjustable via DIP switches. A life is lost when Mario touches Donkey Kong or any enemy object, falls too far, or lets the bonus counter reach zero. The game ends when all lives are lost. Each of the four single-screen stages represents 25 meters of the structure Donkey Kong has climbed: 25, 50, 75, and 100 meters. Stage one involves Mario scaling a construction site made of crooked girders and ladders while jumping over or hammering barrels and oil drums tossed by Donkey Kong. Stage two involves climbing a five-story structure of conveyor belts, each of which transport cement pans. The third stage involves the player riding elevators while avoiding bouncing springs. The final stage requires Mario to remove eight rivets from the platforms supporting Donkey Kong; this causes Donkey Kong to fall and the hero to be reunited with Pauline. These four stages combine to form one level. After each level, the stages repeat with increased difficulty. For example, Donkey Kong begins to hurl barrels faster and sometimes diagonally, and fireballs speed up. The victory music alternates between levels 1 and 2. The fourth level consists of 5 stages with the final stage at 125 meters. The 22nd level is colloquially known as the kill screen, due to a programming error that kills Mario after a few seconds, effectively ending the game. However, in the Japanese Version 1, the player can complete all the stages up to 100 meters. 100 meters in level 22 is the true kill screen of this version. Plot Donkey Kong is considered to be the earliest video game with a storyline that visually unfolds on screen. The eponymous Donkey Kong character is the game's de facto villain. The hero is a carpenter originally unnamed in the Japanese arcade release, later named Jumpman, and then Mario. Donkey Kong kidnaps Mario's girlfriend, originally known as Lady and later renamed Pauline. The player must take the role of Mario and rescue her. This is the first occurrence of the damsel in distress scenario that provided the template for countless video games to come. The game uses graphics and animation for characterization. Donkey Kong smirks upon Mario's demise. Pauline has a pink dress and long hair, and a speech balloon crying "HELP!". Mario, depicted in red overalls and a red cap, is an everyman character, a type common in Japan. Graphical limitations and the low pixel resolution of the small sprites prompted his design. A mustache implies a mouth, a cap obviates the animation of hair, and colored overalls distinguish his arm movements. The artwork of the cabinets and promotional materials make these cartoon-like character designs even more explicit. Pauline, for example, is depicted as disheveled like King Kongs Fay Wray in a torn dress and stiletto heels. Like Pac-Man (1980), Donkey Kong has cutscenes, but innovates by advancing a complete plot. The game opens with the gorilla climbing a pair of ladders to the top of a construction site, accompanied by a variation on the musical theme from Dragnet. He drops Pauline and stomps his feet, warping the steel beams. He moves to his final perch and sneers. A melody plays, and the level starts. This brief animation sets the scene and adds background to the gameplay, a first for video games. At the stage, a heart appears between Mario and Pauline, but Donkey Kong grabs her and climbs higher, causing the heart to break. The narrative concludes when Mario reaches the end of the rivet stage. He and Pauline are reunited, and a short intermission plays. Development Nintendo of America was founded in 1980 with minor success at importing its parent's arcade cabinets from Japan. In early 1981, its president Minoru Arakawa bet the small startup company on a major order of 3,000 Radar Scope. Its poor reception in America filled a warehouse with 2,000 unsold Radar Scope machines, so Arakawa requested that the parent company president Hiroshi Yamauchi send a conversion kit of new game software. Yamauchi polled the company's entire talent pool for fresh game design concepts to save the distressed startup. This yielded Shigeru Miyamoto's debut as lead game designer of his Donkey Kong concept, and Yamauchi appointed head engineer Gunpei Yokoi as project supervisor with a budget of according to Miyamoto. Ikegami Tsushinki was subcontracted for some of the development, with no role in the game's creation or concept, but to provide "mechanical programming assistance to fix the software created by Nintendo". Nintendo instructed Ikegami to produce a program according to its instructions and put it onto read-only memory (ROM) chips on printed circuit boards (PC boards). This later led to mutual lawsuits in 1983, as Ikegami asserted ownership over Donkey Kong which Nintendo denied as Ikegami was a subcontractor who had already been paid. Game Machine called it "simply a nuisance tactic" on the part of Ikegami. At the time, Nintendo was also pursuing a license to make a game based on the Popeye comic strip. When this license attempt failed, Nintendo took the opportunity to create new characters that could then be marketed and used in later games. Miyamoto came up with many characters and plot concepts, but he settled on a love triangle between a gorilla, a plumber with a large hammer, and a girlfriend that mirrors the rivalry between Bluto and Popeye for Olive Oyl. Bluto became an ape, which Miyamoto said was "nothing too evil or repulsive". He would be the pet of the main character, "a funny, hang-loose kind of guy." Miyamoto has also named "Beauty and the Beast" and the 1933 film King Kong as influences. Although its origin as a comic strip license played a major part, Donkey Kong marked the first time that the storyline for a video game preceded the game's programming rather than simply being appended as an afterthought. Unrelated Popeye games were eventually released by Nintendo for the Game & Watch the following month and for the arcades in 1982. Yamauchi wanted primarily to target the North American market, so he mandated that the game be given an English title, as with many previous Nintendo games. Miyamoto decided to name the game for the ape, who he said was the strongest character. The story of how Miyamoto came up with the name "Donkey Kong" varies. A false urban myth says that the name was originally meant to be "Monkey Kong", but was misspelled or misinterpreted due to a blurred fax or bad telephone connection. Another, more credible story claims Miyamoto looked in a Japanese-English dictionary for something that would mean "stubborn gorilla", or that "Donkey" was meant to convey "silly" or "stubborn"; "Kong" was common Japanese slang for "gorilla". A rival claim is that he worked with Nintendo's export manager to come up with the title, and that "Donkey" was meant to represent "stupid and goofy". In 2001, Miyamoto stated that he thought the name would convey the thought of a "stupid ape". Miyamoto had high hopes for his new project. He was not a programmer, so instead consulted technicians for concept feasibility. He wanted to make the characters different sizes, and have different movements and reactions. Yokoi thought Miyamoto's original design was too complex, though he had some difficult suggestions, such as using see-saws to catapult the hero across the screen which was eventually found too hard to program, though a similar concept came later in the Popeye arcade game. Miyamoto then thought of using sloped platforms, barrels, and ladders. When he specified that the game would have multiple stages, the four-man programming team complained that he was essentially asking them to implement the game repeatedly. Nevertheless, they followed Miyamoto's design, creating a total of approximately 20 kilobytes of content. Yukio Kaneoka composed a simple soundtrack to serve as background music for the levels and story events. The circuit board of Radar Scope was restructured for Donkey Kong. The Radar Scope hardware, originally inspired by the Namco Galaxian hardware, was designed for a large number of enemies moving around at high speeds, which Donkey Kong does not require, so the development team removed unnecessary functions and reduced the scale of the circuit board. The gameplay and graphics were reworked for updated ROM chips, and the existing CPU, sound hardware, and monitor were left intact. The character set, scoreboard, upper HUD display, and font are almost identical to Radar Scope, with palette differences. The Donkey Kong hardware has the memory capacity for displaying 128 foreground sprites at 16x16 pixels each and 256 background tiles at 8x8 pixels each. Mario and all moving objects use single sprites, the taller Pauline uses two sprites, and the larger Donkey Kong uses six sprites. Hiroshi Yamauchi thought the game was going to sell well and phoned to inform Arakawa. Nintendo of America's distributors, Ron Judy and Al Stone, brought Arakawa to a lawyer named Howard Lincoln to secure a trademark. The game was sent to Nintendo of America for testing. The sales manager disliked it for being too different from the maze and shooter games common at the time, and Judy and Lincoln expressed reservations over the strange title. Still, Arakawa adamantly believed that it would be a hit. American staff began translating the storyline for the cabinet art and naming the characters. They chose "Pauline" for the Lady, after Polly James, wife of Nintendo's Redmond, Washington, warehouse manager, Don James. Arakawa suggested that the name of "Jumpman", a name originally chosen for its similarity to the popular brands Walkman and Pac-Man, be changed to "Mario" in likeness of Mario Segale, the landlord of the original office space of Nintendo of America. These character names were printed on the American cabinet art and used in promotional materials. Donkey Kong was ready for release. Stone and Judy convinced the managers of two bars in Seattle, Washington, to set up Donkey Kong machines. The managers initially showed reluctance, but when they saw sales of $30 a day—or 120 plays—for a solid week, they requested more units. In their Redmond headquarters, a skeleton crew composed of Arakawa, his wife Yoko, James, Judy, Phillips, and Stone gutted 2,000 surplus Radar Scope machines and applied the Donkey Kong conversion kits imported from Japan, consisting of motherboards, power supplies, and marquee graphics. The game officially went on sale in July 1981. Actor Harris Shore created the first live-action Mario in the television advertisements for Coleco's tabletop Donkey Kong and Donkey Kong Jr. games. Ports Makers of video game consoles were interested. Taito offered a considerable fee for all rights to Donkey Kong, but Nintendo declined after three days of internal discussion. Rivals Coleco and Atari approached Nintendo in Japan and the United States respectively. In the end, Yamauchi granted Coleco exclusive console and tabletop rights to Donkey Kong because he believed that "It [was] the hungriest company". In addition, Arakawa believed that as a more established company in the U.S., Coleco could better handle marketing. In return, Nintendo received an undisclosed lump sum plus $1.40 per game cartridge sold and $1 per tabletop unit. On December 24, 1981, Howard Lincoln drafted the contract. He included language that Coleco would be held liable for anything on the game cartridge, an unusual clause for a licensing agreement. Arakawa signed the document the next day, and, on February 1, 1982, Yamauchi persuaded the Coleco representative in Japan to sign without review by the company's lawyers. Coleco did not offer the game cartridge stand-alone; instead, it was bundled with the ColecoVision console, which went on sale in August 1982. Six months later, Coleco offered Atari 2600 and Intellivision versions as well. Coleco's Atari 2600 port was programmed by Garry Kitchen. Coleco's sales doubled to $500 million and its earnings quadrupled to $40 million. Coleco also released stand-alone Mini-Arcade tabletop versions of Donkey Kong, along with Pac-Man, Galaxian, and Frogger in 1982. Coleco also bundled a copy of Donkey Kong with its Atari VCS clone, the Coleco Gemini, in 1983. Atari obtained the license for home computer versions of Donkey Kong, and released it for the Atari 8-bit family. When Coleco unveiled the Adam Computer, running a port of Donkey Kong at the 1983 Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago, Illinois, Atari protested that it was in violation of the licensing agreement. Yamauchi demanded that Arnold Greenberg, Coleco's president, withdraw his Adam port. Greenberg complied, and the game was not published. In 1983, Atari released several computer versions under the Atarisoft label. All of the computer ports have the cement factory level, and most of the console versions do not. None of the home versions have all of the intermission animations from the arcade game. Some have Donkey Kong on the left side of the screen in the barrel level (as he is in the arcade game) and others have him on the right side. Miyamoto created a greatly simplified version for the Game & Watch multiscreen handheld device. Other ports include the Apple II, Atari 7800, Intellivision, Commodore VIC-20, Famicom Disk System, IBM PC, ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, MSX, Atari 8-bit family, and Mini-Arcade versions. Two separate ports were developed for the Commodore 64: the first was published by Atarisoft in 1983, and the second by Ocean Software in 1986. Nintendo Entertainment System The game was ported by Nintendo Research & Development 2 to Nintendo's Family Computer (Famicom) console and released in Japan on July 15, 1983, as one of the system's three launch games. Masayuki Uemura, the Famicom's lead architect, designed the console specifically to faithfully recreate Donkey Kong. It is an early Nintendo Entertainment System game in the Arcade Classics Series, released on June 1, 1986, in North America and October 15, 1986, in Europe. Omitted are the cement factory stage and most of the cutscenes, because early ROM cartridges do not have enough memory. It includes a new song composed by Yukio Kaneoka for the title screen. Both Donkey Kong and its sequel, Donkey Kong Jr., are included in the 1988 NES compilation Donkey Kong Classics. In 2002, the NES version was rereleased for the e-reader, a Game Boy Advance add-on. Later in 2004 the NES version was released as a separate cartridge for the Game Boy Advance in the Classic NES Series. Game Boy A complete remake of the original arcade game on the Game Boy, titled Donkey Kong (referred to as Donkey Kong '94 during development) contains levels from both the original Donkey Kong and Donkey Kong Jr. arcades. It starts with the same gameplay and four locations as the arcade game and then progresses to 97 additional puzzle-based levels. It is the first game to have built-in enhancement for the Super Game Boy system. Atari computer Easter egg The Atari 8-bit computer conversion of Donkey Kong contains one of the longest-undiscovered Easter eggs in a video game. Programmer Landon Dyer's initials appear if the player dies under certain conditions and returns to the title screen. This remained undiscovered for 26 years until Dyer revealed it on his blog, stating "there's an Easter egg, but it's totally not worth it, and I don't remember how to bring it up anyway." The steps required to trigger it were later discovered by Don Hodges, who used an emulator and a debugger to trace through the game's code. Reception Upon release in arcades, Computer and Video Games compared it favorably with King Kong and predicted that it would likely become a success. In his 1982 book Video Invaders, Steve Bloom described Donkey Kong as "another bizarre cartoon game, courtesy of Japan" and said it was one of the "most exciting variations" on Pac-Mans maze theme along with Sega's Frogger due to how players need to "scale from the bottom of the screen to the top" which make them "more like obstacle courses than mazes" since "you always know where you're going — up." In January 1983, the 1982 Arcade Awards gave it the award for the best single-player video game and the Certificate of Merit as runner-up for Coin-Op Game of the Year. In September 1982, Arcade Express reviewed the ColecoVision port and scored it 9 out of 10. Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games in 1983 stated that "Coleco did a fabulous job" with Donkey Kong, the best of the console's first five games and "the most faithful adaptation of the original video game I have seen". The magazine's Danny Goodman stated that of Coleco's three console versions, the one for the ColecoVision was the best, "followed surprisingly by the Atari and Intellivision, in that order". Computer and Video Games reviewed the ColecoVision port in its September 1984 issue and scored it 4 out of 4 in all four categories of Action, Graphics, Addiction and Theme. Ed Driscoll reviewed the Atari VCS version of Donkey Kong in The Space Gamer No. 59. Edwards commented that "The faults really outweigh the plusses, especially if you've got 'Donkey Kong Fever'. For the addicted, your cure lies elsewhere. Still, if you just play the game occasionally, or never, you may like this cartridge. However, play the store's copy, or try a friend's, before you buy." Commercial performance Donkey Kong was very popular worldwide, garnering a positive reaction from consumers and was a significant commercial success for Nintendo, pulling them out of financial troubles. After the game's initial 2,000 arcade cabinets sold out, more orders were made. Arakawa began manufacturing the electronic components in Redmond because waiting for shipments from Japan was taking too long. The game's success led to Arakawa expanding Nintendo of America. By October, Donkey Kong was selling 4,000 units a month, and by June 1982, Nintendo had sold 60,000 Donkey Kong machines in the United States, earning $180 million. Judy and Stone, who worked on straight commission, became millionaires. Arakawa used Nintendo's profits to buy of land in Redmond in July 1982. Nintendo earned another $100 million on the game in its second year of release in America, totaling $280 million in US cabinet sales by 1982 (). In Japan, the annual Game Machine charts listed Donkey Kong as the highest-grossing arcade game of 1981, and then the sixth highest-grossing arcade game of 1982, with Game Machine later listing the game in its October 1, 1983 issue as the twentieth most successful table arcade cabinet of the month. In the United States, Donkey Kong topped the Play Meter arcade charts in October 1981, setting a weekly earnings record, and it was later listed by RePlay as the highest-grossing arcade game of 1982. It was also among the thirteen highest-grossing arcade games of 1983 in the United States. According to Electronic Games in June 1983, the home versions contributed to the arcade version's extended popularity, compared to the four to six months that the average game lasted. It remained Nintendo's top seller into mid-1983, with steady sales in Japan. A total of 65,000 arcade units were sold in Japan, and 67,000 arcade units in the United States, for a total of arcade units sold in Japan and the United States. Nintendo's Game & Watch handheld version of Donkey Kong released in 1982 sold units. Coleco had sold Donkey Kong cartridges for home consoles, grossing more than and earning Nintendo more than in royalties; the bundled ColecoVision version sold units, while the Atari 2600 version sold units in 1982 for , making it one of the best-selling Atari 2600 games. It was also one of the earliest cartridges available for video game rental at certain stores in 1982. Atari's 1987 re-release for the Atari 2600 sold a further units for by 1990. Coleco's Mini-Arcade tabletop versions of Donkey Kong, along with Pac-Man, Galaxian, and Frogger, had combined sales of three million units. In Japan, 840,000 units of the Famicom version were sold; the Famicom Mini version for the Game Boy Advance later had a further 160,000 units sold, for a total of units sold in Japan. The Atari 8-bit computer version sold units in 1986 and 1990. This totals units sold worldwide for the Game & Watch, ColecoVision, Atari and Famicom ports. , all versions of the original Donkey Kong are estimated to have grossed in revenue. Legal issues In April 1982, Sid Sheinberg, a seasoned lawyer and president of MCA and Universal City Studios, learned of the game's success and suspected it might be a trademark infringement of Universal's own King Kong. On April 27, 1982, he met with Arnold Greenberg of Coleco and threatened to sue over Coleco's home version of Donkey Kong. Coleco agreed on May 3, 1982, to pay royalties to Universal of 3% of their Donkey Kongs net sale price, worth about $4.6 million. Meanwhile, Sheinberg revoked Tiger's license to make its King Kong game, but O. R. Rissman refused to acknowledge Universal's claim to the trademark. When Universal threatened Nintendo, Howard Lincoln and Nintendo refused to cave. In preparation for the court battle ahead, Universal agreed to allow Tiger to continue producing its King Kong game as long as they distinguished it from Donkey Kong. Universal sued Nintendo on June 29, 1982, and announced its license with Coleco. The company sent cease and desist letters to Nintendo's licensees, all of which agreed to pay royalties to Universal except Milton Bradley and Ralston Purina. Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Nintendo, Co., Ltd. was heard in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York by Judge Robert W. Sweet. Over seven days, Universal's counsel, the New York firm Townley & Updike, argued that the names King Kong and Donkey Kong were easily confused and that the plot of the game was an infringement on that of the films. Nintendo's counsel, John Kirby, countered that Universal had themselves argued in a previous case that King Kongs scenario and characters were in the public domain. Judge Sweet ruled in Nintendo's favor, awarding the company Universal's profits from Tiger's game ($56,689.41), damages and attorney's fees. Universal appealed, trying to prove consumer confusion by presenting the results of a telephone survey and examples from print media where people had allegedly assumed a connection between the two Kongs. On October 4, 1984, however, the court upheld the previous verdict. Nintendo and its licensees filed counterclaims against Universal. On May 20, 1985, Judge Sweet awarded Nintendo $1.8 million for legal fees, lost revenues, and other expenses. However, he denied Nintendo's claim of damages from those licensees who had paid royalties to both Nintendo and Universal. Both parties appealed this judgment, but the verdict was upheld on July 15, 1986. Nintendo thanked John Kirby with the gift of a $30,000 sailboat named Donkey Kong and "exclusive worldwide rights to use the name for sailboats". Kirby, the titular protagonist of the Kirby series, was named in John Kirby's honor. The court battle also taught Nintendo they could compete with larger entertainment industry companies. After the release of Donkey Kong Jr., the arcade successor to Donkey Kong, Ikegami sued Nintendo for the unauthorized duplication of the Donkey Kong program code. Nintendo managed to settle the dispute out of court after the two companies came to an agreement. At the time of the suit, computer programs were not considered copyrightable material. The Tokyo High Court gave a verdict in 1989 that acknowledged the originality of program code. Ikegami and Nintendo reached a settlement the following year; the terms of it were never disclosed. Legacy In 1996 Next Generation listed the arcade, Atari 7800, and cancelled Coleco Adam versions as number 50 on their "Top 100 Games of All Time", commenting that even ignoring its massive historical significance, Donkey Kong stands as a great game due to its demanding challenges and graphics which manage to elegantly delineate an entire scenario on a single screen. In February 2006, Nintendo Power rated it the 148th best game made on a Nintendo system. Today, Donkey Kong is the fifth most popular arcade game among collectors. Impact Donkey Kong spawned a number of other titles with a mix of running, jumping and vertical traversal, a novel genre that did not match the style of games that came before it. The genre was initially referred to as "Donkey Kong-type" or "Kong-style" games, before the genre eventually came to be known as platform games. The game was also a milestone in terms of video game storytelling and cutscenes. While there were earlier games that either told a story or used cutscenes, Donkey Kong combined both concepts together to introduce its own new concept: using cutscenes to visually advance a complete story. It also notably had multiple, distinct levels that progressed the storyline. Donkey Kong was also one of the first Japanese games brought to Western regions that introduced a surreal concept using cute artwork, a representation of typical Japanese fantasy but unusual to Western audiences. For that reason, Donkey Kong and similar games that followed were briefly called "novelty games" by Western gaming press. Donkey Kong and other such novelty games helped to acclimate Western audiences to Japanese approaches to game design, narrative, and abstraction that would become key elements in the decade that followed with the release of the Famicom/Nintendo Entertainment System. Computer and Video Games called Donkey Kong "the most momentous" release of 1981, as it "introduced three important names" to the global video game industry: Nintendo, Shigeru Miyamoto, and Mario. These three figures went on to play a significant role in video game history. Donkey Kong paved the way for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), known as the Famicom in Japan. Following the success of Donkey Kong, Nintendo began developing the Famicom, the hardware of which was largely based on the Donkey Kong arcade hardware, with the goal of matching the system's powerful sprite capabilities in a home system. Nintendo wanted the Famicom to match the Donkey Kong arcade hardware, so they took a Donkey Kong arcade cabinet to semiconductor chip manufacturer Ricoh for analysis, which led to Ricoh producing the Picture Processing Unit (PPU) chip for the NES. Emulation The NES version was re-released as an unlockable game in Animal Crossing for the GameCube. It was also published on Virtual Console for the Wii, Wii U, and Nintendo 3DS. The Wii U version is also the last game that was released to celebrate the 30-year anniversary of the Japanese version of the NES, the Famicom. The original arcade version of the game appears in the Nintendo 64 game Donkey Kong 64, and must be beaten to finish the game. Nintendo released the NES version on the e-Reader and for the Game Boy Advance Classic NES Series in 2002 and 2004, respectively. In 2004, Namco released an arcade cabinet which contains Donkey Kong, Donkey Kong Jr., and Mario Bros. Donkey Kong: Original Edition is a port based on the NES version that reinstates the cement factory stage and includes some intermission animations absent from the original NES version, which has only ever been released on the Virtual Console. It was preinstalled on 25th Anniversary PAL region red Wii systems, which were first released in Europe on October 29, 2010. In Japan, a download code for the game for Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console was sent to users who purchased New Super Mario Bros. 2 or Brain Age: Concentration Training from the Nintendo eShop from July 28 to September 2, 2012. In North America, a download code for the game for Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console was sent to users who purchased one of five select 3DS games on the Nintendo eShop and registered it on Club Nintendo from October 1, 2012, to January 6, 2013. In Europe and Australia, it was released for purchase on the Nintendo 3DS eShop, being released on September 18, 2014, in Europe and on September 19, 2014, in Australia. The original arcade version was re-released as part of the Arcade Archives series for Nintendo Switch on June 14, 2018, and the NES version was re-released as one of the launch titles for Nintendo Switch Online on September 19, 2018. Clones Donkey Kong was one of the most widely cloned video games in the early 1980s, along with Space Invaders (1978) and Pac-Man (1980). By 1983, Donkey Kong clones had become available on various different platforms. The Giant List of Classic Game Programmers lists 17 different Donkey Kong clones released for various home platforms. Crazy Kong was officially licensed from Nintendo and manufactured by Falcon for some non-US markets. Nevertheless, Crazy Kong machines found their way into some American arcades, often installed in cabinets marked as Congorilla. Nintendo was quick to take legal action against those distributing the game in the US. Bootleg copies of Donkey Kong also appeared in both North America and France under the Crazy Kong, Konkey Kong or Donkey King names. The 1982 Logger arcade game from Century Electronics is a direct clone of Donkey Kong, with a large bird standing in for the ape and rolling logs instead of barrels. In 1981, O. R. Rissman, president of Tiger Electronics, obtained a license to use the name King Kong from Universal City Studios. Under this title, Tiger created a handheld game with a scenario and gameplay based directly on Nintendo's creation. Many home computer clones directly borrowed the gorilla theme: Killer Gorilla (BBC Micro, 1983), Killer Kong (ZX Spectrum, 1983), Crazy Kong 64 (Commodore 64, 1983), Kongo Kong (Commodore 64, 1983), Donkey King (TRS-80 Color Computer, 1983), and Kong (TI-99/4A, 1983). One of the first releases from Electronic Arts was Hard Hat Mack (Apple II, 1983), a three-stage game without an ape, but using the construction site setting from Donkey Kong. Other clones recast the game with different characters, such as Cannonball Blitz (Apple II, 1982), with a soldier and cannonballs replacing the ape and barrels, and the American Southwest-themed Canyon Climber (Atari 8-bit, 1982). Epyx's Jumpman (Atari 8-bit, 1983) reuses a prototypical name for the Mario character in Donkey Kong. A magazine ad for the game has the tagline "If you liked Donkey Kong, you'll love JUMPMAN!" Jumpman, Miner 2049er (Atari 8-bit, 1982), and Mr. Robot and His Robot Factory (Atari 8-bit, 1984), focus on traversing all of the platforms in the level, or collecting scattered objects, instead of climbing to the top. There were so many games with multiple ladder and platforms stages by 1983 that Electronic Games described Nintendo's own Popeye game as "yet another variation of a theme that's become all too familiar since the success of Donkey Kong". That year Sega released a Donkey Kong clone called Congo Bongo in arcades. Although using isometric perspective, the structure and gameplay are similar. Nintendo attempted to take legal action against unauthorized clones of Donkey Kong, but estimated they lost in potential sales to these clones. By 1990, Nintendo had successfully won over thirty lawsuits related to Donkey Kong. For example, Nintendo won a 1990 Japanese lawsuit against Falcon Company, which had sold 12,000 counterfeit arcade cabinets in the United States during the 1980s. Sequels Donkey Kong spawned the sequel Donkey Kong Jr. (1982) with the player controlling Donkey Kong's son in an attempt to save his father from Mario. The 1983 spinoff Mario Bros. introduced Mario's brother Luigi in a single-screen cooperative game set in a sewer, and launched the Mario franchise. Also in 1983, Donkey Kong 3 appeared in the form of a fixed shooter, with an exterminator named Stanley ridding the ape—and insects—from a greenhouse. Later games Nintendo revived the Donkey Kong franchise in the 1990s for a series of platform games and spin-offs developed by Rare, beginning with Donkey Kong Country in 1994. In 2004, Nintendo released Mario vs. Donkey Kong, a sequel to the Game Boy's Donkey Kong, in which Mario must chase Donkey Kong to get back the stolen Mini-Mario toys. In the follow-up Mario vs. Donkey Kong 2: March of the Minis, Donkey Kong once again falls in love with Pauline and kidnaps her, and Mario uses the Mini-Mario toys to help him rescue her. Donkey Kong Racing for the GameCube was in development by Rare, but was canceled when Microsoft purchased the company. In 2004, Nintendo released the first of the Donkey Konga games, a rhythm-based game series that uses a special bongo controller. Donkey Kong Jungle Beat (2005) is a unique platform action game that uses the same bongo controller accessory. In 2007, Donkey Kong Barrel Blast was released for the Nintendo Wii. It was originally developed as a GameCube game and would have used the bongo controller, but it was delayed and released exclusively as a Wii game with no support for the bongo accessory. The Donkey Kong Country series was revived by Retro Studios in 2010 with the release of Donkey Kong Country Returns, and its sequel, Donkey Kong Country: Tropical Freeze, in 2014. Donkey Kong appears as a game in the Wii U game NES Remix, which features multiple NES games and sometimes "remixes" them by presenting significantly modified versions of the games as challenges. One such challenge features Link from The Legend of Zelda traveling through the first screen to save Pauline. The difficulty is increased compared to the original Donkey Kong because Link cannot jump, as in Zelda. Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Super Smash Bros. for Wii U include a demo of the NES version of Donkey Kong, and a stage called "75m", a replica of its Donkey Kong namesake. Popular culture By late June 1982, Donkey Kongs success had prompted more than 50 parties in the U.S. and Japan to license the game's characters. Mario and his simian nemesis appeared on cereal boxes, board games, pajamas, and manga. In 1983, the animation studio Ruby-Spears produced a Donkey Kong cartoon (as well as Donkey Kong Jr.) for the Saturday Supercade program on CBS. In the show, mystery crime-solving plots in the mode of Scooby-Doo are framed around the premise of Mario and Pauline chasing Donkey Kong (voiced by Soupy Sales), who has escaped from the circus. The show lasted two seasons. In 1982, the songs "Do the Donkey Kong" by Buckner & Garcia and "Donkey Kong" by R. Cade and the Video Victims were released. Artists like DJ Jazzy Jeff & the Fresh Prince and Trace Adkins referenced the game in songs. Episodes of The Simpsons, Futurama, Crank Yankers, and The Fairly OddParents have referenced the game. Sound effects from the Atari 2600 version serve as generic video game sounds in films and television series. The phrase "It's on like Donkey Kong" was coined by American rapper Ice Cube in 1992, and has been used in various works of popular culture. In November 2010, Nintendo applied for a trademark on the phrase with the United States Patent and Trademark Office. Competition The 2007 documentary The King of Kong: A Fistful of Quarters portrays Steve Wiebe's attempts to break the Donkey Kong world record, then considered to have been held by Billy Mitchell. In the early 2010s, Hank Chien set a record of 1,138,600 points. This was broken four years later by Robbie Lakeman. Lakeman's record was then broken by John McCurdy on January 11, 2021, with a score of 1,272,700. However, Lakeman would reclaim the world record only five months later on June 8, 2021, scoring 100 more points than McCurdy. In 2018, Mitchell was stripped of his records by Twin Galaxies and banned from submitting new scores after Twin Galaxies concluded that Mitchell had illicitly used emulators to achieve his scores. Twin Galaxies prohibits the use of emulators for high scores they publish because they allow undetectable cheating. However, in 2020 Guinness World Records reversed its decision and reinstated Billy Mitchell's previous world records, based on new evidence including eyewitness reports and expert testimonials. There are other world record categories for Donkey Kong besides highest score. One of the most popular is the "No Hammer Challenge" where competitors try to get the highest score without using the hammer found in the game. The current world record in this category was set by Jeff Wolfe on July 8, 2008, with a score of 735,100. Some other categories include most points for different levels, and fewest points. Notes References Consalvo, Mia (2003). "Hot Dates and Fairy-tale Romances". The Video Game Theory Reader. New York: Routledge. Fox, Matt (2006). The Video Games Guide. Boxtree Ltd. Mingo, Jack. (1994) How the Cadillac Got its Fins New York: HarperBusiness. Schodt, Frederick L. (1996). Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga. Berkeley, California: Stone Bridge Press. External links Donkey Kong at Arcade History Donkey Kong platform games Nintendo Research & Development 1 games Video games designed by Shigeru Miyamoto Video games directed by Shigeru Miyamoto Video games produced by Gunpei Yokoi Vertically-oriented video games 1981 video games Apple II games Arcade video games Atari 2600 games Atari 7800 games Atari 8-bit family games ColecoVision games Commodore 64 games Commodore VIC-20 games Nintendo e-Reader games Famicom Disk System games Game & Watch games Game Boy Advance games Intellivision games MSX games Nintendo arcade games Nintendo Entertainment System games Nintendo Switch Online NES games Pack-in video games Single-player video games Texas Instruments TI-99/4A games Video games developed in Japan Virtual Console games Virtual Console games for Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console games for Wii Virtual Console games for Wii U ZX Spectrum games

Raksha Bandhan

eng_Latn

Raksha Bandhan, is a popular, traditionally Hindu, annual rite, or ceremony, which is central to a festival of the same name celebrated in South Asia, and in other parts of the world significantly influenced by Hindu culture. On this day, sisters of all ages tie a talisman, or amulet, called the Rakhi, around the wrists of their brothers, symbolically protecting them, receiving a gift in return, and traditionally investing the brothers with a share of the responsibility of their potential care. Raksha Bandhan is observed on the last day of the Hindu lunar calendar month of Shraavana, which typically falls in August. The expression "Raksha Bandhan," Sanskrit, literally, "the bond of protection, obligation, or care," is now principally applied to this ritual. Until the mid-20th-century, the expression was more commonly applied to a similar ritual, also held on the same day, with precedence in ancient Hindu texts, in which a domestic priest ties amulets, charms, or threads on the wrists of his patrons, or changes their sacred thread, and receives gifts of money; in some places, this is still the case. In contrast, the sister-brother festival, with origins in folk culture, had names which varied with location, with some rendered as Saluno, Silono, and Rakri. A ritual associated with Saluno included the sisters placing shoots of barley behind the ears of their brothers. Of special significance to married women, Raksha Bandhan is rooted in the practice of territorial or village exogamy, in which a bride marries out of her natal village or town, and her parents, by custom, do not visit her in her married home. In rural north India, where village exogamy is strongly prevalent, large numbers of married Hindu women travel back to their parents' homes every year for the ceremony. Their brothers, who typically live with the parents or nearby, sometimes travel to their sisters' married home to escort them back. Many younger married women arrive a few weeks earlier at their natal homes and stay until the ceremony. The brothers serve as lifelong intermediaries between their sisters' married and parental homes, as well as potential stewards of their security. In urban India, where families are increasingly nuclear, the festival has become more symbolic, but continues to be highly popular. The rituals associated with this festival have spread beyond their traditional regions and have been transformed through technology and migration, the movies, social interaction, and promotion by politicized Hinduism, as well as by the nation state. Among women and men who are not blood relatives, there is also a transformed tradition of voluntary kin relations, achieved through the tying of rakhi amulets, which have cut across caste and class lines, and Hindu and Muslim divisions. In some communities or contexts, other figures, such as a matriarch, or a person in authority, can be included in the ceremony in ritual acknowledgement of their benefaction. Etymology, meaning, and usage According to the Oxford English Dictionary, Third Edition, 2008, the Hindi word, rākhī derives from the Sanskrit rakṣikā, a join: rakṣā protection, amulet ( < rakṣ- to protect + -ikā, diminutive suffix.) 1829 The first attested use in the English language dates to 1829, in James Tod's, Ann. & Antiq. Rajasthan I. p. 312, "The festival of the bracelet (Rakhi) is in Spring ... The Rajpoot dame bestows with the Rakhi the title of adopted brother; and while its acceptance secures to her all the protection of a ‘cavaliere servente’, scandal itself never suggests any other tie to his devotion." 1857, Forbes: Dictionary of Hindustani and English Saluno: the full moon in Sawan at which time the ornament called rakhi is tied around the wrist. 1884, Platts: Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi, and English راکهي राखी rākhī (p. 582) H راکهي राखी rākhī [S. रक्षिका], s.f. A piece of thread or silk bound round the wrist on the festival of Salūno or the full moon of Sāvan, either as an amulet and preservative against misfortune, or as a symbol of mutual dependence, or as a mark of respect; the festival on which such a thread is tied—rākhī-bandhan, s.f. The festival called rākhī. 1899 Monier-Williams: A Sanskrit–English dictionary Rakshā: "a sort of bracelet or amulet,any mysterious token used as a charm, ... a piece of thread or silk bound round the wrist on partic occasions (esp. on the full moon of Śrāvaņa, either as an amulet and preservative against misfortune, or as a symbol of mutual dependence, or as a mark of respect". 1990, Jack Goody "The ceremony itself involves the visit of women to their brothers ... on a specific day of the year when they tie a gaudy decoration on the right wrists of their brothers, which is at once "a defence against misfortune, a symbol of dependence, and a mark of respect." 1965–1975, Hindi Sabd Sagara: राखी १ "राखी १— संज्ञा स्त्री० [सं० रक्षा] वह मंगलसूत्र जो कुछ विशिष्ट अवसरों पर, विशेपतः श्रावणी पूर्णिमा के दिन ब्राह्मण या और लोग अपने यजमानों अथवा आत्मीयों के दाहिने हाथ की कलाई पर बाँधते हैं। (That Mangalsutra (lucky or auspicious thread) which on special occasions, especially the full moon day of the month of Shravani, Brahmins or others tie around the right wrist of their patrons or intimates.) From: Dasa, Syamasundara. Hindi sabdasagara. Navina samskarana. Kasi: Nagari Pracarini Sabha, 1965–1975. 4332 pp. 1976, Adarsh Hindi Shabdkosh रक्षा (संज्ञा स्त्रीलिंग): कष्ट, नाश, या आपत्ति से अनिष्ट निवारण के लिए हाथ में बंधा हुआ एक सूत्र; -बंधन (पुलिंग) श्रावण शुक्ला पूर्णिमा को होनेवाला हिंदुओं का एक त्यौहार जिसमे हाथ की कलाई पर एक रक्षा सूत्र बाँधा जाता है. () 1993, Oxford Hindi–English Dictionary रक्षा बंधन: m. Hindi, the festival of Rakshabandhan held on the full moon of the month of Savan, when sisters tie a talisman (rakhi q.v.) on the arms of their brothers and receive small gifts of money from them. 2000, Samsad Bengali–English Dictionary রাখি rākhi: a piece of thread which one ties round the wrist of another in order to safeguard the latter from all evils. ̃পূর্ণিমা n. the full moon day of the month of Shravan (শ্রাবণ) when a rakhi is tied round the wrist of another. ̃বন্ধন n. act or the festival of tying a rakhi (রাখি) round the wrist of another. 2013, Oxford Urdu–English Dictionary راکھے ra:khi: 1. (Hinduism) (i) rakhi, bracelet of red or yellow strings tied by a woman round the wrist of a man on a Hindu festival to set up brotherly relations. بندھن- – bandhan: festival of rakhi. Traditional regions of observance Scholars who have written about the ritual, have usually described the traditional region of its observance as north India; however, also included are: central India, western India and Nepal, as well other regions of India, and overseas Hindu communities such as in Fiji. Anthropologist Jack Goody, whose field study was conducted in Nandol, in Gujarat, describes Rakshabandhan as an "annual ceremony ... of northern and western India." Anthropologist Michael Jackson, writes, "While traditional North Indian families do not have a Father's or Mother's Day, or even the equivalent of Valentine's Day, there is a Sister's Day, called Raksha Bandhan, ..." Religious scholar J. Gordon Melton describes it as "primarily a North Indian festival." Leona M. Anderson and Pamela D. Young describe it as "one of the most popular festivals of North India." Anthropologist David G. Mandelbaum has described it as "an annual rite observed in northern and western India." Other descriptions of primary regions are of development economist Bina Agarwal ("In Northern India and Nepal this is ritualized in festivals such as raksha-bandhan."), scholar and activist Ruth Vanita ("a festival widely celebrated in north India."), anthropologist James D. Faubion ("In north India this brother-sister relationship is formalized in the ceremony of 'Rakshabandhan.'"), and social scientist Prem Chowdhry ("... in the noticeable revival of the Raksha Bandhan festival and the renewed sanctity it has claimed in North India."). Evolution of Raksha Bandhan: the great and little traditions Sociologist Yogendra Singh has noted the contribution of American anthropologist McKim Marriott, to an understanding of the origins of the Raksha Bandhan festival. In rural society, according to Marriott, there is steady interplay between two cultural traditions, the elite or "great," tradition based in texts, such as the Vedas in Indian society, and the local or "little," based in folk art and literature. According to Singh, (Marriott) has shown that Raksha Bandhan festival has its "origin in the 'little tradition'." Anthropologist Onkar Prasad has further suggested that Marriott was the first to consider the limitations within which each village tradition "operates to retain its essence." In his village study, Marriott described two concurrently observed traditions on the full moon day of Shravana: a "little tradition" festival called "Saluno," and a "great tradition" festival, Raksha Bandhan, but which Marriott calls, "Charm Tying:" On Saluno day, many husbands arrive at their wives' villages, ready to carry them off again to their villages of marriage. But, before going off with their husbands, the wives as well as their unmarried village sisters express their concern for and devotion to their brothers by placing young shoots of barley, the locally sacred grain, on the heads and ears of their brothers. (The brothers) reciprocate with small coins. On the same day, along with the ceremonies of Saluno, and according to the literary precedent of the Bhavisyottara Purana, ... the ceremonies of Charm Tying (Rakhi Bandhan or Raksha Bandhan) are also held. The Brahman domestic priests of Kishan Garhi go to each patron and tie upon his wrist a charm in the form of a polychrome thread, bearing tassel "plums." Each priest utters a vernacular blessing and is rewarded by his patron with cash, ... The ceremonies of both now exist side by side, as if they were two ends of a process of primary transformation." Norwegian anthropologist, Øyvind Jaer, who did his fieldwork in eastern UP in the 1990s noted that the "great tradition" festival was in retreat and the "little tradition" one, involving sisters and brothers, now more important. Precedence in Hindu texts Important in the Great Tradition is chapter 137 of the Uttara Parva of the Bhavishya Purana, in which the Hindu god Krishna describes to Yudhishthira the ritual of having a raksha (protection) tied to his right wrist by the royal priest (the rajpurohit) on the purnima (full moon day) of the Hindu lunar calendar month of Shravana). In the crucial passage, Krishna says, "Parth (applied to any of the three sons of Kunti (also, Pritha), in particular, Yudhishthira): When the sky is covered with clouds, and the earth dark with new, tender, grass, in that very Shravana month's full moon day, at the time of sunrise, according to remembered convention, a Brahmin should take a bath with perfectly pure water. He should also according to his ability, offer libations of water to the gods, to the paternal ancestors, as prescribed by the Vedas for the task required to be accomplished before the study of the Vedas, to the sages, and as directed by the gods carry out and bring to a satisfactory conclusion the shradh ceremony to honor the deceased. It is commended that a Shudra should also make a charitable offering, and take a bath accompanied by the mantras. That very day, in the early afternoon (between noon and 3 PM) it is commended that a small parcel (bundle or packet) be prepared from a new cotton or silk cloth and adorned with whole grains of rice or barley, small mustard seeds, and red ocher powder, and made exceedingly wondrous, be placed in a suitable dish or receptacle. ... the purohit should bind this packet on the king's wrist with the words,'I am binding raksha (protection) to you with the same true words with which I bound Mahabali King of the Asuras. Always stay firm in resolve.' In the same manner as the king, after offering prayers to the Brahmins, the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras should conclude their Raksha Bandhan ceremony." Relation to territorial exogamy Of special significance to married women, Raksha Bandhan is rooted in the practice of territorial or village exogamy—in which a bride marries out of her natal village or town, and her parents, by custom, do not visit her in her married home. Anthropologist Leo Coleman writes: Rakhi and its local performances in Kishan Garhi were part of a festival in which connections between out-marrying sisters and village-resident brothers were affirmed. In the "traditional" form of this rite, according to Marriott, sisters exchanged with their brothers to ensure their ability to have recourse—at a crisis, or during childbearing—to their natal village and their relatives there even after leaving for their husband's home. For their part, brothers engaging in these exchanges affirmed the otherwise hard-to-discern moral solidarity of the natal family, even after their sister's marriage. In rural north India, where village exogamy is strongly prevalent, large numbers of married Hindu women travel back to their parents' homes every year for the ceremony. Scholar Linda Hess writes: Their brothers, who typically live with the parents or nearby, sometimes travel to their sisters' married home to escort them back. Many younger married women arrive a few weeks earlier at their natal homes and stay until the ceremony. Folklorist Susan Snow Wadley writes: "In Savan, greenness abounds as the newly planted crops take root in the wet soil. It is a month of joy and gaiety, with swings hanging from tall trees. Girls and women swing high into the sky, singing their joy. The gaiety is all the more marked because women, especially the young ones, are expected to return to their natal homes for an annual visit during Savan. The brothers serve as lifelong intermediaries between their sisters' married- and parental homes, as well as potential stewards of their security. Urbanization, and mid-20th century transformations In his 1955 village study anthropologist McKim Marriott noted transformations of ritual that had begun to take place: A further, secondary transformation of the festival of Charm Tying is also beginning to be evident in Kishan Garhi, for the thread charms of the priests are now factory-made in more attractive form ... A few sisters in Kishan Garhi have taken to tying these ... charms of priestly type onto their brothers' wrists. The new string charms are also more convenient for mailing in letters to distant, city-dwelling brothers whom sisters cannot visit on the auspicious day. Beals reports, furthermore, that brothers in the electrified village of Namhalli near Bangalore tuned in to All India Radio in order to receive a time signal at the astrologically exact moment, and then tied such charms to their own wrists, with an accompaniment of broadcast Sanskrit mantras." In urban India, where families are increasingly nuclear, and marriages not always traditional, the festival has become more symbolic, but continues to be highly popular. The rituals associated with these rites, however, have spread beyond their traditional regions and have been transformed through technology and migration, According to anthropologist, Leo Coleman: In modern rakhi, technologically mediated and performed with manufactured charms, migrating men are the medium by which the village women interact, vertically, with the cosmopolitan center—the site of radio broadcasts, and the source of technological goods and national solidarity. Hindi movies have played a salient role. According to author Vaijayanti Pandit, Raksha Bandhan traditionally celebrated in North India has acquired greater importance due to Hindi films. Lightweight and decorative rakhis, which are easy to post, are needed in large quantities by the market to cater to brothers and sisters living in different parts of the country or abroad." More social interaction among India's population has played a role in the increased celebration of this festival. According to author Renuka Khandekar: But since independence and the gradual opening up of Indian society, Raksha Bandhan as celebrated in North India has won the affection of many South Indian families. For this festival has the peculiar charm of renewing sibling bonds." The festival has also been promoted by Hindu political organizations. According to authors P. M. Joshy and K. M. Seethi. The RSS employs a cultural strategy to mobilise people through festivals. It observes six major festivals in a year. ... Till 20 years back, festivals like Raksha Bandhan' were unknown to South Indians. Through Shakha's intense campaign, now they have become popular in the southern India. In colleges and schools tying `Rakhi'—the thread that is used in the 'Raksha Bandhan'—has become a fashion and this has been popularised by the RSS and ABVP cadres. Similarly, according to author Christophe Jaffrelot, This ceremony occurs in a cycle of six annual festivals which often coincides with those observed in Hindu society, and which Hedgewar inscribed in the ritual calendar of his movement: Varsha Pratipada (the Hindu new year), Shivajirajyarohonastava (the coronation of Shivaji), guru dakshina, Raksha Bandhan (a North Indian festival in which sisters tie ribbons round the wrists of their brothers to remind them of their duty as protectors, a ritual which the RSS has re-interpreted in such a way that the leader of the shakha ties a ribbon around the pole of the saffron flag, after which swayamsevaks carry out this ritual for one another as a mark of brotherhood), Finally, the nation state in India has itself promoted this festival. as Leo Coleman states: ... as citizens become participants in the wider "new traditions" of the national state. Broadcast mantras become the emblems of a new level of state power and the means of the integration of villagers and city dwellers alike into a new community of citizens. More recently, after enactment of more gender-neutral inheritance laws in India, it has been suggested that in some communities the festival has seen a resurgence of celebration, which is serving to indirectly pressure women to abstain from fully claiming their inheritance. According to author Prem Chowdhry, Rural patriarchal forces have been anxiously devising means to stem the progressive fallout of this Act through a variety of means. One way has been to oppose the inheritance rights of a daughter or a sister to those of the brother. Except in cases where there are no brothers, the sisters either sign away their in favour of their brother or sell it to him at a nominal price. This code of conduct is observed knowingly by both the natal and conjugal families. Brother-sister bonds of love have also been greatly encouraged, visible in the noticeable revival of the Raksha Bandhan festival and the renewed sanctity it has claimed in north India. Voluntary kin relations Among women and men who are not blood relatives, there is also a transformed tradition of voluntary kin relations, achieved through the tying of rakhi amulets, which have cut across caste and class lines, and Hindu and Muslim divisions. In some communities or contexts, other figures, such as a matriarch, or a person in authority, can be included in the ceremony in ritual acknowledgement of their benefaction. According to author Prem Chowdhry, "The same symbolic protection is also requested from the high caste men by the low caste women in a work relationship situation. The ritual thread is offered, though not tied and higher caste men customarily give some money in return." Regional variations in ritual While Raksha Bandhan is celebrated in various parts of South Asia, different regions mark the day in different ways. In the state of West Bengal, this day is also called Jhulan Purnima. Prayers and puja of Krishna and Radha are performed there. Sisters tie rakhi to brothers and wish immortality. Political parties, offices, friends, schools to colleges, street to palace celebrate this day with a new hope for a good relationship. In Maharashtra, among the Koli community, the festival of Raksha Bandhan/Rakhi Pournima is celebrated along with Narali Pournima (coconut day festival). Kolis are the fishermen community of the coastal state. The fishermen offer prayers to Varuna, the Hindu god of Sea, to invoke his blessings. As part of the rituals, coconuts were thrown into the sea as offerings to Varuna. The girls and women tie rakhi on their brother's wrist, as elsewhere. In the regions of North India, mostly Jammu, it is a common practice to fly kites on the nearby occasions of Janamashtami and Raksha Bandhan. It's not unusual to see the sky filled with kites of all shapes and sizes, on and around these two dates. The locals buy kilometres of strong kite string, commonly called as "gattu door" in the local language, along with a multitude of kites. In Haryana, in addition to celebrating Raksha Bandhan, people observe the festival of Salono. Salono is celebrated by priests solemnly tying amulets against evil on people's wrists. As elsewhere, sisters tie threads on brothers with prayers for their well being, and the brothers give her gifts promising to safeguard her. In Nepal, Raksha Bandhan is referred to as Janai Purnima or Rishitarpani, and involves a sacred thread ceremony. It is observed by both Hindus and Buddhists of Nepal. The Hindu men change the thread they wear around their chests (janai), while in some parts of Nepal girls and women tie rakhi on their brother's wrists. The Raksha Bandhan-like brother sister festival is observed by other Hindus of Nepal during one of the days of the Tihar (or Diwali) festival. The festival is observed by the Shaiva Hindus, and is popularly known in Newar community as Gunhu Punhi. Depictions in movies and popular history The religious myths claimed Raksha Bandhan are disputed, and the historical stories associated with it considered apocryphal by some historians. Jai Santoshi Maa (1975 film) Ganesha had two sons, Shubha and Labha. The two boys become frustrated that they have no sister to celebrate Raksha Bandhan with. They ask their father Ganesha for a sister, but to no avail. Finally, saint Narada appears who persuades Ganesha that a daughter will enrich him as well as his sons. Ganesha agreed, and created a daughter named Santoshi Maa by divine flames that emerged from Ganesh's wives, Riddhi (Amazing) and Siddhi (Perfection). Thereafter, Shubha Labha (literally "Holy Profit") had a sister named Santoshi Maa (literally "Goddess of Satisfaction"), to tie Rakhi over Raksha Bandhan. According to author Robert Brown ... in Varanasi the paired figures were usually called Rddhi and Siddhi, Ganeea's relationship to them was often vague. He was their malik, their owner; they were more often dasis than patnis (wives). Yet Ganesha was married to them, albeit within a marriage different from other divine matches in the lack of a clear familial context. Such a context has recently emerged in the popular film Jai Santoshi Ma. The film builds upon a text, also of recent vintage, in which Ganesha has a daughter, the neophyte goddess of satisfaction, Santoshi Ma. In the film, the role of Gane§a as family man is developed significantly. Santoshi Ma's genesis occurs on Raksha bandhan. Ganesha's sister is visiting for the tying of the rakhi. He calls her bahenmansa—his "mind-born" sister. Ganesha's wives, Rddhi and Siddhi, are also present, with their sons Subha and Labha. The boys are jealous, as they, unlike their father, have no sister with whom to tie the rakhi. They and the other women plead with their father, but to no avail; but then Narada appears and convinces Ganesha that the creation of an illustrious daughter will reflect much credit back onto himself. Ganesha assents and from Rddhi and Siddhi emerges a flame that engenders Santoshi Ma. Sikandar (1941 film) Film historian Anja Wieber describes the manufacture of a modern and widespread Indian legend in the 1941 movie Sikandar: In Sikandar a very daring Roxane follows Alexander incognito to India and manages to gain admission to King Porus (in the Indian version: Puru), a conversation with a young, friendly Indian village woman named Surmaniya, Roxane learns about the Indian feast of Rakhi which is being celebrated at that very moment with the purpose of strengthening the bond between sister and brother (0:25–0:30). On this occasion, sisters tie a ribbon (i.e. rakhi) to their brothers' arms to symbolize their close relationships, and brothers offer presents and assistance in return. Besides, Roxane is also told that the relationship need not be one of consanguinity; every girl can choose a brother. Therefore, she decides to offer the rakhi to King Porus, who accepts the relationship after some hesitation, because he feels the need to apologize to Roxane, Darius's (a.k.a. Dara's) daughter, for not having helped her father when he asked for assistance against Alexander. As a result of their bond, he offers her gifts befitting her rank and promises not to harm Alexander (0:32–35). Later, when Porus comes into hand-to-hand combat with the Greek king, he stands by his promise and spares him (1:31). Interestingly, the rakhi episode with Porus is still to this day very popular in India and is cited as very early historical evidence for the origin of the authentic Hindu festival called Raksha Bandhan. Although examples of that legend can be traced in internet forums, Indian newspapers, a children's book and an educational video, I was not able to find its ancient origin. Rani Karnavati and Emperor Humayun Another controversial historical account is that of Rani Karnavati of Chittor and Mughal Emperor Humayun, which dates to 1535 CE. When Rani Karnavati, the widowed queen of the king of Chittor, realised that she could not defend against the invasion by the Sultan of Gujarat, Bahadur Shah, she sent a rakhi to Emperor Humayun. The Emperor, according to one version of the story, set off with his troops to defend Chittor. He arrived too late, and Bahadur Shah had already captured the Rani's fortress. Alternative accounts from the period, including those by historians in Humayun's Mughal court, do not mention the rakhi episode and some historians have expressed skepticism whether it ever happened. Historian Satish Chandra wrote, ... According to a mid-seventeenth century Rajasthani account, Rani Karnavati, the Rana's mother, sent a bracelet as rakhi to Humayun, who gallantly responded and helped. Since none of the contemporary sources mention this, little credit can be given to this story ... Humayun's own memoirs never mention this, and give different reasons for his war with Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat in 1535. See also Bhai Dooj Other festivals observed on the day of Raksha Bandhan Siblings Day Friendship bracelet References Notes Works cited External links Raksha Bandhan Know India – Festivals, Government of India Raksha Bandhan Government of Odisha, India Religious festivals in India Observances held on the full moon Hindi words and phrases Hindu festivals July observances August observances Bengali festivals Punjabi festivals Customs involving siblings

Dogs Playing Poker

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Dogs Playing Poker, by Cassius Marcellus Coolidge, refers collectively to an 1894 painting, a 1903 series of sixteen oil paintings commissioned by Brown & Bigelow to advertise cigars, and a 1910 painting. All eighteen paintings in the overall series feature anthropomorphized dogs, but the eleven in which dogs are seated around a card table have become well known in the United States as examples of kitsch art in home decoration. Depictions and reenactments of the series have appeared in many films, television shows, theater productions, and other popular culture art forms. Critic Annette Ferrara has described Dogs Playing Poker as "indelibly burned into ... the American collective-schlock subconscious ... through incessant reproduction on all manner of pop ephemera". The first painting, Coolidge's 1894 Poker Game, sold for $658,000 at a 2015 auction. Coolidge paintings The title of Coolidge's original 1894 painting is Poker Game. The titles in the Brown & Bigelow series are: A Bachelor's Dog – reading the mail A Bold Bluff  – poker (originally titled Judge St. Bernard Stands Pat on Nothing) Breach of Promise Suit – testifying in court A Friend in Need (1903) – poker, cheating His Station and Four Aces (1903) – poker New Year's Eve in Dogville – ballroom dancing One to Tie Two to Win – baseball Pinched with Four Aces – poker, illegal gambling Poker Sympathy (1903) – poker Post Mortem – poker, camaraderie The Reunion – smoking and drinking, camaraderie Riding the Goat – Masonic initiation Sitting up with a Sick Friend (1905) – poker, gender relations Stranger in Camp – poker, camping Ten Miles to a Garage – travel, car trouble, teamwork A Waterloo (1906) – poker (originally titled Judge St. Bernard Wins on a Bluff) These were followed in 1910 by a similar painting, Looks Like Four of a Kind. Other Coolidge paintings featuring anthropomorphized dogs include Kelly Pool, which shows dogs playing kelly pool. Some of the compositions in the series are modeled on paintings of human card-players by such artists as Caravaggio, Georges de La Tour, and Paul Cézanne. On February 15, 2005, the originals of A Bold Bluff and Waterloo were auctioned as a pair to an undisclosed buyer for US $590,400. The previous top price for a Coolidge was $74,000. In 2015, Poker Game sold for $658,000, currently the highest price paid for a Coolidge. In popular culture In the TV sitcom Cheers, Sam Malone likes the paintings (in particular one of Dogs Playing Blackjack) while his more sophisticated lover, Diane Chambers, hates them. Sam says that he sees something new every time he looks at it. The set for the TV show Roseanne had a reproduction of one of the paintings in Roseanne and Dan's bedroom. The cover of the 1981 album, Moving Pictures, by Rush, features A Friend in Need as one of the three pictures being moved. In the 1984 play The Foreigner, a character complains that she doesn't want to be in her motel room because there is a "Damn picture on the wall of some dogs playin' poker." In the 1985 film Police Academy 2: Their First Assignment, slobbish police officer Vinnie Schtulman (Peter Van Norden) has a framed print of Waterloo and, below it, an unframed print of Pinched With Four Aces (which features four dogs in old-fashioned police uniforms raiding a poker game). In the 1991 film Hudson Hawk, the Mario Brothers Mafia Family have the Bold Bluff painting framed on their wall. The animated television series The Simpsons has made several references to the paintings, such as in "Treehouse of Horror IV" (1993) when Homer is driven to screaming insanity simply by looking at the surrealness of the painting. The music video for Snoop Dogg's 1993 song, "What's My Name", depicts dogs playing craps while smoking cigars and wearing sunglasses. In the 1994 "School Daze" episode of Living Single Overton brings a print of A Bold Bluff into art class and comments on the "obviousness" of the bulldog's bluff. Dogs Playing Poker TV ads were aired during ESPN Sunday Night Football during the 1998 and 1999 NFL seasons. The 1998 season four episode "Sinking Ship" of the TV series NewsRadio spoofs the 1997 film Titanic. As the characters are shown fleeing the sinking ship/broadcasting studio they dump famous artworks but hold on to a Dogs Playing Poker, which a character claims is a "great picture". In the 1999 film The Thomas Crown Affair, Banning believes she finds a stolen Claude Monet painting in Crown's house. On expert examination it turns out to be a fake painted over a copy of Poker Sympathy, a Dogs Playing Poker canvas. In a 2000 episode of the TV series That '70s Show, "Hunting", Dogs Playing Poker is parodied by the characters taking the places of the dogs. In an episode of Animaniacs, a young Pablo Picasso's artistic frustration is demonstrated by his producing a DPP painting. In an episode of White Collar the main protagonist, who is considered an expert on art, jokes about hanging a DPP on a wall. In an episode of Courage the Cowardly Dog, Courage goes into a DPP painting and picks up an untouched card hand. He laughs and puts it down, which shocks the other dogs upon seeing that the hand is a royal flush. Courage is then kicked out of the painting by one of the dogs. In an episode of My Gym Partner's a Monkey, Adam is told to look inside his brain, and what he see is reminiscent of a Dogs Playing Poker painting. In the Lilo & Stitch: The Series 2003 episode "Finder", Stitch (who was adopted by Lilo as a "dog") plays a game of poker with his experiment "cousins" with cookies in place of poker chips. In a The Far Side cartoon a homeless artist lies in the street, surrounded by unsold paintings similar to DPP but depicting other animals such as giraffes, bugs, chickens, and gators. The caption recalls that someone said, "Hey, have you ever tried dogs playing poker"? In Law & Order, season 13, episode 1, "American Jihad" (2002) Lennie (Jerry Orbach) doesn't want to pretend he is a connoisseur on expensive artwork by replying to his lieutenant: "If it ain't dogs playing poker ...". In the 2003 film, Looney Tunes: Back in Action, a number of dog characters in the series are seen playing poker at Yosemite Sam's casino. In the 2004 remake of Around the World in 80 Days, Monique has a painting of Dogs Playing Poker in her sketchbook. In the 2005 Suite Life of Zack and Cody episode "Hotel Inspector", London tells Maddie that she saw a painting of dogs playing poker, and that she wants Maddie to throw her dog a poker-themed party. When Maddie tells her the dogs weren't really playing poker, London replies, "If they weren't playing poker, then how did the dalmatian win all the money?" In Wizards of the Coast's Magic: The Gathering 2004 Arena league, a card "Mise" portrays dogs playing Magic. In the 2005 video game Psychonauts, when a player revisits the stage Black Velvetopia after completing it, Edgar Teglee´s mental projection and the dog artists that inhabit his mind will appear in the hub playing poker. Talking to Edgar in the Asylum will also trigger a new dialogue, "Arent we all just dogs playing poker?" In the 2006 Family Guy episode "Saving Private Brian", Mayor West is discovered playing poker with dogs. In the episode "Road to Rhode Island", Stewie comments on the Dogs Playing Poker paintings hanging on a wall, and suggests that since Jesus is alone in one of the other paintings, the dogs should invite him to their card game. In the TV series Boy Meets World, Eric is cleaning out the garage when he finds one of the Dogs Playing Poker paintings, and shows his parents. In the 2009 animated film Up, several dog characters are briefly seen playing poker, using a pile of Milk-Bones as poker chips. In the 2011 downloadable content Old World Blues for the 2010 video game Fallout: New Vegas, the player can spot multiple cyber dogs playing poker in the X-8 research facility if they have the "Wild Wasteland" trait. In "Lawnmower Dog", a 2013 episode of the animated series Rick and Morty, five intelligent dogs play poker and smoke cigars while using their advanced robotic suits. In the 2016 film, The Accountant, the paintings are discussed by the lead characters. Later, a copy of A Friend in Need is used as a cover to hide a Jackson Pollock painting. In the 2018 television series Disenchantment episode "Love's Tender Rampage", the characters walk past a shop in which dogs are playing poker. In the 2019 Mickey Mouse episode titled "You, Me, and Fifi," Goofy, Pluto, and several other Disney dog-themed characters play a card game similar to poker, but is revealed to be Go Fish when Goofy cries out "GO FISH". In the 2019 animated film Toy Story 4, a painting of Charles Muntz and the dogs from the 2009 film Up playing poker can be seen at the antiques store. In the 2019 Carmen Sandiego season one episode 5 "The Duke of Vermeer Caper", Zack mocks Princess Cleo's assistant as "His idea of art is probably a painting of dogs playing poker!". Snoop Dogg references A Friend in Need on the cover of his 2019 album, I Wanna Thank Me In the 2020 Ray Donovan season seven episode "Passport and a Gun", Jim Sullivan rewards young Ray for his successful debut as a debt collector with a valued and framed Dogs Playing Poker painting, A Friend in Need. In the science fiction book and audio book Home Front, in the Expeditionary Force series, the advanced Elder artificial intelligence owns one of the original paintings, and discuss that there are 11 Dogs Playing Poker paintings. In the Amazon Prime video series Pete the Cat the character Neville is painting a dog playing poker. See also William Wegman Laying Down the Law, 1840 painting References Further reading Harris, Maria Ochoa. "It's A Dog's World, According to Coolidge", A Friendly Game of Poker (Chicago Review Press, 2003). External links 1894 paintings 1903 paintings 1910 paintings American paintings Anthropomorphic dogs Dogs in art Dogs in popular culture Gambling in art Modern paintings Painting series Works about poker

Coyle

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Coyle is a surname of Irish origin. People sharing this surname Andrew Coyle (contemporary), British law professor and prison official Anthony Coyle (American football) (born 1996), American football player Bill Coyle (1871–1941), American baseball player Bill Coyle (born ?), American poet Brendan Coyle (born 1963), English actor Brian Coyle (1944–1991), American gay rights activist Brock Coyle (born 1990) American Football Player Charles Delmer Coyle (1887–1954), Canadian politician from Ontario; MP from Elgin 1945–54 Charlie Coyle (born 1992), American ice hockey player Charlotte Coyle (born 1982), Northern Ireland plus-size model Cleo Coyle or Alice Alfonsi, American author Colm Coyle (born 1965), Irish Gaelic football player and manager Craig Coyle (born 1980), Scottish footballer Dallas Coyle (contemporary), American guitarist David Coyle (born 1970) Scottish guitarist and music producer Denise Coyle (born 1953), American politician from New Jersey; state legislator since 2008 Diane Coyle (born 1961), English economist Eric Coyle (born 1963), American football player Fay Coyle (1933–2007), Northern Ireland football player Frank Coyle (1886–1947), American Olympic track and field athlete Harold Coyle (born 1952), American author of war novels (Team Yankee) Henry Coyle (boxer) (born 1987), Irish boxer Henry Coyle (politician) (died 1979), Irish army officer and politician; TD for Mayo North Iain Coyle (born 1968), British TV presenter and producer James Coyle (rugby league) (born 1985), English rugby league player James Coyle (1873–1921), American Roman Catholic priest Joey Coyle (1953–1993), American longshoreman who found $1.2 million that had fallen from an armored car John Coyle (footballer) (born 1932), Scottish football player John Coyle (speed skater) (born 1968), American speed skater Liam Coyle (born 1968), Northern Ireland football player Marion Coyle (born 1954), Irish member of the Provisional IRA Mark Coyle (born 1969), Athletics director at the University of Minnesota Mark J. Coyle (c. 1965–2007), American political consultant Matt Coyle (born 1971), English-born Australian artist and novelist Michael Coyle (politician) (born 1948), Northern Ireland nationalist politician; member of the Northern Ireland Assembly 2002 Michael Patrick Coyle (born 1957), American composer Nadine Coyle (born 1985), Irish pop singer Owen Coyle (born 1966), Scottish-born football player playing for Ireland Pat Coyle (lacrosse) (born 1969), Canadian lacrosse player Pat Coyle (basketball) (contemporary), American basketball coach Reg Coyle (born 1917), Australian Australian Rules Footballer Richard Coyle (born 1972), English actor Richard Coyle (pirate) (died 1738), English pirate Robert Everett Coyle (1930-2012), United States federal judge Robert J. Coyle, American Roman Catholic bishop Ronnie Coyle (born 1964), Scottish football player Rose Coyle (1914–1988), American beauty queen; Miss America 1936 Ross Coyle (born 1937), American football player Roy Coyle (born 1946), Northern Ireland football player and coach T. Thorn Coyle (born 1965), American neopaganist author Thomas Coyle (rugby league) (born 1988), English rugby league player Thomas Coyle (accused of murder) (fl. 1871), Canadian acquitted of the murder of George Campbell Tim Coyle (born 1960), Australian cricketer Tommy Coyle (born 1989), British professional boxer Tony Coyle (born 1976), South African footballer Tyler Coyle (born 1998), American football player William R. Coyle (1878–1962), American politician from Pennsylvania; U.S. representative 1925–33 Fictional characters sharing this surname Eddie Coyle, protagonist of the novel and film The Friends of Eddie Coyle Malcolm Coyle, character on the American television series Oz Joseph Coyle, security guard at the casino in Ocean's Eleven Dr. Coyle, a scientist from Arms Coyle, a fictional military tutor in Benjamin Britten's opera Owen Wingrave and in the short story by Henry James on which it was based English-language surnames

The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor

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The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor is a 2008 American action-adventure fantasy film, directed by Rob Cohen, written by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar, and produced by Stephen Sommers (director of the first two films), Bob Ducsay, Sean Daniel, and James Jacks. The film is set in China, departing from the Egyptian setting, and focuses on the Terracotta Army's origins. It is the third and final installment in The Mummy trilogy and stars Brendan Fraser, Jet Li, Maria Bello (replacing Rachel Weisz, who played Evelyn in the first two films), John Hannah, Luke Ford, Anthony Wong, and Michelle Yeoh. The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor premiered in Moscow on July 24, 2008, and was released in the United States on August 1, 2008. The film received mostly negative reviews from critics and grossed $403 million worldwide, the trilogy's lowest-grossing film. Universal Pictures rebooted the Mummy film in 2017 as an attempt to start the Dark Universe franchise. Plot In ancient China, a warlord unites the country's kingdoms into an empire and becomes the Dragon Emperor. He orders the construction of the Great Wall of China, and has his enemies' corpses are buried underneath. He also learns to control the traditional Chinese Wuxing elements. However, the Emperor grows fearful that his death will end all he has accomplished and summons Zi Yuan, a sorceress. He sends her to an ancient monastery with his second-in-command, General Ming, to find the long-lost Oracle Bones, which hold the key to eternal life. Zi Yuan and Ming fall in love, despite the Emperor wanting Zi Yuan to himself. When one of his servants witnesses them consummating their relationship, the Emperor has Ming executed in retaliation. Yuan curses the Emperor and his soldiers, turning them into the Terracotta Army. In 1946, Alex O'Connell, Rick and Evelyn O'Connell's son, and his archaeology professor Roger Wilson locate the Emperor's tomb. Though attacked by a mysterious woman, they bring the sarcophagus to Shanghai. At the same time, the British government entrusts Rick and Evelyn to take a gemstone called the Eye of Shangri-La back to China. In Shanghai, the O'Connells learn that Wilson works for a rogue military faction led by General Yang and his assistant, Colonel Choi, who provided the financial backing of Alex's expedition. Yang believes the Emperor can lead China out of the chaos following World War II, and resurrects him using the Eye of Shangri-La, which contains mystical water from Shangri-La. Revived, the Emperor accepts Yang's services but kills Wilson. The O'Connells' attempt to stop the Emperor with the help of Lin, the woman who had earlier attacked Alex, but the Emperor manages to escape. Lin reveals that she possesses the only weapon that can kill the Emperor- a cursed dagger. Along with Evelyn's brother, Jonathan Carnahan, the O'Connells and Lin travel to a stupa in the Himalayas that will reveal the path to Shangri-La. With help from yetis summoned by Lin, the group holds off Yang's forces, but the Emperor discovers Shangri-La's location. The Emperor gravely wounds Rick while Alex triggers an avalanche, slowing the Emperor's pursuit. Lin takes the group to Shangri-La, where Zi Yuan still lives, and is able to heal Rick's wound. The group discovers that Lin is Yuan's daughter, both rendered immortal due to the mystical waters. As Rick heals, Alex and Lin grow attached, but Lin cannot bear falling in love with Alex only to watch him grow old and die. The Emperor and Yang arrive and the Emperor bathes in the waters, which restores his human form and grants him massive supernatural power. Morphing into a three-headed dragon, he steals the cursed dagger, kidnaps Lin and flies back to his tomb. He revives the Terracotta Army, declares his intention for world domination, and directs them to breach the Great Wall, after which they will be invincible. The O'Connells and Zi Yuan pursue the Emperor to the Great Wall, where Yuan, using the Oracle Bones, sacrifices her and Lin's immortality to raise an undead army of the Emperor's enemies, led by a revived General Ming. As the two undead armies clash, Alex rescues Lin. Yuan fights the Emperor and steals the dagger from him before he mortally wounds her. As she dies, she gives the dagger to Rick and Alex. The Emperor retreats into the Great Wall, but is confronted by Rick and Alex while Evelyn and Lin kill Yang and Choi. After a ferocious fight, Rick and Alex manage to overpower the Emperor and stab him with the dagger, vanquishing him and destroying the Terracotta Army. Ming and his army briefly celebrate before entering the afterlife. The O'Connells and Lin return to Shanghai, where Alex and Lin start a relationship. Jonathan moves to Peru with the Eye of Shangri-La, intending to live somewhere with no mummies, not knowing that mummies will soon be discovered there. Cast Brendan Fraser as Rick O'Connell, a retired adventurer, Evelyn's husband and Alex's father. Jet Li as Han the Dragon Emperor, an evil warlord who desired immortality. Though he becomes immortal, he and his army were mummified alive. Once revived, he seeks to enslave the world. Maria Bello as Evelyn Carnahan-O'Connell, Rick's wife and Alex's mother, also a retired adventurer/librarian turned novelist. She was previously portrayed by Rachel Weisz. John Hannah as Jonathan Carnahan, Evelyn's elder brother. Russell Wong as General Ming Guo, the Emperor's former second-in-command, Zi Yuan's lover, and Lin's father. Liam Cunningham as Mad Dog Maguire, a pilot and old friend of Rick who helps the O'Connells make their way to Tibet on their journey to Shangri-La. Luke Ford as Alex O'Connell, Rick's and Evelyn's son, now twenty-one years old, who develops a crush on Zi Yuan's daughter, Lin. He was previously portrayed by Freddie Boath in the last film. Isabella Leong as Lin, Alex's love interest, Zi Yuan's daughter and protector of the Emperor's tomb. Michelle Yeoh as Zi Yuan, an immortal sorceress whom the Emperor sought in order to obtain the secret to eternal life she possesses. Chau Sang Anthony Wong as General Yang, a rogue Kuomintang general who becomes the Emperor's supporter. Jessey Meng as Colonel Choi, Yang's assistant. David Calder as Professor Roger Wilson, Alex's supporter in his expedition of the Emperor's tomb, but secretly a collaborator with Yang and Choi. Albert Kwan as Chu Wah, a worker at the initial dig site who is killed by an acid trap. James Bradford as Jameson, Rick and Evelyn's butler. Michael Sherer and Scott Taylor as the motion-capture of the yetis that aid the O'Connells in the Himalayas. Freda Foh Shen as the Narrator. Production Development In November 2001, director Stephen Sommers, who directed the previous Mummy films, said about directing a third film, "There is a demand for it, but most of the gang would only be up for it again if we could find a way to make it bigger and better." In May 2004 during the release of Van Helsing, he expressed his doubts about having the energy to make a third film, though the cast of previous films had expressed interest in returning. In December 2005, he reviewed a script written by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar was about a Chinese mummy (China's first emperor, who wants to take over the world with his army of accursed warriors in 1940). The idea of The Emperor and his army is based on the real-life Qin emperor Qin Shi Huang, who was buried amidst thousands of crafted and fired terra cotta soldiers, called the Terracotta Army. Writing An early version of Gough and Millar's script contained many callbacks to the previous films that went unused. The original prologue had Zi Yuan (Zohora) going to Hamunaptra and making a terracotta copy of the Book of the Dead, featuring the puzzle box key from the first film. Instead of the Oracle Bones, Zohora uses the book's terracotta copy to curse the Emperor and his army. The book would also be used to resurrect the Emperor instead of the Elixir of Life. Jonathan not only named his nightclub after Imhotep but styled the barmaids with Anck-Su-Namun's bodypaint. The Bembridge Scholars that Evy frequently mentioned in the first film would have returned in a minor role as the character Sir Colin Willoughby, the head of the society, would play a role in the Dragon Emperor's resurrection in Wilson's place. In the second film, Meela says three men will "receive their [your] just rewards." The Emperor Mummy says Yang (Okumura) will get his reward when the Emperor conquers the larger world. During the final battle, Alex's slingshot would return to play a vital role in defeating the Emperor. Like the previous films, this early draft contained more body horror elements, including a crocodile eating Okumura's arm; and maggots, bone fragments, and fossilized guts seeping through the Emperor Mummy's wounds. Upon becoming immortal, the Emperor forms a new brain and eyeball and skin grafts over his cracked body. In his mummy form, the Dragon Emperor shared a few similarities with Imhotep: They both drain people's lifeforce to heal themselves (in doing so, the Emperor, however, also turns his victims into terracotta and shatters them); after draining one character, the Emperor Mummy inherits his victim's blue eyes, like Imhotep did in one scene of the second movie; Just as Imhotep made impressions of his face in sand and water in the first and second films, respectively, the Emperor Mummy does the same during the avalanche, making his face appear in the snow. The mummification sequence was also more graphic as the Emperor's heart would've been made visible through his chest, pumping black blood through his veins and out of his pores. Then molten clay covers his clothes and body before being superheated and hardened by intense white light beams from within him. The script showed the Emperor as having a more ruthless personality. He sends Zohora to Hamunaptra under the threat of killing her lover Ming Guo (Sun Tzu) if she fails to return within 90 days, only to present her with his head in a box when she does. When he becomes immortal, the Emperor puts a searing finger to Okumura's forehead, makes him kneel, and pledge his loyalty. He kisses Zohora to simultaneously spite her and curse her by turning her and the other immortals in Shangri-La into terracotta statues. The curse doesn't affect Lin (Lily Chen) because she's already sacrificed her immortality before the Emperor's arrival to Shangri-La. Then, as he takes Lily, the Emperor tells her that she will pay for her mother's sins by sharing his bed as his queen. During the climax, the Emperor punishes Okumura for his failure by encasing him in a giant brass lantern. The script took place in 1940 during World War II instead of afterward. Rick and Evy are introduced in Agra, India, acting as spies for the British government, observing Okumura, believing he has a secret weapon for the Japanese to win the war, later revealed to be the Emperor. With the backdrop of the war, the script shows the tensions between the Chinese and Japanese, with one scene in Imhotep's where Jonathan calms a dispute between the O'Connells' friend and Chinese resistance member, Chang, and Japanese Major Suki. Another later had the O'Connells reluctantly forced to stand back and watch Chang get captured by Japanese troops, who collect insurgents and send them on trains to work camps, as Lily previously told Alex. It's revealed that despite Rick and Evy sending Alex to Yale to protect him, he left his freshman year without their knowledge and failed to enlist in the army before being called by Willoughby to work with him. Unlike the film, the O'Connells learn the Emperor has five days to become immortal after he's awakened, or else he'll turn to dust. Later, at a monastery in the Himalayas ransacked by Japanese soldiers, they encounter a Tibetan monk they dub Tequila, who joins the group, leads them to the Temple of Whispering Skulls and accompanies them to the Great Wall. Rather than the Emperor Mummy mortally wounding Rick, Alex would've taken the hit to save his dad. Other notable differences between the script and film include Shangri-La depicted as a lush utopia filled with people from various eras. The Dragon Emperor showed more of his mastery over the five Chinese elements: He freezes and unfreezes a river to escape; rapidly shoots fireballs from his hands; makes "snow arms" to drag enemies underground, and makes a raincloud with water from the Spring of Eternal Life to raise his army. Unlike in the movie, he doesn't become a shapeshifter. Many Chinese slave workers and other prisoners the Japanese took, including Chang, ward off the Emperor's Terracotta Army instead of undead warriors. Instead of the one-on-one fight between Rick and the Dragon Emperor, the O'Connells try to complete a ritual involving the five elements to unlock the "River of Spirits," the Emperor's enemies' souls beneath the Great Wall, to defeat the terracotta soldiers as the Emperor tries to stop them. Rick tells the Emperor to give Imhotep his regards after delivering the killing blow. The terracotta curse upon Shangri-La ends with the Emperor's death, freeing its inhabitants, including Zohora. Casting In March 2006, actor Oded Fehr, who played Ardeth Bay in the first two films said that Sommers had told him that a third film was in development and being written, with only Brendan Fraser and Rachel Weisz's characters returning. The following September, Universal Pictures offered director Joe Johnston the helm, instead of Jurassic World but Johnston declined. Later in the month, Weisz expressed interest in reprising her role. In January 2007, Universal announced Sommers would not direct the third film. It was then announced that Universal entered talks with director Rob Cohen to take over directing duties. Later in the month, the story was revealed to center around Brendan Fraser and Rachel Weisz's characters, as well as their adult son. Negotiations with the actors were in progress at that time. In February, casting began for the role of Alex O'Connell. Additionally, John Hannah reprised his role as Jonathan. Also in that month, Cohen mentioned that Jet Li and Michelle Yeoh would star in the film although the official confirmation wasn't published until May. In April, Brendan Fraser re-joined the cast for the film. Weisz did not, citing "problems with the script" in addition to having just given birth to her son. The film was shot in Montreal and China. The film was originally reported to be titled The Mummy 3: Curse of the Dragon. In April, Luke Ford was cast as Alex O'Connell, replacing Freddie Boath in the role and in May, Maria Bello was cast to replace Weisz in the role of Evelyn. Bello commented during an interview that the new "Evy" is different from the original "Evy". "She has the same name, but she is quite a different character," said Bello. At a news conference in Shanghai, Bello told the audience that Rob Cohen has "created a new Evelyn. In the first two Mummy movies she was all actiony and lovely, but this Evelyn might be a little more... forceful in terms of her martial art skills and shooting skills". Filming Principal photography started at Montreal's Mel's Cite du Cinéma. There, the Eye of Shangri-la scenes were shot by production designer Nigel Phelps. The team then shot on the courtyard set of gateway to Shangri-la. The courtyard was dressed with fake snow, created by effects supervisor Bruce Steinheimer's team. At the city's ADF stage, Phelps's team created sets of the Terra Cotta mausoleum. Set decorator Anne Kuljian designed 20 different statue heads that were sculpted by 3D Arts team and interchanged between shots. One soldier and horse statue was bought from China, and copies of it as well as "The Dragon Emperor" were made (Jet Li's statue was sculpted by Lucie Fournier, Tino Petronzio, and Nick Petronzio in a workshop in Montreal). Propmaster Kim Wai Chung supervised the making of the horses’ bridles and mausoleum ornaments in China. Meanwhile, at Mel's, the brutal battle between the Emperor and Rick was filmed, the first scene shot with Jet Li. On October 15, 2007, the team moved to China. At Shanghai Studios, a set depicting the city in the 1940s was used for the chase sequence and was shot in three weeks. General Yang's camp was filmed in a Ming village near Tian Mo. At the studio, Chinese cultural advisers aided Cohen in depicting the Qin Dynasty language and ceremonies. The O'Connell family's drama scenes were shot in an Egyptian-themed nightclub suitably named "Imhotep's". The crew frequently had to halt in and near Shanghai when soldiers marched. The desert battlefield's setting was actually a training facility for the Chinese army that was leased. Effects The visual effects were done by two Los Angeles-based VFX houses. Rhythm and Hues Studios designed the Yetis and dragons, while Digital Domain handled the battle scenes with the Emperor's terracotta warriors. The pool of water resembling diamonds took Rhythm and Hues eleven months to complete. The A.I. software Massive, used for the Lord of the Rings films, was used to create the undead battle scenes. Design company Imaginary Forces created the opening title sequence and end titles. IF designers also shot real paint splatters and brushstrokes. To portray an "accurate and historic China," they turned to calligrapher T.Z. Yuan for ink brush writing. Music Most of the film's score was composed by Randy Edelman and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra. The soundtrack features numerous different Chinese and Middle Eastern ethnic instruments along with classic British folklore. The soundtrack was released on July 29, 2008, by Varèse Sarabande label, two days before the film's release. Composer John Debney (who had previously scored the music for the Mummy franchise's spin-off The Scorpion King) provided additional re-scored material for most of the bigger action sequences. The Hollywood Studio Symphony recorded 30 minutes of Debney's music in less than ten hours at the Fox Scoring Stage in July 2008, shortly before the film's release, however, the soundtrack album features Edelman's score and none of Debney's. The trailer prominently features the cues "Armada" by Two Steps From Hell and "DNA Reactor" by Pfeifer Broz. Music, the latter which also plays at the end of the Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix trailer. It also plays Vampire Hunters by Wojciech Kilar, which was used in the trailers of the first and second films. The soundtrack features "The Flower Duet" by Léo Delibes from his opera Lakmé. Reception Marketing The Mummy Movie Prequel: The Rise & Fall of Xango's Ax, a comic book limited series by IDW Publishing, was published to promote the film. The comic explores the relationship between Rick and his son Alex. Sierra Entertainment made a game version of The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor for Wii, PlayStation 2, and Nintendo DS, which was released on July 22, 2008, in North America to mostly negative reviews. Gameloft made game version of The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor for mobile phones. Box office The film premiered in Moscow on July 24, 2008, and had a wide release of 3,760 theatres in North America on August 1, 2008. The film was the top-grossing film the day it opened, earning $15.2 million (The Dark Knight was in second place with $12 million) on Friday. However, the film did not become number one overall in the box office on opening weekend, claiming only $40.4 million, which allowed The Dark Knight to claim the top spot for the third consecutive week with $42.6 million. The film however scored a bigger success at the international box office where it opened at the first position in 26 of the 28 released markets over the weekend and grossed over $59.5 million in the three-day period. It substantially outpaced comparable openings for The Mummy ($16.7 million) and The Mummy Returns ($21.5 million) in the same markets. The film also set opening records for the distributor in Korea (drawing $13.3 million), Russia ($12.7 million), Spain ($6.7 million), and Thailand. As of October 10, 2008, the film's domestic total stands at $102,491,776, with a much stronger international intake of $300,958,054. This brings its worldwide total to $403,449,830. It is the lowest-grossing film in The Mummy trilogy. Critical response As of November 2021, on Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 12%, based on 177 reviews, with an average rating of 3.70/10. The site's critical consensus read, "With middling CG effects and a distinct lack of fun, The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor finds the series past its prime." As of November 2021, on Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 31 out of 100, based on reviews from 33 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a positive review, awarding it three stars out of four and remarking, "Now why did I like this movie? It was just plain dumb fun, is why." Ebert also stated that it is the best in the series. Nathan Rabin of The Onion'''s A.V. Club stated that the film "succeeds largely through sheer excess", albeit within a context that "plods along mechanically through its first hour." William Arnold of Seattle Post-Intelligencer gave a mildly positive review, saying that "anyone in the market for an overblown and totally mindless adventure-comedy will certainly get his money's worth." Dallas movie reviewer Casey C. Corpier said that the film was almost as enjoyable as the original and liked the fact that it delivered what it advertised. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said the film "has some good things [but] does not have enough of them to make the third time the charm." Ken Fox of TV Guide called the film "passable popcorn fare." Jennie Punter of The Globe and Mail said the film is "kind of fun, but the twists and turns are all too familiar." Michael Sragow of the Baltimore Sun said the film is "like an Indiana Jones movie without rhythm, wit or personality, just a desperate, headlong pace." Accolades Home media The film was released on DVD on December 16, 2008. By mid-2011, excluding Blu-ray sales and DVD rentals, it had sold over 2.5 million copies, totalling in revenue. Other media Possible sequel After the film was released, actress Maria Bello stated that another Mummy film will "absolutely" be made and that she had already signed on. Actor Luke Ford was signed on for three more films as well. However, in 2012, Universal Pictures cancelled the film and was instead working on a reboot, titled The Mummy. In 2021, Universal expressed interest in reviving the project with Brendan Fraser reprising his role as Rick O'Connell. Reboot On April 4, 2012, Universal announced their plans to reboot the franchise. The film was intended to be the first installment of the Dark Universe, simply titled The Mummy'', and was released in June 2017. However, the film failed both critically and financially, making this the only film installment in a failed Dark Universe. References External links 2008 films 2000s action comedy films 2000s adventure comedy films 2000s fantasy-comedy films 2008 martial arts films American action adventure films American films American action comedy films American adventure comedy films American fantasy adventure films American sequel films English-language films Films directed by Rob Cohen Films produced by Bob Ducsay Films produced by James Jacks Films produced by Stephen Sommers Films scored by John Debney Films set in 1946 Films shot in China Films shot in Montreal Films set in the Qin dynasty Martial arts fantasy films Relativity Media films The Mummy (franchise) Universal Pictures films Yeti in fiction Films about dragons Films scored by Randy Edelman Films about witchcraft 2008 comedy films

Endolymph

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Endolymph is the fluid contained in the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear. The major cation in endolymph is potassium, with the values of sodium and potassium concentration in the endolymph being 0.91 mM and 154 mM, respectively. It is also called Scarpa's fluid, after Antonio Scarpa. Structure The inner ear has two parts: the bony labyrinth and the membranous labyrinth. The membranous labyrinth is contained within the bony labyrinth, and within the membranous labyrinth is a fluid called endolymph. Between the outer wall of the membranous labyrinth and the wall of the bony labyrinth is the location of perilymph. Composition Perilymph and endolymph have unique ionic compositions suited to their functions in regulating electrochemical impulses of hair cells. The electric potential of endolymph is ~80-90 mV more positive than perilymph due to a higher concentration of K compared to Na. The main component of this unique extracellular fluid is potassium, which is secreted from the stria vascularis. The high potassium content of the endolymph means that potassium, not sodium, is carried as the de-polarizing electric current in the hair cells. This is known as the mechano-electric transduction (MET) current. Endolymph has a high positive potential (80–120 mV in the cochlea), relative to other nearby fluids such as perilymph, due to its high concentration of positively charged ions. It is mainly this electrical potential difference that allows potassium ions to flow into the hair cells during mechanical stimulation of the hair bundle. Because the hair cells are at a negative potential of about -50 mV, the potential difference from endolymph to hair cell is on the order of 150 mV, which is the largest electrical potential difference found in the body. Function Hearing: Cochlear duct: fluid waves in the endolymph of the cochlear duct stimulate the receptor cells, which in turn translate their movement into nerve impulses that the brain perceives as sound. Balance: Semicircular canals: angular acceleration of the endolymph in the semicircular canals stimulate the vestibular receptors of the endolymph. The semicircular canals of both inner ears act in concert to coordinate balance. Clinical significance Disruption of the endolymph due to jerky movements (like spinning around or driving over bumps while riding in a car) can cause motion sickness. A condition where the volume of the endolymph is greatly enlarged is called endolymphatic hydrops and has been linked to Ménière's disease. Additional images See also Dark cell Perilymph Stria vascularis Organ of Corti Ménière's disease References External links https://web.archive.org/web/20051030092447/http://oto.wustl.edu/cochlea/res1.htm Longitudinal Flow of Endolymph at wustl.edu Human head and neck Ear Body fluids

Timeline of British history (1000–1499)

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This article presents a timeline of events in British history from 1000 AD until 1499 AD. 11th century 1016 King Cnut, crowned king of England 1034 Death of King Malcolm II of Scotland, Duncan I accedes to the Scottish throne 1035 Death of Cnut 1040 Death of Duncan I, Macbeth accedes to the Scottish throne 1040 Death of Harold Harefoot, his brother Harthacnut accedes to the English throne 1042 Death of Harthacnut, Edward the Confessor accedes to the English throne 1057 Death of Macbeth, Lulach accedes to the Scottish throne 1058 Death of Lulach, Malcolm III accedes to the Scottish throne 1066 Death of Edward the Confessor in January, Harold II accedes to the English throne. Norman invasion and conquest of England, Harold II is killed and William the Conqueror becomes King of England 1078 Work commenced on Tintern Abbey 1086 Work commences on the Domesday Book 1087 Death of William the Conqueror 1093 Death of Malcolm III of Scotland in battle against the English 1100 Death of William II, Henry I accedes to the throne of England 1100 White tower of London completed 12th century 1135 Death of Henry I, accession of King Stephen to English throne 1137 Beginning of a civil war between King Stephen and the Empress Matilda over the succession to the English throne; accession of Owain Gwynedd, the first Welsh ruler to style himself prince of Wales 1154 Death of King Stephen, accession of Henry II to English throne 1164 Constitutions of Clarendon, a set of laws which governs the trial of members of the Church in England 1170 Assassination of Thomas Becket; death of Owain Gwynedd, prince of Wales 1189 Death of Henry II, Richard I accedes to the English throne. 1192 Richard is captured by Duke Leopold of Austria whilst returning from the Crusades 1194 Richard is ransomed and returns to England; accession of Llywelyn ab Iorwerth to the throne of Gwynedd 1199 Death of Richard I, King John accedes to the English throne 13th century 1209 King John excommunicated by Pope Innocent III 1212 Great Fire of 1212, London 1215 The Magna Carta is agreed by King John at Runnymede 1216 Death of King John, Henry III succeeds to the throne of England 1237 Border between Scotland and England by the Treaty of York 1240 Death of Llywelyn ab Iorwerth, prince of Wales; Dafydd ap Llywelyn succeeds to the throne of Gwynedd 1246 Death of Dafydd ap Llywelyn; Llywelyn ap Gruffudd succeeds to the throne of Gwynedd (he does not claim the title of prince of Wales until 1258) 1249 Death of Alexander II, king of Scots; Alexander III succeeds to the throne of Scotland 1263 Battle of Largs, an inconclusive battle fought between Haakon IV of Norway and the Scots 1264 Simon de Montfort leads rebel English barons to defeat Henry III at the Battle of Lewes 1266 Scotland and Norway sign the Treaty of Perth under which Scottish control of the Western Isles is acknowledged 1267 Henry III of England recognises the authority of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd in Wales 1272 Death of Henry III, Edward I succeeds to the English throne 1277 England annexes Wales, a state of affairs which lasted until 1283 1279 Statute of Mortmain 1282 Death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, prince of Wales; Dafydd ap Gruffudd succeeds to the throne of Gwynedd 1283 Death of Dafydd ap Gruffudd; English conquest of Wales 1287 Revolt of Rhys ap Maredudd in Wales 1294 Revolt of Madog ap Llywelyn in Wales 1297 William Wallace and the Scots defeat the English at the Battle of Stirling Bridge 14th century 1305 Capture and execution of Scottish resistance fighter William Wallace by the English on a charge of treason 1307 Death of Edward I, Edward II accedes to the English throne 1314 Decisive victory for Scotland over England at the Battle of Bannockburn 1316 Revolt of Llywelyn Bren in south Wales 1322 Edward II defeats a rebellious baronial faction at Battle of Boroughbridge 1327 Edward III usurps the English throne in January, Edward II is killed in September 1328 England recognises Scotland's independence in the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton 1338 Edward III claims the throne of France, initiating the Hundred Years' War 1348 The Black Death first arrives in England and ultimately kills c. one third of the population 1356 Battle of Poitiers 1377 Death of Edward III, his grandson Richard II accedes to the English throne 1381 Peasants' Revolt of 1381 1392 Statute of Praemunire 1399 Henry Bolingbroke usurps the English throne becoming Henry IV 15th century 1413 – Henry IV dies and is succeeded by his son, Henry V 1415 – Henry V is welcomed back to England after a major victory at the Battle of Agincourt, France 1422 – Henry V dies and is succeeded by his son, Henry VI 1471 – Henry VI is murdered and Edward IV is restored to the English throne 1483 – Death of Edward IV, Edward V accedes to the throne 1485 – The Battle of Bosworth Field on 22 August ends the Yorkist reign of Richard III and ushers in Tudor reign, with the reign of Henry VII 1487 – The Battle of Stoke is fought between Henry VII and Lambert Simnel a Yorkist claimant to the throne. It is the last battle of the Wars of the Roses See also Timeline of British history History of England History of Ireland History of Northern Ireland History of Scotland History of Wales History of the British Isles Britain in the Middle Ages External links Timeline 1400–1499 from Timeref.com Timeline 1300–1399 from Timeref.com Timeline 1200–1299 from Timeref.com Timeline 1100–1199 from Timeref.com Timeline 1000–1099 from Timeref.com British history timelines

French people

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The French people () are an ethnic group primarily located in Western Europe and nation that shares a common French culture, history, the French language and is identified with the country of France. The French people, especially the native speakers of langues d'oïl from northern and central France, are primarily the descendants of Gauls (including the Belgae) and Romans (or Gallo-Romans, western European Celtic and Italic peoples), as well as Germanic peoples such as the Franks, the Visigoths, the Suebi and the Burgundians who settled in Gaul from east of the Rhine after the fall of the Roman Empire, as well as various later waves of lower-level irregular migration that have continued to the present day. The Norse also settled in Normandy in the 10th century and contributed ancestry to the Normans. Furthermore, regional ethnic minorities also exist within France that have distinct lineages, languages and cultures such as Bretons in Brittany, Occitans in Occitania, Basques in the French Basque Country, Catalans in northern Catalonia, Germans in Alsace and Flemings in French Flanders. France has long been a patchwork of local customs and regional differences, and while most French people still speak the French language as their mother tongue, languages like Norman, Picard, Poitevin-Saintongeais, Franco-Provencal, Occitan, Catalan, Auvergnat, Corsican, Basque, French Flemish, Lorraine Franconian, Alsatian, and Breton remain spoken in their respective regions. Arabic is also widely spoken, arguably the largest minority language in France as of the 21st century (a spot previously held by Breton and Occitan). Modern French society is a melting pot. From the middle of the 19th century, it experienced a high rate of inward migration, mainly consisting of Arab-Berbers, Jews, Sub-Saharan Africans, Chinese, and other peoples from Africa, the Middle East and East Asia, and the government, defining France as an inclusive nation with universal values, advocated assimilation through which immigrants were expected to adhere to French values and cultural norms. Nowadays, while the government has let newcomers retain their distinctive cultures since the mid-1980s and requires from them a mere integration, French citizens still equate their nationality with citizenship as does French law. In addition to mainland France, French people and people of French descent can be found internationally, in overseas departments and territories of France such as the French West Indies (French Caribbean), and in foreign countries with significant French-speaking population groups or not, such as Switzerland (French Swiss), the United States (French Americans), Canada (French Canadians), Argentina (French Argentines), Brazil (French Brazilians), Mexico (French Mexicans), Chile (French Chileans) and Uruguay (French Uruguayans). Citizenship and legal residence To be French, according to the first article of the French Constitution, is to be a citizen of France, regardless of one's origin, race, or religion (sans distinction d'origine, de race ou de religion). According to its principles, France has devoted itself to the destiny of a proposition nation, a generic territory where people are bounded only by the French language and the assumed willingness to live together, as defined by Ernest Renan's "plébiscite de tous les jours" ('everyday plebiscite') on the willingness to live together, in Renan's 1882 essay "Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?"). The debate concerning the integration of this view with the principles underlying the European Community remains open. France has been historically open to immigration, although this has changed in recent years. Referring to this perceived openness, Gertrude Stein, wrote: "America is my country but Paris is my home". Indeed, the country has long valued its openness, tolerance and the quality of services available. Application for French citizenship is often interpreted as a renunciation of previous state allegiance unless a dual citizenship agreement exists between the two countries (for instance, this is the case with Switzerland: one can be both French and Swiss). The European treaties have formally permitted movement and European citizens enjoy formal rights to employment in the state sector (though not as trainees in reserved branches, e.g., as magistrates). Seeing itself as an inclusive nation with universal values, France has always valued and strongly advocated assimilation. However, the success of such assimilation has recently been called into question. There is increasing dissatisfaction with, and within, growing ethno-cultural enclaves (communautarisme). The 2005 French riots in some troubled and impoverished suburbs (les quartiers sensibles) were an example of such tensions. However they should not be interpreted as ethnic conflicts (as appeared before in other countries like the US and the UK) but as social conflicts born out of socioeconomic problems endangering proper integration. History Historically, the heritage of the French people is mostly of Celtic or Gallic, Latin (Romans) origin, descending from the ancient and medieval populations of Gauls or Celts from the Atlantic to the Rhone Alps, Germanic tribes that settled France from east of the Rhine and Belgium after the fall of the Roman Empire such as the Franks, Burgundians, Allemanni, Visigoths and Suebi, Latin and Roman tribes such as Ligurians and Gallo-Romans, Norse populations largely settling in Normandy at the beginning of the 10th century and "Bretons" (Celtic Britons) settling in Brittany in Western France. The name "France" etymologically derives from the word Francia, the territory of the Franks. The Franks were a Germanic tribe that overran Roman Gaul at the end of the Roman Empire. Celtic and Roman Gaul In the pre-Roman era, Gaul (an area of Western Europe that encompassed all of what is known today as France, Belgium, part of Germany and Switzerland, and Northern Italy) was inhabited by a variety of peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes. Their ancestors were Celts who came from Central Europe in the 7th century BCE or earlier, and non-Celtic peoples including the Ligures, Aquitanians and Basques in Aquitaine. The Belgae, who lived in the northern and eastern areas, may have had Germanic admixture; many of these peoples had already spoken Gaulish by the time of the Roman conquest. Gaul was militarily conquered in 58–51 BCE by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar, except for the south-east which had already been conquered about one century earlier. Over the next six centuries, the two cultures intermingled, creating a hybridized Gallo-Roman culture. In the late Roman era, in addition to colonists from elsewhere in the Empire and Gaulish natives, Gallia also became home to some immigrant populations of Germanic and Scythian origin, such as the Alans. The Gaulish language is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture. Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and calques (including oui, the word for "yes"), sound changes, and influences in conjugation and word order. Today, the last redoubt of Celtic language in France can be found in the northwestern region of Brittany, although this is not the result of a survival of Gaulish language but of a 5th-century AD migration of Brythonic speaking Celts from Britain. The Vulgar Latin in the region of Gallia took on a distinctly local character, some of which is attested in graffiti, which evolved into the Gallo-Romance dialects which include French and its closest relatives. Frankish Kingdom With the decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, a federation of Germanic peoples entered the picture: the Franks, from which the word "French" derives. The Franks were Germanic pagans who began to settle in northern Gaul as laeti during the Roman era. They continued to filter across the Rhine River from present-day Netherlands and Germany between the 3rd and 7th centuries. Initially, they served in the Roman army and obtained important commands. Their language is still spoken as a kind of Dutch (French Flemish) in northern France (French Flanders). The Alamans, another Germanic people immigrated to Alsace, hence the Alemannic German now spoken there. The Alamans were competitors of the Franks, and their name is the origin of the French word for "German": Allemand. By the early 6th century the Franks, led by the Merovingian king Clovis I and his sons, had consolidated their hold on much of modern-day France. The other major Germanic people to arrive in France, after the Burgundians and the Visigoths, were the Norsemen or Northmen. Known by the shortened name "Norman" in France, these were Viking raiders from modern Denmark and Norway. They settled with Anglo-Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons from the Danelaw in the region known today as Normandy in the 9th and 10th centuries. This later became a fiefdom of the Kingdom of France under King Charles III. The Vikings eventually intermarried with the local people, converting to Christianity in the process. It was the Normans who, two centuries later, would go on to conquer England and Southern Italy. Eventually, though, the largely autonomous Duchy of Normandy was incorporated back into the royal domain (i. e. the territory under direct control of the French king) in the Middle Ages. In the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, founded in 1099, at most 120,000 Franks, who were predominantly French-speaking Western Christians, ruled over 350,000 Muslims, Jews, and native Eastern Christians. Kingdom of France Unlike elsewhere in Europe, France experienced relatively low levels of emigration to the Americas, with the exception of the Huguenots, due to a lower birthrate than in the rest of Europe. However, significant emigration of mainly Roman Catholic French populations led to the settlement of the Province of Acadia, Canada (New France) and Louisiana, all (at the time) French possessions, as well as colonies in the West Indies, Mascarene islands and Africa. On 30 December 1687, a community of French Huguenots settled in South Africa. Most of these originally settled in the Cape Colony, but have since been quickly absorbed into the Afrikaner population. After Champlain's founding of Quebec City in 1608, it became the capital of New France. Encouraging settlement was difficult, and while some immigration did occur, by 1763 New France only had a population of some 65,000. From 1713 to 1787, 30,000 colonists immigrated from France to the Saint-Domingue. In 1805, when the French were forced out of Saint-Domingue (Haiti), 35,000 French settlers were given lands in Cuba. By the beginning of the 17th century, some 20% of the total male population of Catalonia was made up of French immigrants. In the 18th century and early 19th century, a small migration of French emigrated by official invitation of the Habsburgs to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, now the nations of Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Serbia and Romania. Some of them, coming from French-speaking communes in Lorraine or being French Swiss Walsers from the Valais canton in Switzerland, maintained for some generations the French language and a specific ethnic identity, later labelled as Banat (French: Français du Banat). By 1788 there were 8 villages populated by French colonists. French Republic The French First Republic appeared following the 1789 French Revolution. It replaced the ancient kingdom of France, ruled by the divine right of kings. Hobsbawm highlighted the role of conscription, invented by Napoleon, and of the 1880s public instruction laws, which allowed mixing of the various groups of France into a nationalist mold which created the French citizen and his consciousness of membership to a common nation, while the various regional languages of France were progressively eradicated. The 1870 Franco-Prussian War, which led to the short-lived Paris Commune of 1871, was instrumental in bolstering patriotic feelings; until World War I (1914–1918), French politicians never completely lost sight of the disputed Alsace-Lorraine region which played a major role in the definition of the French nation and therefore of the French people. The decrees of 24 October 1870 by Adolphe Crémieux granted automatic and massive French citizenship to all Jewish people of Algeria. 20th century Successive waves of immigrants during the 19th and 20th centuries were rapidly assimilated into French culture. France's population dynamics began to change in the middle of the 19th century, as France joined the Industrial Revolution. The pace of industrial growth attracted millions of European immigrants over the next century, with especially large numbers arriving from Poland, Belgium, Portugal, Italy, and Spain. In the period from 1915 to 1950, many immigrants came from Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Russia, Scandinavia and Yugoslavia. Small but significant numbers of Frenchmen in the North and Northeast regions have relatives in Germany and Great Britain. Between 1956 and 1967, about 235,000 North African Jews from Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco also immigrated to France due to the decline of the French empire and following the Six-Day War. Hence, by 1968, Jews of North African origin comprised the majority of the Jewish population of France. As these new immigrants were already culturally French they needed little time to adjust to French society. French law made it easy for thousands of settlers (colons in French), national French from former colonies of North and East Africa, India and Indochina to live in mainland France. It is estimated that 20,000 settlers were living in Saigon in 1945, and there were 68,430 European settlers living in Madagascar in 1958. 1.6 million European pieds noirs settlers migrated from Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 pied noir settlers left Algeria in the most massive relocation of population in Europe since the World War II. In the 1970s, over 30,000 French settlers left Cambodia during the Khmer Rouge regime as the Pol Pot government confiscated their farms and land properties. In the 1960s, a second wave of immigration came to France, which was needed for reconstruction purposes and for cheaper labour after the devastation brought on by World War II. French entrepreneurs went to Maghreb countries looking for cheap labour, thus encouraging work-immigration to France. Their settlement was officialized with Jacques Chirac's family regrouping act of 1976 (regroupement familial). Since then, immigration has become more varied, although France stopped being a major immigration country compared to other European countries. The large impact of North African and Arab immigration is the greatest and has brought racial, socio-cultural and religious questions to a country seen as homogenously European, French and Christian for thousands of years. Nevertherless, according to Justin Vaïsse, professor at Sciences Po Paris, integration of Muslim immigrants is happening as part of a background evolution and recent studies confirmed the results of their assimilation, showing that "North Africans seem to be characterized by a high degree of cultural integration reflected in a relatively high propensity to exogamy" with rates ranging from 20% to 50%. According to Emmanuel Todd the relatively high exogamy among French Algerians can be explained by the colonial link between France and Algeria. A small French descent group also subsequently arrived from Latin America (Argentina, Chile and Uruguay) in the 1970s. Languages In France Most French people speak the French language as their mother tongue, but certain languages like Norman, Occitan languages, Corsican, Euskara, French Flemish and Breton remain spoken in certain regions (see Language policy in France). There have also been periods of history when a majority of French people had other first languages (local languages such as Occitan, Catalan, Alsatian, West Flemish, Lorraine Franconian, Gallo, Picard or Ch'timi and Arpitan). Today, many immigrants speak another tongue at home. According to historian Eric Hobsbawm, "the French language has been essential to the concept of 'France'," although in 1789, 50 percent of the French people did not speak it at all, and only 12 to 13 percent spoke it fairly well; even in oïl languages zones, it was not usually used except in cities, and even there not always in the outlying districts. Abroad Abroad, the French language is spoken in many different countries – in particular the former French colonies. Nevertheless, speaking French is distinct from being a French citizen. Thus, francophonie, or the speaking of French, must not be confused with French citizenship or ethnicity. For example, French speakers in Switzerland are not "French citizens". Native English-speaking blacks on the island of Saint-Martin hold French nationality even though they do not speak French as a first language, while their neighbouring French-speaking Haitian immigrants (who also speak a French-creole) remain foreigners. Large numbers of people of French ancestry outside Europe speak other first languages, particularly English, throughout most of North America (with Quebec and Acadians in the Canadian Maritimes being notable, not the only, exceptions), Spanish or Portuguese in southern South America, and Afrikaans in South Africa. The adjective "French" can be used to mean either "French citizen" or "French-speaker", and usage varies depending on the context, with the former being common in France. The latter meaning is often used in Canada, when discussing matters internal to Canada. Nationality, citizenship, ethnicity Generations of settlers have migrated over the centuries to France, creating a variegated grouping of peoples. Thus the historian John F. Drinkwater states, "The French are, paradoxically, strongly conscious of belonging to a single nation, but they hardly constitute a unified ethnic group by any scientific gauge." The modern French are the descendants of mixtures including Romans, Celts, Iberians, Ligurians and Greeks in southern France, Germanic peoples arriving at the end of the Roman Empire such as the Franks and the Burgundians, and some Vikings who mixed with the Normans and settled mostly in Normandy in the 9th century. According to Dominique Schnapper, "The classical conception of the nation is that of an entity which, opposed to the ethnic group, affirms itself as an open community, the will to live together expressing itself by the acceptation of the rules of a unified public domain which transcends all particularisms". This conception of the nation as being composed by a "will to live together," supported by the classic lecture of Ernest Renan in 1882, has been opposed by the French far-right, in particular the nationalist Front National ("National Front" – FN / now Rassemblement National - "National Rally" - RN) party which claims that there is such a thing as a "French ethnic group". The discourse of ethno-nationalist groups such as the Front National (FN), however, advances the concept of Français de souche or "indigenous" French. The conventional conception of French history starts with Ancient Gaul, and French national identity often views the Gauls as national precursors, either as biological ancestors (hence the refrain nos ancêtres les Gaulois), as emotional/spiritual ancestors, or both. Vercingetorix, the Gaulish chieftain who tried to unite the various Gallic tribes of the land against Roman encroachment but was ultimately vanquished by Julius Caesar, is often revered as a "first national hero". In the famously popular French comic Asterix, the main characters are patriotic Gauls who fight against Roman invaders while in modern days the term Gaulois is used in French to distinguish the "native" French from French of immigrant origins. However, despite its occasional nativist usage, the Gaulish identity has also been embraced by French of non-native origins as well: notably, Napoleon III, whose family was ultimately of Corsican and Italian roots, identified France with Gaul and Vercingetorix, and declared that "New France, ancient France, Gaul are one and the same moral person." It has been noted that the French view of having Gallic origins has evolved over history. Before the French Revolution, it divided social classes, with the peasants identifying with the native Gauls while the aristocracy identified with the Franks. During the early nineteenth century, intellectuals began using the identification with Gaul instead as a unifying force to bridge divisions within French society with a common national origin myth. Myriam Krepps of the University of Nebraska-Omaha argues that the view of "a unified territory (one land since the beginning of civilization) and a unified people" which de-emphasized "all disparities and the succession of waves of invaders" was first imprinted on the masses by the unified history curriculum of French textbooks in the late 1870s. Since the beginning of the Third Republic (1871–1940), the state has not categorized people according to their alleged ethnic origins. Hence, in contrast to the United States Census, French people are not asked to define their ethnic appartenance, whichever it may be. The usage of ethnic and racial categorization is avoided to prevent any case of discrimination; the same regulations apply to religious membership data that cannot be compiled under the French Census. This classic French republican non-essentialist conception of nationality is officialized by the French Constitution, according to which "French" is a nationality, and not a specific ethnicity. Genetics France sits at the edge of the European peninsula and has seen waves of migration of groups that often settled owing to the presence of physical barriers preventing onward migration. This has led to language and regional cultural variegation, but the extent to which this pattern of migrations showed up in population genetics studies was unclear until the publication of a study in 2019 that used genome wide data. The study identified six different genetic clusters that could be distinguished across populations. The study concluded that the population genetic clusters correlate with linguistic and historical divisions in France and with the presence of geographic barriers such as mountains and major rivers. A population bottleneck was also identified in the fourteenth century, consistent with the timing for the Black Death in Europe. Nationality and citizenship French nationality has not meant automatic citizenship. Some categories of French people have been excluded, throughout the years, from full citizenship: Women: until the Liberation, they were deprived of the right to vote. The provisional government of General de Gaulle accorded them this right by 21 April 1944 prescription. However, women are still under-represented in the political class. The 6 June 2000 law on parity attempted to address this question by imposing a de facto quota system for women in French politics. Military: for a long time, it was called "la grande muette" ("the great mute") in reference to its prohibition from interfering in political life. During a large part of the Third Republic (1871–1940), the Army was in its majority anti-republican (and thus counterrevolutionary). The Dreyfus Affair and the 16 May 1877 crisis, which almost led to a monarchist coup d'état by MacMahon, are examples of this anti-republican spirit. Therefore, they would only gain the right to vote with the 17 August 1945 prescription: the contribution of De Gaulle to the interior French Resistance reconciled the Army with the Republic. Nevertheless, militaries do not benefit from the whole of public liberties, as the 13 July 1972 law on the general statute of militaries specify. Young people: the July 1974 law, voted at the instigation of president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, reduced from 21 to 18 the age of majority. Naturalized foreigners: since the 9 January 1973 law, foreigners who have acquired French nationality do not have to wait five years after their naturalization to be able to vote anymore. Inhabitants of the colonies: the 7 May 1946 law meant that soldiers from the "Empire" (such as the tirailleurs) killed during World War I and World War II were not citizens. The special case of foreign citizens of an EU member state who, even if not French, are allowed to vote in French local elections if living in France, and may turn to any French consular or diplomatic mission if there is no such representations of their own country. France was one of the first countries to implement denaturalization laws. Philosopher Giorgio Agamben has pointed out this fact that the 1915 French law which permitted denaturalization with regard to naturalized citizens of "enemy" origins was one of the first example of such legislation, which Nazi Germany later implemented with the 1935 Nuremberg Laws. Furthermore, some authors who have insisted on the "crisis of the nation-state" allege that nationality and citizenship are becoming separate concepts. They show as example "international", "supranational citizenship" or "world citizenship" (membership to international nongovernmental organizations such as Amnesty International or Greenpeace). This would indicate a path toward a "postnational citizenship". Beside this, modern citizenship is linked to civic participation (also called positive freedom), which implies voting, demonstrations, petitions, activism, etc. Therefore, social exclusion may lead to deprivation of citizenship. This has led various authors (Philippe Van Parijs, Jean-Marc Ferry, Alain Caillé, André Gorz) to theorize a guaranteed minimum income which would impede exclusion from citizenship. Multiculturalism versus universalism In France, the conception of citizenship teeters between universalism and multiculturalism. French citizenship has been defined for a long time by three factors: integration, individual adherence, and the primacy of the soil (jus soli). Political integration (which includes but is not limited to racial integration) is based on voluntary policies which aims at creating a common identity, and the interiorization by each individual of a common cultural and historic legacy. Since in France, the state preceded the nation, voluntary policies have taken an important place in the creation of this common cultural identity. On the other hand, the interiorization of a common legacy is a slow process, which B. Villalba compares to acculturation. According to him, "integration is therefore the result of a double will: the nation's will to create a common culture for all members of the nation, and the communities' will living in the nation to recognize the legitimacy of this common culture". Villalba warns against confusing recent processes of integration (related to the so-called "second generation immigrants", who are subject to discrimination), with older processes which have made modern France. Villalba thus shows that any democratic nation characterize itself by its project of transcending all forms of particular memberships (whether biological – or seen as such, ethnic, historic, economic, social, religious or cultural). The citizen thus emancipates himself from the particularisms of identity which characterize himself to attain a more "universal" dimension. He is a citizen, before being a member of a community or of a social class Therefore, according to Villalba, "a democratic nation is, by definition, multicultural as it gathers various populations, which differs by their regional origins (Auvergnats, Bretons, Corsicans or Lorrains...), their national origins (immigrant, son or grandson of an immigrant), or religious origins (Catholics, Protestants, Jews, Muslims, Agnostics or Atheists...)." Ernest Renan's What is a Nation? (1882) Ernest Renan described this republican conception in his famous 11 March 1882 conference at the Sorbonne, Qu'est-ce qu'une nation? ("What is a Nation?"). According to him, to belong to a nation is a subjective act which always has to be repeated, as it is not assured by objective criteria. A nation-state is not composed of a single homogeneous ethnic group (a community), but of a variety of individuals willing to live together. Renan's non-essentialist definition, which forms the basis of the French Republic, is diametrically opposed to the German ethnic conception of a nation, first formulated by Fichte. The German conception is usually qualified in France as an "exclusive" view of nationality, as it includes only the members of the corresponding ethnic group, while the Republican conception thinks itself as universalist, following the Enlightenment's ideals officialized by the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. While Ernest Renan's arguments were also concerned by the debate about the disputed Alsace-Lorraine region, he said that not only one referendum had to be made in order to ask the opinions of the Alsatian people, but also a "daily referendum" should be made concerning all those citizens wanting to live in the French nation-state. This plébiscite de tous les jours ('everyday plebiscite') might be compared to a social contract or even to the classic definition of consciousness as an act which repeats itself endlessly. Henceforth, contrary to the German definition of a nation based on objective criteria, such as race or ethnic group, which may be defined by the existence of a common language, among other criteria, the people of France is defined as all the people living in the French nation-state and willing to do so, i.e. by its citizenship. This definition of the French nation-state contradicts the common opinion, which holds that the concept of the French people identifies with one particular ethnic group. This contradiction explains the seeming paradox encountered when attempting to identify a "French ethnic group": the French conception of the nation is radically opposed to (and was thought in opposition to) the German conception of the Volk ("ethnic group"). This universalist conception of citizenship and of the nation has influenced the French model of colonization. While the British empire preferred an indirect rule system, which did not mix the colonized people with the colonists, the French Republic theoretically chose an integration system and considered parts of its colonial empire as France itself and its population as French people. The ruthless conquest of Algeria thus led to the integration of the territory as a Département of the French territory. This ideal also led to the ironic sentence which opened up history textbooks in France as in its colonies: "Our ancestors the Gauls...". However, this universal ideal, rooted in the 1789 French Revolution ("bringing liberty to the people"), suffered from the racism that impregnated colonialism. Thus, in Algeria, the Crémieux decrees at the end of the 19th century gave French citizenship to north African Jews, while Muslims were regulated by the 1881 Indigenous Code. Liberal author Tocqueville himself considered that the British model was better adapted than the French one and did not balk before the cruelties of General Bugeaud's conquest. He went as far as advocating racial segregation there. This paradoxical tension between the universalist conception of the French nation and the racist attitudes intermingled into colonization is most obvious in Ernest Renan himself, who went as far as advocating a kind of eugenics. In a 26 June 1856 letter to Arthur de Gobineau, author of An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853–55) and one of the first theoreticians of "scientific racism", he wrote: You have written a remarkable book here, full of vigour and originality of mind, only it's written to be little understood in France or rather it's written to be misunderstood here. The French mind turns little to ethnographic considerations: France has little belief in race, [...] The fact of race is huge originally; but it's been continually losing its importance, and sometimes, as in France, it happens to disappear completely. Does that mean total decadence? Yes, certainly from the standpoint of the stability of institutions, the originality of character, a certain nobility that I hold to be the most important factor in the conjunction of human affairs. But also what compensations! No doubt if the noble elements mixed in the blood of a people happened to disappear completely, then there would be a demeaning equality, like that of some Eastern states and in some respects China. But it is in fact a very small amount of noble blood put into the circulation of a people that is enough to ennoble them, at least as to historical effects; this is how France, a nation so completely fallen into commonness, in practice plays on the world stage the role of a gentleman. Setting aside the quite inferior races whose intermingling with the great races would only poison the human species, I see in the future a homogeneous humanity. Jus soli and jus sanguinis During the Ancien Régime (before the 1789 French revolution), jus soli (or "right of territory") was predominant. Feudal law recognized personal allegiance to the sovereign, but the subjects of the sovereign were defined by their birthland. According to the 3 September 1791 Constitution, those who are born in France from a foreign father and have fixed their residency in France, or those who, after being born in a foreign country from a French father, have come to France and have sworn their civil oath, become French citizens. Because of the war, distrust toward foreigners led to the obligation on the part of this last category to swear a civil oath in order to gain French nationality. However, the Napoleonic Code would insist on jus sanguinis ("right of blood"). Paternity, against Napoléon Bonaparte's wish, became the principal criterion of nationality, and therefore broke for the first time with the ancient tradition of jus soli, by breaking any residency condition toward children born abroad from French parents. However, according to Patrick Weil, it was not "ethnically motivated" but "only meant that family links transmitted by the pater familias had become more important than subjecthood". With the 7 February 1851 law, voted during the Second Republic (1848–1852), "double jus soli" was introduced in French legislation, combining birth origin with paternity. Thus, it gave French nationality to the child of a foreigner, if both are born in France, except if the year following his coming of age he reclaims a foreign nationality (thus prohibiting dual nationality). This 1851 law was in part passed because of conscription concerns. This system more or less remained the same until the 1993 reform of the Nationality Code, created by 9 January 1973 law. The 1993 reform, which defines the Nationality law, is deemed controversial by some. It commits young people born in France to foreign parents to solicit French nationality between the ages of 16 and 21. This has been criticized, some arguing that the principle of equality before the law was not complied with, since French nationality was no longer given automatically at birth, as in the classic "double jus soli" law, but was to be requested when approaching adulthood. Henceforth, children born in France from French parents were differentiated from children born in France from foreign parents, creating a hiatus between these two categories. The 1993 reform was prepared by the Pasqua laws. The first Pasqua law, in 1986, restricts residence conditions in France and facilitates expulsions. With this 1986 law, a child born in France from foreign parents can only acquire French nationality if he or she demonstrates his or her will to do so, at age 16, by proving that he or she has been schooled in France and has a sufficient command of the French language. This new policy is symbolized by the expulsion of 101 Malians by charter. The second Pasqua law on "immigration control" makes regularisation of illegal aliens more difficult and, in general, residence conditions for foreigners much harder. Charles Pasqua, who said on 11 May 1987: "Some have reproached me of having used a plane, but, if necessary, I will use trains", declared to Le Monde on 2 June 1993: "France has been a country of immigration, it doesn't want to be one anymore. Our aim, taking into account the difficulties of the economic situation, is to tend toward 'zero immigration' ("immigration zéro")". Therefore, modern French nationality law combines four factors: paternality or 'right of blood', birth origin, residency and the will expressed by a foreigner, or a person born in France to foreign parents, to become French. European citizenship The 1992 Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of European citizenship, which comes in addition to national citizenships. Citizenship of foreigners By definition, a "foreigner" is someone who does not have French nationality. Therefore, it is not a synonym of "immigrant", as a foreigner may be born in France. On the other hand, a Frenchman born abroad may be considered an immigrant (e.g. former prime minister Dominique de Villepin who lived the majority of his life abroad). In most of the cases, however, a foreigner is an immigrant, and vice versa. They either benefit from legal sojourn in France, which, after a residency of ten years, makes it possible to ask for naturalisation. If they do not, they are considered "illegal aliens". Some argue that this privation of nationality and citizenship does not square with their contribution to the national economic efforts, and thus to economic growth. In any cases, rights of foreigners in France have improved over the last half-century: 1946: right to elect trade union representative (but not to be elected as a representative) 1968: right to become a trade-union delegate 1972: right to sit in works council and to be a delegate of the workers at the condition of "knowing how to read and write French" 1975: additional condition: "to be able to express oneself in French"; they may vote at prud'hommes elections ("industrial tribunal elections") but may not be elected; foreigners may also have administrative or leadership positions in tradeunions but under various conditions 1982: those conditions are suppressed, only the function of conseiller prud'hommal is reserved to those who have acquired French nationality. They may be elected in workers' representation functions (Auroux laws). They also may become administrators in public structures such as Social security banks (caisses de sécurité sociale), OPAC (which administers HLMs), Ophlm... 1992: for European Union citizens, right to vote at the European elections, first exercised during the 1994 European elections, and at municipal elections (first exercised during the 2001 municipal elections). Statistics The INSEE does not collect data about language, religion, or ethnicity – on the principle of the secular and unitary nature of the French Republic. Nevertheless, there are some sources dealing with just such distinctions: The CIA World Factbook defines the ethnic groups of France as being "Celtic and Latin with Teutonic, Slavic, North African, Sub-Saharan African, Indochinese, and Basque minorities. Overseas departments: black, white, mulatto, East Indian, Chinese, Amerindian". Its definition is reproduced on several Web sites collecting or reporting demographic data. The U.S. Department of State goes into further detail: "Since prehistoric times, France has been a crossroads of trade, travel, and invasion. Three basic European ethnic stocks – Celtic, Latin, and Teutonic (Frankish) – have blended over the centuries to make up its present population. . . . Traditionally, France has had a high level of immigration. . . . In 2004, there were over 6 million Muslims, largely of North African descent, living in France. France is home to both the largest Muslim and Jewish populations in Europe." The Encyclopædia Britannica says that "the French are strongly conscious of belonging to a single nation, but they hardly constitute a unified ethnic group by any scientific gauge", and it mentions as part of the population of France the Basques, the Celts (called Gauls by Romans), and the Germanic (Teutonic) peoples (including the Norsemen or Vikings). France also became "in the 19th and especially in the 20th century, the prime recipient of foreign immigration into Europe. . . ." It is said by some that France adheres to the ideal of a single, homogeneous national culture, supported by the absence of hyphenated identities and by avoidance of the very term "ethnicity" in French discourse. Immigration As of 2008, the French national institute of statistics INSEE estimated that 5.3 million foreign-born immigrants and 6.5 million direct descendants of immigrants (born in France with at least one immigrant parent) lived in France representing a total of 11.8 million and 19% of the total population in metropolitan France (62.1 million in 2008). Among them, about 5.5 million are of European origin and 4 million of North African origin. Populations with French ancestry Between 1848 and 1939, 1 million people with French passports emigrated to other countries. The main communities of French ancestry in the New World are found in the United States, Canada and Argentina while sizeable groups are also found in Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Australia. Canada There are nearly seven million French speakers out of nine to ten million people of French and partial French ancestry in Canada. The Canadian province of Quebec (2006 census population of 7,546,131), where more than 95 percent of the people speak French as either their first, second or even third language, is the center of French life on the Western side of the Atlantic; however, French settlement began further east, in Acadia. Quebec is home to vibrant French-language arts, media, and learning. There are sizable French-Canadian communities scattered throughout the other provinces of Canada, particularly in Ontario, which has about 1 million people with French ancestry (400 000 who have French as their mother tongue), Manitoba, and New Brunswick, which is the only fully bilingual province and is 33 percent Acadian. United States The United States is home to an estimated 13 to 16 million people of French descent, or 4 to 5 percent of the US population, particularly in Louisiana, New England and parts of the Midwest. The French community in Louisiana consists of the Creoles, the descendants of the French settlers who arrived when Louisiana was a French colony, and the Cajuns, the descendants of Acadian refugees from the Great Upheaval. Very few creoles remain in New Orleans in present times. In New England, the vast majority of French immigration in the 19th and early 20th centuries came not from France, but from over the border in Quebec, the Quebec diaspora. These French Canadians arrived to work in the timber mills and textile plants that appeared throughout the region as it industrialized. Today, nearly 25 percent of the population of New Hampshire is of French ancestry, the highest of any state. English and Dutch colonies of pre-Revolutionary America attracted large numbers of French Huguenots fleeing religious persecution in France. In the Dutch colony of New Netherland that later became New York, northern New Jersey, and western Connecticut, these French Huguenots, nearly identical in religion to the Dutch Reformed Church, assimilated almost completely into the Dutch community. However, large it may have been at one time, it has lost all identity of its French origin, often with the translation of names (examples: de la Montagne > Vandenberg by translation; de Vaux > DeVos or Devoe by phonetic respelling). Huguenots appeared in all of the English colonies and likewise assimilated. Even though this mass settlement approached the size of the settlement of the French settlement of Quebec, it has assimilated into the English-speaking mainstream to a much greater extent than other French colonial groups and has left few traces of cultural influence. New Rochelle, New York is named after La Rochelle, France, one of the sources of Huguenot emigration to the Dutch colony; and New Paltz, New York, is one of the few non-urban settlements of Huguenots that did not undergo massive recycling of buildings in the usual redevelopment of such older, larger cities as New York City or New Rochelle. Argentina French Argentines form the third largest ancestry group in Argentina, after Italian and Spanish Argentines. Most of French immigrants came to Argentina between 1871 and 1890, though considerable immigration continued until the late 1940s. At least half of these immigrants came from Southwestern France, especially from the Basque Country, Béarn (Basses-Pyrénées accounted for more than 20% of immigrants), Bigorre and Rouergue but also from Savoy and the Paris region. Today around 6.8 million Argentines have some degree of French ancestry or are of partial or wholly of French descent (up to 17% of the total population). French Argentines had a considerable influence over the country, particularly on its architectural styles and literary traditions, as well as on the scientific field. Some notable Argentines of French descent include writer Julio Cortázar, physiologist and Nobel Prize winner Bernardo Houssay or activist Alicia Moreau de Justo. With something akin to Latin culture, the French immigrants quickly assimilated into mainstream Argentine society. Uruguay French Uruguayans form the third largest ancestry group in Uruguay, after Italian and Spanish Uruguayans. During the first half of the 19th century, Uruguay received mostly French immigrants to South America. It constituted back then the second receptor of French immigrants in the New World after the United States. Thus, while the United States received 195,971 French immigrants between 1820 and 1855, 13,922 Frenchmen, most of them from the Basque Country and Béarn, left for Uruguay between 1833 and 1842. The majority of immigrants were coming from the Basque Country, Béarn and Bigorre. Today, there are an estimated at 300,000 French descendants in Uruguay. United Kingdom French migration to the United Kingdom is a phenomenon that has occurred at various points in history. Many British people have French ancestry, and French remains the foreign language most learned by British people. Much of the UK's mediaeval aristocracy was descended from Franco-Norman migrants at the time of the Norman Conquest of England, and also during the Angevin Empire of the Plantagenet dynasty. According to a study by Ancestry.co.uk, 3 million British people are of French descent. Among those are television presenters Davina McCall and Louis Theroux. There are currently an estimated 400,000 French people in the United Kingdom, most of them in London. Costa Rica The first French emigration in Costa Rica was a very small number to Cartago in the mid-nineteenth century. Due to World War II, a group of exiled French (mostly soldiers and families orphaned) migrated to the country. Mexico In Mexico, a sizeable population can trace its ancestry to France. After Spain, this makes France the second largest European ethnicity in the country. The bulk of French immigrants arrived in Mexico during the 19th and early 20th centuries. From 1814 to 1955, inhabitants of Barcelonnette and the surrounding Ubaye Valley emigrated to Mexico by the dozens. Many established textile businesses between Mexico and France. At the turn of the 20th century, there were 5,000 French families from the Barcelonnette region registered with the French Consulate in Mexico. While 90% stayed in Mexico, some returned, and from 1880 to 1930, built grand mansions called Maisons Mexicaines and left a mark upon the city. Today the descendants of the Barcelonettes account for 80,000 descendants distributed around Mexico. In the 1860s, during the Second Mexican Empire ruled by Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico—which was part of Napoleon III's scheme to create a Latin empire in the New World (indeed responsible for coining the term of "Amérique latine", "Latin America" in English)-- many French soldiers, merchants, and families set foot upon Mexican soil. Emperor Maximilian's consort, Carlota of Mexico, a Belgian princess, was a granddaughter of Louis-Philippe of France. Many Mexicans of French descent live in cities or states such as Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, Sinaloa, Monterrey, Puebla, Guadalajara, and the capital, Mexico City, where French surnames such as Chairez/Chaires, Renaux, Pierres, Michel, Betancourt, Alaniz, Blanc, Ney, Jurado (Jure), Colo (Coleau), Dumas, or Moussier can be found. Today, Mexico has more than 3 million people of full and partial French descent. mainly living in the capital, Puebla, Guadalajara, Veracruz and Querétaro. Chile The French came to Chile in the 18th century, arriving at Concepción as merchants, and in the mid-19th century to cultivate vines in the haciendas of the Central Valley, the homebase of world-famous Chilean wine. The Araucanía Region also has an important number of people of French ancestry, as the area hosted settlers arrived by the second half of the 19th century as farmers and shopkeepers. With something akin to Latin culture, the French immigrants quickly assimilated into mainstream Chilean society. From 1840 to 1940, around 25,000 Frenchmen immigrated to Chile. 80% of them were coming from Southwestern France, especially from Basses-Pyrénées (Basque country and Béarn), Gironde, Charente-Inférieure and Charente and regions situated between Gers and Dordogne. Most of French immigrants settled in the country between 1875 and 1895. Between October 1882 and December 1897, 8,413 Frenchmen settled in Chile, making up 23% of immigrants (second only after Spaniards) from this period. In 1863, 1,650 French citizens were registered in Chile. At the end of the century they were almost 30,000. According to the census of 1865, out of 23,220 foreigners established in Chile, 2,483 were French, the third largest European community in the country after Germans and Englishmen. In 1875, the community reached 3,000 members, 12% of the almost 25,000 foreigners established in the country. It was estimated that 10,000 Frenchmen were living in Chile in 1912, 7% of the 149,400 Frenchmen living in Latin America. Today it is estimated that 500,000 Chileans are of French descent. Former president of Chile, Michelle Bachelet is of French origin, as was Augusto Pinochet. A large percentage of politicians, businessmen, professionals and entertainers in the country are of French ancestry. Brazil It is estimated that there are 1 million to 2 million or more Brazilians of French descent today. This gives Brazil the second largest French community in South America. From 1819 to 1940, 40,383 Frenchmen immigrated to Brazil. Most of them settled in the country between 1884 and 1925 (8,008 from 1819 to 1883, 25,727 from 1884 to 1925, 6,648 from 1926 to 1940). Another source estimates that around 100,000 French people immigrated to Brazil between 1850 and 1965. The French community in Brazil numbered 592 in 1888 and 5,000 in 1915. It was estimated that 14,000 Frenchmen were living in Brazil in 1912, 9% of the 149,400 Frenchmen living in Latin America, the second largest community after Argentina (100,000). The Brazilian Imperial Family originates from the Portuguese House of Braganza and the last emperor's heir and daughter, Isabella, married Prince Gaston d'Orleans, Comte d'Eu, a member of the House of Orléans, a cadet branch of the Bourbons, the French Royal Family. Guatemala The first French immigrants were politicians such as Nicolas Raoul and Isidore Saget, Henri Terralonge and officers Aluard, Courbal, Duplessis, Gibourdel and Goudot. Later, when the Central American Federation was divided in 7 countries, Some of them settled to Costa Rica, others to Nicaragua, although the majority still remained in Guatemala. The relationships start to 1827, politicians, scientists, painters, builders, singers and some families emigrated to Guatemala. Later in a Conservative government, annihilated nearly all the relations between France and Guatemala, and most of French immigrants went to Costa Rica, but these relationships were again return to the late of the nineteenth century. Latin America Elsewhere in the Americas, French settlement took place in the 16th to 20th centuries. They can be found in Haiti, Cuba (refugees from the Haitian Revolution) and Uruguay. The Betancourt political families who influenced Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Puerto Rico, Bolivia and Panama have some French ancestry. Huguenots Large numbers of Huguenots are known to have settled in the United Kingdom (ab 50 000), Ireland (10,000), in Protestant areas of Germany (especially the city of Berlin) (ab 40 000), in the Netherlands (ab 50 000), in South Africa and in North America. Many people in these countries still bear French names. Asia In Asia, a proportion of people with mixed French and Vietnamese descent can be found in Vietnam. Including the number of persons of pure French descent. Many are descendants of French settlers who intermarried with local Vietnamese people. Approximately 5,000 in Vietnam are of pure French descent, however, this number is disputed. A small proportion of people with mixed French and Khmer descent can be found in Cambodia. These people number approximately 16,000 in Cambodia, among this number, approximately 3,000 are of pure French descent. An unknown number with mixed French and Lao ancestry can be found throughout Laos. A few thousand French citizens of Indian, European or creole ethnic origins live in the former French possessions in India (mostly Pondicherry). In addition to these Countries, small minorities can be found elsewhere in Asia; the majority of these living as expatriates. Scandinavia During the great power era, about 100 French families came to Sweden. They had mainly emigrated to Sweden as a result of religious oppression. These include the Bedoire, De Laval and De Flon families. Several of whom worked as merchants and craftsmen. In Stockholm, the French Lutheran congregation was formed in 1687, later dissolved in 1791, which was not really an actual congregation but rather a series of private gatherings of religious practice. Elsewhere Apart from Québécois, Acadians, Cajuns, and Métis, other populations with some French ancestry outside metropolitan France include the Caldoches of New Caledonia, Louisiana Creole people of the United States, the so-called Zoreilles and Petits-blancs of various Indian Ocean islands, as well as populations of the former French colonial empire in Africa and the West Indies. See also Demographics of France Armenians in France Cagot Ethnic groups in Europe Franco-Mauritian French Americans French Australian French Canadians French Peruvian Peruvians in France French people in Madagascar Genetic history of Europe History of the Jews in France List of French people List of French people of immigrant origin Pied-Noir – French citizens in French Algeria References Wieviorka, M L'espace du racisme 1991 Éditions du Seuil External links Romance peoples Demographics of France People

Endgame (Star Trek: Voyager)

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"Endgame" is the series finale of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Voyager, episodes 25 and 26 of the seventh season and 171 and 172 in the overall series. It was originally shown May 23, 2001, on the UPN network as a double-length episode and later presented as such in DVD collections, but it is shown in syndicated broadcasts as a two-part story. Plot In the year 2404, the Federation and the re-assembled crew of Voyager are celebrating the 10th anniversary of the ship's return to Earth, 23 years after it was stranded in the Delta Quadrant. Kathryn Janeway – now an admiral – reminisces with her crew, but reflects on the high personal costs of the long journey. She launches a plot to undo some of them by intervening at a key point in their history, changing a decision she now regrets. She steals an illegal time travel device and – with the reluctant help of now-Captain Harry Kim – takes a shuttlecraft back to 2378, where she meets up with Voyager, still in the Delta Quadrant. She pulls rank on younger Captain Janeway and orders the ship to return to a nebula filled with Borg that they had passed a few days before. She provides advanced technologies that allow Voyager to survive the massive Borg defenses, destroy two Borg vessels, and enter a transwarp corridor, which the Borg use for interstellar travel. Voyager comes upon a Borg transwarp hub, which connects distant parts of the galaxy, and could save the ship from sixteen more years stranded in the Delta Quadrant. However, Captain Janeway wants to use Admiral Janeway's future technology to instead destroy the transwarp network; this can only be done from its terminus in the Delta Quadrant. Admiral Janeway explains that 23 additional crew members will die on the remainder of their trip home, including Seven of Nine (whose death will emotionally devastate Chakotay), and that Tuvok will become mentally unstable from a neurological condition that could have been treated in the Alpha Quadrant. Troubled by the choice, Captain Janeway discusses the issue with the crew, who agree that destroying the hub – severely diminishing the Borg threat to the Alpha Quadrant – is more important. The admiral is inspired by their spirit, and works with the captain on a scheme to do both. The admiral takes her shuttlecraft and enters the transwarp hub, arriving at the Unicomplex – the center of all Borg activity and the home of the Borg Queen. She pretends to offer a deal in defiance of the captain's plans: her future technologies, in exchange for sending Voyager safely home. However, the Queen captures the admiral and begins to assimilate her into the Borg collective. Admiral Janeway then turns the tables by unleashing a pathogen she was carrying in her bloodstream into the collective, devastating it and killing the Queen. The Unicomplex suffers a cascade failure and explodes, killing the admiral as well. Meanwhile, Captain Janeway and Voyager have entered a transwarp corridor, pursued by a surviving Borg sphere that is trying to destroy Voyager and crew in a last-chance attempt to create a time-travel paradox that will undo the devastating damage that Admiral Janeway has just done. Unable to fight back against the sphere's defenses, Captain Janeway takes Voyager inside it, destroying it from the inside just as they emerge from the collapsing transwarp corridor near Earth. They are met by a fleet of Starfleet vessels that had been sent to confront the Borg, which instead escort Voyager home to Earth. Production It was originally expected that a character would die in order to return Voyager to Earth, with Kate Mulgrew saying in an interview that one of the characters would die in one of the final frames of the series finale – but added that it didn't mean she was saying that it would be Janeway who would perish. In 2015, Brannon Braga stated on Twitter that he felt that it should have been Seven of Nine who died in the finale, and that he had written the episode "Human Error" specifically to set this up. Awards This episode won two Emmy Awards, which only four other Star Trek episodes have done. It won for Outstanding Music Composition For A Series (Dramatic Underscore) (Jay Chattaway) and Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series, in both cases beating the Voyager episode "Workforce", which was also nominated in those categories. "Endgame" was also nominated for Outstanding Sound Editing For A Series. Reception In 2015, SyFy ranked "Endgame" as one of the top ten episodes of the series. In 2016, the fiftieth anniversary of the franchise, multiple publications included "Endgame" in episode rankings. The Hollywood Reporter rated "Endgame" the 54th best television episode of all Star Trek franchise television prior to Star Trek: Discovery, including live-action and the animated series but not counting the movies. They also ranked "Endgame" the 6th best episode of the Star Trek: Voyager series. SyFy ranked "Endgame" as the third best finale of Star Trek series up to 2016. SyFy ranked "Endgame" as the 8th best time travel plot in Star Trek. Empire ranked this the 48th best out of the top 50 episodes of all the 700 plus Star Trek television episodes. Radio Times ranked the return of the USS Voyager to Earth as the 30th greatest moment in all Star Trek, including films and television up to that time. In 2019, Nerdist rated Captain Kathryn Janeway one of the top seven time-traveling characters in all of Star Trek for her role in "Endgame". The same year, Nerdist also suggested watching "Endgame" as part of an abbreviated binge-watching guide featuring USS Voyagers confrontations with the Borg. They also ranked it as the 5th best time-travel episode of all Star Trek in between "Tomorrow is Yesterday" (#6) and "All Good Things..." (#4). Also in 2019, SyFy recommend this episode for its Seven of Nine binge-watching guide. In 2021, ScreenRant ranked "Endgame" the sixth best episode with the Borg, based on an IMDB rating of 8.6 out 10. Novelization A novelized version of "Endgame" was adapted by Diane Carey, and published in 2002. Some related Star Trek episodes were also novelized, including the Star Trek: Voyager television premiere "Caretaker", which was released as a 278-page novel called "Caretaker", and as an audiobook in 1995 by Simon & Schuster. Two additional novels based on Voyager's return are Homecoming and The Farther Shore, both by Christie Golden. Notes See also Endgame (Stargate SG-1) (this is also the title an episode of a similarly named TV series that aired the following year) References External links 2001 American television episodes Fiction set in the 25th century American television series finales Television episodes written by Rick Berman Television episodes written by Brannon Braga Emmy Award-winning episodes Star Trek time travel episodes Star Trek: Voyager (season 7) episodes

300 win club

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In Major League Baseball, the 300-win club is the group of pitchers who have won 300 or more games. Twenty-four pitchers have reached this milestone. This list does not include Bobby Mathews who won 297 in the major leagues plus several more in 1869 and 1870 before the major leagues were established in 1871. The New York Gothams/Giants/San Francisco Giants are the only franchise to see three players reach the milestone while on their roster: those players are Mickey Welch, Christy Mathewson, and Randy Johnson. Early in the history of professional baseball, many of the rules favored the pitcher over the batter; the distance pitchers threw to home plate was shorter than today, and pitchers were able to use foreign substances to alter the direction of the ball. Moreover, pitchers started games far more frequently than modern pitchers do; in the second half of the 1884 season Old Hoss Radbourne started every other game. The first player to win 300 games was Pud Galvin in 1888. Seven pitchers recorded all or the majority of their career wins in the 19th century: Galvin, Cy Young, Kid Nichols, Tim Keefe, John Clarkson, Charles Radbourn, and Mickey Welch. Four more pitchers joined the club in the first quarter of the 20th century: Christy Mathewson, Walter Johnson, Eddie Plank, and Grover Cleveland Alexander. Young is the all-time leader in wins with 511, a mark that is considered unbreakable. If a modern-day pitcher won 20 games per season for 25 seasons, he would still be 11 games short of Young's mark. Only three pitchers—Lefty Grove, Warren Spahn, and Early Wynn—joined the 300-win club between 1924 and 1982, which may be explained by a number of factors: the abolition of the spitball; World War II military service, such as Bob Feller's; and the growing importance of the home run in the game. As the home run became commonplace, the physical and mental demands on pitchers dramatically increased, which led to the use of a four-man starting rotation. Between 1982 and 1990, the 300-win club gained six members: Gaylord Perry, Phil Niekro, Steve Carlton, Nolan Ryan, Don Sutton, and Tom Seaver. These pitchers benefited from the increased use of specialized relief pitchers, an expanded strike zone, and new stadiums, including Shea Stadium, Dodger Stadium and the Astrodome, that were pitcher's parks, which suppressed offensive production. Also, the increasing sophistication of training methods and sports medicine - such as Tommy John surgery - allowed players to maintain a high competitive level for a longer time. Randy Johnson, for example, won more games in his 40s than he did in his 20s. Since 1990, only four pitchers have joined the 300-win club: Roger Clemens, Greg Maddux, Tom Glavine, and Johnson. Changes in the game in the last decade of the 20th century have made attaining 300 career wins difficult, perhaps more so than during the mid-20th century. The four-man starting rotation has given way to a five-man rotation, which gives starting pitchers fewer chances to pick up wins. No pitcher reached 20 wins in a non-strike-shortened year for the first time in 2006; this was repeated in 2009 and 2017. Recording 300 career wins has been seen as a guaranteed admission to the Baseball Hall of Fame. All pitchers with 300 wins have been elected to the Hall of Fame except for Clemens, who received only half of the vote total needed for induction in his first appearance on the Hall of Fame ballot in and lost votes from that total in . Clemens' future election is seen as uncertain because of his alleged links to use of performance-enhancing drugs. To be eligible for the Hall of Fame, a player must have "been retired five seasons" or deceased for at least six months, Many observers expect the club to gain few, if any, members in the foreseeable future. Ten members of the 300-win club are also members of the 3,000 strikeout club. Members See also Baseball statistics List of Major League Baseball leaders in games started List of Major League Baseball career wins leaders 3,000 strikeout club Notes References GeneralSpecific Wins 300 Major League Baseball statistics

Ernest P. Worrell

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Ernest P. Worrell is a fictional character, portrayed by Jim Varney in a series of television commercials and later in a television series (Hey Vern, It's Ernest!) as well as a series of feature films. Ernest was created with Varney by the Nashville advertising agency Carden & Cherry and was used in various local television ad campaigns. The only national products he promoted were The Coca-Cola Company's sodas, Chex, and Taco John's. The first Ernest commercial, filmed in 1980, advertised an appearance by the Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders at Beech Bend Park, an amusement park near Bowling Green, Kentucky. The format of the commercials seldom varied, most often scripted to be comedic and fast-paced. The rubber-faced Ernest, almost always dressed in a denim vest and baseball cap, appeared at the door of an unseen, unheard, and seemingly unwilling neighbor named Vernon, or "Vern" for short. The spots were structured in a way to allow the viewer to be "Vern", as Varney looked directly in the camera whenever Vern was addressed. Ernest's seemingly pointless conversations with Vern – which were actually a monologue due to Vern never responding – inevitably rambled around to a favorable description of the sponsor's product, followed by his signature close, "KnowhutImean?" While Vern never has any spoken lines, it is implied that he finds Ernest to be an unwelcome pest due to him trying to slam his door in Ernest's face on a few occasions. Vern also shakes his head "No" whenever Ernest invites him to do something. Ernest, despite having good intentions, is utterly oblivious to Vern's apparent distress regarding him and always regards Vern as his closest buddy and confidant. History The Ernest ads were shot with a handheld film camera at the Nashville-area home of producer John Cherry III and Jerry Carden, beginning in 1980. As their number of clients increased, Varney sometimes did upwards of 25 different versions of a spot in a single day. Producer Coke Sams stated that Varney had a photographic memory and would read through the script one time then insert the various products' names on different takes. The commercials and the character had definite impact; children especially seemed to imitate Ernest and "KnoWhutimean?" became a catchphrase. Carden & Cherry had begun receiving requests from major national companies to use Ernest, but were largely unable to agree to most of them because of conflicts with the exclusive rights local companies received when they had requested Ernest commercials. Carden & Cherry responded by transitioning the character to film and television. Ernest's first feature-film appearance was as one of Varney's numerous characters in the science fiction horror spoof Dr. Otto and the Riddle of the Gloom Beam, which introduced several supporting actors who would reappear throughout the Ernest franchise, including Bill Byrge, Myke R. Mueller, and Jackie Welch. A Saturday morning sketch comedy series, Hey Vern, It's Ernest!, followed shortly thereafter, which won Varney a Daytime Emmy Award for his performance. A series of five feature-length comedies starred Ernest between 1987 and 1993, followed by four more direct-to-video entries; all nine were directed by either John Cherry or Coke Sams. The movies were not critically well-received; however, they were produced on very low budgets and were quite profitable. In the films, Ernest is apparently somewhat aware of his extreme resistance to harm, as in Ernest Rides Again, he seemed barely fazed by nails bending after being fired at his skull, remarking "Good thing they hit the hard end", he also commented that he would be dead "If I wasn't this close to being an actual cartoon." To allow Varney to act out his numerous other characters, Ernest is portrayed as a master of disguise, able to pose as one of any number of relatives to get out of a predicament. He also is impervious to electrocution, instead becoming a powerful electromagnet and "polarized" from gravity (among other surreal side effects) when hit with a large shock: this is a major plot device in Ernest Goes to Jail and also appears in Ernest Rides Again. The film series portrays Ernest as a working-class bachelor holding various minimum-wage and blue-collar jobs, such as a gas station attendant, janitor, sanitation worker and construction worker. In his Ernest role, Varney appeared in dozens of Cerritos Auto Square commercials for many years on Los Angeles area television stations; he also appeared in commercials for Audubon Chrysler Center in Henderson, Kentucky, John L. Sullivan auto dealerships in the Sacramento, California area, the Pontiac, Michigan-based electronics store ABC Warehouse, and the Oklahoma City-based Braum's Ice Cream and Dairy Store. In the Southeast, the Ernest character was the spokesman for Purity milk. In New Mexico, he appeared in commercials for Blake's Lotaburger. In northern Virginia Ernest appeared a series of commercials for Tyson's Toyota. In South Dakota, he appeared in commercials for Lewis Drug. In Houston, he did commercials promoting Channel 2 News KPRC-TV. In 2005, five years after Varney's death, the Ernest P. Worrell character returned in new commercials as a CGI cartoon, created by an animation company called face2face and produced by Ernest originators Carden & Cherry. Ernest was voiced by John C. Hudgens, an advertising and broadcast producer from Little Rock, Arkansas, who also played an Ernest type character in some regional live action commercials. Family Ernest has a large family made up of people with similar traits to him, all of whom were portrayed by Jim Varney. Varney, as Worrell, mentioned that his family was from Kentucky (Varney's real-life birthplace) when he hosted Happy New Year, America on CBS December 31, 1988. Most of Worrell's family members had their appearance in either Hey Vern, It's My Family Album, Your World as I See It, or Varney's stand-up routine. Edna Worrell Ernest's wife according to the television commercials and Hey Vern, It's My Family Album. According to Ernest, Edna makes a great deep dish pie. Her middle initial is also said to be P. in Ernest's newsletter during the 1980s. In the film series, Ernest has become a confirmed bachelor, living alone with his dog. Ace Worrell A fighter pilot who served in the army. His relation to Ernest is unknown though he is believed to be a great uncle. Astor Clement Ernest's uncle, a wealthy college professor who likes to brag about his rich status and unusual intelligence and was the main narrator of Your World As I See It. Astor was also one of Ernest's disguises in Ernest Saves Christmas. Bunny Jeannette Rogers The slow-witted and confused sister of Ernest who runs her own quirky hair salon called "Bunny's Beauty World." Her beautifying tactics often involve painful torture for her clients. Lloyd Rowe Ernest's great uncle, a mean-spirited, impoverished Appalachian mountain man. He was Ernest's disguise as "The Snake Guy" in Ernest Saves Christmas. Lloyd was one of Varney's stand-up characters before the creation of Ernest; he was originally conceived as the Appalachian answer to a mountaintop guru with an obese wife named Ruth and an even more massive, indestructible eight-year-old son named Mistake. Auntie Nelda Ernest's elderly, sarcastic and dramatic great-aunt. She regularly complains about her son Izzy not visiting enough, noting that her other son Hymie had always treated her well but died. Her late husband Morris was cremated and she still harangues his ashes. She tries to get men to notice her by acting innocent all the time. One of Varney's most frequent characters, Auntie Nelda was one of Ernest's "multiple personalities" in Ernest Scared Stupid and one of his disguises in Ernest Saves Christmas, Ernest Goes to Jail, Ernest Rides Again, and Ernest Goes to Africa. Auntie Nelda was also used as one of Dr. Otto's disguises in Dr. Otto and the Riddle of the Gloom Beam and was a regular segment on Hey Vern, It's Ernest! Coy Worrell Ernest's redneck brother who is stuck in a 1950s rockabilly mindset and runs a store that sells car parts. He is a Bears fan, has virtually no thoughts on any substantive issues (shrugging his shoulders and responding "dunno" whenever asked) is quite proud of the tattoo collection on his body. Coy has been married at least twice: first to Rayette Worrell and then to Anita Worrell. Billy "Boogie" Worrell Ernest's cousin, a carny who operates the Scrambler at an amusement park, speaks to his patrons in rhyming jive, and dances to a disco beat. While he frequently makes passes at attractive female patrons, he is in fact a married man with a teenage son and speaks with a normal voice outside of work. Davy Worrell Ernest's light-headed great, great uncle who was a war veteran in the late 19th century. He helped his army troop win a battle against a Native American tribe led by Chief Running Vern, even though his troop was not even present at the time. He is a spoof of frontiersman Davy Crockett. Rhetch Worrell Ernest's great, great-grandfather who was popular with women and had a girlfriend named Verna. He was a heavy gambler and incredibly stupid. Pa Worrell Ernest's elderly father, a World War II veteran who has a politically incorrect view of the world. His first name is never revealed. He is an avid fisherman and is friends with an African savage named Qui Qua. Ma Worrell Ernest's elderly mother. She is known to be a good cook and according to Ernest she used to make a great chocolate milk, which is Ernest's favorite drink. Reverend Phineas Worrell A distant English-born ancestor of Ernest in "Ernest Scared Stupid". He helped banish a troll named Trantor, who Ernest accidentally released several generations later. Phineas was unique among the known Worrell family in that he appeared to have a relatively serious disposition and appeared to be quite intelligent for the brief moment that he was shown. However, as Trantor was being banished, the troll placed a curse on the Worrell family that would make members of the family considerably less intelligent with each successive generation, ultimately culminating in a member of the family that would release Trantor. Ernie P. Worrell Ernest's son. Only mentioned once by Ernest while answering fan mail in his own newsletter. (In the films and commercials, Ernest is usually portrayed as a confirmed bachelor with no children.) Dingus Worrell A potato, who Ernest says came over during the potato famine and went on to become a yam magnate. Pets Ernest also had several pets during the course of his career. They are listed below in order of appearance. Shorty Ernest's first dog. She appeared in several commercials usually having given birth to a litter of puppies in the back of Vern's new pick up truck while out driving with Ernest. Shorty's exact breed is unknown as she was portrayed by a different breed in each of her appearances. In the Hey Vern, It's Ernest episode "Hey Vern, It's Magic", Shorty was a male and Vern's dog. He was portrayed by a Border Collie on the show. Pokey A box turtle that Ernest had adopted from "actual nature" in Ernest Goes to Camp. Pokey and his family were used as "turtle paratroopers" during the battle with the miners toward the end of the movie. Ants In Ernest Goes to Camp, Ernest mentions that he once had an ant farm. Rover Ernest's second dog. Ernest's pursuit of Rover was the subject of a Hey Vern, It's Ernest! episode. Ernest spent the episode saving up to buy Rover but Vern ended up buying him first only to give him to Ernest at the end. Rimshot Ernest's third dog, a male Jack Russell Terrier. Rimshot is Ernest's best known pet. He is characterized as very smart. He was featured in two of the movies, Ernest Goes to Jail and Ernest Scared Stupid, in which he was also shown to be very brave and tough, as he would stand up to the main villains which would usually lead to his near demise. Jake Ernest's Fantail (goldfish) in Ernest Goes to Africa. Sadly, Jake died when Ernest accidentally broke his fish bowl and then dropped him into the kitchen garbage disposal and mistakenly hit the wrong switch. Specials Hey Vern, It's My Family Album (1983) (direct-to-video) The Ernest Film Festival (1986) (direct-to-video) A compilation of Ernest commercials re-released as Ernest Greatest Hits Volume One (1992) (direct-to-video) Hey Vern, Win $10,000...Or Just Count On Having Fun! (1987) (direct-to-video) A compilation of Ernest commercials, the VHS included a sweepstakes in which viewers who correctly counted the total mentions of the words "Vern" and "Knowhutimean?" in the video and submitted their answer before April 1, 1988 would be entered into a random drawing to win a $10,000 prize. re-released as Ernest Greatest Hits Volume Two (1992) (direct-to-video) Ernest Goes to Splash Mountain (1989) (TV special) Your World As I See It (1994) (direct-to-video) Ernest also hosted Happy New Year, America for CBS in the late 1980s; Varney also briefly gave Ernest an appearance on HBO's New Year special (which was co-hosted by Johnny Cash and Kris Kristofferson) heading into 1985. Films and television Films 1985 Dr. Otto and the Riddle of the Gloom Beam as Unnamed Cameo Role, Dr. Otto's Disguise 1987 Ernest Goes to Camp 1988 Ernest Saves Christmas 1990 Ernest Goes to Jail 1991 Ernest Scared Stupid 1993 Ernest Rides Again 1994 Ernest Goes to School (direct-to-video) 1995 Slam Dunk Ernest (direct-to-video) 1997 Ernest Goes to Africa (direct-to-video) 1998 Ernest in the Army (direct-to-video) Television 1988 Hey Vern, It's Ernest! Scrapped films In 1990, seven Ernest films were reported to be in development. Coke Sams said in 2011 that Ernest Spaced Out may have gotten as far as a film treatment. Sams said about the film, "I believe that was kind of a Lost in Space epic. It seems like there were astronauts and maybe a space capsule." Soon after the release of Ernest Goes to Camp, several more films were being contemplated. One being Ernest in the Army which went on to be the last Ernest film made. Others considered were Ernest the Bellhop and Ernest in Paradise. Sams said a script had been written for Ernest and the Voodoo Curse: "We went back to the Abbott & Costello Meet Frankenstein kind of thing. It had a really bad guy and happened on an island like Hawaii. ... So we had Voodoo and a high priest. It was like the idiot version of Raiders of the Lost Ark. We had lines of zombies, Voodoo potions, and Ernest pretending to be a zombie. Ernest and the Voodoo Curse actually was pretty funny. There was a woman in it, who had one blue eye and one brown eye. She was supposed to be the woman of Ernest's dreams. Of course, she would have nothing to do with him." By 2003, Jim Varney's IMDb biography page stated that he had died before he could finish filming a tenth Ernest film, titled Ernest the Pirate, which had been stated to be scheduled for release in 2000. In November 2011, Sams said the film never existed. Varney had actually been in consideration for a role in the 1999 film Pirates of the Plain. Parodies Ernest has been parodied in numerous television series, including Beavis and Butt-Head, Family Guy and The Simpsons. Some of the "fake" Ernest films from The Simpsons include Ernest Needs a Kidney, Ernest vs. the Pope, Ernest Goes to Broadway, Ernest Goes Straight to Video, and Ernest Goes Somewhere Cheap (footage from Ernest Goes Somewhere Cheap was shown in the episode "Cape Feare", in which Ernest is seen in a public library with Vern and gets his head stuck in a toilet). In the Family Guy episode "Road to Rhode Island", Peter remembers the time he went to Blockbuster two minutes before closing and was forced to choose between Ernest Goes to the Beach and Ernest Doesn't Go to the Beach. In the Beavis and Butt-Head episode "At the Movies," the boys are watching Ernest at the drive-in. Ernest is inside the Statue of Liberty and comes across a door with a sign that reads "DO NOT ENTER". However, Ernest misreads it as "donut entry" and opens the door, falling through the statue's nose. Other TV shows that have referenced the Ernest movies include ALF, Saved by the Bell, Mystery Science Theater 3000, Kenan & Kel, The Nanny, How I Met Your Mother, The Big Bang Theory, Teen Titans Go, Paradise PD, and many more. He has recently been spoofed by Arkansas-based spokesman John Lee in television commercials for Englert Leaf Guard gutters. Commercials on home video Most of Ernest's commercials were released on VHS tapes from Disney's Touchstone Pictures, and Hollywood Pictures Home Video. Many are also available on DVD from Mill Creek Entertainment and Image Entertainment. Merchandise A comedic paperback book titled Hey, Vern! It's the Ernest P. Worrell Book of Knowledge was published by Carden & Cherry in 1985, which was re-released with the title It's the Ernest P. Worrell Book of Knawledge in 1986. It was followed by the book Ask Ernest: What, When, Where, Why, Who Cares?, published by Rutledge Hill Press in 1993. Both books were designed as if Ernest had created his own homemade zine, featuring a varied collection of jokes, puns, musings, and art. A Ernest talking doll based on the TV series Hey Vern, It's Ernest! was produced by Kenner in 1989. Reboot In October 2012, a film reboot was announced, tentatively titled Son of Ernest. As suggested by the title the film will focus on Ernest's long lost son, presumably Ernie P. Worrell as mentioned above. No update had been given ever since. References Mascots introduced in 1980 Television characters introduced in 1980 Advertising characters Comedy television characters Comedy film characters Male characters in advertising Male characters in film Male characters in television

England in the Middle Ages

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England in the Middle Ages concerns the history of England during the medieval period, from the end of the 5th century through to the start of the Early Modern period in 1485. When England emerged from the collapse of the Roman Empire, the economy was in tatters and many of the towns abandoned. After several centuries of Germanic immigration, new identities and cultures began to emerge, developing into kingdoms that competed for power. A rich artistic culture flourished under the Anglo-Saxons, producing epic poems such as Beowulf and sophisticated metalwork. The Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity in the 7th century and a network of monasteries and convents were built across England. In the 8th and 9th centuries England faced fierce Viking attacks, and the fighting lasted for many decades, eventually establishing Wessex as the most powerful kingdom and promoting the growth of an English identity. Despite repeated crises of succession and a Danish seizure of power at the start of the 11th century, it can also be argued that by the 1060s England was a powerful, centralised state with a strong military and successful economy. The Norman invasion of England in 1066 led to the defeat and replacement of the Anglo-Saxon elite with Norman and French nobles and their supporters. William the Conqueror and his successors took over the existing state system, repressing local revolts and controlling the population through a network of castles. The new rulers introduced a feudal approach to governing England, eradicating the practice of slavery, but creating a much wider body of unfree labourers called serfs. The position of women in society changed as laws regarding land and lordship shifted. England's population more than doubled during the 12th and 13th centuries, fueling an expansion of the towns, cities, and trade, helped by warmer temperatures across Northern Europe. A new wave of monasteries and friaries was established while ecclesiastical reforms led to tensions between successive kings and archbishops. Despite developments in England's governance and legal system, infighting between the Anglo-Norman elite resulted in multiple civil wars and the loss of Normandy. The 14th century in England saw the Great Famine and the Black Death, catastrophic events that killed around half of England's population, throwing the economy into chaos, and undermining the old political order. Social unrest followed, resulting in the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, while the changes in the economy resulted in the emergence of a new class of gentry, and the nobility began to exercise power through a system termed bastard feudalism. Nearly 1,500 villages were deserted by their inhabitants and many men and women sought new opportunities in the towns and cities. New technologies were introduced, and England produced some of the great medieval philosophers and natural scientists. English kings in the 14th and 15th centuries laid claim to the French throne, resulting in the Hundred Years' War. At times England enjoyed huge military success, with the economy buoyed by profits from the international wool and cloth trade, but by 1450 the country was in crisis, facing military failure in France and an ongoing recession. More social unrest broke out, followed by the Wars of the Roses, fought between rival factions of the English nobility. Henry VII's victory in 1485 conventionally marks the end of the Middle Ages in England and the start of the Early Modern period. Political history Early Middle Ages (600–1066) At the start of the Middle Ages, England was a part of Britannia, a former province of the Roman Empire. The local economy had once been dominated by imperial Roman spending on a large military establishment, which in turn helped to support a complex network of towns, roads, and villas. At the end of the 4th century, however, Roman forces had been largely withdrawn, and this economy collapsed. Germanic immigrants began to arrive in increasing numbers during the 5th and 6th centuries, establishing small farms and settlements, and their language, Old English, swiftly spread as more settlers arrived and those of the previous inhabitants who had not moved west or to Brittany switched from British Celtic and British Latin to the migrants' language. New political and social identities emerged, including an Anglian culture in the east of England and a Saxon culture in the south, with local groups establishing regiones, small polities ruled over by powerful families and individuals. By the 7th century, some rulers, including those of Wessex, East Anglia, Essex, and Kent, had begun to term themselves kings, living in villae regales, royal centres, and collecting tribute from the surrounding regiones; these kingdoms are often referred to as the Heptarchy. In the 7th century, the Kingdom of Mercia rose to prominence under the leadership of King Penda. Mercia invaded neighbouring lands until it loosely controlled around 50 regiones covering much of England. Mercia and the remaining kingdoms, led by their warrior elites, continued to compete for territory throughout the 8th century. Massive earthworks, such as the defensive dyke built by Offa of Mercia, helped to defend key frontiers and towns. In 789, however, the first Scandinavian raids on England began; these Viking attacks grew in number and scale until in 865 the Danish micel here or Great Army, invaded England, captured York and defeated the kingdom of East Anglia. Mercia and Northumbria fell in 875 and 876, and Alfred of Wessex was driven into internal exile in 878. However, in the same year Alfred won a decisive victory against the Danes at the Battle of Edington, and he exploited the fear of the Viking threat to raise large numbers of men and using a network of defended towns called burhs to defend his territory and mobilise royal resources. Suppressing internal opposition to his rule, Alfred contained the invaders within a region known as the Danelaw. Under his son, Edward the Elder, and his grandson, Æthelstan, Wessex expanded further north into Mercia and the Danelaw, and by the 950s and the reigns of Eadred and Edgar, York was finally permanently retaken from the Vikings. The West Saxon rulers were now kings of the Angelcynn, that is of the whole English folk. With the death of Edgar, however, the royal succession became problematic. Æthelred took power in 978 following the murder of his brother Edward, but England was then invaded by Sweyn Forkbeard, the son of a Danish king. Attempts to bribe Sweyn not to attack using danegeld payments failed, and he took the throne in 1013. Swein's son, Cnut, liquidated many of the older English families following his seizure of power in 1016. Æthelred's son, Edward the Confessor, had survived in exile in Normandy and returned to claim the throne in 1042. Edward was childless, and the succession again became a concern. England became dominated by the Godwin family, who had taken advantage of the Danish killings to acquire huge wealth. When Edward died in 1066, Harold Godwinson claimed the throne, defeating his rival Norwegian claimant, Harald Hardrada, at the battle of Stamford Bridge. High Middle Ages (1066–1272) In 1066, William, the Duke of Normandy, took advantage of the English succession crisis to start the Norman Conquest. With an army of Norman followers and mercenaries, he defeated Harold at the battle of Hastings and rapidly occupied the south of England. William used a network of castles to control the major centres of power, granting extensive lands to his main Norman followers and co-opting or eliminating the former Anglo-Saxon elite. Major revolts followed, which William suppressed before intervening in the north-east of England, establishing Norman control of York and devastating the region. Some Norman lords used England as a launching point for attacks into South and North Wales, spreading up the valleys to create new Marcher territories. By the time of William's death in 1087, England formed the largest part of an Anglo-Norman empire, ruled over by a network of nobles with landholdings across England, Normandy, and Wales. England's growing wealth was critical in allowing the Norman kings to project power across the region, including funding campaigns along the frontiers of Normandy. Norman rule, however, proved unstable; successions to the throne were contested, leading to violent conflicts between the claimants and their noble supporters. William II inherited the throne but faced revolts attempting to replace him with his older brother Robert or his cousin Stephen of Aumale. In 1100, William II died while hunting. Despite Robert's rival claims, his younger brother Henry I immediately seized power. War broke out, ending in Robert's defeat at Tinchebrai and his subsequent life imprisonment. Robert's son Clito remained free, however, and formed the focus for fresh revolts until his death in 1128. Henry's only legitimate son, William, died aboard the White Ship disaster of 1120, sparking a fresh succession crisis: Henry's nephew, Stephen of Blois, claimed the throne in 1135, but this was disputed by the Empress Matilda, Henry's daughter. Civil war broke out across England and Normandy, resulting in a long period of warfare later termed the Anarchy. Matilda's son, Henry, finally agreed to a peace settlement at Winchester and succeeded as king in 1154. Henry II was the first of the Angevin rulers of England, so-called because he was also the Count of Anjou in Northern France. Henry had also acquired the huge duchy of Aquitaine by marriage, and England became a key part of a loose-knit assemblage of lands spread across Western Europe, later termed the Angevin Empire. Henry reasserted royal authority and rebuilt the royal finances, intervening to claim power in Ireland and promoting the Anglo-Norman colonisation of the country. Henry strengthened England's borders with Wales and Scotland, and used the country's wealth to fund a long-running war with his rivals in France, but arrangements for his succession once again proved problematic. Several revolts broke out, led by Henry's children who were eager to acquire power and lands, sometimes backed by France, Scotland and the Welsh princes. After a final confrontation with Henry, his son Richard I succeeded to the throne in 1189. Richard spent his reign focused on protecting his possessions in France and fighting in the Third Crusade; his brother, John, inherited England in 1199 but lost Normandy and most of Aquitaine after several years of war with France. John fought successive, increasingly expensive, campaigns in a bid to regain these possessions. John's efforts to raise revenues, combined with his fractious relationships with many of the English barons, led to confrontation in 1215, an attempt to restore peace through the signing of the Magna Carta, and finally the outbreak of the First Barons' War. John died having fought the rebel barons and their French backers to a stalemate, and royal power was re-established by barons loyal to the young Henry III. England's power structures remained unstable and the outbreak of the Second Barons' War in 1264 resulted in the king's capture by Simon de Montfort. Henry's son, Edward, defeated the rebel factions between 1265 and 1267, restoring his father to power. Late Middle Ages (1272–1485) On becoming king, Edward I rebuilt the status of the monarchy, restoring and extending key castles that had fallen into disrepair. Uprisings by the princes of North Wales led to Edward mobilising a huge army, defeating the native Welsh and undertaking a programme of English colonisation and castle building across the region. Further wars were conducted in Flanders and Aquitaine. Edward also fought campaigns in Scotland, but was unable to achieve strategic victory, and the costs created tensions that nearly led to civil war. Edward II inherited the war with Scotland and faced growing opposition to his rule as a result of his royal favourites and military failures. The Despenser War of 1321–22 was followed by instability and the subsequent overthrow, and possible murder, of Edward in 1327 at the hands of his French wife, Isabella, and a rebel baron, Roger Mortimer. Isabella and Mortimer's regime lasted only a few years before falling to a coup, led by Isabella's son Edward III, in 1330. Like his grandfather, Edward III took steps to restore royal power, but during the 1340s the Black Death arrived in England. The losses from the epidemic, and the recurring plagues that followed it, significantly affected events in England for many years to come. Meanwhile, Edward, under pressure from France in Aquitaine, made a challenge for the French throne. Over the next century, English forces fought many campaigns in a long-running conflict that became known as the Hundred Years' War. Despite the challenges involved in raising the revenues to pay for the war, Edward's military successes brought an influx of plundered wealth to many parts of England and enabled substantial building work by the king. Many members of the English elite, including Edward's son the Black Prince, were heavily involved in campaigning in France and administering the new continental territories. Edward's grandson, the young Richard II, faced political and economic problems, many resulting from the Black Death, including the Peasants' Revolt that broke out across the south of England in 1381. Over the coming decades, Richard and groups of nobles vied for power and control of policy towards France until Henry of Bolingbroke seized the throne with the support of parliament in 1399. Ruling as Henry IV, he exercised power through a royal council and parliament, while attempting to enforce political and religious conformity. His son, Henry V, reinvigorated the war with France and came close to achieving strategic success shortly before his death in 1422. Henry VI became king at the age of only nine months and both the English political system and the military situation in France began to unravel. A sequence of bloody civil wars, later termed the Wars of the Roses, finally broke out in 1455, spurred on by an economic crisis and a widespread perception of poor government. Edward IV, leading a faction known as the Yorkists, removed Henry from power in 1461 but by 1469 fighting recommenced as Edward, Henry, and Edward's brother George, backed by leading nobles and powerful French supporters, vied for power. By 1471 Edward was triumphant and most of his rivals were dead. On his death, power passed to his brother Richard of Gloucester, who initially ruled on behalf of the young Edward V before seizing the throne himself as Richard III. The future Henry VII, aided by French and Scottish troops, returned to England and defeated Richard at the battle of Bosworth in 1485, bringing an end to the majority of the fighting, although lesser rebellions against his Tudor dynasty would continue for several years afterwards. Government and society Governance and social structures Early Middle Ages (600–1066) The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were hierarchical societies, each based on ties of allegiance between powerful lords and their immediate followers. At the top of the social structure was the king, who stood above many of the normal processes of Anglo-Saxon life and whose household had special privileges and protection. Beneath the king were thegns, nobles, the more powerful of which maintained their own courts and were termed ealdormen. The relationship between kings and their nobles was bound up with military symbolism and the ritual exchange of weapons and armour. Freemen, called churls, formed the next level of society, often holding land in their own right or controlling businesses in the towns. Geburs, peasants who worked land belonging to a thegn, formed a lower class still. The very lowest class were slaves, who could be bought and sold and who held only minimal rights. The balance of power between these different groups changed over time. Early in the period, kings were elected by members of the late king's council, but primogeniture rapidly became the norm for succession. The kings further bolstered their status by adopting Christian ceremonies and nomenclature, introducing ecclesiastical coronations during the 8th century and terming themselves "Christ's deputy" by the 11th century. Huge estates were initially built up by the king, bishops, monasteries and thegns, but in the 9th and 10th centuries these were slowly broken up as a consequence of inheritance arrangements, marriage settlements and church purchases. In the 11th century, the royal position worsened further, as the ealdormen rapidly built up huge new estates, making them collectively much more powerful than the king—this contributed to the political instability of the final Anglo-Saxon years. As time went by, the position of the churls deteriorated, as their rights were slowly eroded and their duties to their lords increased. The kingdom of Wessex, which eventually laid claim to England as a whole, evolved a centralised royal administration. One part of this was the king's council, the witenagemot, comprising the senior clergy, ealdormen, and some of the more important thegns; the council met to advise the king on policy and legal issues. The royal household included officials, thegns and a secretariat of clergy which travelled with the king, conducting the affairs of government as it went. Under the Danish kings, a bodyguard of housecarls also accompanied the court. At a regional level, ealdormen played an important part in government, defence and taxation, and the post of sheriff emerged in the 10th century, administering local shires on behalf of an ealdorman. Anglo-Saxon mints were tightly controlled by the kings, providing a high-quality currency, and the whole country was taxed using a system called hidage. The Anglo-Saxon kings built up a set of written laws, issued either as statutes or codes, but these laws were never written down in their entirety and were always supplemented by an extensive oral tradition of customary law. In the early part of the period local assemblies called moots were gathered to apply the laws to particular cases; in the 10th century these were replaced by hundred courts, serving local areas, and shire moots dealing with larger regions of the kingdom. Many churchmen and thegns were also given permission by the king to hold their own local courts. The legal system depended on a system of oaths in which the value of different individuals swearing on behalf of the plaintiff or defendant varied according to their social status – the word of a companion of the king, for example, was worth twelve times that of a churl. If fines were imposed, their size similarly varied accord to the oath-value of the individual. The Anglo-Saxon authorities struggled to deal with the bloodfeuds between families that emerged following violent killings, attempting to use a system of weregild, a payment of blood money, as a way of providing an alternative to long-running vendettas. High Middle Ages (1066–1272) Within twenty years of the Norman conquest, the former Anglo-Saxon elite were replaced by a new class of Norman nobility, with around 8,000 Normans and French settling in England. The new earls (successors to the ealdermen), sheriffs and church seniors were all drawn from their ranks. In many areas of society there was continuity, as the Normans adopted many of the Anglo-Saxon governmental institutions, including the tax system, mints and the centralisation of law-making and some judicial matters; initially sheriffs and the hundred courts continued to function as before. The existing tax liabilities were captured in the Domesday Book, produced in 1086. Changes in other areas soon began to be felt. The method of government after the conquest can be described as a feudal system, in that the new nobles held their lands on behalf of the king; in return for promising to provide military support and taking an oath of allegiance, called homage, they were granted lands termed a fief or an honour. Major nobles in turn granted lands to smaller landowners in return for homage and further military support, and eventually the peasantry held land in return for local labour services, creating a web of loyalties and resources enforced in part by new honorial courts. This system had been used in Normandy and concentrated more power in the king and the upper elite than the former Anglo-Saxon system of government. The practice of slavery declined in the years after the conquest, as the Normans considered the practice backward and contrary to the teachings of the church. The more prosperous peasants, however, lost influence and power as the Normans made holding land more dependent on providing labour services to the local lord. They sank down the economic hierarchy, swelling the numbers of unfree villeins or serfs, forbidden to leave their manor or seek alternative employment. At the centre of power, the kings employed a succession of clergy as chancellors, responsible for running the royal chancery, while the familia regis, the military household, emerged to act as a bodyguard and military staff. England's bishops continued to form an important part in local administration, alongside the nobility. Henry I and Henry II both implemented significant legal reforms, extending and widening the scope of centralised, royal law; by the 1180s, the basis for the future English common law had largely been established, with a standing law court in Westminster—an early Common Bench—and travelling judges conducting eyres around the country. King John extended the royal role in delivering justice, and the extent of appropriate royal intervention was one of the issues addressed in the Magna Carta of 1215. The emerging legal system reinvigorated the institution of serfdom in the 13th century by drawing an increasingly sharp distinction between freemen and villeins. Many tensions existed within the system of government. Royal landownings and wealth stretched across England, and placed the king in a privileged position above even the most powerful of the noble elite. Successive kings, though, still needed more resources to pay for military campaigns, conduct building programmes or to reward their followers, and this meant exercising their feudal rights to interfere in the land-holdings of nobles. This was contentious and a frequent issue of complaint, as there was a growing belief that land should be held by hereditary right, not through the favour of the king. Property and wealth became increasingly focused in the hands of a subset of the nobility, the great magnates, at the expense of the wider baronage, encouraging the breakdown of some aspects of local feudalism. As time went by, the Norman nobility intermarried with many of the great Anglo-Saxon families, and the links with the Duchy began to weaken. By the late 12th century, mobilising the English barons to fight on the continent was proving difficult, and John's attempts to do so ended in civil war. Civil strife re-emerged under Henry III, with the rebel barons in 1258–59 demanding widespread reforms, and an early version of Parliament was summoned in 1265 to represent the rebel interests. Late Middle Ages (1272–1485) On becoming king in 1272, Edward I reestablished royal power, overhauling the royal finances and appealing to the broader English elite by using Parliament to authorise the raising of new taxes and to hear petitions concerning abuses of local governance. This political balance collapsed under Edward II and savage civil wars broke out during the 1320s. Edward III restored order once more with the help of a majority of the nobility, exercising power through the exchequer, the common bench and the royal household. This government was better organised and on a larger scale than ever before, and by the 14th century the king's formerly peripatetic chancery had to take up permanent residence in Westminster. Edward used Parliament even more than his predecessors to handle general administration, to legislate and to raise the necessary taxes to pay for the wars in France. The royal lands—and incomes from them—had diminished over the years, and increasingly frequent taxation was required to support royal initiatives. Edward held elaborate chivalric events in an effort to unite his supporters around the symbols of knighthood. The ideal of chivalry continued to develop throughout the 14th century, reflected in the growth of knightly orders (including the Order of the Garter), grand tournaments and round table events. Society and government in England in the early 14th century were challenged by the Great Famine and the Black Death. The economic and demographic crisis created a sudden surplus of land, undermining the ability of landowners to exert their feudal rights and causing a collapse in incomes from rented lands. Wages soared, as employers competed for a scarce workforce. Statute of Labourers 1351 was introduced to limit wages and to prevent the consumption of luxury goods by the lower classes, with prosecutions coming to take up most of the legal system's energy and time. A poll tax was introduced in 1377 that spread the costs of the war in France more widely across the whole population. The tensions spilled over into violence in the summer of 1381 in the form of the Peasants' Revolt; a violent retribution followed, with as many as 7,000 alleged rebels executed. A new class of gentry emerged as a result of these changes, renting land from the major nobility to farm out at a profit. The legal system continued to expand during the 14th century, dealing with an ever-wider set of complex problems. By the time that Richard II was deposed in 1399, the power of the major noble magnates had grown considerably; powerful rulers such as Henry IV would contain them, but during the minority of Henry VI they controlled the country. The magnates depended upon their income from rent and trade to allow them to maintain groups of paid, armed retainers, often sporting controversial livery, and buy support amongst the wider gentry; this system has been dubbed bastard feudalism. Their influence was exerted both through the House of Lords at Parliament and through the king's council. The gentry and wealthier townsmen exercised increasing influence through the House of Commons, opposing raising taxes to pay for the French wars. By the 1430s and 1440s the English government was in major financial difficulties, leading to the crisis of 1450 and a popular revolt under the leadership of Jack Cade. Law and order deteriorated, and the crown was unable to intervene in the factional fighting between different nobles and their followers. The resulting Wars of the Roses saw a savage escalation of violence between the noble leaderships of both sides: captured enemies were executed and family lands attainted. By the time that Henry VII took the throne in 1485, England's governmental and social structures had been substantially weakened, with whole noble lines extinguished. Women in society Medieval England was a patriarchal society and the lives of women were heavily influenced by contemporary beliefs about gender and authority. However, the position of women varied considerably according to various factors, including their social class; whether they were unmarried, married, widowed or remarried; and in which part of the country they lived. Significant gender inequities persisted throughout the period, as women typically had more limited life-choices, access to employment and trade, and legal rights than men. In Anglo-Saxon society, noblewomen enjoyed considerable rights and status, although the society was still firmly patriarchal. Some exercised power as abbesses, exerting widespread influence across the early English Church, although their wealth and authority diminished with the monastic reforms of the 9th century. Anglo-Saxon queens began to hold lands in their own right in the 10th century and their households contributed to the running of the kingdom. Although women could not lead military forces, in the absence of their husbands some noblewomen led the defence of manors and towns. Most Anglo-Saxon women, however, worked on the land as part of the agricultural community, or as brewers or bakers. After the Norman invasion, the position of women in society changed. The rights and roles of women became more sharply defined, in part as a result of the development of the feudal system and the expansion of the English legal system; some women benefited from this, while others lost out. The rights of widows were formally laid down in law by the end of the 12th century, clarifying the right of free women to own property, but this did not necessarily prevent women from being forcibly remarried against their wishes. The growth of governmental institutions under a succession of bishops reduced the role of queens and their households in formal government. Married or widowed noblewomen remained significant cultural and religious patrons and played an important part in political and military events, even if chroniclers were uncertain if this was appropriate behaviour. As in earlier centuries, most women worked in agriculture, but here roles became more clearly gendered, with ploughing and managing the fields defined as men's work, for example, and dairy production becoming dominated by women. The years after the Black Death left many women widows; in the wider economy labour was in short supply and land was suddenly readily available. In rural areas peasant women could enjoy a better standard of living than ever before, but the amount of work being done by women may have increased. Many other women travelled to the towns and cities, to the point where they outnumbered men in some settlements. There they worked with their husbands, or in a limited number of occupations, including spinning, making clothes, victualling and as servants. Some women became full-time ale brewers, until they were pushed out of business by the male-dominated beer industry in the 15th century. Higher status jobs and apprenticeships, however, remained closed to women. As in earlier times, noblewomen exercised power on their estates in their husbands' absence and again, if necessary, defended them in sieges and skirmishes. Wealthy widows who could successfully claim their rightful share of their late husband's property could live as powerful members of the community in their own right. Identity An English cultural identity first emerged from the interaction of the Germanic immigrants of the 5th and 6th centuries and the indigenous Romano-British inhabitants. Although early medieval chroniclers described the immigrants as Angles and Saxons, they came from a much wider area across Northern Europe, and represented a range of different ethnic groups. Over the 6th century, however, these different groups began to coalesce into stratified societies across England, roughly corresponding to the later Angle and Saxon kingdoms recorded by Bede in the 8th century. By the 9th century, the term the Angelcynn was being officially used to refer to a single English people, and promoted for propaganda purposes by chroniclers and kings to inspire resistance to the Danish invasions. The Normans and French who arrived after the conquest saw themselves as different from the English. They had close family and economic links to the Duchy of Normandy, spoke Norman French and had their own distinctive culture. For many years, to be English was to be associated with military failure and serfdom. During the 12th century, the divisions between the English and Normans began to dissolve as a result of intermarriage and cohabitation. By the end of the 12th century, and possibly as early as the 1150, contemporary commentators believed the two peoples to be blending, and the loss of the Duchy in 1204 reinforced this trend. The resulting society still prized wider French cultural values, however, and French remained the language of the court, business and international affairs, even if Parisians mocked the English for their poor pronunciation. By the 14th century, however, French was increasingly having to be formally taught, rather than being learnt naturally in the home, although the aristocracy would typically spend many years of their lives in France and remained entirely comfortable working in French. During the 12th and 13th centuries, the English began to consider themselves superior to the Welsh, Scots and Bretons. The English perceived themselves as civilised, economically prosperous and properly Christian, while the Celtic fringe was considered lazy, barbarous and backward. Following the invasion of Ireland in the late 12th century, similar feelings were expressed about the Irish, with the distinctions clarified and reinforced in 14th-century English legislation. The English also felt strongly about the foreign traders who lived in the special enclaves in London in the Late Middle Ages; the position of the Jews is described below, but Italian and Baltic traders were also regarded as aliens and were frequently the targets of violence during economic downturns. Even within England, different identities abounded, each with their own sense of status and importance. Regional identities could be important – men and women from Yorkshire, for example, had a clear identity within English society, and professional groups with a distinct identity, such as lawyers, engaged in open fighting with others in cities such as London. Jews The Jewish community played an important role in England throughout much of the period. The first Jews arrived in England in the aftermath of the Norman invasion, when William the Conqueror brought over wealthy members of the Rouen community in Normandy to settle in London. The Jewish community expanded out across England and provided essential money-lending and banking services that were otherwise banned by the usury laws. During the 12th century, the Jewish financial community grew richer still, operating under royal protection and providing the king with a source of ready credit. All major towns had Jewish centres, and even the smaller towns saw visits by travelling Jewish merchants. Towards the end of Henry II's reign, however, the king ceased to borrow from the Jewish community and instead turned to extracting money from them through arbitrary taxation and fines. The Jews became vilified and accusations were made that they conducted ritual child murder, encouraging the pogroms carried out against Jewish communities in the reign of Richard I. After an initially peaceful start to John's reign, the king again began to extort money from the Jewish community and, with the breakdown in order in 1215, the Jews were subject to fresh attacks. Henry III restored some protection and Jewish money-lending began to recover. Despite this, the Jewish community became increasingly impoverished and was finally expelled from England in 1290 by Edward I, being replaced by foreign merchants. Religion Rise of Christianity Christianity had been the official imperial religion of the Roman Empire, and the first churches were built in England in the second half of the 4th century, overseen by a hierarchy of bishops and priests. Many existing pagan shrines were converted to Christian use and few pagan sites still operated by the 5th century. The collapse of the Roman system in the late 5th century, however, brought about the end of formal Christian religion in the east of England, and the new Germanic immigrants arrived with their own polytheistic gods, including Woden, Thunor and Tiw, still reflected in various English place names. Despite the resurgence of paganism in England, Christian communities still survived in more western areas such as Gloucestershire and Somerset. The movement towards Christianity began again in the late 6th and 7th centuries, helped by the conversion of the Franks in Northern France, who carried considerable influence in England. Pope Gregory I sent a team of missionaries to convert King Æthelberht of Kent and his household, starting the process of converting Kent. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury and started to build new churches across the South-East, reusing existing pagan shrines. Oswald and Oswiu, kings of Northumbria, were converted in the 630s and 640s, and the wave of change carried on through the middle of the 7th century across the kingdoms of Mercia, the South Saxons and the Isle of Wight. The process was largely complete by the end of the 7th century, but left a confusing and disparate array of local practices and religious ceremonies. This new Christianity reflected the existing military culture of the Anglo-Saxons: as kings began to convert in the 6th and 7th centuries, conversion began to be used as a justification for war against the remaining pagan kingdoms, for example, while Christian saints were imbued with martial properties. The Viking invasions of the 8th and 9th centuries reintroduced paganism to North-East England, leading in turn to another wave of conversion. Indigenous Scandinavian beliefs were very similar to other Germanic groups, with a pantheon of gods including Odin, Thor and Ullr, combined with a belief in a final, apocalyptic battle called Ragnarok. The Norse settlers in England were converted relatively quickly, assimilating their beliefs into Christianity in the decades following the occupation of York, which the Archbishop had survived. The process was largely complete by the early 10th century and enabled England's leading Churchmen to negotiate with the warlords. As the Norse in mainland Scandinavia started to convert, many mainland rulers recruited missionaries from England to assist in the process. Religious institutions With the conversion of much of England in the 6th and 7th centuries, there was an explosion of local church building. English monasteries formed the main basis for the church, however, and were often sponsored by local rulers, taking various forms, including mixed communities headed by abbesses, bishop-led communities of monks, and others formed around married priests and their families. Cathedrals were constructed, staffed either with secular canons in the European tradition or, uniquely to England, chapters of monks. These institutions were badly affected in the 9th century by Viking raids and predatory annexations by the nobility. By the start of the 10th century, monastic lands, financial resources and the quality of monasteries' religious work had been much diminished. Reforms followed under the kings of Wessex who promoted the Benedictine rule then popular on the Continent. A reformed network of around 40 monastic institutions across the south and east of England, under the protection of the king, helped re-establish royal control over the reconquered Danelaw. The 1066 Norman conquest brought a new set of Norman and French churchmen to power; some adopted and embraced aspects of the former Anglo-Saxon religious system, while others introduced practices from Normandy. Extensive English lands were granted to monasteries in Normandy, allowing them to create daughter priories and monastic cells across the kingdom. The monasteries were brought firmly into the web of feudal relations, with their holding of land linked to the provision of military support to the crown. The Normans adopted the Anglo-Saxon model of monastic cathedral communities, and within seventy years the majority of English cathedrals were controlled by monks; every English cathedral, however, was rebuilt to some extent by the new rulers. England's bishops remained powerful temporal figures, and in the early 12th-century raised armies against Scottish invaders and built up extensive holdings of castles across the country. New orders began to be introduced into England. As ties to Normandy waned, the French Cluniac order became fashionable and their houses were introduced in England. The Augustinians spread quickly from the beginning of the 12th century onwards, while later in the century the Cistercians reached England, creating houses with a more austere interpretation of the monastic rules and building the great abbeys of Rievaulx and Fountains. By 1215, there were over 600 monastic communities in England, but new endowments slowed during the 13th century, creating long-term financial problems for many institutions. The Dominican and Franciscan friars arrived in England during the 1220s, establishing 150 friaries by the end of the 13th century; these mendicant orders rapidly became popular, particularly in towns, and heavily influenced local preaching. The religious military orders that became popular across Europe from the 12th century onwards acquired possessions in England, including the Templars, Teutons and Hospitallers. Church, state and heresy The Church had a close relationship with the English state throughout the Middle Ages. The bishops and major monastic leaders played an important part in national government, having key roles on the king's council. Bishops often oversaw towns and cities, managing local taxation and government. This frequently became untenable with the Viking incursions of the 9th century, and in locations such as Worcester the local bishops came to new accommodations with the local ealdormen, exchanging some authority and revenue for assistance in defence. The early English church was racked with disagreement on doctrine, which was addressed by the Synod of Whitby in 664; some issues were resolved, but arguments between the archbishops of Canterbury and York as to which had primacy across Britain began shortly afterwards and continued throughout most of the medieval period. William the Conqueror acquired the support of the Church for the invasion of England by promising ecclesiastical reform. William promoted celibacy amongst the clergy and gave ecclesiastical courts more power, but also reduced the Church's direct links to Rome and made it more accountable to the king. Tensions arose between these practices and the reforming movement of Pope Gregory VII, which advocated greater autonomy from royal authority for the clergy, condemned the practice of simony and promoted greater influence for the papacy in church matters. Despite the bishops continuing to play a major part in royal government, tensions emerged between the kings of England and key leaders within the English Church. Kings and archbishops clashed over rights of appointment and religious policy, and successive archbishops including Anselm, Theobald of Bec, Thomas Becket and Stephen Langton were variously forced into exile, arrested by royal knights or even killed. By the early 13th century, however, the church had largely won its argument for independence, answering almost entirely to Rome. In the 1380s, several challenges emerged to the traditional teachings of the Church, resulting from the teachings of John Wycliffe, a member of Oxford University. Wycliffe argued that scripture was the best guide to understanding God's intentions, and that the superficial nature of the liturgy, combined with the abuses of wealth within the Church and the role of senior churchmen in government, distracted from that study. A loose movement that included many members of the gentry pursued these ideas after Wycliffe's death in 1384 and attempted to pass a Parliamentary bill in 1395: the movement was rapidly condemned by the authorities and was termed "Lollardy". The English bishops were charged to control and counter this trend, disrupting Lollard preachers and to enforcing the teaching of suitable sermons in local churches. By the early 15th century, combating Lollard teachings had become a key political issue, championed by Henry IV and his Lancastrian followers, who used the powers of both the church and state to combat the heresy. Pilgrimages and Crusades Pilgrimages were a popular religious practice throughout the Middle Ages in England, with the tradition dating back to the Roman period. Typically pilgrims would travel short distances to a shrine or a particular church, either to do penance for a perceived sin, or to seek relief from an illness or other condition. Some pilgrims travelled further, either to more distant sites within Britain or, in a few cases, onto the continent. During the Anglo-Saxon period, many shrines were built on former pagan sites which became popular pilgrimage destinations, while other pilgrims visited prominent monasteries and sites of learning. Senior nobles or kings would travel to Rome, which was a popular destination from the 7th century onwards; sometimes these trips were a form of convenient political exile. Under the Normans, religious institutions with important shrines, such as Glastonbury, Canterbury and Winchester, promoted themselves as pilgrimage destinations, maximising the value of the historic miracles associated with the sites. Accumulating relics became an important task for ambitious institutions, as these were believed to hold curative powers and lent status to the site. Indeed, by the 12th century reports of posthumous miracles by local saints were becoming increasingly common in England, adding to the attractiveness of pilgrimages to prominent relics. Participation in the Crusades was also seen as a form of pilgrimage, and indeed the same Latin word, peregrinatio, was sometimes applied to both activities. While English participation in the First Crusade between 1095 and 1099 was limited, England played a prominent part in the Second, Third and Fifth Crusades over the next two centuries, with many crusaders leaving for the Levant during the intervening years. The idea of undertaking a pilgrimage to Jerusalem was not new in England, however, as the idea of religiously justified warfare went back to Anglo-Saxon times. Many of those who took up the Cross to go on a Crusade never actually left, often because the individual lacked sufficient funds to undertake the journey. Raising funds to travel typically involved crusaders selling or mortgaging their lands and possessions, which affected their families and, at times, considerably affected the economy as a whole. Economy and technology Geography England had a diverse geography in the medieval period, from the Fenlands of East Anglia or the heavily wooded Weald, through to the upland moors of Yorkshire. Despite this, medieval England broadly formed two zones, roughly divided by the rivers Exe and Tees: the south and east of England had lighter, richer soils, able to support both arable and pastoral agriculture, while the poorer soils and colder climate of the north and west produced a predominantly pastoral economy. Slightly more land was covered by trees than in the 20th century, and bears, beavers and wolves lived wild in England, bears being hunted to extinction by the 11th century and beavers by the 12th. Of the 10,000 miles of roads that had been built by the Romans, many remained in use and four were of particular strategic importance—the Icknield Way, the Fosse Way, Ermine Street and Watling Street—which criss-crossed the entire country. The road system was adequate for the needs of the period, although it was significantly cheaper to transport goods by water. The major river networks formed key transport routes, while many English towns formed navigable inland ports. For much of the Middle Ages, England's climate differed from that in the 21st century. Between the 9th and 13th centuries England went through the Medieval Warm Period, a prolonged period of warmer temperatures; in the early 13th century, for example, summers were around 1 °C warmer than today and the climate was slightly drier. These warmer temperatures allowed poorer land to be brought into cultivation and for grapevines to be cultivated relatively far north. The Warm Period was followed by several centuries of much cooler temperatures, termed the Little Ice Age; by the 14th century spring temperatures had dropped considerably, reaching their coldest in the 1340s and 1350s. This cold end to the Middle Ages significantly affected English agriculture and living conditions. Even at the start of the Middle Ages the English landscape had been shaped by human occupation over many centuries. Much woodland was new, the result of fields being reclaimed by brush after the collapse of the Roman Empire. Human intervention had established wood pastures, an ancient system for managing woods and animals, and coppicing, a more intensive approach to managing woodlands. Other agricultural lands included arable fields and pastorage, while in some parts of the country, such as the South-West, waste moorland remained testament to earlier over-farming in the Bronze Age. England's environment continued to be shaped throughout the period, through the building of dykes to drain marshes, tree clearance and the large-scale extraction of peat. Managed parks for hunting game, including deer and boars, were built as status symbols by the nobility from the 12th century onwards, but earlier versions of parks, such as hays, may have originated as early as the 7th century. Economy and demographics The English economy was fundamentally agricultural, depending on growing crops such as wheat, barley and oats on an open field system, and husbanding sheep, cattle and pigs. In the late Anglo-Saxon period many peasants moved away from living in isolated hamlets and instead came together to form larger villages engaged in arable cultivation. Agricultural land became typically organised around manors, and was divided between some fields that the landowner would manage directly, called demesne land, and the majority of the fields that would be cultivated by local peasants. These peasants would pay rent to the landowner either through agricultural labour on the lord's demesne fields or through rent in the form of cash and produce. By the 11th century, a market economy was flourishing across much of England, while the eastern and southern towns were heavily involved in international trade. Around 6,000 watermills were built to grind flour, freeing up labour for other more productive agricultural tasks. Although the Norman invasion caused some damage as soldiers looted the countryside and land was confiscated for castle building, the English economy was not greatly affected. Taxes were increased, however, and the Normans established extensive forests that were exploited for their natural resources and protected by royal laws. The next two centuries saw huge growth in the English economy, driven in part by the increase in the population from around 1.5 million in 1086 to between 4 and 5 million in 1300. More land, much of it at the expense of the royal forests, was brought into production to feed the growing population and to produce wool for export to Europe. Many hundreds of new towns, some of them planned communities, were built across England, supporting the creation of guilds, charter fairs and other medieval institutions which governed the growing trade. Jewish financiers played a significant role in funding the growing economy, along with the new Cistercian and Augustinian religious orders that emerged as major players in the wool trade of the north. Mining increased in England, with a silver boom in the 12th century helping to fuel the expansion of the money supply. Economic growth began to falter at the end of the 13th century, owing to a combination of overpopulation, land shortages and depleted soils. The Great Famine shook the English economy severely and population growth ceased; the first outbreak of the Black Death in 1348 then killed around half the English population. The agricultural sector shrank rapidly, with higher wages, lower prices and diminishing profits leading to the final demise of the old demesne system and the advent of the modern farming system centring on the charging of cash rents for lands. As returns on land fell, many estates, and in some cases entire settlements, were simply abandoned, and nearly 1,500 villages were deserted during this period. A new class of gentry emerged who rented farms from the major nobility. Unsuccessful government attempts were made to regulate wages and consumption, but these largely collapsed in the decades following the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. The English cloth industry grew considerably at the start of the 15th century, and a new class of international English merchant emerged, typically based in London or the South-West, prospering at the expense of the older, shrinking economies of the eastern towns. These new trading systems brought about the end of many of the international fairs and the rise of the chartered company. Fishing in the North Sea expanded into deeper waters, backed by commercial investment from major merchants. Between 1440 and 1480, however, Europe entered a recession and England suffered the Great Slump: trade collapsed, driving down agricultural prices, rents and ultimately the acceptable levels of royal taxation. The resulting tensions and discontent played an important part in Jack Cade's popular uprising in 1450 and the subsequent Wars of the Roses. By the end of Middle Ages the economy had begun to recover and considerable improvements were being made in metalworking and shipbuilding that would shape the Early Modern economy. Technology and science Technology and science in England advanced considerably during the Middle Ages, driven in part by the Greek and Islamic thinking that reached England from the 12th century onwards. Many advances were made in scientific ideas, including the introduction of Arabic numerals and a sequence of improvements in the units used for measuring time. Clocks were first built in England in the late 13th century, and the first mechanical clocks were certainly being installed in cathedrals and abbeys by the 1320s. Astrology, magic and palm reading were also considered important forms of knowledge in medieval England, although some doubted their reliability. The period produced some influential English scholars. Roger Bacon, a philosopher and Franciscan friar, produced works on natural philosophy, astronomy and alchemy; his work set out the theoretical basis for future experimentation in the natural sciences. William of Ockham helped to fuse Latin, Greek and Islamic writing into a general theory of logic; "Ockham's Razor" was one of his oft-cited conclusions. English scholars since the time of Bede had believed the world was probably round, but Johannes de Sacrobosco estimated the circumference of the earth in the 13th century. Despite the limitations of medieval medicine, Gilbertus Anglicus published the Compendium Medicinae, one of the longest medical works ever written in Latin. Prominent historical and science texts began to be translated into English for the first time in the second half of the 14th century, including the Polychronicon and The Travels of Sir John Mandeville. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge were established during the 11th and 12th centuries, drawing on the model of the University of Paris. Technological advances proceeded in a range of areas. Watermills to grind grain had existed during most of the Anglo-Saxon period, using horizontal mill designs; from the 12th century on many more were built, eliminating the use of hand mills, with the older horizontal mills gradually supplanted by a new vertical mill design. Windmills began to be built in the late 12th century and slowly became more common. Water-powered fulling mills and powered hammers first appeared in the 12th century; water power was harnessed to assist in smelting by the 14th century, with the first blast furnace opening in 1496. New mining methods were developed and horse-powered pumps were installed in English mines by the end of the Middle Ages. The introduction of hopped beer transformed the brewing industry in the 14th century, and new techniques were invented to better preserve fish. Glazed pottery became widespread in the 12th and 13th centuries, with stoneware pots largely replacing wooden plates and bowls by the 15th century. William Caxton and Wynkyn de Worde began using the printing press during the late 15th century. Transport links were also improved; many road bridges were either erected or rebuilt in stone during the long economic boom of the 12th and 13th centuries. England's maritime trade benefited from the introduction of cog ships, and many docks were improved and fitted with cranes for the first time. Warfare Armies Warfare was endemic in early Anglo-Saxon England, and major conflicts still occurred approximately every generation in the later period. Groups of well-armed noblemen and their households formed the heart of these armies, supported by larger numbers of temporary troops levied from across the kingdom, called the fyrd. By the 9th century, armies of 20,000 men could be called up for campaigns, with another 28,000 men available to guard urban defences. The most common weapon was the spear, with swords used by the wealthier nobles; cavalry was probably less common than in wider Europe, but some Anglo-Saxons did fight from horseback. The Viking attacks on England in the 9th century led to developments in tactics, including the use of shield walls in battle, and the Scandinavian seizure of power in the 11th century introduced housecarls, a form of elite household soldier who protected the king. Anglo-Norman warfare was characterised by attritional military campaigns, in which commanders tried to raid enemy lands and seize castles in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries' territory, ultimately winning slow but strategic victories. Pitched battles were occasionally fought between armies but these were considered risky engagements and usually avoided by prudent commanders. The armies of the period comprised bodies of mounted, armoured knights, supported by infantry. Crossbowmen become more numerous in the 12th century, alongside the older shortbow. At the heart of these armies was the familia regis, the permanent military household of the king, which was supported in war by feudal levies, drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a campaign. Mercenaries were increasingly employed, driving up the cost of warfare considerably, and adequate supplies of ready cash became essential for the success of campaigns. In the late 13th century Edward I expanded the familia regis to become a small standing army, forming the core of much larger armies up to 28,700 strong, largely comprising foot soldiers, for campaigns in Scotland and France. By the time of Edward III, armies were smaller in size, but the troops were typically better equipped and uniformed, and the archers carried the longbow, a potentially devastating weapon. Cannons were first used by English forces at battles such as Crécy in 1346. Soldiers began to be contracted for specific campaigns, a practice which may have hastened the development of the armies of retainers that grew up under bastard feudalism. By the late 15th century, however, English armies were somewhat backward by wider European standards; the Wars of the Roses were fought by inexperienced soldiers, often with outdated weapons, allowing the European forces which intervened in the conflict to have a decisive effect on the outcomes of battles. Navies The first references to an English navy occur in 851, when chroniclers described Wessex ships defeating a Viking fleet. These early fleets were limited in size but grew in size in the 10th century, allowing the power of Wessex to be projected across the Irish Sea and the English Channel; Cnut's fleet had as many as 40 vessels, while Edward the Confessor could muster 80 ships. Some ships were manned by sailors called lithesmen and bustsecarls, probably drawn from the coastal towns, while other vessels were mobilised as part of a national levy and manned by their regular crews. Naval forces played an important role during the rest of the Middle Ages, enabling the transportation of troops and supplies, raids into hostile territory and attacks on enemy fleets. English naval power became particularly important after the loss of Normandy in 1204, which turned the English Channel from a friendly transit route into a contested and critical border region. English fleets in the 13th and 14th centuries typically comprised specialist vessels, such as galleys and large transport ships, and pressed merchant vessels conscripted into action; the latter increasingly included cogs, a new form of sailing ship. Battles might be fought when one fleet found another at anchor, such as the English victory at Sluys in 1340, or in more open waters, as off the coast of Winchelsea in 1350; raiding campaigns, such as the French attacks on the south of England between 1338 and 1339, could cause devastation from which some towns never fully recovered. Fortifications Many of the fortifications built by the Romans in England survived into the Middle Ages, including the walls surrounding their military forts and cities. These defences were often reused during the unstable post-Roman period. The Anglo-Saxon kings undertook significant planned urban expansion in the 8th and 9th centuries, creating burhs, often protected with earth and wood ramparts. Burh walls sometimes utilised older Roman fortifications, both for practical reasons and to bolster their owners' reputations through the symbolism of former Roman power. Although a small number of castles had been built in England during the 1050s, after the conquest the Normans began to build timber motte and bailey and ringwork castles in large numbers to control their newly occupied territories. During the 12th century the Normans began to build more castles in stone, with characteristic square keeps that supported both military and political functions. Royal castles were used to control key towns and forests, whilst baronial castles were used by the Norman lords to control their widespread estates; a feudal system called the castle-guard was sometimes used to provide garrisons. Castles and sieges continued to grow in military sophistication during the 12th century, and in the 13th century new defensive town walls were constructed across England. By the 14th century, castles were combining defences with luxurious, sophisticated living arrangements and landscaped gardens and parks. Early gunpowder weapons were used to defend castles by the end of the 14th century and gunports became an essential feature for a fashionable castle. The economics of maintaining castles meant that many were left to decline or abandoned; in contrast, a small number of castles were developed by the very wealthy into palaces that hosted lavish feasts and celebrations amid elaborate architecture. Smaller defensible structures called tower houses emerged in the north of England to protect against the Scottish threat. By the late medieval period, town walls were increasingly less military in character and more often expressions of civic pride or part of urban governance: many grand gatehouses were built in the 14th and 15th centuries for these purposes. Arts Art Medieval England produced art in the form of paintings, carvings, books, fabrics and many functional but beautiful objects. A wide range of materials was used, including gold, glass and ivory, the art usually drawing overt attention to the materials utilised in the designs. Anglo-Saxon artists created carved ivories, illuminated manuscripts, embroidered cloths, crosses and stone sculpture, although relatively few of these have survived to the modern period. They produced a wide range of metalwork, frequently using gold and garnets, with brooches, buckles, sword hilts and drinking horns particularly favoured designs. Early designs, such as those found at the Sutton Hoo burial, used a zoomorphic style, heavily influenced by German fashions, in which animal shapes were distorted into flowing shapes and positioned alongside geometric patterns. From the 7th century onwards more naturalistic designs became popular, showing a plasticity of form and incorporating both animals and people into the designs. In the 10th century, Carolingian styles, inspired by Classical imagery, began to enter from the continent, becoming widely used in the reformed Benedictine monasteries across the south and east of England. The Norman conquest introduced northern French artistic styles, particular in illuminated manuscripts and murals, and reduced the demand for carvings. In other artistic areas, including embroidery, the Anglo-Saxon influence remained evident into the 12th century, and the famous Bayeux Tapestry is an example of older styles being reemployed under the new regime. Stained glass became a distinctive form of English art during this later medieval period, although the coloured glass for these works was almost entirely imported from Europe. Little early stained glass in England has survived, but it typically had both an ornamental and educational function, while later works also commemorated the sponsors of the windows into the designs. English tapestry making and embroidery in the early 14th century were of an especially high quality; works produced by nuns and London professionals were exported across Europe, becoming known as the opus anglicanum. English illuminated books, such as the Queen Mary Psalter, were also famous in this period, featuring rich decoration, a combination of grotesque and natural figures and rich colours. The quality of illuminated art in England declined significantly in the face of competition from Flanders in the 14th century, and later English illuminated medieval pieces generally imitated Flemish styles. Literature, drama and music The Anglo-Saxons produced extensive poetry in Old English, some of which was written down as early as the 9th century, although most surviving poems were compiled in the 10th and early 11th century. Beowulf, probably written between 650 and 750, is typical of these poems, portraying a vivid, heroic tale, ending with the protagonist's death at the hands of a dragon, but still showing signs of the new Christian influences in England. Old English was also used for academic and courtly writing from the 9th century onwards, including translations of popular foreign works, including The Pastoral Care. Poetry and stories written in French were popular after the Norman conquest, and by the 12th century some works on English history began to be produced in French verse. Romantic poems about tournaments and courtly love became popular in Paris and this fashion spread into England in the form of lays; stories about the court of King Arthur were also fashionable, due in part to the interest of Henry II. English continued to be used on a modest scale to write local religious works and some poems in the north of England, but most major works were produced in Latin or French. In the reign of Richard II there was an upsurge in the use of Middle English in poetry, sometimes termed "Ricardian poetry", although the works still emulated French fashions. The work of Geoffrey Chaucer from the 1370s onwards, however, culminating in the influential Canterbury Tales, was uniquely English in style. Major pieces of courtly poetry continued to be produced into the 15th century by Chaucher's disciples, and Thomas Malory compiled the older Arthurian tales to produce Le Morte d'Arthur. Music and singing were important in England during the medieval period, being used in religious ceremonies, court occasions and to accompany theatrical works. Singing techniques called gymel were introduced in England in the 13th century, accompanied by instruments such as the guitar, harp, pipes and organ. Henry IV sponsored an extensive range of music in England, while his son Henry V brought back many influences from occupied France. Carols became an important form of music in the 15th century; originally these had been a song sung during a dance with a prominent refrain — the 15th century form lost the dancing and introduced strong religious overtones. Ballads were also popular from the late 14th century onwards, including the Ballad of Chevy Chase and others describing the activities of Robin Hood. Miracle plays were performed to communicate the Bible in various locations. By the late 14th century, these had been extended into vernacular mystery plays which performed annually over several days, broken up into various cycles of plays; a handful have survived into the 21st century. Guilds competed to produce the best plays in each town and performances were often an expression of civic identity. Architecture In the century after the collapse of the Romano-British economy, very few substantial buildings were constructed and many villas and towns were abandoned. New long- and round-houses were constructed in some settlements, while in others timber buildings were built imitating the older Roman styles. The Germanic immigrants constructed small rectangular buildings from wood, and occasionally grander halls. However, the conversion to Christianity in the 6th and 7th centuries reintroduced Italian and French masons, and these craftsmen built stone churches, low in height, following a narrow, rectangular plan, plastered inside and fitted with glass and colourful vestments. This Romanesque style developed throughout the period, featuring characteristic circular arches. By the 10th and 11th centuries, much larger churches and monastery buildings were being built, featuring square and circular towers after the contemporary European fashion. The palaces constructed for the nobility centred on great timber halls, while manor houses began to appear in rural areas. The Normans brought with them architectural styles from their own duchy, where austere stone churches were preferred. Under the early Norman kings this style was adapted to produce large, plain cathedrals with ribbed vaulting. During the 12th century the Anglo-Norman style became richer and more ornate, with pointed arches derived from French architecture replacing the curved Romanesque designs; this style is termed Early English Gothic and continued, with variation, throughout the rest of the Middle Ages. In the early 14th century the Perpendicular Gothic style was created in England, with an emphasis on verticality, immense windows and soaring arcades. Fine timber roofs in a variety of styles, but in particular the hammerbeam, were built in many English buildings. In the 15th century the architectural focus turned away from cathedrals and monasteries in favour of parish churches, often decorated with richly carved woodwork; in turn, these churches influenced the design of new chantry chapels for existing cathedrals. Meanwhile, domestic architecture had continued to develop, with the Normans, having first occupied the older Anglo-Saxon dwellings, rapidly beginning to build larger buildings in stone and timber. The elite preferred houses with large, ground-floor halls but the less wealthy constructed simpler houses with the halls on the first floor; master and servants frequently lived in the same spaces. Wealthier town-houses were also built using stone, and incorporated business and domestic arrangements into a single functional design. By the 14th century grander houses and castles were sophisticated affairs: expensively tiled, often featuring murals and glass windows, these buildings were often designed as a set of apartments to allow greater privacy. Fashionable brick began to be used in some parts of the country, copying French tastes. Architecture that emulated the older defensive designs remained popular. Less is known about the houses of peasants during this period, although many peasants appear to have lived in relatively substantial, timber-framed long-houses; the quality of these houses improved in the prosperous years following the Black Death, often being built by professional craftsmen. Legacy Historiography The first history of medieval England was written by Bede in the 8th century; many more accounts of contemporary and ancient history followed, usually termed chronicles. In the 16th century, the first academic histories began to be written, typically drawing primarily on the chroniclers and interpreting them in the light of current political concerns. Edward Gibbon's 18th-century writings were influential, presenting the medieval period as a dark age between the glories of Rome and the rebirth of civilisation in the Early Modern period. Late Victorian historians continued to use the chroniclers as sources, but also deployed documents such as Domesday Book and Magna Carta, alongside newly discovered financial, legal and commercial records. They produced a progressive account of political and economic development in England. The growth of the British Empire spurred interest in the various periods of English hegemony during the Middle Ages, including the Angevin Empire and the Hundred Years' War. By the 1930s, older historical analyses were challenged by a range of neo-positivist, Marxist and econometric approaches, supported by a widening body of documentary, archaeological and scientific evidence. Marxist and Neo-Marxist analyses continued to be popular in the post-war years, producing seminal works on economic issues and social protests. Post-modern analysis became influential in the 1970s and 1980s, focusing on identity, gender, interpretation and culture. Many studies focused on particular regions or groups, drawing on new records and new scientific approaches, including landscape and environmental archaeology. Fresh archaeological finds, such as the Staffordshire Hoard, continue to challenge previous interpretations, and historical studies of England in the Middle Ages have never been so diverse as in the early 21st century. Popular representations The period has also been used in a wide range of popular culture. William Shakespeare's plays on the lives of the medieval kings have proved to have had long lasting appeal, heavily influencing both popular interpretations and histories of figures such as King John and Henry V. Other playwrights have since taken key medieval events, such as the death of Thomas Becket, and used them to draw out contemporary themes and issues. The medieval mystery plays continue to be enacted in key English towns and cities. Film-makers have drawn extensively on the medieval period, often taking themes from Shakespeare or the Robin Hood ballads for inspiration. Historical fiction set in England during the Middle Ages remains persistently popular, with the 1980s and 1990s seeing a particular growth of historical detective fiction. The period has also inspired fantasy writers, including J. R. R. Tolkien's stories of Middle-earth. English medieval music was revived from the 1950s, with choral and musical groups attempting to authentically reproduce the original sounds. Medieval living history events were first held during the 19th and early 20th centuries, and the period has inspired a considerable community of historical re-enactors, part of England's growing heritage industry. Notes References Bibliography Surveys Bartlett, Robert. England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings, 1075–1225 (New Oxford History of England) (2002) excerpt and text search Kings Architecture, castles, churches, landscape Specialized studies Historiography . Middle Ages . 8th century in England 9th century in England 10th century in England 11th century in England 12th century in England 13th century in England 14th century in England 15th century in England Middle Ages by country

Bonfires of Saint John

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The Bonfires of Saint John (, , , , ) are a traditional and popular festival celebrated around the world during Midsummer, which takes place on the evening of 23 June, St. John's Eve. It is customary in many cities and towns in Spain; the largest one takes place in Alicante, where it is the most important festival in the city. The biggest celebration in Portugal is held in Oporto, where it is known as the Festa de São João do Porto. In South America (former Iberian colonies), the biggest celebration takes place in the northeastern states of Brazil, where it is known as Festa Junina. The bonfires are particularly popular in many Catalan-speaking areas like the Valencian Community and Catalonia, and for this reason some Catalan nationalists regard 24 June as the Catalan nation day. History The festivals of Midsummer's Eve (St. John's Eve among Christians) have roots in ancient celebrations related to the summer solstice. Bonfires were lit to protect against evil spirits which were believed to roam freely when the sun was turning southward again. In later years, witches were also thought to be on their way to meetings with other powerful beings. Traditions Fire features in many of the celebrations, with people gathering together and creating large bonfires from any kind of wood, such as old furniture, and sharing food and drinks while teens and children jump over the fires. In some areas, bonfires are traditionally named tequeos, which means people of the dance. Parties are often organized at beaches, where bonfires are lit and a set of firework displays usually take place. On the Spanish Mediterranean coast, especially in Catalonia and Valencia, special foods such as coca de Sant Joan are also served on this occasion. In Alicante, since 1928, the bonfires of Saint John were developed into elaborate constructions inspired by the Falles of Valencia. Celebration in Alicante Origins Before 1928, the bonfires of Saint John had been celebrated in Alicante as it had been elsewhere in Europe: by burning old pieces of furniture on the night of Saint John on 24 June. The Bonfires festival in Alicante originated in 1928. Jose María Py, the founder of the festival, felt that Alicante needed an important fiesta, and came up with an idea to combine bonfires with a Valencian tradition known as the "falles". The festival ultimately became the most important cultural event in Alicantinian society. Events 19 June The Bonfires start with the 'Set Up' (la plantà) when monuments, street ninots and archways to the "barraques" are set up in the streets. A pie of tuna (coca amb tonyina) and early figs (bacores) are eaten at night. 19–24 June The despertà occurs at 08:00 – Neighbours are awakened with a great deal of noise in all the districts of the city. The mascletà takes place at 14:00. It is a combination of fireworks and a very long string of firecrackers (bangers). At night, from 23:00 to 06:00 there are street parties in all the districts of the city. People dance and drink all night at the "racós" (sing. racó) and the "barraques" (sing. barraca). 21 June The Street Band Parade (Desfilada d’entrada de bandes) occurs at 19:00. 22 June At 11:30, the Prize Giving Parade (Desfilada entrega de premis) takes place At 19:00, the Flower Offering Parade for St Mary of the Remedy (Ofrena de flors a la Verge del Remei) takes place. In the three parades, people wear the traditional garments from Alicante, and, in the Flower Offering, women wear mantilla and they have a bunch of flowers. 23 June At 21:00, the International Folklore Parade (Desfile folklórico internacional) takes place. 24 June : At 24:00 (morning of 25 June), the Palm (firework) (La Palmera), occurs. This is a magnificent cascade of fireworks, and it is followed by the Burning (La Cremà), which is the culmination of the festival. Before the main events, in the beginning of June, there are the Ninot and Children's Ninot Exhibition (Exposició del Ninot y del Ninot infantil), the Paella Contest (Certamen de Paelles), the Tribute to Past Foguerers and Barraquers (La ofrena a foguerers y barraquers morts), the Opening Ceremony (El Pregó), the Ninot Parade (La Cavalcada del Ninot), and the Street Parade of Ninots competition (La plantà dels Ninots de carrer). After 24 June, there is the Firework Display Competition (Concurs de Castell de Focs Artificials) and the String of Firecrackers Display (Concurs de traques) in Postiguet Beach. There are also sports events and a Medieval Street Market. The Bonfires commissions host a number of other events during the rest of the year. In autumn, there is a musical and dancing competition known as the Artistic Competition (Concurs artístic). In December, there is the Christmas Carol Competition (Concurs de nadales). In May, there is the Beauty of the Fire Contest (Festival d’elecció de la Bellea del Foc), which is the most important event outside the festive period, followed by the Beauty of the Fire Proclamation (Proclamació de la Bellea del Foc). During the year, there are the Presentations of the Beauties in all the districts of Alicante. Organization Bonfires are organised into commissions which fundraise and host the other events throughout the year. A member of a commission is called a foguerer. A commission usually represents one area, a place or an avenue in the city, but there are many areas with numerous commissions. (For example, Carolines has five commissions: Carolines Altes, Carolines Baixes, Foguerer-Carolines, Doctor Bergez-Carolinas and Bola de Oro.) In Alicante there are more than 90 commissions (and so many others for children). A barraca is a group of friends who don't take part in all the activities, and they raise money only to eat, drink and dance during the festival in a place in the street called the barraca. The member of a barraca is called barraquer. The barracas and the racós are places in the street with tables, chairs, a bar, an orchestra and a dance floor. They are places for people to eat, talk, drink, dance and socializing during the festivities. The difference between the barraca and the racó is that the racó is for the entire district and admission is free, while entrance to the barraca is restricted. The racó is made by the foguerers and the "barraca" is made by the "barraquers". The commissions organize and take part in several events during the year: an artistic competition, parades, beauty contests, etc. These activities are open to the general public and the participation of the district's residents is very important and, sometimes, they are the main group. In districts such as Ciutat d’Asís, Florida-Portatge, Els Àngels and Carolines Altes, the relationship between the commission and the district's residents is very strong. A very important source of financing for the festival is a lottery administered by the commission, although there are other sources such as tombolas, raffles, or sales. Beauties Beauty is the most emblematic element in the Bonfires after the monument. The Beauty is a woman who is the queen of the festival . There are both Beauties and Infantile Beauties representing Bonfires and Infantile Bonfires respectively. Since a Beauty is the representative of a particular commission, there are near 90 Beauties and so many Infantile Beauties in Alicante. A Beauty can have two or four Honour Ladies in her commission. There are certain Honour Ladies for the whole city. The Beauty of the Fire (Bellea del Foc) is the queen of the festival in all the city and there are also six Ladies of the Fire (Dames del Foc). Clothes There are three types of traditional clothes: Núvia alacantina (Alicantinian Bride): the costume that Beauties and Honour Ladies wear. It is made up of: A band in the hair A white and round mantilla A small lemon blossom bunch Two hangings A cross with jewellery around the neck A black, velvet, waist with long sleeves A fan A black apron with jewellery A long skirt A petticoat (sinagües) White stockings Black heels Llabradora (farmer): the costume for the other women. It is made up of: A band in the hair with flowers Two hangings A cross with a black ribbon in the neck A white piece called "manteleta" A waist made in colours A white apron A long skirt, the same of the Beauties A petticoat (sinagües) White stockings Black heels Zaragüelles: the costume for the men. It is made up of: A scarf in the head or in the neck A cotton, white, shirt A blanket with pockets A long sash at the same colour that the scarf Full white trousers called "zaragüelles" White stockings Shoes called "espardenyes" Art: Monuments Bonfires are an art show. In autumn, there is an artistic competition among the Bonfire Commissioners. In the Festival, there are Ninots (wooden figures) in the street. This is an old tradition that was revived in 2008. Every year there is an Official Festival Poster, a beautiful art demonstration. But the most important in this festival are the Monuments, who are called Bonfires (Fogueres). They are made of wood, cardboard, mud, paintings and, nowadays, of cork and polyurethane too. A Bonfire is not only an artistic creation, it is a critique of the societal, political and economic situation of the world in general and the city of Alicante especially. Critiques are made across the "Ninot" or figure. The Ninot usually represents a famous person, often an amusing parody of a politician. The Bonfires are not the same as the Valencian Fallas. When Bonfires originated in Alicante there were not made by "faller" artists, and the first Bonfires were made by local painters and sculptors. They did not imitate the Valencian style; they were very vanguardist and they followed Art-Dèco and other artistic currents. This vanguard continued throughout the history of the event (except 70's, when Valencian style was adopted), and today Bonfires are different still. A Bonfire is paid for by contributions by the Bonfire Commission, together with donations from residents and shops. The Monument Competition is the most important contest in the Bonfire events. Monuments are divided into seven categories according to the price. There are 6 categories from 1st to 6th, and a Special Category. The latter category consists of more expensive bonfires costing more than 60,100 euros. The most important artists throughout the Bonfire's history are Gastón Castelló, Ramón Marco, Remigio Soler, Ángel Martín, Pedro Soriano, José Muñoz and Paco Juan. The most successful district is Benalua, with 18 victories. Other successful districts are Ciutat d’Asís, Carolines Altes, Mercat Central, Alfons el Savi and Hernán Cortés. Bonfires are kindled on the 20th in an act called "La plantà", and they are burned on the 24th in a very beautiful and emotive act called "La cremà" (the burning). The former is the beginning of the Alicantinian Festival and the latter marks the end of the Festival. See also Festa de São João do Porto Festa junina St Jonas' Festival Jāņi References External links Bonfires of Saint John Official Web of the Gestor Commission Official Web of Alicante Slideshow from the 2005 Hogueras Festival Alicante Patronal festivals in Spain Saint John's Day Unofficial observances Summer events in Spain Galician culture

1968 Special Olympics Summer World Games

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The First International Special Olympics Games (Summer Special Olympics) were held in Soldier Field, Chicago, Illinois, United States, on July 20, 1968. Some of the smaller indoor events were held in the Conrad Hilton Hotel on Michigan Avenue. This event was co-sponsored by the Chicago Park District and the Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. Foundation. 1,000 athletes from 26 U.S. states, and Canada competed in track and swimming. Swimming had two events including 25 meter races, and track and field had four events including 50 yard dash, 300 yard run, and standing long jump. There was also a softball throwing event. The athlete's oath was introduced at these games by founder Eunice Shriver at the opening ceremony. The oath is, "Let me win. But if I can not win, let me be brave in the attempt." Notable athletes volunteered at the games, including Jesse Owens, Rafer Johnson, George Armstrong, and Stan Mikita. Planning The inception of the concept for the Special Olympics came from Anne McGlone (now Anne Burke), at the time a physical education teacher working for the Chicago Park District. In 1967, while teaching special needs children, she had the idea to host a citywide track meet for such children. She asked Park District Superintendent Erwin "Red" Weiner and Park District Board President William McFetridge for permission to organize it. The Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. Foundation had provided earlier funding to special needs programs in the Park District, thus McFetridge believed that Eunice Kennedy Shriver might be wiling to provide funding for such an event. In early 1968, McGlone wrote to Shriver proposing the event, and within days received an enthusiastic response from Shriver. The event evolved from a track meet into an Olympics-style event for special needs children. To assist in organizing the event, they received help from Dr. William H. Freeberg of Southern Illinois University (an expert in recreation for children with disabilities). They also received the assistance of Parks Board vice president Dan Shannon and McFetridge's assistant Ed Kelly. The event began to take a national, then later even an international, scale as planning advanced. References External links http://www.specialolympics.org/history.aspx Special Olympics Special Olympics World Summer Games Special Olympics World Summer Games Sports competitions in Chicago History of Chicago Special Olympics World Summer Games Special Olympics World Summer Games Special Olympics World Summer Games Special Olympics World Summer Games Special Olympics World Summer Games Special Olympics World Summer Games Soldier Field

Great North Run

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The Great North Run (branded the Simplyhealth Great North Run for sponsorship purposes) is the largest half marathon in the world, taking place annually in North East England each September. Participants run between Newcastle upon Tyne and South Shields. The run was devised by former Olympic 10,000 m bronze medallist and BBC Sport commentator Brendan Foster. The first Great North Run was staged on 28 June 1981, when 12,000 runners participated. By 2011, the number of participants had risen to 54,000. For the first year it was advertised as a local fun run; nearly thirty years on it has become one of the biggest running events in the world, and the biggest in the UK. Only the Great Manchester Run and London Marathon come close to attracting similar numbers of athletes each year. The 1992 edition of the race incorporated the 1st IAAF World Half Marathon Championships. The event also has junior and mini races attached with these being run the Saturday before the main race on the Newcastle Quayside. Martin Mathathi holds the current men's course record with his run of 58:56 in 2011. In 2019, Brigid Kosgei's women's course record of 64:28 bettered the previous mark by over a minute and was also the fastest ever half marathon by a woman; however, the course was not eligible for records. That same year, Mo Farah won a record sixth consecutive men's Great North Run. Course The Great North Run starts in Newcastle upon Tyne on the A167 road (the central motorway), on the edge of both the city centre and the Town Moor. The route heads east and south down the motorway section, around the eastern side of the city centre, then crosses the Tyne Bridge into Gateshead. It heads around the eastern side of Gateshead town centre, then at a roundabout turns east and heads down the A184 (the Felling Bypass) in the direction of Sunderland. After , the route turns off the A184 and heads north-east towards South Shields down the A194 (Leam Lane). later, the route reaches the southern side of Jarrow and it turns east down the A1300 (John Reid Road). The route passes through the south of South Shields (through Harton and Marsden) until it reaches the seafront just over later, where it turns north up the A183. The last mile (1.6 km) of the route runs along the seafront road to the finishing line at South Shields. All roads on the course are closed several hours before the race begins, however multiple vehicles including TV crews, emergency services, event staff, and a fleet of buses carrying participants' belongings are authorised to travel between Newcastle and South Shields on the closed course roads ahead of and following the participants. History The run was devised by former Olympic 10,000 m bronze medallist and BBC Sport commentator Brendan Foster. Foster was inspired after running in the Round the Bays Race in New Zealand in 1979, and has built upon the Great North Run with a series of other Great Run road races. The first Great North Run was staged on 28 June 1981, when 12,000 runners participated. By 2003, the number of participants had risen to 47,000. The 2011 event saw an announced field of 54,000. The number of finishers was 35,777 in 2007, the largest half marathon and the 13th largest running race that year. In 2014, the event had 41,615 finishers, making it the largest half-marathon in the world as certified by Guinness World Records in 2016. For the first nine races, eight of them were held in June. Since 1990, the race has instead been held in the autumn, usually in September but occasionally in October instead. Since 1990, the earliest date the race has been held on is 7 September (2014) and the latest is 22 October (2000). Bupa was the title partner of the Great North Run from the early 1990s until 2014, one of Britain's longest ever sports sponsorship agreements. In 2015 Morrisons announced their sponsorship of the Great Run series. In November 2015, the Great Run Company announced it was searching for a new title sponsor which includes the Great North Run. The 2016 Great North Run was the first staging of the event without a title sponsor. Simplyhealth became the new lead sponsor for 2017. Events In 2004 a runner died (the eighth death in the event's then 24-year history). The 2005 Great North Run was the twenty-fifth edition of the race. Events to mark the anniversary included the launch of the Great North Run Cultural Programme at the Sage Gateshead. The race was started by Mike McLeod, the winner of the inaugural race in 1981. During the race, four participants died en route to South Shields. An inquest into the four deaths from 2005 began on Monday 5 June 2006 at Gateshead Council Chambers. In subsequent events, more emergency service personnel were brought in to ensure there was adequate cover. In spite of increased medical provision at the 2006 race, a man in his twenties died. The 2007 Great North Run was held on 30 September and was started by former England and Newcastle United manager Sir Bobby Robson. Kara Goucher defeated Paula Radcliffe in an impressive victory for the American. Goucher's winning time was 1:06:57. The 2008 Great North Run was held on 5 October and was started by former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair. The 2009 Great North Run was held on 20 September and was started by the musician Sting. The 2010 Great North Run was the 30th running of the event and was held on 19 September and was started by TV presenters Ant & Dec. The number of finishers (half marathon only) was 39,459. The 2011 Great North Run took place on the morning of Sunday, 18 September 2011. The race was started by World 5,000-metre champion Mo Farah. In 2013 the 33rd Great North Run had 56000 participants, most of whom were raising money for charity. The elite races had Olympic Gold Medalists and World Champion long-distance runners participating including in the men's race, Mo Farah, Kenenisa Bekele and a regular supporter of the event, Haile Gebrselassie. Ethiopian Bekele won the men's event just ahead of Farah. Kenya's Priscah Jeptoo came first the women's race and multi Olympic Gold Medalist David Weir won the wheelchair event. In 2014 the 34th Great North Run had 57000 participants, celebrated the 1 millionth runner to cross the finish line, and was the first to have a British man win in 29 years. Mo Farah completed the race in exactly 1 hour, while Mary Keitany completed in 1:05:39 seconds - surpassing the previous course record of 1:05:40 by 1 second, a record held by Paula Radcliffe. Tracey Cramond, who was raising money for Butterwick Hospices, was the 1 millionth person to complete the run, stating she was "gobsmacked" and that it was her "moment of fame". The Great North Run was the first International Athletics Association Event (IAAF) event in the world to reach such a milestone. In 2015 a 58-year-old male runner died. The 2020 Great North Run was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Past winners Key: Wheelchair race See also Northeast of England References Results Butler, Mark (2012-11-17). Great North Run Half Marathon. Association of Road Racing Statisticians. Retrieved on 2013-01-20. History and Tradition. Great Run. Retrieved on 2013-01-20. External links Official website Half marathons in the United Kingdom Sport in Newcastle upon Tyne Sport in Tyne and Wear Athletics competitions in England 1981 establishments in England Recurring sporting events established in 1981 Annual sporting events in the United Kingdom Annual events in England Sport in South Shields

Sam Seaborn

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Samuel Norman Seaborn is a fictional character portrayed by Rob Lowe on the television serial drama The West Wing. He is Deputy White House Communications Director in the Josiah Bartlet administration throughout the first four seasons of the series. The show was designed with Sam as the main character, and as such he is the protagonist of the pilot episode and remains a focal point and lens for the show through at least the first season. However, by the time of his departure, his significance in the plot had decreased as the show started to focus more on the President's ability to govern despite obstacles such as his previously undisclosed multiple sclerosis, his campaign for re-election, and an increased focus on foreign policy and terrorism. Creation and development The role of Sam Seaborn was initially offered to actor Bradley Whitford, who had auditioned for the part of Josh Lyman. However, Whitford wanted and was eventually given the role of Josh, and the part of Sam went to Rob Lowe, whose audition, said show creator Aaron Sorkin, "left our jaws on the floor". Sam's inept performance as a White House tour guide in the pilot episode may have been inspired by former Clinton press secretary Joe Lockhart, who told the Chicago Tribune that despite having to give tours on a regular basis, he did not know whether the Roosevelt Room was named after Franklin or Teddy Roosevelt, saying, "I haven't gotten caught yet, but I've made up a few things." (It is actually named after both Roosevelts.) When the show premiered, Seaborn was considered the lead, and the pilot centered on the character. But the acclaimed cast of the show—including Allison Janney, Richard Schiff, Dulé Hill, John Spencer, Whitford, and Martin Sheen (whose role as President was initially scripted as a small role) and Stockard Channing (whose First Lady was initially scripted as a guest role)— were all strong actors and eventually Lowe's character was no longer the lead. Lowe and series creator Aaron Sorkin soon found themselves at odds over the network's meddling with the show, most notably the network demanding changes in the Sam Seaborn character. Eventually, Lowe left the series. Lowe's performance as Seaborn received a Emmy nomination , two Golden Globes nominations, three Screen Actors Guild Awards nominations and a Satellite Award win. Biography Early life and education Sam grew up in Laguna Beach, California. He makes a reference to going to Dungeons and Dragons camp when he was younger in the episode "The Two Bartlets". Sam graduated magna cum laude from Princeton University and Duke University School of Law. He makes repeated references to his alma mater, especially in the earlier seasons, indicating a certain pride in his attendance there. "Princeton" is his Secret Service code name, and he mentions being the recording secretary of the Princeton Gilbert and Sullivan Society. He can speak Spanish, as seen in Season 3 episode "Ways and Means". It is hinted in several episode that Sam has a difficult relationship with his father and that they do not speak regularly. Sam attended Duke Law School and was the editor of the Duke Law Review (which, in reality, is known as the Duke Law Journal). Career prior to the White House Sam was a staffer for several congressmen and the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee. He was also a practicing lawyer, working at the law firm of Dewey Ballantine in New York City before joining the fictional Gage Whitney Pace (aka "Gage Whitney"), reputedly the second biggest law firm in New York City. Sam worked there for seven years and was concentrating on helping an oil company with a deal that would protect them from litigation in the event of an oil spill when his old friend Josh Lyman comes to visit him. Josh is running John Hoynes' presidential campaign and comes to try to recruit Sam as a speechwriter. Sam declines, explaining that he is about to be made partner and is getting married soon (the engagement later fell through). Sam returns to work but, feeling guilty about the deal he is making, begins trying to convince the oil company to buy newer, better tankers than the ones they want, unleashing the wrath of his boss and jeopardizing his promotion to partner. In the midst of this, Josh returns from a trip to New Hampshire during which he has seen Hoynes' dark-horse challenger, Jed Bartlet, speak to a small audience of voters. Josh has been sufficiently inspired to abandon Hoynes' campaign and go work for Bartlet, which in turn convinces Sam to do the same. Sam becomes part of the talented team of staffers who help Bartlet to a very unlikely victory in 1998. Personality Sam's tragically flawed romantic relationships are something of a theme of the series with Josh once describing Sam's love life as "a moveable feast". After joining the campaign, Sam broke up with his fiancée, Lisa Sherborne, whom he was planning to marry in September of that year (the joke was that they broke up so that her name wouldn't become Lisa Sherborne Seaborn). Sam's other romantic relationships include a high-priced call girl named Laurie, played by Lisa Edelstein (with whom he slept without knowledge of her profession), and Leo McGarry's daughter, Mallory O'Brien, a fourth-grade teacher — a relationship Leo jokingly tries to sabotage, telling Sam, "I don't mind you dating my 'only' daughter, but you can't expect me not to have some fun along the way." Sam's trademark — both his greatest strength and greatest flaw — is his unflinching idealism. His unwavering faith in and love for the American political process and the positive impact that government can have in its citizens' lives define his character. Sam believes in doing the right thing simply because it is right, even when the consequences might be politically disastrous. This often causes him to clash with the other members of the senior staff, who tend to be more practical when approaching political problems. Occasionally Sam's idealism and faith in people are disappointed, to which he reacts very strongly. In the second-season episode "Somebody's Going to Emergency, Somebody's Going to Jail", Sam finds out that his father has been having a 28-year affair while married to his mother, a revelation that deeply shakes his sense of what he can and cannot count on. This feeling is reinforced by his discovery that a White House staffer convicted of treason during the Cold War, who Sam has always believed was innocent, actually had been a spy. Another trademark of Sam is his ability as a speechwriter. He is an extremely talented writer, one of the very few people Toby recognizes as an equal in his field. Sam is seen in many episodes to rewrite speeches over and over, unwilling to put words in the President's mouth that he isn't completely satisfied with. After a pipe bomb explodes at a university in "20 Hours in America, Part II", killing 44 people, including three swimmers, Bartlet gives a speech, written by Sam, that includes the following: More than any time in recent history, America's destiny is not of our own choosing. We did not seek nor did we provoke an assault on our freedoms and our way of life. We did not expect nor did we invite a confrontation with evil. Yet the true measure of a people's strength is how they rise to master that moment when it does arrive. Forty-four people were killed a couple of hours ago at Kennison State University; three swimmers from the men's team were killed and two others are in critical condition; when after having heard the explosion from their practice facility they ran into the fire to help get people out ... ran into the fire. The streets of heaven are too crowded with angels tonight. They're our students and our teachers and our parents and our friends. The streets of heaven are too crowded with angels, but every time we think we have measured our capacity to meet a challenge, we look up and we're reminded that that capacity may well be limitless. This is a time for American heroes. We will do what is hard. We will achieve what is great. This is a time for American heroes and we reach for the stars. God bless their memory, God bless you, and God bless the United States of America." Bartlet campaign advisor Bruno Gianelli asks Sam when he wrote the last part. He replies, "in the car", which prompts the response, "Freak". White House After the election, Sam becomes Deputy White House Communications Director in the Bartlet Administration, often collaborating with White House Communications Director Toby Ziegler to write the President's most important public addresses, most notably States of the Union and his first inaugural address. In an episode in the third season, Sam is awed by President Bartlet's foresight and wisdom when resolving an apparent impasse among the Chinese, the Taiwanese and the United States. President Bartlet predicts that Sam will run for President someday and should not be scared; Bartlet believes that he can do it. Run for Congress During the fourth season, Sam decides to run for Congress in his home district — the California 47th in Orange County, California — in a special election held after deceased Democratic candidate Horton Wilde posthumously makes history by defeating arch-conservative Republican incumbent Chuck Webb. Sam first becomes familiar with the congressional race when he is sent to talk to Wilde's campaign manager, Will Bailey, on behalf of the Democratic Party, to convince him to drop the campaign. Will continues running the campaign with earnestness and energy after Wilde died, an act that is seen as bizarre and pointless — or, as Sam puts it to him, "a national joke". After seeing firsthand how dedicated Will is and realizing that he is a public servant in the mold of Bartlet's own senior staff, Sam becomes impressed with how he ran Wilde's campaign and offers his own name as a replacement candidate for election night in case Wilde wins, not thinking he will have to honor the promise. When Wilde does win, Sam decides not to back out but to use this opportunity to promote a truly liberal agenda in the traditionally conservative district. He goes to California with the blessing of Bartlet and his fellow White House staffers. Once he learns that Will Bailey is not going to stay on to manage his campaign, he recommends him as a temporary replacement for himself in the White House, to help Toby write Bartlet's second inaugural address. Sam is expected to lose in a landslide. President Bartlet goes to California to lend his support, taking with him Sam's friends on the senior staff, who believe campaign manager Scott Holcomb is wasting Sam's time by having him run a safe, timid campaign. In the midst of the visit, Sam learns that Bartlet is putting off announcing the Democratic tax plan Sam himself had helped design, so that Sam won't feel pressured to support it and further stigmatize himself during the election. Sam is appalled and decides to put things right. While introducing the President at a campaign event, he adds that the audience shouldn't "let him off this stage" until he has announced the tax plan. Backstage, Bartlet watches Scott Holcomb react with distress and asks why he is running Sam's campaign the way he is. Holcomb admits that he is anticipating Sam's loss and trying to smooth the way for a less divisive candidate the next time around, prompting Bartlet to (unofficially) fire him and get Toby to take over the campaign for the final weeks. Toby runs a thoroughly honest and liberal campaign, not until the very end of which does Sam realize, "I'm going to lose". Toby confirms it, explaining, "They're going to throw rocks at you next week, and I wanted to be standing next to you when they did." They hug, and this is the last scene in which Sam appears until the end of the final season of the series. When Sam does reappear, it is implied that Sam lost the election to Congressman Webb, and then declined the promotion to Senior Counselor to the President that had been suggested by Toby. Instead, he quit politics, remained in his home state of California, and joined an unnamed law firm in Los Angeles which pays him a salary that would "make [Josh] puke". Return to the White House Although Sam is mentioned occasionally following his departure — most notably calling Josh to tell him to "roll with the punches" after the latter unwittingly caused the defection of a Democratic Senator — he is not seen in the series until the last episodes of the seventh and final season, following the election of Congressman Matt Santos as President. In a development reminiscent of his recruitment of Sam into Josiah Bartlet's campaign for the presidency eight years earlier(Ep 23), Josh Lyman (now Chief of Staff-designate in the incoming Santos Administration) flies to Los Angeles on a same day round trip to offer Sam the post of Deputy White House Chief of Staff. Although initially hesitant because he is again engaged, Sam ultimately agrees as he later sees that Santos is part of a bright future for the country. Sam accepts on the condition that Josh take a vacation after witnessing the toll of post-election stress, insisting that Josh will need to be at his best when helping govern the country. Sam's final appearance of the series comes in the final episode, meeting with new President Matt Santos and Josh Lyman in the Oval Office. See also The West Wing List of characters on The West Wing List of The West Wing episodes References The West Wing characters Fictional political consultants Fictional American lawyers Fictional characters from Orange County, California Fictional Democrats (United States) Television characters introduced in 1999

Spyro

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Spyro is a series of platform video games which features the main protagonist Spyro, a dragon. Since the series' introduction in 1998 with the PlayStation game Spyro the Dragon, there have been numerous sequels and a reboot trilogy. Originally published by Sony Computer Entertainment and created by Insomniac Games, the franchise has changed hands and developers numerous times before the rights to the intellectual property were acquired by Activision in 2008. A collection of remakes of the original Spyro PlayStation trilogy called Spyro Reignited Trilogy, developed by Toys for Bob, was released for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One in November 2018, and later for Microsoft Windows and Nintendo Switch in September 2019. Games Original PlayStation trilogy (1998–2000) Spyro the Dragon was released in North America on 10 September 1998 and Europe in October 1998 for the PlayStation. It is a platform game that placed the player as Spyro, a small purple dragon set with the task of freeing his fellow dragons from crystal prisons, which are scattered around their world. Each level is accessed through 'portals' from a main world. The game concludes with a fight between Spyro and the primary antagonist, Gnasty Gnorc. The game sold well, with a total of five million copies being sold worldwide. The game received favorable reviews from IGN giving Spyro the Dragon a 9 out of 10. It received acclaim for its musical score by Stewart Copeland. Ripto's Rage!, known as Gateway to Glimmer in Europe and Australia, followed on from the success of the first title, making its release on 2 November 1999 in North America and 5 November 1999 in Europe for the PlayStation. The game introduced new characters including Hunter, a cheetah; Elora, a faun; The Professor, a mole; and Zoe, a fairy. The structure of the game is similar to the first, with levels being accessed from the three main home worlds: Summer Forest, Autumn Plains, and Winter Tundra. The game concludes with a fight between Spyro and the primary antagonist, Ripto. The game introduces some abilities for Spyro, including hovering after a glide, swimming underwater, climbing ladders, head-bashing, and the ability to use power-ups. Like its predecessor, it was critically acclaimed. Year of the Dragon was released in North America on 24 October 2000 and Europe on 10 November 2000 for the PlayStation, and it was the last Spyro game to be created by Insomniac Games. In the game, the dragons are celebrating the Year of the Dragon, an event held every twelve years in which new dragon eggs arrive in the dragon worlds. Bianca, an anthropomorphic rabbit, steals the eggs, and Spyro follows her down a rabbit hole. The rabbit hole leads to the Forgotten Realms, which are under the rule of the game's primary antagonist, The Sorceress, to whom Bianca is apprenticed. As in the previous games, levels are accessed from a central home world, of which there are four: Sunrise Spring, Midday Gardens, Evening Lake, and Midnight Mountain. The game also features levels in which the player controls "Sparx", Spyro's companion dragonfly, in a bird's eye view shooting game as well as four new playable characters: Sheila the Kangaroo, Sgt. Byrd, Bentley the Yeti, and Agent 9 the Monkey. Multiplatform and handhelds (2001–05) Season of Ice was the first Spyro game not to be developed by Insomniac Games or be on a Sony console, released for the Game Boy Advance and developed by Digital Eclipse. It is known as Spyro Advance in Japan. Spyro must use his fire breath to rescue the fairies in the various Fairy Realms after they are frozen by an evil monster named Grendor. Season of Flame was the second Digital Eclipse title and was released for the Game Boy Advance. It is the sequel to Season of Ice, and introduces new features, such as the ability to breathe other elements besides fire. In the game, Spyro must recover the stolen fireflies scattered across the Dragon Realms and foil an evil plot by Ripto and his minions. Enter the Dragonfly is available for the PlayStation 2 and Nintendo GameCube, and was developed by Equinox Digital Entertainment and Check Six Studios. It had received mixed to negative responses from reviewers, referring to the numerous glitches, lack of storyline, originality, and long load times. The story begins with the baby dragons preparing to receive their dragonflies and celebrating. Ripto captures the dragonflies, making the dragons helpless, and accidentally scatters the dragonflies across the world with a spell. Spyro must recover the dragonflies. Attack of the Rhynocs, also known as Spyro Adventure in Europe and Australia, is the third and final game to be developed by Digital Eclipse. Spyro is tasked with collecting the "Heart" of each land in order to stop Ripto's latest evil scheme after a machine malfunctions opening a portal, bringing Ripto back into the dragon realms following the events of Enter The Dragonfly. The Cortex Conspiracy, known as Spyro Fusion in Europe and Australia, and Spyro Advance Wakuwaku Tomodachi Daisakusen! in Japan, introduces multiple game screening. It is a crossover game between Spyro the Dragon and Crash Bandicoot, and a companion game to Crash Bandicoot Purple: Ripto's Rampage. In the game, Spyro travels through Crash's universe in a side-scroller, rather than the traditional isometric, top-down view. A Hero's Tail is available for the PlayStation 2, Xbox and Nintendo GameCube, and was created by Eurocom. The game revolves around an evil plot by the villain Red, a former Dragon Elder, who begins to plant Dark Gems around the Dragon Realms, sucking the life out of these worlds. He also works alongside Gnasty Gnorc and Ineptune. Spyro then begins his journey to destroy all the Dark Gems, alongside Sparx, Hunter, Sgt. Byrd, and Blink. Shadow Legacy acts as a sequel to Spyro: A Hero's Tail and was released only on the Nintendo DS. This is the first Spyro game that plays as a role-playing game as opposed to a platformer and the game allows Spyro to gain experience, level up and learn new spells and combat moves. Spyro must use his new skills to save his allies when they are trapped in the "Shadow Realm" which features returning levels from the Dragon Kingdom, Avalar, and the Forgotten Realms. The Legend of Spyro reboot trilogy (2006–08) The Legend of Spyro is a game trilogy that is part of the Spyro the Dragon series. It acted as a reboot to the original series. The games use a combination of close-combat and platforming gameplay, though the gameplay is more oriented towards combat than previous games in the Spyro series were. The story revolves around Spyro, the protagonist, and his efforts to stop Malefor, The Dark Master, from destroying the world. The first installment of this game is titled The Legend of Spyro: A New Beginning. It focuses on Spyro's origins as a legendary purple dragon and his quest to stop Cynder, the black dragon waging war against the world. He meets Ignitus the Fire Guardian, a red dragon who tells him about his past and offers to train him in his newly discovered ability to breathe fire. Spyro must then embark on a quest to various worlds to rescue the other three Guardians; Volteer, the Electric Guardian, Cyril, the Ice Guardian, and Terrador, the Earth Guardian. Each guardian trains him in a new elemental breath to help him on his journey and eventual fight with Cynder herself. Spyro Reignited Trilogy (2018) Discussions around the relaunch of Spyro began as early as 2014. In a July 2014 interview with The Daily Telegraph, Sony Computer Entertainment CEO, Andrew House stated that his team was considering bringing Spyro back. House stated that he believed video gamers would be interested in revisiting a character from their youth. Later that same year, Insomniac Games CEO Ted Price also stated that making a new Spyro game was a possibility. In 2017, developer Vicarious Visions stated that they were aware of how high the popular demand was for a revival of the classic Spyro series. In a statement they said, "just keep asking". Spyro Reignited Trilogy was officially announced on 5 April 2018 and was originally going to be released on 21 September 2018 for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, before being delayed to 13 November 2018. The game was developed by Skylanders developer Toys for Bob and was ported to Microsoft Windows and Nintendo Switch, with a release date of 3 September 2019. Other games In addition to Crash Purple and Spyro Orange, Spyro has made various crossover appearances in the Crash Bandicoot series. Spyro appears as a playable character in the Game Boy Advance version of Crash Nitro Kart, and makes a cameo appearance in Crash Twinsanity. The characters Spyro, Cynder, Dark Spyro, Sparx the Dragonfly and Malefor also made appearances in the Skylanders series, including all six mainline games and the television series. Elements from the Spyro series were added to Crash Team Racing Nitro-Fueled as part of a post-launch game update in August 2019. Spyro, Hunter, and Gnasty Gnorc appear as playable characters, along with Spyro-themed karts and a "Spyro Circuit" race track. Spyro-themed parade and pool floats appear in Crash Bandicoot 4: It's About Time, while both Spyro and Dark Spyro have major roles in Crash Bandicoot: On the Run! Cancelled games Spyro Ever After was going to be the first Spyro educational game where Spyro meets fairy tale characters like The Three Little Pigs, Little Red Riding Hood, Puss in Boots, Goldilocks and the Three Bears and Golden Goose. However, the game never passed the storyboard, and was cancelled. Agent 9 was a James Bond-like parody spin-off game starring Agent 9 as the main character as he does spy missions. It was set to be developed by Blue Tongue Entertainment and Backbone Entertainment and be published by Universal Interactive. The game's production was cancelled for undisclosed reasons. After the cancellation of Agent 9, Digital Eclipse reworked the game into a full Spyro the Dragon title, that took place in a large desert environment. The video game title was never released to the market, and was scrapped by Digital Eclipse. Common elements Characters The main character of the series is Spyro the Dragon, a young purple dragon. In the original series, he is accompanied by Sparx, a dragonfly that performs many functions such as helping protect Spyro from damage and collecting gems. Most of the games before the Legend of Spyro series include Hunter the cheetah, a loyal friend of Spyro's who sometimes helps him on quests; Moneybags, a money-obsessed bear who in some games is needed to make pathways for Spyro for a small fee; and Zoe, a fairy who serves as checkpoints in each land that Spyro visits. Locations The Dragon Realms are the main setting of the series where most of the dragons including Spyro live. Avalar is a separate world that was being threatened by Ripto in Spyro: Ripto's Rage. The Forgotten Realms are the ancient home of the dragons before being driven out by the Sorceress and serve as the setting for Spyro: Year of the Dragon. The Fairy Realms are a separate series of realms that are inhabited by fairies and only appear in Spyro: Season of Ice. After collecting enough orbs in Spyro 2: Riptos Rage, the Dragon Shores can be accessed, which has games and a special power-up for Spyro. Collectibles A large part of the original series revolves around item collection. When the player collects a certain amount of items, they can move on to the next area. The most common of these are gems, which are often used not only for collecting, but also for buying skills, passageways, items, and more. In A Hero's Tail there were special dark gems, which the player had to destroy to proceed to new areas within the game, while collecting light gems allowed use of some of the professor's inventions and opened certain doors. Freeing dragons is the main goal in Spyro the Dragon, while retrieving dragon eggs is the main goal in Spyro: Year of the Dragon. In Spyro the Dragon, dragon eggs are also collected by chasing down thieves (but their color designs are different from those of the third installment). They also appear in Spyro: A Hero's Tail, and collecting them will unlock concept art. Collecting Talismans and Orbs are the primary goal in Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!, as the devices are used in a portal to get Spyro back to his home. Dragonflies are the primary collectibles in Spyro: Enter the Dragonfly where Spyro catches them using his bubble breath. In Spyro: Season of Ice freeing fairies is the main goal, and in Spyro 2: Season of Flame collecting fireflies is the goal. Music Stewart Copeland composed the soundtracks for the first four Spyro games. Copeland made music for each world in the games as well as music devoted to each level, often playing each level so he could tailor the mood of the music to the level. As with the voice cast in A Hero's Tail, Stewart Copeland was replaced and the soundtrack was composed by Steve Duckworth and Paul Lawler. Rebecca Kneubuhl and Gabriel Mann of the a cappella band Spiralmouth composed the music for The Legend of Spyro trilogy. Finally, for Reignited Trilogy, Copeland's music was remixed in-house by the developer and remained mostly faithful to the original scores; Copeland himself composed a main theme for the compilation. Reception As of 2007, the Spyro the Dragon series has sold over 20 million units worldwide. According to the Los Angeles Times, the first Spyro game has sold 4.8 million units as of November 2007, making it the seventeenth best-selling PlayStation game of all time. Ripto's Rage! sold 3.45 million units in the U.S., while Year of the Dragon sold 3.28 million. Notes References Notes Citations External links Activision Blizzard franchises Video games adapted into television shows Video game franchises Video game franchises introduced in 1998

Castillo de San Marcos

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The Castillo de San Marcos (Spanish for "St. Mark's Castle") is the oldest masonry fort in the continental United States; it is located on the western shore of Matanzas Bay in the city of St. Augustine, Florida. It was designed by the Spanish engineer Ignacio Daza, with construction beginning in 1672, 107 years after the city's founding by Spanish Admiral and conquistador Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, when Florida was part of the Spanish Empire. The fort's construction was ordered by Governor Francisco de la Guerra y de la Vega after a raid by the English privateer Robert Searles in 1668 that destroyed much of St. Augustine and damaged the existing wooden fort. Work proceeded under the administration of Guerra's successor, Manuel de Cendoya in 1671, and the first coquina stones were laid in 1672. The construction of the core of the current fortress was completed in 1695, though it would undergo many alterations and renovations over the centuries. Though built in part by Black Spanish slaves, the fort later served as one of the first entry points of British-owned African slaves into the Spanish territories, where they were freed by the Spanish. This quickly led to the first free Black settlement in the future United States (Fort Mose, formed just north of St Augustine). When Britain gained control of Florida in 1763 pursuant to the Treaty of Paris, St. Augustine became the capital of British East Florida, and the fort was renamed Fort St. Mark until the Peace of Paris (1783) when Florida was transferred back to Spain and the fort's original name restored. In 1819, Spain signed the Adams–Onís Treaty which ceded Florida to the United States in 1821; consequently, the fort was designated a United States Army base and renamed Fort Marion, in honor of American Revolutionary War hero Francis Marion. The fort was declared a National Monument in 1924, and after 251 years of continuous military possession, was deactivated in 1933. The site was subsequently turned over to the United States National Park Service. In 1942 the original name, Castillo de San Marcos, was restored by an Act of Congress. Castillo de San Marcos was attacked several times and twice besieged: first by English colonial forces led by Carolina Colony Governor James Moore in 1702, and then by English Georgia colonial Governor James Oglethorpe in 1740, but was never taken by force. However, possession of the fort has changed six times, all peaceful, among four different governments: Spain, 1695–1763 and 1783–1821, Kingdom of Great Britain, 1763–1783, and the United States of America, 1821–date (during 1861–1865, under control of the Confederate States of America). Under United States control the fort was used as a military prison to incarcerate members of Native American tribes starting with the Seminole—including the famous war chief, Osceola, in the Second Seminole War—and members of western tribes, including Geronimo's band of Chiricahua Apache. The Native American art form known as Ledger Art had its origins at the fort during the imprisonment of members of the Plains tribes such as Howling Wolf of the southern Cheyenne. Ownership of the Castillo was transferred to the National Park Service in 1933, and it has been a popular tourist destination since then. Structure The European city of St. Augustine was founded by the admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés for the Spanish Crown in 1565 on the site of a former Native American village called Seloy. The need for fortifications was recognized after it was attacked by Sir Francis Drake and his fleet of 22 ships in 1586, and over the next 80 years, a succession of nine wooden forts were built in various locations along the coastline. However, after a 1668 attack by the English pirate Robert Searle during which the town of St. Augustine was burned to the ground, wooden forts were deemed inadequate, and Mariana, Queen Regent of Spain, approved the construction of a masonry fortification to protect the city. The Castillo is a masonry star fort made of a stone called coquina (Spanish for "small shells"), which consists of ancient shells that have bonded together to form a sedimentary rock similar to limestone. Native Americans from Spain's nearby missions did most of the labor, with additional skilled workers brought in from Havana, Cuba. The coquina was quarried from the 'King's Quarry' on Anastasia Island in what is today Anastasia State Park across Matanzas Bay from the Castillo, and ferried across to the construction site. Construction began on October 2, 1672, and lasted twenty-three years, with completion in 1695. The fort has four bastions named San Pedro, San Agustín, San Carlos and San Pablo with a ravelin protecting the sally port. On the two landward sides a large glacis was constructed which would force any attackers to advance upward toward the fort's cannon and allow the cannon shot to proceed downslope for greater efficiency in hitting multiple targets. Also, the artificial mound of the glacis in front of the walls helped to protect them from direct cannon fire attempting to breach them in a siege. Immediately surrounding the fort was a moat which was usually kept dry, but that could be flooded with seawater to a depth of about a foot in case of attack by land. Multiple embrasures were built into the curtain wall along the top of the fort as well as into the bastions for the deployment of a cannon of various calibers. Infantry embrasures were also built into the walls below the level of the terreplein for the deployment of muskets by the fort's defenders. It was through one of these embrasures that twenty Seminoles held as prisoners would escape in 1837. History First English siege In 1670, Charles Town (modern-day Charleston, South Carolina) was founded by English colonists. As it was just two days' sail from St. Augustine, the English settlement and encroachment of English traders into Spanish territory spurred the Spanish in their construction of a fort. Slaves from the Carolina colony began escaping to St Augustine in 1687, where the Spanish agreed to free (and employ) them if they converted to Catholicism. When a British master attempted to retrieve escapees in 1688, the Spanish Governor Diego de Quiroga refused. King Charles II issued an official policy in 1693, cementing the informal practice. In 1702, English colonial forces under the command of Carolina Governor James Moore embarked on an expedition to capture St. Augustine early in Queen Anne's War. The English laid siege to St. Augustine in November 1702. About 1,500 town residents and soldiers were crammed into the fort during the two-month siege. The small English cannons had little effect on the walls of the fort, because the coquina masonry was very effective at absorbing the impact of cannonballs causing them to sink into the walls, rather than shattering or puncturing them. The siege was broken when the Spanish fleet from Havana arrived, trapping some English vessels in the bay. The English were defeated and decided to burn their ships to prevent them from falling under Spanish control, and then marched overland back to Carolina. The town of St. Augustine was destroyed, in part by the Spanish and in part by the English, as a result of the siege. Second period of construction Beginning in 1738, under the supervision of Spanish engineer Pedro Ruiz de Olano, the interior of the fort was redesigned and rebuilt. Interior rooms were made deeper, and vaulted ceilings replaced the original wooden ones. The vaulted ceilings allowed for better protection from bombardments and allowed for cannon to be placed along the gun deck, not just at the corner bastions. The new ceilings required the height of the exterior wall to be increased from 26 to . Second British siege Spain and Britain were rivals in Europe, and since the two countries had both founded empires in the New World, their rivalry continued there as well. In 1733 a British vessel, the Rebecca, commanded by Captain Robert Jenkins, was seized in the Caribbean by the Spanish coast guard. Suspecting that the British had been trading illegally with Spanish colonies (which was forbidden by both Spain and Britain), the Spanish searched the ship. A fight broke out between the Spanish and British sailors. In the skirmish, Jenkins had his ear cut off by a Spanish officer, who picked it up and said "Take this to your king and tell him that if he were here I would serve him in the same manner!" When Jenkins reported the incident to British authorities, they used it as a pretext to declare war on Spain in 1739. The war was called the War of Jenkins' Ear. After British Admiral Edward Vernon won a huge victory at Portobelo, General James Oglethorpe, the founder of Georgia, was quick to imitate him in North America. In June 1740, Oglethorpe and a British fleet of seven ships appeared off St. Augustine. As in the 1702 siege, three hundred soldiers and 1,300 residents found refuge within the Castillo's walls. For 27 days the British bombarded the Castillo and St. Augustine. Realizing his cannon were not affecting the Castillo's walls of coquina, Oglethorpe decided to starve the people of St. Augustine by blockading the inlet at the Matanzas River and all roads into St. Augustine. However, some supplies were able to reach the city via the river, and with morale and supplies low for the British forces, Oglethorpe had to retreat. In order to protect the city from future blockades and sieges, the Spanish built Fort Matanzas to guard the river, which could be used as a rear entrance to avoid St. Augustine's primary defense system. British occupation In 1763, the British managed to take control of the Castillo but not by force. As a provision of the Treaty of Paris (1763) after the Seven Years' War, Britain gained all of Spanish Florida in exchange for returning Havana and Manila to Spain. On July 21, 1763, the Spanish governor turned the Castillo over to the British, who established St. Augustine as the capital of the province of East Florida, established by the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The British made some changes to the fort, and renamed it Fort St. Mark. As Great Britain was the dominant power in North America, they were not worried about keeping the fort in top condition. This attitude prevailed until the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. The fort was used as a military prison during the war. Among those imprisoned was Christopher Gadsden, the Lieutenant governor of South Carolina. He was also a delegate to the Continental Congress and a brigadier general in the Continental Army during the war. He was released after 11 months. Improvements were begun on the fort, in keeping with its new role as a base of operations for the British in the South. The gates and walls were repaired, and second floors were added to several rooms to increase the housing capacity of the fort. The Castillo saw action during the American Revolution mainly as a prison, although St. Augustine was targeted by several aborted expeditions from Georgia. Several revolutionary fighters who had been captured in Charleston were held there when it was taken by the British, including three Founding Fathers; Thomas Heyward Jr., Arthur Middleton, and Edward Rutledge. The Spanish declared war on Britain in 1779, drawing off forces from Fort St. Mark and keeping the British occupied. Bernardo de Gálvez, governor of Spanish Louisiana, attacked several British-held cities in West Florida, capturing all of them. The only major British operation that used troops from St. Augustine was the poorly coordinated but successful capture of Savannah, Georgia; the city was taken by troops from New York before those from St. Augustine arrived. At the end of the war, the Peace of Paris (1783) called for the return of Florida to Spain. On July 12, 1784, Spanish troops returned to St. Augustine. Second Spanish period When Spain regained control over Florida they found a much-changed territory. Many Spaniards had left Florida after the handover to Britain, and many British citizens stayed after it was returned to Spain. Many border problems arose between Spanish Florida and the new United States. Spain changed the name of the fort back to the Castillo de San Marcos, and continued to build upon the improvements that Britain had made to the fort in an effort to strengthen Spain's hold on the territory. However, due to increased pressure from the United States and several other factors, in 1819 Spain signed the Adams–Onís Treaty, ceding Florida to the United States, which was transferred in 1821. First United States period Upon receiving the fort from Spain, the Americans changed its name to Fort Marion. It was named to honor General Francis Marion, an American Revolutionary War hero nicknamed "The Swamp Fox." Structurally, the Americans made few changes to the fort during this time. Many storerooms were converted to prison cells on account of their heavy doors and barred windows. Also, part of the moat was filled in and transformed into an artillery battery as part of the American coastal defense system. The original Spanish seawall was dismantled to ground level and a new seawall constructed immediately adjacent to the seaward side of the original. At this time a hotshot furnace was also built in the filled-in section of the moat behind the newly built water battery. Cannonballs were heated in the furnace to fire at wooden enemy ships. In October 1837, during the Second Seminole War, Seminole chief Osceola was taken prisoner by the Americans while attending a peace conference near Fort Peyton under a flag of truce. He was imprisoned in Fort Marion along with his followers, including Uchee Billy, King Philip and his son Coacoochee (Wild Cat), and then transported to Fort Moultrie on Sullivan's Island in Charleston's harbor. Uchee Billy was captured on September 10, 1837, and he died at the fort on November 29. His skull was kept as a curio by Dr. Frederick Weedon. The doctor also decapitated Osceola after his death in Fort Moultrie and kept the head in preservative. On November 19, 1837, Coacoochee and nineteen other Seminole, including two women, escaped from Fort Marion. Coacoochee, known for fabricating entertaining stories, later said that only he and his friend Talmus Hadjo had escaped - by squeezing through the eight-inch (203 mm) opening of the embrasure located high in their cell and sliding down a makeshift rope into the dry moat. Hadjo, however, was not on the official list of prisoners. However the Seminole escaped, they made their way to their band's encampment at the headwaters of the Tomoka River, about forty miles south of St. Augustine. Because of their having been poorly treated, they vowed to continue fighting, and the war was prolonged for four more years. The cell from which Coacoochee escaped was long part of the official lore of the fort. Confederate States period In January 1861, Florida seceded from the United States in the opening months of the American Civil War. Union troops had withdrawn from the fort, leaving only one man behind as caretaker. On January 7, 1861, three days before Florida seceded, 125 militiamen marched on the fort by the order of Governor Madison S. Perry. The Union soldier manning the fort refused to surrender it unless he was given a receipt for it from the Confederacy. He was given the receipt and the fort was taken by the Confederacy without a shot. General Robert E. Lee, then in command of the coastal defenses of South Carolina, Georgia, and East Florida, ordered that most of the artillery in the fort be sent to other, more strategic, forts. This left only five cannons in the water battery to defend Fort Marion. The Saint Augustine Blues, a militia unit formed in St. Augustine, were enrolled into the Confederate Army at Ft. Marion on August 5, 1861. They were assigned to the recently organized Third Florida Infantry as its Company B. More than a dozen former members of the St. Augustine Blues are buried in a row at the city's Tolomato Cemetery. The fort, along with the rest of the city of St. Augustine, was reoccupied by Union troops after acting mayor Cristobal Bravo officially surrendered the city to Union Navy fleet commander Christopher Raymond Perry Rodgers on March 11, 1862. The Confederate forces left the city the previous evening in anticipation of the arrival of the Union fleet under the command of Commodore Dupont. Second United States period The fort was taken back by Union forces on March 11, 1862, when the USS Wabash entered the bay, finding the city evacuated by Confederate troops. The city leaders were willing to surrender in order to preserve the town, and the city and the fort were retaken without firing a shot. Throughout the rest of the fort's operational history, it was used as a military prison. Beginning in 1875, numerous Native American prisoners were held at the fort in the aftermath of the Indian Wars in the west. Many would die at the fort. Among the captives were Chief White Horse of the Kiowa, and Chief Grey Beard of the southern Cheyenne. During this period, Richard Henry Pratt, a Civil War veteran, supervised the prisoners and upgraded the conditions for them. He removed the prisoners' shackles and allowed them out of the casemates where they had been confined. He developed ways to give the men more autonomy and attempted to organize educational and cultural programs for them. They became a center of interest to northerners vacationing in St. Augustine, who included teachers and missionaries. Pratt recruited volunteers to teach the Indian prisoners English, the Christian religion, and elements of American culture. He and most US officials believed that such assimilation was needed for the Indians' survival in the changing society. The men were also encouraged to make art; they created hundreds of drawings. Some of the collection of Ledger Art by Fort Marion artists is held by the Smithsonian Institution. It may be viewed online. Encouraged by the men's progress in education, residents and visitors to St. Augustine raised funds for scholarships to support nearly 20 of the former prisoners in college after they were released from Ft. Marion. Seventeen men attended the Hampton Institute, a historically black college established in 1868 for freedmen by the American Missionary Association. Others were sponsored and educated in New York State at private colleges. Among the latter were David Pendleton Oakerhater, as he became known, who was sponsored by US Senator George H. Pendleton (D-OH) and his wife. Oakerhater studied and later was ordained as an Episcopal priest. He returned to the West to work as a missionary with Indian tribes. He was later recognized by the Episcopal Church as a saint. Pratt's experiences at Fort Marion were the basis for his campaign to create American Indian boarding schools. He was authorized to found the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in 1879, which became a model for other government-funded boarding schools established by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. It operated until 1918. At their peak, some 350-450 schools were established, and only 25 were off-reservation. From 1886 to 1887, approximately 491 Apaches were held prisoner at Fort Marion; many were of the Chiricahua and Warm Springs Apache bands from Arizona. There were 82 men and the rest were women and children. Among the men, 14, including Chatto, had previously been paid scouts for the US Army. Among the Chiricahua were members of the notable chief Geronimo's band, including his wife. Geronimo was sent to Fort Pickens, in violation of his agreed terms of surrender. While at the fort, many of the prisoners had to camp in tents, as there was not sufficient space for them. At least 24 Apache died as prisoners and were buried in North Beach. In 1898, over 200 deserters from the Spanish–American War were imprisoned at the fort. This marked one of the last uses of the fort as an operational base. In 1900, the fort was taken off the active duty rolls after 205 years of service under five different flags. In 1924, the fort was designated as a National Monument. In 1933 it was transferred to the National Park Service from the War Department. In 1942, in honor of its Spanish heritage, Congress authorized renaming the fort as Castillo de San Marcos. As an historic property of the National Park Service, the National Monument was listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) on October 15, 1966. The National Park Service manages the Castillo together with Fort Matanzas National Monument. In 1975, the Castillo was designated an Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Since being transferred to the Park Service, the Castillo has become a popular tourist attraction. It occupies in downtown St. Augustine, Florida. In popular culture The fort has been featured on many television shows including Monumental Mysteries and Ghost Adventures, as well as the 1951 film Distant Drums. Gallery References Further reading Diane Glancy, Fort Marion Prisoners and the Trauma of Native Education. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2014. External links Description of "Fort Marion" from an 1867 travelers guide Castillo's Historic Civil Engineering Landmark information Detailed history of the Castillo Take a 3D Tour of the Castillo, right in your browser Pictorial history of Fort Marion, 1925 1695 establishments in the Spanish Empire American Civil War forts in Florida San Marcos San Marcos Florida in the American Civil War Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks Military and war museums in Florida Museums in St. Augustine, Florida Parks in St. Johns County, Florida Protected areas established in 1924 Tourist attractions in St. Augustine, Florida Historic American Buildings Survey in Florida Star forts Spanish Florida Second Seminole War fortifications

Mexican Texas

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Mexican Texas is the historiographical name used to refer to the era of Texan history between 1821 and 1836, when it was part of Mexico. Mexico gained independence in 1821 after winning its war against Spain, which began in 1810. Initially, Mexican Texas operated similarly to Spanish Texas. Ratification of the 1824 Constitution of Mexico created a federal structure, and the province of Tejas was joined with the province of Coahuila to form the state of Coahuila y Tejas. In 1821, approximately 3,500 settlers lived in the whole of Tejas, concentrated mostly in San Antonio and La Bahia, although authorities had tried to encourage development along the frontier. The settler population was overwhelmingly outnumbered by indigenous people in the province. To increase the number of settlers, Mexico enacted the General Colonization Law in 1824, which enabled all heads of household, regardless of race, religion or immigrant status, to acquire land in Mexico. The first empresarial grant had been made under Spanish control to Stephen F. Austin, whose settlers, known as the Old Three Hundred, settled along the Brazos River in 1822. The grant was later ratified by the Mexican government. Twenty-three other empresarios brought settlers to the state, the majority coming from the American South, while only one colony was settled by Mexican nationals, and two by European immigrants. Mexico officials became concerned about attitudes among the Anglo-Americans in Tejas, for instance, their insistence on bringing slaves into the territory. The legislature passed the Law of April 6, 1830, which prohibited further immigration by U.S. citizens. The government established several new presidios in the region to monitor immigration and customs practices. Angry colonists held a convention in 1832 to demand that U.S. citizens be allowed to immigrate to Tejas. At a convention the following year, colonists proposed that Texas become a separate Mexican state. Although Mexico implemented several measures to appease the colonists, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna's measures to transform Mexico from a federalist to a centralist state appeared to be the catalyst for the Anglo-Texan colonists to revolt. The first violent incident occurred on June 26, 1832, at the Battle of Velasco. On March 2, 1836, Texians declared their independence from Mexico. The Texas Revolution ended on April 21, 1836, when Santa Anna was taken prisoner by Texians following the Battle of San Jacinto. Although Texas declared its independence as the Republic of Texas, Mexico refused to recognize Texas as a new country. Mexican independence In 1821, Mexico gained independence from Spain after the brutal and destructive Mexican War for Independence. Its territory included much of the former New Spain, including Spanish Texas. The victorious rebels issued a provisional constitution, the Plan de Iguala. This plan reaffirmed many of the ideals of the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and granted equal citizenship rights to all races. Initially, there was disagreement over whether Mexico should be a federal republic or a monarchy. The first monarch, Agustin I, abdicated in March 1823. The following month the citizens of San Antonio de Bexar established a governing committee for the province of Texas consisting of seven representatives from San Antonio, one from La Bahia, and one from Nacogdoches. In July, a new national provisional government named Luciano Garcia as the political chief of Texas. On November 27, 1823, the people of Mexico elected congressional representatives and set out to create a new constitution. Texas was represented in congress by Erasmo Seguin. A new Mexican constitution was adopted on October 4, 1824, making the country a federal republic with nineteen states and four territories. The constitution was modelled on the constitution of the United States of America, but the Mexican constitution made Roman Catholicism the official, and only, religion of the country. Because it was sparsely populated, Texas was combined with Coahuila to create the state of Coahuila y Tejas. Texas had originally asked to become a territory if its statehood claim was denied, but after realizing that states controlled their own public lands, while as a territory public land would be controlled by the national government, Seguin chose not to request territorial status. The Congress did allow Texas the option of forming its own state "'as soon as it feels capable of doing so.'" The new state, the poorest in the Mexican federation, covered the boundaries of Spanish Texas but did not include the area around El Paso, which belonged to the state of Chihuahua and the area of Laredo, Texas, which became part of Tamaulipas. The capital of Texas moved from San Antonio to Monclova and then to Saltillo. Along with the states of Tamaulipas and Nuevo León, Coahuila y Tejas was under a unified military organization. With the formation of a new state government, the Texas provincial governing committee was forced to disband. Many Tejanos were reluctant to give up their self-rule. The 1824 constitution dismantled the mission system, requiring missions more than ten years old to be converted into parishes, while newer missions would be given until 1842 to become secularized. Most of the missions had been secularized before the 1820s, and only Missions Refugio, Espiritu Santo and Rosario were not currently secularized. By 1830, these missions had been converted into parishes, and most of the mission Natives moved to other settlements in Texas. As the missions were secularized, the mission lands were distributed amongst the Natives, who would later be taxed on the profits. The new Mexican government was bankrupt and had little money to devote to the military. Settlers were empowered to create their own militias to help control hostile Native American tribes. Texas faced raids from both the Apache and Comanche tribes, and with little military support the few settlers in the region needed help. In the hopes that an influx of settlers could control the Indian raids, the government liberalized its immigration policies for the region for the first time, and settlers from the United States were permitted in the colonies for the first time. Immigration In the late 18th century, Spain had stopped allocating new parcels of land in San Antonio and La Bahia, making it difficult for some families to accommodate their growth. Occupancy rights were granted to people in the northeast part of Texas, but the new residents had no official ownership of the land on which they lived. Just before Mexico achieved independence, Spain reversed its policies and passed a colonization law. Although the law did not state a religious requirement for settlers in Texas, it was understood that Spain's only religion was Catholicism, per the 1812 Constitution. Notably, article 28 of this law prohibited the importation of slaves into Spanish territories, and if brought to the area, they would be freed. Mexico adopted a similar law in 1824. The General Colonization Law enabled all heads of household who were citizens of or immigrants to Mexico to be eligible to claim land. The law did not differentiate among races or social stature, and people who had been granted occupancy rights would be able to claim the land patent for the dwellings. Unlike its predecessor, the Mexican law required immigrants to practice Catholicism and stressed that foreigners needed to learn Spanish. Settlers were supposed to own property or have a craft or useful profession, and all people wishing to live in Texas were expected to report to the nearest Mexican authority for permission to settle. The rules were widely disregarded and many families became squatters. As soon as the national colonization law was passed, approval for settlement contracts for Texas was the responsibility of the state government in Saltillo. They were soon besieged by foreign speculators wanting to bring colonists into the state. Coahuila y Tejas implemented the federal law in 1825. At this time, about 3500 people lived in Texas, mostly congregated at San Antonio and La Bahia. Under the new law, people who did not already possess property in Texas could claim one square league (4438 acres) of irrigable land, with an additional league available to those who owned cattle. Soldiers were given first choice of land, followed by citizens and immigrants. Empresarios and individuals with large families were exempt from the limit. Those who had owned land under Spanish control were allowed to retain their property as long as they had not fought on the side of the Spanish during the Mexican War of Independence. Immigrants were subject to the same policies as Mexican citizens, and Native Americans who migrated to Texas after Mexican independence and were not indigenous to the area would be treated as immigrants. Approximately 3420 land grant applications were submitted by immigrants and naturalized citizens, many of them Anglo-Americans. The first group of colonists, known as the Old Three Hundred, arrived in 1822 to settle an empresarial grant that had been given to Stephen F. Austin by the Spanish. The group settled along the Brazos River, ranging from the near present-day Houston to Dallas. Shortly after they arrived, Austin learned that the new Mexican government had not ratified his father's land grant with Spain. He was forced to travel to Mexico City, 1,200 miles (1,931 km) away, to get permission for his colony. During his time in the capitol, Austin impressed various important people in the government by offering to draw a map of Texas, to help remove sediment obstructing navigation of the Colorado River, and by promising to carry out an Indian pacification campaign. On February 18, 1823, ten months after Austin arrived in Mexico City, Agustin I approved his colonization contract. One month later, Agustin abdicated as emperor, and the newly created republican congress nullified all acts of his government, including Austin's colonization contract. Many of Austin's new friends in Mexico praised his integrity before the congress, and his contract was re-approved in mid-April. On his return to Texas in July 1823, Austin established San Felipe de Austin as the new headquarters for his colony. There was no shortage of people willing to come to Texas. The United States was still struggling with the aftermath of the Panic of 1819, and soaring land prices within the United States made the Mexican land policy seem very generous. In 1827 Austin received a second grant allowing him to settle 100 families along the Old San Antonio Road to Nacogdoches, near what is now Bastrop. The location was chosen at the behest of the Tejanos, who hoped that colonists in that area could help defend against Comanche raids. Austin was later granted permission to resettle 800 other families in Texas. Twenty-three other empresarios also brought immigrants to Texas. Of these, only one of the empresarios, Martín De León settled citizens from within Mexico; the others came primarily from the United States. Many of the Anglo settlers owned slaves. All colonists were expected to become naturalized Mexican citizens, and they were also supposed to follow the state religion. In Austin's colony, the local priest formally converted new arrivals but then allowed them to worship as they pleased. Austin was granted the rank of lieutenant colonel of the militia, and he was given absolute authority over all justice, excluding the sentencing for capital crimes. To maintain order within his colony, he issued the first Anglo-American law code in Texas. His Instructions and Regulations for the Alcades was issued January 22, 1824. It comprised a penal code and codes of criminal and civil procedure. The instructions authorized the creation of sheriff and constable offices and established a rudimentary court system. It relied on English common law concepts for defining criminal behavior and also established punishments for vices that Austin deemed disruptive, such as gambling, profane swearing, and public drunkenness. Under the terms of the colonization contracts, the empresarios were responsible for providing security within their lands. In 1823 Austin created a company of men who would patrol his colony and protect the colonists from Native attacks and to defuse internal issues. The initial company, known as Ranger Company, comprised 10 volunteers who served terms of 3–6 months and were paid in land. The men were not uniformed and were not subject to military law or regulation. They were the precursors to the Texas Rangers. After the Karankawa repeatedly attacked the settlers, Austin organized a militia to fight back; they almost annihilated the tribe. Comanches were a threat to some of the colonies. Green Dewitt began his colony west of Austin's in December 1825. In July 1826 his headquarters, Gonzales, was burned to the ground in a Comanche attack. All but one colonist escaped to San Felipe. They returned to rebuild their colony the following year. For protection, the political chief of the region granted the community a small cannon. Land speculators flooded into Texas. Colonization laws limited Anglos to only one league of land, but Mexican nationals were in many cases eligible for up to 11 leagues. Anglo speculators would often convince a Mexican national to claim his 11 leagues and then sell the land to the speculator through a power of attorney. Rising tensions In 1825, Mexican authorities became concerned with the actions of empresario Haden Edwards in Nacogdoches. Edwards had threatened to confiscate the land of any Mexican already living in the area in which he planned to bring settlers unless the Mexicans could present written deeds to the property. Mexican authorities promptly told him that he did not have the authority to confiscate land and he should honor the claims of the previous settlers. After multiple confrontations, on December 16, 1826, Edwards, his brothers, and 30 settlers issued a declaration of independence and called themselves the Republic of Fredonia. Other empresarios disassociated themselves from Edwards, and Austin sent 250 militiamen to Nacogdoches to help the Mexican forces quell the revolt. Edwards was finally forced to flee Mexican territory. After hearing reports of other racial issues, the Mexican government asked General Manuel Mier y Teran to investigate the outcome of the 1825 colonization law in Texas. In 1829, Mier y Teran issued his report, which concluded that most Anglo Americans refused to be naturalized and tried to isolate themselves from Mexicans. He also noted that slave reforms passed by the state were being ignored. Although many Mexicans wanted to abolish slavery, fears of an economic crisis if all of the slaves were simultaneously freed led to a gradual emancipation policy. In 1823, Mexico forbade the sale or purchase of slaves and required that the children of slaves be freed when they reached fourteen. Any slave introduced into Mexico by purchase or trade would also be freed. By 1825, however, a census of Austin's Colony showed 1,347 Anglo-Americans and 443 people of African descent, including a very small number of free African Americans. Two years later the legislature of Coahuila y Tejas outlawed the introduction of additional slaves into the state and granted freedom at birth to all children born to a slave. The new laws also stated that any slave brought into Texas should be freed within six months. In 1829, slavery was officially outlawed in Mexico. Austin feared that the edict would cause widespread discontent and tried to suppress publication of it. Rumors of the new law quickly spread throughout the area and the colonists seemed on the brink of revolt. The governor of Coahuila y Tejas, Jose Maria Viesca, wrote to the president to explain the importance of slavery to the Texas economy, and the importance of the Texas economy to the development of the state. Texas was temporarily exempted from the rule. On April 6, 1830, Mexican president Anastasio Bustamante ordered Texas to comply with the emancipation proclamation or face military intervention. To circumvent the law, many Anglo colonists converted their slaves into indentured servants for life. Others simply called their slaves indentured servants without legally changing their status. Slaveholders wishing to enter Mexico would force their slaves to sign contracts claiming that the slaves owed money and would work to pay the debt. The low wages the slave would receive made repayment impossible, and the debt would be inherited, even though no slave would receive wages until age eighteen. This tactic was outlawed by an 1832 state law which prohibited worker contracts from lasting more than ten years. A small number of slaves were imported illegally from the West Indies or Africa. The British consul estimated that in the 1830s approximately 500 slaves had been illegally imported into Texas. By 1836, there were approximately 5,000 slaves in Texas. Exportation in the slave-owning areas of the state surpassed that of the non-slave-owning areas. A survey of Texas in 1834 found that the department of Bexar, which was mostly made up of Tejanos, had exported no goods. The Brazos department, including Austin's colonies and those of Green DeWitt, had exported 600,000 pesos worth of goods, including 5,000 bales of cotton. The department of Texas, which included the eastern settlements, expected to export 2,000 bales of cotton and 5,000 head of cattle. Bustamante implemented other measures to make immigration less desirable for Anglo-Americans. He rescinded the property tax law, which had exempted immigrants from paying taxes for ten years. He further increased tariffs on goods entering Mexico from the United States, causing their prices to rise. The 1830s laws also brought settlement contracts under federal rather than state control. Colonies that did not have at least 150 inhabitants would be canceled. Among the affected colonies were the Nashville Company run by Sterling C. Robertson and the Galveston Bay and Texas Land Company, run by David G. Burnet, Lorenzo de Zavala and Joseph Vehlein. Finally, he prohibited further immigration to Texas from the United States, although Anglos would still be welcome in other parts of Mexico. The ban and other measures did not stop U.S. citizens from migrating illegally to Texas by the thousands. By 1834, it was estimated that over 30,000 Anglos lived in Texas, compared to only 7,800 Mexicans. Anglos often viewed the Mexicans as foreigners and intruders. The feeling was often returned; Rafael Antonio Manchola, son-in-law of empresario Martín De León, served as the commander of the presidio at La Bahia from 1828 to 1830 and then as the alcalde of Goliad. He warned the military commander for Texas that "'No faith can be placed in the Anglo-American colonists because they are continually demonstrating that they absolutely refuse to be subordinate, unless they find it convenient to what they want anyway, all of which I believe will be very detrimental to us for them to be our neighbors if we do not in time, clip the wings of their audacity by stationing a strong detachment in each new settlement which will enforce the laws and jurisdiction of a Mexican magistrate which should be placed in each of them, since under their own colonists as judges, they do nothing more than practice their own laws which they have practiced since they were born, forgetting the ones they have sworn to obey, these being the laws of our Supreme Government.'" International issues Many Americans thought the United States had been cheated out of Texas. American land speculators believed they could make fortunes in the vast region of Texas, and American politicians believed Texas could help maintain a balance of power between free and slave states. In 1827, American president John Quincy Adams offered US$1 million for Texas. Mexican president Guadalupe Victoria refused. Two years later, Andrew Jackson increased the United States' offer to $5 million; President Vicente Guerrero again declined to sell. In July 1829, Mexican authorities had other concerns, as General Isidro Barradas landed 2,700 Spanish troops to the eastern coast of Mexico, near Tampico in an attempt to reclaim the country for Spain. At the request of the government, Austin mustered a local militia to help defend Texas if the invasion were to reach the northern regions of the country. Yucatan governor Antonio López de Santa Anna led a force of Mexican troops to halt the invasion. Barradas surrendered as his troops suffered greatly from tropical diseases, and Santa Anna was hailed as a hero. During the invasion, the Mexican Congress had granted war powers to President Guerrero, making him essentially a monarch. This alarmed the Anglo colonists in Texas, who were accustomed to a separation of powers. Precursor to revolt Mier y Teran's 1828 report had recommended new garrisons in Texas which could oversee the Anglo colonists and encourage Mexicans to resettle in the area. The new garrisons were to be partly staffed by convicts. The first was established along Galveston Bay in 1831 at the site of present-day Anahuac. It became the first port in Texas to collect customs. A second custom port, Velasco, was established at the mouth of the Brazos River, while a third garrison established Fort Teran on the Neches River below Nacogdoches to combat smuggling and illegal immigration. Mier y Teran further ordered the garrison at Bexar to abandon their fort and create a new presidio. Fort Tenoxtitlán was established in 1830 on the west bank of the Brazos River, above San Felipe. Shortly after the fort was completed, 50 immigrants from Tennessee arrived in the area under empresario Sterling C. Robertson. The settlers had arrived illegally, as Robertson's contract had been invalidated by Guerrero's 1830 laws. The garrison commander chose not to expel them, instead sending to Mexico for advice. Three months later he received instructions to expel the settlers immediately. He chose not to do so, allowing the Robertson's Colony to be saved. The fort closed in 1832. After having received no replacements or supplies, the commander finally ordered all of the soldiers to return to San Antonio. Anahuac was placed under the control of Colonel Juan Davis Bradburn. Bradburn enforced the 1830 laws strictly, angering many colonists. He forbade the state commissioner from granting property titles to squatters and insisted on enforcing the law freeing any slave who set foot in Mexican territory. He and his men also confiscated settlers goods for their own personal wealth. This angered many of the Anglos, believing that their rights under the Mexican Constitution of 1824 were being violated. In 1832, local men organized a militia, supposedly to protect the settlement from Indian attacks, although all Indians in the area were peaceful. Mexican law forbade residents from creating militias, so Bradburn arrested the ringleader, Patrick C. Jack. Citizens were very angry. In Brazoria, residents held a town meeting to decide what to do. William H. Wharton complained that there was little support within Austin's colony to oppose Bradburn with military force; he and other advocates of armed conflict felt that their opposition from other settlers was as deep as that of the Mexican soldiers in the area. Bradburn eventually agreed to release Jack, and tensions cooled for a brief period. In May 1832, Bradburn received a letter, ostensibly from a friend, warning that 100 armed men were stationed away, intent on reclaiming runaway slaves held by Bradburn. When Bradburn realized that the letter was a hoax, he arrested Travis for questioning. He intended to send Travis to Matamoros for a military trial on charges of attempted insurrection, with the goal being separation from Mexico. Conviction on this charge would certainly lead to Travis's execution. The settlers were outraged that the arrest did not require a warrant, a statement of charges, or trial by jury. Most were unfamiliar with Mexican law and assumed that the United States Bill of Rights still applied to them. Settlers attacked the Anahuac garrison to free Travis in an event that became known as the Anahuac Disturbances. Additional settlers had gathered in Brazoria to transport several cannon to aid the group in Anahuac. Colonel Domingo de Ugartechea, who led the garrison at Velasco, at the mouth of the Brazos River, refused to allow the ship carrying the cannon to pass. On June 26, settlers initiated the Battle of Velasco; Ugartechea surrendered the following day. Several days later, Colonel Jose de las Piedras arrived from Nacogdoches to assist Bradburn. He removed Bradburn from his command, and the settlers dispersed. In 1832, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna led an insurrection against Mexican president Bustamante. Although most of the Mexican Army supported the Bustamante administration, this led to a small civil war. Many of the Anglo settlers sided with Santa Anna and followed General José Antonio Mexía, who led soldiers in Texas against Bustamante. Mexia removed the commander at Matamoros from his post. In October, 55 delegates from Texas communities attended the Convention of 1832 in San Felipe. The delegates drafted three petitions to the Congress of Mexico. They wished for an annulment of Article 11 of the colonization law of 1830 (which prohibited foreign settlement as well as customs reform), recognition of squatters as valid immigrants, and a separate state for Texas. On December 19, 1832, the Bexar Remonstrance was issued to the Mexican Congress. It legally proclaimed the grievances that the population of Texas had suffered under the centralist style Mexican government. It addressed such issues as improper protection against Indian attacks and poor pay for militia, insufficient local and legislative representation, forbidding of immigration from the United States, lack of schools and funding for education, and various violations of the repudiated republican style Constitution of 1824. Santa Anna was elected the president of Mexico on January 19, 1833. A resulting second convention was held that year in April. This one, attended by recent arrivals such as Sam Houston, appointed a commission to draft a constitution for a new Mexican state of Texas and selected delegates to represent Texas before the federal government. Austin was chosen to deliver the proposed constitution to Santa Anna's government in Mexico City. Although Austin pointed out that Texas had been given permission to form a separate state and had now grown to 46,500 inhabitants, the political chief of Bexar warned the government that the Anglos might be proposing separate statehood as part of a plan to join with the United States. Austin was arrested on November 21, 1833, on suspicion of treason. Austin was imprisoned for about a year. Santa Anna decided to do away with the Mexican Constitution of 1824 and became a monarch. At this point, Austin switched from promoting peace to supporting separation from Mexico. The Mexican government attempted to address some of the Texans' concerns. Article 11 was repealed on November 21, 1833, allowing American immigrants to again flow into Texas. Five months later, Coahuila y Tejas separated Texas into three departments, San Antonio-Bexar, Brazos, and Nacogdoches, with political chiefs for each department and more representation in the state legislature. Furthermore, trial by jury was introduced, and English was authorized as a second language. An Anglo American, Jefferson Chambers, was appointed superior circuit judge of Texas in 1835 and extensions were granted for settlement contracts that had not met their conditions for the number of settlers. Six English-speaking Texan communities were elevated to municipalities. In March 1833, the capital of the state was transferred from Saltillo to Monclova. The following year, centralists began urging Santa Anna to overturn the federal system and introduce centralism. Some legislators believed that centralism would be the only way to retain Texas, as newspapers in the United States continued to make statements about the forthcoming annexation of Texas. When the national congress attempted to centralize the nation, a civil war ensued. As fighting erupted, Saltillo declared that Monclova had been illegally made the state capitol and selected its own governor. Texans in Saltillo recommended establishing a provisional government in Bexar during the unrest to strengthen the autonomy of Texas. Juan Seguin, political chief of Bexar, called for a town meeting to create a government but was forced to postpone it when news arrived of approaching Mexican troops. By the end of the year, however, Santa Anna began to exhibit centralist tendencies, and in 1835 he revoked the Constitution of 1824 and began consolidating his power. In various parts of the country federalists revolted, and in May 1835 Santa Anna brutally crushed a revolt in Zacatecas; over 2,000 noncombatants were killed. The federalists, including Agustín Viesca, the governor of Coahuila y Tejas, were afraid that Santa Anna would march against Coahuila after subduing the rebels in Zacatecas, so they disbanded the state legislature on May 21, 1835, and authorized the governor to set up an office in a different part of the state. Viezca was arrested as he traveled to San Antonio. Under the pretext of being angry over Viezca's imprisonment the people of Anahuac organized a resistance under Travis. Their real grievance was that the two-year grace period on tariffs had ended and the Anahuac customs office had reopened. When Viezca escaped and reached Texas, no one recognized him as governor. As protests spread across Texas, Mexican officials increasingly blamed the settlers from the United States for the discontent. Texas Revolution In an effort to secure his freedom, in January 1835 Austin had published his Exposition to the Public Regarding the Affairs of Texas. In this document, he explained that Texas wanted to be a separate state, not an independent nation. He discussed the grievances against the Texas justice system and justified the conventions of 1832 and 1833 as "'an exercise of the right to petition that belongs to every free people'". He was finally released from prison and had returned to Texas, by August. He changed his mind in prison about the future of Texas and issued a call to arms, announcing that Texas should be "'forever free of any Mexican control'". After the Mexican Congress elected Antonio López de Santa Anna as President of Mexico in 1833, he appointed Valentín Gómez Farías as his vice president and turned over much of the governing of Mexico to him. However, the Vice President began implementing reforms, particularly impacting the Mexican Army and the Catholic Church. These reforms angered the powerful centrist forces, who urged Santa Anna to abandon his semi-retirement. Santa Anna agreed and led the reaction against liberalization, forcing Gómez Farías and his Federalist supporters, including Mexican General José Antonio Mexía, to flee into exile in the United States. Some went to New Orleans, where they planned to resist the Centralist government. Although the United States government remained officially neutral in the Mexican struggle between Santa Anna's Centralists and Gomez Farias' Federalists, there was much political sympathy favoring the separation of Texas from Mexico. A number of men, known as "filibusterers" were attracted to militia-type organizations such as the New Orleans Greys, preparing to go fight for Texas independence. General Mexia soon found financing in New Orleans and began raising an expedition to attack the important Mexican port of Tampico. He persuaded influential people in New Orleans that seizing the port would aid the Texian cause. However, the "Tampico Expedition" that he began on November 6, 1835, failed. In 1835 Juan Seguin, Plácido Benavides, Manuel Leal, and Salvador Flores began raising companies of volunteers from the San Antonio and Victoria areas to support the federalist cause. By the end of the year over 100 Tejanos had joined the Federal Army of Texas to defend the Constitution of 1824 against the centralists. The political chief of the Nacogdoches region told the militias to take arms against the Mexican troops in July 1835 and asked the rest of the citizens to form a volunteer army. "Texas committees" in cities such as New Orleans and New York City mustered volunteers and began sending an army and money to assist the Texas colonists in their fight. Austin commanded the militias, while Sam Houston was placed in charge of the volunteers. The first violent incident occurred on October 2 at the Battle of Gonzales. The Consultation met in November to discuss the reasons for the revolt. The Consultation denounced centralism and organized a provisional state government based "'on the principles of the 1824 Constitution'". The following month, San Antonio surrendered to the Anglos, giving the rebels a great deal of military equipment. Some Texans traveled to the United States seeking aid. Although they were denied a loan, they managed to heavily advertise the availability of land in Texas, ensuring that more volunteers would come to fight. Texas formally declared independence at Washington-on-the-Brazos on March 2, 1836. The revolt was justified as necessary to protect basic rights and because Mexico had annulled the federal pact. The colonists maintained that Mexico had invited them to move to the country and they were determined "to enjoy 'the republican institutions to which they were accustomed in their native land, the United States of America.'" The declaration did not acknowledge that Mexico had attempted to incorporate some of their demands. The new Texas constitution specifically allowed slavery and said no free person of African descent could reside in the new country without Congress's consent. Many of the Tejanos left the fight after the declaration of independence as they were disappointed with the growing anti-Mexican rhetoric. Only Seguin's company remained in the Texian Army. The war ended with the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836, with the birth of the Republic of Texas. Santa Anna was taken prisoner, and the Mexican troops were forced to withdraw south of the Rio Grande. It is remarkable that Sam Houston was able to keep the Texans from killing Santa Anna since he had slaughtered the men of the Alamo and Goliad. In the ensuing Treaties of Velasco, Santa Anna promised he would convince the Mexican government to recognize Texan independence. Santa Anna was released to the United States, which then turned him over to Mexico. The newly-appointed president of Mexico (Anastasio Bustamante) and the Mexican Congress both rejected the Treaties of Velasco, declaring that because he had signed them under duress, they were null and void. Santa Anna later said, "I did promise to try to get a hearing for the Texas Commissioners, but this in itself did not bind the government to receive them." See also Illegal immigration to Mexico References Sources originally published 2004 by New York: Free Press Further reading Hitsman, J. Mackay. "The Texas War of 1835-1836." History Today (Feb 1960) 10#2 pp 116-123. External links Laws and Decrees of Coahuila and Texas from Gammel's Laws of Texas, Vol. I. hosted by the Portal to Texas History. Texas Texas Pre-statehood history of Texas Texas Revolution States and territories established in 1821 States and territories disestablished in 1836 1821 establishments in Mexico 1836 disestablishments in Mexico 19th-century disestablishments in Texas

John Carter (film)

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John Carter is a 2012 American science fiction action film directed by Andrew Stanton, written by Stanton, Mark Andrews, and Michael Chabon, and based on A Princess of Mars (1912), the first book in the Barsoom series of novels by Edgar Rice Burroughs. The film was produced by Jim Morris, Colin Wilson, and Lindsey Collins. John Carter stars Taylor Kitsch in the title role, Lynn Collins, Samantha Morton, Mark Strong, Ciarán Hinds, Dominic West, James Purefoy and Willem Dafoe. The film chronicles the first interplanetary adventure of John Carter and his attempts to mediate civil unrest amongst the warring kingdoms of Barsoom. Several developments on a theatrical film adaptation of the Barsoom series emerged throughout the 20th century from various major studios and producers, with the earliest attempt dating back to the 1930s. Most of these efforts, however, ultimately stalled in development hell. In the late-2000s, Walt Disney Pictures began a concentrated effort to develop a film adaptation of Burroughs' works, after an abandoned venture by the studio in the 1980s. The project was driven by Stanton, who had pressed Disney to renew the screen rights from the Burroughs estate. Stanton became the new film's director in 2009. It was his live-action debut, as his previous directorial work for Disney was on the Pixar animated films Finding Nemo (2003) and WALL-E (2008). Filming began in November 2009, with principal photography underway in January 2010, wrapping seven months later in July 2010. Michael Giacchino, who composed many Pixar films, composed the film's musical score. Like Pixar's Brave, the film is dedicated to the memory of Steve Jobs. John Carter was released in the United States on March 9, 2012, marking the centennial of the titular character's first appearance. The film was presented in Disney Digital 3D, RealD 3D, and IMAX 3D formats. Upon release, John Carter received a mixed critical reception, with praise for its visuals, Giacchino's score, and the action sequences, but criticism toward the characterization and plot. The film flopped at the North American box office, but set an opening-day record in Russia. It grossed $284 million at the worldwide box office, resulting in a $200 million writedown for Disney, becoming one of the biggest box office bombs in history. With a total cost of $350 million, including an estimated production budget of $263 million, it is one of the most expensive films ever made. Due to the film's poor box office performance, Disney cancelled plans for sequels (titled Gods of Mars and Warlord of Mars), which would have completed the trilogy Stanton had planned. Plot In 1881, Edgar Rice Burroughs attends the funeral of his uncle, John Carter, a former American Civil War Confederate Army captain who died suddenly. Per Carter's instructions, the body is put in a tomb that can be unlocked only from the inside. His attorney gives Carter's personal journal for Burroughs to read. In a flashback to 1868 in the Arizona Territory, Union Colonel Powell arrests Carter with hopes that Carter will help in fighting local Apache. Carter escapes his holding cell, but fails to get far with U.S. cavalry soldiers in close pursuit. After a run-in with a band of Apaches, Carter and a wounded Powell are chased until they hide in a cave that turns out to be filled with gold. A Thern appears in the cave at that moment and, surprised by the two men, attacks them with a knife; Carter kills him but accidentally activates the Thern's powerful medallion and is unwittingly transported to a ruined and dying planet, Barsoom. Because of his different bone density and the planet's low gravity, Carter is able to jump high and perform feats of incredible strength. He is captured by the Green Martian Tharks and their Jeddak, Tars Tarkas. Elsewhere on Barsoom, the Red Martian cities of Helium and Zodanga have been at war for a thousand years. Sab Than, Jeddak of Zodanga, armed with a special weapon obtained from the Thern leader Matai Shang, proposes a cease-fire and an end to the war by marrying the Princess of Helium, Dejah Thoris. The Princess escapes and is rescued by Carter. Carter, Dejah, and Tarkas's daughter, Sola, reach a spot in a sacred river to find a way for Carter to get back to Earth. They discover that the medallions are powered by a "ninth ray" that is also the source of Sab Than's weapon. They are then attacked by Tharks under the direction of Shang. Carter and Dejah are taken back to Zodanga. A demoralized Dejah grudgingly agrees to marry Sab Than and gives Carter instructions on how to use the medallion to return to Earth. Carter decides to stay and is captured by Shang, who explains to him the purpose of Therns and how they manipulate the civilizations of different worlds to their doom, feeding off the planet's resources in the process. Carter and go back to the Tharks with Sola to request their help. There they discover Tarkas has been overthrown by a ruthless brute, Tal Hajus. Carter and an injured Tarkas battle with two enormous Great White-Apes in an arena before Carter kills Hajus, thereby becoming the leader of the Tharks. The Thark army charges on Helium and defeats the Zodangan army, while Sab Than is killed and Shang is forced to escape. Carter becomes prince of Helium by marrying Dejah. On their first night, Carter decides to stay forever on Mars and throws away his medallion. Seizing this opportunity, Shang briefly reappears and gives Carter another challenge, sending him back to Earth. Carter embarks on a long quest to find one of their medallions on Earth; after several years he appears to die suddenly and asks for unusual funeral arrangements — consistent with his having found a medallion, since his return to Mars would leave his Earth body in a coma-like state. He makes Burroughs his protector. Back in the present, Burroughs runs back to Carter's tomb and uses clues to open it. Just as he does so, a Thern appears and raises a weapon before Carter shoots the Thern in the back. He reveals that he had never found another medallion; instead, he devised a scheme to lure a Thern from hiding, thus winning Shang's challenge. Carter then uses the dead Thern's medallion to return to Barsoom. Cast Taylor Kitsch as John Carter, a Confederate army captain who is transported to Mars. Lynn Collins as Dejah Thoris, the Princess of Helium. Samantha Morton as Sola, a Thark that works with John Carter. Mark Strong as Matai Shang, the Hekkador of the Therns. Ciarán Hinds as Tardos Mors, the Jeddak of Helium and Dejah Thoris' father. Dominic West as Sab Than, the Jeddak of Zodanga. James Purefoy as Kantos Kan, the Odwar of the ship Xavarian. Bryan Cranston as Colonel Powell, a Union colonel who wants John to help his U.S. cavalry soldiers against the Apache. Daryl Sabara as Ned, the nephew of John Carter. Polly Walker as Sarkoja, a merciless Thark who hates Sola. Thomas Haden Church as Tal Hajus, a vicious Thark that dislikes John Carter and Tars Tarkas. Willem Dafoe as Tars Tarkas, the Jeddak of the Tharks and Sola's father. David Schwimmer as a young Thark Warrior, a Thark who informs Tars Tarkas that eighteen of the Thark eggs didn't hatch. Jon Favreau as the Thark bookmaker, a Thark who collects the bets on any conflict. Don Stark as Dix, a shopkeeper at an Arizona town where John Carter stops. Nicholas Woodeson as Dalton, John Carter's executor who summons Edgar. Art Malik as Zodangan General. Development Origins The film is largely based on A Princess of Mars (1917), the first in a series of 11 novels by Edgar Rice Burroughs to feature the interplanetary hero John Carter (and in later volumes the adventures of his children with Dejah Thoris). The story was originally serialized in six monthly installments (from February through to July 1912) in the pulp magazine The All-Story; those chapters, originally titled "Under the Moons of Mars", were then collected as a novel and published in hardcover five years later from A. C. McClurg. Bob Clampett involvement In 1931, Looney Tunes director Bob Clampett approached Edgar Rice Burroughs with the idea of adapting A Princess of Mars into a feature-length animated film. Burroughs responded enthusiastically, recognizing that a regular live-action feature would face various limitations to adapt accurately, so he advised Clampett to write an original animated adventure for John Carter. Working with Burroughs' son John Coleman Burroughs in 1935, Clampett used rotoscope and other hand-drawn techniques to capture the action, tracing the motions of an athlete who performed John Carter's powerful movements in the reduced Martian gravity, and designed the green-skinned, 4-armed Tharks to give them a believable appearance. He then produced footage of them riding their eight-legged Thoats at a gallop, which had all of their eight legs moving in coordinated motion; he also produced footage of a fleet of rocketships emerging from a Martian volcano. MGM was to release the cartoons, and the studio heads were enthusiastic about the series. The test footage, produced by 1936, received negative reactions from film exhibitors across the U.S., especially in small towns; many gave their opinion that the concept of an Earthman on Mars was just too outlandish an idea for midwestern American audiences to accept. The series was not given the go-ahead, and Clampett was instead encouraged to produce an animated Tarzan series, an offer that he later declined. Clampett recognized the irony in MGM's decision, as the Flash Gordon movie serial, released in the same year by Universal Studios, was highly successful. He speculated that MGM believed that serials were played only to children during Saturday matinees, whereas the John Carter tales were intended to be seen by adults during the evening. The footage that Clampett produced was believed lost for many years, until Burroughs' grandson, Danton Burroughs, in the early 1970s found some of the film tests in the Edgar Rice Burroughs Inc. archives. Had A Princess of Mars been released, it might have preceded Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs to become the first American feature-length animated film. Disney progression During the late 1950s, stop-motion animation effects director Ray Harryhausen expressed interest in filming the novels, but it was not until the 1980s that producers Mario Kassar and Andrew G. Vajna bought the rights for Walt Disney Studios via Cinergi Pictures, with a view to creating a competitor to Star Wars and Conan the Barbarian. Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio were hired to write, while John McTiernan and Tom Cruise were approached to direct and star. The project collapsed because McTiernan realized that visual effects were not yet advanced enough to recreate Burroughs' vision of Barsoom. The project remained at Disney, and Jeffrey Katzenberg was a strong proponent of filming the novels, but the rights eventually returned to the Burroughs estate. Paramount effort Producer James Jacks read Harry Knowles' autobiography, which lavishly praised the John Carter of Mars series. Having read the Burroughs' novels as a child, Jacks was moved to convince Paramount Pictures to acquire the film rights; a bidding war with Columbia Pictures followed. After Paramount and Jacks won the rights, Jacks contacted Knowles to become an adviser on the project and hired Mark Protosevich to write the screenplay. Robert Rodriguez signed on in 2004 to direct the film after his friend Knowles showed him the script. Recognizing that Knowles had been an adviser to many other filmmakers, Rodriguez asked him to be credited as a producer. Filming was set to begin in 2005, with Rodriguez planning to use the all-digital stages he was using for his production of Sin City, a film based on the graphic novel series by Frank Miller. Rodriguez planned to hire Frank Frazetta, the popular Burroughs and fantasy illustrator, as a designer on the film. Rodriguez had previously stirred-up film industry controversy owing to his decision to credit Sin Citys artist/creator Miller as co-director on the film adaptation; as a result, Rodriguez decided to resign from the Directors Guild of America. In 2004, unable to employ a non-DGA filmmaker, Paramount assigned Kerry Conran to direct and Ehren Kruger to rewrite the John Carter script. The Australian Outback was scouted as a shooting location. Conran left the film for unknown reasons and was replaced in October 2005 by Jon Favreau. Favreau and screenwriter Mark Fergus wanted to make their script faithful to Burroughs' novels, retaining John Carter's links to the American Civil War and ensuring that the Barsoomian Tharks were 15 feet tall (previous scripts had made them human-sized). Favreau argued that a modern-day soldier would not know how to fence or ride a horse like Carter, who had been a Confederate officer. The first film he envisioned would have adapted the first three novels in the Barsoom series: A Princess of Mars, The Gods of Mars, and The Warlord of Mars. Unlike Rodriguez and Conran, Favreau preferred using practical effects for his film and cited Planet of the Apes as his inspiration. He intended to use make-up, as well as CGI, to create the Tharks. In August 2006, Paramount chose not to renew the film rights, preferring instead to focus on its Star Trek franchise. Favreau and Fergus moved on to Marvel Studios' Iron Man. Return to Disney, Stanton involvement Andrew Stanton, director of the Pixar Animation Studios hits Finding Nemo (2003) and WALL-E (2008), lobbied the Walt Disney Studios to reacquire the rights from Burroughs' estate. "Since I'd read the books as a kid, I wanted to see somebody put it on the screen," he explained. He then lobbied Disney heavily for the chance to direct the film, pitching it as "Indiana Jones on Mars". The studio was initially skeptical. Stanton had never directed a live-action film before, and wanted to make the film without any major stars whose names could guarantee an audience, at least on opening weekend. The screenplay was seen as confusing and difficult to follow. But since Stanton had overcome similar preproduction doubts to make WALL-E and Finding Nemo into hits, the studio approved him as director. Stanton noted he was effectively being "loaned" to Walt Disney Pictures because Pixar is an all-ages brand and John Carter, in his words, was "not going to be an all-ages film". By 2008 they completed the first draft for Part One of a John Carter film trilogy; the first film is based only on the first novel. In April 2009 author Michael Chabon confirmed he had been hired to revise the script. Following the completion of WALL-E, Stanton visited the archives of Edgar Rice Burroughs, Inc., in Tarzana, California, as part of his research. Jim Morris, general manager of Pixar, said the film would have a unique look distinct from Frank Frazetta's illustrations, which they both found dated. He also noted that although he had less time for pre-production than for any of his usual animated projects, the task was nevertheless relatively easy since he had read Burroughs' novels as a child and had already visualized many of their scenes. Production Filming Principal photography commenced at Longcross Studios, London, in January 2010 and ended in Kanab, Utah in July 2010. Locations in Utah included Lake Powell and the counties of Grand, Wayne, and Kane. A month-long reshoot took place in Playa Vista, Los Angeles. The film was shot in the Panavision anamorphic format on Kodak 35mm film. Stanton denied assertions that he had gone over budget and stated that he had been allowed a longer reshoot because he had stayed on budget and on time. However, he did admit to reshooting much of the movie twice, far more than is usually common in live action filmmaking. He attributed that to his animation background. "The thing I had to explain to Disney was, 'You're asking a guy who's only known how to do it this way to suddenly do it with one reshoot.'" he explained later. "I said, 'I'm not gonna get it right the first time, I'll tell you that right now.'" Stanton often sought advice from people he had worked with at Pixar on animated films (known as the Braintrust) instead of those with live-action experience working with him. Stanton also was quoted as saying, "I said to my producers, 'Is it just me, or do we actually know how to do this better than live-action crews do?'" Rich Ross, Disney's chairman, successor to Dick Cook, who had originally approved the film for production, came from a television background and had no experience with feature films. The studio's new top marketing and production executives had little more. Marketing The head of Walt Disney Studios Marketing during the production was M. T. Carney, an industry outsider who previously ran a marketing boutique in New York. Stanton often rejected marketing ideas from the studio, according to those who worked on the film. Stanton's ideas were used instead, and he ignored criticism that using Led Zeppelin's 1975 song "Kashmir" in the trailer would make it seem less current to the contemporary younger audiences the film sought. He also chose billboard imagery that failed to resonate with prospective audiences, and put together a preview reel that did not get a strong reception from a convention audience. Stanton said, "My joy when I saw the first trailer for Star Wars is I saw a little bit of almost everything in the movie, and I had no idea how it connected, and I had to go see the movie. So the last thing I'm going to do is ruin that little kid's experience." Following the death of Steve Jobs, Stanton dedicated the film in his memory. Although being based on the first book of the series, A Princess of Mars, the film was originally titled John Carter of Mars, but Stanton removed "of Mars" to make it more appealing to a broader audience, stating that the film is an "origin story. It's about a guy becoming John Carter of Mars." Stanton planned to keep "Mars" in the title for future films in the series (which were never produced). Kitsch said the title was changed to reflect the character's journey, as John Carter would become "of Mars" only in the last few minutes of the picture. Former Disney marketing president Carney has also taken blame for suggesting the title change. Another reported explanation for the name change was that Disney had suffered a significant loss in March 2011 with Mars Needs Moms; the studio reportedly conducted a study which noted recent movies with the word "Mars" in the title had not been commercially successful. Earlier, two and a half years before the premiere of the film, on December 29, 2009, a low-budget film produced by the independent film company The Asylum, entitled Princess of Mars, was released direct-to-DVD in the United States. Stanton has referred to the competing film as a "crappy knock-off". Music and soundtrack In February 2010, Michael Giacchino revealed in an interview he would be scoring the film. Walt Disney Records released the soundtrack on March 6, 2012, three days before the film's release. Release Theatrical run Although the original film release date was June 8, 2012, in January 2011 Disney moved the release date to March 9, 2012. A teaser trailer for the film premiered on July 14, 2011 and was shown in 3D and 2D with showings of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2; the official trailer premiered on November 30, 2011. On February 5, 2012 an extended commercial promoting the movie aired during the Super Bowl, and before the day of the game, Andrew Stanton, a Massachusetts native, held a special screening of the film for both the team members and families of the New England Patriots and New York Giants. Home media Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released John Carter on Blu-ray, DVD, and digital download on June 5, 2012. The home media release was made available in three different physical packages: a four-disc combo pack (1 disc Blu-ray 3D, 1-disc Blu-ray, 1 DVD, and 1-disc digital copy), a two-disc combo pack (1 disc Blu-ray, 1 disc DVD), and one-disc DVD. John Carter was also made available in 3D High Definition, High Definition, and Standard Definition Digital. Additionally, the home media edition was available in an On-Demand format. The Blu-ray bonus features include Disney Second Screen functionality, "360 Degrees of John Carter", deleted scenes, and "Barsoom Bloopers". The DVD bonus features included "100 Years in the Making", and audio commentary with filmmakers. The High Definition Digital and Standard Definition Digital versions both include Disney Second Screen, "Barsoom Bloopers", and deleted scenes. The Digital 3D High Definition Digital copy does not include bonus features. In mid-June, the movie topped sales on both the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert sales chart, which tracks overall disc sales, and Nielsen's dedicated Blu-ray Disc sales chart, with the DVD release selling 980,812 copies making $17,057,283 and Blu-ray and 3-D releases selling 965,275 copies making $19,295,847, with a combined total of $36,353,130 in its first week alone. Reception Box office John Carter grossed $73.1 million in North America and $211.1 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $284.1 million. It had a worldwide opening of $100.8 million. In North America, it opened in first place on Friday, March 9, 2012 with $9.81 million. For three days, it had grossed $30.2 million, falling to second place for the weekend, behind The Lorax. Outside North America, it topped the weekend chart, opening with $70.6 million. Its highest-grossing opening was in Russia and the CIS, where it broke the all-time opening-day record ($6.5 million) and earned $16.5 million during the weekend. The film also scored the second-best opening weekend for a Disney film in China ($14.0 million). It was in first place at the box office outside North America for two consecutive weekends. Its highest-grossing areas after North America are China ($41.5 million), Russia and the CIS ($33.4 million), and Mexico ($12.1 million). Although the film grossed nearly $300 million worldwide, it lost a considerable amount of money due to its cost. At the time of its release, Disney claimed the film's production budget was $250 million, although tax returns released in 2014 revealed its exact budget was $263.7 million after taking tax credits into account. Before the film opened, analysts predicted the film would be a huge financial failure due to its exorbitant combined production and marketing costs of $350 million, with Paul Dergarabedian, president of Hollywood.com, noting "John Carter'''s bloated budget would have required it to generate worldwide tickets sales of more than $600 million to break even ... a height reached by only 63 films in the history of moviemaking". On May 8, 2012, the Walt Disney Company released a statement on its earnings which attributed the $161 million deterioration in the operating income of their Studio Entertainment division to a loss of $84 million in the quarter ending March 2012 "primarily" to the performance of John Carter and the associated cost write-down. The film resulted in a $200 million writedown for Disney, ranking it among the biggest box-office bombs of all time. The film's failure led to the resignation of Rich Ross, the head of Walt Disney Studios, even though Ross had arrived there from his earlier success at the Disney Channel with John Carter already in development. Ross theoretically could have stopped production on John Carter as he did with a planned remake of 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, or minimized the budget as he did to The Lone Ranger starring Johnny Depp. Instead, Stanton was given the production budget requested for John Carter, backed with an estimated $100 million marketing campaign that is typical for a tentpole movie but without significant merchandising or other ancillary tie-ins. It was reported that Ross later sought to blame Pixar for John Carter, which prompted key Pixar executives to turn against Ross who already had alienated many within the studio. The 2013 book John Carter and the Gods of Hollywood cites many factors in the film's commercial failure, but author Michael D. Sellers insists the film tested very well with audiences and failed more because of marketing problems (which included not mentioning "Mars", "Barsoom", or "Edgar Rice Burroughs" on promotional posters, which meant that many fans of the Burroughs books were completely unaware of the film and its subject matter until after it bombed) and changing management at the studio. In September 2014, studio president Alan Bergman was asked at a conference if Disney had been able to partially recoup its losses on The Lone Ranger and John Carter through subsequent release windows or other monetization methods, and he responded: "I'm going to answer that question honestly and tell you no, it didn't get that much better. We did lose that much money on those movies." Critical response One week before the film's release, Disney removed an embargo on reviews of the film. The film holds a 52% rating at the film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes based on 239 reviews, with an average rating of 5.80/10. The consensus reads: "While John Carter looks terrific and delivers its share of pulpy thrills, it also suffers from uneven pacing and occasionally incomprehensible plotting and characterization". At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average out of 100 to critics' reviews, the film holds a score of 51 based on 43 reviews, signifying "Mixed or average reviews". Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "Derivative but charming and fun enough, Disney's mammoth scifier is both spectacular and a bit cheesy". Glenn Kenny of MSN Movies rated the film 4 out of 5 stars, saying, "By the end of the adventure, even the initially befuddling double-frame story pays off, in spades. For me, this is the first movie of its kind in a very long time that I'd willingly sit through a second or even third time". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times rated the film 2.5 out of 4 stars, commenting that the movie "is intended to foster a franchise and will probably succeed. Does John Carter get the job done for the weekend action audience? Yes, I suppose it does". Dan Jolin of Empire gave the film 3 stars out of 5, noting, "Stanton has built a fantastic world, but the action is unmemorable. Still, just about every sci-fi/fantasy/superhero adventure you ever loved is in here somewhere". Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News gave the film 3 out of 5 stars, calling the film "undeniably silly, sprawling and easy to make fun of, [but] also playful, genuinely epic and absolutely comfortable being what it is. In this genre, those are virtues as rare as a cave of gold". Conversely, Peter Debruge of Variety gave a negative review, saying, "To watch John Carter is to wonder where in this jumbled space opera one might find the intuitive sense of wonderment and awe Stanton brought to Finding Nemo and WALL-E". Owen Glieberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a D rating, feeling, "Nothing in John Carter really works, since everything in the movie has been done so many times before, and so much better". Christy Lemire of The Boston Globe wrote that, "Except for a strong cast, a few striking visuals and some unexpected flashes of humor, John Carter is just a dreary, convoluted trudge – a soulless sprawl of computer-generated blippery converted to 3-D". Michael Philips of the Chicago Tribune rated the film 2 out of 4 stars, saying the film "isn't much – or rather, it's too much and not enough in weird, clumpy combinations – but it is a curious sort of blur". Andrew O'Herir of Salon.com called it "a profoundly flawed film, and arguably a terrible one on various levels. But if you're willing to suspend not just disbelief but also all considerations of logic and intelligence and narrative coherence, it's also a rip-roaring, fun adventure, fatefully balanced between high camp and boyish seriousness at almost every second". Mick LaSalle of San Francisco Chronicle rated the film 1 star out of 4, noting, "John Carter is a movie designed to be long, epic and in 3-D, but that's as far as the design goes. It's designed to be a product, and it's a flimsy one". A.O. Scott of The New York Times said, "John Carter tries to evoke, to reanimate, a fondly recalled universe of B-movies, pulp novels and boys' adventure magazines. But it pursues this modest goal according to blockbuster logic, which buries the easy, scrappy pleasures of the old stuff in expensive excess. A bad movie should not look this good". In the UK, the film was savaged by Peter Bradshaw in The Guardian, gaining only 1 star out of 5 and described as a "giant, suffocating doughy feast of boredom". The film garnered 2 out of 5 stars in The Daily Telegraph, described as "a technical marvel, but is also armrest-clawingly hammy and painfully dated". BBC film critic Mark Kermode expressed his displeasure with the film commenting, "The story telling is incomprehensible, the characterisation is ludicrous, the story is two and a quarter hours long and it's a boring, boring, boring two and a quarter hours long". Accolades Cancelled sequels Prior to the film's release, the filmmakers reported that John Carter was intended to be the first film of a trilogy. Producers Jim Morris and Lindsey Collins began work on a sequel based on Burroughs' second novel, The Gods of Mars. However, the film's poor box office performance put plans for sequels into question. In June 2012 co-writer Mark Andrews said in an interview that he, Stanton, and Chabon are still interested in doing sequels: "As soon as somebody from Disney says, 'We want John Carter 2, we'd be right there." Despite criticism and Disney's financial disappointment with the film, lead actors Taylor Kitsch and Willem Dafoe all showed strong support, with Kitsch stating "I would do John Carter again tomorrow. I'm very proud of John Carter." In September 2012, Stanton announced that his next directorial effort would be Pixar's Finding Dory, and that the plan to film a John Carter sequel had been cancelled. Kitsch later stated he would not make another John Carter film unless Stanton returns as director. In a May 2014 interview, he added, "I still talk to Lynn Collins almost daily. Those relationships that were born won't be broken by people we never met. I miss the family. I miss Andrew Stanton. I know the second script was awesome. We had to plant a grounding, so we could really take off in the second one. The second one was even more emotionally taxing, which was awesome." Stanton tweeted both titles and logos for the sequels that would have been made with the titles being Gods of Mars and Warlord of Mars. On October 20, 2014, it was confirmed that Disney had allowed the film rights to the Barsoom novels to revert to the Edgar Rice Burroughs Estate. In November 2016, Stanton stated, "I will always mourn the fact that I didn't get to make the other two films I planned for that series." See also List of films set on Mars Sword and planet Mars in fiction References Further reading Miller, Thomas Kent. Mars in the Movies: A History''. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 2016. . External links archived at the Wayback Machine 2012 films 2012 3D films 2010s adventure comedy films 2010s fantasy adventure films 2012 science fiction action films 2010s Western (genre) science fiction films American Western (genre) science fiction films American adventure comedy films American fantasy adventure films American science fiction adventure films American sword and sorcery films American films Barsoom Cultural depictions of Edgar Rice Burroughs English-language films Films about extraterrestrial life Films about Native Americans Films about shapeshifting Films based on works by Edgar Rice Burroughs Films directed by Andrew Stanton Films produced by Jim Morris Films scored by Michael Giacchino Films set in 1868 Films set in 1881 Films set in Arizona Films set in New York City Films shot in Los Angeles Films shot in New Mexico Films shot in Surrey Films shot in Utah IMAX films Mars in film Films shot at Longcross Studios Films using motion capture Films with screenplays by Michael Chabon Films with screenplays by Andrew Stanton Space Western films American swashbuckler films Walt Disney Pictures films Films with screenplays by Mark Andrews Sword and planet films

List of heads of government of Ivory Coast

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This article lists the heads of government of Ivory Coast, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, since the country gained independence from France in 1960. Patrick Achi has been serving as Prime Minister of Ivory Coast since 26 March 2021. List Key Political parties Other factions Officeholders Notes See also Ivory Coast List of heads of state of Ivory Coast List of colonial governors of Ivory Coast Politics of Ivory Coast Lists of office-holders References Sources Guinness Book of Kings Rulers & Statesmen, Clive Carpenter, Guinness Superlatives Ltd. Government of Ivory Coast List Cote d'Ivoire, List of Prime Ministers of Lists of Ivorian people by occupation

Foreword

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A foreword is a (usually short) piece of writing sometimes placed at the beginning of a book or other piece of literature. Typically written by someone other than the primary author of the work, it often tells of some interaction between the writer of the foreword and the book's primary author or the story the book tells. Later editions of a book sometimes have a new foreword prepended (appearing before an older foreword if there was one), which might explain in what respects that edition differs from previous ones. When written by the author, the foreword may cover the story of how the book came into being or how the idea for the book was developed, and may include thanks and acknowledgments to people who were helpful to the author during the time of writing. Unlike a preface, a foreword is always signed. Information essential to the main text is generally placed in a set of explanatory notes, or perhaps in an introduction, rather than in the foreword or like preface. The pages containing the foreword and preface (and other front matter) are typically not numbered as part of the main work, which usually uses Arabic numerals. If the front matter is paginated, it uses lowercase Roman numerals. If there is both a foreword and a preface, the foreword appears first; both appear before the introduction, which may be paginated either with the front matter or the main text. The word foreword was first used around the mid-17th century, originally as a term in philology. It was possibly a calque of German Vorwort, itself a calque of Latin praefatio. See also Afterword Epigraph Introduction Preface Prologue References External links The difference between a preface, foreword, and introduction – PatMcNees.com Book design Book terminology Literature

Queen's Guard

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The Queen's Guard, British Guards, and Queen's Life Guard (called King's Guard and King's Life Guard when the reigning monarch is male) are the names given to contingents of infantry and cavalry soldiers charged with guarding the official royal residences in the United Kingdom. The British Army has regiments of both Horse Guards and Foot Guards predating the English Restoration (1660), and since the reign of King Charles II these regiments have been responsible for guarding the Sovereign's palaces. The Guards are fully operational soldiers. Operating area The Queen's Guard, British Guards and Queen's Life Guard are mounted at the royal residences that come under the operating area of the British Army's London District, which is responsible for the administration of the Household Division. This covers Buckingham Palace, Clarence House, St James's Palace and the Tower of London, as well as Windsor Castle. The Queen's Guard is also mounted at the sovereign's other official residence, the Palace of Holyroodhouse, but not as often as in London. In Edinburgh, the guard is the responsibility of the resident infantry battalion at Redford Barracks. It is not mounted at the Queen's private residences at Sandringham or Balmoral. The Queen's Guard is the name given to the contingent of infantry responsible for guarding Buckingham Palace and St James's Palace (including Clarence House) in London. The guard is made up of a company of soldiers from a single regiment, which is split in two, providing a detachment for Buckingham Palace and a detachment for St James's Palace. Because the Sovereign's official residence is still St James's, the guard commander (called the captain of the guard) is based there, as are the regiment's colours. When the Sovereign is in residence, the Queen's Guard numbers three officers and forty other ranks, with four sentries each posted at Buckingham Palace (on the forecourt) and St James's Palace (two in Friary Court, two at the entrance to Clarence House). This reduces to three officers and 31 ORs, with two sentries each, when the Sovereign is not in residence. The Queen's Guard is not purely ceremonial in nature. They provide sentries during the day and night, and during the later hours, they patrol the grounds of the Palace. Until 1959, the sentries at Buckingham Palace were stationed outside the fence. This stopped following an incident involving a female tourist and a Coldstream Guardsman – due to the continued pestering by tourists and sightseers, the guardsman kicked the tourist on the ankle as he marched. The tourist made a complaint to the police and the sentry was confined to barracks for ten days. Not long after, the sentries were moved inside the fence. Postings At any time, three infantry battalions are posted for public duties; two of these are Guards battalions (one based at Wellington Barracks next to Buckingham Palace and one at Victoria Barracks in Windsor), while the third is a line infantry unit (based at the Royal Artillery Barracks, Woolwich). In addition, there are three incremental companies based at the Royal Artillery Barracks and Wellington Barracks. All of these units come under the administrative authority of London District — as public duties units, they not only take part in ceremonial but are also committed to providing military aid to the civilian authorities. Foot Guards The guard is usually found from one of the five regiments of foot guards: The Grenadier Guards The Coldstream Guards The Scots Guards The Irish Guards The Welsh Guards In addition, the RAF Regiment take over the guard for around three weeks per year. The Queen's Colour Squadron represents the whole RAF as the units mounting the guard need to be infantry trained. However, in theory, any Commonwealth unit can provide the guard. On many occasions, the Gurkhas, RAF Regiment and Royal Marines have provided the guard, while a handful of units from other Commonwealth countries have also done so (see below). Only one unit has come from a Commonwealth country of which the Queen is not head of state, namely the 1st Battalion, Royal Malay Regiment, in 2008. Gurkhas, Royal Marines, RAF Regiment and Royal Navy The following is a list of units of the Gurkhas and Royal Marines to have mounted the Queen's Guard since the Second World War. 1st Battalion, 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles, December 1971 1st Battalion, 10th Princess Mary's Own Gurkha Rifles, October 1973 2nd Battalion, 2nd King Edward VII's Own Gurkha Rifles (The Sirmoor Rifles), November 1975 1st Battalion, 6th Queen Elizabeth's Own Gurkha Rifles, August 1977 41 Commando, Royal Marines, November 1978 42 Commando, Royal Marines, July 1986 1st Battalion, Royal Gurkha Rifles, August 1996 42 Commando, Royal Marines, June 2014 Brigade of Gurkhas, May 2015 10 Queen's Own Gurkha Logistic Regiment, May–Jul 2019 The RAF Regiment has a dedicated ceremonial unit, the Queen's Colour Squadron; this unit represents the RAF whenever it provides the Queen's Guard. In November 2017, the Royal Navy mounted the guard with a company-sized detachment formed of volunteers from 45 ships and shore establishments for two weeks, the first time that the Royal Navy had formed the Queen's Guard in its own right (rather than being represented by the Royal Marines). Line infantry Prior to Options for Change, because there were a total of eight guards battalions, it was rare for battalions of line infantry to mount the Queen's Guard and, as such, was a significant honour. Before 1996, only two battalions had served on public duties as part of an operational tour in London District. However, when the 2nd Battalions of the Grenadier Guards, Coldstream Guards and Scots Guards were put in suspended animation, a decision to replace one of the three Foot Guard battalions then engaged on public duties by a line infantry battalion was taken, so as to enable the Foot Guards battalion to increase the proportion of its effort employed on training for operational roles. From 1996 to 2013, a line infantry battalion was stationed in London (first at Hounslow, then Woolwich) under the command of London District: Since 2013, regular public duties responsibility has reverted to the Household Division. However, line infantry units occasionally provide the Guard for short periods of time. In the summer of 2018, Balaklava Company, the dedicated public duties unit of the Royal Regiment of Scotland, and 2nd Battalion, The Rifles, both provided the Guard at Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle. Territorial Army/Army Reserve In 1938, the Honourable Artillery Company, a Territorial Army unit, provided the King's Guard. The same regiment subsequently provided the Queen's Guard in 1958. During the 1990s, the Band of the Honourable Artillery Company provided musical support for the Queen's Guard, and they continue to do so in the 21st century. In June 2015, soldiers from the 3rd Battalion, Royal Welsh, provided the Tower of London detachment of the Queen's Guard. Home Guard On 14 May 1941, the Home Guard provided the King's Guard, in recognition of the first anniversary of its foundation. This was repeated in May 1943. Buckingham Palace, St James's Palace and The Tower of London There are two detachments of the Queen's Guard in London, one each for Buckingham Palace and St James's Palace, under the command of the captain of the Queen's Guard. Because St James's Palace is still the official residence of the court, it is here that the colour is lodged and the captain of the guard establishes his headquarters. The Queen's Guard in London changes in the forecourt of Buckingham Palace at 11:00 am every day in early summer and four times per week otherwise. The St James's Palace detachment of the Queen's Guard, led usually by the corps of drums, and bearing the colour (if the Queen is in residence, then this will be the Queen's colour; if she is not, then it is the regimental colour), marches along the Mall to Buckingham Palace, where the Buckingham Palace detachment has formed up to await their arrival. These two detachments are the old guard. Meanwhile, the new guard is forming up and are awaiting inspection by the adjutant on the parade square at Wellington Barracks. The band, having been inspected by the adjutant, forms a circle to play music whilst the new guard is inspected. The guard provides a full military band consisting of no fewer than 35 musicians (usually, although not always, from one of the Guards regiments) led by their director of music. When the new guard is formed up, led by the band, it marches across into the forecourt of Buckingham Palace. Once there, the New Guard advances towards the old guard in slow time and halts. The old guard presents arms, followed by the new guard presenting arms. The captains of the guards march towards each other for the handing over of the palace keys. The new reliefs are marched to the guardrooms of Buckingham Palace and St James's Palace where new sentries are posted. During this time the band has taken its place by the centre gate, formed up in a half-circle, where it plays music to entertain the new and old guard as well as the watching crowds. During this period, the two regimental colours are paraded up and down by the ensigns (usually junior officers of second lieutenant rank or equivalent). With the old and new guards formed up once again, the old guard and the band march out through the centre gates in slow time to their regimental slow march played by the band. At the end of the slow march, the captain of the old guard gives the word of command to 'break into quick time' and with a brisk five pace roll from the drums, the band leads the way back to Wellington Barracks. A detachment of the regiment on guard at Buckingham Palace and St James's Palace is also responsible for providing the guard at the Tower of London. As the Tower is still officially a royal residence and is also the location of the crown jewels, it remains the Army's obligation to guard it. The Tower guard numbers one officer, three NCOs and ten soldiers, and usually posts a sentry outside the Jewel House and one outside the Queen's House. As the protection of the Tower is their responsibility (in conjunction with the Yeoman Warders), the guard must also see it is secure at night (see Ceremony of the Keys). Windsor Castle One of the public duties battalions or incremental companies is responsible for providing the guard at Windsor Castle. The location of the ceremony at Windsor varies; in the Easter, when the Queen is in residence it usually takes place on the lawn in the castle's quadrangle. In wet weather or winter, to protect the lawn, or when the Queen is not holding court at Windsor Castle, the ceremony occurs outside the guardroom by Henry VIII's Gateway at the foot of Castle Hill. The ceremony for changing the Windsor Guard is broadly the same as that which takes place at Buckingham Palace. At 10.40am, the new guard marches from Victoria Barracks, through Windsor and turns left, going up Castle Hill to enter the Lower Ward. During the Easter, and when the Queen is holding court at the castle, the guards change in the Upper Ward on the grass. When changing guard in the normal way, the new guard arrives at roughly 11 am when the old guard has formed up outside the guardroom. Once both guards and the duty band (there is no duty band on Sundays) are present, the old guard and new guard will present arms to each other, interspersed by bugle calls – the officers will then go towards each other and symbolically touch left hands to 'hand over the keys to the castle' (though no actual keys are handed over anymore). The guards will then slope arms and the reliefs will be formed up to go round the castle and change the sentries – during this process, the band typically plays a selection of music. Once the relief returns, the old guard forms back up ready to march back to Victoria Barracks. The band leads them out whilst the new guard presents arms. Once the old guard has left, the new guard is dismissed to the guardroom where they will be based for the next 24/48 hours – every two hours, the guard relief will march out and change the sentries. The Bank Picquet During the Gordon Riots in 1780, a detachment of the Foot Guards successfully defended the Bank of England from a violent mob. Thenceforth the bank paid for a detachment of soldiers, usually provided by the Brigade of Guards, to defend the Bank. From 1780, the detachment marched from their barracks, initially from the Tower of London, later Wellington or Chelsea Barracks, though in bad weather the detachment would be sent by a normal train of the London Underground. With a guard mount at 3pm, each guard consisted of one officer, one sergeant, one corporal, one lance corporal, eight guardsmen and a drummer; originally the guard had thirty guardsmen. Once at the bank, there were two sentry posts, one outside the Counting House Parlour and another outside the bullion vaults. The officer was given half a bottle of port and the right to invite a friend or two to dinner in the bank. The other ranks were given a pint of beer with their dinner and one brand new shilling, two for a sergeant, to buy tea and a cake in the canteen. The Guard wore plimsolls in the Bank. From 1963, the Bank Picquet travelled by vehicle clad in service dress and armed with automatic weapons, with the emphasis on security moving from ceremonial to tactical deployment. Improved security features and armed police made the guard unnecessary, and the service ended on the evening of 31 July 1973. Edinburgh The Guard is also mounted in Edinburgh at the Palace of Holyroodhouse, the Queen's official residence in Scotland, and at Edinburgh Castle. Unlike in London, there is no Guards battalion permanently based in the city, so the Guard is provided by whichever the resident infantry battalion is at Redford Barracks in the city. The guard is not mounted throughout the year – it is usually mounted daily during the week that the Queen spends at the palace (prior to her summer break at Balmoral), and during the Lord Commissioner's Week. Until 2001, sentries were permanently posted on the Esplanade at the entrance of the castle, ostensibly as the guards to the Honours of Scotland housed inside. The sentries were changed every hour. However, cutbacks in the size of the army led to the permanent castle guard being abolished – now, the guard is mounted at the same time as the guard at the Palace, or when there is a royal visitor to Edinburgh. Sentries are also posted during the month of the Edinburgh Military Tattoo, usually from a unit that has an anniversary that year. As part of the reorganisation of the infantry following the 2003 defence review, the 1st and 2nd Battalions, Royal Regiment of Scotland (the Royal Scots Borderers and Royal Highland Fusiliers) were permanently based in Edinburgh, rotating between 19 Light Brigade or 52 Infantry Brigade. Whichever battalion is assigned to 52 Brigade was responsible for performing public duties in Edinburgh. As part of the 2010 defence review, announcements of further reforms to the infantry led to the reduction of the 5th Battalion, Royal Regiment of Scotland to an incremental company, similar to the three companies of foot guards stationed in London, which is now public duties unit permanently based in Scotland. Edinburgh Military Tattoo sentries/guard of honour 1998: 1st Battalion, The King's Own Scottish Borderers 1999: 1st Battalion, The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders (Princess Louise's) 2000: 1st Battalion, The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders (Princess Louise's) 2001: 1st Battalion, The Light Infantry 2002: 1st Battalion, The Highlanders (Seaforth, Gordons and Camerons) 2003: 1st Battalion, The Royal Scots (The Royal Regiment) 2004: The Royal Gibraltar Regiment 2005: Royal Naval Reserve 2006: The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, 5th Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland 2007: 40 Regiment, Royal Artillery 2008: Hans Majestet Kongens Garde 2009: The Highlanders, 4th Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland 2010: 3rd Battalion, The Rifles 2011: The Royal Highland Fusiliers, 2nd Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland 2012: The Black Watch, 3rd Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland 2013: The Black Watch, 3rd Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland 2014: Royal Navy 2015: Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers and Greys) 2016: 1st Battalion, Scots Guards 2017: Royal Navy/RAF Regiment 2018: RAF Regiment 2019: 7 Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps Incidents The Queen's Guard is an operational posting, with the primary purpose of protecting the Sovereign. There have been a handful of incidents when this protection has been tested. In 1982, a man named Michael Fagan was able to evade the sentries stationed in the grounds of Buckingham Palace and make his way to the Queen's bedroom, before he was captured by police. In this instance, security of the Queen's room was the task of the Metropolitan Police. In 2004, a member of the pressure group Fathers4Justice spent five and a half hours standing on the parapet by the balcony at the front of Buckingham Palace. Again, the security was the primary responsibility of the Metropolitan Police. Although the Queen was not present at the time, it raised fears of the possibility of a terrorist attack on the palace, and gave rise to calls for the British Army to be given a greater hand in the overall security of the Royal Family. Procedure while at post A sentry will be on duty "at their post" for a two-hour period. Every 10 minutes, he comes to attention, slopes arms and does a march of 15 paces across the area of the post. Each sentry does this four to five times before halting. He then shoulders arms and stands at ease. 'Standing easy' is not permitted whilst a sentry is at post. Orders for sentry duty read out before each 2 hour 'tour of duty', make it clear that: "you may not eat, sleep, smoke, stand easy, sit or lie down during your tour of duty". Sentries receive instruction on how to eliminate nuisance or any suggestion of threat from members of the public. There is a protocol they follow which begins with "stamping" (coming to attention sharply). He will also shout: "Stand back from the Queen's Guard" or similar. If this does not eliminate the nuisance or threat he will repeat the stamp and shout again. If the nuisance or threat still does not cease the sentry will assume the position of "port arms" whereby he points his rifle at the source of the interference. If these warnings are not heeded the sentry then has the choice of detaining the person(s) himself or pressing the button in his sentry box to summon assistance. If a person steps in front of a sentry while he is marching he will shout: "Make way for the Queen's Guard!" (or Castle Guard / Tower of London Guard / Windsor Castle Guard, etc.) Discipline Although the guards were previously positioned among the public, in recent times, more and more of the sentry posts have been moved away from the public because of incidents involving tourists interfering with the guards' job, as well as incidents where the guards have had to discipline tourists for disrespectful or dangerous behaviour. In 2012, footage of a tourist disrespecting the guards went viral, in which a Russian tourist refused to stop their attempt at climbing the Buckingham Palace fence despite the guard aiming his SA80 rifle at the would-be intruder. Most recently, ropes were installed between the sentry posts at Windsor Castle and the public after an incident occurred between a sentry and a tourist who was mocking him, pretending to march alongside him and eventually grabbing the shoulder on which his rifle was resting. In London, the sentry posts most recently remaining not behind any sort of fence were those at the Pall Mall entrance to St James's Palace. In December 2014, the Pall Mall sentries were moved to Friary Court inside the walls of the palace, while the Clarence House sentries repositioned inside the fence and at the entrance to the gardens. This was as a result of the increased threat of so-called "lone wolf" terrorist attacks, particularly following the murder of a British soldier in Woolwich, and the terrorist attack on the Canadian Parliament. Arms plot Battalions on public duties were part of the regular arms plot, a system where infantry battalions were periodically rotated to various locations and different roles. Following the restructuring of the army announced in 2006, the arms plot system ceased – infantry battalions have now been given fixed roles and locations. In theory, this includes public duties in London, which will retain its two guards and one line infantry battalion. However, for some postings, including public duties, light role infantry battalions will continue to rotate. In the case of public duties in London, the four Guards battalions will rotate every two years, while the line infantry battalion will rotate with battalions assigned to 52 Infantry Brigade and British Forces Cyprus. This has changed following the implementation of the Army 2020 plan. Women and the Guard In April 2007, the first serving women in the British Army served on detachments of the Queen's Guard when the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery, took over the guard at Windsor Castle, while the Army Air Corps took on public duties in London. This was not the first occasion that women have provided the Queen's Guard. In 2000, the Australian Federation Guard performed public duties in London for a month and included several women amongst its number, including the first ever female guard commander. Female officers were also among the contingent of Royal Canadian Mounted Police members who formed the guard in May 2012. The first female infantry officer to command the Queen's Guard was 24-year-old Captain Megan Couto of the 2nd Battalion, Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry, which formed the Queen's Guard in June 2017 in celebration of Canada 150. Other Commonwealth units to have mounted the King's/Queen's Guard The following is a list of units from the British Empire and Commonwealth to have mounted the King's Guard/Queen's Guard. In May and June 2014, the Vancouver Police Pipe Band provided musical accompaniment during the mounting of the Queen's Guard in coordination with the Household Division and was part of the celebrations of the band's centennial year. It was the first time a non-military pipe band had performed during the ceremony. During the ceremony, the pipe major was accompanied by Maurice Brown of the Pipes and Drums of the 1st Battalion, Scots Guards. In January 2018, a film covering the pipe band's visit premiered at the Vancouver International Film Centre titled The Queens New Guard. The Queen's Life Guard The Queen's Life Guard is the mounted guard at the entrance to Horse Guards. Horse Guards is the official main entrance to both St James's Palace and Buckingham Palace (a tradition that stems from the time when the Mall was closed at both ends); however, sentries have been posted there since the Restoration, when the Palace of Whitehall was the main royal residence. The guard is on horseback from 10 am until 4 pm, with the two sentries changing every hour. From 4 pm until 8 pm a pair of dismounted sentries remain. At 8 pm, the gates of Horse Guards are locked, and a single sentry remains until 7 am. When The Queen is in London, the Guard consists of one officer, one corporal major (who carries the standard), two non-commissioned officers, one trumpeter and eleven troopers. This is known as a "long guard". When the Queen is not resident in London, the Guard is reduced to two non-commissioned officers and ten troopers. This is known as a "short guard". The guard is usually provided by the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment, with the Life Guards and the Blues and Royals alternating. When the HCMR leaves London for a month of summer training (and vacation for the horses), the guard is provided by the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery. Only two other units have mounted the Queen's Life Guard: in 2000, the Mounted Troop of Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians), a regiment of the Royal Canadian Armoured Corps, mounted the Queen's Life Guard during the same deployment as The Royal Canadian Regiment provided the Queen's Guard. In 2012, as part of the Queen's Diamond Jubilee celebrations, the Musical Ride of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police mounted the Queen's Life Guard for a day in May 2012, becoming the first non-military unit to do so. Other Commonwealth units to have mounted the Queen's Life Guard Changing the Queen's Life Guard At the time of guard changing, the old guard forms up on the north side of the enclosure on Horse Guards Parade and the new guard on the south side. As the new guard arrives, each guard carries the standard and the trumpeters of both old and new guards sound the royal salute on the arrival of the new guard and on the departure of the old guard. When both guards have formed up in the enclosure, the corporal major, senior NCO and sentries of the first relief of the new guard leave for the guard room, which is then handed over. The sentries of the old guard, after being relieved, rejoin the remainder of the old guard on the north side of the enclosure. The standard and trumpeters are only on parade with a long guard. See also Guard mounting Public duties Ceremonial Guard References Paget, J; 'The Story of the Guards'; London; Osprey Publishing; 1976 Sullivan-Tailyour, J. R.; 'Changing the guard at Buckingham Palace'; London; International Partnership in Marketing Services; 1999 Tibballs, G; 'Soldier Soldier: The Regiment Files'; London; BCA; 1995 External links Changing the Guard at Buckingham Palace, times, schedules and more Household Division Ceremonial Events The Queen's Guard on the British Army website The Queen's Life Guard on the British Army website Changing of the Guard on the British Monarchy website Will The Royal Canadian Air Force Pass The British Army's Drill Test? | Forces TV British Army traditions Guards Division (United Kingdom) Household Cavalry Royal guards Positions within the British Royal Household British ceremonial units

Lake George (New York)

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Lake George (), nicknamed the Queen of American Lakes, is a long, narrow oligotrophic lake located at the southeast base of the Adirondack Mountains, in the northeastern portion of the U.S. state of New York. It lies within the upper region of the Great Appalachian Valley and drains all the way northward into Lake Champlain and the St. Lawrence River drainage basin. The lake is situated along the historical natural (Amerindian) path between the valleys of the Hudson and St. Lawrence Rivers, and so lies on the direct land route between Albany, New York, and Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The lake extends about on a north-south axis, is deep, and ranges from in width, presenting a significant barrier to east–west travel. Although the year-round population of the Lake George region is relatively small, the summertime population can swell to over 50,000 residents, many in the village of Lake George region at the southern end of the lake. Lake George drains into Lake Champlain to its north through a short stream, the La Chute River, with many falls and rapids, dropping in its course—virtually all of which is within the lands of Ticonderoga, New York, and near the site of Fort Ticonderoga. Ultimately the waters flowing via the Richelieu River drain into the St. Lawrence River downstream and northeast of Montreal, and then into the North Atlantic Ocean Nova Scotia]]. Geography Lake George is located in the southeastern Adirondack State Park and is part of the St. Lawrence watershed. Notable landforms include Anthony's Nose, Deer's Leap, Peggy's Point (a jump into the lake) or (a jump), the Indian Kettles, and Roger's Rock. Some of the surrounding mountains include Black Mountain, Elephant Mountain, Pilot Knob, Prospect Mountain, Shelving Rock, Sleeping Beauty Mountain, Sugarloaf Mountain, and the Tongue Mountain Range. Some of the lake's more famous bays are Basin Bay, Kattskill Bay, Northwest Bay, Oneida Bay, and Silver Bay. The lake is distinguished by "The Narrows", an island-filled narrow section (approximately long) that is bordered on the west by the Tongue Mountain Range and the east by Black Mountain. In all, Lake George is home to over 170 islands, 148 of them state-owned. They range from the car-sized Skipper's Jib to the larger Vicar's and Long Islands. Camping permits are available for most islands. The lake's deepest point is , between Dome Island and Buck Mountain in the southern quarter of the lake. The northern end of the lake that is located near Ticonderoga is considered the southern end of the Champlain Valley, which includes Lake Champlain, as well as the cities Plattsburgh, New York, and Burlington, Vermont. The Jefferson Project, a collaboration that began in 2014 between IBM, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and the Fund for Lake George, is collecting data from the lake using depth sensors that can monitor currents, pH, salinity, and other data, leading the lake to be called, "[t]he smartest lake in the world." Invasive species There are six known invasive species in Lake George. The Asian clam first found in 2010 is the biggest threat, along with the Eurasian watermilfoil. Other invasive species are the Chinese mystery snail, curly-leaf pondweed, spiny water flea, and zebra mussel. History The lake was originally named the Andia-ta-roc-te by local Native Americans. James Fenimore Cooper in his narrative Last of the Mohicans called it the Horican, after a tribe which may have lived there, because he felt the original name was too hard to pronounce. The first European visitor to the area, Samuel de Champlain, noted the lake in his journal on July 3, 1609, but did not name it. In 1646, the French Canadian Jesuit missionary Isaac Jogues, the first European to view the lake, named it Lac du Saint-Sacrement (Lake of the Holy Sacrament), and its exit stream, La Chute ("The Fall"). On August 28, 1755, William Johnson led British colonial forces to occupy the area in the French and Indian War. He renamed the lake as Lake George for King George II. On September 8, 1755 the Battle of Lake George was fought between the forces of Britain and France resulting in a strategic victory for the British and their Iroquois allies. After the battle, Johnson ordered the construction of a military fortification at the southern end of the lake. The fort was named Fort William Henry after the King's grandson Prince William Henry, a younger brother of the later King George III. In September, the French responded by beginning construction of Fort Carillon, later called Fort Ticonderoga, on a point where La Chute enters Lake Champlain. These fortifications controlled the easy water route between Canada and colonial New York. A French army, and their native allies under general Louis-Joseph de Montcalm laid siege to Fort William Henry in 1757 and burned it down after the British surrender. During the British retreat to Fort Edward they were ambushed and massacred by natives allied to the French, in what would become known as The Massacre at Fort William Henry. On March 13, 1758, an attempted attack on that fort by irregular forces led by Robert Rogers was one of the most daring raids of that war. The unorthodox (to Europeans) tactics of Rogers' Rangers are seen as inspiring the creation of similar forces in later conflicts—including the United States Army Rangers. Lake George's key position on the Montreal–New York water route made possession of the forts at either end—particularly Ticonderoga—strategically crucial during the American Revolution. Later in the war, British General John Burgoyne's decision to bypass the easy water route to the Hudson River that Lake George offered and, instead, attempt to reach the Hudson though the marshes and forests at the southern end of Lake Champlain, led to the British defeat at Saratoga. On May 31, 1791, Thomas Jefferson wrote in a letter to his daughter, "Lake George is without comparison, the most beautiful water I ever saw; formed by a contour of mountains into a basin... finely interspersed with islands, its water limpid as crystal, and the mountain sides covered with rich groves... down to the water-edge: here and there precipices of rock to checker the scene and save it from monotony." In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Lake George was a common spot sought out by well-known artists, including Martin Johnson Heade, John F. Kensett, E. Charlton Fortune, Frank Vincent DuMond and Georgia O'Keeffe. Ethan Allen accident On October 2, 2005, at 2:55 p.m., the Ethan Allen, a glass-enclosed tourist boat carrying 47 passengers and operated by Shoreline Cruises, capsized during calm weather on the lake. According to reports from a local newspaper, 20 people (mostly senior citizens) died. Initial reports indicated that the tour group was from Canada, but these reports were later found to be incorrect. It was later determined that the group was from the Trenton, Michigan, area on a week-long fall trip along the East Coast by bus and rail, organized by Trenton's parks and recreation department and arranged through a Canadian company. Police said they had never seen a disaster of this magnitude on the lake. The captain survived and cooperated with police. The National Transportation Safety Board investigation of the incident revealed that, although the boat was rated to carry 50 people when it was manufactured in 1966, subsequent alterations to the boat's design had greatly reduced its stability. At the time of the accident, the boat should have been rated to carry no more than 14 passengers. On February 5, 2007, the captain, Richard Paris, and the company that owned the boat, Shoreline Cruises, were indicted for having only one crew member aboard the boat. More serious charges were not filed because neither the captain nor the owners were aware they were violating safety standards. Character Tourist destination Situated on the rail line halfway between New York City and Montreal, Lake George attracted the era's rich and famous by the late 19th and early 20th century. Members of the Roosevelt, van Rensselaer, Vanderbilt, Rockefeller and Whitney families visited its shores. The Fort William Henry Hotel, in what is now Lake George Village, and The Sagamore in Bolton Landing opened at this time to serve tourists. The wealthiest visitors were more likely to stay with their peers at their private country estates. The Silver Bay YMCA on Lake George was constructed in 1900. It has since evolved into a summer family camp, serving several hundred organizations and tourists every summer. Since 1913, on the East Shore of Lake George, YMCA Camp Chingachgook has hosted thousands of guests every summer. Lake George is accessible by car via Interstate 87 and by air from Albany International Airport, which is about away. Today, Lake George remains a tourism destination, resort center, and summer colony. Popular activities in the Lake George area include water sports, camping, amusement parks, hiking, paddling, and factory outlet shopping. One of the nation's oldest gatherings of hot air balloons occurs every September in nearby Queensbury. Lake George is responsible for generating about $2 billion annually to the local region. Millionaires' Row Millionaires' Row is the nickname of a stretch of Bolton Road (now Lake Shore Drive) on the west side of the lake where millionaires built mansions or resided during the summer months. Such notables as Spencer Trask, Katrina Trask, Edward M. Shepard, George Foster Peabody, Harold Pitcairn, Russell Cornell Leffingwell, Georgia O'Keeffe, Alfred Stieglitz, Marcella Sembrich, Charles Evan Hughes, Harry Kendall Thaw, Adolph Ochs, Louise Homer and Sidney Homer built or resided in palatial summer homes along Millionaires' Row. Although sometimes called "cottages" by their owners, these grand houses typically had dozens of bedrooms and more than of floor space. Millionaire's Row differed markedly from the more rustic summer "camps" built by other wealthy Adirondack summer residents such as William West Durant and John D. Rockefeller. Unlike the log and timber structures at the camps, the houses of Millionaire's Row were built of stone and masonry in the Tudor Revival, Georgian Revival and Italianate styles. Unlike their contemporaries in Newport and the Hamptons, which were built on tiny pieces of land, the cottages of Millionaires' Row were mansions in the true sense of the word. They were often built on hundreds of acres of pristine lakeside wilderness. With the changing economic climate and the introduction of income tax, the mansions of Millionaires' Row became less sustainable by the 1930s. By the 1950s, with the advent of affordable auto and air travel, Lake George became more attractive to the growing middle class and less so to the "jet set". Most of the mansions of Millionaires' Row were torn down or turned into hotels and restaurants. Among the surviving mansions are Evelley, Halcyon, Sun Castle (Erlowest), Oak Lawn, Wikiosco, Green Harbour, Homeland, Cramer Point, Depe Dene, Cannon Point, Hermstone, Mohican Point, Villa Marie Antoinette’s gatehouse, Three Brothers Island, Nirvana, and Wapanak. Gallery Photographs Paintings Videos See also Huletts Landing Sagamore Hotel References External links Lake George Official Tourism Website Lake George Chamber of Commerce & CVB Official Lake George Historical Association Website Lake George Association Lake George Music Festival George U.S. Route 9 George Tourist attractions in Warren County, New York Tourist attractions in Essex County, New York George Adirondack Park

National Income and Product Accounts

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The national income and product accounts (NIPA) are part of the national accounts of the United States. They are produced by the Bureau of Economic Analysis of the Department of Commerce. They are one of the main sources of data on general economic activity in the United States. They use double-entry accounting to report the monetary value and sources of output produced in the country and the distribution of incomes that production generates. Data are available at the national and industry levels. Seven summary accounts are published, as well as a much larger number of more specific accounts. The first summary account shows gross domestic product (GDP) and its major components. The table summarizes national income on the left (debit, revenue) side and national product on the right (credit, expense) side of a two-column accounting report. Thus the left side gives GDP by the income method, and the right side gives GDP by the expenditure method. The GDP is given on the bottom line of both sides of the report. GDP must have the same value on both sides of the account. This is because income and expenditure are defined in a way that forces them to be equal (see accounting identity). We show the 2003 table later in this article; we present the left side first for convenient screen display. The U.S. report (updated quarterly) is available in several forms, including interactive, from links on the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) NIPA () page. Other countries report based on their own adopted system of National accounts which are frequently based on the U.S. NIPAs, the widely adopted United Nations System of National Accounts, or their own custom approach. The level of detail (granularity) accounted for internally, and reported publicly, varies widely across countries. Likewise, a nation's system of accounts, (analogous to a firm's Chart of accounts) are typically gradually revised and updated on their own individual schedule. The U.S. NIPAs are prepared by the staff of the Directorate for National Economic Accounts within the BEA. The source data largely originate from public sources, such as government surveys and administrative data, and they are supplemented by data from private sources, such as data from trade associations (BEA 2008: 1–6). Income accounting The income side of the national income and product account report begins with the kinds of income people might have. Employee compensation includes the wages and salaries paid to anyone whose income is subject to income tax withholding. Since wages and salaries affect more individuals and families directly than the other sources of income, it has by far the largest value. Proprietors' income is the payments to those who own non-corporate businesses, including sole proprietors and partners. inventory value adjustment (IVA) and capital consumption adjustment (CCA) are corrections for changes in the value of proprietor's inventory (goods that may be sold within one year) and capital (goods like machines and buildings that are not expected to be sold within one year) under rules set by the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS). Rental income of persons excludes rent paid to corporate real estate companies. Real estate is capital rather than inventory by definition, so there is no IVA. Corporate profits with IVA and CCA is like the entries for proprietors' income and rental income except that the organization is a corporation. Corporate profit is shown before taxes, which are part of taxes on production and imports, two lines down. Business current transfer payments is not explained here. Net interest and miscellaneous payments is interest paid minus interest received plus payments to individuals and corporations that are not elsewhere classified (NEC). Taxes on production and imports does not include corporate income tax payments to the states and to the federal government. Taxes on production and imports were previously classified as "indirect business taxes" and include excise taxes, sales taxes, property taxes, and other taxes relating to business production. While the report includes the net value of interest payments and receipts, both the taxes paid and subsidies from the government are shown. National income (NI) is the sum of employees, proprietors, rental, corporate, interest, and government income less the subsidies government pays to any of those groups. Net national product (NNP) is National Income plus or minus the statistical discrepancy that accumulates when aggregating data from millions of individual reports. In this case, the statistical discrepancy is US$25.6 billion, or about 0.23% of gross domestic product. A discrepancy that small (less than three-tenths of one percent) is immaterial under accounting standards. Gross national product is net national product plus an allowance for the consumption of fixed capital, mostly buildings and machines, usually called depreciation. Capital is used up in production but it does not vanish. Finally, GDP is gross national product plus payments from the rest of the world that are income to residents of the U.S. minus payments from the US to the rest of the world that count as income where they are received. Production accounting Macroeconomics defines GDP, from the production perspective, as the sum of personal consumption, investment, net exports, and government expenditures; . The production side report also begins with individuals and families, in this case their personal consumption expenditures on goods and services, C in the definition. Durable goods are expected to last more than a year (furniture, appliances, cars, etc.) and to have little or no secondary resale market. Nondurable goods are used up within a year (food, clothing, medicine ...). Services includes everything else, everything we buy that has little or no physical presence, like banking, health care, insurance, movie tickets, and so on. Gross private domestic investment includes expenditures on goods that are expected to be used for an extended period of time, I in the definition. Residential investment includes owner occupied and rental housing. Nonresidential investment includes buildings, machinery, and equipment used for commercial or industrial purposes (small business, agriculture, manufacturing, service, etc.). The last element of Investment accounts for any change in the value of previous investments that are still in use, called inventory. Net Exports reports the balance between goods produced domestically but consumed abroad (X) and goods produced abroad but consumed domestically (M). There is no distinction between consumption and investment or between the private and public sectors; a consumer's imported television, a corporation's imported lab equipment, and the government's use of imported food on military bases count equally. When net exports are positive, the country has a trade surplus. When Net Exports are negative, there is a trade deficit. Government Consumption Expenditures and Gross Investment includes all government expenditures on domestically produced goods and services. Like an individual or family, the government consumes food, clothing, furniture, and other goods and services in its administrative, military, correctional, and other programs. Governments also invest in buildings for program use and in improvements to harbors, rivers, roads, and airports. Transfer payments, like subsidies to the unemployed or the retired, are not included in this item, since they are simply a movement of money from government to citizens, rather than a purchase of goods or services. The sum of the four production categories is gross domestic product, the value of all domestic expenditures on goods and services. GDP (income) must equal GDP (production) except for any rounding error that accumulates when the data used to prepare a table includes rounding at prior stages of analysis, as appears to have happened in this case. See also Aggregation problem Macroeconomics National accounts United Nations System of National Accounts Measures of national income and output Classification of Individual Consumption by Purpose Notes References J. Steven Landefeld, Eugene P. Seskin, and Barbara M. Fraumeni. 2008. "Taking the Pulse of the Economy: Measuring GDP". Journal of Economic Perspectives, 22(2), pp. 193–216. PDF link (press +). External links The Nigerian Bureau of Economic Analysis,'A Guide to the National Income and Product Accounts of N Very helpful in understanding the accounts; also contains historical information and is an important source of information for this article. United States, Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2008, Concepts and Methods of the National Product Accounts of the United States, More detailed than the Guide, above . Google – public data: GDP and Personal Income of the U.S. (annual): Taxes on Production and Imports Google – public data: GDP and Personal Income of the U.S. (annual): Taxes on Production and Imports less Subsidies National income and product accounts publications available on FRASER National accounts Welfare economics Economy of the United States it:Contabilità nazionale te:జాతీయ ఆదాయం

No man's land

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No man's land is waste or unowned land or an uninhabited or desolate area that may be under dispute between parties who leave it unoccupied out of fear or uncertainty. The term was originally used to define a contested territory or a dumping ground for refuse between fiefdoms. In modern times, it is commonly associated with World War I to describe the area of land between two enemy trench systems, not controlled by either side. The term is also used metaphorically, to refer to an ambiguous, anomalous, or indefinite area, in regards to an application, situation, or jurisdiction. It has sometimes been used to name a specific place. Origin According to Alasdair Pinkerton, an expert in human geography at Royal Holloway, University of London, the term is first mentioned in Domesday Book (1086), to describe parcels of land that were just beyond the London city walls. The Oxford English Dictionary contains a reference to the term dating back to 1320, spelled nonesmanneslond, to describe a territory that was disputed or involved in a legal disagreement. The same term was later used as the name for the piece of land outside the north wall of London that was assigned as the place of execution. The term is also applied in nautical use to a space amidships, originally between the forecastle and the booms in a square-rigged vessel where various ropes, tackle, block, and other supplies were stored. In the United Kingdom, several places called No Man's Land denoted "extra-parochial spaces that were beyond the rule of the church, beyond the rule of different fiefdoms that were handed out by the king … ribbons of land between these different regimes of power". Examples World War I The British Army did not widely employ the term when the Regular Army arrived in France in August 1914, soon after the outbreak of World War I. The terms used most frequently at the start of the war to describe the area between the trench lines included 'between the trenches' or 'between the lines'. The term 'no man's land' was first used in a military context by soldier and historian Ernest Swinton in his short story "The Point of View". Swinton used the term in war correspondence on the Western Front, with specific mention of the terms with respect to the Race to the Sea in late 1914. The Anglo-German Christmas truce of 1914 brought the term into common use, and thereafter it appeared frequently in official communiqués, newspaper reports, and personnel correspondences of the members of the British Expeditionary Force. In World War I, no man's land often ranged from several hundred yards to in some cases less than 10 yards. Heavily defended by machine guns, mortars, artillery, and riflemen on both sides, it was often extensively cratered, and was riddled with barbed wire, rudimentary improvised land mines, as well as corpses and wounded soldiers who were unable to make it through the hail of bullets, explosions, and flames. The area was sometimes contaminated by chemical weapons. It was open to fire from the opposing trenches and hard going generally slowed any attempted advance. Not only were soldiers forced to cross no man's land when advancing, and as the case might be when retreating, but after an attack the stretcher bearers had to enter it to bring in the wounded. No man's land remained a regular feature of the battlefield until near the end of World War I, when mechanised weapons (i.e., tanks) made entrenched lines less of an obstacle. Effects from World War I no man's lands persist today, for example at Verdun in France, where the Zone Rouge (Red Zone) contains unexploded ordnance, and is poisoned beyond habitation by arsenic, chlorine, and phosgene. The zone is sealed off completely and still deemed too dangerous for civilians to return: "The area is still considered to be very poisoned, so the French government planted an enormous forest of black pines, like a living sarcophagus", comments Alasdair Pinkerton, a researcher at Royal Holloway University of London, who compared the zone to the nuclear disaster site at Chernobyl, similarly encased in a "concrete sarcophagus". Cold War During the Cold War, one example of "no man's land" was the territory close to the Iron Curtain. Officially the territory belonged to the Eastern Bloc countries, but over the entire Iron Curtain there were several wide tracts of uninhabited land, several hundred meters in width, containing watch towers, minefields, unexploded bombs, and other such debris. Would-be escapees from Eastern Bloc countries who successfully scaled the border fortifications could still be apprehended or shot by border guards in the zone. The U.S. Naval Base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba is separated from Cuba proper by an area called the Cactus Curtain. In late 1961, the Cuban Army had its troops plant an barrier of Opuntia cactus along the northeastern section of the fence surrounding the base to prevent economic migrants fleeing from Cuba from resettling in the United States. This was dubbed the "Cactus Curtain", an allusion to Europe's Iron Curtain and the Bamboo Curtain in East Asia. U.S. and Cuban troops placed some 55,000 land mines across the no man's land, creating the second-largest minefield in the world, and the largest in the Americas. On 16 May 1996, President Bill Clinton ordered the U.S. land mines to be removed and replaced with motion and sound sensors to detect intruders. The Cuban government has not removed the corresponding minefield on its side of the border. Israel–Jordan The 1949 Armistice Agreements between Israel and Transjordan were signed in Rhodes with the help of UN mediation on 3 April 1949. Armistice lines were determined in November 1948. Between the lines territory was left that was defined as no man's land. Such areas existed in Jerusalem in the area between the western and southern parts of the Walls of Jerusalem and Musrara. A strip of land north and south of Latrun was also known as "no man's land" because it was not controlled by either Israel or Jordan in 1948–1967. Current no man's land The Korean Demilitarized Zone was established between North Korea and South Korea at the end of the Korean War in 1953. The Agreement on Disengagement signed by Israel and Syria after the Yom Kippur War in 1974 established a United Nations Disengagement Observer Force-patrolled buffer zone in the Golan Heights, including Quneitra. United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus (The Green Line) and abandoned Varosha has acted as a no man's land between Cyprus and Turkish-occupied Northern Cyprus since 1974. See also Bir Tawil Exclusion zone Jack's Land Kill zone List of established military terms No-go area Terra nullius References Notes Bibliography Land warfare Metaphors referring to places Territorial disputes Trench warfare

Senpai and kōhai

eng_Latn

In Japan, senpai (, "senior") and kōhai (, "junior") represent an informal hierarchical interpersonal relationship found in organizations, associations, clubs, businesses, and schools. The concept has its roots in Confucian teaching, but it has developed a distinguished Japanese style, ultimately becoming part of Japanese culture. Concept The relationship is an interdependent one, as a senpai requires a kōhai and vice versa, and establishes a bond determined by the date of entry into an organization. Senpai refers to the member of higher experience, hierarchy, level, or age in the organization who offers assistance, friendship, and counsel to a new or inexperienced member, known as the kōhai, who must demonstrate gratitude, respect, and occasionally personal loyalty. The kōhai defers to the senpais seniority and experience, and speaks to the senpai using honorific language. The senpai acts at the same time as a friend. This relation is similar to the interpersonal relation between tutor and tutored in Eastern culture, but differs in that the senpai and kōhai must work in the same organization. The relation originates in Confucian teaching, as well as the morals and ethics that have arrived in Japan from ancient China and have spread throughout various aspects of Japanese philosophy. The senpai–kōhai relation is a vertical hierarchy (like a father–son relation) that emphasizes respect for authority, for the chain of command, and for one's elders, eliminating all forms of internal competition and reinforcing the unity of the organization. Over time this mechanism has allowed the transfer of experience and knowledge, as well as the expansion of acquaintances and the building of institutional memory. It also allows the development of beneficial experiences between both, as the kōhai benefits from the senpais knowledge and the senpai learns new experiences from the kōhai by way of developing a sense of responsibility. This comradeship does not imply friendship; a senpai and kōhai may become friends, but such is not an expectation. The Korean terms seonbae and hubae are written with the same Chinese characters and indicate a similar senior–junior relationship. Both the Japanese and Korean terms are based on the Chinese honorifics xianbei (先輩/先辈) and houbei (後輩/后辈), written in the same Chinese characters. Similar concept exists in the Chinese-speaking world, though the terms vary depending on the context. In business, the terms are usually qiánbèi (前輩/前辈) for seniors and hòubèi (後輩/后辈) for juniors. For students, the term is usually xuézhǎng/xuéjiě (學長/姐, more common in Taiwan) or shīxiōng/shījiě (师兄/姐, Mainland China) for male and female senpai, respectively, and xuédì/xuémèi (學弟/妹, Taiwan) or shīdì/shīmèi (师弟/妹, Mainland China) for male and female kohai, respectively. The student terms are also used in the Taiwanese military and the police system, though the existence of this seniority system in parallel to the ranks is criticized. History The senpai–kōhai system is deeply rooted in Japanese history. Three elements have had a significant impact on its development: Confucianism, the traditional Japanese family system, and the Civil Code of 1898. Confucianism arrived from China between the 6th and 9th centuries, but the derived line of thought that brought about deep social changes in Japan was Neo-Confucianism, which became the official doctrine of the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1867). The precepts of loyalty and filial piety as tribute ( ) dominated the Japanese at the time, as respect for elders and ancestor worship that Chinese Confucianism taught were well accepted by the Japanese, and these influences have spread throughout daily life. Like other Chinese influences, the Japanese adopted these ideas selectively and in their own manner, so that the "loyalty" in Confucianism was taken as loyalty to a feudal lord or the Emperor. The Japanese family system ( ) was also regulated by Confucian codes of conduct and had an influence on the establishment of the senpai–kōhai relation. In this family system the father, as male head, had absolute power over the family and the eldest son inherited the family property. The father had power because he was the one to receive an education and was seen to have superior ethical knowledge. Since reverence for superiors was considered a virtue in Japanese society, the wife and children had to obey it. In addition to the hereditary system, only the eldest son could receive his father's possessions, and neither the eldest daughter nor the younger children received anything from him. The last factor influencing the senpai–kōhai system was the Civil Code of 1898, which strengthened the rules of privilege of seniority and reinforced the traditional family system, giving clear definitions of hierarchical values within the family. This was called koshusei (, "family-head system"), in which the head of the household had the right to command his family and the eldest son inherited that position. These statutes were abolished in 1947, after the surrender of Japan at the end of World War II. These ideals nevertheless remained during the following years as a psychological influence in Japanese society. Terminology The seniority rules are reflected in various grammatical rules in the Japanese language. A person who speaks respectfully to a superior uses honorific language ( ), which is divided into three categories: (, "respectful language"): Used to denote respect towards a superior with or of whom one speaks, including the actions, objects, characteristics, and people related to this person. (, "humble language"): In contrast to sonkeigo, with kenjōgo the speaker shows respect to a superior by lowering or deprecating him or herself. (, "polite language"): Differs from the other two in that the deference is afforded only to the person being addressed, rather than those being spoken about. Use of the verb desu ("to be") and the verb ending -masu are examples of teineigo. Sonkeigo and kenjōgo have expressions (verbs, nouns, and special prefixes) particular to the type of language; for example, the ordinary Japanese verb for "to do" is suru, but in sonkeigo is nasaru and in kenjōgo is itasu. Another rule in the hierarchical relation is the use of honorific suffixes of address. A senpai addresses a kōhai with the suffix -kun after the kōhais given name or surname, regardless if the kōhai is male or female. A kōhai similarly addresses a senpai with the suffix -senpai or -san; it is extremely unusual for a kōhai to refer to a senpai with the suffix -sama, which indicates the highest level of respect to the person spoken to. Prevalence One place the senpai–kōhai relation applies to its greatest extent in Japan is in schools. For example, in junior and senior high schools (especially in school clubs) third-year students (who are the oldest) demonstrate great power as senpai. It is common in school sports clubs for new kōhai to have to perform basic tasks such as retrieving balls, cleaning playing fields, taking care of equipment, and even wash elder students' clothes. They must also bow to or salute their senpai when congratulated, and senpai may punish kōhai or treat them severely. The main reason for these humble actions is that it is believed that team members can become good players only if they are submissive, obedient, and follow the orders of the trainer or captain, and thus become a humble, responsible, and cooperative citizen in the future. Relations in Japanese schools also place a stronger emphasis on the age than on the abilities of students. The rules of superiority between a senpai and a kōhai are analogous to the teacher–student relation, in which the age and experience of the teacher must be respected and never questioned. The senpai–kōhai relation is weaker in universities, as students of a variety of ages attend the same classes; students show respect to older members primarily through polite language (). Vertical seniority rules nevertheless prevail between teachers based on academic rank and experience. The senpai–kōhai system also prevails in Japanese businesses. The social environment in Japanese businesses is regulated by two standards: the system of superiority and the system of permanent employment. The status, salary, and position of employees depend heavily of seniority, and veteran employees generally take the highest positions and receive higher salaries than their subordinates. Until the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, employment was guaranteed for life and thus such employees did not have to worry about losing their positions. The senpai–kōhai relation is a cornerstone in interpersonal relations within the Japanese business world; for example, at meetings the lower-level employee should sit in the seat closest to the door, called shimoza (, "lower seat"), while the senior employee (sometimes the boss) sits next to some important guest in a position called kamiza (, "upper seat"). During meetings, most employees do not give their opinions, but simply listen and concur with their superiors, although they can express opinions with the prior consent of the employees of greater rank and influence in the company. Outside Japan, the senpai–kōhai relation is often found in the teaching of Japanese martial arts, though misunderstandings arise due to lack of historical knowledge, and as the vertical social hierarchy of Japan does not exist in cultures such as those in the West. Issues Despite the senpai–kōhai relation's deep roots in Japanese society, there have been changes since the end of the 20th century in academic and business organizations. Kōhai no longer show as much respect to the experience of their senpai, the relation has become more superficial, and the age factor has begun to lose importance. The student body has diversified with Japanese students, who have spent a large part of their lives overseas and have returned to Japan, as well as foreign students without a mentality rooted in the Japanese hierarchical system. The collapse of the economic bubble in the early 1990s caused a high level of unemployment, including the laying off of high-ranked employees. Companies since then first began to consider employees' skills rather than age or length of service with the company, due to which many long-serving employees lost their positions over being incapable of fulfilling expectations. Gradually many companies have had to restructure their salary and promotion systems, and seniority has thus lost some influence in Japanese society. Attitudes towards the senpai–kōhai system vary from appreciation for traditions and the benefits of a good senpai–kōhai relationship; to reluctant acquiescence; to antipathy. Those who criticize the system find it arbitrary and unfair, that senpai were often pushy, and that the system results in students who are shy or afraid of standing out from the group. For example, some kōhai fear that if they outperform their senpai in an activity, their senpai will lose face, for which kōhai must apologize. In some cases, the relation is open to violence and bullying. Most Japanese people—even those who criticize it—accept the senpai–kōhai system as a common-sense aspect of society, straying from which would have inevitably negative social consequences. See also Etiquette in Japan Honne and tatemae Japanese honorifics Sensei References Works cited Japanese values Dichotomies Japanese words and phrases

Dumas (surname)

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Dumas is a Southern French topographic surname, with fused preposition and definite article du, for someone who lived in an isolated dwelling in the country rather than in a village, from Occitan mas 'farmstead' (Late Latin mansum, mansus). People surnamed Dumas include: Adolphe Dumas (1805–1861), French poet. Alexandre Dumas, père (1802–1870), French novelist and author of The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo Alexandre Dumas, fils (1824–1895), son of the above and also a novelist, author of The Lady of the Camellias Amy Dumas (born 1975), former professional wrestler better known as "Lita" Caroline Dumas (born 1935), French soprano Charles Dumas (disambiguation), multiple people Daniel Dumas (born 1983), Australian rugby player Dumas (musician) (born 1979), Canadian musician born Steve Dumas Franck Dumas (born 1968), French football player and manager Frédéric Dumas (1913–1991), one of the first two diving companions of Jacques-Yves Cousteau Georges Dumas (1866–1946), French physician and psychologist Gilles Dumas, French rugby league footballer and coach Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas, comte Dumas (1753–1837), French general Gustave Dumas (1872–1955), Swiss mathematician Henry Dumas (1934–1968), African-American poet and author Jean-Baptiste Dumas (1800–1884), French chemist Joseph Dumas (1875–1950), Canadian politician Marlene Dumas (born 1953), South African artist Maurice Dumas (1927–2015), Canadian professor and politician Mireille Dumas (born 1953), French journalist Pierre Benoît Dumas (1668–1745), French Governor General of Pondicherry and Réunion René-François Dumas (1753-1794) a French revolutionary lawyer Richard Dumas (born 1969), American basketball player Roland Dumas (born 1922), French politician and lawyer Romain Dumas (born 1977), French racing driver Russell Dumas (1887–1975), Australian engineer and public servant Stephanie Summerow Dumas, the first African-American woman elected as a county commissioner in the history of Ohio Tancrède Dumas (1830–1905), Italian photographer Thomas-Alexandre Dumas (1762–1806), general of the French Revolution and father of the novelist Alexandre Dumas, père Tony Dumas (born 1972), American basketball player Vito Dumas (1900–1965), Argentine single-handed sailor References See also Edward Canfor-Dumas (born 1957), English TV scriptwriter and novelist Surnames of French origin French-language surnames

Handicap (golf)

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A golf handicap is a numerical measure of a golfer's potential that is used to enable players of varying abilities to compete against one another. Better players are those with the lowest handicaps. Historically, rules relating to handicaps have varied from country to country with many different systems in force around the world. Because of incompatibilities and difficulties in translating between systems, the sport's governing bodies, the USGA and The R&A, working with the various existing handicapping authorities, devised a new World Handicap System (WHS) which began to be introduced globally in 2020. History The earliest record of golf handicapping is thought to be from the late 17th century, in a diary kept by Thomas Kincaid, who was a student in Edinburgh, Scotland, although the word handicap would not come into use in golf until the late 19th century. The number of strokes to be given and the holes on which they would be in effect was negotiated between competing golfers prior to the start of play. According to The Golfer’s Manual by Henry Brougham Farnie, examples of agreed terms included “third-one” (one stroke every three holes), “half-one” (one stroke every two holes), “one more” (a stroke a hole) and “two more” (two strokes a hole). During the late 19th century, taking the difference between the average of a golfer's best three scores during the year and par became the most widely used method of handicapping in England and Scotland. As the sport grew, so did discontent with the fairness of handicapping, with less proficient players being particularly unhappy as it was much less likely for them to play to the standard of their three score average. Another issue was the lack of consideration in the system for the varying difficulties of different courses which meant the handicap was not very portable. In an attempt to remedy the problems with a fairly basic handicap system, along with many variations of that system and other systems also being used, the authorities in Great Britain and Ireland sought to standardize. One of the first standard and equitable handicap systems was introduced by the Ladies Golf Union (LGU) in the 1890s. This was largely achieved by means of union assigned course ratings, instead of clubs using their own. It was not until the formation of the British Golf Unions Joint Advisory Committee in 1924 that the men's game fully coordinated to create an equitable handicap system, that included a uniform course rating, throughout Great Britain and Ireland; the Standard Scratch Score and Handicapping Scheme was introduced in 1926. In the United States there was a single authority governing the sport, the USGA, which made moving to a single standard handicapping scheme somewhat easier. Introduced in 1911, the first national handicap system was based on the British three score average system. The biggest development was a "par rating" system that assessed the average good score of a scratch golfer on every course, which made the handicap more portable. It also made clear that a player's handicap was intended to reflect their potential rather than average play. Having initially allowed clubs to determine their own par ratings, the USGA quickly changed their minds and began assigning ratings. The USGA Handicap System has further developed through the years, with an increase to the number of scores used for handicap calculations, the introduction of Equitable Stroke Control, and improvements to the course rating system. However the most significant change was the creation of the slope rating system, which enables handicaps to allow for differences in difficulty between scratch and bogey golfers. USGA Course and Slope Ratings now form the basis of many other handicap systems. As the sport grew globally, associations around the world each created or adapted their own rules relating to handicaps. By the early 21st century, there were six major recognized handicapping systems in operation around the world: USGA Handicap System, EGA Handicap System, CONGU Unified Handicap System, Golf Australia Handicap System, South African Handicap System, and Argentinian Handicap System. While these systems share some common features, e.g. most use a common course rating system, they are not easily portable because their differences create difficulties in converting handicaps between systems. In order to eliminate these problems the USGA and The R&A, working with the various existing handicapping authorities, devised a new World Handicap System which was phased in globally in 2020. Overview Amateur golfers who are members of golf clubs are generally eligible for official handicaps on payment of the prevailing regional and national association annual fees. Official handicaps are administered by golf clubs with the associations often providing additional peer reviewing for low handicaps. Other systems, often free of charge, are available to golfers who are ineligible for official handicaps. Handicap systems are not generally used in professional golf. A golfer whose handicap is zero is referred to as a scratch golfer, and one whose handicap is approximately 18 as a bogey golfer. While the USGA administers its own handicapping system, the administration of handicapping systems in countries affiliated to The R&A is the responsibility of the national golf associations of those countries. These bodies have different methods of producing handicaps but they are all generally based on calculating an individual player's playing ability from their recent history of rounds. Therefore, a handicap is not fixed but is regularly adjusted to increases or decreases in a player's scoring. Some systems (e.g. World Handicap System, USGA, European Golf Association) involve calculation of a playing handicap which is dependent on the course being played and set of tees that are being used, whereas others (e.g. CONGU's Unified Handicap System) just use the allocated handicap rounded to the nearest whole number. Contrary to popular opinion, a player's handicap is intended to reflect a player's potential or "average best", not a player's overall average score. Statistically, low handicappers will play to their handicap more often because they are likely to be more consistent than higher handicappers. Features of handicapping systems Scoring The total number of strokes taken for a hole (or round) before accounting for a golfer's handicap is called the gross score for that hole (or round), and the number of strokes taken after subtracting any handicap allowance is called the net score. Note that the gross score in 'world handicap system' is calculated as the number of strokes taken for a hole + the handicap allowance for that hole. The adjusted gross score in 'world handicap system' is the gross score adjusted such that the maximum on any particular hole is the number of strokes taken for a hole + the handicap allowance for that hole + 2 strokes (i.e. net double bogey). In handicap stroke play competitions, a golfer's playing handicap is subtracted from the total number of strokes taken to produce a net score, which is then used to determine the final results. In handicap Stableford competitions, a player's handicap is distributed according to predetermined hole ratings (stroke index) and strokes deducted accordingly from each hole score before calculating the points for that hole. In match play, the handicap difference between players (or teams) is used to determine the number of strokes the high handicap player should receive from the low handicapper during the playing of their round; each of these strokes are received on the lowest numbered stroke index holes. Stroke allowances may sometimes be reduced by a set percentage in order to maintain the level playing field; this is especially common in pairs and team competitions. Course Rating Course Rating, (Standard) Scratch Score, Scratch Rating, and Standard Rating are largely equivalent ratings that are used to indicate the average "good score" by a scratch golfer for a set of tees on a golf course. For a par 72 course, the course rating is generally between 67 and 77. There are different methods of calculating the Course Rating, with the length of the course and its obstacles being the biggest factors. Some systems use only these two, or even length alone, but most modern handicapping systems now use the USGA Course Rating system which assesses the difficulty of all aspects of the course, e.g. altitude, wide or narrow fairways, length of any rough, the size and contours of the greens, etc. Some handicapping systems provide for an adjustment to the course rating to account for variations in playing conditions on any given day, e.g. course setup and weather, and it is against this adjusted rating that handicaps are assessed and maintained. Examples of adjusted ratings are Playing Conditions Calculation (World Handicap System), Competition Scratch Score (CONGU Unified Handicapping System), Daily Scratch Rating (Golf Australia Handicap System), and Calculated Rating (South African Handicap System). Analogous to course rating is the bogey rating, which is a measure of the playing difficulty of a course for a bogey golfer. Slope Rating Devised by the USGA, the Slope Rating of a golf course describes the relative difficulty of a course for a bogey golfer compared to a scratch golfer. Slope Ratings are in the range 55 to 155, with a course of standard relative difficulty having a rating of 113; the higher the number, the more relatively difficult the course is. Playing or course handicap In most major handicapping systems, a golfer does not use their exact handicap (or handicap index) directly, but use it to produce their playing or course handicap. For some systems, this means simply rounding the exact handicap to the nearest whole number; however, systems that use slope ratings require a more complex calculation to produce a course handicap with some also factoring in the course rating: or The USGA and Golf Australia systems use the first calculation; the WHS, EGA, and Golf RSA systems use the second. Under CONGU's Unified Handicapping System the exact handicap is rounded to the nearest whole number to produce the playing handicap, and in the Argentinian system the exact handicap is used directly. A playing handicap may also refer to the stroke allowance for a given competition dependent on playing format, and is generally calculated as a percentage of the course handicap. Stroke Index The Stroke Index is a number that has been assigned to each hole on a golf course, and usually printed on the scorecard, to indicate on which holes handicap strokes should be applied. On an 18-hole course, each hole is assigned a different number from 1 to 18 (1 to 9 on a 9-hole course). The lowest numbers are usually given to the holes where a higher handicapper is most likely to benefit, and the highest numbers to the holes they are least likely to benefit. Odd numbers will be allocated to either the first or second 9-holes (and even numbers to the other) to ensure a balanced distribution of handicap strokes, and guidelines generally recommend avoiding having the lowest numbers at the start or end of each nine in order to prevent early stroke allowances in playoffs between golfers with similar handicaps or strokes going unused if they are at the end. Maximum hole score Most of the commonly used handicap systems seek to reduce the impact of very high scores on one or more individual holes on the calculation and updating of handicaps. This is achieved by setting a maximum score on each hole, which is only used for handicapping purposes; i.e. it is not used for determining results of competitions or matches. This maximum hole score is either a fixed number or a net score relative to par. Equitable Stroke Control (ESC) and net double bogey (also called Stableford Points Adjustments) are the two most common mechanisms for defining a maximum hole score. Handicap differential Handicap (or score) differentials are a feature of many handicapping systems. They are a standardized measure of a golfers performance, adjusted to take account of the course being played. Normally the overall score will be adjusted prior to the calculation, e.g. by means of ESC or net double bogey. The course rating may also be adjusted to take account of conditions on the day. For handicapping systems that use course and slope ratings, a typical calculation using the score (see above) is as follows: The differentials are used both to calculate initial handicaps and maintain existing ones, by taking a mean average of a set number of the best recent differentials (e.g. the USGA system uses the best 10 differentials from the last 20 scores). For other handicapping systems, the differentials are simply the difference between the (adjusted) gross or net scores and a specified standard rating (e.g. course rating, standard scratch score, etc.), and they are used in different ways to maintain handicaps. Peer review In golf clubs, peer review is usually managed by an elected Handicap Secretary who, supported by a small committee, conducts an Annual Review of the handicaps of all members and assesses ad hoc requests from individual members (usually when age or medium to long-term infirmity affects their playing ability). This gives uniformity to handicapping across their club for the setting and maintenance of handicaps with the objective of establishing fair competition between golfers of all abilities. At the regional level, peer review is extended to include rigorous validation of the handicap returns of low handicap golfers. This ensures that only golfers of an appropriate standard gain entry to their elite tournaments. Occasionally, golfers are excluded from the elite game as a consequence of being found to abuse the system. To a degree, these regional bodies also monitor the performance of and provide training for Handicap Secretaries at the club level. Nationally, the peer review is extended further to assessing golfers from external jurisdictions for their suitability for entry into their elite international events. They also play a large part in periodic reviews of the handicapping system itself to improve it for the future. Handicapping systems World Handicap System Due to the many different handicapping systems in use around the world, and the many inconsistencies within them, which makes it difficult to compete on an equal footing where another handicap system is in use, the sports major governing bodies, in 2011 The R&A and the USGA began work on creation of a single uniform handicapping system to be used everywhere. In February 2018, they announced that the World Handicap System (WHS) would be launched in 2020. Once introduced, the World Handicap System will continue to be governed by The R&A and the USGA with the six existing major handicapping authorities (the USGA, the Council of National Golf Unions (CONGU) in Great Britain and Ireland, the European Golf Association (EGA), Golf Australia, the South African Golf Association (SAGA), and the Argentine Golf Association (AAG)) administering the system at a local level. The WHS is based on the USGA Course and Slope Rating system, and largely follows the USGA Handicap System while also incorporating features from the six major existing handicap systems. For example, 8 differentials (like the Golf Australia system) are used after net double bogey adjustments (like the CONGU and EGA systems) for handicap calculations, and the WHS course/playing handicap includes a course rating adjustment (like the EGA system). For players with current handicaps, their handicap records in the old systems will be used to produce WHS handicaps; the expectation is that most players will at most see a difference of one or two strokes, if any. A new WHS handicap requires several scores to be submitted; the recommendation is a minimum of 54 holes made up of any number of 9 or 18-hole rounds in order to achieve a reasonable fair and accurate result, although handicaps may be issued from a smaller sample. Handicap adjustments will be made upon submission of any 9 or 18-hole scores with updates published daily; unlike some other systems both competitive and recreational rounds may be submitted by all players (e.g. CONGU's Unified Handicapping System only allows submission of non-qualifying scores by golfers in Category 2 or above). Ongoing handicaps are based on the average of the best 8 differentials, but with an "anchor" to prevent rapid increases that would not necessarily reflect the players true potential. There is also a hole limit of "net double bogey" for handicapping purposes in order to prevent one or two bad holes from having a disproportionate effect. World Handicap System overview A WHS handicap is calculated with a specific arithmetic formula that approximates how many strokes above or below par a player might be able to play, based on the eight best scores of their last twenty rounds. The calculation has several variables, including: the player's scores from their most recent rounds, the course rating, and the slope rating. A score differential is calculated from each of the scores after any net double bogey adjustments (an adjustment which allows for a maximum number of strokes per hole based on the player's course handicap) have been applied, using the following formula: Only 18-hole differentials are used for the calculation of a handicap index. As such, 9-hole differentials need to be combined before being used, subject to remaining one of the 20 most recent differentials. The system also allows for situations where less than 18 (or 9) hole have been played, subject to a minimum of 14 (or 7) holes having been completed, by "scaling up" with net pars for any missing holes. The score differentials are rounded to one decimal place, and the best 8 from the last 20 submitted scores are then averaged and rounded to one decimal place to produce the handicap index. Initial handicaps are calculated from a minimum of five scores using adjustments that limit each hole score to a maximum of . If there are at least 5 but fewer than 20 qualifying scores available, the handicap index is calculated using a set number or differentials according to how many scores are available, with an additional adjustment made to that average in some circumstances. The basic formula for calculating the handicap index is as follows (where is the number of differentials to use), with the result rounded to one decimal place: The handicap index is not used directly for playing purposes, but used to calculate a course handicap according to the slope rating of the set of tees being used with an adjustment based on the difference between the course rating and par. The result is rounded to the nearest whole number. For competitions, the unrounded course handicap is converted to a playing handicap by applying a handicap allowance, dependent on the format of play. The WHS contains measures reduce a handicap index more quickly in the case of exceptional scoring, and also to prevent a handicap index from rising too quickly. This is done by means of "soft" and "hard" caps based on the lowest index during the previous 365 days; the soft cap reduces increases above 3.0 to 50%, and the hard cap limits increases to 5.0. Updates to a golfer's handicap index are issued daily. Many elements of WHS have flexibility which allows for local authorities to determine their own settings, but the basic handicap index calculation remains the same. Examples include: 9-hole scores may be scaled-up rather than combined; may be omitted from the course handicap calculation; and the rounded course handicap may be used in the playing handicap calculation. USGA Handicap System The first handicap system to be introduced by the USGA was largely the work of Leighton Calkins, who based it on the British "three score average" system where the handicap was calculated as the average of the best three scores to par in the last year. The key difference was the introduction of a par rating (later known as course rating), which was based on the ability of leading amateur Jerome Travers, to account for variances in the playing difficulty of different courses. After initially allowing clubs to determine their own ratings, at the behest of Calkins the USGA quickly began assigning ratings centrally. Course ratings were rounded to the nearest whole number until 1967, when they started being given to one decimal place. In 1947, the number of scores used to calculate handicaps was increased to the best 10 from all scores ever recorded subject to a minimum of 50. However this was not uniformly implemented, with regional associations disagreeing on the total number of rounds to be considered. In 1958, the USGA specified that the best 10 from 25 scores would be used. This was reduced to 10 from 20 in 1967, which remains to this day although a further adjustment was made with the introduction of a "Bonus of Excellence" multiplier to equalize handicaps and give better players a marginal advantage. Originally 85%, the multiplier was changed to 96% after being seen to favor better players too heavily. In 1974, Equitable Stroke Control was adopted in order to eliminate the effect of very high individual hole scores on handicap calculations. With the system still not accounting for variances in playing difficulty for golfers of different abilities, in 1979 the USGA set to work on how to address the issue with the creation of the Handicap Research Team. The result of their work was the creation of what is now the Slope system. Slope was gradually introduced, firstly in Colorado in 1982, before being implemented nationally from 1987. The USGA then set about making further refinements to the course rating system, which at the time was still largely dependent on length, to take account of many other factors affecting scoring ability for a scratch golfer. The USGA Course and Slope Rating system is now used by most of the world's major handicapping systems. The USGA Handicap System is used throughout the jurisdiction of the USGA (i.e. the United States and Mexico), and is also licensed for use in many other countries around the world, e.g. Canada. The USGA has often resorted to the courts to protect the integrity of its handicap system. In one such case, the California Court of Appeal (First District) summarized the system's history: USGA Handicap System overview A USGA handicap is calculated with a specific arithmetic formula that approximates how many strokes above or below par a player might be able to play, based on the ten best scores of their last twenty rounds. The calculation has several variables: the player's scores from their most recent rounds, and the course and slope ratings from those rounds. A handicap differential is calculated from each of the scores after Equitable Stroke Control (ESC), an adjustment which allows for a maximum number of strokes per hole based on the player's course handicap, has been applied using the following formula: The handicap differentials are rounded to one decimal place, and the best 10 from the last 20 submitted scores are then averaged, before being multiplied by 0.96 (the "bonus of excellence") and truncated to one decimal place to produce the handicap index. Initial handicaps are calculated from a minimum of five scores using ESC adjustments based on the course handicap corresponding to a handicap index of 36.4 for men or 40.4 for women. If there are at least 5 but fewer than 20 qualifying scores available, the handicap index is calculated using a set number or differentials according to how many scores are available. The basic formula for calculating the handicap index is as follows (where is the number of differentials to use), with the result truncated to one decimal place: The handicap index is not used directly for playing purposes, but used to calculate a course handicap according to the slope rating of the set of tees being used. The result is rounded to the nearest whole number. Updates to a golfer's handicap index are issued periodically, generally once or twice per month depending on the local state and regional golf associations. CONGU Unified Handicapping System Following a meeting of the four men's golf unions of Great Britain and Ireland in York arranged by The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews in 1924, the British Golf Unions Joint Advisory Committee (later Council of National Golf Unions) was formed. The organization was tasked with creating a handicapping system that would be equitable to golfers of varying ability, and as a result the Standard Scratch Score and Handicapping Scheme was devised. The system was introduced in 1926, and used a "scratch score" system to rate courses, taking account that courses may play easier or more difficult than par. A new system was introduced in 1983, which incorporated features of the Australian system. This was further revised in 1989 with the introduction of the Competition Scratch Score (CSS), an adjustment to the Standard Scratch Score (SSS), to take account of variances in course conditions (setup, weather, etc.) on a given day. Further significant changes came in 1993 (buffer zones) and 1997 (Stableford Points Adjustment). In 2002, the Council of National Golf Unions (CONGU) and the Ladies' Golf Union (LGU) began working together (the LGU had adopted a system similar to that of CONGU in 1998) and in February 2004 the Unified Handicapping System (UHS) came into force. The Unified Handicapping System is used to manage handicaps for both men and women who are members of affiliated golf clubs in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. The system is published by CONGU and administered by each of the individual unions on behalf of their members, with handicaps being managed locally by someone at each club; this person normally holds the position of competitions or handicap secretary. Unified Handicapping System overview Under the Unified Handicapping System, initial handicaps are allocated based on returned scores from 54 holes, usually three 18-hole rounds. The number of strokes taken on each hole is adjusted to maximum of double the par of the hole before adding up the scores; adjustments were previously 2 over par for men and 3 over par for women. The best of the "adjusted gross differentials" (AGD) between the adjusted score and the Standard Scratch Score (SSS) is taken to calculate the initial handicap using the following formula, with the result truncated to give a whole number: Adjustments may be made to the initial handicap should it be deemed necessary to ensure it is reasonably fair. Handicaps are given to one decimal place and divided into categories with the lowest handicaps being in Category 1. Prior to 2018, the highest handicaps were in Category 4 for men, with a maximum of 28.0, and Category 5 for women, with a maximum of 36.0, with provision for higher "club" or "disability" handicaps up to a limit of 54.0 for those who cannot play to these lower limits. In 2018, handicap limits were standardized at 54.0 and a Category 5 was introduced for men, and a new Category 6 for all, replacing the club and disability category (see table below). The exact handicap is rounded to the nearest whole number to give the playing handicap. Many handicap competitions still have maximum limits of 28 for men and 36 for women. For all qualifying scores that are returned, adjustments are made to a players exact handicap based on the Competition Scratch Score (CSS). All hole scores are first adjusted to a maximum of net 2-over par with handicap strokes being used per the stroke index published on the scorecard; this is called Stableford or net double-bogey adjustment. Every stroke the adjusted net score is below the CSS triggers a reduction dependent on the players handicap category; for Category 1 this is 0.1 per stroke, for Category 2 it is 0.2, etc. Should the adjusted net score exceed the CSS , there is a buffer zone equivalent to the handicap category before a 0.1 increase is applied, which is the same for all categories; for Category 1 there is 1 stroke buffer, for Category 2 it is 2 strokes, etc. The Competition Scratch Score is an adjustment to the Standard Scratch Score computed from all scores returned and is in the range to with provision for "reduction only" when scoring conditions have proved especially difficult. In addition to playing in qualifying competitions, golfers in Category 2 and above may also submit a number of supplementary scores in order to maintain their handicap; primarily a feature to accommodate golfers who play in few competitions and allow them to maintain current handicaps, it is also used by people who wish to try and get their handicap down while they are playing well. There are other mechanisms in the system to reduce or increase handicaps more quickly. Every year all handicaps are reviewed and adjusted if necessary to ensure they remain fair and accurate. In addition, any very good scores are monitored throughout the year and an exceptional scoring reduction may be applied if certain triggers are reached. Historically calculating the CSS and any handicap adjustments was done manually by means of published tables, but this is now computerized with handicaps being published to a Centralised Database of Handicaps (CDH). EGA Handicap System The EGA Handicap System is the European Golf Association's method of evaluating golf abilities so that players of different standards can compete in handicap events on equal terms. It is based on Stableford scoring and has some similarities to both the CONGU system, with regards to handicap categories and adjustments, and to the USGA system, with regards to the use of course and slope ratings and calculating playing handicaps. The first version of the system was introduced in 2000. EGA Handicap System overview Under the EGA Handicap System, initial handicaps require just a single 9 or 18-hole score recorded using the maximum handicap of 54. The handicap is then calculated from the number of Stableford points scored. EGA handicaps are given to one decimal place and divided into categories, with the lowest handicaps being in Category 1 and the highest in Category 6 (see table below). The handicap is not used directly for playing purposes and a calculation must be done to determine a "playing handicap" specific to the course being played and set of tees being used. For handicaps in categories 1 to 5, the formula is as follows with the result rounded to the nearest whole number: And for category 6 a "playing handicap differential" is used, which is equal to the playing handicap for a handicap index of 36.0: For all qualifying scores that are returned, adjustments are made to a players handicap index. All scores are first converted into Stableford points if necessary (i.e. rounds played using another scoring method, e.g. stroke play), effectively applying a net double bogey adjustment, and then for every point scored above the buffer zone there is a reduction applied to the players handicap index according to their handicap category; for Category 1 this is 0.1 per point, for Category 2 it is 0.2, etc. Should the number of points scored be below the buffer zone, a fixed increase of 0.1 is applied to the handicap index regardless of category. The EGA system also takes account of variations in playing difficulty on any given competition day by means of a Computed Buffer Adjustment (CBA) which adjusts the buffer zones by between −1 and +2 with provision for "reductions only" when scoring is especially difficult. The CBA replaced the previous Competition Stableford Adjustment method, which adjusted player's Stableford scores directly, in 2013. In addition to playing in qualifying competitions, golfers in Category 2 and above may also submit a number of extra day scores in order to maintain their handicap. Handicaps are also reviewed annually and any necessary adjustments made. Golf Australia Handicap System The Golf Australia Handicap System is maintained on GOLF Link, which was a world-first computerized handicapping system developed by Golf Australia's predecessor, the Australian Golf Union (AGU) in the 1990s. When GOLF Link was first introduced it contained two key characteristics that set it apart from other world handicapping systems at the time: It used a Calculated Course Rating (CCR) to determine how difficult the course was on the day, and upon which handicap adjustment was made. It utilized a 'swipe' card that enabled a player to access his handicap from any GOLF Link terminal in Australia. In April 2010 GA adopted the USGA calculation method using the average of the best 10 differentials of the player's past 20 total rounds, multiplied by 0.96. In September 2011 this was altered to the best 8 out of 20 rounds, multiplied by 0.93. The reasons for these changes were cited to restore equity between high and low handicaps. An ‘anchor’ so that handicaps could not increase by more than 5 in a rolling 12-month period, slope ratings, and a more sophisticated version of CCR called the Daily Scratch Rating (DSR) were implemented on January 23, 2014. GA Handicap System overview The GA Handicap System is based on the Stableford scoring system, and uses slope and course rating (called "Scratch Rating"). For handicapping purposes, the scratch rating is adjusted to reflect scoring conditions ("Daily Scratch Rating"), and all scores are converted into Stableford points, called the Stableford Handicap Adjustment (SHA) and inherently applying net double bogey adjustments, regardless of the scoring system being used while playing. Handicaps are calculated from the best 8 adjusted differentials, called "sloped played to" results, from the most recent 20 scores. Should there be 3 or more but fewer than 20 scores available, a specified number of "sloped played to" results are used, per the table below. New handicaps require 3 18-hole scores to be submitted (or any combination of 9 and 18-hole scores totaling 54 holes played) using a "Temporary Daily Handicap" of 36 for men or 45 for women in order to calculate the necessary "sloped played to" results. "Sloped played to" results are calculated using the following formula and rounded to one decimal place: To calculate the GA handicap, the "sloped played to" results are averaged and multiplied by a factor of 0.93, which is intended to equalize the handicap in favor of better players. The formula for calculating a GA handicap is as follows (where is the number of differentials to use), with the result truncated to one decimal place: The GA handicap is used to create a "daily handicap", specific to the course and set of tees being used, using the following formula with the result rounded to the nearest whole number: South African Handicap System Before 2018, the South African Handicap System used a propriety course rating system without slope, called Standard Rating, which included specific calculations for length and altitude. Handicaps were calculated using the best 10 from the last 20 differentials, with differentials derived by means of a simple (Standard Rating − Adjusted Gross) formula. The system previously calculated handicaps against an adjusted Standard Rating (called Calculated Rating) but this was suspended in 2012. Playing handicaps were simply the exact handicap, rounded to the nearest whole number. In September 2018, the renamed GolfRSA Handicap System adopted the USGA Course and Slope Rating system. This necessitated a few additional changes (e.g. playing handicap and differential calculations), but the system retained all other features (e.g. Adjusted Gross and no daily course rating adjustment). The playing handicap under the GolfRSA system includes the difference between the Course Rating and Par. In October 2019, further changes were made which brought the GolfRSA Handicap System further into line with the upcoming World Handicap System. The changes introduced included reducing the number of differentials used in handicap calculations from 10 down to 8, net double bogey as the maximum score per hole, reducing the minimum number of valid 18-hole scores required for handicapping to three, and exceptional scoring reductions. Argentinian Handicap System The Argentine Golf Association (AAG) handicapping system is a relatively simple one, using only a course rating, without slope. New handicaps require the submission of scorecards from five 18-hole rounds (or ten 9-hole rounds). An initial handicap of 25 is normally used as a starting point, which is then adjusted based on the submitted scores. Handicaps are updated once every month, with current handicaps generated from a lookup table using the average of the best eight differentials from the last 16 rounds. Golfers simply use their exact handicap for playing purposes. Other systems For the handicapping of golfers who are ineligible for an official handicap, some system options are available: Peoria System The Peoria System was designed for the handicapping of all players competing in an event such as a charity or corporate golf day. Before play commences, the organisers secretly select 6 holes (in readiness for handicapping purposes later) from the course to be played. When players have completed their rounds, they apply the Peoria algorithm to their scores on the selected holes to determine their handicap for that round. They then subtract that handicap from their gross score to give their net score - and the winner is determined in the usual way. Callaway System The Callaway System was designed with the same objective as Peoria. The Callaway handicapping algorithm works by totaling a variable number of "worst" scores achieved (subject to a double-par limit) according to a simple table. A couple of adjustments are then made to this total to give the player's handicap, which is then applied to their gross score as normal. Scheid System The Scheid System is similar to the Callaway System, except a different version of the table is used. System 36 System 36 is a same-day handicapping system similar in function to Callaway System and Peoria System. Throughout the round, the golfer accrues points based on the following formula: Double bogey or worse: 0 points Bogey: 1 point Par or better: 2 points At the end of the round, points earned are tallied. The total is subtracted from 36, and the resulting number is the golfer's handicap allowance. His net score can then be computed using his System 36 handicap allowance. References External links World Handicap System World Handicap System – Rules of Handicapping USGA Handicap System (used in the United States and Mexico) CONGU Unified Handicapping System (used in Great Britain and Ireland) EGA Handicap System (used in continental Europe) Golf Australia Handicap System (used in Australia) South African Golf Association Handicap System (used in South Africa) Golf terminology Handicapping

Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest

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Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest is a 2006 American fantasy swashbuckler film. It is the second installment of the Pirates of the Caribbean film series and the sequel to Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003). It was directed by Gore Verbinski, written by Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio, and produced by Jerry Bruckheimer. In the film, the wedding of Will Turner (Orlando Bloom) and Elizabeth Swann (Keira Knightley) is interrupted by Lord Cutler Beckett (Tom Hollander), who wants Turner to acquire the compass of Captain Jack Sparrow (Johnny Depp) in a bid to find the Dead Man's Chest. Sparrow discovers his debt to Davy Jones (Bill Nighy) is due. Two sequels to Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl were conceived in 2004, with Elliott and Rossio developing a story arc that would span both films. Filming took place from February to September 2005 in Palos Verdes, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Dominica, and The Bahamas, as well as on sets constructed at Walt Disney Studios. It was shot back-to-back with the third film of the series, At World's End (2007). Dead Man's Chest was released in the United States on July 7, 2006, and received mixed reviews, as the film received praise for its special effects, direction, action sequences, Hans Zimmer's musical score, humor, and performances, particularly those of Depp and Nighy, but criticism for its running time and plot. The film broke several records at the time, including the opening-weekend record in the United States with $136 million, the fastest film to gross over $1 billion at the worldwide box office (63 days), became the highest-grossing film of 2006, and was the highest-grossing film distributed by Disney until it was surpassed by Toy Story 3 in 2010. The film received Academy Award nominations for Best Art Direction, Sound Editing, Sound Mixing, and won Best Visual Effects. Plot The wedding of Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann is halted when Lord Cutler Beckett, chairman of the East India Trading Company, arrives with arrest warrants for them, and also for Commodore James Norrington, who allowed Captain Jack Sparrow to escape. Norrington has resigned and disappeared after losing the Navy's flagship, HMS Dauntless, in a hurricane while pursuing Jack. Meanwhile, Jack is visited by Will's father, Bootstrap Bill Turner, aboard the Black Pearl. Bootstrap is a crewman on the Flying Dutchman, captained by Davy Jones. Jack previously bartered a deal with Jones to raise the Pearl from the depths, and must now join the Dutchman'''s crew or be dragged to Davy Jones' Locker by the Kraken. Meanwhile, Beckett promises to free Elizabeth if Will brings him Jack's magical compass which points to whatever the holder wants most. Will finds Jack and the crew on an island and frees them from cannibals. After escaping the cannibals, Jack and the crew visit voodoo priestess, Tia Dalma, who reveals Jones' weakness is his heart, locked within the Dead Man's Chest; Jack intends to find it and free himself from Jones' service. Locating the Dutchman, Will makes a deal with Jack to find the key to the chest in return for Jack's compass but is tricked into joining Jones' crew in Jack's stead. Jones agrees to release Jack from their bargain in exchange for ninety-nine more souls. Will meets his father aboard the Dutchman and learns that Jones possesses the key to the chest. Despite losing a game of Liar's Dice to Jones, Will escapes with the key and is taken aboard the same ship Elizabeth was on. Jones sends the Kraken after him and sinks the ship, but Will again escapes. Meanwhile, Elizabeth's father Governor Swann frees her from jail but is captured himself. Elizabeth bargains with Beckett to find the compass herself and makes her way to Tortuga, where she finds both Jack and a drunken Norrington. Jack hires a new crew, including Elizabeth and Norrington, and Elizabeth uses the compass to find the chest. All parties arrive on Isla Cruces, where the chest is buried, but a three-way sword fight breaks out between Jack, Will, and Norrington, who all want the heart for their respective goals: Jack wants to call off the Kraken and negate his debt to Jones; Will wants to release his father from the Dutchman; and Norrington wants to regain his life as a Navy officer. In the chaos, Norrington secretly steals the heart and runs off, pretending to lure away the Dutchmans crew. Jones attacks the Pearl with the Kraken, which kills most of the crew and destroys all but one of the Pearls lifeboats, but Jack, who briefly fled the battle, returns and wounds the Kraken with a net full of gunpowder and rum. Jack orders the survivors to abandon ship, but Elizabeth, realizing the Kraken only wants Jack, tricks him and chains him to the mast so that the crew can escape. The Kraken drags Jack and the Pearl to Davy Jones' Locker, but Jones opens the chest and discovers his heart is gone. In Port Royal, Norrington gives Beckett the heart and the Letters of Marque meant for Jack, allowing him back into the navy as well as allowing Beckett to gain control of Davy Jones and the seas. The Pearls crew takes shelter with Tia Dalma, where they all agree to rescue Jack. Tia Dalma introduces the captain who will guide them: the resurrected Hector Barbossa. In a post-credits scene, the cannibalistic tribe worships the prison dog instead of Jack. Cast Johnny Depp as Captain Jack Sparrow: Captain of the Black Pearl. He is hunted by the Kraken because of his unpaid blood debt to Davy Jones. He is also searching for the Dead Man's Chest to free himself from Jones' servitude. Orlando Bloom as Will Turner: A blacksmith-turned-pirate who strikes a deal with Cutler Beckett to find Jack Sparrow and his compass so he can save both himself and his fiancée Elizabeth from execution. Later he is reunited with, and seeks to free, his father, who eventually owes a lifetime of servitude to Davy Jones. Keira Knightley as Elizabeth Swann: Governor Swann's daughter and Will's fiancée, who is arrested on her wedding day for helping Captain Jack Sparrow escape. Escaping jail with help from her father, she meets up with Jack in Tortuga and joins his crew to search for both Will and the chest. Bill Nighy as Davy Jones: Captain of the Flying Dutchman. Davy Jones was once a human being. Unable to bear the pain of losing his true love, he carved out his heart and put it into the Dead Man's Chest, then buried it in a secret location. He has become a bizarre creature – part octopus, part crab, part man – and collects the souls of dead or dying sailors to serve aboard his ship for one hundred years. Jack Davenport as James Norrington: He resigned his commission as Commodore in the Royal Navy after losing his ship and crew in a hurricane in the pursuit of Jack Sparrow and his crew. Fallen on hard times and into alcoholism, he joins the Black Pearl's crew and seeks to regain his honor and career. Tom Hollander as Lord Cutler Beckett: Chairman of the East India Trading Company, he travels to Port Royal to capture and recruit Jack Sparrow as a privateer. What he really desires is Davy Jones' heart, with which he can rule the seas with Jones' commanded servitude. Ricky Gervais was offered the role but turned it down. Stellan Skarsgård as "Bootstrap Bill" Turner: A crewman aboard the Flying Dutchman who happens to be Will Turner's father. He was cursed by the Aztec gold on Isla de Muerta (along with Hector Barbossa's crew). Thrown overboard after refusing to take part in the mutiny against Jack led by Barbossa, he spent years bound to a cannon beneath the crushing ocean. Found by Davy Jones, he swore to servitude aboard the Flying Dutchman crew and escaped death. Kevin McNally as Joshamee Gibbs: The Black Pearl's first mate and Jack Sparrow's loyal friend, he once served in the Royal Navy under Lieutenant James Norrington. Jonathan Pryce as Governor Weatherby Swann. Elizabeth's father and governor of Port Royal. He adores his daughter but puts little faith in Will - not considering him the best match for Elizabeth. Lee Arenberg as Pintel: A pirate and former Black Pearl crewmember under Captain Barbossa, he was imprisoned after the Aztec curse was broken, but escaped to rejoin Jack Sparrow's Black Pearl crew. Mackenzie Crook as Ragetti: Pintel's inseparable crewmate. He has a wooden eye, and despite being illiterate, has begun "reading" the Bible, with the excuse that "you get credit for trying." Naomie Harris as Tia Dalma: An obeah priestess who Jack Sparrow bartered with for his magic compass. She explains the legend of Davy Jones, in addition to owning a similar locket to his. Geoffrey Rush as Hector Barbossa: Barbossa's character is resurrected in the final scene of this film. Having met his demise in the previous installment, Barbossa is resurrected by Tia Dalma to save Jack Sparrow from Davy Jones's locker, allowing a Brethren Court conclave in order to "release" Calypso from her human bonds. For this role, Rush was uncredited. Production Development Following the success of Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003), the cast and crew signed on for two more sequels to be shot back-to-back, a practical decision on Disney's part to allow more time with the same cast and crew. Writer Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio decided not to make the sequels new adventures featuring the same characters, as with the Indiana Jones and James Bond series, but to retroactively turn The Curse of the Black Pearl into the first of a trilogy. They wanted to explore the reality of what would happen after Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann's embrace at the end of the first film, and initially considered the Fountain of Youth as the plot device. They settled on introducing Davy Jones, the Flying Dutchman and the Kraken. They also introduced the fictional East India Trading Company, who for them represented a counterpoint to the themes of personal freedom represented by pirates. Planning began in June 2004, and production was much larger than The Curse of the Black Pearl, which was only shot on location in St. Vincent. This time, the sequels would require fully working ships, with a working Black Pearl built over the body of an oil tanker in Bayou La Batre, Alabama. By November, the script was still unfinished as the writers did not want director Gore Verbinski and producer Jerry Bruckheimer to compromise what they had written, so Verbinski worked with James Byrkit to storyboard major sequences without need of a script, while Elliott and Rossio wrote a "preparatory" script for the crew to use before they finished the script they were happy with. By January 2005, with rising costs and no script, Disney executives threatened to cancel the film, but changed their minds. The writers would accompany the crew on location, feeling that the lateness of their rewrites would improve the spontaneity of the cast's performances. Filming Principal photography began on February 28, 2005, in Palos Verdes, beginning with Elizabeth's ruined wedding day. For Cutler Beckett's introduction, Rossio and Elliott had him arrive on shore in a boat while sitting on a horse staind in the boat; the duo had originally planned to use this introduction for Don Rafael Montero in The Mask of Zorro (1998), but the scene was cut for being deemed too expensive. Similarly, the Pirates crew wanted to cut the idea for budget reasons, in addition to feel that it would be unbelievable, or as the film's historian dismissed, suicidal. However, Verbinksi promised Rossio and Elliott to use the idea and the scene was filmed one day after weeks of planning and training. The crew spent the first shooting days at Walt Disney Studios in Los Angeles, including the interiors of the Black Pearl and the Edinburgh Trader which Elizabeth stows away on, before moving to St. Vincent to shoot the scenes in Port Royal and Tortuga. Sets from the previous film were reused, having survived three hurricanes, although the main pier had to be rebuilt as it had collapsed in November. The crew had four tall ships at their disposal to populate the backgrounds, which were painted differently on each side for economy. One of the ships used was the replica of HMS Bounty used in the 1962 film adaptation of Mutiny on the Bounty."Logsdon rows to the occasion." Matthew Horn Matthew Horn News Herald Pg.1 (Port Clinton, Ohio). June 26, 2007. On April 18, 2005, the crew began shooting at Dominica, a location Verbinski had selected as he felt it fitted the sense of remoteness he was looking for. However, this was also a problem; the Dominican government were completely unprepared for the scale of a Hollywood production, as while the 500-strong crew occupying around 90% of the roads on the island they had trouble moving around on the underdeveloped surfaces. The weather also alternated between torrential rainstorms and hot temperatures, the latter of which was made worse for the cast who had to wear period clothing. At Dominica, the sequences involving Pelegosto (Cannibal Island) and the forest segment of the battle on Isla Cruces were shot. Verbinski preferred to use practical props for the giant wheel and bone cage sequences, feeling long close-up shots would help further suspend the audience's disbelief. Dominica was also used for Tia Dalma's shack. Filming on the island concluded on May 26, 2005. The crew moved to a small island in the Bahamas called White Cay for the beginning and end of the Isla Cruces battle, before production took a break until August, where in Los Angeles the interiors of the Flying Dutchman were shot. On September 18, 2005, the crew moved to Grand Bahama Island to shoot ship exteriors, including the working Black Pearl and Flying Dutchman. Filming there was a tumultuous period, starting with the fact that the tank had not actually been finished. The hurricane season caused many pauses in shooting, and Hurricane Wilma damaged many of the accessways and pumps, though no one was hurt nor were any of the ships destroyed. Principal photography was completed on September 10, 2005. Visual effects The Flying Dutchmans crew members were originally conceived by writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio as ghosts, but Gore Verbinski disliked this and designed them as physical creatures. Their hierarchy is reflected by how mutated they were: newcomers had low level infections which resemble rosacea, while veterans had full-blown undersea creature attributes. Verbinski wanted to keep them realistic, rejecting a character with a turtle shell, and the animators watched various David Attenborough documentaries to study the movement of sea anemones and mussels. All of the crew are computer-generated, with the exception of Stellan Skarsgård, who played "Bootstrap" Bill Turner. Initially his prosthetics would be augmented with CGI but that was abandoned. Skarsgård spent four hours in the make-up chair and was dubbed "Bouillabaisse" on set. Captain Davy Jones had originally been designed with chin growths, before the designers made the move to full-blown tentacles; the skin of the character incorporates the texture of a coffee-stained Styrofoam cup among other elements. To portray Jones on set, Bill Nighy wore a motion capture tracksuit that meant the animators at Industrial Light & Magic did not have to reshoot the scene in the studio without him or on the motion capture stage. Nighy wore make-up around his eyes and mouth to splice into the computer-generated shots, but the images of his eyes and mouth were not used. Nighy only wore a prosthetic once, with blue-colored tentacles for when Will Turner (Orlando Bloom) steals the key to the Dead Man's Chest from under his "beard" as he sleeps. To create the CGI version of the character, the model was closely based on a full-body scan of Nighy, with Jones reflecting his high cheekbones. Animators studied every frame of Nighy's performance: the actor himself had blessed them by making his performance more quirky than expected, providing endless fun for them. His performance also meant new controls had to be stored. Finally, Jones' tentacles are mostly a simulation, though at times they were hand-animated when they act as limbs for the character. The Kraken was difficult to animate as it had no real-life reference, until animation director Hal Hickel instructed the crew to watch King Kong vs. Godzilla which featured a live octopus crawling over miniatures. On the set, two pipes filled with of cement were used to crash and split the Edinburgh Trader: Completing the illusion are miniature masts and falling stuntmen shot on a bluescreen stage. The scene where the Kraken spits at Jack Sparrow does not use computer-generated spit: it was real slime thrown at Johnny Depp. Music Marketing The first trailer was attached to The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. Disney produced a comic book adaption in their Junior Graphic Novels: Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest (2007). Disney sponsored a racing yacht in the 2005 event of the Volvo Ocean Race. The boat, aptly named Black Pearl, raced under the team name "Pirates of the Caribbean" for the United States. The boat itself was a Volvo Open 70 class yacht designed by Farr Yacht Design. She was skippered to a 2nd-place finish by American Paul Cayard after 31,000 nm (57,000 km), divided into 9 legs, taking 8 months to complete. Release TheatricalPirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest premiered at Disneyland in California on June 24, 2006. It was the first Disney film to use the new computer-generated Walt Disney Pictures production logo, which took a year for the studio to design. Weta Digital was responsible for the logo's final animated rendering and Mark Mancina was hired to score a new composition of "When You Wish Upon a Star". The main people responsible for the logo's rendering are Cyrese Parrish and Cameron Smith. Home media The film became available on DVD on November 20, 2006 in the UK and December 5, 2006 in the US. It sold 9,498,304 units in its first week of sales (equivalent to $174,039,324). In total it sold 16,694,937 units, earning $320,871,909. It was the best-selling DVD of 2006 in terms of units sold and second in terms of sales revenue behind The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. The DVD contained a commentary track with the screenwriters and a gag reel, with the double-disc featuring a video of the film premiere and a number of documentaries, including a full-length documentary entitled "According to the Plan" and eight featurettes. The film was released on Blu-ray Disc on May 22, 2007. The film had its UK Television premiere on Boxing Day 2008 on BBC One at 20:30. It was seen by 6.8 million viewers according to overnight figures. Reception Box officeDead Man's Chest earned $423,315,812 in North America and $642,863,913 in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1,066,179,725. Worldwide, it ranks as the 15th highest-grossing film distributed by Disney, the highest-grossing film of 2006, the third highest-grossing film of the 2000s, and the highest-grossing film in the Pirates of the Caribbean series. It was the third film in history to reach the $1 billion mark worldwide, and it reached the mark in record time (63 days), a record that has since been surpassed by many films, of which the first was Avatar (in January 2010). In North America, the film broke many records including the largest opening- and single-day gross ($55.8 million), the biggest opening-weekend gross ($135.6 million), the least time to reach $100, $200 and $300 million and the highest ten-day gross. However, most of them were broken by Spider-Man 3 in May 2007 and The Dark Knight in July 2008. The film was in first place at the box office for three consecutive weekends. It closed in theaters on December 7, 2006, with a $423.3 million haul. Thus, in North America, it is the seventeenth-highest-grossing film, although, adjusted for inflation, the film ranks forty-eight. It is also the highest-grossing 2006 film, the highest-grossing Pirates of the Caribbean film, and the seventh-highest-grossing Disney film. The film sold an estimated 64,628,400 tickets in the US. Outside North America, it is the twenty-first-highest-grossing film, the third-highest-grossing Pirates film, the eighth-highest-grossing Disney film and the highest-grossing film of 2006. It set opening-weekend records in Russia and the CIS, Ukraine, Finland, Malaysia, Singapore, Greece and Italy. It was on top of the box office outside North America for 9 consecutive weekends and 10 in total. It was the highest-grossing film of 2006 in Australia, Bulgaria, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden and Thailand. Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 53% based on 229 reviews, with an average rating of 6.00/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Gone is Depp's unpredictability and much of the humor and originality of the first movie." At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating to reviews, the film received an average score of 53 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "mixed to average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale. Michael Booth of the Denver Post gave the film three-and-a-half stars out of four, calling it "two hours and 20 minutes of escapism that once again makes the movies safe for guilt-free fun." Drew McWeeny compared the film to The Empire Strikes Back, and also acclaimed its darkness in its depiction of the crew of the Flying Dutchman and its cliffhanger. The completely computer-generated Davy Jones turned out to be so realistic that some reviewers mistakenly identified Nighy as wearing prosthetic makeup. A. O. Scott of The New York Times said, "You put down your money – still less than $10 in most cities – and in return you get two and a half hours of spirited swashbuckling, and Gore Verbinski has an appropriate sense of mischief, as a well as a gift, nearly equaling those of Peter Jackson and Steven Spielberg, for integrating CGI seamlessly into his cinematic compositions." Empire magazine gave the film 3 stars saying "Depp is once again an unmitigated joy as Captain Sparrow, delivering another eye-darting, word-slurring turn with some wonderful slapstick flourishes. Indeed, Rossio and Elliot smartly exploit these in some wonderful action set-pieces." "We don't get the predictable 'all friends together on the same quest' structure, and there's a surfeit of surprises, crosses and double-crosses and cheeky character beats which stay true to the original's anti-heroic sense of fun. After all, Jack Sparrow is a pirate, a bad guy in a hero's hat, a man driven by self-gain over concern for the greater good, who will run away from a fight and cheat his 'friends' without a second's thought." Paul Arendt of the BBC compared it to The Matrix Reloaded, as a complex film that merely led onto the next film. Richard George felt a "better construct of Dead Man's Chest and At World's End would have been to take 90 minutes of Chest, mix it with all of End and then cut that film in two." Alex Billington felt the third film "almost makes the second film in the series obsolete or dulls it down enough that we can accept it in our trilogy DVD collections without ever watching it." Mark Kermode of The Observer accused the film of "lumpen direction, lousy writing and pouting performances", but wrote that "the worst thing about Dead Man's Chest is its interminable length [...] The entire Pirates of the Caribbean franchise may be a horrible indicator of the decline of narrative cinema." Accolades At the 79th Academy Awards, visual effects supervisors John Knoll, Hal Hickel, Charles Gibson, and Allen Hall won an Oscar for Best Visual Effects, which was also the first time since 1994's Forrest Gump'' that Industrial Light & Magic had received that particular Academy Award. The film was also nominated for Best Art Direction, Sound Editing, and Sound Mixing. The film also won a BAFTA and Satellite award for Best Visual Effects, and six awards from the Visual Effects Society. Other awards won by the film include Choice Movie: Action, Choice Movie Actor: Action for Johnny Depp at the 2006 Teen Choice Awards; Favorite Movie, Movie Drama, Male Actor for Depp and On-Screen Couple for Depp and Keira Knightley at the 33rd People's Choice Awards; Best Movie and Performance for Depp at the 2007 MTV Movie Awards and Best Special Effects at the Saturn Awards, and Favorite Movie at the 2007 Kids' Choice Awards. Video game A video game adaptation of the film was developed by Griptonite Games and Amaze Entertainment and released by Buena Vista Games in June–August 2006 for the PlayStation Portable, Nintendo DS and Game Boy Advance. Sequel References External links Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest at the IMSDb Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest Production Notes 2000s action adventure films 2000s fantasy action films 2000s fantasy adventure films 2006 films American action adventure films American fantasy adventure films American films American sequel films BAFTA winners (films) Films about cannibalism Demons in film Films about Voodoo Films adapted into comics Films directed by Gore Verbinski Films scored by Hans Zimmer Films set in the 18th century Films about witchcraft Films set in the Caribbean Films set on ships Films shot in Dominica Films shot in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Films shot in the Bahamas Films that won the Best Visual Effects Academy Award Films with screenplays by Ted Elliott Films with screenplays by Terry Rossio Kraken in popular culture Films using motion capture Pirates of the Caribbean (film series) films Treasure hunt films Walt Disney Pictures films Flying Dutchman

Peter Mayhew

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Peter William Mayhew (May 19, 1944 – April 30, 2019) was a British-American actor. He was best known for portraying Chewbacca in the Star Wars film series. He played the character in all of his live-action appearances from the 1977 original to 2015's The Force Awakens before his retirement from the role. Early life Peter Mayhew was born on 19 May 1944, in Barnes, Surrey to Constance Elizabeth Mayhew (nee Yeates) (1912-2003) and Henry Walter Mayhew (1909-1998). At the age of 8, he was diagnosed with gigantism. Some news outlets have mistakenly reported that he either "does not have giantism (sic)" or that he has Marfan syndrome. His peak height was . Career Early work Mayhew gained his first acting job when the producers of Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger (1977) discovered him from a photograph in a newspaper article about men with large feet, and cast him in the role of the Minoton. Star Wars When casting the original Star Wars (1977), director George Lucas needed a tall actor who could fit the role of the hairy alien Chewbacca. He originally had in mind bodybuilder David Prowse, but Prowse chose to play Darth Vader. This led Lucas to cast Mayhew, who was working as an orderly in the A & E Dept Mayday University Hospital, Thornton Heath, Croydon. Surrey. He became aware of a casting call for Star Wars which was filming at Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire. The tall actor was immediately cast as Chewbacca after he stood up to greet Lucas. Mayhew continued working as an orderly, at Mayday Hospital (now Croydon University Hospital), in between filming the original Star Wars trilogy. Mayhew modelled his performance of Chewbacca after researching the behaviour of bears, monkeys and gorillas he saw at London Zoo. Lucas said Mayhew was "the closest any human being could be to a Wookiee: big heart, gentle nature and I learnt to always let him win". The character did not have any lines, the sounds he made being derived from sound recordings of animal noises. Mayhew played Chewbacca in five Star Wars films: the original trilogy (Star Wars, The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi), Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith and Star Wars: The Force Awakens. He played the role in the 1978 television film Star Wars Holiday Special and in a 1980 appearance on The Muppet Show. He also recorded dialogue for the Star Wars: The Clone Wars Season 3 finale episode "Wookiee Hunt". Mayhew played the role in commercials and hospital appearances for sick children, and made numerous appearances as Chewbacca outside the Star Wars films. Mayhew, appearing as Chewbacca, was honoured with a Lifetime Achievement Award at the MTV Film Awards 1997. He also made other media appearances outside of playing Chewbacca. He appeared on NBC's Identity, where his identity was based on the fact that he played Chewbacca and was a frequent guest in the early days of Slice of SciFi. While Mayhew portrayed Chewbacca in Star Wars: The Force Awakens, he was not in Star Wars: The Last Jedi but was listed in the credits as "Chewbacca Consultant". Mayhew retired from playing Chewbacca due to health issues. Joonas Suotamo shared the portrayal of Chewbacca with Mayhew in Star Wars: The Force Awakens, and then completely replaced him in subsequent Star Wars films. Other work Outside Star Wars, Mayhew appeared in the 1978 horror film Terror, directed by Norman J. Warren. In the English version of Dragon Ball GT: A Hero's Legacy, he provided the voice for Susha. He also appeared in Yesterday Was a Lie. Books Mayhew wrote two books for younger audiences: Growing Up Giant, which explains that being different is a strength instead of a weakness, and the anti-bullying book for children My Favorite Giant. Personal life and death Peter Mayhew married Mary Angelique "Angie" Luker (née Cigainero; born 12 October 1954), a native of Texas, on 7 August 1999. The two lived in Boyd, Texas. Peter was the stepfather to Mary's 3 children: Katy, Sheril, and Kathleen. It was reported that his wife would head his namesake charity, the Peter Mayhew Foundation. He became a naturalised citizen of the United States in 2005 at a ceremony in Arlington, Texas. In an interview with the Fort Worth Star-Telegram he joked that he did not get a medal at this ceremony either, a reference to the closing scene in Star Wars during which Luke Skywalker and Han Solo get medals, but Chewbacca does not. Mayhew noted in an MTV interview that although Chewbacca does not get a medal in the film, he does have the last line of dialogue, when he roars. Mayhew underwent double knee replacement surgery in 2013, having been a full-time wheelchair user for the previous two years and still largely reliant on it at the time of filming The Force Awakens. In January 2015, Mayhew was briefly hospitalised near his home in Texas due to a bout of pneumonia. In July 2018, Mayhew announced via Twitter that he had successfully undergone unspecified spinal surgery to improve his mobility, and was recovering. Mayhew died of a heart attack on 30 April 2019, at his home in Boyd, Texas, three weeks before his 75th birthday. He was buried in Reno, Parker County, Texas, in Azleland Memorial Park and Mausoleum. Filmography Film Television References External links Star Wars bio Interview with Peter Mayhew on Slice of SciFi (starts at 36:55 of show) 1944 births 2019 deaths 20th-century American male actors 20th-century English male actors 21st-century American male actors 21st-century English male actors American male film actors American male television actors American male voice actors English emigrants to the United States English male film actors English male television actors English male voice actors Male actors from London People with acquired American citizenship People from Barnes, London People from Boyd, Texas People with Marfan syndrome Writers from London Writers from Texas

Abrasion (medical)

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An abrasion is a partial thickness wound caused by damage to the skin and can be superficial involving only the epidermis to deep, involving the deep dermis. Abrasions usually involve minimal bleeding. Mild abrasions, also known as grazes or scrapes, do not scar or bleed because the dermis is left intact, but deep abrasions that disrupt the normal dermal structures may lead to the formation of scar tissue. A more traumatic abrasion that removes all layers of skin is called an avulsion. Abrasion injuries most commonly occur when exposed skin comes into moving contact with a rough surface, causing a grinding or rubbing away of the upper layers of the epidermis. By degree A first-degree abrasion involves only epidermal injury. A second-degree abrasion involves the epidermis as well as the dermis and may bleed slightly. A third-degree abrasion involves damage to the subcutaneous layer and the skin and is often called an avulsion. Treatment The abrasion should be cleaned and any debris removed. A topical antibiotic (such as neomycin or bacitracin) should be applied to prevent infection and to keep the wound moist. Dressing the wound is beneficial because it helps keep the wound from drying out, providing a moist environment conducive for healing. If the abrasion is painful, a topical analgesic (such as lidocaine or benzocaine) can be applied, but for large abrasions, a systemic analgesic may be necessary. Avoid exposing abraded skin to the sun as permanent hyperpigmentation can develop. Healing The gallery below shows the healing process for an abrasion on the palm caused by sliding on concrete. See also Chafing (skin) List of cutaneous conditions Contusion Laceration References External links Skin conditions resulting from physical factors

Education in Vietnam

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Education in Vietnam is a state-run system of public and private education run by the Ministry of Education and Training. It is divided into five levels: preschool, primary school, secondary school, high school, and higher education. Formal education consists of twelve years of basic education. Basic education consists of five years of primary education, four years of secondary education, and three years of high school education. The majority of basic education students are enrolled on a daily basis. The main education goal in Vietnam is "improving people's general knowledge, training quality human resources, and nurturing and fostering talent." Vietnam has undergone major political upheaval and social inequality throughout its recent history and is attempting to modernise. Historically, education in Vietnam followed the Chinese Confucian model, using Chinese characters (for the Vietnamese language and for Chinese) as the main mode of literature and governance. This system promoted those who were talented enough to be mandarins or royal courtiers in Vietnam and China. This system was then completely overhauled and replaced by a French model system during French colonial times, which has since been replaced and overhauled again during the formation of independent Vietnam and the creation of Chữ Quốc Ngữ alphabet in the 1920s. Vietnam is known for its curriculum that is deemed highly competitive. High school education is one of the most significant social issues in the country: designated schools known as "High Schools for the Gifted" (Trường Trung học phổ thông chuyên) offer additional extensive courses, are generally regarded as prestigious, and demand high entrance examination test scores. Higher education is seen as fundamental in Vietnam. Entrance to university is determined through the National High School Graduation Examination (NHSGE) test. The higher the entrance test score, the more highly regarded the institution will be. Currently experiencing a high GDP growth rate, Vietnam is attempting to expand its education system. In 2012, estimated national budget for education was 6.3%. In the last decade, Vietnamese public reception of the country's education system has been mixed due to its inflexible nature and its tests. Citizens have been critical of the curriculum, which has led to social issues including depression, anxiety, and increasing suicide rates. There have been comments from the public that schools should opt for a more flexible studying program, with less emphasis on tests and more focus on developing life skills. In response to public opinion, the Ministry of Education and Training has implemented a number of education reforms. Tertiary enrollment rates were only 3% in 1995 but increased to around 30% by 2019. Regardless, more work is needed to be done to improve education at all levels, from pre-primary, to primary, to secondary, to post-secondary. Types of educational establishments Regarding ownership, as prescribed in Article 44 of Vietnam's Education Law, there are four types of educational establishments: Public education establishments: established and monitored by the State. The State also nominates their administrators and decides staff quota. The State invests in infrastructure and allocates funding for their regular spending tasks. Semi-public educational establishments: set up by the State on the basis of mobilizing organizations and individuals in the society to jointly invest in infrastructure. People-founded educational establishments: Social or economic organizations apply for permission from the State to set up an institution with non-State budget capital. Private educational establishments: Individuals or groups of individuals apply for permission from the State to set up and invest in the institution by themselves. The semi-public, people-founded and private educational establishments are referred collectively to as non-public educational establishments. School grades In Vietnam, a school year is divided into two semesters: the first begins in mid or late in August and lasts until the end of December, while the second begins right after the first, which is about mid- January and ends in May. Academic grading Pre-primary education (pre-school) Public kindergartens usually admit children ranging from 18 months to 5 years of age. Sometimes, four- or five-year-old children are taught the alphabet and basic arithmetic. This level of education is not compulsory but tends to be popular in cities such as Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Da Nang, Hai Phong, Can Tho and Vung Tau. Primary education Children normally start primary education (tiểu học) at the age of six. Education at this level lasts for 5 years and is compulsory for all children. The country's literacy rate is over 90%. According to the Multiple Indicators Cluster Survey 2006 of Vietnam's General Statistics Office, 96% of six to 11-year-old children enrolled in primary school. However, there was still a troubling disparity in the primary education completion rate among different ethnicity groups. While primary completion rate for Kinh students was 86%, the rate for ethnic minority children was only 61%. In the school year 2009–2010, Vietnam had 15,172 primary schools and 611 combined primary and lower secondary schools. The total enrollment was 7.02 million pupils, of whom 46% were girls. The renovated primary education curriculum in Vietnam is divided into two phases as follows: Phase 1 includes Grades 1, 2 and 3 with 8 subjects: Vietnamese Language, Mathematics, Morality, Nature and Society, Arts, Physical Education, and (since 2020) Experience Activities and Foreign Language. Phase 2 includes Grades 4 and 5 with 11 subjects: Vietnamese Language, Mathematics, Morality, Science, History, Geography, Basic Techniques, Music, Arts, Physical Education and (since 2023) Experience Activities and Foreign Language. Secondary education Secondary education () consists of lower secondary education or junior high school () followed by high school or upper secondary high school (). Lower secondary education Lower secondary school () or Junior high school includes sixth, seventh, eighth and ninth grade. Until its abolition in 2006, students had to pass the Intermediate Graduation Examination (IGE) presented by the local Department of Education and Training to graduate. The IGE comprises Math, Literature, and Foreign Language tests. This educational level is homogeneous throughout most of the country, except in very remote provinces, which expect to popularize and standardize middle education within the next few years. Intermediate education is not compulsory in Vietnam. The Lower Secondary Education's weekly schedule includes the following subjects and activities: Vietnamese Language, Mathematics, Biology, Physics, Chemistry, History, Geography, Civics, Foreign Language (often English or French), Physical Education, Technology, Art, Music, Optional Subjects, Class Activities and School Activities, Vocational-oriented activities (3 periods per month in Grade 8 or in some cases, the summer between 7th and 8th Grade) and Extra-curricular activities (4 periods per month in all grades). Ιn the end of year 8, student will participate in secondary vocational exam to earn extra-mark for the 10th grade examination. The Technology subject aims to show the link between theory and practice. It includes three parts: home economics (in Grade 6), agriculture-forestry and aquaculture (in Grade 7), Industry (in Grade 8) and optional modules (in Grade 9). High school education High school or upper secondary school education () consists of grades ten to twelve. There is often an entrance examination for high schooling. The score determines the schools at which students are able to enroll. The higher the score, the more prestigious the school. Middle and secondary curriculum All subjects are compulsory for students. Literature: mostly Vietnamese literature, occasionally combined with foreign literature including Chinese, French, American and Russian Mathematics Years 6: two separate subjects – Arithmetic and Geometry Years 7–10: two separate subjects – Algebra and Geometry Year 11: two separate subjects – Algebra and Calculus, and Geometry Year 12: two separate subjects – Calculus, and Geometry Natural Science (Year 6–9, from 2021) Physics (from year 10 onwards since 2024) Chemistry (from year 8 onwards until 2023; year 10 onwards starting 2024) Biology (from year 10 onwards since 2024) History and Geography (Year 6–9, from 2021) History (from year 10 onwards starting 2024) Geography (from year 10 onwards starting 2024) Civics: generally consists of economics, philosophy (Marxism-Leninism), politics, jurisprudence and ethics Foreign language: English is the predominant foreign language; French, Mandarin, Russian, Japanese, German and Korean are taught at some specialized schools Technology (Vocational Training): consists of Agriculture/Horticulture, Mechanics, Electronics, Design, etc. Informatics: recently introduced, yet to be implemented in poorer regions. Students study basic programming in languages such as Pascal, C/C++ and Python (from 2020) Physical Education (P.E) National Defense and Security Training (since year 10) Music and Arts (until the first half of year 9 until 2022, when Music and Arts will be introduced from year 10 onwards) Advanced classes consists of either: Natural sciences: Students follow an advanced curriculum (and different textbooks) in mathematics, physics, chemistry and biology Social sciences: Students follow an advanced curriculum (and different textbooks) in literature, history, geography and foreign language At the start of secondary school, students can enroll in Specialist Classes if they pass the class entrance exam, which usually consists of a Mathematics exam, a Literature exam, a Foreign Language exam and an exam of the subject that the student wants to specialize in. The specialised subject can be any of the subjects listed above, except Technology, Physical Education, Civics and Music/Arts. If the specialised subjects Students enrolled in these programs have a heavier workload than regular secondary school students. The workload varies from school to school, but grade 11 students are generally expected to study grade 12 courses concurrently. Other courses include university-level courses. Some schools go as far as requiring their students to finish secondary school by the end of grade 10. Only prestigious schools offer these classes, and they have yet to be standardized. High School Graduation Exam All high school students in Vietnam are required to take the High School Graduation Exam (Kỳ thi Tốt nghiệp Trung học phổ thông), which is administered by the Ministry of Education and Training, at the end of grade 12 to get a diploma called the Graduation Diploma of General Upper Secondary Education (Bằng tốt nghiệp Trung học phổ thông). They still have to take the regular end-of-term examinations before taking the National High School Exam. The Ministry of Education and Training announced that for the graduation examination of 2017, five papers would be included: Mathematics, Literature, Foreign language, Natural Sciences, and Social Sciences. Three papers are mandatory for all students: Mathematics, Literature, and Foreign language. Foreign language exam can be one of the following: English, French, German, Chinese, Japanese, Russian or Korean (since 2021). Apart from three mandatory papers, student must complete a fourth paper by choosing either natural sciences (a combination of Physics, Chemistry, and Biology) or Social Sciences (a combination of History, Geography, and Civic Education). In some cases, students can take both the Natural Sciences and Social Sciences and will choose the paper with the higher result to be evaluated. Post-Secondary (Higher Education) University entrance is based on the scores achieved in the entrance examination. High school graduates need high scores to be admitted to universities. Securing a place in a public university is considered a major step towards a successful career, especially for those from rural areas or disadvantaged families. The pressure on the candidates therefore remains very high, despite the measures taken to reduce the importance of these exams. The demand for student placements into universities outweighed the supply, where around 1.3 million students would choose to enrol into universities, but only 600,000 could be supplied due to lack of teaching staff at the tertiary level or post-secondary level. This prompted major calls for the government to help expand the tertiary sector, especially with increasing trend of enrolments into university since 1990 to 2019. Additionally, university admissions is highly competitive. Normally, candidates take three exams for the fixed group of subjects they choose. There are many fixed groups of subjects, the main ones being: Group A: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry Group A1: Mathematics, Physics, English Group B: Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry Group C: Literature, History, Geography Group D: Literature, Foreign Language, Mathematics Group D consists of six subgroups based on the languages they provide in universities: Group D1: entrance exam subject is English; major language in university is English, but students can also choose also Russian, French, Mandarin, German, Japanese, Korean, Arabic, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian or Thai. Group D2: entrance exam subject is Russian; major language in university is Russian Group D3: entrance exam subject is French; major language in university is French, students can choose Italian instead. Group D4: entrance exam subject is Chinese; major language in university is Mandarin Group D5: entrance exam subject is German; major language in university is German Group D6: entrance exam subject is Japanese; major language in university is Japanese Besides these, there are groups for artistic and cultural education: Group H: Literature, Visual Art Talents Group M: Literature, Mathematics, Singing and Expressive Reading, Instrument Performance (optional) Group N: Literature, Tone and Melody, Vocal Group R: Literature, History, Journalism Group S: Literature, Theatrical Talents Group T: Mathematics, Biology, Sports Group V: Mathematics, Physics, Drawing In 2007, Vietnam's Ministry of Education and Training started to use multiple choice exam format for several subjects during the university entrance examination. These subjects include Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Foreign Language. Each multiple choice exam lasts 90 minutes. The foreign language exam consists of 80 multiple choice questions; meanwhile, the Physics, Chemistry, Biology exam has 50 questions. Math, Literature, History and Geography exams use composition format. Starting from the entrance exam of 2013, 10 artistic and cultural universities will remove Literature from the exam of the group H, N and S. Instead, the results of three years in high school and the scores of the HGE will be used to evaluate the candidates. Starting from 2015, high school graduation and university entrance merged to one exam. Each student will take at least four subjects for the exam including three compulsory — mathematics, literature and foreign language (mostly English) — and one sub-subject such as physics, chemistry, geography, biology, history. After the result has been given, the student can use their score to pass the high school graduation exam and to go to their desired college with three chosen points from the four given. Types of higher education institutions Vietnamese Government decree (decree 43/2000/ND-CP, dated August 30, 2000) identified three types of higher education institutions: "Đại học" (university), which is a multidisciplinary institution offering fields of study and which has research capacities. Five major multidisciplinary universities in Vietnam are Vietnam National University, Hanoi; Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City; Huế University; University of Da Nang; and Can Tho University. "Trường Đại học" (senior college), which is more narrowly focused in its curriculum, sometimes on a single study area. "Học viện" (institute), which is also narrowly focused in terms of study area but which may have a specialized research capacity. Other post-secondary forms of education also include junior college or community colleges, professional secondary schools, and vocational schools which offer degrees or certificates. Several universities offer college vocational degrees as well as shorter general and specific industry-tailored training courses. In the school year 2010–2011, Vietnam had 163 universities (including senior colleges and institutes) and 223 junior colleges, in which 50 senior colleges and 30 junior colleges are non-public. The presence of international universities are increasing. Universities such as PSB International College, RMIT, Eastern International University and University of Hawaii offer degrees in fields such as business, English as a Second Language and Information Technology. Running an international education system in Vietnam is challenging. Quality control and affordability are key issues, as well as red tape. Additionally, in the past, Viet Nam had followed a Soviet Union model where research and teaching institutes were separated instead of being together. Higher education qualifications Associate Degree (): a three-year program delivered by junior colleges (including teachers colleges and others) and/or by some universities as additional training programs. Bachelor's degree (): a four- to six-year program — six years for students studying medical and dental sciences; five years for students of industrial engineering; and four years for the majority of other undergraduate degrees such as Social Sciences. Graduates receive degrees with a title corresponding to their field of study such as bachelor (cử nhân), engineer (kỹ sư), medical doctor (bác sĩ), or lawyer (luật sư), etc. Most of Vietnam's universities also offer master's (two years) and Doctor of Philosophy (four years) degrees. Teaching quality issues The higher education system has been criticised by Vietnam's diaspora, such as outdated curricula, a lecturer-centered method of teaching and learning, a lack of linkage between teaching and research activities, and a large discord between theory and practical training that leads to a large number of graduates being unable to find a job, while skills shortages drive inflation to double-digit levels. Vietnamese students perceive themselves to have a lack of knowledge despite being taught a lot due to the fact that the main purpose of studying was to pass exams or to achieve high test scores without real-life implementation. According to the survey on graduate employment in 2009-2010 conducted by Center for Policy Studies and Analysis- University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, among 3000 respondents, 26.2% were unemployed. Among those employed, 61% lacked sufficient working skill, 42% lacked experience, and 32% felt insecure in providing professional expertise. Teaching methods delivered in the public system are mainly teacher-oriented. Class discussions are uncommon as students are expected to be studious and passively attentive in the classroom. This method may be a manifestation of Confucian culture and is in contrast to British and American pedagogy, where interaction and debate is prominent. Advanced and specialized high school students are generally expected to study additional courses, which can amount to a total of nine periods a day. Parents also enroll their children into extensive tutoring sessions, which is not to be confused with cram schools, because the tutoring sessions are taken regardless of any upcoming tests or exams. The average monthly salary of local Vietnamese public teachers is between US$60 and US$100, so many supplement their income by moonlighting, working in the private sector or tutoring. Students who do not attend these sessions are always at a disadvantage, as materials appearing on tests and exams are often covered only in tutoring sessions. Public schools are underfunded. Currently, only primary schools are subsidized by the government, to 50% of the total tuition cost. Enrollment rates may be high; however, primary education quality, particularly in poor areas, is below the required standard. Moreover, the drop-out rate after fifth grade is also high for those in rural and mountainous area since most students cannot afford to attend secondary school or university due to poverty. Participatory Poverty Assessments (PPAs) found that for many poor households, child labor is considered more valuable than school attendance in short-term economics. Regular school absenteeism also leads to poor academic performance. For poor families, the opportunity cost of sending their children to school is perceived to be high and the long-term benefit of education cannot outweigh the short-term economic losses. In response to these challenges, the Ministry of Education and Training has implemented a number of educational reforms from 2015 to onwards. English as a Second Language Private language centers offering English as a Second Language are in high demand in the larger cities of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. Stringent immigration/visa system is now being more strictly enforced (where previously the regulations were only enforced if visiting teachers fell foul of the criminal legal system). Now schools are routinely inspected for foreign teachers (ostensibly to ensure the tax codes are applied) and, as part of this process, degrees and teaching qualifications must be verified by the holder's embassy or relevant authority. Copies must be filed with immigration authorities. (Similar regulations for opening bank accounts and registration of residences of foreigners mean unqualified teachers remain but are often consigned to the "back-street" schools or may be susceptible to disreputable school owners and landlords. The penalties for abuse of these regulations are substantial with respect to rents or incomes of schools.) The country has implemented OECD guidelines to the education sector with respect to English language skills of high school and university graduates. This means that for high school graduates to apply for university entry, overseas study (high school or university), or graduate from an undergraduate university course, individuals must achieve an internationally recognised and standardised test of English (IELTS, TOEIC, TOEFL, etc., or sometimes worryingly "an equivalent, designed, created and marked by local instructors, with scores/levels varying from course/degree/university/institution). This recent development has caused further changes in this sector, attracting further experienced IELTS trainers, retaining existing trainers and creating demands for teacher training from such agencies as British Council and IDP. Limitation on practical skills in higher education for jobs' expectation During the 1990s, Vietnam reached a major increase in its economy–with annual GDP growth of 5 to 7 percent–as well as a rapid educational growth within the country. Ever since then, the net enrollment rates in Vietnam have increased at least 95 percent for primary and secondary schools. However, as impressive as its performance has been, improvements are still needed in the country's educational quality and quantity. Vietnam's education fails to catch up with the world's development, which affects the country negatively when compared with other countries in an aspect of employment. For quality, the current textbooks that are used for schools are reported to be too theoretical and abstract. . And for quantity, there have been reports saying students are overloaded with course work and school hours. Some people may opine that Vietnam needs a change in its system to provide students a better knowledgeable background: hand-on training should be offered to students rather than fixed training programs.  However, being one of the world's poorest countries, the country lacks funding to achieve this goal during the modernization process. Since the 1998's implementation of higher education reform, the Vietnamese Higher Education (VHE)'s quality has been noticeably low and may not meet the threshold for the national workforce as companies claimed to not have yet found applicants that meet their expected requirements. In 2017, the quality score of the country's workforce alerted the government to put more effort in fixing the educational system in the country: 3.79 out of 10, with 10 being the highest score possible. With that being said, there is a need for academic reform in Vietnamese Higher Education to match the employers' expectations. See also Vietnamese studies List of universities in Vietnam Notes References Bibliography

Gap penalty

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A Gap penalty is a method of scoring alignments of two or more sequences. When aligning sequences, introducing gaps in the sequences can allow an alignment algorithm to match more terms than a gap-less alignment can. However, minimizing gaps in an alignment is important to create a useful alignment. Too many gaps can cause an alignment to become meaningless. Gap penalties are used to adjust alignment scores based on the number and length of gaps. The five main types of gap penalties are constant, linear, affine, convex, and profile-based. Applications Genetic sequence alignment - In bioinformatics, gaps are used to account for genetic mutations occurring from insertions or deletions in the sequence, sometimes referred to as indels. Insertions or deletions can occur due to single mutations, unbalanced crossover in meiosis, slipped strand mispairing, and chromosomal translocation. The notion of a gap in an alignment is important in many biological applications, since the insertions or deletions comprise an entire sub-sequence and often occur from a single mutational event. Furthermore, single mutational events can create gaps of different sizes. Therefore, when scoring, the gaps need to be scored as a whole when aligning two sequences of DNA. Considering multiple gaps in a sequence as a larger single gap will reduce the assignment of a high cost to the mutations. For instance, two protein sequences may be relatively similar but differ at certain intervals as one protein may have a different subunit compared to the other. Representing these differing sub-sequences as gaps will allow us to treat these cases as “good matches” even though there are long consecutive runs with indel operations in the sequence. Therefore, using a good gap penalty model will avoid low scores in alignments and improve the chances of finding a true alignment. In genetic sequence alignments, gaps are represented as dashes(-) on a protein/DNA sequence alignment. Unix diff function - computes the minimal difference between two files similarly to plagiarism detection. Spell checking - Gap penalties can help find correctly spelled words with the shortest edit distance to a misspelled word. Gaps can indicate a missing letter in the incorrectly spelled word. Plagiarism detection - Gap penalties allow algorithms to detect where sections of a document are plagiarized by placing gaps in original sections and matching what is identical. The gap penalty for a certain document quantifies how much of a given document is probably original or plagiarized. Bioinformatics applications Global alignment A global alignment performs an end-to-end alignment of the query sequence with the reference sequence. Ideally, this alignment technique is most suitable for closely related sequences of similar lengths. The Needleman-Wunsch algorithm is a dynamic programming technique used to conduct global alignment. Essentially, the algorithm divides the problem into a set of sub-problems, then uses the results of the sub-problems to reconstruct a solution to the original query. Semi-global alignment The use of semi-global alignment exists to find a particular match within a large sequence. An example includes seeking promoters within a DNA sequence. Unlike global alignment, it compromises of no end gaps in one or both sequences. If the end gaps are penalized in one sequence 1 but not in sequence 2, it produces an alignment that contains sequence 2 within sequence 1. Local alignment A local sequence alignment matches a contiguous sub-section of one sequence with a contiguous sub-section of another. The Smith-Waterman algorithm is motivated by giving scores for matches and mismatches. Matches increase the overall score of an alignment whereas mismatches decrease the score. A good alignment then has a positive score and a poor alignment has a negative score. The local algorithm finds an alignment with the highest score by considering only alignments that score positives and picking the best one from those. The algorithm is a Dynamic programming algorithm. When comparing proteins, one uses a similarity matrix which assigns a score to each possible residue. The score should be positive for similar residues and negative for dissimilar residues pair. Gaps are usually penalized using a linear gap function that assigns an initial penalty for a gap opening, and an additional penalty for gap extensions, increasing the gap length. Scoring matrix Substitution matrices such as BLOSUM are used for sequence alignment of proteins. A Substitution matrix assigns a score for aligning any possible pair of residues. In general, different substitution matrices are tailored to detecting similarities among sequences that are diverged by differing degrees. A single matrix may be reasonably efficient over a relatively broad range of evolutionary change. The BLOSUM-62 matrix is one of the best substitution matrices for detecting weak protein similarities. BLOSUM matrices with high numbers are designed for comparing closely related sequences, while those with low numbers are designed for comparing distant related sequences. For example, BLOSUM-80 is used for alignments that are more similar in sequence, and BLOSUM-45 is used for alignments that have diverged from each other. For particularly long and weak alignments, the BLOSUM-45 matrix may provide the best results. Short alignments are more easily detected using a matrix with a higher "relative entropy" than that of BLOSUM-62. The BLOSUM series does not include any matrices with relative entropies suitable for the shortest queries. Indels During DNA Replication, the replication machinery is prone to making two types of errors while duplicating the DNA. These two replication errors are insertions and deletions of single DNA bases from the DNA strand (indels). Indels can have severe biological consequences by causing mutations in the DNA strand that could result in the inactivation or over activation of the target protein. For example, if a one or two nucleotide indel occurs in a coding sequence the result will be a shift in the reading frame, or a frameshift mutation that may render the protein inactive. The biological consequences of indels are often deleterious and are frequently associated with human pathologies such as cancer. However, not all indels are frameshift mutations. If indels occur in trinucleotides, the result is an extension of the protein sequence that may also have implications on protein function. Types Constant This is the simplest type of gap penalty: a fixed negative score is given to every gap, regardless of its length. This encourages the algorithm to make fewer, larger, gaps leaving larger contiguous sections. ATTGACCTGA || ||||| AT---CCTGA Aligning two short DNA sequences, with '-' depicting a gap of one base pair. If each match was worth 1 point and the whole gap -1, the total score: 7 − 1 = 6. Linear Compared to the constant gap penalty, the linear gap penalty takes into account the length (L) of each insertion/deletion in the gap. Therefore, if the penalty for each inserted/deleted element is B and the length of the gap L; the total gap penalty would be the product of the two BL. This method favors shorter gaps, with total score decreasing with each additional gap. ATTGACCTGA || ||||| AT---CCTGA Unlike constant gap penalty, the size of the gap is considered. With a match with score 1 and each gap -1, the score here is (7 − 3 = 4). Affine The most widely used gap penalty function is the affine gap penalty. The affine gap penalty combines the components in both the constant and linear gap penalty, taking the form . This introduces new terms, A is known as the gap opening penalty, B the gap extension penalty and L the length of the gap. Gap opening refers to the cost required to open a gap of any length, and gap extension the cost to extend the length of an existing gap by 1. Often it is unclear as to what the values A and B should be as it differs according to purpose. In general, if the interest is to find closely related matches (e.g. removal of vector sequence during genome sequencing), a higher gap penalty should be used to reduce gap openings. On the other hand, gap penalty should be lowered when interested in finding a more distant match. The relationship between A and B also have an effect on gap size. If the size of the gap is important, a small A and large B (more costly to extend a gap) is used and vice versa. Only the ratio A/B is important, as multiplying both by the same positive constant k will increase all penalties by k: kA+kBL = k(A+BL) which does not change the relative penalty between different alignments. Convex Using the affine gap penalty requires the assigning of fixed penalty values for both opening and extending a gap. This can be too rigid for use in a biological context. The logarithmic gap takes the form and was proposed as studies had shown the distribution of indel sizes obey a power law. Another proposed issue with the use of affine gaps is the favoritism of aligning sequences with shorter gaps. Logarithmic gap penalty was invented to modify the affine gap so that long gaps are desirable. However, in contrast to this, it has been found that using logarithmatic models had produced poor alignments when compared to affine models. Profile-based Profile–profile alignment algorithms are powerful tools for detecting protein homology relationships with improved alignment accuracy. Profile-profile alignments are based on the statistical indel frequency profiles from multiple sequence alignments generated by PSI-BLAST searches. Rather than using substitution matrices to measure the similarity of amino acid pairs, profile–profile alignment methods require a profile-based scoring function to measure the similarity of profile vector pairs. Profile-profile alignments employ gap penalty functions. The gap information is usually used in the form of indel frequency profiles, which is more specific for the sequences to be aligned. ClustalW and MAFFT adopted this kind of gap penalty determination for their multiple sequence alignments. Alignment accuracies can be improved using this model, especially for proteins with low sequence identity. Some profile–profile alignment algorithms also run the secondary structure information as one term in their scoring functions, which improves alignment accuracy. Comparing time complexities The use of alignment in computational biology often involves sequences of varying lengths. It is important to pick a model that would efficiently run at a known input size. The time taken to run the algorithm is known as the time complexity. Challenges There are a few challenges when it comes to working with gaps. When working with popular algorithms there seems to be little theoretical basis for the form of the gap penalty functions. Consequently, for any alignment situation gap placement must be empirically determined. Also, pairwise alignment gap penalties, such as the affine gap penalty, are often implemented independent of the amino acid types in the inserted or deleted fragment or at the broken ends, despite evidence that specific residue types are preferred in gap regions. Finally, alignment of sequences implies alignment of the corresponding structures, but the relationships between structural features of gaps in proteins and their corresponding sequences are only imperfectly known. Because of this incorporating structural information into gap penalties is difficult to do. Some algorithms use predicted or actual structural information to bias the placement of gaps. However, only a minority of sequences have known structures, and most alignment problems involve sequences of unknown secondary and tertiary structure. References Further reading Computational phylogenetics Bioinformatics

Carbon-13

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Carbon-13 (13C) is a natural, stable isotope of carbon with a nucleus containing six protons and seven neutrons. As one of the environmental isotopes, it makes up about 1.1% of all natural carbon on Earth. Detection by mass spectrometry A mass spectrum of an organic compound will usually contain a small peak of one mass unit greater than the apparent molecular ion peak (M) of the whole molecule. This is known as the M+1 peak and comes from the few molecules that contain a 13C atom in place of a 12C. A molecule containing one carbon atom will be expected to have an M+1 peak of approximately 1.1% of the size of the M peak, as 1.1% of the molecules will have a 13C rather than a 12C. Similarly, a molecule containing two carbon atoms will be expected to have an M+1 peak of approximately 2.2% of the size of the M peak, as there is double the previous likelihood that any molecule will contain a 13C atom. In the above, the mathematics and chemistry have been simplified, however it can be used effectively to give the number of carbon atoms for small- to medium-sized organic molecules. In the following formula the result should be rounded to the nearest integer: where C = number of C atoms, X = amplitude of the M ion peak, and Y = amplitude of the M +1 ion peak. 13C-enriched compounds are used in the research of metabolic processes by means of mass spectrometry. Such compounds are safe because they are non-radioactive. In addition, 13C is used to quantify proteins (quantitative proteomics). One important application is in stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC). 13C-enriched compounds are used in medical diagnostic tests such as the urea breath test. Analysis in these tests is usually of the ratio of 13C to 12C by isotope ratio mass spectrometry. The ratio of 13C to 12C is slightly higher in plants employing C4 carbon fixation than in plants employing C3 carbon fixation. Because the different isotope ratios for the two kinds of plants propagate through the food chain, it is possible to determine if the principal diet of a human or other animal consists primarily of C3 plants or C4 plants by measuring the isotopic signature of their collagen and other tissues. Deliberate increase of proportion of 13C in diet is the concept of i-food, a proposed way to increase longevity. Uses in science Due to differential uptake in plants as well as marine carbonates of 13C, it is possible to use these isotopic signatures in earth science. Biological processes preferentially take up the lower mass isotope through kinetic fractionation. In aqueous geochemistry, by analyzing the δ13C value of carbonaceous material found in surface and ground waters, the source of the water can be identified. This is because atmospheric, carbonate, and plant derived δ13C values all differ. In biology, the ratio of carbon-13 and carbon-12 isotopes in plant tissues is different depending on the type of plant photosynthesis and this can be used, for example, to determine which types of plants were consumed by animals. Greater carbon-13 concentrations indicate stomatal limitations, which can provide information on plant behaviour during drought. Tree ring analysis of carbon isotopes can be used to retrospectively understand forest photosynthesis and how it is impacted by drought. In geology, the 13C/12C ratio is used to identify the layer in sedimentary rock created at the time of the Permian extinction 252 Mya when the ratio changed abruptly by 1%. More information about usage of 13C/12C ratio in science can be found in the article about isotopic signatures. Carbon-13 has a non-zero spin quantum number of 1/2, and hence allows the structure of carbon-containing substances to be investigated using carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance. The carbon-13 urea breath test is a safe and highly accurate diagnostic tool to detect the presence of Helicobacter pylori infection in the stomach. The urea breath test utilizing carbon-13 is preferred to carbon-14 for certain vulnerable populations due to its non-radioactive nature. Production Bulk carbon-13 for commercial use, e.g. in chemical synthesis, is enriched from its natural 1% abundance. Although carbon-13 can be separated from the major carbon-12 isotope via techniques such as thermal diffusion, chemical exchange, gas diffusion, and laser and cryogenic distillation, currently only cryogenic distillation of methane or carbon monoxide is an economically feasible industrial production technique. Industrial carbon-13 production plants represent an substantial investment, greater than 100 meter tall cryogenic distillation columns are needed to separate the carbon-12 or carbon-13 containing compounds. The largest reported commercial carbon-13 production plant in the world as of 2014 has a production capability of ~400 kg of carbon-13 annually. In contrast, a 1969 carbon monoxide cryogenic distillation pilot plant at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratories could produce 4 kg of carbon-13 annually. See also Isotopes of carbon Isotope fractionation Notes Isotopes of carbon Environmental isotopes

Don't Give Up on Me

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Don't Give Up on Me is a studio album by American R&B/Soul singer Solomon Burke, recorded and released in 2002 on Fat Possum Records. The album won the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Blues Album. It is noteworthy for the contributions of original and previously unreleased compositions by top-rank songwriters, the effect of which placed Burke back in the public eye for a time. Guest stars are Daniel Lanois, who plays electric guitar on "Stepchild", and The Blind Boys of Alabama, who feature on backing vocals for "None of Us Are Free". "None of Us Are Free" was also featured at the end of the sixth episode ("Spin") of the second season of House. "Fast Train" was featured during the ending montage of the season three finale of The Wire. The title track, written by the team of Dan Penn and Carson Whitsett with Hoy Lindsey, gained popularity (and introduced Burke to a new generation) when it was used several times on the popular primetime teen soap opera The O.C. as one of the signature song of adult couple Sandy and Kirsten Cohen, played by Peter Gallagher and Kelly Rowan. It became a staple of Burke's live performances and has been covered by Joe Cocker, as well as Peter Gallagher, who also performed the song on The O.C. Track listing "Don't Give Up on Me" (Dan Penn, Carson Whitsett, Hoy Lindsey) – 3:45 "Fast Train" (Van Morrison) – 5:43 "Diamond in Your Mind" (Tom Waits, Kathleen Brennan) – 4:24 "Flesh and Blood" (Joe Henry) – 6:07 "Soul Searchin'" (Brian Wilson, Andy Paley) – 3:59 "Only a Dream" (Van Morrison) – 5:09 "The Judgment" (Elvis Costello, Cait O'Riordan) – 3:30 "Stepchild" (Bob Dylan) – 5:10 "The Other Side of the Coin" (Nick Lowe) – 3:46 "None of Us Are Free" (Barry Mann, Cynthia Weil, Brenda Russell) – 5:29 "Sit This One Out" (Pick Purnell) – 4:33 Personnel Solomon Burke – vocals, piano, electric guitar Chris Bruce – electric guitar David Palmer – piano, keyboard David Piltch – bass guitar Jay Bellerose – drums, percussion Bennie Wallace – tenor saxophone Niki Harris – backing vocals Jean McClain – backing vocals Rudy Copeland – Hammond organ Daniel Lanois – electric guitar Clarence Fountain – backing vocals Jimmy Carter – backing vocals Bishop Billy Bowers – backing vocals Ben Moore – backing vocals Eric McKinnie – backing vocals Caleb Butler – backing vocals Joey Williams – backing vocals Tracy Pierce – backing vocals References 2002 albums Solomon Burke albums Albums produced by Joe Henry Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Blues Album Fat Possum Records albums Anti- (record label) albums

Indian Space Research Organisation

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The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO ) is the national space agency of India, headquartered in Bengaluru. It operates under the Department of Space (DOS) which is directly overseen by the Prime Minister of India, while Chairman of ISRO acts as executive of DOS as well. ISRO is the primary agency in India to perform tasks related to space based applications, space exploration and development of related technologies. It is one of six government space agencies in the world which possess full launch capabilities, deploy cryogenic engines, launch extraterrestrial missions and operate large fleets of artificial satellites. The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was established by Jawaharlal Nehru under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in 1962, on the urging of scientist Vikram Sarabhai recognising the need in space research. INCOSPAR grew and became ISRO in 1969, within DAE. In 1972, the Government of India had set up a Space Commission and the Department of Space (DOS), bringing ISRO under the DOS. The establishment of ISRO thus institutionalised space research activities in India. It since then has been managed by the DOS, which governs various other institutions in India in domain of astronomy and space technology. ISRO built India's first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975. In 1980, ISRO launched satellite RS-1 onboard its own SLV-3 making India the sixth country to be capable of undertaking orbital launches. SLV-3 was followed by ASLV which was subsequently succeeded by development of many medium-lift launch vehicles, rocket engines, satellite systems and networks enabling agency to launch hundreds of domestic and foreign satellites and various deep space missions for space exploration. ISRO has the world's largest constellation of remote-sensing satellites and operates the two satellite navigation systems GAGAN and NAVIC. It has sent two missions to the Moon and one to Mars. Goals in near future include expanding satellites fleet, landing a rover on Moon, sending humans into space, development of a semi-cryogenic engine, sending more unmanned missions to the Moon, Mars, Venus and Sun and deployment of more space telescopes in orbit to observe cosmic phenomena and outerspace beyond the Solar System. Long-term plans include development of reusable launchers, heavy and super heavy launch vehicles, deploying a space station, sending exploration missions to external planets like Jupiter, Uranus, Neptune and asteroids and manned missions to moons and planets. ISRO's programs have played a significant role in the socio-economic development of India and have supported both civilian and military domains in various aspects including disaster management, telemedicine and navigation and reconnaissance missions. ISRO's spin off technologies also have founded many crucial innovations for India's engineering and medical industries. History Formative years Modern space research in India is traced to the 1920s, when scientist S. K. Mitra conducted a series of experiments leading to the sounding of the ionosphere by applying ground-based radio methods in Kolkata. Later, Indian scientists like C.V. Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable in space sciences. However, it was the period after 1945 that saw important developments being made in coordinated space research in India. Organised space research in India was spearheaded by two scientists: Vikram Sarabhai—founder of the Physical Research Laboratory at Ahmedabad—and Homi Bhabha, who established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in 1945. Initial experiments in space sciences included the study of cosmic radiation, high altitude and airborne testing, deep underground experimentation at the Kolar mines—one of the deepest mining sites in the world—and studies of the upper atmosphere. Studies were carried out at research laboratories, universities, and independent locations. In 1950, the Department of Atomic Energy was founded with Bhabha as its secretary. The department provided funding for space research throughout India. During this time, tests continued on aspects of meteorology and the Earth's magnetic field, a topic that was being studied in India since the establishment of the observatory at Colaba in 1823. In 1954, the Uttar Pradesh state observatory was established at the foothills of the Himalayas. The Rangpur Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania University, Hyderabad. Space research was further encouraged by the government of India. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 and opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space launch. The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was set up in 1962 by PM Nehru on the urging of Vikram Sarabhai. There was no dedicated ministry for space program initially and all activities of INCOSPAR relating to space technology continued to function within DAE. H.G.S. Murthy was appointed as the first Director of Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station. Sounding rockets from Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station were fired marking the start of upper atmospheric research in India. Indigenous series of sounding rockets named Rohini was subsequently developed and started undergoing launches from 1967 onwards. 1970s and 1980s Under the administration of Indira Gandhi, INCOSPAR was superseded by ISRO. Later in 1972, a space commission and Department of Space (DOS) were set up to overview space technology development in India specifically and ISRO was brought under DOS, institutionalising space research in India and forging Indian space program into its existing form. India joined the Soviet Interkosmos program for space cooperation and got its first satellite Aryabhatta in orbit through a Soviet rocket. Efforts to develop an orbital launch vehicle begun after mastering sounding rocket technology. Concept was to develop a launcher capable of providing sufficient velocity to a mass of to enter low Earth orbit. It took 7 years for ISRO to develop Satellite Launch Vehicle capable of putting into a orbit. SLV Launch Pad, ground stations, tracking networks, radars and other communications were set up for launch campaign. Its first launch in 1979 carried a Rohini technology payload but could not inject the satellite into its desired orbit. It was followed by a successful launch in 1980 carrying Rohini Series-I satellite making India the seventh country to reach Earth's orbit after USSR, USA, France, United Kingdom, China and Japan. RS-1 was third Indian satellite to reach orbit as Bhaskara had been launched from USSR in 1979. Efforts to develop a medium-lift launch vehicle capable of putting class spacecrafts into 1000 km Sun-synchronous orbit had already begun in 1978 which would later lead to development of PSLV. SLV-3 later had two more launches before discontinual in 1983. ISRO's Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) was set up in 1985 and started working on a more powerful engine Vikas based upon French Viking. In 1987, facilities to test liquid fueled rocket engines was established and development and testing of various rocket engines thrusters began. Parallelly, another solid fueled rocket Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle based upon SLV-3 was being developed technologies to launch satellites into geostationary orbit. ASLV had limited success and multiple launch failures was discontinued soon. Alongside, technologies for Indian National Satellite System for communication satellites and Indian Remote Sensing Programme for earth observation satellites were developed and launches from overseas initiated. Number of satellites eventually expanded and systems were established as among largest satellite constellations in the world with a number of multi-band communication, radar imaging, optical imaging and meteorological satellites. 1990s and early 21st century Arrival of PSLV in 1990s became a major boost for Indian space program. With the exception of its first flight in 1994 and two partial failures later, PSLV had a streak of more than 50 successful flights. PSLV enabled India to launch all of its low Earth orbit satellites, small payloads to GTO and hundreds of foreign satellites. Along with the flights of PSLV, development of a new rocket namely Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) was going on. India tried to obtain upper-stage cryogenic engines from Russian Glavkosmos but was blocked by United States from doing so. As a result, KVD-1 engines were imported from Russia under new agreement which had limited success and a project to develop indigenous cryogenic technology was launched in 1994, which took two decades to mature. A new agreement was signed with Russia for 7 KVD-1 cryogenic stages and 1 ground mock-up stage with no technology transfer, instead of 5 cryogenic stages along with the technology and design as per the earlier agreement. These engines were used for the initial flights and were named GSLV Mk.1. ISRO was under US government sanctions between 6 May 1992 to 6 May 1994. After US refused to help India with Global Positioning System (GPS) during the Kargil war, ISRO was induced to develop its own satellite navigation system IRNSS which is now expanding further. In 2003, when China sent humans into space, prime minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee urged scientists to develop technologies to land humans on Moon and Indian programs to send missions to Moon, other planets and sending humans to space came into existence soon. ISRO launched Chandrayaan-1 in 2008, which was world's first probe to verify the presence of water on the Moon and Mars Orbiter Mission in 2013 which was first Asian spacecraft to enter Martian orbit and India being first country to do so in maiden attempt. Subsequently, cryogenic upper stage for GSLV rocket operationalised making India sixth country to have full launch capabilities and a new heavier-lift launcher GSLV Mk III was introduced in 2014 for heavier satellites and enabling human space missions. Since then, development of bigger rockets, more advanced satellites and spacecrafts has been going on. Agency logo ISRO did not have an official logo unlike other space agencies until 2002. The adopted logo consisted of an orange aero shooting upwards attached with two blue coloured satellite panels with the name of ISRO written in two sets of text. One in orange colour in Devanagari on left side and another in blue colour in English in Prakrta font. Goals and objectives ISRO is the national space agency of India for the purpose of all space-based applications like reconnaissance & communications and doing research. It undertakes the design and development of space rockets, satellites, explores upper atmosphere and deep space exploration missions. ISRO also has incubated its technologies in India's private space sector boosting its growth. The Indian space programme was founded and pushed ahead by the vision of Vikram Sarabhai, considered the father of the Indian space programme. As he said in 1969: Former president of India, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, said: India's economic progress has made its space programme more visible and active as the country aims for greater self-reliance in space technology. In 2008, India launched as many as elevensatellites, including nine foreign and went on to become the first nation to launch tensatellites on onerocket. ISRO has put into operation two major satellite systems: the Indian National Satellites (INSAT) for communication services, and the Indian Remote Sensing Programme (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources. Organisation structure and facilities ISRO is managed by the Department of Space (DoS) of the Government of India. DoS itself falls under the authority of the Space Commission and manages the following agencies and institutes: Indian Space Research Organisation Antrix Corporation – The marketing arm of ISRO, Bengaluru Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL), Gadanki, Andhra Pradesh NewSpace India Limited - Commercial wing, Bengaluru North-Eastern Space Applications Centre (NE-SAC), Umiam Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL), Mohali Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), Thiruvananthapuram – India's space university Research facilities Test facilities Construction and launch facilities Tracking and control facilities Human resource development Antrix Corporation Limited (Commercial Wing) Set up as the marketing arm of ISRO, Antrix's job is to promote products, services and technology developed by ISRO. NewSpace India Limited (Commercial Wing) Set up for marketing spin-off technologies, tech transfers through industry interface and scale up industry participation in the space programmes. Space Technology Incubation Centre ISRO has opened Space Technology Incubation Centres (S-TIC) at premier technical universities in India which will incubate startups to build applications and products in tandem with the industry and would be used for future space missions. The S-TIC will bring the industry, academia and ISRO under one umbrella to contribute towards research and development (R&D) initiatives relevant to the Indian Space Programme. S-TICs are at the National Institute of Technology, Agartala serving for east region, National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar for the north region, and the National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli for the south region of India. Advance Space Research Group Like NASA funded Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) managed by California Institute of Technology (Caltech), ISRO with Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) implemented a joint working framework in 2021 in which an Empowered Overseeing Committee (EOC) under Capacity Building Programme Office (CBPO) of ISRO located in Bengaluru will approve all short, medium and long term space research projects of common interest. In return, an Advance Space Research Group (ASRG) formed at IIST under the guidance of EOC will have full access to ISRO facilities. The primary aim is to transform IIST into a premier space research and engineering institute by 2028-2030 that can lead future space exploration missions of ISRO. Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management To reduce dependency on North America Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) for space situational awareness and protect the civilian and military assets, ISRO is setting up telescopes and radars in four locations to cover each direction. Leh, Mount Abu and Ponmudi were selected to station the telescopes and radars that will cover North, West and South of Indian territory. The last one will be in Northeast India to cover the entire eastern region. Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota already supports Multi-Object Tracking Radar (MOTR). All the telescopes and radars will come under Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management (DSSAM) in Bengaluru. It will collect tracking data on inactive satellites and will also perform research on active debris removal, space debris modelling and mitigation. For early warning, ISRO initiated ₹400 crore project called Network for Space Object Tracking and Analysis (NETRA). It will help the country track atmospheric entry, intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), anti-satellite weapon and other space based attacks. All the radars and telescopes will be connected through NETRA. The system will support remote and schedule operations. NETRA will follow the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IASDCC) and United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOSA) guidelines. The objective of NETRA is to track objects at a distance of 36,000 km in geostationary orbit. India is going to sign memorandum of understanding (MoU) on Space Situational Awareness Data Sharing Pact with the US by the end of 2021 that will enable NETRA collaborate with Combined Space Operation Center (CSpOC) to protect the space based assets of both nations from natural and man-made threats. Other facilities Balasore Rocket Launching Station (BRLS) – Odisha Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC), Bengaluru Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) Indian Space Science Data Centre (ISSDC) Integrated Space Cell Inter University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA) ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU) – Thiruvananthapuram Master Control Facility National Deep Space Observation Centre (NDSPO) Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres (RRSSC) General satellite programmes Since the launch of Aryabhata in 1975, a number of satellite series and constellations have been deployed by Indian and foreign launchers. At present, ISRO operates one of the largest constellations of active communication and earth imaging satellites for military and civilian uses. The IRS series The Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are the series of India's earth observation satellites. The IRS series provides remote sensing services and is the largest collection of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today in the world. All the satellites are placed in polar Sun-synchronous orbit (except GISATs) and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to enable several programmes to be undertaken relevant to national development. The initial versions are composed of the 1 (A, B, C, D) nomenclature while the later versions were divided into sub-classes named based on their functioning and uses including Oceansat, Cartosat, HySIS, EMISAT and ResourceSat etc.. The names although again were unified into prefix "EOS" again regardless of functioning again in 2020. These satellites hold a wide range of applications including optical, radar and electronic reconnaissance for Indian agencies, city planning, oceanography and environmental studies. The INSAT series The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) are the family of communication satellites of India. It is a series of multipurpose geostationary satellites built and launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and search-and-rescue needs of the country. Since the introduction of first satellite in 1983, INSAT has become the largest domestic communication system in the Asia-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of Space, Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee. The nomenclature of satellite series was shifted to "GSAT" from "INSAT" which was further changed to "CMS" from 2020 onwards. These satellites have been in use by Indian Armed Forcesas well. GSAT-9 or "SAARC Satellite" is a notable example for serving communication services for India's smaller neighbors. Gagan Satellite Navigation System The Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement an indigenous Satellite-Based Regional GPS Augmentation System also known as Space-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) as part of the Satellite-Based Communications, Navigation, Surveillance and Air Traffic Management plan for civil aviation. The Indian SBAS system has been given an acronym GAGAN – GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation. A national plan for satellite navigation including implementation of Technology Demonstration System over the Indian air space as a proof of concept has been prepared jointly by Airports Authority of India and ISRO. Technology Demonstration System was completed during 2007 by installing eight Indian Reference Stations at eight Indian airports and linked to the Master Control Centre located near Bangalore. Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC) IRNSS with an operational name NavIC is an independent regional navigation satellite system developed by India. It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India as well as the region extending up to 1500 km from its borders, which is its primary service area. IRNSS provides two types of services, namely, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and Restricted Service (RS) and provides a position accuracy of better than 20 m in the primary service area. It is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system developed by Indian Space Research Organisation, which is under total control of Indian government. The requirement of such a navigation system is driven by the fact that access to global navigation systems like GPS is not guaranteed in hostile situations. Other satellites Kalpana-1 (MetSat-1) was ISRO's first dedicated meteorological satellite. Indo-French satellite SARAL on 25 February 2013. SARAL (or "Satellite with ARgos and AltiKa") is a cooperative altimetry technology mission, used for monitoring the oceans' surface and sea levels. AltiKa measures ocean surface topography with an accuracy of 8 mm, against 2.5 cm on average using altimeters, and with a spatial resolution of 2 km. Launch vehicles During the 1960s and 1970s, India initiated its own launch vehicles owing to geopolitical and economic considerations. In the 1960s–1970s, the country developed a sounding rocket, and by the 1980s, research had yielded the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational supporting infrastructure. ISRO further applied its energies to the advancement of launch vehicle technology resulting in the realisation of the successful PSLV and GSLV vehicles. Satellite Launch Vehicle Satellite Launch Vehicle (known as SLV-3) was the first space rocket to be developed by India. The initial launch in 1979 was a failure followed by a successful launch in 1980 making way for India into the club of countries with orbital launch capabilities. The development of bigger rockets was pushed ahead thereafter. Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle Augmented or Advanced Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) was another small launch vehicle realised in 1980s to develop technologies required to place satellites into geostationary orbit. ISRO did not have adequate funds to develop ASLV and PSLV at once. Since ASLV suffered repeated failures, it was dropped in favour of a new project. Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle or PSLV is the first medium-lift launch vehicle from India which enabled India to launch all its remote-sensing satellites into Sun-synchronous orbit. PSLV had a failure in its maiden launch in 1993. Besides other two partial failure, PSLV has become primary workhorse for ISRO with more than 50 launches placing hundreds of Indian and foreign satellites into orbit. Decade-wise summary of PSLV launches: Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle was envisaged in 1990s to transfer significant payloads to geostationary orbit. ISRO initially had great problem in development of GSLV as development of CE-7.5 in India took a decade. US had blocked India from obtaining cryogenic technology from Russia which induced India to develop its own cryogenic engines. Decade-wise summary of GSLV Launches: GSLV Mark III Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV Mk III), also known as LVM3, is the heaviest rocket in operational service with ISRO. Equipped with a more powerful cryogenic engine and boosters than GSLV, it has significantly higher playload capacity and allows India to launch all its communication satellites. LVM3 is expected to carry India's first manned mission to space and will be the testbed for SCE-200 engine which will power India's heavy lift rockets in future. Decade-wise summary of GSLV Mark III launches: Human Spaceflight Programme First proposal to send humans in space was discussed in ISRO in 2006 which subsequently led to the beginning of work on required infrastructure and spacecrafts. The trials for crewed space missions began in 2007 with the 600 kg Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE), launched using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) rocket, and safely returned to earth 12 days later. In 2009, the Indian Space Research Organisation proposed a budget of for its human spaceflight programme. An uncrewed demonstration flight was expected after seven years from the final approval and a crewed mission to be launched after seven years of funding. Manned mission initially wasn't a priority and was left on backburner for several years. A space capsule recovery experiment in 2014 and a pad abort test in 2018 were followed by PM Modi's announcement on Independence Day address 15 August 2018 that India will send astronauts into space by 2022 on the new Gaganyaan spacecraft. Till date, ISRO has developed most of the technologies needed such as crew module and crew escape system, space food and life support systems. The project would cost less than 100 billion and would include sending 2 or 3 Indians to space, above in a spacecraft for at least seven days using a GSLV Mk-III launch vehicle. Astronaut training and other facilities The newly established Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) will coordinate the IHSF campaign. ISRO will set up an astronaut training centre in Bangalore to prepare personnel for flights on board the crewed vehicle. The centre will use simulation facilities to train the selected astronauts in rescue and recovery operations and survival in zero gravity, and will undertake studies of the radiation environment of space. ISRO had to build centrifuges to prepare astronauts for the acceleration phase of the launch. Existing launch facilities in Satish Dhawan Space Centre would have to be upgraded for the Indian Human Spaceflight campaign. Human Space Flight Centre and Glavcosmos signed an agreement on 1 July 2019 for the selection, support, medical examination and space training of Indian astronauts. An ISRO Technical Liaison Unit (ITLU) was to be set up in Moscow to facilitate the development of some key technologies and establishment of special facilities which are essential to support life in space. The training of four Indian Air Force personnel was undertaken in Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center and was completed in March 2021. Crewed spacecraft ISRO is working towards an orbital crewed spacecraft that can operate for seven days in a low Earth orbit. The spacecraft, called Gaganyaan, will be the basis of the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme. The spacecraft is being developed to carry up to three people, and a planned upgraded version will be equipped with a rendezvous and docking capability. In its maiden crewed mission, ISRO's largely autonomous 3-tonne spacecraft will orbit the Earth at in altitude for up to seven days with a two-person crew on board. As of February 2021, the crewed mission is planned to be launched on ISRO's GSLV Mk III in 2023. Space station India plans to build a space station as a follow-up programme of the Gaganyaan mission. ISRO chairman K. Sivan has said that India will not join the International Space Station programme and will instead build a 20 tonne space station on its own. It is expected to be placed in a low Earth orbit of a altitude and be capable of harbouring three humans for 1520 days. Rough time-frame is five to seven years after completion of Gaganyaan project. Planetary sciences and astronomy There is a national balloon launching facility at Hyderabad jointly supported by TIFR and ISRO. This facility has been extensively used for carrying out research in high energy (i.e., X- and gamma-ray) astronomy, IR astronomy, middle atmospheric trace constituents including CFCs & aerosols, ionisation, electric conductivity and electric fields. The flux of secondary particles and X-ray and gamma-rays of atmospheric origin produced by the interaction of the cosmic rays is very low. This low background, in the presence of which one has to detect the feeble signal from cosmic sources is a major advantage in conducting hard X-ray observations from India. The second advantage is that many bright sources like Cyg X-1, Crab Nebula, Scorpius X-1 and Galactic Centre sources are observable from Hyderabad due to their favourable declination. With these considerations, an X-ray astronomy group was formed at TIFR in 1967 and development of an instrument with an orientable X-ray telescope for hard X-ray observations was undertaken. The first balloon flight with the new instrument was made on 28 April 1968 in which observations of Scorpius X-1 were successfully carried out. In a succession of balloon flights made with this instrument between 1968 and 1974 a number of binary X-ray sources including Cyg X-1 and Her X-1, and the diffuse cosmic X-ray background were studied. Many new and astrophysically important results were obtained from these observations. ISRO played a role in the discovery of three species of bacteria in the upper stratosphere at an altitude of between . The bacteria, highly resistant to ultra-violet radiation, are not found elsewhere on Earth, leading to speculation on whether they are extraterrestrial in origin. These three bacteria can be considered to be extremophiles. The bacteria were named as Bacillus isronensis in recognition of ISRO's contribution in the balloon experiments, which led to its discovery, Bacillus aryabhata after India's celebrated ancient astronomer Aryabhata and Janibacter hoylei after the distinguished astrophysicist Fred Hoyle. Astrosat Launched in 2015, Astrosat is India's first dedicated multi-wavelength space observatory. Its observation study includes active galactic nuclei, hot white dwarfs, pulsations of pulsars, binary star systems, and supermassive black holes located at the centre of the galaxy. Extraterrestrial exploration Lunar exploration Chandryaan () are the series of India's lunar exploration spacecrafts. Initial mission included orbiter and controlled impact probes while further missions include landers, rovers and sampling missions also. Chandrayaan-1 Chandrayaan-1 was India's first mission to the Moon. The robotic lunar exploration mission included a lunar orbiter and an impactor called the Moon Impact Probe. ISRO launched the spacecraft using a modified version of the PSLV on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. The vehicle was inserted into lunar orbit on 8 November 2008. It carried high-resolution remote sensing equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-ray frequencies. During its 312 days operational period (2 years planned), it surveyed the lunar surface to produce a complete map of its chemical characteristics and 3-dimensional topography. The polar regions were of special interest, as they possibly had ice deposits. The spacecraft carried 11 instruments: 5 Indian and 6 from foreign institutes and space agencies (including NASA, ESA, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Brown University and other European and North American institutes/companies), which were carried free of cost. Chandrayaan-1 became the first lunar mission to discover existence of water on the Moon. The Chandrayaan-1 team was awarded the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics SPACE 2009 award, the International Lunar Exploration Working Group's International Co-operation award in 2008, and the National Space Society's 2009 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering category. Chandrayaan-2 Chandrayaan-2 is the second mission to the Moon, which included an orbiter, a lander and a rover. Chandrayaan-2 was launched on a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV-MkIII) on 22 July 2019, consisted of a lunar orbiter, the Vikram lander, and the Pragyan lunar rover, all of which were developed in India. It was the first mission meant to explore the little-explored lunar south pole region. The main objective of the Chandrayaan-2 mission is to demonstrate ISRO's ability to soft-land on the lunar surface and operate a robotic rover on the surface. Some of its scientific aims are to conduct studies of lunar topography, mineralogy, elemental abundance, the lunar exosphere, and signatures of hydroxyl and water ice. The Vikram lander, carrying the Pragyan rover, was scheduled to land on the near side of the Moon, in a south polar region at a latitude of about 70° south at approximately 1:50 am(IST) on 7 September 2019. However, the lander deviated from its intended trajectory starting from an altitude of 2.1 kilometres (1.3 mi), and telemetry was lost seconds before touchdown was expected. A review board concluded that the crash-landing was caused by a software glitch. The lunar orbiter was efficiently positioned in an optimal lunar orbit, extending its expected service time from one year to seven years. There will be another attempt for soft landing on moon in 2023, but without an orbiter. Mars exploration Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) or (Mangalyaan-1) The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), informally known as Mangalyaan, was launched into Earth orbit on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and has entered Mars orbit on 24 September 2014. India thus became the first country to enter Mars orbit on its first attempt. It was completed at a record low cost of $74 million. MOM was placed into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014 at 8:23 am IST. The spacecraft had a launch mass of , with of five scientific instruments as payload. The National Space Society awarded the Mars Orbiter Mission team the 2015 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering category. Future projects Along with a number of communication and Earth observation satellites in future, ISRO aims to send humans into space and later establish a space station to facilitate a few weeks long stay of astronauts. Agency aims to develop and operationalise more powerful and less pollutive rocket engines to eventually develop much heavier rockets, develop electric and nuclear propulsion for satellites and spacecrafts for reduced weight and longer lives, landing a rover on the Moon, sending missions to Sun, Venus, Mars, asteroids, comets and the outer Solar System, deploying more telescopes in space and developing satellite navigation systems with global coverage. Long-term plans may include manned landings on Moon and other planets as well. Launch vehicles and engines Semi-cryogenic engine SCE-200 is a rocket grade kerosene (dubbed "ISROsene") and LOX based semi-cryogenic rocket engine inspired from RD-120. The engine will be less pollutive and far more powerful. When mated with GSLV Mark III, the engine will boost its payload capacity and will be used in clusters in future to power India's heavy rockets. Methalox engine Methane and LOX based engines are being developed to ensure reusability of engines. Methane is less pollutive, leaves no residue and hence engine needs no refurbishment. LPSC has already undertaken cold flow tests of engine prototypes in 2020. Modular heavy rockets A number of concepts of heavy and super-heavy lift launch vehicles are currently being studied by the agency. Launchers are being designed to be modular to facilitate interchangeability of parts and reduce the time of production. There have been multiple mentions of a 10 tonnes capacity "HLV" and an "SHLV"capable of delivering 50-100 tonnes into orbit in various reports, statements and presentations from ISRO officials. ISRO has a target to develop a launcher in the 2020s which will be capable of carrying nearly 16 tonnes to geostationary transfer orbit which would be nearly four times that of the existing GSLV Mark III. ISRO has also been confirmed to be conducting preliminary research for the development of a Super heavy-lift launch vehicle which is planned to have a lifting capacity of over 50–60 tonnes into earth's orbit. A rocket family of five medium to heavy-lift class modular rockets dubbed as "Unified Modular Launch Vehicle" (UMLV) or just "Unified Launch Vehicle" (ULV) are being planned which will share parts and will replace ISRO's existing PSLV, GSLV and LVM3 rockets completely. The rocket family will be powered by SCE-200 cryogenic engine and will have a capacity of lifting from 4.9 tonnes to 16 tonnes to geostationary transfer orbit. Reusable launchers There have been two reusable launcher projects ongoing at ISRO. One is ADMIRE test vehicle, conceived as a VTVL system and another is RLV-TD programme, being run to develop a spacecraft similar to American space shuttle which will be launched vertically but land like a plane. For realising a two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) fully re-usable launch vehicle, a series of technology demonstration missions have been conceived. For this purpose, the winged Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) has been configured. The RLV-TD is acting as a flying testbed to evaluate various technologies such as hypersonic flight, autonomous landing, powered cruise flight, and hypersonic flight using air-breathing propulsion. First in the series of demonstration trials was the Hypersonic Flight Experiment (HEX). ISRO launched the prototype's test flight from the Sriharikota spaceport in February 2016. The prototype, called RLV-TD, weighs around 1.5 tonnes and flew up to a height of . The test flight, known as HEX, was completed on 23 May 2016. A scaled up version of could serve as fly-back booster stage for their winged TSTO concept. The test is to be followed by a landing experiment (LEX) and return flight experiment (REX). Small Satellite Launch Vehicle Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is a compact small-lift launch vehicle primarily aimed at tapping small satellites market. This launcher can be quickly assembled with low power and hence facilitates far higher launch frequency. SSLV can place in low Earth orbit and in Sun-synchronous orbit. Spacecraft propulsion and power Electric thrusters India has been working on replacing conventional chemical propulsion with hall effect and plasma thrusters which would help in cutting down spacecrafts' mass. GSAT-4 was first Indian spacecraft to carry electric thrusters but failed to reach orbit. GSAT-9 launched later in 2017 had partial electric propulsion. GSAT-20 is expected to be first fully electric satellite from India. Alpha source thermoelectric propulsion technology Radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), also called alpha source thermoelectric technology by ISRO is a type of atomic battery which uses nuclear decay heat of radioactive material to power the spacecraft. In January 2021, U R Rao Satellite Centre issued an Expression of Interest (EoI) for design and development of a 100 W RTG. RTGs ensure much longer spacecraft life and have less mass than solar panels on satellites. Development of RTGs will allow ISRO to undertake long endurance deep space missions to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Extraterrestrial probes Lunar exploration Chandryaan-3 is India's planned second attempt to soft land on the Moon after failure of Chandrayaan-2 in doing so. The mission will only include a lander-rover set and will communicate with the orbiter of previous mission. The technology demonstrated in a successful Moon landing will be used in joint Indo-Japanese Lunar Polar Exploration Mission for sampling and analysis of lunar soil. Mars exploration The next Mars mission, Mars Orbiter Mission 2 or Mangalyaan 2 has been proposed for launch in 2024. The newer spacecraft will be significantly heavier and better equipped than its predecessor. It will only consist of an Orbiter. Venus exploration ISRO is assessing an orbiter mission to Venus called Shukrayaan-1, that could launch as early as 2023 to study its atmosphere. Some budget has been allocated to perform preliminary studies as part of 2017–18 Indian budget under Space Sciences, and solicitations for potential instruments were requested in 2017 and in 2018. Mission to Venus is scheduled for 2025 that will include a payload instrument called Venus Infrared Atmospheric Gases Linker (VIRAL) which is co-developed with Laboratoire atmosphères, milieux, observations spatiales (LATMOS) under French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) and Roscosmos. Solar probes ISRO is scheduled to carry out a mission to study the Solar corona, due for launch in 2022. The probe is named Aditya-L1 and will have a mass of about . It is the first Indian space-based solar coronagraph to study the corona in visible and near-IR bands. Launch of the Aditya mission was planned during the heightened solar activity period in 2012, but was postponed to 2021 due to the extensive work involved in the fabrication, and other technical aspects. The main objective of the mission is to study coronal mass ejections (CMEs), their properties (the structure and evolution of their magnetic fields for example), and consequently constrain parameters that affect space weather. Asteroids and outer solar system Conceptual studies are underway to launch spacecrafts to asteroids and Jupiter as well in long term. The ideal launch window to send a spacecraft to Jupiter occurs every 33 months. If the mission to Jupiter is launched, a flyby of Venus would be required. Development of RTEG might facilitate agency to further undertake deeper space missions like to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Space telescopes and observatories AstroSat-2 AstroSat-2 is the successor of Astrosat mission. XPoSat The X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) is a planned mission to study polarisation. It is planned to have a mission life of five years and is planned to be launched in 2022. The spacecraft is planned to carry the Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays (POLIX) payload which will study the degree and angle of polarisation of bright astronomical X-ray sources in the energy range 5–30 keV. Exoworlds Exoworlds is a joint proposal by ISRO, IIST and the University of Cambridge for a space telescope dedicated for atmospheric studies of exoplanets. The proposal is aiming for readiness by 2025. Forthcoming satellites Applications Telecommunication India uses its satellite communication network – one of the largest in the world – for applications such as land management, water resources management, natural disaster forecasting, radio networking, weather forecasting, meteorological imaging and computer communication. Business, administrative services, and schemes such as the National Informatics Centre (NIC) are direct beneficiaries of applied satellite technology. Dinshaw Mistry, on the subject of practical applications of the Indian space program, writes: Resource management The IRS satellites have found applications with the Indian Natural Resource Management program, with Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres in five Indian cities, and with Remote Sensing Application Centres in twenty Indian states that use IRS images for economic development applications. These include environmental monitoring, analysing soil erosion and the impact of soil conservation measures, forestry management, determining land cover for wildlife sanctuaries, delineating groundwater potential zones, flood inundation mapping, drought monitoring, estimating crop acreage and deriving agricultural production estimates, fisheries monitoring, mining and geological applications such as surveying metal and mineral deposits, and urban planning. Military Integrated Space Cell, under the Integrated Defence Staff headquarters of the Indian Ministry of Defence, has been set up to utilise more effectively the country's space-based assets for military purposes and to look into threats to these assets. This command will leverage space technology including satellites. Unlike an aerospace command, where the air force controls most of its activities, the Integrated Space Cell envisages cooperation and coordination between the three services as well as civilian agencies dealing with space. With 14 satellites, including GSAT-7A for the exclusive military use and the rest as dual use satellites, India has the fourth largest number of satellites active in the sky which includes satellites for the exclusive use of Indian Air Force and Indian Navy respectively. GSAT-7A, an advanced military communications satellite exclusively for the Indian Air Force, is similar to Indian Navy's GSAT-7, and GSAT-7A will enhance Network-centric warfare capabilities of the Indian Air Force by interlinking different ground radar stations, ground airbase and Airborne early warning and control (AWACS) aircraft such as Beriev A-50 Phalcon and DRDO AEW&CS. GSAT-7A will also be used by Indian Army's Aviation Corps for its helicopters and UAV's operations. In 2013, ISRO launched GSAT-7 for the exclusive use of the Indian Navy to monitor the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) with the satellite's 'footprint' and real-time input capabilities to Indian warships, submarines and maritime aircraft. To boost the network-centric operations of the IAF, ISRO launched GSAT-7A on 19 December 2018. The RISAT series of radar-imaging earth observation satellites is also meant for Military use. ISRO launched EMISAT on 1 April 2019. EMISAT is an electronic intelligence (ELINT) satellite which has a weight of 436-kg. It will help improve the situational awareness of the Indian Armed Forces by providing information and location of hostile radars. India's satellites and satellite launch vehicles have had military spin-offs. While India's range Prithvi missile is not derived from the Indian space programme, the intermediate range Agni missile is drawn from the Indian space programme's SLV-3. In its early years, when headed by Vikram Sarabhai and Satish Dhawan, ISRO opposed military applications for its dual-use projects such as the SLV-3. Eventually, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) based missile programme borrowed human resources and technology from ISRO. Missile scientist A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (elected president of India in 2002), who had headed the SLV-3 project at ISRO, moved to DRDO to direct India's missile programme. About a dozen scientists accompanied Kalam from ISRO to DRDO, where he designed the Agni missile using the SLV-3's solid fuel first stage and a liquid-fuel (Prithvi-missile-derived) second stage. The IRS and INSAT satellites were primarily intended and used for civilian-economic applications, but they also offered military spin-offs. In 1996 New Delhi's Ministry of Defence temporarily blocked the use of IRS-1C by India's environmental and agricultural ministries to monitor ballistic missiles near India's borders. In 1997, the Indian Air Force's "Airpower Doctrine" aspired to use space assets for surveillance and battle management. Academic Institutions like the Indira Gandhi National Open University and the Indian Institutes of Technology use satellites for scholarly applications. Between 1975 and 1976, India conducted its largest sociological programme using space technology, reaching 2400villages through video programming in local languages aimed at educational development via ATS-6 technology developed by NASA. This experiment—named Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)—conducted large scale video broadcasts resulting in significant improvement in rural education. Education could reach far remote rural places with the help of above programs. Telemedicine ISRO has applied its technology for telemedicine, directly connecting patients in rural areas to medical professionals in urban locations via satellites. Since high-quality healthcare is not universally available in some of the remote areas of India, the patients in remote areas are diagnosed and analysed by doctors in urban centers in real time via video conferencing. The patient is then advised medicine and treatment. The patient is then treated by the staff at one of the 'super-specialty hospitals' under instructions from the doctor. Mobile telemedicine vans are also deployed to visit locations in far-flung areas and provide diagnosis and support to patients. Biodiversity Information System ISRO has also helped implement India's Biodiversity Information System, completed in October 2002. Nirupa Sen details the program: "Based on intensive field sampling and mapping using satellite remote sensing and geospatial modeling tools, maps have been made of vegetation cover on a 1: 250,000 scale. This has been put together in a web-enabled database that links gene-level information of plant species with spatial information in a BIOSPEC database of the ecological hot spot regions, namely northeastern India, Western Ghats, Western Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This has been made possible with collaboration between the Department of Biotechnology and ISRO." Cartography The Indian IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was equipped with high-resolution panchromatic equipment to enable it for cartographic purposes. IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was followed by a more advanced model named IRS-P6 developed also for agricultural applications. The CARTOSAT-2 project, equipped with single panchromatic camera that supported scene-specific on-spot images, succeeded the CARTOSAT-1 project. Spin-offs ISRO's research has been diverted into spin-offs to develop various technologies for other sectors. Examples include bionic limbs for people without or amputated limbs, silica aerogel to keep Indian soldiers warm who are serving in extremely cold areas, distress alert transmitters for accidents, Doppler weather radar and various sensors and machines for inspection work in engineering industries. International cooperations ISRO has signed various formal cooperative arrangements in the form of either Agreements or Memoranda of Understanding (MoU) or Framework Agreements with Afghanistan, Algeria, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Brunei, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Maldives, Mauritius, Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Myanmar, Norway, Peru, Portugal, South Korea, Russia, São Tomé and Príncipe, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Oman, Sweden, Syria, Tajikistan, Thailand, the Netherlands, Tunisia, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, Uzbekistan, Venezuela and Vietnam. Formal cooperative instruments have been signed with international multilateral bodies including European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), European Commission, European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), European Space Agency (ESA) and South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). Notable collaborative projects Chandryaan-1 Chandrayaan-1 also carried scientific payloads to the moon from NASA, ESA, Bulgarian Space Agency, and other institutions/companies in North America and Europe. Indo-French satellite missions ISRO has two collaborative satellite missions with CNES, namely Megha-Tropiques to study water cycle in the tropical atmosphere and SARAL for altimetry. A third mission consisting of an earth observation satellite with thermal infrared imager, TRISHNA (Thermal infraRed Imaging Satellite for High resolution Natural resource Assessment) is being planned between two countries. LUPEX Lunar Polar Exploration Mission is a joint Indo-Japanese mission to study the surface of polar moon where India is tasked with providing soft landing technologies. NISAR NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) is a joint Indo-US radar project carrying an L Band and an S Band radar. It will be world's first radar imaging satellite to use dual frequencies. Some other notable instances include: ISRO operates LUT/MCC under the international COSPAS/SARSAT Programme for Search and Rescue. India has established a Centre for Space Science and Technology Education in Asia and the Pacific (CSSTE-AP) that is sponsored by the United Nations. India is a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Cospas-Sarsat, International Astronautical Federation, Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), International Space University, and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellite (CEOS). Contributing to planned BRICS virtual constellation for remote sensing. Statistics Last updated: 14 February 2022 Total number of foreign satellites launched by ISRO: 342 (35 countries) Spacecraft missions: 114 Launch missions: 83 Student satellites: 13 Re-entry missions: 2 Budget for the Department of Space Controversies S-band spectrum scam In India, electromagnetic spectrum, being a scarce resource for wireless communication, is auctioned by the Government of India to telecom companies for use. As an example of its value, in 2010, 20 MHz of 3G spectrum was auctioned for . This part of the spectrum is allocated for terrestrial communication (cell phones). However, in January 2005, Antrix Corporation (commercial arm of ISRO) signed an agreement with Devas Multimedia (a private company formed by former ISRO employees and venture capitalists from the US) for lease of S band transponders (amounting to 70 MHz of spectrum) on two ISRO satellites (GSAT 6 and GSAT 6A) for a price of , to be paid over a period of 12 years. The spectrum used in these satellites (2500 MHz and above) is allocated by the International Telecommunication Union specifically for satellite-based communication in India. Hypothetically, if the spectrum allocation is changed for utilisation for terrestrial transmission and if this 70 MHz of spectrum were sold at the 2010 auction price of the 3G spectrum, its value would have been over . This was a hypothetical situation. However, the Comptroller and Auditor General of India considered this hypothetical situation and estimated the difference between the prices as a loss to the Indian Government. There were lapses on implementing Government of India procedures. Antrix/ISRO had allocated the capacity of the above two satellites to Devas Multimedia on an exclusive basis, while rules said it should always be non-exclusive. The Cabinet was misinformed in November 2005 that several service providers were interested in using satellite capacity, while the Devas deal was already signed. Also, the Space Commission was kept in the dark while taking approval for the second satellite (its cost was diluted so that Cabinet approval was not needed). ISRO committed to spending of public money on building, launching, and operating two satellites that were leased out for Devas. In late 2009, some ISRO insiders exposed information about the Devas-Antrix deal, and the ensuing investigations resulted in the deal being annulled. G. Madhavan Nair (ISRO Chairperson when the agreement was signed) was barred from holding any post under the Department of Space. Some former scientists were found guilty of "acts of commission" or "acts of omission". Devas and Deutsche Telekom demanded US$2 billion and US$1 billion, respectively, in damages. Government of India's Department of Revenue and Ministry of Corporate Affairs initiated an inquiry into Devas shareholding. The Central Bureau of Investigation concluded investigations into the Antrix-Devas scam and registered a case against the accused in the Antrix-Devas deal under Section 120-B, besides Section 420 of IPC and Section 13(2) read with 13(1)(d) of PC Act, 1988 on 18 March 2015 against the then executive director of Antrix Corporation, two officials of USA-based company, Bangalore based private multimedia company, and other unknown officials of Antrix Corporation or Department of Space. Devas Multimedia started arbitration proceedings against Antrix in June 2011. In September 2015, the International Court of Arbitration of the International Chamber of Commerce ruled in favour of Devas, and directed Antrix to pay US$672 million (Rs 44.35 billion) in damages to Devas. Antrix opposed the Devas plea for tribunal award in the Delhi High Court. See also Comparison of Asian national space programs Deep Ocean mission Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology List of government space agencies List of ISRO missions New Space India Limited Science and technology in India Space industry of India Swami Vivekananda Planetarium Telecommunications in India Timeline of Solar System exploration Notes References ^'Additional Project Director' "Abhijeet Meshram" Saying About Chandrayan-2 at SHIKHAR DHAWAN SPACE STATION on (18 May 2019) Bibliography Further reading The Economics of India's Space Programme, by U. Sankar, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2007, The Indian Space Programme, by Gurbir Singh, Astrotalkuk Publications, Reach For the Stars: The Evolution of India's Rocket Programme, by Gopal Raj, From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India's Space Journey, by ISRO, Brief History of Rocketry in ISRO, by P V Manoranjan Rao and P Radhakrishnan, India's Rise as a Space Power, by U R Rao, External links Government agencies established in 1969 Rocket engine manufacturers of India Government agencies of India 1969 establishments in Mysore State Space agencies Recipients of the Gandhi Peace Prize Organisations based in Bangalore

1961 Pulitzer Prize

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The following are the Pulitzer Prizes for 1961. Journalism awards Public Service: The Amarillo Globe-Times, for "exposing a breakdown in local law enforcement with resultant punitive action that swept lax officials from their posts and brought about the election of a reform slate. The newspaper thus exerted its civic leadership in the finest tradition of journalism." Local Reporting, Edition Time: Sanche de Gramont of the New York Herald Tribune, "for his moving account of the death of Leonard Warren on the Metropolitan Opera stage". Local Reporting, No Edition time: Edgar May of The Buffalo Evening News, for his 14-part series about New York's public welfare services, "Our Costly Dilemma", which "brought about reforms that attracted nationwide attention". National Reporting: Edward R. Cony of The Wall Street Journal, "for his analysis of a timber transaction which drew the attention of the public to problems of business ethics". International Reporting: Lynn Heinzerling of the Associated Press, "for his reporting, under extraordinarily difficult conditions, of the early stages of the Congo crisis and his keen analysis of events in other parts of Africa". Editorial Writing: William J. Dorvillier of The San Juan Star, "for his editorials on clerical interference in the 1960 gubernatorial election in Puerto Rico". Editorial Cartooning: Carey Orr of the Chicago Tribune, "for his long and distinguished career as an editorial cartoonist, as exemplified by a cartoon captioned, 'The Kindly Tiger', published on October 8, 1960". Photography: Yasushi Nagao of Mainichi (Tokyo), for "Tokyo Stabbing", a photograph of the assassination of Japanese politician Inejiro Asanuma, distributed in the United States by United Press International. Letters, Music and Drama Awards Fiction: To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee (Lippincott) Drama: All the Way Home by Tad Mosel (Obolensky) History: Between War and Peace: The Potsdam Conference by Herbert Feis (Princeton Univ. Press) Biography or Autobiography: Charles Sumner and the Coming of the Civil War by David Donald (Knopf) Poetry: Times Three: Selected Verse From Three Decades by Phyllis McGinley (Viking) Music: Symphony No. 7 by Walter Piston (Associated Music Publishers), first performed by the Philadelphia Orchestra on February 10, 1961, and commissioned by the Philadelphia Orchestra Association. Special Citation: American Heritage Picture History of the Civil War, as a distinguished example of American book publishing. References External links Pulitzer Prizes for 1961 Pulitzer Prizes by year Pulitzer Prize Pulitzer Prize

Keyes

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Keyes may refer to: Keyes (surname), including a list of people with the name Places Keyes, California Keyes, Oklahoma Characters Captain Jacob Keyes and his daughter Miranda, fictional characters from the video game Halo Carlito Keyes, fictional character Sammy Keyes, fictional character See also Cays, often pronounced "keys" Key (disambiguation)

The Dark Tower VII: The Dark Tower

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The Dark Tower is a fantasy novel by American writer Stephen King. It is the seventh and final book in his Dark Tower series. It was published by Grant on September 21, 2004 (King's birthday), and illustrated by Michael Whelan. It has four subtitles: REPRODUCTION, REVELATION, REDEMPTION, and RESUMPTION – all but the second of these having been used as subtitles for previous novels in the series. Plot summary Beginning where book six left off, Jake Chambers and Father Callahan battle the evil infestation within the Dixie Pig, a vampire lounge in New York City featuring roast human flesh and doors to other worlds. After fighting off and destroying numerous "Low-Men" and Type One Vampires, Callahan sacrifices himself to let Jake survive. In the other world—Fedic—Mia, her body now physically separated from Susannah Dean, gives birth to Mordred Deschain, the biological son of Roland Deschain and Susannah. The Crimson King is also a "co-father" of this prophetic child, so it is not surprising when "baby" Mordred's first act is to shapeshift into a spider-creature and feast on his birth-mother. Susannah shoots but fails to kill Mordred, eliminates other agents of the Crimson King, and escapes to meet up with Jake at the cross-dimensional door beneath the Dixie Pig which connects to Fedic. Maturing at an accelerated rate, Mordred later stalks Roland and the other gunslingers throughout this adventure, shifting from human to spider as the need arises, seething with an instinctive rage toward Roland, his "white daddy." In Maine, Roland and Eddie recruit John Cullum, and then make their way back to Fedic, where the ka-tet is now reunited. Walter (known in other stories as Randall Flagg) plans to slay Mordred and use the birthmark on Mordred's heel to gain access to the Tower, but he is easily slain by the infant when Mordred sees through his lies. Roland and his ka-tet travel to Thunderclap, then to the nearby Devar-Toi, to help a group of psychics known as Breakers who are allowing their telepathic abilities to be used to break away at the beams that support the Tower. Ted Brautigan and Dinky Earnshaw assist the gunslingers with information and weapons, and reunite Roland with his old friend Sheemie Ruiz from Mejis. The Gunslingers free the Breakers from their captors, but Eddie is wounded after the battle and dies a short while later. Roland and Jake pause to mourn and then jump to Maine of 1999 along with Oy, in order to save the life of Stephen King (whom he writes to be a secondary character in the book); the ka-tet have come to believe that the success of their quest depends on King surviving to write about it through his books. They discover King about to be hit by a van. Jake pushes King out of the way but Jake is killed in the process. Roland, heartbroken with the loss of the person he considers his true son, buries Jake and returns with Oy to Susannah in Fedic, via the Dixie Pig. They are chased through the depths of Castle Discordia by an otherworldly monster, then depart and travel for weeks across freezing badlands toward the Tower. Along the way they find Patrick Danville, a young man imprisoned by someone who calls himself Joe Collins but is really a psychic vampire named Dandelo. Dandelo feeds off the emotions of his victims, and starts to feed off of Roland and Susannah by telling them jokes. Roland and Susannah are alerted to the danger by Stephen King, who drops clues directly into the book, enabling them to defeat the vampire. They discover Patrick in the basement, and find that Dandelo had removed his tongue. Patrick is freed and soon his special talent becomes evident: his drawings and paintings become reality. As their travels bring them nearer to the Dark Tower, Susannah comes to the conclusion that Roland needs to complete his journey without her. Susannah asks Patrick to draw a door she has seen in her dreams to lead her out of this world. He does so and once it appears, Susannah says goodbye to Roland and crosses over to another world. Mordred finally reaches and attacks Roland. Oy viciously defends his dinh, providing Roland the extra seconds needed to exterminate the were-spider. Oy is impaled on a tree branch and dies. Roland continues on to his ultimate goal and reaches the Tower, only to find it occupied by the Crimson King. They remain in a stalemate for a few hours, until Roland has Patrick draw a picture of the Crimson King and then erase it, thus wiping him out of existence except for his eyes. Roland gains entry into the Tower while Patrick turns back home. The last scene is that of Roland crying out the names of his loved ones and fallen comrades as he had vowed to do. The door of the Dark Tower closes shut as Patrick watches from a distance. The story then shifts to Susannah coming through the magic door to an alternate 1980s New York, where Gary Hart is president. Susannah throws away Roland's gun (which does not function on this side of the door), rejecting the life of a gunslinger, and starts a new life with alternate versions of Eddie and Jake, who in this world are brothers with the surname Toren. They have only very vague memories of their previous journey with Susannah, whose own memories of Mid-World are already beginning to fade. It is implied that an alternate version of Oy, the billy-bumbler, will also join them. In a final "Coda" section, King urges the reader to close the book at this point, consider the story finished with a happy ending, and not venture inside the Tower with Roland. For those who do not heed the warning, the story resumes with Roland stepping into the Dark Tower. He realizes that the Tower is not really made of stone, but a kind of flesh: it is Gan's physical body. As he climbs the steps, Roland encounters various rooms containing siguls or signs of his past life. When he reaches the top of the Tower, he finds a door marked with his own name and opens it. Roland instantly realizes, to his horror, that he has reached the Tower countless times before. He is forced through the door by the hands of Gan and transported back in time to the Mohaine desert, back to where he was at the beginning of The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger, with no memories of what has just occurred. The only difference is that, this time, Roland possesses the Horn of Eld, which in the previous incarnation he had left lying on the ground after the Battle of Jericho Hill. Roland hears the voice of Gan, whispering that, if he reaches the Tower again, perhaps this time the result will be different; there may yet be rest. The series ends where it began in the first line of book one: "The man in black fled across the desert, and the gunslinger followed." Reception The novel won the British Fantasy Award in 2005. Film sequel On May 18, 2016, Stephen King tweeted a photo of the Horn of Eld with the caption 'Last Time Around', referring to the end of the final book and revealing that the upcoming 2017 film is a sequel to the book series rather than a direct adaptation. In the beginning of the film, Roland has the Horn of Eld, which he received at the end of The Dark Tower VII: The Dark Tower. References External links The Dark Tower official website TheDarkTower.org Towerpedia! The Dark Tower at Worlds Without End 2004 American novels 7 American fantasy novels Dark fantasy novels 2004 science fiction novels 2004 fantasy novels Sequel novels Self-reflexive novels Books with cover art by Michael Whelan

Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation

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The Convention on International Civil Aviation, also known as the Chicago Convention, established the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a specialized agency of the UN charged with coordinating international air travel. The Convention establishes rules of airspace, aircraft registration and safety, security, and sustainability, and details the rights of the signatories in relation to air travel. The Convention also contains provisions pertaining to taxation. The document was signed on December 7, 1944, in Chicago by 52 signatory states. It received the requisite 26th ratification on March 5, 1947, and went into effect on April 4, 1947, the same date that ICAO came into being. In October of the same year, ICAO became a specialized agency of the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). The Convention has since been revised eight times (in 1959, 1963, 1969, 1975, 1980, 1997, 2000 and 2006). As of March 2019, the Chicago Convention had 193 state parties, which includes all member states of the United Nations except Liechtenstein. The Cook Islands is a party to the Convention although it is not a member of the UN. The convention has been extended to cover Liechtenstein by the ratification of Switzerland. Main articles Some important articles are: Article 1: Every state has complete and exclusive sovereignty over airspace above its territory. Article 3 bis: Every other state must refrain from resorting to the use of weapons against civil aircraft in flight. Article 5: The aircraft of states, other than scheduled international air services, have the right to make flights across state's territories and to make stops without obtaining prior permission. However, the state may require the aircraft to make a landing. Article 6: (Scheduled air services) No scheduled international air service may be operated over or into the territory of a contracting State, except with the special permission or other authorization of that State. Article 10: (Landing at customs airports): The state can require that landing to be at a designated customs airport and similarly departure from the territory can be required to be from a designated customs airport. Article 12: Each state shall keep its own rules of the air as uniform as possible with those established under the convention, the duty to ensure compliance with these rules rests with the contracting state. Article 13: (Entry and Clearance Regulations) A state's laws and regulations regarding the admission and departure of passengers, crew or cargo from aircraft shall be complied with on arrival, upon departure and whilst within the territory of that state. Article 16: The authorities of each state shall have the right to search the aircraft of other states on landing or departure, without unreasonable delay. Article 24: Aircraft flying to, from or across, the territory of a state shall be admitted temporarily free of duty. Fuel, oil, spare parts, regular equipment and aircraft stores retained on board are also exempted from customs duty, inspection fees or similar charges. Article 29: Before an international flight, the pilot in command must ensure that the aircraft is airworthy, duly registered and that the relevant certificates are on board the aircraft. The required documents are: Certificate of registration Certificate of airworthiness Passenger names, place of boarding and destination Crew licenses Journey Logbook Radio Licence Cargo manifest Article 30: The aircraft of a state flying in or over the territory of another state shall only carry radios licensed and used in accordance with the regulations of the state in which the aircraft is registered. The radios may only be used by members of the flight crew suitably licensed by the state in which the aircraft is registered. Article 32: The pilot and crew of every aircraft engaged in international aviation must have certificates of competency and licensees issued or validated by the state in which the aircraft is registered. Article 33: (Recognition of Certificates and Licences) Certificates of airworthiness, certificates of competency and licensees issued or validated by the state in which the aircraft is registered, shall be recognized as valid by other states. The requirements for the issuing of those certificates or airworthiness, certificates of competency or licensees must be equal to or above the minimum standards established by the Convention. Article 40: No aircraft or personnel with endorsed licenses or certificate will engage in international navigation except with the permission of the state or states whose territory is entered. Any license holder who does not satisfy international standard relating to that license or certificate shall have attached to or endorsed on that license information regarding the particulars in which he does not satisfy those standards. Annexes The Convention is supported by nineteen annexes containing standards and recommended practices (SARPs). The annexes are amended regularly by ICAO and are as follows: Annex 1 – Personnel Licensing Licensing of flight crews, air traffic controllers & aircraft maintenance personnel. Including Chapter 6 containing medical standards. Annex 2 – Rules of the Air Appendix 1 - Signals Appendix 2 - Interception of civil aircraft Appendix 3 - Tables of cruising levels Appendix 4 - Unmanned free balloons ATTACHMENT A. Interception of civil aircraft ATTACHMENT B. Unlawful interference Annex 3 – Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation Vol I – Core SARPs Vol II – Appendices and Attachments Annex 4 – Aeronautical Charts Annex 5 – Units of Measurement to be used in Air and Ground Operations Annex 6 – Operation of Aircraft Part I – International Commercial Air Transport – Aeroplanes Part II – International General Aviation – Aeroplanes Part III – International Operations – Helicopters Annex 7 – Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks Annex 8 – Airworthiness of Aircraft Annex 9 – Facilitation Annex 10 – Aeronautical Telecommunications Vol I – Radio Navigation Aids Vol II – Communication Procedures including those with PANS status Vol III – Communication Systems Part I – Digital Data Communication Systems Part II – Voice Communication Systems Vol IV – Surveillance Radar and Collision Avoidance Systems Vol V – Aeronautical Radio Frequency Spectrum Utilization Annex 11 – Air Traffic Services – Air Traffic Control Service, Flight Information Service and Alerting Service Annex 12 – Search and Rescue Annex 13 – Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation Annex 14 – Aerodromes Vol I – Aerodrome Design and Operations Vol II – Heliports Annex 15 – Aeronautical Information Services Annex 16 – Environmental Protection Vol I – Aircraft Noise Vol II – Aircraft Engine Emissions Vol III – CO2 Certification Requirement Vol IV – Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) Annex 17 – Security: Safeguarding International Civil Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful Interference Annex 18 – The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air Annex 19 – Safety Management (Since 14 November 2013) Annex 5, Units of Measurement to be Used in Air and Ground Operations, named in its Table 3-3 three "non-SI alternative units permitted for temporary use with the SI": the foot (for vertical distance = altitude), the knot (for speed), and the nautical mile (for long distance). See also International Civil Aviation Day References Bibliography Paul Michael Krämer, Chicago Convention, 50th Anniversary Conference, Chicago, October 31 – November 1, 1994. Zeitschrift für Luft und Weltraumrecht 1995, S. 57. 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Red River Showdown

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The Oklahoma–Texas football rivalry is a college football rivalry game between border rivals Oklahoma and Texas. The two teams first played each other in 1900, and the rivalry has been renewed annually and uninterrupted since 1929 for a total of 117 games as of 2021. The rivalry is commonly referred to as the Red River Shootout, or alternatively the Red River Rivalry, or the Red River Showdown. The game has been played on the second Saturday in October since 1934 (with the exception 2018). Since 1932, the game's site has been the Cotton Bowl inside Fair Park in Dallas. The winner of the regular-season matchup receives the Golden Hat, which is a gold ten-gallon hat, formerly of bronze. The trophy is kept by the winning school's athletic department until the next year. Series history The first game in the series was played in 1900, when Oklahoma was still a territory. The game was formerly called the Red River Shootout. For the 100th game in 2005, sponsored by SBC Communications, the game was officially renamed the SBC Red River Rivalry, with the word "Rivalry" replacing "Shootout" out of a desire not to convey an attitude of condoning gun violence. The following year, with SBC's merger with AT&T Corporation, the game was renamed the AT&T Red River Rivalry. In 2014, it became the AT&T Red River Showdown. The term Red River Shootout or Red River Showdown is also applied to meetings between the two schools in sports other than football. During a Q&A session with DeLoss Dodds (the Athletic Director of UT) during the Big 12 restructuring and chaos that ensued thereafter, Dodds stated in an interview, "That game – the rivalry game for us has always been Oklahoma. The A&M game's been a great game and all of that. And we may play 'em. But it's not something that we have to do. I think the Oklahoma game is something we have to do." Since 1936, the first year of the AP Poll, at least one of the teams has come into the game ranked 70 times, including every one of the last 19 meetings. Texas leads the overall series , but since the end of World War II (1945), the series is narrowly in favor of Oklahoma at , and they lead over the last 21 meetings with a record of 14−7. In 2005, The Dallas Morning News asked the 119 Division 1A football coaches to identify the top rivalry game in college football. The Red River Rivalry ranked third, behind only Michigan–Ohio State and Army–Navy. Throughout the years 1900–1960 The first meeting between Oklahoma and Texas football teams occurred in 1900, before either team had acquired their current nickname. At that time, the Texas team was typically called "Varsity". The write-up in the Austin American-Statesman article referred to the game as a "practice game". The paper reported: The game of football yesterday afternoon at the Varsity athletic field was an interesting contrast, notwithstanding the rather one-sided score of 28–2 in favor of the Varsity. The Oklahoma men played a very good game, but they had weak points and the Varsity men found this out, and proceeded to take advantage of them. For instance, the visitors' tackles and ends were weak, and the Varsity men made most of their gains through these men. Their guards and center, though, were stiff enough, and the Varsity's attack at these points never netted large gains, and were frequently futile. While Oklahoma should be given credit for the stiffness of her center trio, the fact that the Varsity backs made but small headway at these points is partly due to the Varsity backs themselves. They had not the life and dash that is necessary to successful line plunging, and they failed to heed Coach Thompson's oft repeated admonition to hit the line low and with speed, and the consequence was that when they got to the line they did not have the necessary momentum to plunge on through. This was the case, notwithstanding the fact that the men are coached to play a good distance behind the line, so that they can get up speed by the time they reach it. In the 1950 rivalry game, Billy Vessels scored on an 11-yard run late in the contest and Texas native Jim Weatherall kicked the extra point to give Oklahoma a narrow 14–13 win. In 1958, Texas defeated Oklahoma by one point, breaking the University of Oklahoma's series dominance of the 1950s. The game was notable in that Texas Longhorns head coach Darrell Royal had 10 years earlier been the quarterback for the Oklahoma Sooners. Royal defeated his former coach and mentor Bud Wilkinson in the game. Wilkinson would lose to Texas the next five years before retiring in 1963. 1960–1995 The 1963 game featured No. 1 Oklahoma versus No. 2 Texas, the seventh regular season No. 1 versus No. 2 game (eighth, overall) in the history of the AP Poll. Texas won the game, took the No. 1 ranking and kept it for the rest of the season, winning its first national championship. In 1972, Oklahoma spied on Texas' practices, allowing them to block a quick kick the Longhorns had secretly been working on en route to a victory. The 1976 rivalry game was overshadowed by allegations by Texas coach Darrell Royal that Oklahoma had been spying on his practices. The claim was later confirmed in OU Coach Barry Switzer's book, Bootlegger's Boy. Royal and Switzer (who was 3–0 against Texas as a head coach coming into this game) were involved in a serious feud at the time. The 1976 game was attended by U.S. President Gerald Ford. Ford made an appearance with Royal and Switzer before the game. Switzer and Royal both spoke to Ford but not to each other. The game ended in a 6–6 tie. It was Royal's final Red River Shootout. In the 1977 game, Texas lost both their starting and backup quarterbacks in the first half. Yet, behind the power running of eventual Heisman Trophy winner Earl Campbell, a strong defense, and the unheralded composure of third-string-quarterback Randy McEachern, the Horns prevailed 13–6. In a rain-soaked 1984 game, Texas entered the game ranked No. 1, Oklahoma No. 3 (No. 2 in some polls). University of Oklahoma coach Barry Switzer wore a ballcap during the game that read "Beat Texas." This game also marked the only time that future University of Texas at Austin head coach Mack Brown participated in the Red River Shootout not as a Texas Longhorn (Brown was OU's offensive coordinator). Texas jumped to a 10–0 halftime lead but OU rallied to lead 15–12 in the game's closing seconds. With 10 seconds remaining, trailing by 3, Texas was driving and was within field goal range but decided to take one more shot at the end zone. Texas quarterback (and future North Texas head coach) Todd Dodge appeared (in replays) to be intercepted in the end zone by OU's Keith Stanberry, but the officials ruled it incomplete. Texas's Jeff Ward subsequently kicked a field goal and the game ended in a 15–15 tie. 1996–2001 The first Big 12 Conference overtime game, the 1996 meeting featured a John Blake squad under the direction of freshman quarterback Justin Fuente. The game ended Oklahoma 30–Texas 27 after a come from behind victory in the final seven minutes. Jarrail Jackson returned a punt 51 yards for a touchdown, then Fuente completed a 2-point conversion pass to Stephen Alexander to cut the lead to 24–21. The Sooners forced the Longhorns to punt, and drove to the Texas 28. Jeremy Alexander kicked a 44-yard field goal to tie the game at 24. In overtime, Texas was forced to settle for a 43-yard Phil Dawson field goal, after losing 1 yard on three plays. Lining up at the Texas 25, James Allen broke a ten-yard run, carried for two and three yards, then caught an 8-yard screen pass from Fuente on 3rd and 5 from the 10. On the next play, Allen took a pitch from Fuente two yards into the endzone, doing what he was unable to do two years before. The 2000 game was marked by rain and 49-degree weather, but it ended up being noted for bringing the most lopsided margin of victory in the history of the match-up (at that time; Oklahoma would top its feat three years later). Oklahoma came into the game ranked 10th, with Texas ranked 11th. This was the highest combined rankings of the teams since 1984. The Sooners got up to a 42-point lead before Texas scored. Oklahoma won the game 63–14. OU also held Texas to minus-7 yards rushing, an all-time regular-season low for the Longhorns. Longhorn coach Mack Brown said "It wasn't even a game because we did not play in the first half." Sooner coach Bob Stoops said, "This was a total team victory, everybody made plays. ...We had a little bit of everything." Stoops improved his record vs the Longhorns to 1 win, 1 loss as a result of the game. OU President David Boren cancelled classes the following Monday on account of inclement weather: "It was snowing touchdowns in Dallas." Sooner running back Quentin Griffin scored six touchdowns, tying the all-time NCAA record for most rushing touchdowns in a game. Oklahoma went on to an undefeated season, and won the 2000 National Championship. The 2001 game, which ended Oklahoma 14–Texas 3, was a classic defensive struggle that was notable for a play made late in the 4th quarter. Both the Sooners' and the Longhorns' defenses were outstanding, holding their counterparts to less than 100 yards rushing for the entire game. When either offense could muster any momentum, they were often let down by their kicker-OU's Tim Duncan missed two field goals and UT's Dusty Mangum had one blocked. OU led 7–3 at the half on a Quentin Griffin 2-yard touchdown in the second quarter. That score held until late in the fourth quarter. The Sooners got the ball with just over eight minutes to play on their own 20-yard line, and put together a 12-play, 53-yard drive that took them all the way to the Texas 27-yard line. Facing a 4th & 16, OU sent out Tim Duncan for what appeared to be a 44-yard FG attempt. Instead, Duncan sent a pooch punt deep into the Texas zone, which caught UT's Nathan Vasher off guard. Confused, Vasher caught the ball at his own 3-yard line and was immediately downed. Down 7–3, Texas had 2:06 to drive 97 yards on the stiff Sooner defense. On first down, Texas quarterback Chris Simms' pass was deflected by OU safety Roy Williams, who had blitzed and literally leapt over the blocker, Brett Robin, to collide with Simms at the moment he released the ball. The ball landed right in Oklahoma linebacker Teddy Lehman's hands, who walked into the endzone for a touchdown. The play happened so fast, many fans did not know exactly what had happened. The play by Roy Williams is often called "The Superman Play" because of the way that Williams resembled Superman flying through the air with his arms stretched out at Chris Simms when he hit him. Duncan's extra point sealed the 14–3 OU victory. 2005–2009 The 2005 game, which ended Texas 45–Oklahoma 12, was the 100th meeting in the series and a special logo was created to commemorate the event. The game logo included both team logos, the logo of the sponsor for that game, SBC communications, the number 100, a football, and a star. Prior to the game, the Longhorns were ranked 2nd by the Associated Press, and the Sooners were unranked for the first time since 1999, which was also Texas's last victory over OU. By breaking the string of five consecutive losses to Oklahoma, Longhorn coach Mack Brown preserved the Longhorns's National Championship hopes. With the win, Texas tied its largest margin of victory in the series. Freshman running back Jamaal Charles set a record for rushing yards by a Texas freshman in the series. With his 80-yard scamper, Charles also had the longest touchdown from scrimmage by a Texas running back in the series. The game also featured one of the most violent hits in the series history, when Texas DE, Brian Robison, blindsided Oklahoma quarterback, Rhett Bomar, in the 4th quarter, causing a fumble and ensuing touchdown by Longhorn tackle, Rodrique Wright. As had occurred the two seasons prior, the road to the National Championship game went through Dallas. Oklahoma left the game with a 1–1 conference record and a 2–3 record overall, finishing with a 6–2 conference and 8–4 overall record, including a victory in the Holiday Bowl. The Longhorns improved to 5–0 overall, 2–0 in the Big 12 on their way to an 8–0 conference, 13–0 overall record, including a victory in the Rose Bowl and the 2005 football National Championship. The 2007 match-up between Oklahoma and Texas was predicted to be the No. 3 game to watch in 2007 by SI.com's "Top 20 Games To Watch In 2007" list, and it did not disappoint. The game was close from start to finish as the Sooners struck first with a quick touchdown pass to TE Jermaine Gresham. QB Colt McCoy's passing attack responded quickly to tie the game for the 'Horns, then again to take a lead, particularly off the efforts of TE Jermichael Finley. The Sooners were able to tie the score going into the half off of another Sam Bradford-to-Jermaine Gresham connection. The Longhorns were able to get into the red zone at the beginning of the second half, but a costly fumble by RB Jamaal Charles at the 5-yard line cut short the momentum. A few series later, RB DeMarco Murray ripped off a 65-yard TD run to give the Sooners a 21–14 lead. The 'Horns did not take this lying down, as they were able to score soon thereafter. The Oklahoma passing attack scored the final touchdown of the game with about ten minutes left to play, on a 35-yard touchdown pass to WR Malcolm Kelly from Bradford. The 'Horns threatened twice in the final waning minutes, as it took a CB Reggie Smith interception and defensive play against star WR Limas Sweed to secure the win for Oklahoma. The 2008 Meeting of the Red River Rivalry ended Texas 45, Oklahoma 35. Oklahoma ranked No. 1 in the nation and Texas was ranked No. 5. Both were 5–0 coming into the game. In the first quarter, Bradford completed a 5-yard touchdown pass to Manuel Johnson. The Sooners led 7–0. With 6:41 left in the first quarter, Texas answered with a Hunter Lawrence 26-yard field goal. OU scored 2 touchdowns in the second quarter and Texas scored two touchdowns and a field goal including a 96-yard kickoff return by Jordan Shipley. The score at the half was 21–20 OU. Texas ended up winning this 103rd meeting, 45–35. At the time, it was the highest scoring event in the history of rivalry (the 2020 game now holds that record, with Oklahoma beating Texas, 53-45 in 4OT), and it was seen by the most fans, a record 92,182. Recent games In 2009 Texas won a low scoring game, 16–13. Texas scored only one touchdown and three field goals, while OU scored one touchdown and two field goals. Oklahoma quarterback Sam Bradford had injured his shoulder earlier in the year when playing the BYU Cougars, at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, TX. Despite this injury, Bradford started in the 2009 Red River Rivalry confident that his shoulder was healed. However, early in the first quarter a sack by Aaron Williams re-aggravated his injury and forced him out of the game, ending his season and making the Texas game his final college game. Texas quarterback Colt McCoy threw for 127 yards, while the team combined for 142 rushing yards. OU's replacement quarterback, Landry Jones, replaced Bradford and threw for 250 yards of passing with 2 interceptions. The most notable statistic of the game was that the Sooners were held to minus 16 yards of rushing by the Longhorn defense. In 2012, the 107th meeting of the Longhorns and Sooners, Oklahoma routed Texas 63 – 21. It appeared that the game would have a very different feel than the 2011 meeting after OU scored its first touchdown and Quandre Diggs of Texas recovered a blocked PAT and ran the distance of the field to score a 2-point conversion. This game had moments that will add to the history of this rivalry. Damien Williams broke free for a 95-yard touchdown run for the longest rush in Red River Rivalry history. Trey Millard had a 73-yard reception, the longest pass play by an OU player in Red River Rivalry history, surpassing Buddy Leake's 65-yarder in 1953. The Sooners dominated the Longhorns in every phase (offense, defense, and special teams) of this game, and Oklahoma ended up with a 677–289 advantage in total yardage and it is third 60+ point Red River scoring effort in Bob Stoops' tenure. In 2013, Texas came onto the field in Dallas with head coach Mack Brown on the hot seat. Former Longhorn great Earl Campbell had publicly stated two weeks earlier that Mack Brown was "too old" to continue coaching. Brown's players rallied behind their beleaguered coach, however, and Texas won the Red River Rivalry game for the first time since 2009. Texas walked in as major underdogs, in part due to a 1–2 start with an upset loss at BYU and a mauling by No. 25 Ole Miss. The game was notable in part because a defensive lineman from each team scored a touchdown on an interception return. In addition, Colt McCoy's brother Case lead the Longhorns to victory, becoming the first quarterback to lead the team to victory since his brother accomplished this feat in 2009. In 2014, the game was played following both teams' losses the prior weekend. Oklahoma had fallen to No. 11 in the rankings following its loss to No. 25 TCU, with a 4–1 record (1–1 Big 12), whereas Texas had fallen to a 2–3 record after losing to No. 7 Baylor, (also 1–1 Big 12). Oklahoma's offense had been explosive all five games prior, and its defense had been equally solid. With this being said, Texas' defense was able to prevent an Oklahoma offensive touchdown for the entire first half, and held the Sooners to under 30 total first-half yards, while the Texas Offense managed to gain over 240 yards. In each game of the 2014 season, every team that had led the opposition by more than 200 yards gained was 57–0. However, another perfect record had been on the line, as Oklahoma's first kick return was returned for a touchdown, and on Texas' first second-quarter possession, Oklahoma's defense forced an interception that was returned for a touchdown, and in every Oklahoma game where that occurred, Oklahoma won (8–0). Oklahoma was able to widen the halftime scoreline of 17–13 to 31–13 after a pair of offensive touchdowns, but Texas was able to score two late touchdowns of their own, but failed the second two-point conversion. Oklahoma was then able to take several minutes off the clock, and Texas was unable to score on its final possession, ending the game 31–26 in favor of Oklahoma. In 2015, Oklahoma walked into Dallas No. 10 in the country with a high-octane Air Raid offense while Texas was 1-4 after a string of painful losses due to special teams (Cal 45–44, missed PAT, Oklahoma State, 30–27 mishandled snap on punt setting up FG) and blowout losses (Notre Dame, 38–3, TCU, 50–7) with Charlie Strong's job already being in question in his second year. The Longhorns' running game pumped out 313 yards, which featured D'Onta Foreman breaking free for an 81-yard rush to set up a TD to put Texas in command 24–10 while the young Texas defense held OU to 67 yards rushing, and sacking OU quarterback Baker Mayfield multiple times as Texas stunned Oklahoma 24–17, giving Strong his first signature win. In 2018, Texas came into Dallas ranked No. 19 facing the undefeated No. 7 Oklahoma Sooners, the first time both teams were ranked since 2012. Heisman hopeful Kyler Murray got Oklahoma out to a fast start scoring on a 6-play, 65-yard drive that took only 2:40. On the ensuing possession, Texas, led by sophomore quarterback Sam Ehlinger, answered back with a 5-play 75-yard drive, in what was to be a common theme in the highest scoring game in series history. Texas appeared destined to regain the Golden Hat after taking a commanding 45-24 lead with just under a minute left in the third quarter but three unanswered touchdowns, including a 67-yard run by Kyler Murray that took only 11 seconds, tied the game at 45-45 with just 2:38 left to play. After driving the ball to the Oklahoma 23-yard line, Texas's Freshman kicker, Cameron Dicker, coolly kicked in a 40-yard game-winning field goal with 14 seconds left to play. Sam Ehlinger set the Texas Red River Showdown record for total offense with 394 yards. On December 1, the two faced off again in AT&T Stadium in Arlington to determine the Big 12 Conference Championship. It was the third time in history when they played again in the same season (1901 and 1903). No. 5 Oklahoma overcame a strong start by No. 14 Texas to win their fourth straight Big 12 title. On October 12, 2019, the sixth-ranked Sooners defeated the 11th-ranked Longhorns 34–27, getting 366 yards and four touchdowns from quarterback Jalen Hurts, a graduate transfer from Alabama. Though Oklahoma's lead was never larger than 14, Texas was playing from behind for almost the entire game, catching up midway through the third quarter before a 51-yard Hurts touchdown pass to CeeDee Lamb that put the Sooners in front for good. The October 10, 2020 meeting saw unranked Oklahoma outlasting No. 22 Texas 53–45 in four overtimes, in the third highest-scoring game in the history of the Red River Showdown. The latest meeting from October 9, 2021 saw the sixth-ranked Sooners rallying from a 21-point first quarter deficit to edge the 21st-ranked Longhorns 55–48 in the highest-scoring game in the rivalry. Venue The Oklahoma–Texas game has been played in six locations. They have played in Norman and Oklahoma City in Oklahoma; Arlington, Austin, Dallas and Houston in Texas. The series began in 1900 and has been played in Dallas since 1912, except for 1913 (Houston), 1922 (Norman), and 1923 (Austin). Dallas was chosen as a "neutral" site since it is situated approximately halfway between Austin, Texas and Norman, Oklahoma – the locations of Texas and Oklahoma, respectively. Since 1932 the game has been held at the Cotton Bowl in Dallas, during the State Fair of Texas. The designated "home" team alternates from year to year: Oklahoma in even-numbered years and Texas in odd-numbered years. Ticket sales for the game are split 50–50 between the two schools, with the stadium divided along the 50-yard line. Historically, the Oklahoma fans have occupied the south end zone, which contains the tunnel where both teams enter and exit the field. Beginning in 2007, the teams have option to alternate North and South ends of the field, thereby giving the home team fans the seats adjacent to the tunnel leading to both teams' locker rooms. However, Texas has declined to exercise its option to move to the south end each year in which they have been the designated home team. However, former Texas coach Charlie Strong said he would favor Texas fans being in the south end zone during their home games. On June 10, 2014, Dallas officials announced that the football game between Oklahoma and Texas would be held at Fair Park through 2025. Notable games 2018 Big 12 Championship: Oklahoma 39 – Texas 27 In their 2018 regular season matchup, No. 19 Texas beat No. 7 Oklahoma, 48–45 at the Cotton Bowl in Fair Park, on October 6. Later, during the 2018 postseason, the two met in the Big 12 Championship Game after Oklahoma finished first, followed by Texas in the Big 12 standings, which was the first time since 1923 that the two teams played in a location other than Dallas. Oklahoma was victorious by a score of 39–27, winning their fourth consecutive and twelfth overall Big 12 Conference championship. Game results Rankings from AP Poll (and CFP Rankings, for 2018 Big 12 Championship Game) - Released prior to game. Miscellaneous Highest attendance The highest attendance in series history is 96,009, occurring first in 2009 and then again in both 2010 and 2011. Locations Game trophies There are three Red River Rivalry trophies given to the winner of the annual Red River Rivalry: the Golden Hat, the Red River Rivalry trophy, and the Governors' trophy. The trophies reward the annual winner of one of college football's longest and most intense rivalries. The rivalry began in 1900 while Oklahoma was still a territory. In the first 100 games, Texas won in 2005 to break a five-game losing streak to Oklahoma and gain a lead in the series. The 2007 match-up was predicted to be the #3 game to watch in 2007 by SI.com's "Top 20 Games To Watch In 2007" list. Golden Hat The Golden Hat is by far the best known of the three, and the only one to be awarded on the field at the end of the game. The trophy is a gold cowboy hat mounted on a large block of wood. According to The Daily Texan, "...[B]oth teams signed a contract to play in Dallas during the Texas State Fair, beginning with the 1929 season. The deal was for 10 years, but the tradition has carried on for three-quarters of a century. To show its gratitude, the fair donated the Golden Hat trophy, a golden replica of a ten-gallon cowboy hat, which the two teams play for every year. The Longhorns won the first Shootout, but since then the Golden Hat has crossed the Red River many times." The trophy was created in 1941. When it was created it was known as the "Bronze Hat" and it was bronze in color. However, when the hat was reworked in the 1970s it came out gold, and is now known as the Golden Hat. The Golden Hat trophy is kept each year by the winning team's athletic department. With the teams meeting twice in 2018 (once in the regular season and once in the Big 12 Conference Championship Game) it was determined that the Golden Hat would not be on the line in the 2nd game as it was in the regular season game. Therefore, the trophy remained in Austin, Texas, after Texas' 48–45 regular season win over Oklahoma in 2018. Oklahoma won the rematch, 39–27 in the Big 12 Title Game. Red River Rivalry trophy Since 2003, the Red River Rivalry trophy has been exchanged between the student bodies of the two schools. This trophy was developed by Alex Yaffe, former OU Student Body President, and Katie King, UT's former student body president. The trophy bears the image of the two states as well as miniature football helmets to represent both teams. Governors' trophy There is also a governors' trophy exchanged between the governors of the two states. The governors of Texas and Oklahoma often place a bet on the game such as the losing governor having to present a side of beef to the winning state governor, who then donates the beef to charity. NROTC trophy Another annual tradition is the running of game balls by the schools' Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps programs. Each school's ROTC program uses a relay running system to run one game ball all the way from their respective campus to Dallas. Once there, they participate against each other in a football scrimmage, with the winner taking home the Red River Shootout Flag Football Trophy. This trophy is awarded without regard to who wins the main football game. See also List of NCAA college football rivalry games List of most-played college football series in NCAA Division I References External links College football rivalries in the United States Oklahoma Sooners football Texas Longhorns football State Fair of Texas

Conscription in the United States

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Conscription in the United States, commonly known as the draft, has been employed by the federal government of the United States in six conflicts: the American Revolutionary War, the American Civil War, World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. The fourth incarnation of the draft came into being in 1940 through the Selective Training and Service Act. It was the country's first peacetime draft. From 1940 until 1973, during both peacetime and periods of conflict, men were drafted to fill vacancies in the United States Armed Forces that could not be filled through voluntary means. Active conscription ended in 1973 when the U.S. Armed Forces moved to an all-volunteer military. However, conscription remains in place on a contingency basis and all male U.S. citizens, regardless of where they live, and male immigrants, whether documented or undocumented, residing within the United States, who are 18 through 25 are required to register with the Selective Service System. United States federal law also continues to provide for the compulsory conscription of men between the ages of 17 and 45 and certain women for militia service pursuant to Article I, Section 8 of the United States Constitution and 10 U.S. Code § 246. History Colonial to 1862 In colonial times, the Thirteen Colonies used a militia system for defense. Colonial militia laws—and after independence those of the United States and the various states—required able-bodied males to enroll in the militia, to undergo a minimum of military training, and to serve for limited periods of time in war or emergency. This earliest form of conscription involved selective drafts of militiamen for service in particular campaigns. Following this system in its essentials, the Continental Congress in 1778 recommended that the states draft men from their militias for one year's service in the Continental Army; this first national conscription was irregularly applied and failed to fill the Continental ranks. For long-term operations, conscription was occasionally used when volunteers or paid substitutes were insufficient to raise the needed manpower. During the American Revolutionary War, the states sometimes drafted men for militia duty or to fill state Continental Army units, but the central government did not have the authority to conscript except for purposes of naval impressment. Post Ratification of the Constitution, Article I.8.15, allows for Congress to conscript. Giving it the power to provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions; Section 8.16 of the same article, allows Congress to provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. Article II.2.1 makes the President the commander in chief of the militia. The second amendment protects the infringement of the militia regulations, being necessary to the security of a free state. The Second Militia Act of 1792 defined the first group who could be called up as “each and every free able-bodied white male citizen” between the ages of 18 and 45. {| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#b0c4de; color:black; width:35em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5" | style="text-align: left;" |The administration asserts the right to fill the ranks of the regular army by compulsion ... Is this, sir, consistent with the character of a free government? Is this civil liberty? Is this the real character of our Constitution? No, sir, indeed it is not ... Where is it written in the Constitution, in what article or section is it contained, that you may take children from their parents, and parents from their children, and compel them to fight the battles of any war, in which the folly or the wickedness of government may engage it? Under what concealment has this power lain hidden, which now for the first time comes forth, with a tremendous and baleful aspect, to trample down and destroy the dearest rights of personal liberty? |- | style="text-align: left;" | Daniel Webster (December 9, 1814 House of Representatives Address) |} During the War of 1812, President James Madison and his Secretary of War James Monroe unsuccessfully attempted to create a national draft of 40,000 men. The proposal was fiercely criticized on the House floor by antiwar Congressman Daniel Webster of New Hampshire. Civil War The United States first employed national conscription during the American Civil War. The vast majority of troops were volunteers; of the 2,200,000 Union soldiers, about 2% were draftees, and another 6% were substitutes paid by draftees.James W. Geary, We Need Men: The Union Draft in the Civil War (1991) The Confederacy had far fewer inhabitants than the Union, and Confederate President Jefferson Davis proposed the first conscription act on March 28, 1862; it was passed into law the next month. Resistance was both widespread and violent, with comparisons made between conscription and slavery. Both sides permitted conscripts to hire substitutes to serve in their place. In the Union, many states and cities offered bounties and bonuses for enlistment. They also arranged to take credit against their draft quota by claiming freed slaves who enlisted in the Union Army. Although both sides resorted to conscription, the system did not work effectively in either. The Confederate Congress on April 16, 1862, passed an act requiring military service for three years from all white males aged 18 to 35 not legally exempt; it later extended the obligation. The U.S. Congress passed the Militia Act of 1862 which mirrored the 1792 Act except to allow African-Americans to serve in the militias and authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. This state-administered system failed in practice and Congress passed the Enrollment Act of 1863, the first genuine national conscription law, replacing the Militia Act of 1862, which required the enrollment of every male citizen and those immigrants (aliens) who had filed for citizenship, between 20 and 45 years of age, unless exempted by the Act. It set up under the Union Army an elaborate machine for enrolling and drafting men. Quotas were assigned in each state, the deficiencies in volunteers required to be met by conscription. Still, men drafted could provide substitutes, and until mid-1864 could even avoid service by paying commutation money. Many eligible men pooled their money to cover the cost of any one of them drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which member should go into the army and which would stay home. The other popular means of procuring a substitute was to pay a soldier whose period of enlistment was about to expire—the advantage of this method was that the Army could retain a trained veteran in place of a raw recruit. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union Army through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, and the New York City draft riots were in direct response to the draft and were the first large-scale resistance against the draft in the United States. The problem of Confederate desertion was aggravated by the inequitable inclinations of conscription officers and local judges. The three conscription acts of the Confederacy exempted certain categories, most notably the planter class, and enrolling officers and local judges often practiced favoritism, sometimes accepting bribes. Attempts to effectively deal with the issue were frustrated by conflict between state and local governments on the one hand and the national government of the Confederacy. World War I In 1917 the administration of President Woodrow Wilson decided to rely primarily on conscription, rather than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower for World War I when only 73,000 volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1 million target in the first six weeks of the war. One ascribed motivation was to head off the former president, Theodore Roosevelt, who proposed to raise a volunteer division, which would upstage Wilson; however, there is no evidence that Roosevelt had the support to carry out that plan, and also, since Wilson had just started his second term in office the former President's prospects for substantial political gain would seem dubious. The Selective Service Act of 1917 was carefully drawn to remedy the defects in the Civil War system and—by allowing exemptions for dependency, essential occupations, and religious scruples—to place each man in his proper niche in a national war effort. The act established a "liability for military service of all male citizens"; authorized a selective draft of all those between 21 and 31 years of age (later from 18 to 45); and prohibited all forms of bounties, substitutions, or purchase of exemptions. Administration was entrusted to local boards composed of leading civilians in each community. These boards issued draft calls in order of numbers drawn in a national lottery and determined exemptions. In 1917, 10 million men were registered. This was deemed to be inadequate, so age ranges were increased and exemptions reduced, and so by the end of 1918 this increased to 24 million men that were registered with nearly 3 million inducted into the military services, with little of the resistance that characterized the Civil War, thanks to a well-received campaign by the government to increase support for the war, and shut down newspapers and magazines that published articles against the war.Zinn (2003) The draft was universal and included blacks on the same terms as whites, although they served in different units. In all 367,710 black Americans were drafted (13.0% of the total), compared to 2,442,586 white (86.9%). Along with a general opposition to American involvement in a foreign conflict, Southern farmers objected to perceived unfair conscription practices that exempted members of the upper class and industrial workers. Draft boards were localized and based their decisions on social class: the poorest were the most often conscripted because they were considered the least likely to be the skilled labor needed for the war effort. Poor men were also less likely to convince local boards that they were primary breadwinners who could be deferred to support dependents. . Forms of resistance ranged from peaceful protest to violent demonstrations and from humble letter-writing campaigns asking for mercy to radical newspapers demanding reform. The most common tactics were dodging and desertion, and some communities in isolationist areas even sheltered and defended their draft dodgers as political heroes. Nearly half a million immigrants were drafted, which forced the military to develop training procedures that took ethnic differences into account. Military leaders invited Progressive reformers and ethnic group leaders to assist in formulating new military policies. The military attempted to socialize and Americanize young immigrant recruits, not by forcing "angloconformity", but by showing remarkable sensitivity and respect for ethnic values and traditions and a concern for the morale of immigrant troops, with the aim of blending them into the larger society. Sports activities, keeping immigrant groups together, newspapers in various languages, the assistance of bilingual officers, and ethnic entertainment programs were all employed. Opposition The Conscription Act of 1917 was passed in June. Conscripts were court-martialed by the Army if they refused to wear uniforms, bear arms, perform basic duties, or submit to military authority. Convicted objectors were often given long sentences of 20 years in Fort Leavenworth. In 1918 Secretary of War Newton D. Baker created the Board of Inquiry to question the conscientious objectors' sincerity. Military tribunals tried men found by the Board to be insincere for a variety of offenses, sentencing 17 to death, 142 to life imprisonment, and 345 to penal labor camps. Many of these sentences were commuted after the war's end. In 1917, a number of radicals and anarchists, including Emma Goldman, tried to challenge the new draft law in federal court, arguing that it was a direct violation of the Thirteenth Amendment's prohibition against slavery and involuntary servitude. The Supreme Court unanimously upheld the constitutionality of the draft act in the Selective Draft Law Cases on January 7, 1918. The decision said the Constitution gave Congress the power to declare war and to raise and support armies. The Court, relying partly on Vattel's The Law of Nations, emphasized the principle of the reciprocal rights and duties of citizens: Conscription was unpopular from left-wing sectors at the start, with many Socialists jailed for "obstructing the recruitment or enlistment service". The most famous was Eugene Debs, head of the Socialist Party of America, who ran for president in 1920 from his Atlanta prison cell. He had his sentence commuted to time served and was released on December 25, 1921, by President Warren G. Harding. Also notably, the Industrial Workers of the World attempted to obstruct the war effort through strikes in war-related industries and not registering, but it did not meet with large success. Although draft riots were not widespread, an estimated 171,000 people never registered for the draft while another 360,000 people never responded to induction orders. Conscientious objectors Conscientious objector (CO) exemptions were allowed for the Amish, Mennonites, Quakers, and Church of the Brethren only. All other religious and political objectors were forced to participate. Some 64,700 men claimed conscientious objector status; local draft boards certified 57,000, of whom 30,000 passed the physical and 21,000 were inducted into the U.S. Army. About 80% of the 21,000 decided to abandon their objection and take up arms, but 3,989 drafted objectors refused to serve. Most belonged to historically pacifist denominations, especially Quakers, Mennonites, and Moravian Brethren, as well as a few Seventh-day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses. About 15% were religious objectors from non-pacifist churches. Ben Salmon was a nationally known political activist who encouraged men not to register and personally refused to comply with the draft procedures. He rejected the Army Review Board proposal that he do noncombatant farm work. Sentenced to 25 years in prison, he again refused a proposed desk job. He was pardoned and released in November 1920 with a "dishonorable discharge". Interwar The draft ended in 1918 but the Army designed the modern draft mechanism in 1926 and built it based on military needs despite an era of pacifism. Working where Congress would not, it gathered a cadre of officers for its nascent Joint Army-Navy Selective Service Committee, most of whom were commissioned based on social standing rather than military experience. This effort did not receive congressionally approved funding until 1934 when Major General Lewis B. Hershey was assigned to the organization. The passage of a conscription act was opposed by some, including Dorothy Day and George Barry O'Toole, who were concerned that such conscription would not provide adequate protection for the rights of conscientious objectors. However, much of Hershey's work was codified into law with the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 (STSA). World War II By the summer of 1940, as Germany conquered France, Americans supported the return of conscription. One national survey found that 67% of respondents believed that a German-Italian victory would endanger the United States, and that 71% supported "the immediate adoption of compulsory military training for all young men". Similarly, a November 1942 survey of American high-school students found that 69% favored compulsory postwar military training. The World War I system served as a model for that of World War II. The 1940 law instituted conscription in peacetime, requiring the registration of all men between 21 and 35. President Roosevelt's signing of the Selective Training and Service Act on September 16, 1940, began the first peacetime draft in the United States. It also reestablished the Selective Service System as an independent agency responsible for identifying young men and facilitating their military service. Roosevelt named Lewis B. Hershey to head the System on July 31, 1941, where he remained until 1969. This act came when other preparations, such as increased training and equipment production, had not yet been approved. Nevertheless, it served as the basis for the conscription programs that would continue to the present. The act set a cap of 900,000 men to be in training at any given time, and limited military service to 12 months unless Congress deemed it necessary to extend such service in the interest of national defense. An amendment added 18 more months to this service period on August 18, 1941. After the Pearl Harbor attack the STSA was further amended (December 19, 1941), extending the term of service to the duration of the war plus six months and requiring the registration of all men 18 to 64 years of age. During World War II, 49 million men were registered, 36 million classified, and 10 million inducted. 18 and 19 year olds were made liable for induction on November 13, 1942. By late 1942, the Selective Service System moved away from a national lottery to administrative selection by its more than 6,000 local boards. On December 5, 1942, presidential Executive Order 9279 closed voluntary enlistment for all men from the ages of 18 to 37 for the duration of the war, providing protection for the nation's home front manpower pool. The Navy and Marine Corps began procuring their personnel through the Selective Service System in early 1943. The Navy and Marine Corps enlisted inductees and volunteers under the same service agreements, but with different service obligations, while the Army placed wartime inductees and volunteers into a special service component known as the Army of the United States, commonly known as the "AUS"; service commitments were set at the length of the war plus six months."Conscription Order #1", Office of the War Department, Records of the Personnel Division (G-1), U.S. National Archives Record Group 165 Paul V. McNutt, head of the War Manpower Commission, estimated that the changes would increase the ratio of men drafted from one out of nine to one out of five. The commission's goal was to have nine million men in the armed forces by the end of 1943. This facilitated the massive requirement of up to 200,000 men per month and would remain the standard for the length of the war. The World War II draft operated from 1940 until 1946 when further inductions were suspended, and its legislative authorization expired without further extension by Congress in 1947. During this time, more than 10 million men had been inducted into military service. However, the Selective Service System remained intact. Opposition Draft evasion accounted for about 4% of the total inducted. About 373,000 alleged evaders were investigated with just over 16,000 being imprisoned. Opposition was nonetheless encountered, especially in the northern cities where some African-Americans protested the system. The Nation of Islam was at the forefront, with many black Muslims jailed for refusing the draft, and their leader Elijah Muhammad was sentenced to federal prison for 5 years for inciting draft resistance. Organized draft resistance also developed in the Japanese American internment camps, where groups like the Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee refused to serve unless they and their families were released. 300 Nisei men from eight of the ten War Relocation Authority camps were arrested and stood trial for felony draft evasion; most were sentenced to federal prison. American Communists also opposed the war by forming the "American Peace Committee", which tried to organize a coalition of anti-war groups. This lasted until Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, whereupon they changed the committee's name to the "American People's Committee" and supported aid to Britain, the draft and other preparations for war. Conscientious objectors Of the more than 72,000 men registering as conscientious objectors (CO), nearly 52,000 received CO status. Of these, over 25,000 entered the military in noncombatant roles, another 12,000 went to the Civilian Public Service program, and nearly 6,000 went to prison. Cold War The second peacetime draft began with passage of the Selective Service Act of 1948 after the STSA expired. The new law required all men of age 18 to 26 to register. It also created the system for the "Doctor Draft", aimed at inducting health professionals into military service. Unless otherwise exempted or deferred (see Berry Plan), these men could be called for up to 21 months of active duty and five years of reserve duty service. Congress further tweaked this act in 1950 although the post–World War II surplus of military manpower left little need for draft calls until President Truman's declaration of a national emergency in December 1950. Only 20,348 men were inducted in 1948 and only 9,781 in 1949. Between the Korean War's outbreak in June 1950 and the armistice agreement in 1953, Selective Service inducted over 1.5 million men. Another 1.3 million volunteered, usually choosing the Navy or Air Force. Congress passed the Universal Military Training and Service Act in 1951 to meet the demands of the war. It lowered the induction age to 18½ and extended active-duty service commitments to 24 months. Despite the early combat failures and later stalemate in Korea, the draft has been credited by some as playing a vital role in turning the tide of war. A February 1953 Gallup Poll showed that 70 percent of Americans surveyed felt that the SSS had handled the draft fairly. Notably, Gallup reported that 64 percent of the demographic group including all draft age men (males 21 to 29) believed the draft to be fair. To increase equity in the system, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed an executive order on July 11, 1953 that ended the paternity deferment for married men. In large part, the change in the draft served the purposes of the burgeoning Cold War. From a program that had just barely passed Congressional muster during the fearful prelude to World War II, a more robust draft continued as fears now focused on the Soviet threat. Nevertheless, some dissenting voices in Congress continued to advocate for voluntary military service.O'Sullivan, J. & A. Meckler. (Eds.). (1974). The Draft and Its Enemies: A Documentary History. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press. The onset of the Cold War coincided with the time at which men born during the Great Depression began to reach military age. Hershey and other supporters of the draft frequently pointed out that the Depression had resulted in a substantial reduction of the birth rate in order to back up their doubts regarding the return to an all-volunteer military at a time when it was known that the number of men reaching military age was going to fall significantly. The Korean War era marked the first time that any form of student deferment had been used. During the Korean War, a student carrying at least 12 semester hours was spared until the end of his current semester. Though the United States signed the Korean War Armistice on July 27, 1953, technology brought new promises and threats. American air and nuclear power fueled the Eisenhower doctrine of "massive retaliation." This strategy demanded more machines and fewer foot soldiers, so the draft slipped to the back burner. However, SSS director Gen. Hershey urged caution, fearing the conflict looming in Vietnam. In May 1953, he told his state directors to do everything possible to keep the SSS alive in order to meet upcoming needs. Following the 1953 Korean War Armistice, Congress passed the Reserve Forces Act of 1955 with the aim of improving National Guard and federal Reserve Component readiness while also constraining its use by the president. Toward this end, it mandated a six-year service commitment, in a combination of reserve and active duty time, for every line military member regardless of their means of entry. Meanwhile, the SSS kept itself alive by devising and managing a complex system of deferments for a swelling pool of candidates during a period of shrinking requirements. The greatest challenge to the draft came not from protesters but rather from lobbyists seeking additional deferments for their constituency groups, such as scientists and farmers. Many government leaders felt that the potential for a draft was a critical element in maintaining a constant flow of volunteers. On numerous occasions, Gen. Hershey told Congress that for every man drafted, three or four more were scared into volunteering. Assuming that his assessment was accurate, this would mean that more than 11 million men volunteered for service because of the draft between January 1954 and April 1975. The policy of using the draft as a force to compel voluntary enlistment was unique in American history. Previous drafts had not aimed to encourage individuals to enlist in order to gain preferential placement or less dangerous postings. However, the incremental buildup of the Vietnam War without a clear threat to the country bolstered this type of focus. Some estimates suggest that almost one-third of all eligible men were conscripted during the period of 1965–69.Flynn, G. (2000). The Draft, 1940–1973. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press. This group represented those without exemption or resources to avoid military service. During the active combat phase, the possibility of avoiding combat by selecting their service and military specialty led as many as four out of 11 eligible men to enlist.Oi, W. (1982). "The Economic Cost of the Draft". In M. Anderson (Ed.), The Military Draft: Selected Readings on Conscription (pp. 317–346). Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press. The military relied upon this draft-induced volunteerism to make its quotas, especially the Army, which accounted for nearly 95 percent of all inductees during the Vietnam War era. For example, defense recruiting reports show that 34% of the recruits in 1964, up to 50% in 1970, indicated that they had joined voluntarily in order to avoid placement uncertainty via the draft.Binkin, M., & Johnston, J. (1973), All-volunteer Armed Forces: Progress, Problems, and Prospects, report by the Brookings Institution prepared for the Senate Armed Services Committee, 93rd Congress, First Session. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. These rates dwindled to 24% in 1972 and 15% in 1973 after the change to a lottery system. Accounting for other factors, it can be argued up to 60% of those who served throughout the Vietnam War era did so directly or indirectly because of the draft. In addition, deferments provided an incentive for men to follow pursuits considered useful to the state. This process, known as channeling, helped push men into educational, occupational, and family choices that they might not otherwise have pursued. Undergraduate degrees were valued. Graduate work had varying value over time, though technical and religious training received nearly constant support. War-industry support in the form of teaching, research, or skilled labor also received deferred or exempt status. Finally, married and family men were exempted because of the positive social consequences.Marmion, H. (1968). Selective Service: Conflict and Compromise. New York: John Wiley & Sons. This included using presidential orders to extend exemptions again to fathers and others. Channeling was also seen as a means of preempting the early loss of the country's "best and brightest" who had historically joined and died early in war. In the only extended period of military conscription of U.S. males during a major peacetime period, the draft continued on a more limited basis during the late 1950s and early 1960s. While a far smaller percentage of eligible males were conscripted than in war periods, draftees by law served in the Army for two years. Elvis Presley and Willie Mays were two of the most famous people drafted during this period. Public protests in the United States were few during the Korean War. However, the percentage of CO exemptions for inductees grew to 1.5%, compared to a rate of just 0.5% in the past two wars. The Justice Department also investigated more than 80,000 draft-evasion cases.Chambers, 1987 Vietnam War President Kennedy's decision to send military troops to Vietnam as advisors was a signal that Selective Service Director Lewis B. Hershey needed to visit the Oval Office. From that visit emerged two wishes of JFK with regard to conscription. The first was that the names of married men with children should occupy the very bottom of the callup list. Just above them should be the names of men who were married. This Presidential policy, however, was not to be formally encoded into Selective Service Status. Men who fit into these categories became known as Kennedy Husbands. When President Lyndon Johnson decided to rescind this Kennedy policy , there was a last-minute rush to the altar by thousands of American couples. Many early rank-and-file anti-conscription protesters had been allied with the National Committee for a SANE Nuclear Policy. The signing in 1963 of the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty left them free to focus on other issues. Syndicated cartoonist Al Capp portrayed them as S.W.I.N.E, (Students Wildly Indignant About Nearly Everything). The catalyst for protest reconnection was the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. Consequently, there was some opposition to the draft even before the major U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War began. The large cohort of Baby Boomers who became eligible for military service during the Vietnam War was responsible for a steep increase in the number of exemptions and deferments, especially for college students. Besides being able to avoid the draft, college graduates who volunteered for military service (primarily as commissioned officers) had a much better chance of securing a preferential posting compared to less-educated inductees. As U.S. troop strength in South Vietnam increased, more young men were drafted for service there, and many of those still at home sought means of avoiding the draft. Since only 15,000 National Guard and Reserve soldiers were sent to South Vietnam, enlistment in the Guard or the Reserves became a popular means of avoiding serving in a war zone. For those who could meet the more stringent enlistment standards, service in the Air Force, Navy, or Coast Guard was a means of reducing the chances of being killed. Vocations to the ministry and the rabbinate soared, because divinity students were exempt from the draft. Doctors and draft board members found themselves being pressured by relatives or family friends to exempt potential draftees. The marriage deferment ended suddenly on August 26, 1965. Around 3:10pm President Johnson signed an order allowing the draft of men who married after midnight that day, then around 5pm he announced the change for the first time. Some conscientious objectors objected to the war based on the theory of Just War. One of these, Stephen Spiro, was convicted of avoiding the draft, but given a suspended sentence of five years. He was later pardoned by President Gerald Ford. There were 8,744,000 service members between 1964 and 1975, of whom 3,403,000 were deployed to Southeast Asia. From a pool of approximately 27 million, the draft raised 2,215,000 men for military service (in the United States, South Vietnam, and elsewhere) during the Vietnam War era. The majority of service members deployed to South Vietnam were volunteers, even though hundreds of thousands of men opted to join the Army, Air Force, Navy, and Coast Guard (for three or four year terms of enlistment) before they could be drafted, serve for two years, and have no choice over their military occupational specialty (MOS). Of the nearly 16 million men not engaged in active military service, 96% were exempted (typically because of jobs including other military service), deferred (usually for educational reasons), or disqualified (usually for physical and mental deficiencies but also for criminal records including draft violations). The requirements for obtaining and maintaining an educational deferment changed several times in the late 1960s. For several years, students were required to take an annual qualification test. In 1967 educational deferments were changed for graduate students. Those starting graduate studies in the fall of 1967 were given two semester deferments becoming eligible in June 1968. Those further along in their graduate study who entered prior to the summer of 1967 could continue to receive a deferment until they completed their studies. Peace Corps Volunteers were no longer given deferments and their induction was left to the discretion of their local boards. However most boards allowed Peace Corps Volunteers to complete their two years assignment before inducting them into the service. On December 1, 1969, a lottery was held to establish a draft priority for all those born between 1944 and 1950. Those with a high number no longer had to be concerned about the draft. Nearly 500,000 men were disqualified for criminal records, but less than 10,000 of them were convicted of draft violations. Finally, as many as 100,000 draft eligible men fled the country.Reeves, T. & Hess, K. (1970). The End of the Draft. New York: Random House. End of conscription During the 1968 presidential election, Richard Nixon campaigned on a promise to end the draft. He had first become interested in the idea of an all-volunteer army during his time out of office, based upon a paper by Martin Anderson of Columbia University. Nixon also saw ending the draft as an effective way to undermine the anti-Vietnam War movement, since he believed affluent youths would stop protesting the war once their own probability of having to fight in it was gone. pp. 264–266. There was opposition to the all-volunteer notion from both the Department of Defense and Congress, so Nixon took no immediate action towards ending the draft early in his presidency. Instead, the Gates Commission was formed, headed by Thomas S. Gates, Jr., a former Secretary of Defense in the Eisenhower administration. Gates initially opposed the all-volunteer army idea, but changed his mind during the course of the 15-member commission's work. The Gates Commission issued its report in February 1970, describing how adequate military strength could be maintained without having conscription. pp. 40–41. The existing draft law was expiring at the end of June 1971, but the Department of Defense and Nixon administration decided the draft needed to continue for at least some time. In February 1971, the administration requested of Congress a two-year extension of the draft, to June 1973. Senatorial opponents of the war wanted to reduce this to a one-year extension, or eliminate the draft altogether, or tie the draft renewal to a timetable for troop withdrawal from Vietnam; Senator Mike Gravel of Alaska took the most forceful approach, trying to filibuster the draft renewal legislation, shut down conscription, and directly force an end to the war. Senators supporting Nixon's war efforts supported the bill, even though some had qualms about ending the draft. After a prolonged battle in the Senate, in September 1971 cloture was achieved over the filibuster and the draft renewal bill was approved. Meanwhile, military pay was increased as an incentive to attract volunteers, and television advertising for the U.S. Army began. With the end of active U.S. ground participation in Vietnam, December 1972 saw the last men conscripted, who were born in 1952 and earlier. On February 2, 1972, a drawing was held to determine draft priority numbers for men born in 1953, but in January 1973 Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird announced that no further draft orders would be issued. In March 1973, 1974, and 1975, the Selective Service assigned draft priority numbers for all men born in 1954, 1955, and 1956, in case the draft was extended, but it never was. Command Sergeant Major Jeff Mellinger, believed to be the last drafted enlisted ranked soldier still on active duty, retired in 2011. Chief Warrant Officer 5 Ralph E. Rigby, the last Vietnam War-era drafted soldier of Warrant Officer rank, retired from the army on November 10, 2014 after a 42-year career. December 28, 1972 had been scheduled to be the last day that draftees would be inducted that year. However, President Nixon declared that day a national day of mourning due to the death of former President Truman, and Federal offices were closed. Men scheduled to report that day were never inducted, since the draft was not resumed in 1973. Post-1980 draft registration On July 2, 1980, President Jimmy Carter issued Presidential Proclamation 4771 and re-instated the requirement that young men register with the Selective Service System. At that time it was required that all males, born on or after January 1, 1960, register with the Selective Service System. Those who were now in this category were male U.S. citizens and male immigrant non-citizens between the ages of 18 and 25; they were required to register within 30 days of their 18th birthday even if they were not actually eligible to join the military. The Selective Service System, still essentially what it was in 1980, describes its mission as "to serve the emergency manpower needs of the Military by conscripting untrained manpower, or personnel with professional health care skills, if directed by Congress and the President in a national crisis". Registration forms are available either online, or at any U.S. Post Office or state motor vehicles office. The Selective Service registration form states that failure to register is a felony punishable by up to five years imprisonment or a $250,000 fine. In practice, though, no one has been prosecuted for failure to comply with draft registration since 1986, in part because prosecutions of draft resisters proved counter-productive for the government during the Vietnam War, and in part because of the difficulty of proving that noncompliance with the law was "knowing and wilful". In interviews published in U.S. News & World Report in May 2016, current and former Selective Service System officials said that in 1988, the Department of Justice and Selective Service agreed to suspend any further prosecutions of nonregistrants. Many men do not register at all, register late, or change addresses without notifying the Selective Service System. Even in the absence of prosecution, however, failure to register may lead to other consequences. Registration is a requirement for employment by the federal government and some state governments, as well as for receiving various state benefits such as driver's licenses. Refusing to register can also cause a loss of eligibility for federal financial aid for college. Health care personnel On December 1, 1989, Congress ordered the Selective Service System to put in place a system capable of drafting "persons qualified for practice or employment in a health care and professional occupation", if such a special-skills draft should be ordered by Congress. In response, Selective Service published plans for the "Health Care Personnel Delivery System" (HCPDS) in 1989 and has had them ready ever since. The concept underwent a preliminary field exercise in Fiscal Year 1998, followed by a more extensive nationwide readiness exercise in Fiscal Year 1999. The HCPDS plans include women and men ages 20–54 in 57 different job categories. As of May 2003, the Defense Department has said the most likely form of draft is a special skills draft, probably of health care workers. Legality In 1918, the Supreme Court ruled that the World War I draft did not violate the United States Constitution in the Selective Draft Law Cases. The Court summarized the history of conscription in England and in colonial America, a history that it read as establishing that the Framers envisioned compulsory military service as a governmental power. It held that the Constitution's grant to Congress of the powers to declare war and to raise and support armies included the power to mandate conscription. It rejected arguments based on states' rights, the 13th Amendment, and other provisions of the Constitution. Later, during the Vietnam War, a lower appellate court also concluded that the draft was constitutional. United States v. Holmes, 387 F.2d 781 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, 391 U.S. 936 (1968). Justice William O. Douglas, in voting to hear the appeal in Holmes, agreed that the government had the authority to employ conscription in wartime, but argued that the constitutionality of a draft in the absence of a declaration of war was an open question, which the Supreme Court should address. During the World War I era, the Supreme Court allowed the government great latitude in suppressing criticism of the draft. Examples include Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919) and Gilbert v. Minnesota, 254 U.S. 325 (1920). In subsequent decades, however, the Court has taken a much broader view of the extent to which advocacy speech is protected by the First Amendment. Thus, in 1971 the Court held it unconstitutional for a state to punish a man who entered a county courthouse wearing a jacket with the words "Fuck the Draft" visible on it. Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. 15 (1971). Nevertheless, protesting the draft by the specific means of burning a draft registration card can be constitutionally prohibited, because of the government's interest in prohibiting the "nonspeech" element involved in destroying the card. United States v. O'Brien, 391 U.S. 367 (1968). Since the reinstatement of draft registration in 1980, the Supreme Court has heard and decided four cases related to the Military Selective Service Act: Rostker v. Goldberg, 453 U.S. 57 (1981), upholding the Constitutionality of requiring men but not women to register for the draft; Selective Service v. Minnesota Public Interest Research Group (MPIRG), 468 U.S. 841 (1984), upholding the Constitutionality of the first of the federal "Solomon Amendment" laws, which requires applicants for Federal student aid to certify that they have complied with draft registration, either by having registered or by not being required to register; Wayte v. United States, 470 U.S. 598 (1985), upholding the policies and procedures which the Supreme Court thought the government had used to select the "most vocal" nonregistrants for prosecution, after the government refused to comply with discovery orders by the trial court to produce documents and witnesses related to the selection of nonregistrants for prosecution; and Elgin v. Department of the Treasury, 567 U.S. 1 (2012), regarding procedures for judicial review of denial of Federal employment for nonregistrants. In 1981, several men filed lawsuit in the case Rostker v. Goldberg, alleging that the Military Selective Service Act violates the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment by requiring that men only and not also women register with the Selective Service System. The Supreme Court upheld the act, stating that Congress's "decision to exempt women was not the accidental byproduct of a traditional way of thinking about women", that "since women are excluded from combat service by statute or military policy, men and women are simply not similarly situated for purposes of a draft or registration for a draft, and Congress' decision to authorize the registration of only men therefore does not violate the Due Process Clause", and that "the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than 'equity. The Rostker v. Goldberg opinion's dependence upon deference on decision of the executive to exclude women from combat has garnered renewed scrutiny since the Department of Defense announced its decision in January 2013 to do away with most of the federal policies that have kept women from serving in combat roles in ground war situations. Both the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Air Force had by then already opened up virtually all positions in sea and air combat to women. Lawsuits were filed challenging the continued constitutionality of requiring men but not women to register with the Selective Service system: National Coalition for Men v. Selective Service System (filed April 4, 2013, U.S. District Court for the Central District of California; dismissed by the District Court July 29, 2013 as not "ripe" for decision; appeal argued December 8, 2015 before the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals; reversed and remanded February 19, 2016), and Kyle v. Selective Service System (filed July 3, 2015, U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey), brought on behalf of 17-year-old Elizabeth Kyle-LaBell by her mother, Allison. Elizabeth tried to register, but as a female, was not eligible. National Coalition for Men v. Selective Service System In February 2019, the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas ruled that male-only conscription registration breached the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause, overturning the previous ruling on the grounds that the policies of the armed forces regarding women had changed significantly, such that they can now be used interchangeably with men. In a case brought by non-profit men's rights organisation the National Coalition for Men against the U.S. Selective Service System, judge Gray H. Miller issued a declaratory judgement that the male-only registration requirement is unconstitutional, though did not specify what action the government should take. That decision was reversed by the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals. A petition for review was then filed with the U.S. Supreme Court. In June 2021, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the decision by the Court of Appeals due to the fact that Congress was actively investigating removing the male-only requirement. Conscientious objection According to the Selective Service System, A conscientious objector is one who is opposed to serving in the armed forces and/or bearing arms on the grounds of moral or religious principles. ... Beliefs which qualify a registrant for CO status may be religious in nature, but don't have to be. Beliefs may be moral or ethical; however, a man's reasons for not wanting to participate in a war must not be based on politics, expediency, or self-interest. In general, the man's lifestyle prior to making his claim must reflect his current claims. The Supreme Court has ruled in cases United States v. Seeger (1965) and Welsh v. United States (1970) that conscientious objection can be by non-religious beliefs as well as religious beliefs; but it has also ruled in Gillette v. United States (1971) against objections to specific wars as grounds for conscientious objection. There is currently no mechanism to indicate that one is a conscientious objector in the Selective Service system. According to the SSS, after a person is drafted, he can claim conscientious objector status and then justify it before the Local Board. This is criticized because during the times of a draft, when the country is in emergency conditions, there could be increased pressure for Local Boards to be more harsh on conscientious objector claims. There are two types of status for conscientious objectors. If a person objects only to combat but not to service in the military, then the person could be given noncombatant service in the military without training of weapons. If the person objects to all military service, then the person could be ordered to "alternative service" with a job "deemed to make a meaningful contribution to the maintenance of the national health, safety, and interest". Selective Service reforms The Selective Service System has maintained that they have implemented several reforms that would make the draft more fair and equitable. Some of the measures they have implemented include: Before and during the Vietnam War, a young man could get a deferment by showing that he was a full-time student making satisfactory progress towards a degree; now deferment only lasts to the end of the semester. If the man is a senior he can defer until the end of the academic year. The government has said that draft boards are now more representative of the local communities in areas such as race and national origin. A lottery system would be used to determine the order of people being called up. Previously the oldest men who were found eligible for the draft would be taken first. In the new system, the men called first would be those who are or will turn 20 years old in the calendar year or those whose deferments will end in the calendar year. Each year after, the man will be placed on a lower priority status until his liability ends. Conscription controversies and proposals since 2003 The effort to enforce Selective Service registration law was abandoned in 1986. Since then, no attempt to reinstate conscription has been able to attract much support in the legislature or among the public. Since early 2003, when the Iraq War appeared imminent, there had been attempts through legislation and campaign rhetoric to begin a new public conversation on the topic. Public opinion since 1981 has been largely negative. In 2003, several Democratic congressmen (Charles Rangel of New York, Jim McDermott of Washington, John Conyers of Michigan, John Lewis of Georgia, Pete Stark of California, Neil Abercrombie of Hawaii) introduced legislation that would draft both men and women into either military or civilian government service, should there be a draft in the future. The bill was defeated on October 5, 2004, with two members voting for it and 402 members voting against. This statement was in reference to the U.S. Department of Defense use of "stop-loss" orders, which have extended the Active Duty periods of some military personnel. All enlistees, upon entering the service, volunteer for a minimum eight-year Military Service Obligation (MSO). This MSO is split between a minimum active duty period, followed by a reserve period where enlistees may be called back to active duty for the remainder of the eight years. Some of these active duty extensions have been for as long as two years. The Pentagon stated that as of August 24, 2004, 20,000 Soldiers, Sailors, Airmen, and Marines had been affected. As of January 31, 2006 it has been reported that more than 50,000 soldiers and reservists had been affected. Despite arguments by defense leaders that they had no interest in re-instituting the draft, Representative Neil Abercrombie's (D-HI) inclusion of a DOD memo in the Congressional Record which detailed a meeting by senior leaders signaled renewed interest. Though the conclusion of the meeting memo did not call for a reinstatement of the draft, it did suggest Selective Service Act modifications to include registration by women and self-reporting of critical skills that could serve to meet military, homeland-defense, and humanitarian needs. This hinted at more targeted draft options being considered, perhaps like that of the "Doctor Draft" that began in the 1950s to provide nearly 66% of the medical professionals who served in the Army in Korea. Once created, this manpower tool continued to be used through 1972. The meeting memo gave DOD's primary reason for opposing a draft as a matter of cost effectiveness and efficiency. Draftees with less than two years' retention were said to be a net drain on military resources providing insufficient benefit to offset overhead costs of using them. Mentions of the draft during the presidential campaign led to a resurgence of anti-draft and draft resistance organizing. One poll of young voters in October 2004 found that 29% would resist if drafted. In November 2006, Representative Charles B. Rangel (D-NY) again called for the draft to be reinstated; Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi rejected the proposal. On December 19, 2006, President George W. Bush announced that he was considering sending more troops to Iraq. The next day, the Selective Service System's director for operations and chief information officer, Scott Campbell, announced plans for a "readiness exercise" to test the system's operations in 2006, for the first time since 1998. On December 21, 2006, Veterans Affairs Secretary Jim Nicholson, when asked by a reporter whether the draft should be reinstated to make the military more equal, said, "I think that our society would benefit from that, yes sir." Nicholson proceeded to relate his experience as a company commander in an infantry unit which brought together soldiers of different socioeconomic backgrounds and education levels, noting that the draft "does bring people from all quarters of our society together in the common purpose of serving". Nicholson later issued a statement saying he does not support reinstating the draft. On August 10, 2007, with National Public Radio on "All Things Considered", Lieutenant General Douglas Lute, National Security Adviser to the President and Congress for all matters pertaining to the United States Military efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan, expressed support for a draft to alleviate the stress on the Army's all-volunteer force. He cited the fact that repeated deployments place much strain upon one soldier's family and himself which, in turn, can affect retention. A similar bill to Rangel's 2003 one was introduced in 2007, called the Universal National Service Act of 2007 (H.R. 393), but it has not received a hearing or been scheduled for consideration. At the end of June 2014 in Pennsylvania, 14,250 letters of conscription were erroneously posted to men born in the 19th century calling upon them to register for the US military draft. This was attributed to a clerk at the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation who failed to select a century during a transfer of 400,000 records to the Selective Service; as a result, the system did not differentiate between men born in 1993 (who would need to register) and those born in 1893 (who would almost certainly be dead). This was compared to the "Year 2000 problem" ("Y2K bug"), in which computer programs that represented years using two digits instead of four digits were expected to have problems beginning in the year 2000. The Selective Service identified 27,218 records of men born in the 19th century made errantly applicable by the change of century and began sending out notices to them on June 30. On June 14, 2016, the Senate voted to require women to register for the draft, though language requiring this was dropped from later versions of the bill. In 2020, the bipartisan National Commission on Military, National, and Public Service issued a final report recommending that the military improve enlistment rates through improved outreach and recruiting rather than a renewed draft. However, it also recommended that the U.S. Department of Defense perform regular national mobilization drills to rehearse a recommencement of the draft. In 2020 and 2021, bills were introduced in Congress either to repeal the Military Selective Service Act or, alternatively, to replace all references to "male" in that act with non-gendered language. Either of these proposals, if enacted, would remove any gender and sex conditionality related to the draft. Non-citizens The Selective Service (and the draft) in the United States is not limited to citizens. Howard Stringer, for example, was drafted six weeks after arriving from his native Britain in 1965."The Interview: Howard Stringer." The Independent, March 21, 2005. Today, non-citizen males of appropriate age in the United States, who are permanent residents (holders of green cards), seasonal agricultural workers not holding an H-2A Visa, refugees, parolees, asylees, and illegal immigrants, are required to register with the Selective Service System. Refusal to do so is grounds for denial of a future citizenship application. In addition, immigrants who seek to naturalize as citizens must, as part of the Oath of Citizenship, swear to the following: ... that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the armed forces of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform work of national importance under civilian direction when required by the law; The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) website also states however: However, since 1975, USCIS has allowed the oath to be taken without the clauses: "... that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the Armed Forces of the United States when required by law ..." See also Conscription crisis Demobilization of United States armed forces after World War II National service Peace churches ServiceNation Selective Service System Footnotes References and further reading . (Full text). Leach, Jack F. Conscription in the United States: Historical Background. (Rutland, Vt., 1952) American Revolution Dougherty, Keith L. Collective Action under the Articles of Confederation. Cambridge U. Press, 2001. 211 pp. Civil War Bernstein, Iver. The New York City Draft Riots: Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War (1990). online edition Cruz, Barbara C. and Jennifer Marques Patterson. "'In the Midst of Strange and Terrible Times': The New York City Draft Riots of 1863. Social Education. v. 69#1 2005. pp. 10+, with teacher's guide and URL's. online version Geary, James W. We Need Men: The Union Draft in the Civil War (1991) pp. 264 Geary, James W. "Civil War Conscription in the North: A Historiographical Review," Civil War History 32 (1986): 208–228, online Hilderman, Walter C., III. They Went into the Fight Cheering! Confederate Conscription in North Carolina. Boone, N.C.: Parkway, 2005. pp. 272 Hyman, Harold M. A More Perfect Union: The Impact of the Civil War and Reconstruction on the Constitution. (1973), ch 13. online edition Kenny, Kevin. "Abraham Lincoln and the American Irish." American Journal of Irish Studies (2013): 39–64. Levine, Peter. "Draft Evasion in the North during the Civil War, 1863–1865," Journal of American History 67 (1981): 816–834 online edition Moore, Albert Burton. Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy 1924 online edition Murdoch, Eugene C. One Million Men: The Civil War Draft in the North (1971). Shankman, Arnold. "Draft Resistance in Civil War Pennsylvania." Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography (1977): 190204. online Wheeler, Kenneth H. "Local Autonomy and Civil War Draft Resistance: Holmes County, Ohio." Civil War History. v.45#2 1999. pp. 147+ online edition World War I Chambers II, John Whiteclay. To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America (1987), comprehensive look at the national level. Ford, Nancy Gentile. "'Mindful of the Traditions of His Race': Dual Identity and Foreign-born Soldiers in the First World War American Army." Journal of American Ethnic History 1997 16(2): 35–57. Fulltext: in Ebsco Hickle, K. Walter. "'Justice and the Highest Kind of Equality Require Discrimination': Citizenship, Dependency, and Conscription in the South, 1917–1919." Journal of Southern History. v. 66#4 2000. pp. 749+ online version Keith, Jeanette. "The Politics of Southern Draft Resistance, 1917–1918: Class, Race, and Conscription in the Rural South." Journal of American History 2000 87(4): 1335–1361. Fulltext: in Jstor and Ebsco Keith, Jeanette. Rich Man's War, Poor Man's Fight: Race, Class, and Power in the Rural South during the First World War. 2004. 260pp. Kennedy, David M. Over Here: The First Worm War and American Society (1980), ch 3 online edition Shenk, Gerald E. "Race, Manhood, and Manpower: Mobilizing Rural Georgia for World War I," Georgia Historical Quarterly, 81 (Fall 1997), 622–662 Woodward, C. Vann. Tom Watson, Agrarian Rebel (1938), pp. 451–463. Sieger, Susan. "She Didn't Raise Her Boy to Be a Slacker: Motherhood, Conscription, and the Culture of the First World War." Feminist Studies. v. 22#1 1996. pp. 7+ online edition World War II Flynn, George Q. The Draft, 1940–1973. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993; the standard history Garry, Clifford J. and Samuel R. Spencer Jr. The First Peacetime Draft. 1986. Goossen, Rachel Waltner; Women against the Good War: Conscientious Objection and Gender on the American Home Front, 1941–1947 1997 online edition Westbrook, Robert. "'I Want a Girl Just Like the Girl That Married Harry James': American Women and the Problem of Political Obligation in WWII," American Quarterly 42 (December 1990): 587–614; online in JSTOR Cold War and Vietnam Flynn, George Q. The Draft, 1940–1973. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993; the standard history Marc Leepson, "What It Was Like to Be Drafted," The New York Times, "Vietnam '67," July 21, 2017. Recent Eitelberg, Mark J. and Binkin, Martin. (1982). “Military Service in American Society.” In Goodpaster, A.J., Elliott, L.H., and Hovey, J.A. (eds.) Toward a Consensus on Military Service. Elsevier. eBook . Halstead, Fred. GIs Speak out against the War: The Case of the Ft. Jackson 8. 128 pages. New York: Pathfinder Press. 1970. Warner, John T. and Beth J. Asch. "The Record and Prospects of the All-volunteer Military in the United States." Journal of Economic Perspectives 2001 15(2): 169–192. Fulltext: in Jstor and Ebsco Wooten; Evan M. "Banging on the Backdoor Draft: The Constitutional Validity of Stop-Loss in the Military", William and Mary Law Review, Vol. 47, 2005 Chambers II, John Whiteclay, ed. Draftees or Volunteers: A Documentary History of the Debate over Military Conscription in the United States, 1787–1973, (1975) (1976) (2011) External links "What It Was Like to be Drafted," The New York Times, "Vietnam '67," July 21, 2017. Selective Service System official website Rolling Stone magazine: "The Return of the Draft" 2005 How To Beat The Draft Board Reinstating the military draft by Walter E. Williams Are You Going to be Drafted? by Rod Powers. Discusses the improbability of the draft returning. World War I: Conscription Laws from the Library of Congress Blog American nationalism United States United States military policies

Thin film

eng_Latn

A thin film is a layer of material ranging from fractions of a nanometer (monolayer) to several micrometers in thickness. The controlled synthesis of materials as thin films (a process referred to as deposition) is a fundamental step in many applications. A familiar example is the household mirror, which typically has a thin metal coating on the back of a sheet of glass to form a reflective interface. The process of silvering was once commonly used to produce mirrors, while more recently the metal layer is deposited using techniques such as sputtering. Advances in thin film deposition techniques during the 20th century have enabled a wide range of technological breakthroughs in areas such as magnetic recording media, electronic semiconductor devices, Integrated passive devices, LEDs, optical coatings (such as antireflective coatings), hard coatings on cutting tools, and for both energy generation (e.g. thin-film solar cells) and storage (thin-film batteries). It is also being applied to pharmaceuticals, via thin-film drug delivery. A stack of thin films is called a multilayer. In addition to their applied interest, thin films play an important role in the development and study of materials with new and unique properties. Examples include multiferroic materials, and superlattices that allow the study of quantum phenomena. Deposition The act of applying a thin film to a surface is thin-film deposition – any technique for depositing a thin film of material onto a substrate or onto previously deposited layers. "Thin" is a relative term, but most deposition techniques control layer thickness within a few tens of nanometres. Molecular beam epitaxy, the Langmuir–Blodgett method, atomic layer deposition and molecular layer deposition allow a single layer of atoms or molecules to be deposited at a time. It is useful in the manufacture of optics (for reflective, anti-reflective coatings or self-cleaning glass, for instance), electronics (layers of insulators, semiconductors, and conductors form integrated circuits), packaging (i.e., aluminium-coated PET film), and in contemporary art (see the work of Larry Bell). Similar processes are sometimes used where thickness is not important: for instance, the purification of copper by electroplating, and the deposition of silicon and enriched uranium by a CVD-like process after gas-phase processing. Deposition techniques fall into two broad categories, depending on whether the process is primarily chemical or physical. Chemical deposition Here, a fluid precursor undergoes a chemical change at a solid surface, leaving a solid layer. An everyday example is the formation of soot on a cool object when it is placed inside a flame. Since the fluid surrounds the solid object, deposition happens on every surface, with little regard to direction; thin films from chemical deposition techniques tend to be conformal, rather than directional. Chemical deposition is further categorized by the phase of the precursor: Plating relies on liquid precursors, often a solution of water with a salt of the metal to be deposited. Some plating processes are driven entirely by reagents in the solution (usually for noble metals), but by far the most commercially important process is electroplating. In semiconductor manufacturing, an advanced form of electroplating known as electrochemical deposition is now used to create the copper conductive wires in advanced chips, replacing the chemical and physical deposition processes used to previous chip generations for aluminum wires Chemical solution deposition (CSD) or chemical bath deposition (CBD) uses a liquid precursor, usually a solution of organometallic powders dissolved in an organic solvent. This is a relatively inexpensive, simple thin-film process that produces stoichiometrically accurate crystalline phases. This technique is also known as the sol-gel method because the 'sol' (or solution) gradually evolves towards the formation of a gel-like diphasic system. The Langmuir–Blodgett method uses molecules floating on top of an aqueous subphase. The packing density of molecules is controlled, and the packed monolayer is transferred on a solid substrate by controlled withdrawal of the solid substrate from the subphase. This allows creating thin films of various molecules such as nanoparticles, polymers and lipids with controlled particle packing density and layer thickness. Spin coating or spin casting, uses a liquid precursor, or sol-gel precursor deposited onto a smooth, flat substrate which is subsequently spun at a high velocity to centrifugally spread the solution over the substrate. The speed at which the solution is spun and the viscosity of the sol determine the ultimate thickness of the deposited film. Repeated depositions can be carried out to increase the thickness of films as desired. Thermal treatment is often carried out in order to crystallize the amorphous spin coated film. Such crystalline films can exhibit certain preferred orientations after crystallization on single crystal substrates. Dip coating is similar to spin coating in that a liquid precursor or sol-gel precursor is deposited on a substrate, but in this case the substrate is completely submerged in the solution and then withdrawn under controlled conditions. By controlling the withdrawal speed, the evaporation conditions (principally the humidity, temperature) and the volatility/viscosity of the solvent, the film thickness, homogeneity and nanoscopic morphology are controlled. There are two evaporation regimes: the capillary zone at very low withdrawal speeds, and the draining zone at faster evaporation speeds. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) generally uses a gas-phase precursor, often a halide or hydride of the element to be deposited. In the case of MOCVD, an organometallic gas is used. Commercial techniques often use very low pressures of precursor gas. Plasma enhanced CVD (PECVD) uses an ionized vapor, or plasma, as a precursor. Unlike the soot example above, commercial PECVD relies on electromagnetic means (electric current, microwave excitation), rather than a chemical-reaction, to produce a plasma. Atomic layer deposition (ALD), and its sister technique molecular layer deposition (MLD), uses gaseous precursor to deposit conformal thin films one layer at a time. The process is split up into two half reactions, run in sequence and repeated for each layer, in order to ensure total layer saturation before beginning the next layer. Therefore, one reactant is deposited first, and then the second reactant is deposited, during which a chemical reaction occurs on the substrate, forming the desired composition. As a result of the stepwise, the process is slower than CVD, however it can be run at low temperatures, unlike CVD. Physical deposition Physical deposition uses mechanical, electromechanical or thermodynamic means to produce a thin film of solid. An everyday example is the formation of frost. Since most engineering materials are held together by relatively high energies, and chemical reactions are not used to store these energies, commercial physical deposition systems tend to require a low-pressure vapor environment to function properly; most can be classified as physical vapor deposition (PVD). The material to be deposited is placed in an energetic, entropic environment, so that particles of material escape its surface. Facing this source is a cooler surface which draws energy from these particles as they arrive, allowing them to form a solid layer. The whole system is kept in a vacuum deposition chamber, to allow the particles to travel as freely as possible. Since particles tend to follow a straight path, films deposited by physical means are commonly directional, rather than conformal. Examples of physical deposition include: A thermal evaporator that uses an electric resistance heater to melt the material and raise its vapor pressure to a useful range. This is done in a high vacuum, both to allow the vapor to reach the substrate without reacting with or scattering against other gas-phase atoms in the chamber, and reduce the incorporation of impurities from the residual gas in the vacuum chamber. Obviously, only materials with a much higher vapor pressure than the heating element can be deposited without contamination of the film. Molecular beam epitaxy is a particularly sophisticated form of thermal evaporation. An electron beam evaporator fires a high-energy beam from an electron gun to boil a small spot of material; since the heating is not uniform, lower vapor pressure materials can be deposited. The beam is usually bent through an angle of 270° in order to ensure that the gun filament is not directly exposed to the evaporant flux. Typical deposition rates for electron beam evaporation range from 1 to 10 nanometres per second. In molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), slow streams of an element can be directed at the substrate, so that material deposits one atomic layer at a time. Compounds such as gallium arsenide are usually deposited by repeatedly applying a layer of one element (i.e., gallium), then a layer of the other (i.e., arsenic), so that the process is chemical, as well as physical; this is known also as atomic layer deposition. If the precursors in use are organic, then the technique is called molecular layer deposition. The beam of material can be generated by either physical means (that is, by a furnace) or by a chemical reaction (chemical beam epitaxy). Sputtering relies on a plasma (usually a noble gas, such as argon) to knock material from a "target" a few atoms at a time. The target can be kept at a relatively low temperature, since the process is not one of evaporation, making this one of the most flexible deposition techniques. It is especially useful for compounds or mixtures, where different components would otherwise tend to evaporate at different rates. Note, sputtering's step coverage is more or less conformal. It is also widely used in optical media. The manufacturing of all formats of CD, DVD, and BD are done with the help of this technique. It is a fast technique and also it provides a good thickness control. Presently, nitrogen and oxygen gases are also being used in sputtering. Pulsed laser deposition systems work by an ablation process. Pulses of focused laser light vaporize the surface of the target material and convert it to plasma; this plasma usually reverts to a gas before it reaches the substrate. Cathodic arc deposition (arc-PVD) which is a kind of ion beam deposition where an electrical arc is created that literally blasts ions from the cathode. The arc has an extremely high power density resulting in a high level of ionization (30–100%), multiply charged ions, neutral particles, clusters and macro-particles (droplets). If a reactive gas is introduced during the evaporation process, dissociation, ionization and excitation can occur during interaction with the ion flux and a compound film will be deposited. Electrohydrodynamic deposition (electrospray deposition) is a relatively new process of thin-film deposition. The liquid to be deposited, either in the form of nanoparticle solution or simply a solution, is fed to a small capillary nozzle (usually metallic) which is connected to a high voltage. The substrate on which the film has to be deposited is connected to ground. Through the influence of electric field, the liquid coming out of the nozzle takes a conical shape (Taylor cone) and at the apex of the cone a thin jet emanates which disintegrates into very fine and small positively charged droplets under the influence of Rayleigh charge limit. The droplets keep getting smaller and smaller and ultimately get deposited on the substrate as a uniform thin layer. Growth modes Frank–van der Merwe growth ("layer-by-layer"). In this growth mode the adsorbate-surface and adsorbate-adsorbate interactions are balanced. This type of growth requires lattice matching, and hence considered an "ideal" growth mechanism. Stranski–Krastanov growth ("joint islands" or "layer-plus-island"). In this growth mode the adsorbate-surface interactions are stronger than adsorbate-adsorbate interactions. Volmer–Weber ("isolated islands"). In this growth mode the adsorbate-adsorbate interactions are stronger than adsorbate-surface interactions, hence "islands" are formed right away. Epitaxy A subset of thin-film deposition processes and applications is focused on the so-called epitaxial growth of materials, the deposition of crystalline thin films that grow following the crystalline structure of the substrate. The term epitaxy comes from the Greek roots epi (ἐπί), meaning "above", and taxis (τάξις), meaning "an ordered manner". It can be translated as "arranging upon". The term homoepitaxy refers to the specific case in which a film of the same material is grown on a crystalline substrate. This technology is used, for instance, to grow a film which is more pure than the substrate, has a lower density of defects, and to fabricate layers having different doping levels. Heteroepitaxy refers to the case in which the film being deposited is different from the substrate. Techniques used for epitaxial growth of thin films include molecular beam epitaxy, chemical vapor deposition, and pulsed laser deposition. Stress and strain Thin films may be biaxially loaded via stresses originated from their interface with a substrate. Epitaxial thin films may experience stresses from misfit strains between the coherent lattices of the film and substrate. Thermal stress is common in thin films grown at elevated temperatures due to differences in thermal expansion coefficients with the substrate. Differences in interfacial energy and the growth and coalescence of grains contribute to intrinsic stress in thin films. These intrinsic stresses can be a function of film thickness. These stresses may be tensile or compressive and can cause cracking or buckling among other forms of stress relaxation. In epitaxial films, initially deposited atomic layers may have coherent lattice planes with the substrate. However, past a critical thickness misfit dislocations will form leading to relaxation of stresses in the film. Measuring stress and strain The stresses in Films deposited on flat substrates such as wafers can be measured by measuring the curvature of the wafer because of strain by the film. Lasers are reflected off the wafer in a grid pattern and distortions in the grid are used to calculate the curvature. Strain in thin films can also be measured by x-ray diffraction or by milling a section of the film via focused ion beam and the relaxation observed via scanning electron microscopy. Strain engineering Stress and relaxation of stresses in films can influence the materials properties of the film, such as mass transport in microelectronics applications. Therefore precautions are taken to either mitigate or produce such stresses; for example a buffer layer may be deposited between the substrate and film. Strain engineering is also used to produce various phase and domain structures in thin films such as in the domain structure of the ferroelectric Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT). Applications Decorative coatings The usage of thin films for decorative coatings probably represents their oldest application. This encompasses ca. 100 nm thin gold leaves that were already used in ancient India more than 5000 years ago. It may also be understood as any form of painting, although this kind of work is generally considered as an arts craft rather than an engineering or scientific discipline. Today, thin-film materials of variable thickness and high refractive index like titanium dioxide are often applied for decorative coatings on glass for instance, causing a rainbow-color appearance like oil on water. In addition, intransparent gold-colored surfaces may either be prepared by sputtering of gold or titanium nitride. Optical coatings These layers serve in both reflective and refractive systems. Large-area (reflective) mirrors became available during the 19th century and were produced by sputtering of metallic silver or aluminum on glass. Refractive lenses for optical instruments like cameras and microscopes typically exhibit aberrations, i.e. non-ideal refractive behavior. While large sets of lenses had to be lined up along the optical path previously, nowadays, the coating of optical lenses with transparent multilayers of titanium dioxide, silicon nitride or silicon oxide etc. may correct these aberrations. A well-known example for the progress in optical systems by thin-film technology is represented by the only a few mm wide lens in smart phone cameras. Other examples are given by anti-reflection coatings on eyeglasses or solar panels. Protective coatings Thin films are often deposited to protect an underlying work piece from external influences. The protection may operate by minimizing the contact with the exterior medium in order to reduce the diffusion from the medium to the work piece or vice versa. For instance, plastic lemonade bottles are frequently coated by anti-diffusion layers to avoid the out-diffusion of CO2, into which carbonic acid decomposes that was introduced into the beverage under high pressure. Another example is represented by thin TiN films in microelectronic chips separating electrically conducting aluminum lines from the embedding insulator SiO2 in order to suppress the formation of Al2O3. Often, thin films serve as protection against abrasion between mechanically moving parts. Examples for the latter application are diamond-like carbon (DLC) layers used in car engines or thin films made of nanocomposites. Electrically operating coatings Thin layers from elemental metals like copper, aluminum, gold or silver etc. and alloys have found numerous applications in electrical devices. Due to their high electrical conductivity they are able to transport electrical currents or supply voltages. Thin metal layers serve in conventional electrical system, for instance, as Cu layers on printed circuit boards, as the outer ground conductor in coaxial cables and various other forms like sensors etc. A major field of application became their use in integrated passive devices and integrated circuits, where the electrical network among active and passive devices like transistors and capacitors etc. is built up from thin Al or Cu layers. These layers dispose of thicknesses in the range of a few 100 nm up to a few µm, and they are often embedded into a few nm thin titanium nitride layers in order to block a chemical reaction with the surrounding dielectric like SiO2. The figure shows a micrograph of a laterally structured TiN/Al/TiN metal stack in a microelectronic chip. Heterostructures of gallium nitride and similar semiconductors can lead to electrons being bound to a sub-nanometric layer, effectively behaving as a two-dimensional electron gas. Quantum effects in such thin films can significantly enhance electron mobility as compared to that of a bulk crystal, which is employed in high-electron-mobility transistors. Biosensors and plasmonic devices Noble metal thin films are used in plasmonic structures such as surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensors. Surface plasmon polaritons are surface waves in the optical regime that propagate in between metal-dielectric interfaces; in Kretschmann-Raether configuration for the SPR sensors, a prism is coated with a metallic film through evaporation. Due to the poor adhesive characteristics of metallic films, germanium, titanium or chromium films are used as intermediate layers to promote stronger adhesion. Metallic thin films are also used in plasmonic waveguide designs. Thin-film photovoltaic cells Thin-film technologies are also being developed as a means of substantially reducing the cost of solar cells. The rationale for this is thin-film solar cells are cheaper to manufacture owing to their reduced material costs, energy costs, handling costs and capital costs. This is especially represented in the use of printed electronics (roll-to-roll) processes. Other thin-film technologies, that are still in an early stage of ongoing research or with limited commercial availability, are often classified as emerging or third generation photovoltaic cells and include, organic, dye-sensitized, and polymer solar cells, as well as quantum dot, copper zinc tin sulfide, nanocrystal and perovskite solar cells. Thin-film batteries Thin-film printing technology is being used to apply solid-state lithium polymers to a variety of substrates to create unique batteries for specialized applications. Thin-film batteries can be deposited directly onto chips or chip packages in any shape or size. Flexible batteries can be made by printing onto plastic, thin metal foil, or paper. Thin-film bulk acoustic wave resonators (TFBARs/FBARs) For miniaturising and more precise control of resonance frequency of piezoelectric crystals thin-film bulk acoustic resonators TFBARs/FBARs are developed for oscillators, telecommunication filters and duplexers, and sensor applications. See also Coating Dual-polarisation interferometry Ellipsometry Hydrogenography Kelvin probe force microscope Langmuir–Blodgett film Layer by layer Microfabrication Organic LED Sarfus Thin-film interference Thin-film optics Thin-film solar cell Thin-film bulk acoustic resonator References Further reading Textbooks Historical Artificial materials Materials science Nanotechnology

Junior varsity team

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Junior varsity (often called "JV") players are the members of a team who are not the main players in a competition (such as any football, basketball, or baseball game), usually at the high school level–– and formerly at the collegiate level–– in the United States. The main players comprise the varsity team. Although the intensity of the JV team may vary from place to place, most junior varsity teams consist of players who are in their freshman and sophomore years in school, though occasionally upperclassmen may play on JV teams. For this reason, junior varsity teams are also often called freshman/sophomore teams. Especially skilled or physically mature freshmen and sophomores may compete at the varsity level. Some private school associations may permit very skilled seventh- or eighth-graders to compete on varsity teams. At larger schools, there may be two junior varsity teams for some sports, with a lower-level team typically consisting only of freshmen. Junior varsity players Members of a junior varsity team are underclassmen determined by the coaching staff to have less experience or ability than those on the varsity roster. As such, junior varsity teams are used to prepare these athletes to compete at the varsity level. In other schools, the line between JV and varsity is arbitrary, with all players at a certain grade level (usually seniors and, in smaller schools, juniors) at the varsity and all others below that grade level at JV, with only a few exceptions for highly talented (or well-connected) student-athletes, or much smaller schools where - due to their low enrollment - are limited in the number of upperclassmen athletes. Some teams require participation on a junior varsity team before being eligible to try out for a varsity team. These players can provide the varsity team with extra depth, with their service as back-up players. The NCAA previously prohibited true freshmen from playing varsity college football and basketball; as a result, numerous junior-varsity "freshmen teams" appeared on many major college campuses. The NCAA repealed this limitation in 1972; to the extent that junior varsity teams exist at the college level, many are classified as club squads. Many sports teams have assistant coaches responsible for developing the talent of junior varsity players. When they play A coach may call on one or more junior varsity players during a varsity game, especially when a varsity player is injured, is not performing well, or (because of a violation or poor grades) is disqualified from further competition. If a junior varsity player does well, they will see more playing time in the future or may even get moved up to the varsity level. A team will have many talented players, but the coach is unable to come up with a rotation that allows everyone to play. The decision of when to play junior varsity players in a one-sided game is often at the coach's discretion. This depends on the coach's strategy, the time remaining in the game, the point margin, and the game situation. The coach of a losing team—especially if the players are not very good or they are inexperienced players—sometimes may continue to play the main players against the winning team's junior varsity players to give the team experience. When the winning team is ahead by a substantial margin late in the game, the coaches of both the winning and losing teams may "empty their benches"—that is, they remove the varsity players and play the junior varsity players for the remainder of the game. The junior varsity players can impress coaches during this "garbage time" in hopes of gaining more playing time in subsequent games, while at the same time reducing the risk of serious injury by varsity players by resting them in a game whose outcome has been effectively decided. Which sports Some games have rules which allow unlimited use of junior varsity players, such as basketball. Other sports have different ways of determining junior varsity participants. For instance, in high school wrestling, there can only be one wrestler competing for a team at a particular weight class in a given varsity match. The team's representative is often determined by a "challenge match," in which the top two wrestlers at that weight compete for the right to participate in the varsity match. The loser wrestles that night's junior varsity match. A similar format is used for golf, tennis, and badminton, with players who lose to varsity opponents participating in the junior varsity part of the meet. Junior varsity games Junior varsity games are specially-scheduled events in which junior varsity players play to gain skills and experience. These games may be played immediately before a varsity contest; or if a school has a sophomore or freshman team, the junior varsity game will take place on another night or, in some cases, an off-peak time slot such as Saturday morning. Records and statistics are kept for the junior varsity team, and some leagues offer a junior varsity championship. An assistant coach acts as the head coach for these games. In states that use ratings systems to determine playoff participation, junior varsity games do not factor in, and are played with considerably less hoopla than varsity games. Attendance is far less, and bands, cheerleaders, and media coverage are usually not present. In some sports, such as tennis and golf, a junior varsity meet will take place simultaneously with the varsity event; however, the scores are separately tabulated. In track and field, a junior varsity "heat" of a particular event may take place either before or after the varsity "heat" (again, implementing separate tabulation of meet results). An underclassman who plays on a junior varsity team one year is expected to gain enough experience to be one of the varsity players the next season. A team's head coach will attend a junior varsity games to evaluate skill and decide if a player is ready to play in the main part of a varsity game. Junior varsity teams may or may not travel with or take the field/court with the varsity team, or in particularly well-organized hierarchies (especially in sports such as football) may alternate home and away schedules with the varsity squad to ensure at least one of the two teams plays at home each week. This is often dependent on the size of the varsity team, availability of transportation and policies invoked by either the coach, school or league. A JV can sometimes completely replace a varsity team in a game with little to no importance; the Missouri Turkey Day Game, for example, has a provision that if either of the two regular opponents is still in the midst of their playoff tournament by the time the game is held, the JV teams will instead play the game. See also Rookie References Terminology used in multiple sports Student sport

Kingda Ka

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Kingda Ka is a launched roller coaster located at Six Flags Great Adventure in Jackson, New Jersey, United States. Designed by Werner Stengel, Kingda Ka is an Accelerator Coaster model from Intamin that opened as the tallest and fastest roller coaster in the world on May 21, 2005. It is also the second-ever strata coaster, a full-circuit roller coaster taller than ; Top Thrill Dragster was the first and previously held both records. The train is launched by a hydraulic launch mechanism, accelerating to in 3.5 seconds. The train climbs the main top hat tower element at the end of the launch track, reaching a height of , before dropping and completing the course in 28 seconds. While still the tallest, Kingda Ka's speed record was broken by Formula Rossa at Ferrari World in 2010, however it is still the fastest coaster in North America. History On September 29, 2004, it was announced that Kingda Ka would be added to Six Flags Great Adventure in 2005. This announcement occurred at an event held for roller coaster enthusiasts and the media. The event revealed the park's goal to build "the tallest and fastest roller coaster on earth", reaching and accelerating up to in 3.5 seconds. Intamin subcontracted Stakotra to assist with construction. On January 13, 2005, Kingda Ka's tower construction was completed. While the attraction was originally scheduled to open on April 23, 2005, its opening was delayed to May 21. The park stated that more time was needed to complete testing. A media event was held two days prior on May 19, 2005. Kingda Ka became the "tallest" and "fastest" roller coaster in the world, taking both world records from Top Thrill Dragster at Cedar Point. It lost the title of world's fastest when Formula Rossa at Ferrari World opened in November 2010. Intamin designed both Kingda Ka and Top Thrill Dragster, and the two share a similar design and layout that differs primarily by the theme and the additional hill featured on Kingda Ka. Both rides were built by Stakotra and installed by Martin & Vleminckx. On August 29, 2013, Six Flags Great Adventure officially announced Zumanjaro: Drop of Doom for the 2014 season. The new attraction was attached to the Kingda Ka coaster. The drop tower features three gondolas integrated into the existing structure which was also built by Intamin. Kingda Ka closed at the start of the 2014 season in order to construct Zumanjaro: Drop of Doom on to Kingda Ka. Kingda Ka reopened on weekends on Memorial Day Weekend and fully reopened when Zumanjaro: Drop of Doom was completed on July 4, 2014. Ride experience Queue Guests pass under the jungle-themed entrance sign and enter the queue line, which is surrounded by bamboo, which augments the jungle-themed music that plays in the background. Along the way, there are some safety and warning signs about the ride. Following a long straight section, guests turn left and head into a switchback section. Guests approach some curved paths before entering the station. Layout Kingda Ka's layout and experience is nearly identical to that of Top Thrill Dragster. After the train has been locked and checked, it moves slowly out of the station to the launch area, then passes through a switch track which allows four trains on two tracks to load simultaneously. When the signal is given to launch, the train rolls back slightly so that the catch car can latch on to the middle car, and the brakes retract on the launch track. As the brake fins are retracting, a recording announces: "Arms down, head back, hold on!" The train is launched approximately five seconds later. When the train is in position, the hydraulic launch mechanism accelerates it from in 3.5 seconds. The hydraulic launch motor is capable of producing 20,800 peak horsepower (15.5 MW). At the end of the launch track, the train climbs the main tower (top hat) and rolls 90 degrees to the right before reaching a height of . It then descends straight down through a 270-degree, clockwise spiral. It climbs the second hill of , producing a moment of weightlessness before being smoothly brought to a stop by the magnetic brakes; it then makes a left-hand U-turn and enters the station. The ride lasts 28 seconds from the start of the launch. Trains and station Kingda Ka's four trains are color-coded for easy identification (green, dark blue, teal, and orange) and are numbered; the four colors are also used for the seats and restraints. Each train seats 18 people (two per row). The rear car has one row, while the rest have two. The rear row of each car is positioned higher than its front row for better visibility. Each of Kingda Ka's trains has an extra row of seat mounts. The panels could be removed for the installation of additional seats in the future. This modification would increase the capacity of each train from 18 to 20, and the hourly capacity of the coaster from 1400 to 1600 riders per hour. Kingda Ka's station is prepared for this modification, with entrance gates for the currently-nonexistent row of seats. Kingda Ka's over-the-shoulder restraint system consists of a thick, rigid lap bar and two thinner, flexible over-the-shoulder restraints. Because the over-the-shoulder portions of the restraint are not rigid, the hand grips are mounted to the lap bar. Kingda Ka's restraints are also held down by a belt, in case the main locking system fails. To speed loading, riders are asked to secure their own restraints if possible. These are checked by the attendant before launch. Kingda Ka's station has two parallel tracks, with switch tracks at the entrance and exit. Each of the station's tracks is designed to accommodate two trains, so each of the four trains can be operated from its own station. Because all of Kingda Ka's trains are mechanically identical and able to load and unload at each of the four individual station bays, the original plan was for all trains to operate at the same time, and for each train to load and unload at its own station. Trains on one side would be loaded while trains on the other side would be launched with an employee directing riders in line to a particular side, where they could then choose to sit anywhere within the train. During recent seasons, however, it has become common for only one train bay (the forward one on the side opposite the parking lot) to be used for the loading, unloading, and dispatching of trains, while other trains wait either in the station (behind a loading/unloading train) or outside (on the brake run that follows the second hill). Two operators load, check and dispatch each train; another launches the trains. Kingda Ka's music is by Safri Duo; almost their entire Episode II album is played in the queue and station. Survivor's "Eye of the Tiger", played by DJ Quicksilver, may also be heard in the queue and station. Theme Kingda Ka is located in the jungle-themed area of the park known as The Golden Kingdom. The ride portrays a mythical Bengal tiger named after one that was housed in the nearby Temple of the Tiger attraction, an interactive exhibit that was closed in 2010. Rollbacks A train may occasionally experience a rollback following a launch. A rollback occurs when the train fails to make it over the top of the tower and descends back down the side it was launched. Kingda Ka includes retractable magnetic brakes on its launch track to prevent a train from rolling back all the way into the loading station (and potentially colliding with the next about-to-be-launched train). Incidents On June 8, 2005, a bolt failed inside a trough through which the launch cable travels. This caused the liner to come loose, creating friction on the cable and preventing the train from accelerating to the correct speed. The cable rubbing against the trough caused sparks and shards of metal to fly out from the bottom of the train. The ride was closed for almost two months following the incident. Damage occurred to the launch cable, which was frayed and required replacement, including minor damage to seals and brake fins. The incident caused stress on a number of fins, and Six Flags did not have enough replacement fins. Extra brake fins had to be ordered from Intamin in Switzerland, and the ride had to undergo thorough testing following the repair. Kingda Ka reopened on August 4. Kingda Ka was struck by lightning in May 2009 and suffered serious damage. The ride was closed for three months for repairs and reopened on August 21, 2009. On August 27, 2011, Kingda Ka suffered unspecified damage shortly before Hurricane Irene, and Six Flags Great Adventure did not open. It is unknown whether additional damage occurred due to the storm, but the coaster was damaged to the extent that it could not run before Irene. Kingda Ka remained closed until the start of the 2012 operating season on April 5. Shortly before 5:00p.m. on July 26, 2012, a young boy was sent to the hospital after suffering minor injuries from being struck by a bird during normal operation. The ride resumed normal operation shortly after the incident. Awards Records References External links Official Kingda Ka page Kingda Ka Preview Article Roller coasters operated by Six Flags Roller coasters in New Jersey Roller coasters introduced in 2005 Six Flags Great Adventure 2005 establishments in New Jersey