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https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%BC%EB%B3%B8%EC%9D%98%20AFC%20%EC%95%84%EC%8B%9C%EC%95%88%EC%BB%B5%20%EC%84%B1%EC%A0%81

일본의 AFC 아시안컵 성적

다음은 AFC 아시안컵에서 일본의 결과를 기록한 것이다. 일본 축구 국가대표팀은 1988년 AFC 아시안컵에 처음으로 본선에 진출하여 9회 연속 본선 진출에 성공하였다. 그 중 1992년 AFC 아시안컵과 2000년 AFC 아시안컵, 2004년 AFC 아시안컵, 2011년 AFC 아시안컵에서 우승을 차지해 현재 아시안컵 최다 우승을 기록 중이다. 2019년까지 일본의 아시안컵 통산 성적은 48전 30승 12무 6패로 승점 102점을 기록하고 있으며 92득점 44실점을 기록해 득실 차는 +48을 기록 중이다. 아시안컵 통산 성적은 이란 축구 국가대표팀과 대한민국 축구 국가대표팀에 이어 3위를 기록하고 있다. 최근 대회인 2015년 AFC 아시안컵에선 조별리그는 3전 전승으로 무난하게 통과하였으나 8강전에서 아랍에미리트 축구 국가대표팀에 덜미를 잡히며 1 : 1로 비긴 뒤 승부차기 4 : 5로 패배하여 8강에 그쳐 디펜딩 챔피언으로서의 체면을 구기고 말았다. 2019년 AFC 아시안컵에서도 결승전까지 전승을 하며 올라갔으나 결승전에서 카타르에 1 : 3으로 완패하며 준우승에 그쳤다. 국제대회 기록 1988년 AFC 아시안컵 A조 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- !width=175|팀 !width=40 |승점 !width=40 |경기 !width=20 |승 !width=20 |무 !width=20 |패 !width=30 |득 !width=30 |실 !width=35 |차 |- style=background:#ccffcc |align="left"| |8||4||4||0||0||9||2||+7 |- style=background:#ccffcc |align="left"| |5||4||2||1||1||3||3||0 |-style=background:#fcc |align="left"| |4||4||2||0||2||7||6||+1 |-style=background:#fcc |align="left"| |2||4||1||0||3||2||4||−2 |-style=background:#fcc |align="left"| |1||4||0||1||3||0||6||−6 1992년 AFC 아시안컵 A조 준결승전 결승전 1996년 AFC 아시안컵 C조 8강전 2000년 AFC 아시안컵 C조 8강전 준결승전 결승전 2004년 AFC 아시안컵 D조 8강전 준결승전 결승전 2007년 AFC 아시안컵 B조 | 시간=17:20 (UTC+7)| 팀1 = | 득점 = 1 – 1| 팀2 = | 경기장 = 하노이, 미딘 국립 경기장| 관중수 = 5,000명| 심판 = 매슈 브리즈 | 골1 = 다카하라 | 리포트 = | 골2 = 소리아 | }} | 시간=20:35 (UTC+7)| 팀1 = | 득점 = 3 – 1| 팀2 = | 경기장 = 하노이, 미딘 국립 경기장| 관중수 = 5,000명| 심판 = 사톱 통칸 | 골1 = 다카하라 나카무라 | 리포트 = 리포트 | 골2 = 알카스 | }} | 시간=17:20 (UTC+7)| 팀1 = | 득점 = 4 – 1| 팀2 = | 경기장 = 하노이, 미딘 국립 경기장| 관중수 = 40,000명| 심판 = 매슈 브리즈 | 골1 = 마키 엔도 나카무라 | 리포트 = 리포트 | 골2 = 스즈키 | }} 8강전 | 팀1 = | 시간 = 17:20 (UTC+7)| 득점 = 1 – 1 |연장전 = y | 팀2 = | 경기장 = 하노이, 미딘 국립 경기장| 관중수 = 25,000명| 심판 = 사드 카밀 알파들리 | 골1 = 다카하라 | 리포트 = 리포트 | 골2 = 알로이지 |승부차기1 = 나카무라 엔도 고마노 다카하라 나카자와 |승부차기득점 = 4 – 3 |승부차기2 = 큐얼 닐 케이힐 칼 카니 }} 준결승전 | 시간 = 20:20 (UTC+7)| 팀1 = | 득점 = 2 – 3| 팀2 = | 경기장 = 하노이, 미딘 국립 경기장| 관중수 = 10,000명| 심판 = 매슈 브리즈 | 골1 = 나카자와 아베 | 리포트 = 리포트 | 골2 = 알 카타니 마즈 | }} 3·4위전 | 시간=19:35 (UTC+8) | 팀1 = | 득점 = 0 – 0 |연장전 = y | 팀2 = | 경기장 = 팔렘방, 겔로라 스리위자야 스타디움| 관중수 = 10,000명| 심판 = 알리 알드바와위 | 골1 = | 리포트 = | 골2 = |승부차기1 = 나카무라 엔도 아베 고마노 나카자와 하뉴 |승부차기득점 = 5 – 6 |승부차기2 = 조재진 오범석 이근호 이호 김진규 김치우 }} 2011년 AFC 아시안컵 B조 8강전 준결승전 결승전 2015년 AFC 아시안컵 D조 8강전 2019년 AFC 아시안컵 F조 16강전 8강전 준결승전 결승전 최다 상대 팀 아시안컵 상대 전적 상대 전적 우세 : 사우디아라비아(5승 1패), 중국(4승), 우즈베키스탄(3승), 이라크, 시리아, 오만, 베트남(각 2승), 이란(2승 2무), 요르단(1승 2무), 호주(1승 1무), 바레인, 태국, 팔레스타인, 투르크메니스탄(각 1승) 상대 전적 호각세 : 아랍에미리트(1승 2무 1패), 조선민주주의인민공화국(1무) 상대 전적 열세 : 카타르(1승 2무 2패), 대한민국(2무 1패), 쿠웨이트(1패) 각주

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan%20at%20the%20AFC%20Asian%20Cup

Japan at the AFC Asian Cup

Since the 1988 tournament, Japan has qualified for eight consecutive AFC Asian Cups from 1992 to 2019. Japan is also the most successful team in the tournament with 4 titles. Despite being a current football powerhouse in Asia, Japan was not considered a continental football power until 1988. Outside the 1968 Summer Olympics shock, Japan had been regarded as a weak team in the continent. In fact, Japan had missed eight first editions before qualifying in 1988. Yet, in qualifying for the 1988 edition, combined with hosting the 1992 AFC Asian Cup, Japanese football grew rapidly and soon replaced traditional powerhouses like South Korea, Iran and Saudi Arabia as the emerging and eventually, a dominant football power in Asia, although recent rise of Australia has posed a challenge for Japan's dominant position. Japan results in the Asian Cup * hosts 1988 AFC Asian Cup Japan made debut at 1988 Asian Cup and it was the historical achievement that would put milestone for Japan to envision and develop its football, which was then-limited in amateur football. In the whole tournament however, Japan ended up finishing last, with just one draw and three defeats, scoring zero goal and conceded six goals. Although it was not a successful tournament, qualifying to the Asian Cup had been the source of Japan's football renaissance in the country, and subsequent tournaments later would have proven this. 1992 AFC Asian Cup Japan was the host of the 1992 tournament, and placed together with North Korea, Iran and the UAE. Japan was expected to pass through semi-finals only, however Japan had done even better than that. Japan opened their account with two draws against the UAE and North Korea, before winning the first ever match in the Asian Cup, 1–0, over Iran, effectively eliminated Iran and North Korea. Japan kept firing by a 3–2 thrilling victory over China, before defeating Saudi Arabia 1–0 in the final. With the win, Japan claimed their first Asian title, marked the begin of a new Asian football power that would have a huge consequence for the next years. Knockout stage Semi-finals Final Ironically, in spite of the victory, Japan failed to qualify for 1994 World Cup, despite being Asian champion, and Hans Ooft, the manager who helped Japan win maiden Asian Cup, was fired later after the failure. 1996 AFC Asian Cup Having won the previous edition, Japan was expected to become a contender for the Asian title twice. That's said, however, Japan's performance turned to be a great disappointment. Japan won all three matches in the group stage against Syria, China and Uzbekistan and won the group with full nine points. Even though their group stage performances were impressive, the quarter-final match against Kuwait proved to be a disaster when they lost 0–2, eventually ended Japan's hope to defend the title. Knockout stage Quarter-finals Manager Shu Kamo was allowed to keep his job, but 1998 World Cup qualification under his tenure was not successful and he was replaced by Takeshi Okada, his assistant, for the remaining crucial matches. Japan would have qualified to the World Cup for the first time. 2000 AFC Asian Cup Japan came to Lebanon 2000 with high hope to win the Asian Cup, having participated in their maiden World Cup in France. In there, Japan was placed with defending champions Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Uzbekistan. For Japan, the tournament was seen as perpetration for 2002 World Cup to be held in their home soil. Japan proved to be so strong when they demolished defending champion Saudi Arabia 4–1 and Uzbekistan 8–1. After two matches, Japan drew Qatar 1–1. Qatar would go on to be the only team that didn't lose to Japan in the tournament. Japan kept on their impressive running by beating Iraq 4–1, China 3–2 before won the final against Saudi Arabia for the second times, 1–0. Japan claimed their second title and had officially established themselves as a new Asian football powerhouse. Knockout stage Quarter-finals Semi-finals Final This impressive running in 2000 Asian Cup proved to be useful for Japan two years later, when Japan passed through the group stage for the first time, before losing to later third-place Turkey 0–1 in the round of sixteen. 2004 AFC Asian Cup Japan, having established themselves as a football powerhouse in the continent, was placed in Group D with Iran, Thailand and debutant Oman. Japan, however, had a hard beginning with just a 1–0 win to Oman, before demolished Thailand 4–1 next. Japan, like 2000 edition, drew the last match with Iran 0–0 and qualified to the quarter-finals when they faced up another debutant, Jordan. Jordan however proved to be a tough team when they held on Japan for 120 minutes with a 1–1 draw, before Japan won on the penalty shootout. In the semi-finals, Japan also needed 120 minutes to defeat another Arab team, Bahrain, in a 4–3 thriller. In the final, Japan faced host China, and despite being thought to be even much harder than with Jordan and Bahrain since China was the host, Japan surprisingly defeated China 3–1 in just 90 minutes, including a hand goal from Koji Nakata, which was controversial aftermath. Thus, Japan for the second times won the title, continued to be the dominant force in Asia. Knockout stage Quarter-finals Semi-finals Final 2007 AFC Asian Cup In the next editions, Japan seemed to be placed in a much easier group than three years ago, when Japan was drawn with host Vietnam, Qatar and the UAE. Qatar and the UAE had also won 2006 Asian Games and 18th Arabian Gulf Cup, effectively putting Japan on board with two other champions outside host Vietnam. However, Japan opened their accounts unimpressive with just a 1–1 draw to Qatar, which made Ivica Osim to label his players as "amateur". Japan went on to beat the UAE 3–1 and Vietnam 4–1, the latter would join Japan into the quarter-finals. Japan later took vengeance on Australia by defeating the Socceroos 4–3 in the penalty shootout in Hanoi. However, within the same stuff, Japan lost to eventual runners-up Saudi Arabia 2–3 and had to play the third-place match, when they lost on penalty shootout this time, 5–6, to rival South Korea. Knockout stage Quarter-finals Semi-finals Third-place match 2011 AFC Asian Cup After just won 4th place four years before, Japan had to take part on the qualification round, where they won first to qualify for the tournament. Once again, Japan was placed with Saudi Arabia, alongside Jordan and Syria, both had not participated four years ago. However, Japan was stunned by Jordan after just a 1–1 draw, drew criticisms from the fans and coach Alberto Zaccheroni had to change tactics to suit the situation. The match with Syria had also drawn criticisms later due to poor performance of Japanese players, despite winning 2–1. Nonetheless, these criticisms vanished when Japan destroyed Saudi Arabia 5–0 to march into the quarter-finals facing host Qatar. In the quarter-final match, Japan suffered even a red card and two goals-lead by Qatar, but in the end Japan fought back and won 3–2, eliminated host Qatar from the tournament. Japan would make up meeting with old rival South Korea, where they drew 2–2 after 120 minutes before winning 3–0 on penalty shootout and went into the final. In the final, Japan met Asia's no.1 ranking team, Australia. Nonetheless, despite heavy pressures from the Socceroos, Japan withstood and at the extra time, Tadanari Lee scored the only goal in the match, helping Japan to claim the title for the fourth times, became the most successful team in the tournament's history. Knockout stage Quarter-finals Semi-finals Final Keisuke Honda was awarded as the most valuable player in the tournament. 2015 AFC Asian Cup Having won four titles, Japan was considered as the contender for the next title in the 2015 Asian Cup, where they were drawn with debutant Palestine, 2011 rival Jordan and former champion Iraq. With experiences, Japan was not hard to dominate the group stage. Japan defeated Palestine 4–0, Iraq 1–0 and Jordan 2–0 to win the group with full nine points and no goal conceded. This led to popular belief that Japan would have won the tournament again. However, the quarter-final encounter over the UAE was a shocking humiliation, when they just earned a 1–1 draw to the Gulf side after 120 minutes before losing 4–5 on the penalty shootout. The UAE would go on to win bronze medal in the tournament. It was Japan's worst finish ever since 1996. Knockout stage Quarter-finals 2019 AFC Asian Cup Japan made their ninth appearance in the Asian Cup after they were drawn with Uzbekistan, Oman and Turkmenistan. As usual, Japan was regarded as one of the favourite teams to win the tournament. Knockout stage Round of 16 Quarter-finals Semi-finals Final See also Japan at the Copa América Japan at the FIFA World Cup References Countries at the AFC Asian Cup

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EA%B0%84%EB%A1%A0%20%28%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%85%EA%B5%90%29

인간론 (기독교)

인간론(Christian anthropology)은 기독교 신학의 영역에서 하나님과 관련된 인간을 연구하는 학문이다. 기독교 인간론은 시간과 공간을 넘어서 인간의 물리적 사회적 특성을 비교연구하는 인류학의 사회적 학문과는 구별된다. 기독교 신학의 인간론은 하나님으로부터 창조된 인간 즉 하나님의 형상과 범죄로 인해 타락한 인간을 다루는 영역, 그리고 그리스도로 회복된 의인을 다룬다. 하나의 관점은 인간의 본성과 구성요소를 연구한다. 그것은 성서가 말하는 것에 근거하여 인간을 구성하는 몸, 영 및 혼 같은 개념들에 관한 것이다. 인간의 구성요소에 대해서는 전통적인 견해로 삼분설, 이분법 및 일원론 (인류학의 의미에서)이 있다. 정의 인간이란 존재는 누구인가? 플라톤은 인간을 몸과 영혼으로 분리된 이원론적 사고를 가진 자로, 몸이 영혼을 붙잡는 감옥으로 이해하고 죽은 후에 영혼은 다른 사람이나 다른 동물에 들어가서 정화되고 이데아로 간다고 보았다. 아리스토텔레스에게 있어서는 동물과 식물도 영혼이 생명의 원리이기에 인간과 동물의 구별은 분명치 않다. 인간은 이성과 자유의지를 가지기에 인간이라고 데까르트는 말하였다. 현대 철학자들 가운데 니체, 하이데거, 싸르트르 등은 인간의 본질을 사람의 자유성에서 찾는다. 항상 만들어져가는 도중에서 책임성을 강조한다. 인간의 실존을 이념적 본질로 보지 않고 결단의 행위 즉 역사적으로 존재한다고 한다. 니체는 인간은 동물과 초인 사이에 늘어져 있는 줄, 그것도 심연 위에 있는 줄로 표현했다. 하이데거는 인간은 오늘날 가장 어려운 수수께끼요 가장 알 수 없는 신비라고 했다. 인간은 동물과 같지 않기 때문에 진화론적으로 인간론이 이해될 수는 없다. 인간이 가진 가공할만한 존재와 동족 파괴성은 진화론적으로 어떻게 설명이 가능할까? 인간이 도덕적으로 점점 고등화되는 존재와는 반대적인 존재가 아닌가? 지구상의 범죄와 폭력은 점점 더 악해지고 있다. 이런 사상은 인간을 미래를 향해 만들어져 가는 존재로 책임을 가진 자로 본다. 그렇다면 늘 인간은 불완전 존재요, 죽음에 직면해 있는 불행한 존재로 가는 것이다. 이들은 미래를 주관하시는 하나님의 주권과 하나님의 나라의 완성을 바라보지 못하는 것이다. 인간은 누구인가가? 인간에 대한 정의는 쉽지않다. 고대 헬라에서는 너 자신을 알라고 말하였다. 이 말은 델피(Delphi) 신전의 신탁이었고, 소크라테스의 말로도 유명하다. 그들에게 있어서 자신들을 아는 것은 철학적 명제이었다. 엘리자베스 퀴블러로스와 같은 사람은 인간이 평생 ‘진정한 자신이 되는 법’(자신의 진정한 모습을 아는 것)이 인생의 목표라고 본다. 진화생물학자들은 사람을 생물학적 접근으로 이해한다. 인류학자들은 인간을 문화와 문명의 관점에서 이해한다. 신학적 인간 신학적 인간의 이해는 성경을 통하여 인간을 이해하기 시작한다. 또한 기독교 신학자들의 이해를 통하여 인간을 좀더 통합적으로 규명한다. 죄의 관점에서 본 칼빈은 인간이 자기 자신을 성찰한다면 자신에 대하여 궁극적으로 실망하게 된다고 말한다. 인간을 성경으로부터 이해했던 전통적인 신학과 달리 현대 신학자들은 성경 중심이 아닌 철학적 체계가 중심되어 철학과 성경을 혼합하여 인간을 이해한다. 그러나 하나님의 계시를 이성적, 과학적, 철학적으로 해석하는 것은 한계가 있다. 어거스틴- 원죄로 타락하였고 은혜로 구원받는 인간을 말한다. 펠라기우스는 인간의 전적 타락과 구원의 무능력을 부인하고 자력구원을 주장한다. 루터의 의인사상은 어거스틴의 은총론에서 왔다. 죄인이며 의인을 동시적으로 말한다. 칼뱅 - 하나님의 형상으로 창조되었나 타락으로 왜곡되어 그리스도로 인해 형상이 회복되어야 함을 말한다. 슐라이에르마허와 리츨 - 칸트나 신 칸트의 철학 체계를 사용하여 순수한 내재적 인간론을 주장한다. 키에르케고르 - 인간은 하나님 앞에 선 단독자이다. 피조성의 개념으로 설명한다. 인간은 생과 사의 긴장 속에서 자신의 피조성을 깨닫고 자신의 실존을 발견한다는 것이다. 바르트 - 그리스도 안에서 참된 인간성을 회복한다고 본다. 루돌프 불트만 - 실존적 자기이해를 강조한다. 고가르텐 - 율법과 복음의 요구 아래 있는 대화적, 활동적 인격 사이의 긴장에서 해석한다. 틸리히 – 인간을 소외 상태에 빠진 자로 설명한다. 니부어 - 하나님의 형상과 동시에 죄인을 말한다. 니부어는 인간의 자기의 유한성을 인정하지 않고 하나님처럼 높아지려고 노력하는 존재자 즉 죄인으로 인간을 말한다. 몰트만과 판넨베르그 - 마르크스나 블로호, 마르쿠제 등의 변증법적이고 진화론적 유물사관을 중심으로 보편사적이고 진화론적 인간학을 주장한다. 인간론의 중요성 신학은 삼위 하나님을 아는 것만 아니고 그 분의 형상으로 만들어진 인간을 아는 학문이다. 물론 이 두 주제들을 완전하게 이해한다는 것은 불가능하다. 칼빈은 인간이 그의 사상이 하나님을 즉각적으로 향하지 않는 한 자기 자신을 알지 못한다고 했다. 칼빈은 인간은 종교의 씨앗(divinitatis sensum)을 가졌기에 자연 본능적으로 하나님에 대한 이해력이 마음에 심어져 있다고 한다. 그러나 타락으로 그것을 바르게 쓰지 못하고 하나님을 아는 참된 지식을 저버렸다고 한다. 고대 헬라에서는 너 자신을 알라고 말하였다. 이 말은 델피(Delphi) 신전의 신탁이었고, 소크라테스의 말로도 유명하다. 그들에게 있어서 자신들을 아는 것은 철학적 명제이었다. 엘리자베스 퀴블러로스와 같은 사람은 인간이 평생 ‘진정한 자신이 되는 법’(자신의 진정한 모습을 아는 것)이 인생의 목표라고 본다. 그러나 자기를 성찰할 수 인간은 궁극적으로 실망하게 된다고 칼빈은 말한다. 성경은 인간을 아는 것은 인간의 철학적, 도덕적 가치를 넘어 영적인 영원한 진리와 관련되어 있다. 인간은 하나님을 바로 알고 그 분을 섬기며 그를 영화롭게 할 때, 궁극적인 인간의 존재의 가치가 드러난다. 인간은 하나님의 형상대로 지은 받은 존재로서 자신을 아는 것은 말할 필요도 없이 중요하다. 그러므로 인간은 하나님이 세우신 창조 목적을 실현을 위하여 자신을 알아야 한다. “하나님이 가라사대 우리의 형상을 따라 우리의 모양대로 우리가 사람을 만들고 그로 바다의 고기와 공중의 새와 육축과 온 땅과 땅에 기는 모든 것을 다스리게 하자 하시고 하나님이 자기 형상 곧 하나님의 형상대로 사람을 창조하시되 남자와 여자를 창조하시고 하나님이 그들에게 복을 주시며 하나님이 그들에게 이르시되 생육하고 번성하여 땅에 충만하라, 땅을 정복하라, 바다의 물고기와 하늘의 새와 땅에 움직이는 모든 생물을 다스리라 하시니라.”(창 1: 16-28) 인간은 하나님의 형상(모양)으로 창조되었다는 사실이 인간의 참된 정체성을 먼저 보여준다. 인간은 스스로 존재하지 않았고 나 또한 스스로 독립성을 가진 존재가 아니다. 인간은 하나님이 창조하신 세계를 돌보는 책임자로 부름을 받았다. 이런 청지기 사명에서 인간은 하나님의 주권을 인정하며, 그의 영광을 위하는 것(고전10:31, 롬11:36)과 그를 영원토록 즐거워하는 삶을(시73:23-28) 살게 된다(WSC,Q.1.1, WLC.Q.1.1). 우리가 어떻게 이런 삶을 살 수 있는가(WSC.Q.2)? 구약과 신약성경에 포함된 하나님의 말씀은 우리로 그를 어떻게 영화롭고 즐거워하는지를 인도하는 유일한 규칙이다(WSC. Q.2.A). 인간은 자신의 능력의 한계와 죄인인 것을 알아야 한다. 인간은 하나님의 형상을 입은 존재임에도 불구하고 타락한 죄인으로 하나님을 위한 참된 선을 행할 수 없는 무능한, 전적으로 부패한 인간이 되었다. 따라서 인간은 전적으로 타락한 죄인으로 하나님과의 바른 관계를 가질 수 없고 자신의 사명을 바르게 실현할 수 없는 존재이다. 따라서 인간은 사랑의 구세주를 필요로 한다. 인간은 타락하였으나 여전히 하나님의 형상을 가진 존재요, 하나님의 사랑을 받는 존재이다. 참된 인간성의 회복은 인간 스스로 이룰 수 없다. 인간은 예수 그리스도로 새로워지지 않으면 진정한 인간으로 존재할 수 없다. 복음은 진정한 인간이 그리스도 예수 안에서만 발견된다고 한다. 성경은 참된 인간의 바른 사명과 의무 그리고 하나님을 믿는 것에 대하여 다음과 같이 주장한다. 인간론 연구 방법들 인간을 이해하기 위한 학문적 방법으로 인류학적, 자연과학적, 사회학적, 심리학적, 철학적 방법 등 많은 것이 있을 수 있다. 실존주의적 방법을 추구하는 자들은 상실된 자아를 찾는 것이 인간학이라고 본다. 그러나 참다운 인간론 이해의 신학적 방법이란 하나님의 계시를 올바른 성경적 해석을 통하여 추구하는 방법이다. 이 방법의 타당성은 인간의 전적인 부패를 전제하고 구원과 회복을 말하는 성경으로 해석되어야 한다(scriptura sui ipsius interpres). 삼위 하나님에 대한 올바른 이해를 통하여 자연스럽게 인간에 대한 논의가 이루어지며, 그리고 인간론에 대한 풍성한 이해는 기독론, 구원론 그리고 교회론으로 연결되어서 인간의 마지막인 종말론까지 도움이 된다. 최근 인간론의 주제들 인간론의 주제는 주로 전통적으로 인간의 기원, 인간의 성질, 하나님의 형상, 죄이다. 그러나 최근 인간에 대한 존재론적 질문이 실존주의 철학의 영향으로 일어났으며, 진화론의 영향으로 생물학적 인간 이해로 시작되었고 과학의 발달로 인간 복제까지 다루어지게 되었다. 유전자공학의 발전으로 인간의 유전 정보를 해석하게 되었다. 기존의 영혼, 죄, 하나님의 형상과 같은 주제는 칸트의 영향으로 윤리적인 영역에서 이해되었다. 사회학의 영향으로 인간을 사회와 관계 속에서 기능적인 역할을 강조하는 경향이 20세기에 나타났다. 20세기는 신학적으로 기독론을 많이 다루었지만 실존주의 영향으로 인간에 대한 새로운 이해의 장을 열었다. 성경의 인간 인간이 누구인지에 대한 질문(시편 8: 4; 욥 7: 17; 15: 14; 시 144: 3)은 그리스도와 관련하여 답하여 진다. 히브리서 2장 6-9절 “잠간 동안 천사보다 못하게”되신 분으로, 영광과 존귀로 관을 쓰시고 만물이 그 발아래 복종케 된 이 그리스도 안에서 해결이 있다. 인간은 하나님의 형상으로 창조된 피조물이다. 인간의 몸과 영혼으로 구성된 요소를 가진 존재이다. 하나님의 형상과 영혼을 가진 존재로서 인간은 동물과 구별된 존재이다. 인간은 자유의지를 가진 존재이다. 타락으로 구원에는 무능력하지만 지, 정, 의를 가진 자이다. 인간은 언어를 사용하는 해석학적 존재이다. 이것을 가지고 인류의 문명을 이루어 나간다. 하나님은 말씀으로 천지를 창조하셨고, 아담에게 말씀하셨고, 그의 백성들에게 말씀을 약속하셨다. 말씀(로고스)이신 하나님은 자신이 인간의 모습을 취하여 인간들과 말씀하셨다. 우리 인간은 말씀하시는 하나님의 모습을 닮았기에 인간은 언어를 사용하는 존재이다. 인간은 하나님의 명령을 부여 받은 존재자이다. 다른 피조물과 관련하여 받은 능동적 명령을 받은 존재이다. 인간은 하나님의 명령에 순종해야 할 존재이다. 인간은 하나님과 언약관계로 그 존재의 상태가 드러나게 된다. 행위언약과 은혜언약 속에서 인간의 모습이 잘 드러난다. 인간은 타락한 존재로 하나님의 형상이 부패되었다. 인간은 죄인이다. 인간은 예수 그리스도를 통하여 구속 받아 새로운 피조물로 거듭 날수 있는 존재이다. 인간은 그리스도의 옷을 입으면 의인이다. 인간은 땅위에서 고통과 훈련을 통하여 성령님으로 성화되어야 할 존재이며, 그리스도의 오심을 통하여 영육이 완전하게 될 종말론적인 존재이다. 인간은 그리스도와 더불어 영원한 생명에 거하는 자가 된다. 해석자로서 인간 인간은 해석하는 존재이다. 인간은 자신의 주위를 둘러싼 모든 것들을 보고, 느끼고, 생각하여 언어로 표현하는 해석적 기능을 갖고 그 기능을 사용하도록 창조되었다. 창조된 아담이 인류 최초로 한 일은 바로 해석 행위였다. 창세기 2장 19-23절은 아담의 해석적인 능력을 보여주는 중요한 기록이다. “여호와 하나님이 흙으로 각종 들짐승과 공중의 각종 새를 지으시고 아담이 어떻게 이름을 짓나 보시려고 그것들을 그에게로 이끌어 이르시니 아담이 각 생물을 일컫는 바가 곧 그 이름이라. 아담이 모든 육축과 공중의 새와 들의 모든 짐승에게 이름을 주니라 아담이 돕는 배필이 없으므로. ... 아담이 가로되 이는 내 뼈 중의 뼈요 살 중의 살이라 이것을 남자에게서 취하였은즉 여자라 칭하리라 하니라.” 여기서 아담은 언어를 사용하여 이름을 짓는 해석적인 능력을 유감없이 사용하고 있다. 따라서 인간은 하나님에 의해 해석적인 기능을 타고났으며, 그의 삶의 현장에서 이 능력을 사용하는 것은 하나님 앞에서 의무이며 특권이라고 말할 수 있다. 따라서 크리스천들에게 있어서 자신들의 삶의 현장을 해석하는 것은 필연적인 것이며 매우 중요한 사역임을 깨닫게 된다. 니콜라스 월토스토프(Nicholas Wolterstorff)는 해석이란 우리의 삶에 스며있어서 피할 수 없고 해석 없이 인간은 이 세상에서 살아갈 수 없다고 한다. 따라서 우리 크리스천은 세상을 올바르게 해석할 줄 알고 더 나아가 크리스천의 공동체뿐만 아니라 인류에게 올바른 해석적 유산을 남겨할 책임이 있다. 마르틴 부버(Martin Buber)는 기독교가 세상에 준 것은 해석학이라고 말했는데 우리에게 해석학의 중요성을 다시 한 번 인식하게 해 준다. 같이 보기 조직신학 Human nature, Person 철학적 인간학 Theological anthropology List of important publications in anthropology Christian psychology 각주 참고 문헌 Blasquez, N, El concepto del substantia segun san Agustin, ""Augustinus" 14 (1969), pp. 305–350; 15 (1970), pp. 369–383; 16 (1971), pp. 69–79. (English translation Theology of the New Testament 2 vols, London: SCM, 1952, 1955). The leading scholarly reference supporting a holistic anthropology (similar to soul sleep) Gianni, A., Il problema antropologico, Roma 1965. Gilson, Étienne, Gregory of Nyssa, Anthropology, in: History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages, (1980 reprinted 1985), London: Sheed & Ward, pp. 56–59, . Couturier, Charles, SJ, La structure métaphysique de l'homme d'après saint Augustin, in: Augustinus Magister. Congrès International Augustinien. Communications, (1954), Paris, vol. 1, pp. 543–550 Hendrics, E. Platonisches und Biblisches Denken bei Augustinus, in: 'Augustinus Magister. Congrès International Augustinien. Communications, (1954), Paris , vol. 1. (English translation Man in the NT. London: Epworth, 1963) Mann, W. E., Inner-Life Ethics, in: Masutti, Egidio, Il problema del corpo in San Agostino, Roma: Borla, 1989, p. 230, 기독교와 과학 기독교 용어 조직신학 인간 기독교 신학 죄 몸 영 혼

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20anthropology

Christian anthropology

In the context of Christian theology, Christian anthropology is the study of the human (anthropos) as it relates to God. It differs from the social science of anthropology, which primarily deals with the comparative study of the physical and social characteristics of humanity across times and places. One aspect of Christian anthropology studies the innate nature or constitution of the human, known as the nature of humankind. It is concerned with the relationship between notions such as body, soul and spirit which together form a person, based on their descriptions in the Bible. There are three traditional views of the human constitution – trichotomism, dichotomism and monism (in the sense of anthropology). Early Christian writers Gregory of Nyssa The reference source for Gregory's anthropology is his treatise . His concept of man is founded on the ontological distinction between the created and uncreated. Man is a material creation, and thus limited, but infinite in that his immortal soul has an indefinite capacity to grow closer to the divine. Gregory believed that the soul is created simultaneous to the creation of the body (in opposition to Origen, who speculated on the soul's preexistence), and that embryos were thus persons. To Gregory, the human being is exceptional being created in the image of God. Humanity is theomorphic both in having self-awareness and free will, the latter which gives each individual existential power, because to Gregory, in disregarding God one negates one's own existence. In the Song of Songs, Gregory metaphorically describes human lives as paintings created by apprentices to a master: the apprentices (the human wills) imitate their master's work (the life of Christ) with beautiful colors (virtues), and thus man strives to be a reflection of Christ. Gregory, in stark contrast to most thinkers of his age, saw great beauty in the Fall: from Adam's sin from two perfect humans would eventually arise myriad. Augustine of Hippo Augustine of Hippo was one of the first Christian ancient Latin authors with very clear anthropological vision. He saw the human being as a perfect unity of two substances: soul and body. He was much closer in this anthropological view to Aristotle than to Plato. In his late treatise On Care to Be Had for the Dead sec. 5 (420 AD) he insisted that the body pertains to the essence of the human person: Augustine's favourite figure to describe body-soul unity is marriage: caro tua, coniunx tua – your body is your wife. Initially, the two elements were in perfect harmony. After the fall of humanity they are now experiencing dramatic combat between one another. They are two categorically different things. The body is a three-dimensional object composed of the four elements, whereas the soul has no spatial dimensions. Soul is a kind of substance, participating in reason, fit for ruling the body. Augustine was not preoccupied, as Plato and Descartes were, with going too much into details in efforts to explain the metaphysics of the soul-body union. It sufficed for him to admit that they were metaphysically distinct. To be a human is to be a composite of soul and body, and that the soul is superior to the body. The latter statement is grounded in his hierarchical classification of things into those that merely exist, those that exist and live, and those that exist, live, and have intelligence or reason. According to N. Blasquez, Augustine's dualism of substances of the body and soul doesn't stop him from seeing the unity of body and soul as a substance itself. Following ancient philosophers he defined man as a rational mortal animal – animal rationale mortale. Terms or components Body The body (Greek soma) is the corporeal or physical aspect of a human being. Christians have traditionally believed that the body will be resurrected at the end of the age. Rudolf Bultmann states the following: "That soma belongs inseparably, constitutively, to human existence is most clearly evident from the fact that Paul cannot conceive even of a future human existence after death, `when that which is perfect is come' as an existence without soma – in contrast to the view of those in Corinth who deny the resurrection (1 Cor. 15, especially vv. 35ff.)." "Man does not have a soma; he is a soma" Soul The semantic domain of biblical soul is based on the Hebrew word nepes, which presumably means “breath” or “breathing being”. This word never means an immortal soul or an incorporeal part of the human being that can survive death of the body as the spirit of dead. This word usually designates the person as a whole or its physical life. In the Septuagint nepes is mostly translated as psyche () and, exceptionally, in the Book of Joshua as (), that is "breathing being". The New Testament follows the terminology of the Septuagint, and thus uses the word psyche in a manner performatively similar to that of the Hebrew semantic domain, that is, as an invisible power (or ever more, for Platonists, immortal and immaterial) that gives life and motion to the body and is responsible for its attributes. In Patristic thought, towards the end of the 2nd century psyche was understood in more a Greek than a Hebrew way, and it was contrasted with the body. In the 3rd century, with the influence of Origen, there was the establishing of the doctrine of the inherent immortality of the soul and its divine nature. Origen also taught the transmigration of the souls and their preexistence, but these views were officially rejected in 553 in the Fifth Ecumenical Council. Inherent immortality of the soul was accepted among western and eastern theologians throughout the middle ages, and after the Reformation, as evidenced by the Westminster Confession. On the other hand, a number of modern Protestant scholars have adopted views similar to conditional immortality, including Edward Fudge and Clark Pinnock; however the majority of adherents hold the traditional doctrine.> In the last six decades, conditional immortality, or better "immortality by grace" (, kata charin athanasia), of the soul has also been widely accepted among Eastern Orthodox theologians, by returning to the views of the late 2nd century, where immortality was still considered as a gift granted with the value of Jesus' death and resurrection. The Seventh-day Adventist Church has held to conditional immortality since the mid-19th century. Spirit The spirit (Hebrew , Greek , , which can also mean "breath") is likewise an immaterial component. It is often used interchangeably with "soul", psyche, although trichotomists believe that the spirit is distinct from the soul. "When Paul speaks of the pneuma of man he does not mean some higher principle within him or some special intellectual or spiritual faculty of his, but simply his self, and the only questions is whether the self is regarded in some particular aspect when it is called pneuma. In the first place, it apparently is regarded in the same way as when it is called psyche – viz. as the self that lives in man's attitude, in the orientation of his will." Charles Taylor has argued in Sources of the Self: Making of Modern Identity that the attempt to reduce spirit or soul to the "self" is an anachronistic project claiming historical precedence, when in reality it is a modern, Western, secular reading of the Scriptures. Constitution or nature of the person Christian theologians have historically differed over the issue of how many distinct components constitute the human being. Two parts (Dichotomism) The most popular view, affirmed by a large number of lay faithful and theologians from many Christian traditions, is that the human being is formed of two components: material (body/flesh) and spiritual (soul/spirit). The soul or spirit departs from the body at death, and will be reunited with the body at the resurrection. Three parts (Trichotomism) A significant minority of theologians across the denominational and theological spectrum, in both the East and the West, have held that human beings are made up of three distinct components: body or flesh, soul, and spirit. This is known technically as trichotomism. The biblical texts typically used to support this position are and . In the personhood of Jesus Christ God there are a Body, a rational Soul and the third person of the Holy Spirit God whom He received in the Baptism. One part (Monism) Modern theologians increasingly hold to the view that the human being is an indissoluble unity. This is known as holism or monism. The body and soul are not considered separate components of a person, but rather as two facets of a united whole. It is argued that this more accurately represents Hebrew thought, whereas body-soul dualism is more characteristic of classical Greek Platonist and Cartesian thought. Monism is the official position of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, which adheres to the doctrine of "soul sleep". Monism also appears to be more consistent with certain physicalist interpretations of modern neuroscience, which has indicated that the so-called "higher functions" of the mind are dependent upon or emergent from brain structure, not the independent workings of an immaterial soul as was previously thought. An influential exponent of this view was liberal theologian Rudolf Bultmann. Oscar Cullmann was influential in popularizing it. Origin of humanity The Bible teaches in the book of Genesis the humans were created by God. Some Christians believe that this must have involved a miraculous creative act, while others are comfortable with the idea that God worked through the evolutionary process. God's image in the human The Book of Genesis also teaches that human beings, male and female, were created in the image of God. The exact meaning of this has been the subject of theological debate throughout church history. Origin/transmission of the soul There are two opposing views about how the soul originates in each human being. Creationism teaches that God creates a "fresh" soul within each human embryo at or some time shortly after conception. Note: This is not to be confused with creationism as a view of the origins of life and the universe. Traducianism, by contrast, teaches that the soul is inherited from the individual's parents, along with his or her biological material. Human nature Most Christian Theology traditionally teaches that human nature originates holy but is corrupted by the fall. Part of the development of church doctrine has historically been concerned with discerning what role the human plays in “redemption" from that fall. The debate about human nature between Augustine and Pelagius had to do with the nature of sin and its relation to the state of the human. Pelagius believed that man's nature was inherently good and taught that all children are born “as a fresh creation of God and therefore good.” For Pelagius freedom is a constitute part of human nature. Humanity’s capacity to choose is inherited and therefore is untainted. Human are capable of following divine laws (such as the Ten Commandment) and live morally. The inherited ability to choose is itself a grace of creation. Augustine believed that all humans are born into sin because each has inherited a sinful nature due to Adam’s original sin. Without grace from God humanity is incapable of choosing good and therefore of pursuing God. Salvation then, becomes, either a cooperation between human will and divine grace (see Synergism) or an act of divine will apart from human agency (see Monergism.). Pelagius’s position was condemned at the Council of Carthage (418) and the Council of Ephesus and the Second Council of Orange. However the councils did soften Augustine’s position on Predestination. During the Protestant Reformation Monergism had a resurgence through John Calvin’s devolvement of the doctrine of Total Depravity. Within Protestant Circles a debate happened between followers of John Calvin (Calvinists or Reformed Tradition) and Followers of Jacobus Arminius (Arminians) on the nature of grace in the process of salvation. Calvin and Arminius follow Augustine in the doctrine of total depravity. However, Arminians hold that God restores humanity’s free will, concerning the ability to choose salvation where as classic Calvinism holds to a strict monergism. Synergism and its affirmation of the participation of human will in salvation is the classic Patristic position as well as the position of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox Church, as well many Arminian influenced Protestant Churches. Whereas Monergism has become the position of most churches that are a part of the Reformed Tradition. Death and afterlife Christian anthropology has implications for beliefs about death and the afterlife. The Christian church has traditionally taught that the soul of each individual separates from the body at death, to be reunited at the resurrection. This is closely related to the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. For example, the Westminster Confession (chapter XXXII) states: "The bodies of men, after death, return to dust, and see corruption: but their souls, which neither die nor sleep, having an immortal subsistence, immediately return to God who gave them" Intermediate state The question then arises: where exactly does the disembodied soul "go" at death? Theologians refer to this subject as the intermediate state. The Old Testament speaks of a place called sheol where the spirits of the dead reside. In the New Testament, hades, the classical Greek realm of the dead, takes the place of sheol. In particular, Jesus teaches in Luke 16:19–31 (Lazarus and Dives) that hades consists of two separate "sections", one for the righteous and one for the unrighteous. His teaching is consistent with intertestamental Jewish thought on the subject. Fully developed Christian theology goes a step further; on the basis of such texts as Luke 23:43 and Philippians 1:23, it has traditionally been taught that the souls of the dead are received immediately either into heaven or hell, where they will experience a foretaste of their eternal destiny prior to the resurrection. (Roman Catholicism teaches a third possible location, Purgatory, though this is denied by Protestants and Eastern Orthodox.) "the souls of the righteous, being then made perfect in holiness, are received into the highest heavens, where they behold the face of God, in light and glory, waiting for the full redemption of their bodies. And the souls of the wicked are cast into hell, where they remain in torments and utter darkness, reserved to the judgment of the great day." (Westminster Confession) Some Christian groups that stress a monistic anthropology deny that the soul can exist consciously apart from the body. For example, the Seventh-day Adventist Church teaches that the intermediate state is an unconscious sleep; this teaching is informally known as "soul sleep". Final state In Christian belief, both the righteous and the unrighteous will be resurrected at the last judgment. The righteous will receive incorruptible, immortal bodies (1 Corinthians 15), while the unrighteous will be sent to the "Lake of Fire" or "Gehenna". Traditionally, Christians have believed that hell will be a place of eternal physical and psychological punishment. In the last two centuries, annihilationism and universalism have become more popular. See also Human nature, Person Philosophical anthropology List of important publications in anthropology Christian psychology References Bibliography Blasquez, N, El concepto de substantia segun san Agustin, ""Augustinus" 14 (1969), pp. 305–350; 15 (1970), pp. 369–383; 16 (1971), pp. 69–79. (English translation Theology of the New Testament 2 vols, London: SCM, 1952, 1955). The leading scholarly reference supporting a holistic anthropology Gilson, Étienne, Gregory of Nyssa, Anthropology, in: History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages, (1980 reprinted 1985), London: Sheed & Ward, pp. 56–59, . Couturier, Charles, SJ, La structure métaphysique de l'homme d'après saint Augustin, in: Augustinus Magister. Congrès International Augustinien. Communications, (1954), Paris, vol. 1, pp. 543–550 Hendrics, E. Platonisches und Biblisches Denken bei Augustinus, in: 'Augustinus Magister. Congrès International Augustinien. Communications, (1954), Paris, vol. 1. (English translation Man in the NT. London: Epworth, 1963) Mann, W. E., Inner-Life Ethics, in: Masutti, Egidio, Il problema del corpo in San Agostino, Roma: Borla, 1989, p. 230, External links Mick Pope, Losing our Souls? Anthropology Anthropology Anthropology

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%ED%95%9C%EB%AF%BC%EA%B5%AD%20%EA%B0%9C%EC%9A%94

대한민국 개요

대한민국 소개를 위해 정리한 개요이다. 대한민국은 동아시아의 한반도에 위치한 대통령제 공화국이다. 서쪽으로 중화인민공화국, 동쪽으로 일본에 접해 있으며, 북쪽으로 조선민주주의인민공화국과 닿아 있다. 수도이자 최대 도시는 서울특별시이다. 한반도는 제2차 세계 대전에서 일본이 패전한 이후 분단되었으며, 1948년에 대한민국이 수립되었다. 대한민국은 이후 미국과의 동맹을 유지하며 성공적으로 민주주의를 발전시켰다. 대한민국은 1960년대부터 1980년대까지 세계에서 가장 빠른 경제 성장을 이룬 국가들 중 하나이며 선진국으로 여겨지고 있다. 대한민국은 G20과 경제협력개발기구의 회원국이다. 조선민주주의인민공화국과의 긴장 상태로 인해, 대한민국은 세계 6위의 군사 대국이며 세계 10위의 국방비를 지출하고 있다. 대한민국의 산업은 과학과 기술 분야에 집중되어 있다. 기반 시설과 대규모 가족 기업인 재벌이 주도하는 반도체, 액정 디스플레이, 컴퓨터, 휴대 전화 등의 정보기술이 발달해 있다. 대한민국의 경제는 건설, 공학, 기계, 로봇공학, 생명공학기술, 석유화학 분야에 집중되어 있다. 기본 정보 통상 자칭 지명: 한국(韓國) 공식 국호: 대한민국(大韓民國) 한국의 나라 이름 ISO 국가 표준: KR, KOR, 410 ISO 지역 표준: ISO 3166-2:KR 국가 코드 최상위 도메인: .kr 대한민국의 지리 위치: 북반구, 동반구 아시아 동아시아 한반도 시간대: 한국 표준시(UTC+09) 대한민국의 극점 최고점: 한라산 1,950m 최저점: 동해와 황해 0m 지상 국경: (한반도 군사 분계선) 238km 해안선: 2,413km 대한민국의 인구: 50,004,441명 대한민국의 영토: 100,032km2 - 세계 25위 대한민국의 국립공원 대한민국의 지형 대한민국의 폭포 목록 한국의 강 한국의 산 목록 한국의 섬 목록 한국의 호수 목록 대한민국의 지역 한국의 지방 구분 대한민국의 행정 구역 한국의 행정 구역 대한민국의 도시 대한민국의 설치순 도시 목록 대한민국의 수도: 서울특별시 대한민국의 인구 대한민국의 정치 대한민국의 수도: 서울특별시 대한민국의 선거 대한민국의 정당 대한민국 정부 행정부 국가원수 겸 정부수반: 윤석열 대통령 국무총리: 한덕수 국무회의 입법부 국회의장: 김진표 사법부 대법원장: 김명수 헌법재판소장: 유남석 대한민국의 대외 관계 대한민국의 재외공관 목록 대한민국 주재 외국공관 목록 남북 관계 대한민국이 가입한 국제 기구 대한민국은 다음 국제 기구들의 회원국이다: 경제협력개발기구 국제 개발 협회 국제결제은행 국제 금융 공사 국제 노동 기구 국제노동조합연합 국제 농업 개발 기금 국제 민간 항공 기구 국제부흥개발은행 국제 상업 회의소 국제 수로 기구 국제 에너지 기구 국제 올림픽 위원회 국제 원자력 기구 국제 의회 연맹 국제이주기구 국제 적십자사·적신월사 연맹 국제 적십자·적신월 운동 국제전기통신연합 국제 통화 기금 국제 표준화 기구 국제해사기구 국제형사경찰기구 국제형사재판소 남아시아 지역 협력 연합 (참관국) 다자간 투자 보증 기구 동남아시아 국가 연합 (아세안+3) 동아시아 정상회의 라틴 아메리카 통합 연합 만국 우편 연합 미주개발은행 미주 기구 (참관국) 상설중재재판소 세계 관광 기구 세계 관세 기구 세계 기상 기구 세계노동연합 세계노동조합연맹 세계무역기구 세계보건기구 세계 지식 재산권 기구 식량 농업 기구 아시아 개발 은행 아시아 태평양 경제협력체 아프리카 개발 은행 오스트레일리아 그룹 유럽 안보 협력 기구 (협력국) 유럽 부흥 개발 은행 유네스코 유엔 유엔 난민 기구 유엔 무역 개발 회의 유엔 산업 개발 기구 유엔 수단 임무단 G20 콜롬보 계획 태평양 제도 포럼 (협력국) 화학 무기 금지 기구 대한민국의 법률과 제도 대한민국 헌법 대한민국의 사형제 대한민국의 인권 대한민국의 성소수자 권리 대한민국의 경찰 대한민국의 군사 통수권자: 윤석열 대한민국 국방부 대한민국 육군 대한민국 해군 대한민국 해병대 대한민국 공군 대한민국의 역사 한국사 연표 대한민국의 문화 대한민국의 국기 대한민국의 국장 대한민국의 국가 대한민국의 세계유산 대한민국의 성매매 대한민국의 예술 대한민국의 영화 대한민국의 음악 한국의 미술 대한민국의 언론 한국 요리 대한민국의 공휴일 대한민국의 언어 한국어 한국인 한민족 대한민국의 종교 대한민국의 이슬람교 한국의 불교 한국의 기독교 대한민국의 스포츠 대한민국의 축구 올림픽 대한민국 선수단 대한민국의 경제와 산업 통화: 대한민국 원 ISO 4217: KRW 한국은행 한국거래소 대한민국의 기업 목록 대한민국의 에너지 대한민국의 농업 대한민국의 통신업 대한민국의 인터넷 대한민국의 관광 대한민국의 교통 대한민국의 공항 대한민국의 철도 대한민국의 도로 대한민국의 교육 각주 외부 링크 대한민국 정부대표 다국어포털 대한민국 전자정부 대한민국 국회 한국방송공사 about korea and information korea 브리태니커 백과사전(한국편) CIA의 세계 정보(한국편) 대한민국에 관한 목록

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline%20of%20South%20Korea

Outline of South Korea

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to South Korea: South Korea – densely populated sovereign presidential republic located on the southern half of the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. Also known as the "Land of the Morning Calm". It is neighbored by China to the west, Japan to the east and North Korea to the north. South Korea's capital and largest city is Seoul, the world's second largest metropolitan city. Korea has a history of 5,000 years, with its foundation dating back to 2333 BC by the legendary Dangun. Following the unification of the Three Korean Kingdoms under Silla in AD 668, Korea went through the Goryeo and Joseon Dynasty as one nation until annexed by Japan in 1910. After Japan's defeat in World War II, Korea was divided, and South Korea was established in 1948. It has since developed a successful democracy, maintaining a strong alliance with the United States. South Korea has the fourth-largest economy in Asia. It had one of the world's fastest growing economies from the 1960s until 1980 and is now considered a developed economy. It is a G20 and OECD member. In response to tension with North Korea, it has developed the world's sixth largest armed forces and has one of the 10-largest defence budgets in the world. South Korean industries have a strong focus on science and technology. It has an advanced infrastructure and information technology such as electronics, semiconductors, LCD displays, computers, mobile phones and automotive industry led by Chaebol, a kind of family-owned conglomerate. The economy also has a strong focus on engineering, construction, machinery, textiles, petrochemicals, biotechnology and robotics. General reference Pronunciation: Common English country name: South Korea Official English country name: The Republic of Korea Common endonym(s): 한국 (韓國) (Hanguk) Official endonym(s): 대한민국 (大韓民國) (Daehanminguk) Adjectival(s): South Korean Demonym(s): Korean, South Korean Etymology: Name of South Korea International rankings of South Korea ISO country codes: KR, KOR, 410 ISO region codes: See ISO 3166-2:KR Internet country code top-level domain: .kr Geography of South Korea South Korea is: a country Location: Northern Hemisphere and Eastern Hemisphere Eurasia Asia East Asia Korean Peninsula Time zone: Korea Standard Time (UTC+09) Extreme points of South Korea High: Halla-san Low: Sea of Japan and Yellow Sea 0 m Land boundaries: North Korea 238 km Coastline: 2,413 km Population of South Korea: 50,004,441 - 25th most populous country Area of South Korea: 100,032 km2 Atlas of South Korea Environment of South Korea Environment of South Korea Climate of South Korea Environmental issues in South Korea Renewable energy in South Korea Protected areas of South Korea National parks of South Korea Wildlife of South Korea Fauna of South Korea Birds of South Korea Mammals of South Korea Natural geographic features of South Korea Islands of South Korea Lakes of South Korea Mountains of South Korea Volcanoes in South Korea Rivers of South Korea Waterfalls of South Korea Valleys of South Korea World Heritage Sites in South Korea Regions of South Korea Regions of South Korea Ecoregions of South Korea Administrative divisions of South Korea Administrative divisions of South Korea Provinces of South Korea Provinces of South Korea Municipalities of South Korea Capital of South Korea: Seoul Cities of South Korea Demography of South Korea Demographics of South Korea Government and politics of South Korea Form of government: Capital of South Korea: Seoul Elections in South Korea Political parties in South Korea Branches of the government of South Korea Executive branch of South Korea Head of state: President of South Korea, Head of government: President of South Korea, Cabinet of South Korea Legislative branch of South Korea Parliament of South Korea (unicameral) Judicial branch of South Korea Supreme Court of Korea Constitutional Court of Korea Foreign relations of South Korea Diplomatic missions in South Korea Diplomatic missions of South Korea North Korea–South Korea relations International organization membership The Republic of Korea is a member of: African Development Bank Group (AfDB) (nonregional member) Asian Development Bank (ADB) Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Asia-Pacific Telecommunity (APT) Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) (dialogue partner) Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (ARF) Australia Group Bank for International Settlements (BIS) Colombo Plan (CP) East Asia Summit (EAS) European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Group of Twenty Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors (G20) Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) International Criminal Court (ICCt) International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol) International Development Association (IDA) International Energy Agency (IEA) International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRCS) International Finance Corporation (IFC) International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) International Labour Organization (ILO) International Maritime Organization (IMO) International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO) International Monetary Fund (IMF) International Olympic Committee (IOC) International Organization for Migration (IOM) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (ICRM) International Telecommunication Union (ITU) International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO) International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) Latin American Integration Association (LAIA) Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) (partner) Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) Organization of American States (OAS) (observer) Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) (partner) Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) (observer) United Nations (UN) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) United Nations Mission in the Sudan (UNMIS) United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG) Universal Postal Union (UPU) World Confederation of Labour (WCL) World Customs Organization (WCO) World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) World Health Organization (WHO) World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) World Meteorological Organization (WMO) World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) World Trade Organization (WTO) Zangger Committee (ZC) Law in South Korea Cannabis in South Korea Capital punishment in South Korea Constitution of South Korea Crime in South Korea Human rights in South Korea LGBT rights in South Korea Freedom of religion in South Korea Law enforcement in South Korea Military of South Korea Command Commander-in-chief: Ministry of Defence of South Korea Forces Army of South Korea Navy of South Korea Air Force of South Korea Special forces of South Korea Military history of South Korea Military ranks of South Korea History of South Korea Timeline of Korean history Economic history of South Korea Culture of South Korea Architecture of South Korea Cuisine of South Korea Festivals in South Korea Languages of South Korea Media in South Korea National symbols of South Korea Emblem of South Korea Flag of South Korea National anthem of South Korea People of South Korea Prostitution in South Korea Public holidays in South Korea Religion in South Korea Buddhism in South Korea Christianity in South Korea Hinduism in South Korea Islam in South Korea World Heritage Sites in South Korea Art in South Korea Cinema of South Korea South Korean literature Music of South Korea Television in South Korea Sport in South Korea Football in South Korea South Korea at the Olympics Economy and infrastructure of South Korea Economic rank, by nominal GDP (2015): 11th (eleventh) Agriculture in South Korea Financial services in South Korea National Bank of South Korea Korea Exchange Telecommunications in South Korea Internet in South Korea Companies of South Korea Currency of South Korea: South Korean won ISO 4217: KRW Economic history of South Korea Energy in South Korea Tourism in South Korea Transport in South Korea Airports in South Korea Rail transport in South Korea Education in South Korea Health in South Korea See also South Korea Outline of Asia Outline of geography Outline of North Korea President of South Korea List of international rankings List of South Korea-related topics Member state of the United Nations Member state of the Group of Twenty Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors References External links VISITKOREA - The Official Korea Tourism Guide Site Korea.net: Gateway to Korea Korea National Statistical Office South Korea in Encyclopædia Britannica South Korea. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. A Country Study: South Korea in the Library of Congress South Korea Outline Outlines

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AA%AC%EC%96%B4

몬어

몬어(ဘာသာမန်)는 미얀마에 사는 몬족의 언어로, 오스트로아시아어족에 속한다. 몬어는 관련된 크메르어와 비슷하지만 동남아시아의 많은 언어들과 달리 성조가 사라진 언어이다. 몬어는 미얀마와 태국에서 원주민 언어로 공인되어있다. 그러나 몬족 언어는 미얀마와 태국에서 동화 압력에 직면해 있고 몬족의 사람들도 현재 버마어나 태국어를 제1언어로 사용하는 경향을 보이면서 유네스코의 2010년 세계 위기언어 아틀라스에서 "취약 언어"로 분류되기도 했다. 몬어 화자는 미얀마 남부, 특히 몬 주를 비롯하여 카인 주, 타닌타리 관구에 주로 분포해있다. 역사 몬어는 버마 역사에서 중요한 언어 중 하나이다. 12세기까지는 이라와디 계곡 일대의 공용어였으며, 이라와디 하류 지역의 몬족 계통 왕국들뿐만 아니라 상류 지역의 버마족 계통의 버간 왕국에서도 그러한 지위를 가졌다. 몬어, 특히 몬어의 문어(文語)는 1057년에 몬족의 따통 왕국이 버간에게 무너진 이후에도 여전히 높은 지위로 여겨지는 언어였다. 특히 버간의 장싯타(Kyansittha) 왕(1084–1113 재위)은 몬족 문화를 애호하였고 몬어를 지원하였다. 그러나 그의 사후부터는 버마족 사이에서 몬어의 사용이 감소하기 시작하였고 버마어가 몬어와 쀼어의 공용어적 지위를 대체해 가기 시작하였다. 드바라바티 왕국 폐허의 몬 비문도 태국 곳곳에 퍼져있다. 그러나 그 주민이 몬족인지, 몬족과 말레이족의 혼합인지, 크메르족인지는 확실하지 않다. 후기 비문과 라보와 같은 왕국은 크메르 제국에 종속적이었다. 버간의 멸망 이후, 몬어는 다시 오늘날의 하미얀마에 위치하던 한타와디 왕국 (1287 ~ 1539)의 공용어가 되었으며, 1800년대까지도 이 지역에서 몬어는 주류 언어로 남아 있었으나, 이 시기부터 버마어가 상버마의 전통적인 심장부에서 하버마로 그 범위를 확장했다. 이 지역의 몬어에서 버마어로의 언어 전환은 인구 대체, 통혼, 증가하는 몬-버마어 이중 언어 집단의 자발적 정체성 전환 등 복합적인 원인에 의한 것이다. 특히 1757년 신 한타와디 왕국이 멸망하면서 이 변화는 확실히 가속화되었다. 페구의 함락 이후 많은 몬족이 난민이 되어 오늘날의 태국에 해당하는 지역으로 이주하여 재정착하였다. 1830년에는 하미얀마 인구의 약 90%가 버마어를 말하는 버마족이 되었는데, 곧 이라와디 삼각주 상류에서 바세인(현 파테인)과 랑군(현 양곤)을 포함하여 타라와디, 퉁구, 프로메(현 피), 헨자다(현 힌타다)까지 이르는 광대한 몬어 사용 지역이 모두 버마어 우세 지역이 된 것이다. 또한 19세기 내내 이어진 대영제국의 점진적인 버마 합병은 상미얀마의 경제·정치적 불안정성(예: 버마 왕실에 대한 세금 부담 증가, 영국의 쌀 생산 인센티브 등)과 더불어 하미얀마로의 이주를 가속화했다. 몬어는 상미얀마와 하미얀마에서 사용되는 버마어 방언 간의 미묘한 문법적 차이에 영향을 미쳤다. 하미얀마 방언에서 동사 ပေး(주다)는 구어체적으로 관대하게 사동 표지로 사용될 수 있는데, 이는 다른 다른 동남아시아 언어에서 흔한 특징이나 다른 티베트-버마어에서는 보이지 않는다. 이 용법은 상미얀마 방언에서는 거의 사용되지 않으며 비표준 문법으로 간주된다. 1972년, 신몬주당(New Mon State Party)은 반군이 통제하는 지역에서 몬어를 교육 매체 언어로 사용하는 몬 국립학교 시스템을 수립했다. 1995년 중앙 정부와의 휴전 이후 이 교육 시스템은 몬 주 전역으로 확대되었다. 이제 몬 주는 몬어를 초등 교육 언어로 사용하는 몬 국립학교 체계와 정부 커리큘럼에 몬어 교과과정을 추가하는 "혼합 학교" 시스템을 병행하고 있다. 2015년 몬어 교과는 주 전체의 초등교육으로 확대 시행되었다. 이 시스템은 몬어로 학습받은 어린이들이 고등 교육 수준에서 주류 버마 교육 시스템에 통합될 수 있게 해주기 때문에 미얀마의 교육 체계에서 모국어 교육의 한 모델로 인식되었다. 2013년 몰라먀잉에 기반을 둔 탄윈 타임즈가 몬어로 뉴스 전달을 시작하며 1962년 이후 미얀마 최초의 몬어 출판이 되었다. 지리적 분포 북쪽의 시타 웅 강에서 남쪽의 미익 (머 구이) 및 카 우타 웅까지 미얀마 남부 (몬 주, 카인 주 및 타닌 타리 지역으로 구성)는 몬 언어의 전통적 요새로 남아 있다. 그러나이 지역에서 버마인은 몬 주 수도 인 마 울라마인과 같은 도시 지역에서 선호된다. 최근 몇 년 동안, 몬의 사용은 특히 젊은 세대들, 미얀마에서 감소했다. 태국은 역사적 이동의 물결로 인해 상당한 규모의 몬 인구가 있는 곳이지만, 60만에서 80,000 사이로 추정되는 소수의 비율 만이 타 미화와 몬의 주류 태국 사회로의 동화로 인해 몬을 말한다. 태국의 몬 회자는 주로 코크 렛에 집중되어 있다. 태국 몬 회자의 나머지 파견단은 사뭇 사콘, 사무 트 송 크람, 나콘 파톰 및 미얀마 (칸차나 부리, 펫차 부리, 프라 추압 키리 칸 및 랏차 부리)와 접한 서부 지방에 있다. 태국의 소수 민족 그룹은 냐 쿠르라고 불리는 몬과 밀접한 관련이있는 언어를 사용한다. 그들은 월요일을 말하는 드 바라 바티 왕국의 후손이다. 방언 몬은 버마에 세 가지 주요 방언을 가지고 있으며, 몬이 거주하는 여러 지역에서 왔다. 이들은 중부 (모토 타와 마 울라마 인 주변 지역), 바고 및 예 방언이다. 모두 서로 이해하기 쉽다. 에스 노 로그는 몬 사투리를 마르타 반 몰 메인 (중앙 몬, 몬테), 페구 (몬 탕, 북부 몬) 및 예 (몬 냐, 남부 몬)로 상호 명료도를 높였다. 태국의 몬은 몬의 버마어 방언과 약간의 차이가 있지만 서로 이해하기 쉽다. 몬의 태국 방언은 심각한 위험에 처한 것으로 간주된다. 알파벳 낡은 몬 대본은 6세기로 거슬러 올라가며, 나콘 파톰 (나콘 파톰)과 사라 부리 (태국의 사라 부리)에서 가장 오래된 비문이 발견되었다. 올드 드 바라 바티 몬 스크립트와 버마 몬 스크립트를 연결하는 현존하는 증거는 없지만 현대 몬 (또는 버마 몬) 스크립트의 조상 스크립트일 수 있다. 현대의 몬 알파벳은 버마어 문자의 적응이다. 문자 아래에 있는 중간 'l'에 대한 누적 분음 부호와 같이 버마어에는 존재하지 않는 여러 글자와 분음 부호를 사용한다. 몬의 기록 된 형태와 음성 형태 사이에는 많은 철자가있을 수있는 단일 발음과 큰 불일치가 있다. 몬 스크립트는 또한 언어에서 발견된 자음 클러스터를 나타 내기 위해 자음 스태킹을 눈에 띄게 사용한다. 자음 몬 알파벳에는 다음과 같이 35개의 자음 (제로 자음 포함)이 포함되며, 자음은 회색으로 표시된 호흡 레지스터에 속한다. 몬 스크립트에서 자음은 두 개의 레지스터 중 하나에 속한다 : 명확하고 숨이, 니다. 각 발음은 동일한 발음 구별 부호에 대한 고유 한 모음과 발음이 다르다. 예를 들어, 클리어 레지스터에 속하는 က는 / kaˀ /로 발음되고 ဂ는 / kɛ̀ˀ /으로 발음되며 몬 음운의 모음 복잡성을 수용한다. 분음 부호를 추가하면 이것이 분명하다. 버마어에서 같은 분음 부호를 사용하는 철자법이 운율이있는 반면, 몬에서는 자음의 고유 레지스터에 의존한다. 몇 가지 예가 아래에 나열되어 있다. + → , 명백한 + → , 명백한 + → , 명백한 + → , 명백한 몬 언어에는 다음과 같은 8개의 중간이 있다. (), (), (), (), (), (), (), 과 (). 자음 결승은 버마에서와 같이 비 라마 (်)로 표시된다. 그러나, 버마 에서처럼 음표 정지로 발음되는 대신 최종 자음은 일반적으로 각각의 발음을 유지한다. 또한, 특히 팔리 어 및 산스크리트 파생 어휘에 대해 몬 철자법에서 자음 누적이 가능하다. 모음 포함 몬 스크립트 독특한 몇 분음 부호를 추가하여, 모음을 나타내는 버마과 몬은 (/는 / ɛa) 및 ဳ (/ I /) ိ 분음 부호를 나타 내기 때문에 ဴ 동일한 발음 부호 분음 부호의 조합을 사용 / ìˀ /. [29] 또한 버마어처럼 ဧ 대신 ဨ (/ e /)가 사용된다. 주요 모음과 디프 톤 각주 몬크메르어파 미얀마의 언어 태국의 언어 SVO형 언어 소멸위기언어 몬족

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mon%20language

Mon language

The Mon language (, ; ; Mon-Thai ဘာသာမည် []; ; ; formerly known as Peguan and Talaing) is an Austroasiatic language spoken by the Mon people. Mon, like the related Khmer language, but unlike most languages in mainland Southeast Asia, is not tonal. The Mon language is a recognised indigenous language in Myanmar as well as a recognised indigenous language of Thailand. Mon was classified as a "vulnerable" language in UNESCO's 2010 Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger. The Mon language has faced assimilative pressures in both Myanmar and Thailand, where many individuals of Mon descent are now monolingual in Burmese or Thai respectively. In 2007, Mon speakers were estimated to number between 800,000 and 1 million. In Myanmar, the majority of Mon speakers live in Southern Myanmar, especially Mon State, followed by Tanintharyi Region and Kayin State. History Mon is an important language in Burmese history. Until the 12th century, it was the lingua franca of the Irrawaddy valley—not only in the Mon kingdoms of the lower Irrawaddy but also of the upriver Pagan Kingdom of the Bamar people. Mon, especially written Mon, continued to be a prestige language even after the fall of the Mon kingdom of Thaton to Pagan in 1057. King Kyansittha of Pagan (r. 1084–1113) admired Mon culture and the Mon language was patronized. Kyansittha left many inscriptions in Mon. During this period, the Myazedi inscription, which contains identical inscriptions of a story in Pali, Pyu, Mon and Burmese on the four sides, was carved. However, after Kyansittha's death, usage of the Mon language declined among the Bamar and the Burmese language began to replace Mon and Pyu as a lingua franca. Mon inscriptions from Dvaravati's ruins also litter Thailand. However it is not clear if the inhabitants were Mon, a mix of Mon and Malay or Khmer. Later inscriptions and kingdoms like Lavo were subservient to the Khmer Empire. After the fall of Pagan, Mon again became the lingua franca of the Hanthawaddy Kingdom (1287–1539) in present-day Lower Myanmar, which remained a predominantly Mon-speaking region until the 1800s, by which point, the Burmese language had expanded its reach from its traditional heartland in Upper Burma into Lower Burma. The region's language shift from Mon to Burmese has been ascribed to a combination of population displacement, intermarriage, and voluntary changes in self-identification among increasingly Mon–Burmese bilingual populations in throughout Lower Burma. The shift was certainly accelerated by the fall of the Mon-speaking Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom in 1757. Following the fall of Pegu (now Bago), many Mon-speaking refugees fled and resettled in what is now modern-day Thailand. By 1830, an estimated 90% of the population in the Lower Burma self-identified as Burmese-speaking Bamars; huge swaths of former Mon-speaking areas, from the Irrawaddy Delta upriver, spanning Bassein (now Pathein) and Rangoon (now Yangon) to Tharrawaddy, Toungoo, Prome (now Pyay) and Henzada (now Hinthada), were now Burmese-speaking. Great Britain's gradual annexation of Burma throughout the 19th century, in addition to concomitant economic and political instability in Upper Burma (e.g., increased tax burdens to the Burmese crown, British rice production incentives, etc.) also accelerated the migration of Burmese speakers from Upper Burma into Lower Burma. The Mon language has influenced subtle grammatical differences between the varieties of Burmese spoken in Lower and Upper Burma. In Lower Burmese varieties, the verb ပေး ("to give") is colloquially used as a permissive causative marker, like in other Southeast Asian languages, but unlike in other Tibeto-Burman languages. This usage is hardly employed in Upper Burmese varieties, and is considered a sub-standard construct. In 1972, the New Mon State Party (NMSP) established a Mon national school system, which uses Mon as a medium of instruction, in rebel-controlled areas. The system was expanded throughout Mon State following a ceasefire with the central government in 1995. Mon State now operates a multi-track education system, with schools either using Mon as the primary medium of instruction (called Mon national schools) offering modules on the Mon language in addition to the government curriculum (called "mixed schools"). In 2015, Mon language courses were launched state-wide at the elementary level. This system has been recognized as a model for mother-tongue education in the Burmese national education system, because it enables children taught in the Mon language to integrate into the mainstream Burmese education system at higher education levels. In 2013, it was announced that the Mawlamyine-based Thanlwin Times would begin to carry news in the Mon language, becoming Myanmar's first Mon language publication since 1962. Geographic distribution Southern Myanmar (comprising Mon State, Kayin State, and Tanintharyi Region), from the Sittaung River in the north to Myeik (Mergui) and Kawthaung in the south, remains a traditional stronghold of the Mon language. However, in this region, Burmese is favored in urban areas, such as Mawlamyine, the capital of Mon State. In recent years, usage of Mon has declined in Myanmar, especially among the younger generation. While Thailand is home to a sizable Mon population due to historical waves of migration, only a small proportion (estimated to range between 60,000 and 80,000) speak Mon, due to Thaification and the assimilation of Mons into mainstream Thai society. Mon speakers in Thailand are largely concentrated in Ko Kret. The remaining contingent of Thai Mon speakers are located in the provinces of Samut Sakhon, Samut Songkhram, Nakhon Pathom, as well the western provinces bordering Myanmar (Kanchanaburi, Phetchaburi, Prachuap Khiri Khan, and Ratchaburi). A small ethnic group in Thailand speak a language closely related to Mon, called Nyah Kur. They are descendants of the Mon-speaking Dvaravati kingdom. Dialects Mon has three primary dialects in Burma, coming from the various regions the Mon inhabit. They are the Central (areas surrounding Mottama and Mawlamyine), Bago, and Ye dialects. All are mutually intelligible. Ethnologue lists Mon dialects as Martaban-Moulmein (Central Mon, Mon Te), Pegu (Mon Tang, Northern Mon), and Ye (Mon Nya, Southern Mon), with high mutual intelligibility among them. Thai Mon has some differences from the Burmese dialects of Mon, but they are mutually intelligible. The Thai varieties of Mon are considered "severely endangered." Phonology Consonants is only found in Burmese loans. Implosives are lost in many dialects and become explosives instead. Vowels Vocalic register Unlike the surrounding Burmese and Thai languages, Mon is not a tonal language. As in many Mon–Khmer languages, Mon uses a vowel-phonation or vowel-register system in which the quality of voice in pronouncing the vowel is phonemic. There are two registers in Mon: Clear (modal) voice, analyzed by various linguists as ranging from ordinary to creaky Breathy voice, vowels have a distinct breathy quality One study involving speakers of a Mon dialect in Thailand found that in some syllabic environments, words with a breathy voice vowel are significantly lower in pitch than similar words with a clear vowel counterpart. While difference in pitch in certain environments was found to be significant, there are no minimal pairs that are distinguished solely by pitch. The contrastive mechanism is the vowel phonation. In the examples below, breathy voice is marked with under-diaeresis. Syntax Pronouns Verbs and verb phrases Mon verbs do not inflect for person. Tense is shown through particles. Some verbs have a morphological causative, which is most frequently a /pə-/ prefix (Pan Hla 1989:29): Nouns and noun phrases Singular and plural Mon nouns do not inflect for number. That is, they do not have separate forms for singular and plural: Adjectives Adjectives follow the noun (Pan Hla p. 24): Demonstratives Demonstratives follow the noun: Classifiers Like many other Southeast Asian languages, Mon has classifiers which are used when a noun appears with a numeral. The choice of classifier depends on the semantics of the noun involved. Prepositions and prepositional phrases Mon is a prepositional language. Sentences The ordinary word order for sentences in Mon is subject–verb–object, as in the following examples Questions Yes–no questions are shown with a final particle ha Wh-questions show a different final particle, rau. The interrogative word does not undergo wh-movement. That is, it does not necessarily move to the front of the sentence: Notes Further reading Bauer, Christian. 1982. Morphology and syntax of spoken Mon. Ph.D. thesis, University of London (SOAS). Bauer, Christian. 1984. "A guide to Mon studies". Working Papers, Monash U. Bauer, Christian. 1986. "The verb in spoken Mon". Mon–Khmer Studies 15. Bauer, Christian. 1986. "Questions in Mon: Addenda and Corrigenda". Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area v. 9, no. 1, pp. 22–26. Diffloth, Gerard. 1984. The Dvarati Old Mon language and Nyah Kur. Monic Language Studies I, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok. Diffloth, Gerard. 1985. "The registers of Mon vs. the spectrographist's tones". UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics 60:55-58. Ferlus, Michel. 1984. "Essai de phonetique historique du môn". Mon–Khmer Studies, 9:1-90. Guillon, Emmanuel. 1976. "Some aspects of Mon syntax". in Jenner, Thompson, and Starosta, eds. Austroasiatic Studies. Oceanic linguistics special publication no. 13. Halliday, Robert. 1922. A Mon–English dictionary. Bangkok: Siam society. Huffman, Franklin. 1987–1988. "Burmese Mon, Thai Mon, and Nyah Kur: a synchronic comparison". Mon–Khmer Studies 16–17. Jenny, Mathias. 2005. The Verb System of Mon. Arbeiten des Seminars für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Zürich, Nr 19. Zürich: Universität Zürich. Lee, Thomas. 1983. "An acoustical study of the register distinction in Mon". UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics 57:79-96. Pan Hla, Nai. 1986. "Remnant of a lost nation and their cognate words to Old Mon Epigraph". Journal of the Siam Society 7:122-155 Pan Hla, Nai. 1989. An introduction to Mon language. Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University. Pan Hla, Nai. 1992. The Significant Role of the Mon Language and Culture in Southeast Asia. Tokyo, Japan: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. Shorto, H.L. 1962. A Dictionary of Modern Spoken Mon. Oxford University Press. Shorto, H.L.; Judith M. Jacob; and E.H.S. Simonds. 1963. Bibliographies of Mon–Khmer and Tai Linguistics. Oxford University Press. Shorto, H.L. 1966. "Mon vowel systems: a problem in phonological statement". in Bazell, Catford, Halliday, and Robins, eds. In memory of J.R. Firth, pp. 398–409. Shorto, H.L. 1971. A Dictionary of the Mon Inscriptions from the Sixth to the Sixteenth Centuries. Oxford University Press. Thongkum, Therapan L. 1987. "Another look at the register distinction in Mon". UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics. 67:132-165 External links A hypertext grammar of the Mon language SEAlang Project: Mon–Khmer languages: The Monic Branch Old Mon inscriptions database The Ananda "Basement" Plaques Mon-language Swadesh vocabulary list of basic words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix) Mon Language Project Mon Language in Thailand: The endangered heritage Monic languages Languages of Myanmar Languages of Thailand Mon people Subject–verb–object languages Endangered Austroasiatic languages

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITZY

ITZY

ITZY(있지)는 2019년 2월 12일에 데뷔한 대한민국 JYP 엔터테인먼트 소속의 5인조 걸그룹이다. 현재 멤버 리아는 극도의 불안감으로 활동 중단하여 4인 체제로 활동 중이다. (2023년 10월 11일 기준) 활동 데뷔 전 채령은 2013년 K팝스타 3에 참가하였으며, 2015년 JYP의 서바이벌 쇼 식스틴에 참가했으나 걸 그룹 트와이스의 구성원이 되는 데에는 실패하였다. 류진은 2018년 JTBC의 서바이벌 프로그램 믹스나인에 참가하여 여성 조 가운데 1위를 차지했으나, 9명의 남성 조와 9명의 여성 조 간의 대결이었던 최종회에서 남성 조가 우승하면서 데뷔하지 못하였다. 예지는 SBS의 더 팬에 참가했으나 5회에서 탈락하였다. 류진, 유나는 방탄소년단의 뮤비에 나온 적이 있다. 리아를 제외한 멤버 전원이 2017년 엠넷의 리얼리티 쇼 스트레이 키즈에 보이 그룹 스트레이 키즈에 대항하여 프로젝트 그룹으로 출연하였다. 2019년 2019년 1월 21일, JYP 엔터테인먼트는 새로운 걸그룹이 데뷔할 것이라고 발표하였으며 이는 트와이스의 2015년 데뷔 이후 최초의 걸 그룹이다. 같은 날, 이 그룹의 공식 유튜브 계정이 만들어졌고 이 레이블의 공식 채널은 5명의 모습을 공개하는 비디오 트레일러를 공유하였다. 2월 12일, 있지는 첫 데뷔 싱글 음반 IT'z Different를 발매하였으며 타이틀 곡은 〈달라달라〉이다. 이 노래는 EDM, 하우스, 힙합 바이브가 혼합된 곡이며, 가사는 대중에게 잘 받아들여질 만한 내용이었다. 뮤직 비디오는 공개된 지 24시간 만에 조회수가 14,000,000건을 넘어섰다. 2월 21일 엠카운트다운에서 데뷔 후 첫 1위를 하였으며, 같은 곡으로 음악방송 9관왕을 달성하였다. 7월 29일 자정 첫 번째 미니앨범 IT'z ICY의 타이틀곡인 《ICY》의 뮤직비디오를 공개하며 컴백하였다. 음악방송 12관왕을 달성하였다. 2020년 2020년 3월 9일, 두 번째 미니앨범 IT'z ME의 타이틀곡 《WANNABE》로 컴백하였다. 또한 타이틀곡 《WANNABE》로 8관왕을 달성하였다. 2020년 8월 17일, 세 번째 미니앨범 Not Shy의 타이틀곡 《Not Shy》로 컴백하였다. 또한 타이틀곡 《Not Shy》로 5관왕을 달성하였다. 2021년 2021년 1월 22일, 오후 2시에 전 세계로 Not Shy (English Ver)이 발매되었다. 2021년 4월 30일, 네 번째 미니앨범 GUESS WHO의 타이틀곡 《마.피.아. In the morning》로 컴백하였다. 또한 타이틀곡 《마.피.아. In the morning》로 5관왕을 달성하였다. 2021년 5월 14일, 오후 1시에 전 세계로 마.피.아. In the morning (English Ver)이 발매되었다. 2021년 5월 23일, 수록곡 《Sorry Not Sorry》로 미니 4집 활동을 마무리 지었다. 2021년 7월 1일, 둘째이모 김다비와 함께 다비있지 라는 팀명으로 《얼음깨 (Break Ice)》앨범을 발매하였다. 2021년 9월 1일, 첫 디지털 싱글 앨범 WHAT'Z ITZY으로 일본 데뷔를 하였다. 2021년 9월 24일, 첫 정규 앨범 CRAZY IN LOVE의 타이틀곡 《LOCO》로 컴백하였다. 또한 타이틀곡 《LOCO》로 3관왕을 달성하였다. 2021년 10월 17일, 수록곡 《SWIPE》로 정규 1집 활동을 마무리 지었다. 2021년 12월 22일, 《IT’z ITZY》 베스트 앨범을 발매하며 정식 일본 데뷔를 확정지었다. 2022년 2022년 4월 6일, 디지털 싱글 앨범 《Voltage》을 발매하며 일본에서 컴백했다. 2022년 7월 15일, 다섯 번째 미니 앨범 CHECKMATE의 타이틀곡 《SNEAKERS》로 컴백하였다. 또한 타이틀곡 《SNEAKERS》로 3관왕을 달성하였다. 2022년 11월 30일, 여섯 번째 미니 앨범 CHESHIRE의 타이틀곡 《Cheshire》로 컴백하였다. 또한 타이틀곡 《Cheshire》로 1관왕을 달성하였다. 2023년 2023년 7월 31일, 일곱 번째 미니 앨범 KILL MY DOUBT의 타이틀곡 《CAKE》로 컴백하였다. 또한 타이틀곡 《CAKE》로 1관왕을 달성하였다. 2023년 9월 18일, 멤버 리아가 극도의 불안감으로 인해 활동을 중단 하였다. 2023년 10월 8일, JTBC 주말 드라마 힘쎈여자 강남순 OST Part.1을 불렸다. 구성원 음반 음반 외 활동 예능 수상 가요 프로그램 1위 시상식 각주 외부 링크 ITZY - 스포티파이 대한민국의 걸 그룹 대한민국의 팝 음악 그룹 대한민국의 댄스 음악 그룹 JYP 엔터테인먼트 소속 대한민국의 아이돌 그룹 대한민국의 음악 그룹 K-pop 음악 그룹 한국어 음악 그룹 2010년대 음악 그룹 2020년대 음악 그룹 2019년 결성된 음악 그룹 5인조 음악 그룹 MBC M 쇼 챔피언 챔피언송 수상자 엠넷 엠카운트다운 1위 수상자 KBS 뮤직뱅크 1위 수상자 MBC 쇼! 음악중심 1위 수상자 SBS 인기가요 1위 수상자

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itzy

Itzy

Itzy (stylized in all caps; ) is a South Korean girl group formed by JYP Entertainment and consisting of members Yeji, Lia, Ryujin, Chaeryeong, and Yuna. They debuted on February 12, 2019, with the release of their single album It'z Different. Their accolades include Rookie of the Year at the 34th Golden Disc Awards, New Artist of the Year at the 9th Gaon Chart Music Awards and 2019 Melon Music Awards, Best New Female Artist at the 2019 Mnet Asian Music Awards, and the New Artist Award at the 29th Seoul Music Awards; they are the first K-pop girl group to achieve such a "Rookie Grand Slam". Career 2015–2019: Pre-debut activities After failing to pass auditions held by Fantagio, Chaeryeong and her sister were cast by JYP Entertainment (JYP) through the K-pop Star 3 television series. In 2015, Chaeryeong participated in JYP's survival show Sixteen but did not make the final lineup of the winning girl group, Twice. The first member of Itzy to join JYP, she trained for five years. Ryujin was scouted at a Got7 concert and trained at JYP for four years prior to Itzy's debut. Both Yuna and Yeji joined JYP in 2015 and trained for three years, Yuna after being discovered by company staff and Yeji after having successfully auditioned. The final member Lia initially auditioned for SM Entertainment and passed but was forced to back out at the last minute due to a disagreement with her parents. She passed JYP auditions several years later and trained for two years. In 2017, Yuna and Ryujin appeared in BTS' "Love Yourself" highlight reel. The same year, the members (except for Lia) appeared on the Mnet reality show Stray Kids as a project group alongside the boy group that would eventually be named Stray Kids. Ryujin competed on JTBC's survival show Mix Nine, placing first among the female contestants but losing to the male contestants overall. Meanwhile, Yeji participated in SBS' The Fan but was eliminated in the fifth episode. 2019: Debut with It'z Different and It'z Icy On January 21, 2019, JYP announced that they would be debuting a new girl group, their first since Twice in 2015 and first overall idol group since Stray Kids in 2017. The label's official YouTube channel uploaded a video trailer revealing the five members. On February 12, the group released their debut single album, It'z Different, led by the single "Dalla Dalla". The song incorporated elements from EDM sub-genres such as future house and bass house, and its empowering lyrics were well received by audiences. The group scored one of the biggest Billboard debuts for a new K-pop act in years, with "Dalla Dalla" entering at number three and peaking at number two on the World Digital Song Sales chart. The song sold 2,000 downloads in the US in the week ending February 14, according to Nielsen Music, making it the best-selling K-pop song in the country that week. "Want It?" was released alongside "Dalla Dalla" and debuted at number eight, selling 1,000 downloads. "Dalla Dalla" also debuted as the second most popular song on YouTube. Billboard confirmed that the music video for "Dalla Dalla" surpassed 17.1 million views within 24 hours of its release and broke the record for the most viewed K-pop debut music video within 24 hours. On February 21, eight days after their debut, Itzy received their first music show win on M Countdown, breaking the record for the fastest time for a girl group to achieve their first music show win. The song went on to win on music shows nine times, and its music video became the fastest K-pop debut music video to reach 100 million views on YouTube at the time. Itzy's first extended play (EP), It'z Icy, was released on July 29, along with a music video for lead single "Icy". Commercially, the EP was a success, peaking at number three on the Gaon Album Chart. "Icy" continued the group's success on music shows, earning 12 wins, including a triple crown on Show Champion. On September 22, JYP announced Itzy's showcase tour, the Itzy Premiere Showcase Tour "Itzy? Itzy!". The tour opened in Jakarta on November 2 and visited different cities in Asia throughout the end of 2019 and the US for five shows in January 2020. In November 2019, "Dalla Dalla" surpassed 100 million streams on Gaon Music Chart, earning the group their first platinum certification. It was the first debut song by a K-pop group to earn a platinum certification from the Korea Music Content Association (KMCA) since the introduction of certifications in April 2018. The single ranked eighth on the list of "The 20 Best K-pop Songs of 2019" compiled by Dazed, which described the group as having kept "a steady hand on the rudder using the fun touches even with the visual and sonic chaos going on around" and "the ones to give K-pop a fresh boot up". The music videos for "Dalla Dalla" and "Icy" placed on the list of South Korea's most popular music video on YouTube at numbers two and seven, respectively. At the end of the year, Itzy won several Best New Female Artist awards, including at the 2019 Melon Music Awards and the 2019 Mnet Asian Music Awards. 2020–2021: US showcase tour and continued commercial success Itzy began the year with the US leg of their showcase tour. Their first show was on January 17, 2020, in Los Angeles. On March 9, Itzy released their second EP, It'z Me, and its lead single "Wannabe". Featuring production from Sophie and Oliver Heldens, the EP saw the group experiment with EDM sounds while continuing to explore lyrical themes of freedom, self-confidence, and individuality. It'z Me debuted at number one on South Korea's Gaon Album Chart, making it the group's first number one album in the country. It also debuted at number five on the Billboard World Albums chart, their highest position on the chart at the time. The group went on to achieve eight music show wins with "Wannabe". On August 17, 2020, Itzy released Not Shy, their third EP, as well as the music video for the lead single of the same name. Although it featured Itzy's signature "teen crush" pop sound, the album marked a lyrical shift as the group transitioned from singing about "themes of independence and self-love" to "tipping their toes into the waters of singing about love". The EP debuted at number one on the Gaon Album Chart with sales of over 219,048 copies, their second release to top the chart. Itzy promoted "Not Shy" on music shows, achieving five wins. On March 20, 2021, Itzy released the digital single "Trust Me (Midzy)", a song dedicated to their fans, as part of their first global livestream event. On April 30, Itzy released their fourth EP Guess Who and its lead single "In the Morning". the song debuted and peaked at number 22 on the Billboard Global Excl. U.S. chart and also at number 34 on the Global 200 chart, becoming their highest entry on both. The EP entered the US Billboard 200 at number 148, making it their first appearance on the chart. Later that year, the EP was certified Platinum by Korea Music Content Association (KMCA). The English version of "In the Morning" was released on May 14. On July 1, 2021, Second Aunt KimDaVi and Itzy released the collaborative digital single "Break Ice" under VIVO WAVE and distributed by Genie Music and Stone Music Entertainment. On September 1, it was announced that Itzy would be making their Japanese debut under Warner Japan with the EP What'z Itzy. On September 24, Itzy released their first studio album Crazy in Love and its lead single "Loco". The album debuted at number 11 on the Billboard 200, a new career high for the group. Crazy in Love was certified Platinum by the KMCA in November 2021 for selling over 250,000 copies and 2× Platinum in February 2022 for selling over 500,000 copies. On December 22, 2021, the group released a Japanese compilation album titled It'z Itzy. 2022–present: International endeavors On February 10, 2022, it was reported by Billboard that Republic Records and JYP Entertainment added Itzy to their strategic partnership, which initially only included Twice. On April 6, Itzy released their first Japanese single "Voltage". On July 15, Itzy released their fifth EP Checkmate and its lead single "Sneakers". It was also announced that they would embark on their first world tour, the Checkmate World Tour, with the first shows in Seoul on August 6 and 7. Itzy released their second Japanese single "Blah Blah Blah" on October 5 and their first English single "Boys Like You" on October 21. On November 30, Itzy released their sixth EP Cheshire and its lead single of the same name. On July 31, 2023, Itzy released their seventh EP Kill My Doubt, led by the single "Cake". Leading up to the EP's release, the quintet released music videos for B-sides "Bet on Me" and "None of My Business", on July 3 and 24, respectively. The quintet held a showcase at the SK Olympic Handball Gymnasium in support of the EP on the day of its release. Following news of the group's first Japanese-language studio album in February 2023, the album, titled Ringo, was officially announced on August 7, with it releasing on October 18. On September 18, 2023, JYP Entertainment announced that Lia would be taking a hiatus due to anxiety. Endorsements Itzy has advertised for various brands since their debut in 2019, when they collaborated with Kia Motors to introduce the "Soul Booster" cars in the music video of Itzy's debut single "Dalla Dalla". They subsequently released the "Itzy X Soul Booster Special Video". Itzy became one of the celebrity endorsers of Lotte Duty Free in 2019. Later that year, Itzy inked endorsement deals with clothing brand Andar and MAC Cosmetics. Itzy also endorsed local brands such as Dongseo Food and CJ CheilJedang, which collaborated with Itzy to release limited edition "Gourmet Chicken" that was promoted with the release of a theme music video on YouTube. Itzy endorsed the local contact lens brand Claren in 2021. In August 2020, Itzy collaborated with Line Friends to participate in the character development of "lifetime friends" called "WDZY" dolls representing each member. On April 31, 2021, Maybelline New York announced that they selected Itzy as their new global spokesmodels, the first Korean and musician to be chosen as such by Maybelline New York. In March 2022, Itzy promoted the Adidas Members Week event at the Adidas Hongdae Center. They advertised the Pokémon Legends: Arceus video game and the Pokémon Card Game in January 2022, followed by Pokémon Unite in July 2022 alongside the release of the special video "Pokémon Unite / Itzy Special Show!" on July 7. On March 10, 2022, Swedish Fashion brand H&M announced that they selected Itzy as models for the brand's spring/summer campaign. On August 16, 2022, Itzy became ambassadors for the Singaporean fashion brand Charles & Keith. On March 20, 2023, Itzy was announced as the newest ambassadors of Mobile Legends: Bang Bang. On September 20, 2023, Itzy became advertising models and participated in a TV CF for coffee brand Mega MGC Coffee with Son Heung-min. Members Yeji () – leader, dancer, vocalist, rapper Lia () – vocalist, rapper Ryujin () – rapper, dancer, vocalist Chaeryeong () – dancer, vocalist, rapper Yuna () – dancer, rapper, vocalist Discography Korean albums Crazy in Love (2021) Japanese albums Ringo (2023) Filmography Web shows Concerts Checkmate World Tour (2022–2023) Awards and nominations References External links 2019 establishments in South Korea English-language singers from South Korea Japanese-language singers of South Korea JYP Entertainment artists K-pop music groups Musical groups established in 2019 Musical groups from Seoul Republic Records artists South Korean girl groups Warner Music Japan artists MAMA Award winners Golden Disc Award winners Melon Music Award winners Electropop groups J-pop music groups South Korean hip hop groups South Korean electronic dance music groups South Korean musical quintets

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8E%98%EC%9D%B4%EC%9C%A0%EC%97%90

페이유에

페이유에(飞跃, Feiyue)는 중국 상하이에서 처음 설립되어, 지금은 중국의 DaFu Rubber Company가 소유하고 있는 신발 브랜드이다. 중국 외 국가에서는 DaFu Rubber의 해외 지사인 프랑스의 Feiyue Shoes를 미국의 BBC International가 인수하여, BBC International가 해외 판매 역할을 담당하고 있다. 이름의 유래는 중국어로 "뛰다" 또는 "날아가다"를 의미한다. 설립 당시, 대약진 운동의 공명에 영향을 받기도 했다. 1920년부터 처음으로 생산을 시작하였으며, 2006년부터 글로벌 소유권은 DaFu Rubber의 해외 자회사인 프랑스의 Feiyue Shoes에게 넘어갔다. 중국에서는 2008년 베이징 올림픽 개막식당시, 많은 공연자들이 착용한 것이 노출되어, 중국 내에서 일반인들이 가장 많이 신고 있음을 짐작하게 된다. 오리지널 버전은 가볍고 얇은 밑창과 유연성으로 인해 파쿠르 수련자들 사이에서 전 세계적으로 인기가 많아졌다. 특히, 미국에서는 배우 올랜도 블룸이 이 브랜드 신발을 신고 다니는 모습이 포착된 적이 있어 한 때 주목을 받기도 했다. 중국 공장에는 3,000명의 직원으로 구성되어, 하루에 36,000켤레를 생산하고, 중국에서는 연간 평균 500만 켤레가 판매되는 것으로 알려졌다. 유럽에서는 Matthew Derwent Wapples사와의 갈등으로 10년동안 진출이 막혔다가, 2019년에는 Tenements Clothing 사와의 타계약을 맺음으로서 재친출하는데 성공했다. 역사 페이유에의 시초는 1920년대에 상하이에 한 공장을 설립하면서 시작되었다. 당시 상하이의 소림 승려들은 무술과 다양한 형태의 운동을 하면서 그 만큼 안정적으로 신고다니기 편안 신발이 필요했는데, 이를 위해서 승려들이 사용한 천을 가져와 기존의 신발에 결합하여 개조해 만들면서 승려들에게 보급하였고, 이를 계기로 천으로 만든 신발을 생산하고 이를 판매하는 공장으로 이어진다. 그러다가 1930년대에 본격적으로 인기를 끌기 시작되었는데, 중국의 거의 모든 무술 수련자들과 운동선수들, 심지어 상하이 이 외에 수많은 소림 승려들과 쿵푸 고수들에 의해 사용될 정도이다. 1958년에 공장은 다푸 고무 회사(大孚橡胶厂)라는 이름으로 법인화가 되었고, 페이유에 이름 또한 당시에 처음 등장하며 신발 이름에 내걸고, 이것이 페이유에의 첫 시작이다. 1963년에 페이유에는 1,616,000켤레의 신발을 중국 육상 선수들에게 보급하였는데, 이 이후로는 중국에서 수십 년 동안 꾸준히 가장 많이 팔린 신발 브랜드로 성장하며, 생산량는 한해만 해도 수십만 켤레에 달할 정도이다. 또한, 외국인들 사이에는 외국 무술 동아리들과 학교들이 학생들을 위한 표준 신발로 수입하여 해외 유명 수출품으로 성장한다. 그러나 1978년부터 중국의 경제 개혁 정책의 영향으로 타 외국 브랜드의 진출로 인해 자사 운동화의 인지도가 하락하며 생산량이 낮아지기 시작하였고, 그래도 아직까지는 유명 운동 선수들의 보급은 무난해서 육상화는 실내 축구 코치 쉬겐바오(徐根宝)와 선수 치훙(祁宏)이 신고 대회에 참가할 정도이다. 2005년에 프랑스에 Feiyue International라는 이름으로 법인이 세워졌는데, 법인은 상하이 출신 유명 마케팅 및 이벤트 매니저이자 기업가였던 파트리스 바스티앙을 중심으로 하고, 디자인 팀은 니콜라스 세기와 클레멘스 포 등 프랑스 유명 디자이너 및 예술가를 채용하여 법인을 구성시켜 설립하였다. 기존의 중국에서의 페이유에의 이미지와 외관이 아닌, 서구 소비자들의 눈높이에 맞추며, 그 결과로 2006년 2월에 페이유 슈즈 컬렉션을 해외에 처음 선보이게 된다. 2009년에 다푸 고무 회사는 중국의 페이유에 권리를 재편성을 하였는데, 페이유에 지분 일부를 솽첸 그룹에게 매각하였고, 생산 권한도 탑원(大博文)에게 일부를 넘겼다. 2014년 8월에 셀린느, 앙드레, 카시오, 본통, NSBQ 등과의 콜라보레이션에서 큰 성공을 거두었고, 2014년에 미국의 BBC International는 프랑스의 Feiyue International를 인수하였다. 이후, BBC International는 페이유에의 제품 라인업을 확대시켜, 패션 포워드 스타일링, 업데이트된 실루엣, 가죽과 스킨과 같은 프리미엄 소재를 특징으로 하는 광범위한 새로운 컬렉션을 개발해 나갔고, 2015년에 남성, 여성, 아동 컬렉션을 전 세계에 공개하였고, 피너츠와의 협업하여 콜라보 한정판 컬렉션을 내놓기도 했다. 지적재산권 논란 페이유에는 2017년에 미국의 BBC International와 중국의 다푸 고무 회사 사이에 페이유에 대한 상표권과 지적 재산권을 둘러싼 분쟁이 터지기 시작했다. 류칭룽 다푸 고무 회사 매니저는 "당시 중국 내 어느 누구도 상품 지적재산권에 대해 몰랐고, 2007~08년이 되어서야 프랑스인이 상표를 등록했다는 사실을 알게 됐다"고 말하며, "중국이 여전히 자본주의와 씨름하고 있고, 모든 공장이 국유 자산이었던 것에서, 일부 권리를 개인 기업에 이양하기 위해 전환하고 있던 시기에 프랑스 회사가 중국인들을 이용했다"고 비판하여 소송을 제기했고, 그러나 정작 파트리스 바스티앙는 이에 반박하여, 오히려 "다푸 고무 회사가 중국 상표권을 자사 소유로 둔갑하여 등록하고, 위조품을 짝어내고 있다"고 주장하며 페이유에는 중국 기업의 소유권이 아니라고 주장하고 있다. 파트리스 바스티앙는 기업가로 알려졌지만 운동화 수집가로도 나름 유명한데, 그는 2005년에 아시아에 거주할 당시에 한 페이유에 신발을 보고 한눈에 반하면서, 대량으로 생산된 이 신발을 대거 구입하여 프랑스에 판매를 하기 위해서 디자이너인 니콜라 세기, 클레멘스 포이트와 함께 자신들이 그동안 수집해온 신발을 전부 팔아서 자금을 얻었고, 덤으로 파는 것에 그치지 않고, 브랜드의 소유권을 얻기 위해서 중국 공장에 직접가서 허락을 맏았다고 주장한다. 하지만 류칭룽은 2007년까지 바스티앙에 대한 존재성을 듣지 못했고, 원래 회사의 허가가 아닌, 하청 업체로 오인한 것이라고 반박하고 나섰다. 그럼에도 바스티앙은 자신이 브랜드를 구입한 공장의 주인이 누구인지 정확히 알지 못했다고 주장하며, 여전히 소유권을 자신이 가지고 있다고 맞서고 있다. 결국, 다푸 고무 회사는 프랑스에서 권리 소송을 아무 소득없이 패소당했고, 미국 페이유에 본사도 상표, 상표명, 트레이드 드레스에 대한 권리를 보유하며, 국제법과 조약에 의한 보호를 주장하고 있고, 현재까지 페이유에 대한 지적재산권 논쟁은 여전하다. 각주 외부 링크 페이유에 중국 공식 웹사이트 페이유에 글로벌 공식 웹사이트 페이유에 코리아 공식 웹사이트 중국의 신발 회사 상하이시의 기업 중국의 브랜드 신발 브랜드

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feiyue

Feiyue

Feiyue is a Chinese shoe brand founded in Shanghai owned by Dafu Rubber Co., Ltd. The brand was acquired by Feiyue International, a subsidiary of BBC International LLC (no relation to BBC News) in 2014. The word "Feiyue" () means "to leap" or "to fly over" and is reminiscent of the Great Leap Forward. The shoes were first produced in Shanghai during the 1920s. Since 2006 there have been two separate companies creating Feiyue shoes: Da Fu Rubber and its subsidiary manufacturer, Double Coin Holdings, and a French company operating separately from the original Chinese company. A number of performers wore Feiyue China shoes during the opening of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Actor Orlando Bloom was spotted wearing the French version of Feiyue shoes. The Chinese factory has 3,000 employees producing 36,000 pairs a day, with an average of 5,000,000 pairs sold in China yearly. History Feiyue's roots can be traced to the 1920s when cloth shoes were manufactured in Shanghai. In 1958, DaFu Rubber Company designed and produced a kind of civil shoe known as "Feiyue," a modification of the cloth shoes used by the Shaolin monks. They gained popularity during the 1930s for their robustness, flexibility, and comfort, which were considered essential requirements for martial arts and various forms of athletics. The shoes are a staple for almost all wushu practitioners and athletes in China, with the shoes being used by Shaolin monks and Kung Fu masters. In 1963, using Feiyue and double arrow-labeled chevrons with "Feiyue track and field," the company became the best-selling shoe in China with an output of 1,616,000 pairs. By the 1980s, Feiyue sold about 4 million pairs yearly. With the opening up of China and the associated cultural and economic shifts, the sneaker began to lose prominence in China, and by the end of the 1990s, the brand started selling in bulk due to low demand. Once a highly regarded brand, by then only elder people and martial arts practitioners valued it as a cheap and durable brand. In 2003, Shanghai Shenglong relaunched the production of shoes. In 2005, Patrice Bastian got together with a group of artists to change the brand name. In February 2006, they launched the first French-designed Feiyue Shoe collection. The DaFu Rubber Company reorganized and sold the rights to Feiyue to the "Shuang Qian Group Co. Ltd," in 2009. That company leased manufacturing back to DaFu and another manufacturer, "Top One" (大博文). In 2014, BBC International, the Boca Raton, Florida-based footwear firm, acquired the French Feiyue shoe company. Upon working with BBC, Feiyue's men's, women's, and children's collections were updated and globally introduced in Spring of 2015. BBC has made a large new collection that builds on its existing brand. It uses high-quality materials like leather. In 2015, BBC International Launched a collaboration with Feiyue and Peanuts for a limited-edition collection. Before BBC's acquisition deal in August 2014, Feiyue had major success in collaborations, including collections with Celine, André, Casio, Bonton, NSBQ, and more; and continuing with other collaborations beginning with Peanuts. The American Feiyue company collaborated in 2016 with the Solid & Striped clothing company, with textiles based on Solid & Striped designs. Intellectual property rights dispute A dispute exists surrounding the trademark and intellectual property rights to Feiyue between the United States-owned company, Feiyue International, LLC, and Shanghai Da Fu Rubber Co, the company that originally manufactured the shoe. Liu Qinglong, manager of Shanghai Da Fu Rubber Co Ltd, said of the situation in 2017, “No one in China knew about commodity intellectual property rights at the time and it wasn’t until 2007–08 that we found out the French had registered the trademark.” According to the Young Post: "Liu claims the French company took advantage of the Chinese at a time when China was still grappling with capitalism and transitioning from all factories being state-owned assets to devolving some rights to individual businesses." Patrice Bastian, former co-founder and creative director of Feiyue International, LLC, labels Chinese Feiyue "counterfeit," claiming "Feiyue in the US are the original ones because we have the brand registration." He also comments, "It's actually a legal issue and there are many things that we cannot control." According to Bastian, while he was living in Asia in 2005, he became enamored of Feiyue's white vulcanized shoes. A sneaker collector, Bastien traveled to the factory to buy his lifetime supply and ended up making a bid to buy the brand (with partners Nicolas Seguy and Clement Fauth), financing the purchase by selling his sneaker collection. However, Da Fu maintains that Bastien made this purchase from a manufacturer and not from them, the original company, having not heard of the Bastian at all until 2007. In 2017, Bastian claims that he didn't know exactly who owned the factory he purchased the brand from. Da Fu retains the trademark rights to Feiyue in China, but the US-based Feiyue holds the rights in much of the world, including France, Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, and Taiwan. Da Fu took Feiyue International, LLC to court for the rights in France, but lost the lawsuit. As such, the US-based Feiyue retains the rights regarding their trademarks, trade names, brand names, and trade dress, and claims protection by international laws and treaties. Distinctions between the original authentic Chinese and re-designed American versions The original Chinese versions of the Feiyue shoes and the re-designed American versions have a number of differences. The differences include: Sole The sole of the Chinese Feiyue shoe contains reduced padding on the bottom of the shoe, which is considered desirable for martial arts activities. The sole of the French version has thicker padding on the bottom and is designed for more general-purpose use. The seal at the center of the sole is a green triangle on the Chinese Feiyue, while the marking is a red circle on the American version. However, recently the Chinese version manufactured by Da Fu has begun to use the American red circle; those manufactured by Top One retain the green triangle. Canvas material The canvas material of the Chinese Feiyue shoe is thin, resulting in a large range of ankle flexibility. The martial arts application requires a wide range of foot motions. The canvas material of the American version is much thicker. Color The original Chinese Feiyues originally came in only two colors, black and white, with a HI and LO version of each. The shoes were previously only available in a limited range of styles—simple stripes with some different colors. The range of colors and styles has now grown tremendously both under the American-owned company and the Chinese-owned one, with the BBC International brand offering a wide variety of colors and the Da Fu brand offering a "rainbow" set of shoes. Style The American version of the shoe offers a wide variety of fashion-forward choices for men, women, and kids. Consequently, collaborations with Céline, Agnès B, and Swarovski followed, as did fans, including Miranda Kerr, Reese Witherspoon, and Orlando Bloom. The Chinese version of the shoe, on the other hand, has around 150 different styles of the shoes catered toward Chinese fashion tastes. References External links Chinese Feiyue DaFu website English global website Shoe companies of China Companies based in Shanghai Chinese brands Shoe brands Sporting goods brands

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voxeljet%20AG

Voxeljet AG

Voxeljet AG는 독일 아우크스부르크(Augsburg) 근처의 프리드베르그(Friedberg)에 위치한 3D프린팅 시스템 제조회사다. 이 회사는 2013년 IPO이후로 뉴욕증권거래소에도 등재되었다. Voxeljet AG는 프린팅 시스템의 발전을 위한 다양한 연구를 진행하고 있고, 국내, 해외를 대상으로 철제 주조 모델이나 거푸집 등의 주문제작 서비스도 운영하고 있다. 이러한 생산품들은 3D CAD데이터를 기반으로 한 생산방법(3D printing으로도 일컬어지는)으로 만들어진다. 역사 출발 Voxeljet AG의 시작은 자외선 점착제 투약에 처음으로 성공한 1995년으로 거슬러 올라간다. 첫 3D프린팅의 시도는"Generation of 3D structures"의 일환으로 Technical University Munich의 Precision Engineering 부서에서 이루어졌다. 1996년, Dr. Ingo Ederer는 첫Munich business plan competition에 참가했고, 1998년에 낸 그의 첫 특허를 인정받았다. 최초의 모래 거푸집 역시 같은 해에 만들어졌다. 회사의 형성 오늘날의 Voxeljet AG의 조상격인Generis GmbH는Ingo Ederer, Rainer Höchsmann, 그리고Munichäs Technical University의 엔지니어Joachim Heinyl에 의해 1999년 5월 5일, 거푸집과 플라스틱 부품의 생산을 위한 새로운 생산과정의 개발을 목적으로 설립되었다. Voxeljet은Technical University Munich에서 네 명의 고용자들과 함께 작업을 시작했는데 얼마 지나지 않아 재단장했으며, 아우구스부르크의 건물로 이주했다. 아우구스부르크에 서비스 센터를 열기 전인 2002년에는 BMW와 Daimler AG상대로 샌드 기반 프린터를 배달하는 작업을 처음으로 완료하였다. 같은 해에, 주주로서Bayern Kapital GmbH, Startkapital Fonds Augsburg, 그리고Frany Industriebeteiligungen AG가 합류하였다. 설립 단계 첫 VX800 시스템은 2005년, Alphaform AG 에 팔렸다. 이어서 2년 뒤인 2007년에는 첫 VX500을 University of Rostock에 팔았다. 2008년에는 Voxeljet Technology GmbH가 Bavarian Innovation Prize의 일환으로 Bavarian 대표인 Günther Beckstein에게 손수 상을 받았으며, 1년 뒤 10주년을 기념했다. 2010년 봄, 프리드베르크로 새로운 관리동과 생산 건물을 옮겼다. 같은 해에, Voxeljet은 독일 상위 100 혁신가에 들었으며, "TOP 100" 증명 인장을 받았다. 성장 단계 2011년, Voxeljet은 일련의 기술 혁신을 일으켰다. 2011년 4월, Voxeljet은VX4000 3D 프린팅 기술로 생산기술의 새로운 차원을 열었는데, 이 시스템을 통해 사물을 기존보다 최대 세배 빠르면서도 해상도는 유지하며 4*2*1미터의 사이즈로 생산할 수 있게 되었다. 주조 기술에 대한 국제무역박람회인 "GIFA"에서 Voxeljet은 세계 최초의 지속형 프린터인 VXC800을 소개했다. 이 지속형3D 프린팅 기술의 개발은 더 이상 거푸집이나 모델을 제작함에 있어서 연장, 공구가 필요하지 않음을 의미했다. 이러한 기계 기반 생산은 "쌓기(Building)"와 "풀기(Unpacking)"의 과정을 병행하면서 진행되었는데, 이 과정에서 다른 시스템적 작업의 간섭은 들어오지 않는다. 같은 해에, Frankfurt am Main에서 공구 세공과 거푸집 제작, 디자인과 생산 발달에 대한 무역박람회 EuroMold가 열렸는데, 그곳에서 Voxeljet은 3D 프린터 VX1000의 세계적 개봉을 기념하였다. 고성능과 큰 작업 공간을 융합함으로써 3D 프린팅 시스템은 산업의 나날이 높아지는 요구의 수준을 맞출 수 있게 되었다. 이러한 시스템 혁신에 더하여, Voxeljet은 2011년에 새롭게 개발된 기재 시스템인Polypor type C를 공개하였는데 이는 소비자들의 순백 플라스틱 모델 수요를 충족시킬 수 있게 되는 바탕이 되었으며, 모델의 안정성과 표면 특성에 대한 더 높은 요구치 역시 충족하였다. 1년 뒤인 2012년, 첫 VX1000 3D 프린팅 시스템이 영국 회사인Propshop Ltd에 팔렸는데, 이것은 영국에서 사용된 5번째 Voxeljet 시스템이었다. 영화 산업은 Voxeljet의 새로운 시장이 되었다. 2012년에, Voxeljet은 자사의 가장 작은 시스템인 VX200을 시장에 공개했다. 이 프린팅 시스템은 다른 더 큰 시스템과 생산 방법을 공유하지만, 더 작고, 사용이 용이하다는 특징을 가지고 있다. IPO 2013년에 Voxeljet은 뉴욕증권거래소에서 IPO를 진행했다. 끝에는, Voxeljet Technology GmbH가 현재 Voxeljet AG로 활동하고 있는 주식회사로 전환되었다. 2013년 10월 17일, Voxeljet AG는 뉴욕증권거래소에 13달러의 발행가격으로 650만 ADS를 두었는데, 다섯 ADS가 한 주에 상당했다. IPO를 통해 Voxeljet AG는 발행은행에 부여된 가격 할인을 공제한 뒤 6450만 달러를 얻을 수 있었다. IPO로부터 6달 뒤, 발행은행에 주어진 할인 금액의 공제 후에 Voxeljet AG는 또 다시 4110만 달러의 자본을 늘렸다. 이 과정에서, Voxeljet AG는 뉴욕증권거래소에 또 다른 300만 ADS를 단위당 15달러에 발행했다. 세계화 글로벌 네트워크 영업 파트너를 늘리기 위해서Voxeljet AG는 2014년에 국제 지부를 두기 시작했다. 2014년 10월 1일, Voxeljet AG는 영국회사Propshop Ltd를 인수했고, 이는 독일 밖의 첫 지부가 되었다. 인수와 함께 Propshop은 Voxeljet AG의 완전한 종속 회사가 되었다. 영화와 엔터테인먼트 산업에 특화되어있던 Propshop은 2012년에 VX1000을 구매하면서 이미 프린팅 시스템을 사용한 적이 있었다. 같은 해에, Voxeljet AG는 미국에 새로운 회사를 설립했다. 2015년 1월, Voxeljet AG는 2016년 말까지 프리드베르크의 본부와 비슷한 수준의 프린팅 시스템을 갖추게 하는 것을 목적으로 Canton에 거푸집과 모델의 주문 제작을 목적으로 하는 서비스 센터를 운영하기 시작했다. 2015년 12월, Voxeljet AG는 중국의 Suzhou Meimai Fast Manufacturing Technology와의 합동 사업을 알렸다. 이 합동 사업은 Voxeljet China Ltd라고 불렸으며, 상하이 근처의 Suzhou에 본부를 두었다. 동시에 Voxeljet AG는 뭄바이 근처의 자동화, 공업지대인Pune에 Voxeljet India Pvt. Ltd를 설립했다. 기술과 과정 과정 기술은 1993년 Massachusetts Institute of Technology에서 처음으로 개발되었고, 일반적으로 "Powder bed and inkjethead 3D printing"으로 알려져 있었다. 첨가물 제조과정이 늘 그렇듯이, 인쇄되는 부분은 3D모델의 무수한 얇은 교차 부분부터 쌓여져 올라간다. 잉크젯 프린트 헤드가 분말 지반을 가로지르며 움직이고, 동시에 액체 응고 물질을 바르면서 누른다. 그 후, 얇은 분말층이 전체 구역에 펼쳐지고, 이와 같은 과정이 몇 번 반복된다. 적용 분야 Voxeljet 과정은 프로토타입이나 개별 파트, 정밀 주조, 그리고 모래 거푸집 주조와 같은 작은 부품의 금속 거푸집 모델이나 거푸집의 제작에 최적화되어 있다. 추가로, 이러한 방법은 항공, 항공우주 산업, 자동화 산업, 연구와 약학, 영화와 엔터테인먼트 산업에서 뿐만 아니라 디자인 샘플, 예술 및 건축 부품에도 사용된다. 기재 Voxeljet은 서로 다른 수지에 의해 결합된 PMMA 입자를 기반으로 한 두 플라스틱 기재를 제공한다. 유럽 Voxeljet 고객 서비스 및 시스템 센터에서 이용 가능한 Polypor B binder는 세세한 디테일, 높은 예리도, 해상도 그리고 높은 성형체의 강도가 요구되는 상황에서 사용된다. Polypor C binder는 정밀 주조와 건축 모델 제작의 간단한 연료 소진 과정에서 사용되기 적합하다. 샌드 타입은 기하학적, 적용 목적에 따라서 개별적으로 선택된다. Voxeljet은 크기 입자화 방법에 따라서 샌드 역시 다른 것을 사용하는데 사용되는 알갱이의 사이즈에 따라서 주조 결과물의 표면 상태가 달라진다. 가장 흔히 사용되는 샌드는 석영으로 만들어진 것이고, 0.14mm, 0.19mm, 0.25mm의 크기 입자화에 사용될 수 있다. 제공되는 케팔라이트 샌드는 내열 기능이 있으며, 철 주조를 위한 기하학적, 내부 코어에 사용되는데 적합하다. 3D 프린팅 시스템 같이 보기 3D 프린터 제조사 리스트 참고 문헌 1. "Unternehmen: Vorstand". voxeljet AG. Retrieved 2015-03-16. 2. "voxeljet AG Reports Financial Results for the Fourth Quarter and Full Year Ended 2016". www.voxeljet.com. Retrieved 2016-04-18. 3. "voxeljet AG Reports Financial Results for the Fourth Quarter and Full Year Ended 2016". www.voxeljet.com. Retrieved 2016-04-18. 4. "Unternehmen: Firmenhistorie". voxeljet AG. Retrieved 2015-03-19. 5. "Emeriti A-Z: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr.-Ing E.h. Joachim Heinzl". Technische Universität München. Retrieved 2015-03-19. 6. "Erfolgsbroschüre Bayernkapital" (PDF). Bayern Kapital GmbH. Archived from the original (PDF; 1,1 MB) on 16 May 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2015. 7. "Wirtschaftsstaatssekretär Pschierer gratuliert zum Börsengang". JONGO Webagentur. Retrieved 2015-03-13. 8. "Portfolio: voxeljet AG". Franz Industriebeteiligungen AG. Retrieved 2015-03-23. 9. "Ausstattung: Additive Fertigungsverfahren: Voxeljet VX500 ". Universität Rostock. Retrieved 2015-03-23. 10. "Auszeichnung für voxeljet beim Bayerischen Innovationspreis 2008". UNITED NEWS NETWORK GmbH. Retrieved 2015-03-23. 11. "Gütesiegel 'Top 100': Sechs Unternehmen aus der Kunststoffbranche ausgezeichnet". New Media Publisher GmbH. Retrieved 2015-03-25. 12. "3D-Druck: Großformatiges 3D-Drucksystem generiert Objekte wirtschaftlich". Vogel Business Media GmbH & Co. KG. Retrieved 2015-03-25. 13. "VX 4000 by voxeljet". makerwise.com. Retrieved 2015-11-27. 14. "3D-Druck: Kontinuierlich arbeitender 3D-Drucker für die Kleinserienproduktion". Vogel Business Media GmbH & Co. KG. Retrieved 2015-03-25. 15. "voxeljet VX1000 3D Printer: Industrial Scale Sand Casting & Prototyping". ENGINEERING.com. Retrieved 2015-03-25. 16. "voxeljet AG: EuroMold premiere: 3D printing with Phenolic-Direct-Binding". FinanzNachrichten.de. Retrieved 2015-11-27. 17. "Ford Motor setzt auf Polypor C: In strahlendem Weiß". Konradin-Verlag Robert Kohlhammer GmbH. Retrieved 2015-03-25. 18. "News: Filmindustrie setzt auf 3D-Druck". voxeljet AG. Retrieved 2015-03-25.19. "voxeljet VX200 review". aniwaa.com. Retrieved 2015-11-27. 19. "voxeljet VX200 review". aniwaa.com. Retrieved 2018-11-27. 20. "voxeljet liefert 100sten 3D Printer aus". Wallstreet-online.de. Retrieved 2015-11-27. 21. "All About 3D Printing IPO VoxelJet". nanalyze.com. Retrieved 2015-11-27. 22. "Voxeljet: Was der Hersteller von 3D-Druckern drauf hat". wallstreet:online AG. Retrieved 2015-03-26. 23. "Update: voxeljet AG gibt Ausgabepreis für Börsengang bekannt". Dannes Solutions GmbH. Retrieved 2015-03- 24. "Voxeljet: 3D-Drucker-Hersteller mit neuen Aktien". Boersengefluester.de. Retrieved 2015-03-26. 25. "Furioses Börsendebüt: Voxeljet stürmt an die Börse". BÖRSENMEDIEN AG. Retrieved 2015-04-08. 26. "3D-Druck: voxeljet AG übernimmt Propshop". vmm wirtschaftsverlag gmbh & co. kg. Retrieved 2015-04-08. 27. "Voxeljet eröffnet Standort in den USA ". Vogel Business Media GmbH & Co. KG. Retrieved 2015-04-08. 28. "voxeljet expands to india". finanznachrichten.de. Retrieved 2015-12-17. 29. "voxeljet AG announces joint venture in china". finanznachrichten.de. Retrieved 2015-12-01. 30. "VX200: 3D-Druck im Kleinformat". voxeljet AG. Retrieved 2015-04-08. 31. "VX500: der kompakte 3D-Drucker". voxeljet AG. Retrieved 2015-04-08. 32. "VXC800: Der kontinuierlich arbeitende 3D-Drucker". voxeljet AG. Retrieved 2015-04-08. 33. "VX1000: der universelle 3D-Drucker". voxeljet AG. Retrieved 2015-04-08. 34. "VX2000: der industrielle 3D-Drucker". voxeljet AG. Retrieved 2015-04-08. 35. "VX4000: das großformatige 3D-Drucksystem". voxeljet AG. Retrieved 2015-04-08. 외부 링크 The 3D Revolution 3차원 인쇄 뉴욕 증권거래소 상장 기업 1999년 설립된 기업

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voxeljet

Voxeljet

voxeljet AG, which is based in Friedberg (Bayern) near Augsburg (Germany), is a manufacturer of industrial 3D printing systems. The company has been listed on the Nasdaq since 2020, and previously listed on the New York Stock Exchange since its IPO in 2013. Besides the development and distribution of printing systems, voxeljet AG also operates service centers for the on-demand manufacture of molds and models for metal casting in Germany and abroad. These products are manufactured with the help of a generative production method based on 3D CAD data (also referred to as "3D printing"). History Beginnings voxeljet AG traces its roots back to the year 1995, with the first successful drop-dosing of UV adhesives. The first 3D printing trials were conducted at the Precision Engineering department of the Technical University Munich as part of the "Generation of 3D structures" project. In 1996, Dr. Ingo Ederer participated in the first Munich business plan competition and was awarded his first patent in 1998. The first sand molds were printed in the same year. Formation of the company Generis GmbH, the predecessor of today's voxeljet AG, was founded on 5 May 1999 by Ingo Ederer, Rainer Höchsmann and engineer Joachim Heinzl at Munich's Technical University. The purpose of the company was the development of new generative processes for the production of cast and plastic components. The company started its operations at Technical University Munich with four employees. Shortly afterwards, it refurbished and relocated into the premises in Augsburg. In the year 2002, the company completed its first orders for the delivery of sand-based printers to BMW AG and Daimler AG, before opening the service center in Augsburg in the year 2003. In the same year, Bayern Kapital GmbH, the Startkapital Fonds Augsburg and Franz Industriebeteiligungen AG joined as new shareholders. Establishment phase The first VX800 system was sold to Alphaform AG in 2005. This was followed by the sale of the first VX500 to the University of Rostock two years later. In 2008, voxeljet technology GmbH received an award as part of the Bavarian Innovation Prize from the hands of Bavarian premier Günther Beckstein. The company celebrated its 10-year anniversary one year later. In the spring of 2010, voxeljet moved into a new administration building and production halls in Friedberg. During the same year, voxeljet was added to the list of Germany's top 100 innovators and received the "Top 100" seal of approval. Growth phase In the year 2011, voxeljet introduced a series of technical innovations. In April 2011, the company opened up a new dimension of generative production methods with the VX4000 3D printing system. This system makes it possible to produce objects with a size of 4 x 2 x 1 meters at a build speed that is up to three times faster than earlier systems, while maintaining the same resolution. At the international trade fair for foundry technologies ‘’GIFA’’, voxeljet introduced the world's first continuous 3D printer, the VXC800. The development of this continuous 3D printing technology represented the manufacturing of molds and models without tools. This machine generation runs the process steps "building" and "unpacking" in parallel, without having to interrupt system operations. Therefore, this printing system represents an important step towards industrial series production on the basis of a generative production process. In the same year, voxeljet celebrated the global premiere of its 3D printer VX1000 at EuroMold, the trade fair for tooling and mold-making, design and product development in Frankfurt am Main. By combining high performance and a large build space, this printing system was able to meet the growing requirements of industry. In addition to these system innovations, the company also presented the newly developed material system Polypor type C in the year 2011. It allows voxeljet to meet customer demand for pure white plastic models. Moreover, this material also satisfies higher requirements regarding the stability and surface properties of the models. A year later in 2012, the first VX1000 printing system was sold to the British company Propshop (Model Makers) Ltd.. It was the fifth voxeljet system that was in use in the United Kingdom. The movie industry opened a completely new customer market for voxeljet. In the year 2012, voxeljet introduced its smallest system, the VX200, to the market. This printing system uses the same method as the larger series, but is very compact and easy to operate. IPO In the year 2013, the company went ahead with its IPO on the New York Stock Exchange. To this end, voxeljet technology GmbH was converted into a stock corporation that now operates as voxeljet AG. On 17 October 2013, voxeljet placed 6.5 million ADS on the NYSE at an issue price of US$13. Five American Depositary Receipt corresponded to one share. The IPO enabled voxeljet AG to take in US$64.5 million after deduction of the price discount granted to the issuing banks and issue costs. Six months after the IPO, voxeljet AG generated another US$41.1 million as part of a capital increase, after deduction of the price discount granted to the issuing banks and issue costs. In the process, the company issued another three million American Depositary Shares at the New York Stock Exchange at a unit price of US$15. Globalization To add to its global network of sales partners voxeljet AG began to set up its own international locations in the year 2014. On 1 October 2014, voxeljet AG took over the British company Propshop (Model Makers) Ltd., thus establishing its first location outside Germany. With the takeover, Propshop became a wholly owned subsidiary of voxeljet AG. The company, which specializes in the film and entertainment industry, had already gained experience with voxeljet printing systems when it purchased the VX1000 in the year 2012. In the same year, voxeljet AG founded a new company in the USA. In January 2015, voxeljet began to operate a service center for the on-demand production of molds and models in Canton (Michigan), with the goal of reaching a printing capacity similar to the capacity at the home location in Friedberg by the end of 2016. In December 2015 voxeljet announced a joint venture with Suzhou Meimai Fast Manufacturing Technology in China. The joint venture shall be called voxeljet China Ltd. and will be headquartered in the city of Suzhou, near Shanghai. At the same time voxeljet AG established voxeljet India Pvt. Ltd. The new subsidiary is located in Pune, a large automotive and manufacturing center near Mumbai. Technology and process Process The technology was first developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1993 and is generally known as the "Powder bed and inkjet head 3D printing". As usual in the additive manufacturing processes, the part to be printed is built up from many thin cross sections of the 3D model. An inkjet print head moves across a bed of powder, simultaneously putting down a liquid binding material. After that, a thin layer of powder is extended across the completed section and the process is repeated several times with each layer adhering to the last. Application area The voxeljet process is particularly well-suited for the production of molds or models for metal casting applications in small series, such as prototypes, individual parts, props, investment casting or sand casting. In addition, the method is used for design samples, art and architecture components as well as in the aviation and aerospace industry, automotive industry, research and medicine and in the film and entertainment industry. Materials voxeljet offers two plastic materials based on PMMA particles bound by different resins. The Polypor B binder, available as a voxeljet service and for system customers in Europe, is ideal for parts that are true to detail and which require a high degree of edge sharpness, resolution and green compact strength. The Polypor C binder, on the other hand, lends itself to simplified burn-out processes in investment casting and for architectural models. The sand types are selected individually for each order depending on the geometry and application purpose. voxeljet uses different sands with different granulations. The grain size that is used will decide the surface finish of the cast result. The most commonly used sand is made of quartz and is available in the granulations 0.14 mm, 0.19 mm and 0.25 mm. Also offered is the more temperature-resistant kerphalite sand, which is suited for especially complex geometries and internal cores for steel casting. 3D printing systems See also List of 3D printer manufacturers References External links The 3D Revolution 3D printing Companies listed on the Nasdaq Companies formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange 3D printer companies German companies established in 1999

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9B%84%EC%95%88%20%EA%B3%BC%EC%9D%B4%EB%8F%84

후안 과이도

후안 헤라르도 과이도 마르케스( , 1983년 7월 28일 ~ )는 베네수엘라의 정치인이자 공학자로 2019년 1월 5일부터 베네수엘라 국회의장을 지내고 있다. 중도좌파 사회민주주의 정당인 인민의지당 소속으로, 현재 바르가스 주의 의원을 역임하고 있다. 과이도는 니콜라스 마두로가 베네수엘라의 대통령으로 1월 10일에 취임하자 1월 23일에 본인이 베네수엘라의 임시 대통령임을 선언했다. 2022년 12월 30일에 정의제일당을 포함한 3개의 야당이 주재하는 의회에서 과이드를 잠정 대통령으로부터 해임받는 결의가 가결되었기 때문에 완전히 잠정 대통령의 지위를 잃었다. 생애 과이도는 비행사와 교사였던 중산층 부모님 아래에서 여덟 명의 자녀 가운데 한 명으로 태어났다. 과이도의 할아버지 가운데 한 명은 베네수엘라 국가 헌병대 하사였으며, 다른 한 명은 베네수엘라 해군 대령이었다. 1999년 바르가스 주에서 일어난 돌발홍수와 토석류로 피해를 입어 일시적으로 집 없는 생활을 했으며, 2000년에 고등학교를 졸업했다. 동료들의 주장에 따르면, 홍수로 피해를 입었을 때 당시 새 대통령이었던 우고 차베스가 무책임한 반응을 보인 것이 그의 정치적 견해에 영향을 미쳤다. 과이도는 2007년 안드레스 베요 가톨릭 대학교에서 산업공학을 전공했고, 미국의 조지 워싱턴 대학교 대학원과 베네수엘라의 고등 행정 학교에서 공부했다. 정치 행동 과이도는 베네수엘라 정부가 독립 텔레비전 네트워크였던 RCTV의 방송 허가증을 갱신하지 않기로 결정했을 때 학생들이 주도해 일으켰던 시위에 참가했다. 또한 시위에 참가했던 이들은 2007년에 우고 차베스가 제안한 개헌안에 반대하는 시위를 벌였고, 개헌안 국민 투표는 부결됐다. 과이도는 2009년에 인민의지당의 창당 당원이 됐다. 2014년에는 인민의지당의 국민 조정관이 됐다. 의원 과이도는 2010년 의원 선거에서 대체 의원으로 뽑혔고, 2015년 의원 선거에서 26%의 득표율로 의원으로 당선됐다. 2017년 과이도는 감사위원회 위원장이 됐고, 2018년에는 야당 지도자가 됐다. 과이도는 베네수엘라 국회에서 니콜라스 마두로 행정부와 관련된 부패를 조사했고, 2017년 베네수엘라 반정부 시위에 참가했다가 고무탄에 맞아 목에 상처를 입었다. 국회의장 과이도는 2018년 12월에 베네수엘라 국회의 의장으로 뽑혔고 2019년 1월 5일에 취임했다. 취임식에는 구금된 정치인들의 친지들이 초청받았고, 반정부 시위를 이끌었던 후안 레케센스의 현수막 뒤의 난간에 모여 참석했다. 1월 19일에 베네수엘라 국회는 니콜라스 마두로 행정부의 은행 계좌를 동결시키는 것을 요청하기 위해 외국과 협력하는 법안을 승인했다. 일부 라틴 아메리카의 지도자들은 니콜라스 마두로에게 권력을 내려놓을 것을 제안했다. 과이도는 1월 25일에 니콜라스 마두로가 권력을 내려놓는다면 사면을 고려할 것이라고 말했다. 임시 대통령 선언 베네수엘라의 헌법 제233조에 따르면, 대통령직이 공석일 경우 새 대통령을 뽑기 전까지 국회의장이 임시로 대통령직을 맡는다. 과이도는 2019년 1월 10일에 니콜라스 마두로가 베네수엘라의 대통령으로 취임한 것이 불법이라고 주장하며 니콜라스 마두로의 대통령직에 맞설 것이라고 밝혔고, 국회는 과이도가 대통령의 권력과 직무를 맡았으며 국회는 니콜라스 마두로를 퇴진시킬 계획을 이어나갈 것이라고 밝혔다. 베네수엘라의 외무부 장관 호르헤 아레아사는 베네수엘라에서 과이도를 아는 사람은 아무도 없는데도 미국은 과이도를 부추기며 스스로가 새 대통령이라고 말하라고 하고 있다고 반응했다. 1월 13일 과이도는 라과이라에서 열린 정치 집회에 참가했으나 베네수엘라의 정보기관인 볼리바르 국가정보원의 요원들이 그를 가로막고 구금했다. 과이도는 45분 뒤에 풀려났다. 리마 그룹과 미주 기구는 해당 행위를 비판했다. 베네수엘라 정부는 일부 볼리바르 국가정보원 관계자들이 일방적으로 행동한 것이며 구속 영장은 볼리바르 국가정보원의 국장에게 발부된 것이라고 했다. 이 사건과 관련해서 열두 명의 볼리바르 국가정보원 요원들이 체포돼 불법 구금과 직권 남용 혐의로 구금됐다. 2019년 1월 23일 과이도는 스스로 임시 대통령임을 선언했다. 과이도는 《워싱턴 포스트》에 논평을 내고 베네수엘라의 상황을 묘사하고 분석했으며, 법치주의를 복구하고 권력 분립과 자유로운 선거를 통해 위기 사태를 개선할 것이라고 밝혔다. 다만 아직 니콜라스 마두로가 퇴출당하지 않고 있는 이유는 여러 가지인데 첫 번째로, 베네수엘라군이 마두로의 개인 사병화(私兵化) 되어있기 때문이다. 베네수엘라군 장성급 장교들은 후안 과이도가 아닌 니콜라스 마두로를 지지하고 있다. 두 번째는 베네수엘라의 다수를 점하는 빈곤층 다수가 아직 니콜라스 마두로를 지지하고 있기 때문이다. 세 번째는 우고 차베스 재임 기간에 양성된 베네수엘라 민병대가 니콜라스 마두로를 지지하으며, 그들의 수는 아직 수십만을 헤아리기 때문이다. 국제 사회의 인정 다음 나라들은 과이도를 베네수엘라의 임시 대통령으로 인정했다. 유럽 연합은 과이도를 베네수엘라의 대통령으로 인정하는 것을 삼가는 대신, 민주적으로 선출된 베네수엘라 국회를 전적으로 지지하며 국회의장인 과이도를 포함한 베네수엘라 국회의원들의 시민권과 자유, 안전이 전적으로 보장돼야 할 것이라고 2019년 1월 23일에 밝혔다. 다음 나라들은 베네수엘라 국회를 지지한다고 밝혔다. 역대 선거 결과 각주 내용주 참조주 외부 링크 1983년 출생 살아있는 사람 베네수엘라의 정치인 조지 워싱턴 대학교 동문 바르가스주 출신 라과이라 출신

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20Guaid%C3%B3

Juan Guaidó

Juan Gerardo Guaidó Márquez (born 28 July 1983) is a Venezuelan politician. He was a member of the social-democratic party Popular Will, and federal deputy to the National Assembly representing the state of Vargas. On 23 January 2019, Guaidó and the National Assembly declared that he was acting president of Venezuela (), starting the Venezuelan presidential crisis by challenging Nicolás Maduro's presidency. In December 2022, opposition parties voted to dismiss Guaidó as interim president, choosing Dinorah Figuera as a successor on 5 January 2023 and ending Guaidó's presidential claim. Guaidó's political career began when he emerged as a student leader in the 2007 Venezuelan protests. He then helped found the Popular Will party with Leopoldo López in 2009, and was elected to be an alternate deputy in the National Assembly one year later in 2010. In 2015, Guaidó was elected as a full-seat deputy. Following a protocol to annually rotate the position of President of the National Assembly among political parties, Popular Will nominated Guaidó for the position in 2019. Guaidó was a key figure in the Venezuelan presidential crisis, which began when the National Assembly, considering the 2018 Venezuelan presidential election illegitimate, refused to recognize the inauguration of Maduro to a second presidential term on 10 January 2019. Guaidó announced, on 23 January 2019, that he was formally assuming the role of interim president under Article 233 of the Constitution of Venezuela, with the backing of the National Assembly, until free elections could be held. At one point Guaidó received formal recognition of legitimacy from almost 60 governments worldwide, including the United States, Canada and various Latin American and European countries, although the European Union stopped recognizing his presidency on 6 January 2021. Following the 5 January dissolution of Guaidó's interim government, the United States confirmed that it stopped its recognition. Other nations, including Russia, China, Iran, Syria, Cuba and Turkey consistently rejected his claim to the presidency and continued to recognize Maduro as the legitimate president without interruption. Guaidó failed to remove Maduro from power. The Maduro administration has frozen Guaidó's Venezuelan assets, has launched a probe accusing Guaidó of foreign interference, and has threatened violence against him. In April 2019, Guaidó called for an uprising against Maduro as part of "Operation Freedom", which ultimately failed. Following the failed uprising, representatives of Guaidó and Maduro began mediation, with the assistance of the Norwegian Centre for Conflict Resolution. In January 2020, security forces prevented Guaidó and other congress members from entering the legislative palace during an internal election to choose the board of directors. A majority of lawmakers held an "emergency meeting" and voted to re-elect Guaidó as their leader, while the remaining lawmakers at the legislative palace elected Luis Parra. Security forces denied Guaidó and opposition lawmakers access to parliament many times since. After the announcement of regional elections in 2021, Guaidó announced a "national salvation agreement" and proposed negotiation with Maduro with a schedule for free and fair elections, with international support and observers, in exchange for lifting international sanctions. Domestically, Guaidó's actions included a proposed Plan País (Country Plan), an amnesty law for military personnel and authorities who turn against the Maduro government, attempts to deliver humanitarian aid to the country, and social bonuses for health workers during COVID-19 pandemic. Internationally, Guaidó gained control of some Venezuelan assets and property in the United States, had success in a legal battle for control of £1.3 billion of Venezuelan gold reserves in the United Kingdom, and appointed diplomats which had been recognized by supportive governments. In December 2022, three of the four main opposition political parties (Justice First, Democratic Action, and A New Era) backed and approved a reform to dissolve the interim government and create a commission of five members to manage foreign assets, as deputies sought a united strategy ahead of the next Venezuelan presidential election scheduled for 2024, stating that the interim government had failed to achieve the goals it had set. The New York Times reported that the actions from the opposition to remove Guaidó as their leader, signified that they have lost faith in "Guaidó's ability to oust President Nicolás Maduro". In April 2023 he fled to the United States citing fears of his arrest, living in exile in Miami, Florida. On 6 October 2023, the Maduro administration charged Guaidó with money laundering, treason, and usurping public functions, issued an arrest warrant and asked the international community to cooperate with an arrest of Guaidó, requesting a red notice be issued by Interpol. Guaidó has denied the charges made against him in the arrest warrant. Early life and education Guaidó was born on 28 July 1983. Part of a large family, he was raised in a middle-class home in the outskirts of La Guaira; his parents are Wilmer and Norka. His father was an airline pilot and his mother, a teacher. One grandfather was a sergeant of the Venezuelan National Guard while another grandfather was a captain in the Venezuelan Navy. His parents divorced when he was at a young age, with his father emigrating to the Canary Islands and working as a taxi driver. Guaidó lived through the 1999 Vargas tragedy, a series of mudslides in his home state, which killed some of his friends while also destroying his school and home, leaving him and his family homeless. The mudslide and its response, which he cites regularly in speeches, influenced his political views; colleagues say that the "feckless" response of the then-new government of Hugo Chávez is what drove him to activism. He and his family stayed in a makeshift home in Caracas where he earned his high school diploma in 2000. Guaidó would continue to live in Caracas where he would earn his undergraduate degree in 2007 in industrial engineering from Andrés Bello Catholic University, working at Compu Mall, a Venezuelan chain of computer and electronics stores, to pay for his studies. He also participated in two postgraduate programs of public administration in Caracas: at the UCAB with the partnership of the George Washington University and at the Instituto de Estudios Superiores de Administración (IESA). Activism Guaidó stated, after "it became clear that under Chávez the country was drifting toward totalitarianism," he was part of the student-led political movement that protested the Venezuelan government's decision to shut down the independent television network RCTV with other prominent student leaders in 2007—the year he graduated from Andrés Bello Catholic University. They also protested broader attempted government reforms by Chávez, including the 2007 constitutional referendum, which Chávez lost. Along with Leopoldo López and other politicians, Guaidó was a founding member of the Popular Will political party in 2009; the party is affiliated with Socialist International. By 2014, Guaidó was the party's national coordinator. López, one of Venezuela's main opposition politicians, "mentored Guaidó for years" according to a January 2019 CNN report, and the two spoke several times daily. As Lopez's protégé, Guaidó was well known in his party and the National Assembly, but not internationally; López named Guaidó to lead the Popular Will party in 2019. National Assembly In the 2010 Venezuelan parliamentary election, Guaidó was elected as an alternate national deputy. He was one of several politicians who went on a hunger strike to demand parliamentary elections in 2015 and was elected to a full-seat in the National Assembly in the 2015 elections with 26% of the vote. Vargas, an impoverished area, was home to many state-run companies that employed the majority of the population; until Guaidó's 2015 election, chavista candidates had run unchallenged. In 2017, he was named head of the Comptroller's Commission of the National Assembly and in 2018, he was named head of the legislature's opposition. He contributed to research at the University of Arizona, giving testimony to analysts on the working conditions of Latin American politicians and, specifically, institutional crisis and political change. In the National Assembly, Guaidó investigated corruption cases involving the Maduro administration, and worked with independent organizations to recover money allegedly stolen from the Venezuelan public. He participated in the 2017 Venezuelan protests, where one time security forces fractured his arm and he was shot with rubber bullets, which he has stated left scars on his neck. In January 2018 he was sworn in as the Leader of the Majority in the National Assembly. President of the National Assembly A rotating presidency of the National Assembly of Venezuela agreement resulted with Popular Will attaining leadership and due to the party's head officials being imprisoned or exiled, Guaidó was chosen as president in December 2018 by the Assembly, and was sworn in on 5 January 2019. Relatives of imprisoned politicians were invited to the inauguration. At 35, Guaidó was the youngest to have led the opposition. Shortly after assuming the presidency of the legislature, Guaidó began advocating for a law to form a transitional government. Two politicians were primarily responsible for the strategy that brought Guaidó to prominence: Julio Borges (in exile) and Leopoldo López (under house arrest). The plan was developed after the failed 2017 negotiations during the Venezuelan crisis between representatives of chavismo and the opposition, and that took more than a year to develop. Ricardo Hausmann and politicians from different political parties were also involved. Borges was involved in external efforts, such as with the Lima Group, along with Antonio Ledezma and Carlos Vecchio, who operated in the United States; María Corina Machado and López operated in Venezuela. David Smolansky and Freddy Guevara also supported Guaidó, along with Henrique Capriles, who had initially been distant. Javier Corrales, professor and author, stated that Guaidó's rise as a presidential figure began within Venezuela, not by foreign pressure. López and Guaidó contacted the United States Department of State, presenting a plan to declare Guaidó interim president and that the United States could lead other nations to support his recognition in order to remove Maduro; United States Secretary of State Mike Pompeo supported the plan. López and Guaidó promoted this initiative to the United States without the knowledge of the National Assembly, according to Neuman. Upon taking office, Guaidó vowed to oppose Maduro, and elaborated an action plan. The plan, approved by the National Assembly, comprised three phases (end of usurpation, transitional government, and free elections), with eight key points. Detention and release While on his way to a 13 January 2019 public assembly, Guaidó was briefly detained by members of the Bolivarian Intelligence Service (SEBIN), and released 45 minutes later. The Lima Group and the Secretary General of the Organization of American States (OAS), Luis Almagro, condemned the act. The Maduro government said the detention was carried out unilaterally by the SEBIN personnel, and twelve SEBIN officials were charged for their actions. Guaidó declared that the events demonstrated that there was a break in the chain of command in the Armed Forces, and that Maduro was not in control. Re-election The 2020 Venezuelan National Assembly Delegated Committee election of 5 January, to elect the Board of Directors of the National Assembly, was disrupted; there were two claims for the presidency of the National Assembly, by Guaidó and Luis Parra, an independent legislator. Parra was formerly a member of Justice First, but was expelled from the party on 20 December 2019 based on corruption allegations, which he denied. Parra declared himself president of the National Assembly – a move that was welcomed by the Maduro administration. The opposition disputed this outcome, saying that quorum had not been achieved and no votes had been counted. Police forces had blocked access to parliament to some opposition members, including Guaidó, and members of the media. Later in the day, a separate session was carried out at the headquarters of El Nacional newspaper, where 100 of the 167 deputies voted to re-elect Guaidó as president of the parliament. In his speech, Guaidó announced his resignation from Popular Will. Guaidó was sworn in on 7 January after forcing his way in through police barricades. On the same day, Parra reiterated his claim to the presidency of the parliament. Claim to presidency Swearing-in After what he and critics of the Maduro administration described as the "illegitimate" inauguration of Maduro on 10 January 2019, Guaidó challenged Maduro's claim to the presidency. The National Assembly declared Guaidó was willing to assume the responsibilities of the presidency. They called for demonstrations on 23 January, the 61st anniversary of the overthrow of dictator Marcos Pérez Jiménez. Prior to Guaidó's declaration, Vice President of the United States Mike Pence called Guaidó on 22 January and told him that the United States would support his initiative. On 23 January, Guaidó declared he assumed the functions as acting president and took the presidential oath at a rally in Caracas. Within minutes of Guaidó's swearing-in, the United States recognized him as president, followed shortly thereafter by Canada and other Latin American and European countries; Russia, China, Iran, Syria, Cuba and Turkey supported Maduro. Maduro accused the United States of backing a coup and said he would cut ties with the country. Guaidó denied the coup allegations, saying peaceful volunteers backed his movement. In December 2018, Guaidó had traveled to Washington, D.C., where he met with OAS Secretary General Luis Almagro, and then on 14 January to Colombia for a Lima Group meeting, in which Maduro's mandate was rejected. The fragmented opposition later unified around Guaidó. Spanish newspaper El País described U.S. president Donald Trump's election—coinciding with the election of conservative presidents in Colombia and Brazil, along with deteriorating conditions in Venezuela—as "a perfect storm," influenced by hawks in the Trump administration. Opposition members Carlos Vecchio, Julio Borges and Gustavo Tarre were consulted, and the Trump administration decision to back Guaidó formed on 22 January, according to El Pais. U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, National Security Adviser John R. Bolton, Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin and others met with Trump that day, and Vice President Mike Pence called Guaidó that night to express U.S. support, according to The Wall Street Journal. According to El País, the January Lima Group meeting and the stance taken by Canada, represented by Chrystia Freeland, were key factors leading Donald Trump, known for being an isolationist, to become involved in Venezuela. The Supreme Tribunal of Justice (TSJ) rejected the National Assembly's decisions, while the Supreme Tribunal of Justice of Venezuela in exile welcomed Guaidó as acting president. On 29 January 2019, the TSJ launched a probe of Guaidó, froze his assets, and prohibited him from leaving the country. According to Special Rapporteur on the Independence of Judges and Lawyers for the United Nations Diego García Sayán, the measures were "not adopted in accordance with constitutional requirements, normal legal procedures and international human rights standards." As of 1 April 2021, Guaidó was no longer recognized as Venezuela's rightful President by the European Union's 27 member-states after he lost his position as head of parliament. Although the United States and the United Kingdom continued to recognize him as the legitimate leader of Venezuela in 2021, the United States stopped recognizing Guaidó in January 2023 when the opposition party vote to dissolve Guaidó's interim government took effect. Personnel According to El País, Guaidó had help, along with National Assembly vice-presidents Stalin González and Edgar Zambrano, from young representatives of several political parties: Miguel Pizarro for humanitarian aid, Carlos Paparoni heading a Finance Commission, and Marialbert Barrios working with embassies. Delsa Solórzano worked with Luisa Ortega Díaz on the Amnesty Law. David Smolansky was the OAS coordinator for the Venezuelan Migrant and Refugee crisis. Carlos Vecchio was accepted by Pompeo as the Guaidó administration's diplomatic envoy to the US. Julio Borges was named to represent Venezuela in the Lima Group. The National Assembly made more than a dozen other diplomatic appointments, including Elisa Trotta Gamus to Argentina, María Teresa Belandria to Brazil, and Humberto Calderón Berti to Colombia. Diplomats to Europe and the Dominican Republic were named on 19 February. Gustavo Tarre Briceño was named Venezuela's Permanent Representative to the Organization of American States (OAS) on 29 January 2019, and ratified by the National Assembly according to the constitution. On 9 April, the OAS voted 18 to 9, with six abstentions, to accept Tarre Briceño as the ambassador from Venezuela. Maduro's Foreign Ministry called Tarre a "political usurper." The nomination was accepted 20 days before the deadline on Venezuela leaving the union, after they triggered the process in 2017, suggesting that the nation will remain in the OAS against the wishes of the Maduro administration. Venezuela's previous ambassador voted against Tarre. According to The Washington Post, the OAS vote undermined Maduro's presence internationally and marked a step in the official recognition of Guaidó's government. The National Assembly authorized Guaidó's appointment of a new ad hoc directors board of Petróleos de Venezuela (PDVSA), of Citgo, Pdvsa Holding Inc, Citgo Holding Inc. and Citgo Petroleum Corporation. The appointed members of PDVSA were Simón Antúnez, Gustavo J. Velasquez, Carlos José Balza, Ricardo Prada and David Smolansky. Likewise, the appointed members of Citgo Holding and Citgo Petroleum Corporation were Luisa Palacios, Edgar Rincón, Luis Urdaneta, Ángel Olmeta, Andrés Padilla and Rick Esser. With Citgo under the control of Guaidó's administration, the US Department of Treasury extended its license to operate in spite of US sanctions. Guaidó named José Ignacio Hernández as special solicitor, making Hernández the first official named with state power. Ricardo Hausmann was named as Venezuela's representative to the Inter-American Development Bank, who recognized Hausmann as a replacement for Maduro's representative. The Maduro administration's prosecutor general, Tarek William Saab, said the "appointments by Guaidó and his National Assembly are part of an illegal power grab backed by foreign governments" and opened a probe into the ambassador and oil industry appointees; a magistrate of "Venezuela's pro-Maduro Supreme Court later read a statement ... nullifying the appointments and accusing the National Assembly of overstepping its constitutional powers." Arrest attempt On 12 July 2021, Special Action Forces (FAES) officials went to Guaidó's residence and besieged him for twenty minutes in the building's garage, and used explosives against him as Guaidó took refuge in an armored vehicle. The intended arrest was foiled due to the vehicle and his neighbors and supporters, who opposed Guaidó's detention. Guaidó said that the officers did not identify themselves nor did they show any judicial order. On the same day, former deputy Freddy Guevara was detained while he was driving his vehicle. Interim government dismissal After a preliminary vote on 22 December 2022 to remove the interim government, on 30 December 2022, three of the four main political parties (Justice First, Democratic Action and A New Era) backed a reform of the Statute Governing the Transition to Democracy to dissolve the interim government and create a commission of five members to manage foreign assets, stating that the interim government had failed to achieve the goals it had set. The amendment was voted by the opposition National Assembly as deputies sought a united strategy ahead of the presidential elections scheduled for 2024. The reform was approved with 72 votes in favor, 29 against and 8 abstentions. Domestic affairs In a 30 January 2019 New York Times editorial, Guaidó stated that Venezuela had "one of the highest homicide rates in the world", prompting the "largest exodus in Latin American history" and that "Under Mr. Maduro at least 240 Venezuelans have been murdered at marches, and there are 600 political prisoners." His response to these problems was three-fold: restore the democratic National Assembly, gain international support, and allow for the people's right to self-determination. Amnesty law On 25 January 2019, Guaidó offered the Amnesty Law () approved by the National Assembly, for military personnel and authorities who help unseat Maduro. He suggested that if Maduro gave up power, he may receive amnesty. He held a public assembly, asking supporters to disseminate the Amnesty Law throughout the country to military, police and other functionaries. On 30 January, demonstrators took to the streets across the country to encourage the military to allow humanitarian aid and reject Maduro. Maduro also held meetings with the military; top military command remained loyal to Maduro as of February 2019. In a 30 January editorial published by The New York Times, Guaidó explained that the law would only apply to individuals who were not found to have committed crimes against humanity. According to Colombian immigration authorities, as of 24 April 2019, about 1,400 Venezuelan military personnel had broken ranks and crossed the border into Colombia since the border clashes began on 23 February, in addition to 60 that crossed into Brazil, according to the Brazilian Army. Elections Guaidó told CNN in February 2019 that he would call elections 30 days after Maduro left power. He did not state if he would run for president when elections occur, but said discussing running for president was "premature". The Statute Governing the Transition to Democracy to Re-establish the Validity of the Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela () was approved on 5 February, and the National Assembly second vice-president Stalin González announced that a commission to set a route towards elections was established on 6 March 2019. Finance and economy Guaidó asked the Bank of England and British Prime Minister Theresa May not to return to the Maduro administration the £1.2 billion in gold reserves the UK holds for Venezuela, and to allow the opposition to access it instead. In the same week, the US Treasury levied sanctions against PDVSA and transferred control of some Venezuelan assets to Guaidó. Guaidó said the Maduro administration was attempting to move some of the country's assets to Uruguay, "to keep stealing from the people of Venezuela." On 5 February, Paparoni announced that the transfer from Portugal to Uruguay had been stopped. Guaidó sought to open up the economy by allowing foreign, private oil companies greater participation in ventures with PDVSA by dropping the requirement for 51% PDVSA ownership in joint ventures. Pledging to honor "legal" and "financial" debt, Carlos Vecchio said that agreements in which Venezuela pays debt with oil (signed by the Maduro administration) might not be honored. Humanitarian aid In a Euronews interview, Guaidó said that hospitals in Venezuela lacked basic supplies and that "children were dying due to malnutrition." He made bringing humanitarian aid to Venezuelans who could die if aid does not arrive a priority, and a test of the military's allegiance. The day after assuming the acting presidency, Guaidó requested humanitarian aid for Venezuela from the US and from the United Nations. He said Venezuela's neighbors, in a "global coalition to send aid to Venezuela", would help get humanitarian aid and medicine into the country; products would be shipped to neighboring ports and brought overland via convoys. He said that the 250,000 people whose lives were in danger would be the recipients of the first phase of the effort. He traveled to Cúcuta on 22 February to be present as the aid entered Colombia; Maduro administration security forces clashed with demonstrators and blocked the aid from entering. The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies announced in March 2019 that the Red Cross was preparing to bring humanitarian aid to the country in April to help ease both the chronic hunger and the medical crisis. The Wall Street Journal said that the acceptance of humanitarian shipments by Maduro was his first acknowledgement that Venezuela is "suffering from an economic collapse." Guaidó said the acceptance of humanitarian aid was the "result of our pressure and insistence", and called on Venezuelans to "stay vigilant to make sure incoming aid is not diverted for 'corrupt' purposes". Following the joint report from Human Rights Watch and Johns Hopkins in April 2019, increasing announcements from the United Nations about the scale of the humanitarian crisis, and the softening of Maduro's position on receiving aid, the Red Cross tripled its budget for aid to Venezuela. Media On 23 April 2019, Guaidó named Alberto Federico Ravell, former CEO and co-founder of the news channel Globovisión, as his spokesman and director of the National Center of Communications of Venezuela, Guaidó's information and media board. In January 2020, Guaidó announced the appointment of an ad hoc directors board of the National Commission of Telecommunications (CONATEL), saying that "Telesur will no longer be a propaganda tool of the regime." Plan País Guaidó announced on 31 January at the Central University of Venezuela that the National Assembly had approved a commission to implement a plan for the reconstruction of Venezuela. Called Plan País (Plan for the Country), it had been under elaboration for some time, and was initially developed through a series of public and private meetings in the US and Venezuela. According to Guaidó, the aims of the plan were to "stabilize the economy, attend to the humanitarian emergency immediately, rescue public services, and overcome poverty." It had provisions to revitalize PDVSA, restore the health sector, and offer assistance to the most poverty-stricken. Implementation of the plan required Maduro's exit. Plans to oust Maduro Operation Freedom Guaidó announced he would embark on a tour of the country beginning 16 March to organize committees for Operación Libertad (trans. Operation Freedom or Operation Liberty) with the goal to claim the presidential residence, Miraflores Palace. As part of the ongoing tour, he visited Petare, regarded as one of the world's largest slums, on 12 April. In an open assembly celebrating the anniversary of the 19 April 1810 date when the Venezuelan Independence Movement began, Guaidó offered the example that organized protests in Sudan led to the replacement of Omar al-Bashir, and called for "the greatest march" in history on 1 May, to "once and for all end this tragedy". Coinciding with his speech, NetBlocks stated that state-run CANTV again blocked access to social media in Venezuela. On 30 April, Guaidó live-streamed a video of himself beside opposition leader Leopoldo López, freed from house arrest after being imprisoned for five years, with the two flanked by members of the Venezuelan armed forces, announcing the "final phase" of Operation Freedom. He stated: "People of Venezuela, it is necessary that we go out together to the street, to support the democratic forces and to recover our freedom. Organized and together, mobilize the main military units. People of Caracas, all to La Carlota." The Associated Press reported that López "had been released from house arrest by security forces adhering to an order from Guaidó." Several dozen military personnel and civilians joined Guaidó in his call for an uprising. The head of the Bolivarian Intelligence Service, Manuel Cristopher Figuera, denounced the Maduro government and was dismissed from his position before going into hiding. Expected military defections did not happen. By the end of the day, one protester had died and at least 100 were injured; López was at the Spanish embassy, while 25 military personnel sought asylum in the Brazilian embassy in Caracas. On 1 May, Guaidó's call for the largest march in history did not materialize and his supporters were forced to retreat by security forces using tear gas. Guaidó acknowledged he had received insufficient military backing, and called for strikes beginning on 2 May, with the aim of a general strike later in May. Guaidó's support began to drop following the incident. In the Miami Herald, Jim Wyss wrote that the "failed military uprising and a spate of violent but fruitless demonstrations have some wondering if Guaido, and the opposition at large, have what it takes to oust Maduro." Strategic Committee According to a report by The Washington Post, in August 2019 Guaidó tasked J.J. Rendón and a committee to investigate scenarios for achieving the removal of Maduro. Members of the Strategic Committee argued that the Venezuelan Constitution, the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, and other treaties justified action against Maduro. Rendón stated that the Strategic Committee had contacted numerous groups about removing Maduro from office, but they demanded payments up to US$500 million. He then made contact with Jordan Goudreau, owner of Silvercorp USA, where Goudreau presented an offer for the capture or extraction of Maduro from Venezuela for US$212.9 million. Rendón signed an agreement in Washington, D.C., on behalf of the Guaidó government with Silvercorp on 16 October 2019. An amount of US$1.5 million was later demanded by Goudreau to initiate "Operation Resolution". Guaidó representatives ultimately removed themselves from Goudreau's proposal. Goudreau was later responsible for the foiled 3–4 May 2020 Venezuelan Operation Gideon. Following the raid, Guaido's team initially said they had "no relationship with any company in the security and defense branch"; Rendón later admitted that an "exploratory agreement" with Silvercorp had been signed to seek the capture of members of Maduro's government. When interviewed by BBC Mundo, risk consultant Dimitris Pantoulas, and head of the Datanálisis consultant firm Luis Vicente León agreed that Guaidó's reputation was damaged due to the incident, with León stating "the opposition seems to have exhausted the routes". In an analysis for the Council on Hemispheric Affairs, Patricio Zamorano wrote that the event demonstrated that "Guaidó is politically immature and inept", that such scandals had "led to a significant withering of his support" and that Guaidó was willing to resort to violence to remove Maduro from power. Dialogue with Maduro In response to calls from Mexico, Uruguay, and CARICOM for negotiations, Guaidó said that the National Assembly would not participate in dialogue with Maduro, on the grounds that negotiations had already been attempted, "within and outside of Venezuela, in private and in public, alone and with international companions." Guaidó said that the result of all previous negotiations was more repression, with Maduro taking advantage of the process to strengthen his position. Offering as examples Leopoldo López, the detention of Juan Requesens, Julio Borges (in exile) and others, he said that if Maduro really wanted dialogue, he would release political prisoners. He asked Uruguay and Mexico to join him. Guaidó characterized Uruguay as failing to defend democracy, saying that Uruguay's stance was surprising given Venezuela has 300,000 starving people at risk of dying. After Maduro wrote to Pope Francis, asking for assistance with negotiations, Guaidó refused the Vatican's offer to mediate, calling the attempt a "false dialogue," and saying that by mediating, the Vatican would assist those who "refused to see the Venezuelan reality." Guaidó said that Maduro did not respect conditions of 2016 negotiations, and suggested the Pope should encourage Maduro to allow an orderly transition of power. Corriere della Sera cited a 7 February 2019 reply from Pope Francis addressed to "Mr. Maduro," in which Pope Francis also stated that what had been agreed in earlier negotiations (open a channel for humanitarian aid, hold free elections, free political prisoners, and re-establish the constitutionally-elected National Assembly) had not been followed, and that he would back only constructive dialogue "when all conflicting parties put the common good above any other interest." Following the failed uprising, representatives of Guaidó and Maduro began mediation, with the assistance of the Norwegian Centre for Conflict Resolution. Jorge Rodríguez and Héctor Rodríguez Castro served as representatives for Maduro while and Stalin González were representatives for Guaidó. Guaidó confirmed that there was an envoy in Norway, but said that the opposition would not take part in false negotiations. After the second meeting in Norway, no deal was reached. On 9 July 2019 negotiations started in Barbados with representatives of Maduro and Guaidó. Several theories arose from the negotiations, including potential elections agreed upon between the government and the opposition, having Héctor Rodríguez as the main government candidate. On 15 September, Guaidó announced that the opposition concluded the dialogue after the absence of the government in the negotiations for forty days as a protest to the recent sanctions by the United States. In February 2020, the coordinator of the Lima Group, Hugo de Zela, announced that Argentina, Canada and Peru were attempting to negotiate with the Cuban government to find a solution to the crisis. In late March 2020, the United States relaxed its position and proposed a transitional government that would exclude both Maduro and Guaidó from the presidency. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo said that sanctions did not apply to humanitarian aid during the coronavirus pandemic health emergency and that the United States would lift all sanctions if Maduro agreed to organize elections that did not include himself in a period of six to twelve months. The deal would enforce a power-sharing scenario between the different government factions. Elections would have to be held within the year, and all foreign militaries would have to leave the country. The US was still seeking Maduro's arrest at the time of the announcement. Other aspects of the US deal would include releasing all political prisoners and setting up a five-person council to lead the country; two members each chosen by Maduro and Guaidó would sit on the council, with the last member selected by the four. The EU also agreed to remove sanctions if the deal went ahead. Guaidó accepted the proposal, while Venezuela's foreign minister, Jorge Arreaza, rejected it and declared that only parliamentary elections would take place that year. Reuters reported that during the COVID-19 pandemic, allies of both Maduro and Guaidó had secretly begun exploratory talks, according to sources on both sides. Guaidó and U.S. Special Representative for Venezuela Elliott Abrams denied that negotiations had taken place. After the announcement of regional elections in 2021, Guaidó announced a "national salvation agreement" and proposed the negotiation with Maduro with a schedule for free and fair elections, with international support and observers, in exchange for lifting international sanctions. On 5 August 2021, Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador announced that Mexico would host negotiations talks between Maduro and the opposition, including Guaidó, who stated that he would push for guarantees for what he called free and fair elections. Foreign affairs Guaidó said there was room for long-term Chávez/Maduro allies such as Russia and China in Venezuela, adding that legal security under a new plan for the country would benefit all businesses, including theirs. He approached China to establish diplomatic ties, stating "China's support will be very important in boosting our country's economy and future development." According to Euronews, he said he had been "working to convince China and Russia that it was in their economic interest to withdraw support from Maduro." Bloomberg published a 14 April editorial from Guaidó, "Why China should switch sides in Venezuela," in which Guaidó appealed to China and stated that it is in China's interest to support a peaceful transition, rule of law, and economic reconstruction in Venezuela. According to CNN, following a long history of Fidel Castro's interest in the country, "Venezuelan oil is the lifeblood of Cuban economy, under a barter system where Cuba receives billions of dollars of crude in exchange for Cuban doctors, teachers, sports trainers, and military and intelligence advisers." Guaidó vowed that Cuban influence in Venezuela would end. Referring to Cubans as "brothers," he said that Cuban individuals are welcome to stay in the country, but not in decision-making positions, and not in the armed forces. On 12 March 2019, the National Assembly voted to cut Venezuela's oil supply to Cuba, which would save about US$2.6 million daily, according to Guaidó, who asked other nations to help implement the measure. Guaidó sought restored relations with Israel; Chávez had severed relations with Israel more than ten years prior, favoring support for Palestine during Operation Cast Lead. Guaidó has supported Venezuela's sovereignty claim of Guayana Esequiba throughout his political career. In June 2019, the United Nations reported that four million Venezuelans had left the country, many without a valid passport. Associated Press has reported that getting an extension is an expensive and lengthy ordeal for many Venezuelans. The National Assembly decided accordingly to release a decree, signed by Guaidó, to extend Venezuelan passports' lifespan. The decision was accepted by the United States and Canada, which recognized the validity of the Venezuelan passports for five years beyond the printed expiration date. In September 2019, Guaidó announced the designation as terrorist organizations of Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), National Liberation Army (ELN), Hamas, Hezbollah, and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS/ISIL), ordering all state security forces to protect "our sovereignty and territorial integrity" against the threat posed by these groups. Following an American airstrike that killed Iranian Quds Force Commander Qasem Soleimani in January 2020, Guaidó said that Soleimani "led a criminal and terrorist structure in Iran that for years caused pain to his people and destabilized the Middle East, just as Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis did with Hezbollah." Guaidó also accused Nicolás Maduro of allowing him and his Quds Forces to incorporate their sanctioned banks and their companies in Venezuela. Diplomatic officials As of July 2019, the National Assembly had approved Juan Guaidó's appointment has named 37 ambassadors and foreign representatives to international organizations and nations abroad. On 9 April, the OAS voted 18 to 9, with six abstentions, to accept Guaidó's envoy, Gustavo Tarre Briceño, as the ambassador from Venezuela until new elections can be held. The permanent council approved a text stating that "Nicolas Maduro's presidential authority lacks legitimacy and his designations for government posts, therefore, lack the necessary legitimacy." Antigua and Barbuda, Bolivia, Dominica, Grenada, Mexico, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela voted against the change. Maduro's administration responded calling Tarre a "loud-mouth political usurper" and the decision a "criminal and rampant violation of international law and the OAS Charter," saying they do not intend to respect decisions made by Tarre. The nomination was accepted 20 days before the deadline on Venezuela leaving the organization, after they triggered the process in 2017. According to The Washington Post, this acceptance undermined Maduro's presence internationally and marked a step in the official recognition of Guaidó's government. An effort by some OAS member states to remove Guaidó's OAS envoy in October 2022 failed, obtaining a majority but falling short of the two-thirds supermajority required. In January 2020, Guaidó announced that he would appoint diplomatic representatives to Bolivia, El Salvador, and Uruguay. The European Union (EU) announced on 6 January 2021, that it could no longer legally recognize Guaidó as interim president after he lost his position as head of parliament, without recognizing Maduro as the legitimate president. It also threatened new sanctions against the Maduro administration. In January 2022, opposition parties voted to extend Guaidó's term as interim president for another year and to create a committee of opposition lawmakers to take over his management of foreign affairs, as well as to authorize the appointment of ambassadors in opposition allied countries. After the vote, Guaidó's role consisted in "defending democracy" and managing Venezuela's overseas assets, including oil refiner Citgo and $1 billion in gold lodged in the Bank of England. Guaidó required to keep the committee informed of how he had spent funds under his control. In September 2022, Colombian President Gustavo Petro described Guaidó as a "non-existent" president with no control over the country and announced that his government would recognize only the Maduro government. Guaidó criticized Petro's reversal of recognition from the policy of prior Colombian President Iván Duque, saying that Maduro "sheltered world terrorism in Venezuela". Military involvement In an interview with Christiane Amanpour, Guaidó did not rule out accepting support from the US armed forces, but said that pressure was being applied in every other way possible to avoid armed conflict. According to Giancarlo Fiorella, writing in Foreign Affairs, "calls for intervention" are coming from "some members of the Venezuelan opposition and from residents of the country desperate for a solution—any solution—to their years-long plight"; he adds that talk of foreign intervention "has become commonplace" in Venezuela, and that "the push for a military intervention in Venezuela is most intense not among hawks in Washington but inside the country itself." In every demonstration summoned by Guaidó, there are numerous signs demanding the approval of Article 187(11) of the Constitution, which allows the National Assembly to authorize the deployment of foreign missions in Venezuela. A March poll showed 87.5% support for foreign intervention. Guaidó has said he will call for intervention "when the time comes," but in media interviews, he has not stated he supports removing Maduro by force. He has said that the decision "cannot be taken lightly," and has appeared to "temper hopes ... [of] a magical solution to the country's problems," according to Fiorella. Latin American tour Guaidó defied the restriction imposed by the Maduro administration on him leaving Venezuela, and attended Richard Branson's February 2019 Venezuela Live Aid concert in Cúcuta, Colombia, whose purpose was to raise funds and awareness for humanitarian aid to Venezuela. In a move that tested Maduro's authority, Guaidó was met by Colombian president Iván Duque, and welcomed by a crowd chanting, "Juan arrived!" Amid continuing tension, and having failed to get humanitarian aid into Venezuela, Guaidó and US vice president Pence attended a 25 February meeting of the Lima Group in Bogotá. From there, he embarked on a regional tour to meet with the presidents of Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, and Ecuador, and discuss ways to rebuild Venezuela and defeat Maduro. Guaidó's trip was approved by Venezuela's National Assembly, as required by the Constitution of Venezuela. Because he left the country under a travel restriction placed upon him by the Maduro administration, he faced the possibility of being imprisoned upon his return to Venezuela. Maduro said that Guaidó was welcome to return to Venezuela, but would have to face justice in the courts for breaching his travel ban. Guaidó announced that he planned to return to Venezuela despite the threats of imprisonment, and said Maduro's "regime" was "weak, lacking support in Venezuela and international recognition." Guaidó returned to Caracas from Panama via a commercial flight; The Washington Post described his "triumphant return" to "wild cheers from supporters" at Venezuela's main airport at Maiquetía, Vargas state on 4 March. He proceeded from the airport to an anti-government demonstration—organized in advance on social media—in Las Mercedes, Caracas, where he addressed a crowd of thousands, offered a tribute to people who had lost their lives in the border clashes beginning on 23 February, and said that immigration officials had "greeted him at the airport with the words 'welcome, president'." He added: "It is evident that after the threats, somebody did not follow orders. Many did not follow orders. The chain of command [in the government security forces] is broken," according to BBC. Following Guaidó's Latin American tour in February 2019, Elvis Amoroso, comptroller for the Maduro administration, alleged in March that Guaidó had not explained how he paid for the trip, and stated there were inconsistencies between his level of spending and income. Amoroso said that Guaidó's 90 trips abroad had cost $94,000, and that Guaidó had not explained the source of the funds. Based on these alleged financial discrepancies, Amoroso said Guaidó would be barred from running for public office for the maximum time allowed by law—fifteen years. Leopoldo López and Henrique Capriles had been prohibited from holding office by the Maduro administration on similar pretexts. Guaidó responded that "The only body that can appoint a comptroller is the legitimate parliament." The comptroller general is not a judicial body; according to constitutional lawyer José Vicente Haro, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled in 2011, after Leopoldo López was barred from holding office, that an administrative body cannot disallow a public servant from running. Constitutional law expert Juan Manuel Raffalli stated that Article 65 of Venezuela's Constitution provides that such determinations may only be made by criminal courts, after judgment of criminal activity. The decision would also breach Guaidó's parliamentary immunity. Investigation of representatives in Colombia In June 2019, the PanAm Post reported that Guaidó's representatives in Colombia had allegedly used money allocated to pay for defecting soldiers' accommodations for personal purchases, such as "parties and nightclubs." The representatives, Rossana Barrera and Kevin Rojas, are accused of embezzling up to $60,000; both deny the allegations and have not been charged. Guaidó's presidential office dismissed Barrera and Rojas from their positions and requested the cooperation of the Colombian government, multilateral agencies and other organizations to clarify the events with an impartial investigation. The Venezuelan embassy in Colombia issued a statement informing that Guaidó and the appointed ambassador, Humberto Calderón, agreed to carry out an audit. Venezuelan political parties, including Popular Will, Justice First, Democratic Action and A New Era, supported the start of the investigation of the events. Colombian Foreign Minister, Carlos Holmes Trujillo, condemned the reported act of corruption and urged the authorities to advance the investigations to determine if any wrongdoings occurred. According to NPR's Philip Reeves, Guaidó's envoy in Colombia "began looking into this two months ago after being tipped off by Colombian intelligence," leading to "speculation that Guaidó may actually have known about this for a while." Guaidó has declared that the preliminary investigations started two months before the publication of the article. Political views Guaidó was a member of the social-democratic Popular Will, now independent, and although his peers characterize Guaidó as a centrist, Maduro places him on the right of the political spectrum. Regarding politics in the United States, Guaidó stated that he was unfamiliar with the subject but has commented: "What they refer to as socialist in the United States is what we'd call a Social Democrat here." Domestic response While announcing Plan País at the Central University of Venezuela on 31 January, Guaidó said special forces had come to his home and asked for Fabiana, his wife. He then gave a general warning, saying that he would hold anyone who threatened his 20-month-old daughter personally accountable for such actions. Journalists in the place confirmed that FAES officials surrounded his mother-in-law's house in the Baruta municipality and reported that neighbors tried to prevent the security forces from entering. Maduro said Guaidó was a "clown," asking whether he would call elections or continue his "virtual mandate" until he was imprisoned by order of the Supreme Tribunal of Justice. During a speech given at the start of the judicial year, Maduro said that he was considering sending his assistant to kill Guaidó, adding seconds later that the remark was a joke. In a discussion before the Constituent National Assembly, Diosdado Cabello, the body's president, asked how far Guaidó was willing to go, saying that unlike the military, Guaidó had never experienced "the whistle of a bullet" nearby, and did not know "how it feels to have a bullet hit three centimetres from your head." Guaidó responded that "lamentably, the Venezuelan people have had to listen to a lot of whistling in these years," but that "we're not going anywhere" and "we're not afraid." After Guaidó called for protests on 23 January 2019 against Maduro and in favor of "an interim government," the minister for Prison Services, Iris Varela, said that she had picked out a prison cell for Guaidó and asked him to be quick in naming his cabinet so she could prepare prison cells for them as well. In April 2019, Varela called Guaidó "garbage" on Twitter, saying that he assumes the direction of "a criminal gang that grotesquely steals money from the Venezuelan people with the gringos." She also said that warm cell and many years in jail were waiting to pay "for his crimes." On 10 February, Guaidó said that his grandmother-in-law was threatened by colectivos. Guaidó told Euronews: "I am not worried about this costing my life or my freedom. If I give my life to serve the people. We know the risks we face. Our biggest fear is that what's happening in Venezuela becomes normal." The Lima Group has stated that Guaidó and his family face "serious and credible threats" in Venezuela. Colombian Foreign Minister Carlos Holmes Trujillo said that "any violent actions against Guaidó, his wife, or family" would be met by all "legal and political mechanisms." In an interview with the Mexican GQ magazine, Guaidó said that he has been persecuted and has received direct death threats from the Maduro government. On 29 February 2020, colectivos shot at Guaidó and his supporters in Barquisimeto, Lara state, during a demonstration, leaving five injured. During the March 2019 Venezuelan blackouts, Tarek William Saab called for an investigation of Guaidó, saying that he had "sabotaged" the electric sector; Guaidó said that Venezuela's largest-ever power outage was "the product of the inefficiency, the incapability, the corruption of a regime that doesn't care about the lives of Venezuelans." Roberto Marrero, Guaidó's chief of staff, was arrested by SEBIN during a raid on his home in the early morning hours of 21 March. His attorney said he was to be charged with treason, usurpation of functions, and conspiracy. The US had repeatedly warned Maduro not to go after Guaidó; Haaretz reported that the arrest of Guaidó's number-two person was a test of the US. A risk consultant for London's IHS Markit, Diego Moya-Ocampos, said to Bloomberg that "the regime is testing the international community and its repeated warnings against laying a hand on Maduro's rival [Guaidó] ... if they can't touch him, they'll go after those close to him." Nicholas Watson of Teneo Intelligence told The Wall Street Journal that "Marrero's arrest looks like a desperate attempt to break Guaidó's momentum .. The weakness in the regime's position is visible in the fact that arresting Guaidó himself would be seen as a step too far." Guaidó called it a "vile and vulgar kidnapping," adding "Either Nicolas Maduro doesn't dare to arrest me, or he's not the one giving orders." According to The Wall Street Journal, Guaidó said he had received calls from security force officials disclaiming any involvement in the arrest; he replied that they need say no more, per the 2019 Venezuelan Amnesty Law; he said the "incident was indicative of divides within the Maduro regime." On 1 April 2019, TSJ supreme justice Maikel Moreno (a political ally of Maduro) asked that the Constituent National Assembly (ANC) controlled by Chavismo remove Guaidó's parliamentary immunity as president of the National Assembly; that is, he asked that they "strip [him] of immunity from prosecution," which moves the Maduro administration a step closer towards arresting and prosecuting Guaidó. Maduro officials say that "Guaidó is under investigation for inciting violence against the government and receiving illicit funds." Moreno said the request is based upon Guaidó having attended the Venezuela Aid Live concert on 23 February, after the Maduro administration prohibited him from leaving the country; the trip was approved by the National Assembly. Supporters of Guaidó disagree that the Maduro-backed institutions have the authority to ban Guaidó from leaving the country, and consider acts of the ANC "null and void." The Venezuelan Constitution provides that only the National Assembly can bring the president to trial by approving the legal proceeding in a "merit hearing"; Venezuela's constitution requires "authorization in advance from the National Assembly." Constitutional lawyer Juan Manuel Raffalli said there is no breach to prosecute unless the National Assembly first approves one; he said the proceedings were intended to distract attention from the protests and collapse of public services, referencing the 2019 Venezuelan blackouts. Bypassing the National Assembly, Moreno sent Guaidó's file to the president of the ANC, Diosdado Cabello—described by BBC Mundo as "one of the most belligerent Chávez leaders against the opposition"—for the decision to be made by that body. On 2 April, in a speech before the ANC, member María León proposed creating popular tribunals for trying "traitors," which the Miami Herald compared to those used during the Cuban revolution; she argued that "for me stripping him of his immunity is very little. What do you do with traitors?" ANC members "responded with shouts of al paredón ("put him up against a wall"), referring to a firing squad. Votes were not counted, rather voting was by a show of hands. In record time (less than 30 hours from the TSJ proceedings), the ANC voted to remove Guaidó's immunity from prosecution. Following the decision, Guaidó promised to continue fighting "Maduro's 'cowardly, miserable and murderous' regime." He said, "What if the regime intends to kidnap us? Well, of course, we know that they only have brute force left ... But we are left with audacity, intelligence, soul, strength of heart, hope and confidence in this country, in ourselves." On 5 September, Vice President Delcy Rodríguez released a purported months-old recording in which Guaido's envoy to United Kingdom, Vanessa Neumann, and a Guaido's advisor, Manuel Avendaño, discuss that Guaidó should "drop the topic" on Venezuela's claim for Guayana Esequiba (Esequibo), a disputed territory between Guyana and Venezuela. Attorney general Tarek William Saab, announced that Guaidó would be prosecuted for "high treason" for the alleged negotiations to hand over the Esequibo. Since April, Norway mediated talks between Guaido and Maduro's commissions, but Maduro paused the discussion due to new US sanctions. In September, Maduro announced that his administration would not resume the talks due to the Esequibo investigation. Avendaño immediately sought refuge in Chilean embassy in Caracas. During a rally in Anzoátegui, Guaidó dismissed the accusations as a distraction, and reaffirmed that the Esequibo belongs to Venezuela. Masked men carrying rifles broke and into the Popular Will office in the eve of the return of rallies in November, demanding the party members to handover their phones. The group identified as part of the special police forces (FAES), according to a legislator. Guaidó referred to the raid as an act of government intimidation. On 21 January 2020, after the disrupted 2020 Venezuelan National Assembly Delegated Committee election, Guaidó's campaign headquarters were raided by police intelligence forces SEBIN. On 4 June 2020, the Venezuelan Foreign minister Jorge Arreaza accused Juan Guaidó of hiding in the French Embassy in Caracas, demanding for him to be handed over to the "Venezuelan justice." However, the Foreign Ministry spokeswoman of France, Agnes von der Muhll denied the claims on 5 June that Guaido had taken refuge in any of the French diplomatic sites in Caracas. After the Parliamentary Committee of Electoral Candidacies, in charge of appointing a new National Electoral Council of Venezuela (CNE), announced that it would suspend its meetings because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Supreme Tribunal of Justice (TSJ), loyal to Nicolás Maduro, declared in June that the National Assembly had not named rectors for the CNE. The opposition to Maduro administration denounced it as attempt to obstruct the procedure for the elections. The TSJ decided on 12 June 2020 to name the electoral board that would oversee the parliamentary elections. Indira Alfonzo was declared as the new chief of the CNE through Facebook. Members of the National Assembly argue that the TSJ is not authorized to choose the board, according to the Venezuelan constitution. On 13 June 2020, Juan Guaidó said the opposition would not recognize a "false" electoral body named by the Supreme Tribunal, while his allies pledged to extend the term of the current legislature. Exile On the eve of an international conference to discuss the crisis in Venezuela and host by Colombia, Guaidó was expelled from the country on 25 April 2023 after entering Colombia. After Colombia initially considered deporting him back to Venezuela, Guaidó was eventually exiled to the United States. He has since lived in Miami, Florida. In September 2023, Guaidó was hired as a visiting professor by the Florida International University. Arrest warrant On 6 October 2023, Maduro's Attorney General Tarek William Saab issued an arrest warrant against Guaidó in Venezuela, announcing charges of money laundering, treason and usurping public functions against him, and accusing him of profiting from the funds of and Citgo. The Maduro administration also requested that Interpol issue a red notice for the arrest of Guaidó, though the international police agency has not issued such notices against opposition officials in the past. Guaidó responded to the arrest warrant by denying all charges. The Washington Post wrote that "Guaidó's interim government has long been accused by Maduro and even independent observers of mismanaging the public funds under its control". Senior fellow at the Atlantic Council, Geoff Ramsey, responded to the issued warrant stating "the government has now officially placed Guaidó in the same category as other exiled opposition politicians: effectively banned from returning but no longer relevant enough to be seen as untouchable." Elliott Abrams, who was the US Special Representative for Venezuela during Guaidó's interim presidency, called the charges "nonsense" and "completely false"; he stated that Venezuelan assets were overseen by the US Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control, and denied any funds were directed to Guaidó or misused, and questioned the timing of the arrest warrant. Personal life Guaidó is married to journalist Fabiana Rosales since 2013. They have two daughters: Miranda and Mérida Antonieta. Guaidó is also a Freemason. Public perception Prior to becoming the leader of the National Assembly, Guaidó was an unfamiliar figure to both the Venezuelan and international communities, with the BBC reporting that he was a compromise candidate selected as leader by opposition parties. Venezuelan lawyer and columnist , who was active with Guaidó in the early days of the student protests against Hugo Chávez, described Guaidó as one of the "conciliators" of the student movement, saying that Guaidó had been a force for conciliation in the defeat of Chávez's 2007 constitutional referendum and the 2015 Venezuelan parliamentary election in which the PSUV was defeated by the MUD, and that he was named acting president at a time when Venezuela needed conciliation. According to a Bloomberg article, he is known for "building unity among fellow legislators." Michael Shifter said that he "has tried to reach out to the military, tried to unify the opposition and tried to reach Chavista folks as well." In April 2019, Guaidó was named to Time magazine's list of 100 most influential people in the world for that year. Former Colombian president Juan Manuel Santos wrote the profile for Time, which described Guaidó as "young, energetic, articulate, determined" and in possession of "the mother of all virtues: courage." Santos said that "by being in the right place at the right time, [Guaidó] was able to finally unite the opposition and become a beacon of hope for a country that is yearning for a rapid and peaceful change." Hetland wrote that Guaidó was initially popular domestically, though he increasingly participated in desperate actions to remove Maduro, with each attempt failing and resulting with decreased support. Polls Following the failed uprising on 30 April 2019, recognition and support for Guaidó declined while attendance at his demonstrations subsided. After plans to remove Maduro from power failed in May 2020, Guaidó saw his support decrease further. With Maduro retaining control of the country's security forces, Datanálisis surveys in October 2021 showed Guaidó's support within Venezuela had dropped to 16%, partly due to accusations of corruption against some of his representatives outside of the country. Electoral history 2015 parliamentary vote 2015 Venezuelan parliamentary election, Deputy for Vargas (1st district). 2012 MUD primary 2012 Democratic Unity Roundtable presidential primary, pre-candidate for governor of Vargas. 2010 parliamentary vote 2010 Venezuelan parliamentary election, reserve deputy for Vargas. Notes References Bibliography External links Juan Guaidó in the site of the National Assembly of Venezuela Biography by CIDOB CNN interview, January 2019 1983 births George Washington University alumni Living people Movimiento Estudiantil (Venezuela) People from La Guaira People from Vargas (state) People of the Crisis in Venezuela Speakers of the National Assembly (Venezuela) Venezuelan democracy activists Venezuelan dissidents Venezuelan presidential crisis Instituto de Estudios Superiores de Administración alumni People charged with treason Fugitives wanted by Venezuela Venezuelan Freemasons

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%B4%EB%A6%AC%EB%B8%94%EB%A0%9B

체리블렛

체리블렛(, )은 2019년 1월 21일에 데뷔한 7인조 걸 그룹이다. 그룹명 '체리블렛'은 체리(Cherry)와 총알(Bullet)이라는 대조되는 이미지를 합친 단어로, 체리처럼 사랑스러우면서도 에너제틱한 매력으로 대중들의 마음을 저격할 걸 그룹이라는 의미를 담았다. 구성원 이전 구성원 음반 목록 싱글 디지털 싱글 EP 음반 외 활동 방송 출연 라디오 2019년 SBS 러브FM 《송은이, 김숙의 언니네 라디오》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2019년 1월 26일 방송분 출연) 2019년 KBS Cool FM 《가요광장》 - 게스트 (미래, 지원) (2019년 1월 27일 방송분 출연) 2019년 SBS 파워FM 《두시탈출 컬투쇼》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2019년 1월 27일 방송분 출연) 2019년 MBC 표준FM 《아이돌 라디오》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2019년 1월 30일 방송분 출연) 2019년 MBC 표준FM 《별이 빛나는 밤에》 - 게스트 (해윤, 보라) (2019년 2월 6일 방송분 출연) 2019년 KBS Cool FM 《볼륨을 높여요》 - 게스트 (해윤, 미래, 지원) (2019년 2월 7일 방송분 출연) 2019년 MBC FM4U 《2시의 데이트》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2019년 2월 13일 방송분 출연) 2019년 EBS FM 《인피니트 성종의 미드나잇 블랙》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2019년 2월 21일 방송분 출연) 2019년 SBS 파워FM 《영스트리트》 - 게스트 (해윤, 유주, 채린) (2019년 2월 25일 방송분 출연) 2019년 SBS 파워FM 《러브게임》 - 게스트 (보라, 채린) (2019년 3월 2일 방송분 출연) 2019년 MBC 표준FM 《아이돌 라디오》 - 게스트 (해윤) (2019년 4월 26일 방송분 출연) 2019년 MBC 표준FM 《아이돌 라디오》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2019년 5월 30일 방송분 출연) 2019년 tbs eFM 《우상적 품격》 - 게스트 (미래, 채린, 린린) (2019년 6월 16일 방송분 출연) 2019년 KBS Cool FM 《가요광장》 - 게스트 (해윤, 보라) (2019년 6월 21일 방송분 출연) 2019년 MBC 표준FM 《이윤석, 신아영의 좋은 주말》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2019년 6월 30일 방송분 출연) 2019년 tbs eFM Men On Air tbs 에스플렉스 센터 방송 플라자 (공개녹화, 체리블렛) (2019년 7월 4일 방송분 출연) 2019년 SBS 러브FM 특집 공개방송 《러브 콘서트 IN 정읍》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2019년 10월 20일) 2020년 MBC FM4U 《정오의 희망곡》 - 게스트 (지원) (2020년 2월 18일 방송분 출연) 2020년 MBC FM4U 《두시의 데이트》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2020년 2월 18일 방송분 출연) 2020년 네이버 NOW 《헤이즈의 일기》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2020년 2월 18일 방송분 출연) 2020년 네이버 NOW 《하성운의 심야 아이돌》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2020년 2월 21일 방송분 출연) 2020년 KBS Cool FM 《볼륨을 높여요》 - 게스트 (보라, 채린) (2020년 2월 28일 방송분 출연) 2020년 SBS 파워FM 《두시탈출 컬투쇼》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2020년 3월 1일 방송분 출연) 2020년 SBS 파워FM 《영스트리트》 - 게스트 (유주, 보라, 채린) (2020년 3월 1일 방송분 출연) 2020년 MBC 표준FM 《아이돌 라디오》 - 게스트 (지원, 채린) (2020년 3월 14일 방송분 출연) 2020년 SBS 파워FM 《배성재의 텐》 - 게스트 (해윤, 채린) (2020년 3월 15일 방송분 출연) 2020년 MBC 표준FM 《아이돌 라디오》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2020년 8월 13일 방송분 출연) 2020년 네이버 NOW 《어벤걸스》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2020년 8월 13일 방송분 출연) 2020년 MBC FM4U 《정오의 희망곡》 - 게스트 (유주, 지원) (2020년 8월 18일 방송분 출연) 2020년 MBC 표준FM 《아이돌 라디오》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2020년 8월 20일 방송분 출연) 2020년 SBS 파워FM 《배성재의 텐》 - 게스트 (유주, 보라) (2020년 8월 30일 방송분 출연) 2020년 네이버 NOW 《어벤걸스》 - 게스트 (채린) (2020년 12월 10일 방송분 출연) 2021년 KBS Cool FM 《키스 더 라디오》 - 게스트 (체리블렛) (2021년 1월 24일 방송분 출연) 2021년 SBS 파워FM 《배성재의 텐》 - 게스트 (해윤, 채린, 메이) (2021년 1월 27일 방송분 출연) 2021년 MBC FM4U 《정오의 희망곡》 - 게스트 (유주, 지원) (2021년 1월 28일 방송분 출연) 2021년 SBS 파워FM 《러브게임》 - 게스트 (해윤, 채린) (2021년 1월 30일 방송분 출연) 2021년 SBS 파워FM 《영스트리트》 - 게스트 (해윤, 유주, 지원, 채린) (2021년 2월 4일 방송분 출연) 2021년 네이버 NOW 《소문의 아이들》 - 게스트 (지원) (2021년 2월 16일 방송분 출연) 2021년 네이버 NOW 《아지트》 - 게스트 (메이) (2021년 5월 3일 방송분 출연) 드라마 2020년 유튜브 화목드라마 《반예인》 - 은하 역 (보라) 2020년 네이버 tvcast 《연애혁명》 - 특별출연 (채린) 2020년 네이버 tvcast 《유튜버 클라쓰》 - 하올 역 (채린) 2021년 네이버 tvcast 화목드라마 《오늘부터 계약연애》 - 성한나 역 (유주) 2021년 유튜브 수토드라마 《첫번째 열일곱》 - 천소망 역 (채린) 2021년 KBS1 일일드라마 《국가대표 와이프》 - 공주아 역 (1회 ~ 36회까지 출연) (유주) 2021년 유튜브 월목드라마 《달고나 시즌2 : 비정규직 열여덟》 - 오수아 역 (채린) 2021년 카카오TV 《징크스》 - 자영 역 (보라) 2021년 카카오TV 《징크스》 - 수진 역 (유주) 2021년 유튜브 화목드라마 《하트웨이》 - 한지안 역 (지원) 2022년 웹드라마 《나의 X같은 스무살》 - 강소원 역 (유주) 2022년 tvN 주말드라마 《슈룹》 - 어린 임화령 역 (김혜수 아역) 2023년 tvN 주말드라마 《판도라: 조작된 낙원》 - 어린 오영/홍태라 역 (이지아 아역, 채린) 광고 뮤지컬 2021년 《클림트》 - 에밀리 역 (2021.10.12 ~ 2022.3.1 서울숲 갤러리아포레 G층 전용관) (해윤) 2022년 《클림트》 - 에밀리 역 (2022.5.3 ~ 2022.7.17 서울숲 갤러리아포레 G층 전용관) (해윤) 각주 외부 링크 대한민국의 걸 그룹 대한민국의 팝 음악 그룹 대한민국의 댄스 음악 그룹 7인조 음악 그룹 FNC 엔터테인먼트 소속 대한민국의 아이돌 그룹 K-pop 음악 그룹 한국어 음악 그룹 다국적 음악 그룹 2010년대 음악 그룹 2020년대 음악 그룹 2019년 결성된 음악 그룹

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry%20Bullet

Cherry Bullet

Cherry Bullet () is a South Korean girl group formed by FNC Entertainment and managed under their sub-label FNC W. They debuted on January 21, 2019, with their first single album titled Let's Play Cherry Bullet. The group currently consists of seven members: Haeyoon, Yuju, Bora, Jiwon, Remi, Chaerin and May. Originally consisting of ten members, Mirae, Kokoro and Linlin left the group in December 2019. History Pre-debut Haeyoon was previously introduced as one of the female trainees to represent FNC Entertainment on the Mnet survival show, Produce 48 in 2018. She finished in 19th place and hence did not become a member of the produced girl group, Iz*One. Bora previously was a trainee at Music K Entertainment. Both she and fellow member Yuju appeared in BTS' Love Yourself: Her highlight reel, with Yuju also making an appearance in Honeyst's "Someone to Love" music video. Jiwon auditioned for the first season of SBS' K-pop Star with the song "Because of You" by Kelly Clarkson and later became a trainee under Starship Entertainment. In 2012 she appeared in Starship Planet's "White Love" music video. Remi was a trainee with Avex Proworks and first appeared in the live-action segments of Pretty Rhythm: Dear My Future in 2012 as one of the Prism Mates but did not pass the audition to become an official member. She modeled for Repipi Armario at Point 65th Fashion Show's 2014 Spring Collection. Kokoro was also a student at Avex Artist Academy in Nagoya, Japan, and she was scouted by FNC Entertainment in 2016. 2018–2020: Debut with Let's Play Cherry Bullet, line-up changes and digital singles The group's debut reality show Insider Channel Cherry Bullet premiered on November 28, 2018, on Mnet. The reality show was made to introduce the group and each of its 10 members to viewers. Their first single album, Let's Play Cherry Bullet was released on January 21, 2019, with consisted of the lead single "Q&A", and two other songs, "Violet" and "Stick Out". They held their debut showcase on the same day at YES24 Live Hall in Gwangjin-gu, Seoul. On May 9, 2019, it was revealed that Cherry Bullet would come back on May 22 with their second single Love Adventure with lead single "Really Really". On December 13, 2019, FNC announced that Mirae, Kokoro and Linlin had left the group and terminated their contracts due to personal reasons. The remaining members of Cherry Bullet would then continue as a seven-member group with no additional members, and Haeyoon would then take over as the new leader of the group. The group released their first digital single "Hands Up" on February 11, 2020. On August 6, 2020, Cherry Bullet made their comeback with the new digital single "Aloha Oe". 2021–present: Cherry Rush, Girls Planet 999, Cherry Wish, Cherry Dash and Queendom Puzzle On January 4, 2021, it was announced that Cherry Bullet have joined the social media platform Weverse. The group released their first EP Cherry Rush and its lead single "Love So Sweet" on January 20. On February 3, 2021, it was announced that Cherry Bullet would be managed by FNC Entertainment's new sub-label, FNC W, which is specialized for girl groups. Bora, Jiwon and May took part in the Mnet survival show Girls Planet 999, which aired from August 6, 2021, to October 22, 2021. Jiwon was eliminated in episode 8, finishing in 16th place in K-Group. May was eliminated in episode 11, finishing in 8th place in J-Group and 24th place overall. Bora was eliminated in the final episode, placing 9th in K-Group and 15th place overall. On March 2, 2022, Cherry Bullet released their second EP Cherry Wish and its lead single "Love In Space". On March 7, 2023, Cherry Bullet released their third EP Cherry Dash, and its lead single "P.O.W! (Play On the World)". On May 18, 2023, it was announced that members Bora, Jiwon and Chaerin would be participating in the Mnet survival show Queendom Puzzle. Chaerin was eliminated in the first elimination round in episode 7, while Jiwon and Bora were eliminated in the second elimination round in episode 9. Endorsements Jiwon and Yuju were models for the Korean uniform brand Smart in 2018, alongside BTS. The members were also selected to represent the brand in 2019. Members Adapted from their Naver profile. Current Haeyoon () Yuju () Bora () Jiwon () Remi () Chaerin () May () Former Mirae () Kokoro () Linlin () Timeline Discography Extended plays Single albums Singles Videography Music videos Reality shows Awards and nominations Asia Artist Awards |- |rowspan="2"|2019 |rowspan="3"|Cherry Bullet |Popularity Award (Singer) | |- |Starnews Popularity Award (Female Group) | |- |2021 |Female Idol Group Popularity Award | |} Genie Music Awards |- |rowspan="4"|2019 |rowspan="4"|Cherry Bullet |The Top Artist | |- |The Female New Artist | |- |Genie Music Popularity Award | |- |Global Popularity Award | |} Melon Music Awards |- |2019 |Cherry Bullet |Best New Artist Award | |} Mnet Asian Music Awards |- |rowspan="4"|2019 |rowspan="4"|Cherry Bullet |Artist of the Year | |- |Best New Female Artist | |- |Worldwide Fans' Choice Top 10 | |- |2019 Qoo10 Favorite Female Artist | |} Seoul Music Awards |- |rowspan="3"|2020 |rowspan="3"|Cherry Bullet |Rookie of the Year | |- |Popularity Award | |- |Hallyu Special Award | |} Notes References External links 2019 establishments in South Korea South Korean girl groups K-pop music groups Musical groups established in 2019 South Korean pop music groups South Korean dance music groups Musical groups from Seoul FNC Entertainment artists

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%BD%ED%83%88%EC%A0%81%20%EC%B6%9C%ED%8C%90

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약탈적 학회 또는 부실학회는 여러 가지 용어와 정의가 있으나 일반적으로 논문의 주제나 품질에 상관없이 돈만 내면 논문을 학술지에 실어주는 학회를 말한다. 이런 학술지를 약탈적 학술지(predatory journal) 해당 출판사를 약탈적 출판사(predatory publisher)라 부른다. 정상적인 논문은 동료 평가를 통해 독창성, 정확성, 유용성을 인정받아 대중에게 공개된다. 하지만 약탈적 학회는 학술지(journal)에 논문을 투고하는 사람이 수수료를 지불하면 형식적인 동료 평가를 통해 논문을 실어주거나 심사를 거치지 않는 등 무조건적으로 논문을 받아들인다. 따라서 표절과 위조에 상관없이 학회지에 논문을 실을 수 있다. 약탈적 학술지나 약탈적 출판사처럼 영리적인 목적으로 운영되는 약탈적 학회에, 참여하는 사람의 유형은 크게 다음과 같다. 순진하거나 경험이 없어 약탈적 학술지와 학회의 표적이 될 수 있다는 사실을 모른채 논문을 기고했다가 불이익을 당한다는 걸 뒤늦게 인지하는 경우가 있고, 연구와 학계에서 일하거나 일할 의사가 있는 사람들이 약탈적 학회의 신뢰성이 부족하다는 걸 알면서도 승진이나 고용을 위해 학회 참가 실적을 남기려는 의도로 참여하는 경우도 있다. 또한 자신의 검증되지 않은 생각이나 주장을 정당화하기 위해 학회에 참여하는 가짜 과학자도 있다. 출판사들은 동료 평가에 결점이 있다는 비판을 인정하지 않는 반면, 이러한 반발을 학계나 과학적인 증거들에 대한 공격이라고 주장한다. 그리고 이런 주장은 출판사가 가장 많이 선택하는 방법으로 약탈적 출판사의 주요 기준이 되었다. 특징으로는 연구 주제가 확실하지 않은 경우가 많으며 학회 이메일이 아닌 @gmail.com과 같은 무료 이메일을 이용하는데 이때 보상이나 제안을 하여 연구자들을 학회에 초대한다는 점이 있다. 학회의 내용보다 학회의 장소를 중점적으로 광고하나, 학회 주최가 불분명하고 웹사이트에 이러한 정보가 빠져있는 경우도 있다. 정보가 있다고 해도 부실한 경우가 많으며 대체적으로 평판이 좋지 않다. 동료평가의 과정을 거치지 않기 때문에 논문의 초록을 제출한다 하더라도 몇 주 내로 승인되며 해당 논문의 학회지 게재를 장담한다. 역사 1950년대 이후 학회의 양적 증가는 의료를 비롯한 과학 분야에서 빠른 성장을 할 수 있게 도왔으나, 연구자들에 대한 후원이 그들의 출판 실적에 따라 좌우되는 상황을 만들기도 했다. 후에는 H 지수와 알트메트릭 점수, 저널의 논문이 얼마나 인용되었는지에 따라 과학자들을 평가하기 시작했으며, 특히 경력이 짧은 연구자들은 항상 좋은 평가와 후원을 받기 위해 출판 실적에 대한 압박을 느껴야 했다. 이런 상황에서 학회지를 발행하는 출판사들의 급격한 증가는, 자신들의 전문적인 동료평가를 선전하는 등 적극적인 마케팅을 통해 학회지에 연구자들이 연구결과를 오픈 액세스로 제출하도록 부추겼다. 하지만 많은 학술지들은 동료 평가의 과정을 생략했고 소비자들에게 논문을 제공하지 않았다. 콜로라도 대학교의 사서였던 제프리 빌은 이러한 출판사들을 약탈적 출판사라고 명명하고 연구자들이 약탈적 학회와 학술지에 속아 논문을 기고하지 않도록 기준을 만들었다. 대부분의 약탈적 출판사는 제프리 빌의 폭로로 알려졌다. 지난 20년 동안 오픈 액세스 운동은 학계의 연구를 온라인에서 자유롭게 읽고 재사용하는 것을 가능하게 해줬다. 비록 모든 사람들이 이에 동의하지는 않았지만 출판사의 사업 구조를 바꾸는 역할을 했는데, 그 중 하나가 오픈 액세스를 통해서 이익을 발생시키는 것이었다. 특히 무료가 되어 판매할 수 없는 논문 대신 연구자들과 기관, 후원자들에게 서비스를 제공하고 오픈 액세스(OA)에 대해 독자가 아닌 저자에게 비용을 청구하겠다는 계산은 출판사들이 논문 처리 비용(APC)으로 이윤을 내는 사업 모형의 시초였다. 물론 APC를 청구하는 것이 골든 오픈 액세스를 통해 이익을 창출하는 유일한 방법은 아니지만, 이러한 사업 모델이 약탈적 학회를 양성하는 게 아니냐는 논란을 피할 수는 없었는데, 마틴 폴 이브와 프란시스 핀터는 이러한 점을 지적했다. 영국의 영문학자이자 인문학 교수인 마틴 폴 이브는 출판 신청(subscription publication)이 APC로 수익을 내는 모델로 여겨질 거라고 비판했으며, 특히 인문학 부문에서 출판 제도에 중대한 위협이 될 것이라는 주장을 했다. 골드 오픈 액세스의 '저자와 출판사의 협력 모델'은 평등이 아니라 출판사의 무임승차를 장려하는 것이라고 비판했다. 프란시스 핀터는 이와 같은 사업 모형이 장기적인 관점에서 오래 유지되지 못할 거라고 보았다. 그녀는 혁신적인 출판 모델이 이를 대체할 것이라 생각했다. OA에 초기부터 개입해왔던 군터 아이젠바흐(Gunther Eysenbach)는 이메일을 계속 뿌려가며 연구자를 모집하는 출판사를 '검은 양'이라 부르며 특히 《벤담 과학사》(Bentham Science Publishers), 《도브 메디컬 프레스》(Dove Medical Press), 《리베르타스 아카데미아》(Libertas Academica) 등을 지목했다. 웰컴 트러스트가 2008년 영국 런던에서 주최한 오픈 액세스의 날에 이런 검은 양에 대한 대처 논의를 진행했고 OA 학술지에 큰 도전이 되었다는 것을 인식하게 되었다. 2010년 코넬 대학교의 필 데이비스(Scholarly Kitchen 블로그의 편집자)는 SCIgen이라는 논문 생성프로그램을 이용해 엉터리 원고를 만들어 학술지에 투고했고 이것이 접수되는 것을 확인했으며 2013년 존 보해논(John Bohannon)은 "누가 심사를 두려워하는가?"(:en:Who's Afraid of Peer Review?)이라는 엉터리 원고를 305개의 오픈 액세스 학술지에 투고했다. 그중 고베 대학 의학부가 발행하고있는 《고베 저널 오브 메디컬 사이언스》(Kobe Journal of Medical Sciences)을 비롯한 60%의 학술지가 출판하겠다고 답했다. PLOS ONE을 포함한 40%는 이를 거부했다. 현황 약탈적 학술지는 급증해왔다. 약탈적 학술지에서 발간된 논문이 2010년에 53000건이었는데 2014년에는 42만건이었다. . 약탈적 학술지나 투고자들은 편중되어있다. 투고자는 3/4이 아시아와 아프리카에 있었다. 개발도상국의 연구자들은 서양 학술지가 자신들을 존중하고 있지 않으므로 개도국의 학술지에 투고하는 경우가 꽤 있다. 또 개도국 연구자들 중 학술지 명성을 잘 몰라서 게재하는 경우도 종종 있다. . 충분한 심사와 편집을 거치지 않으므로 약탈적 학술지에 게재된 논문의 질은 보통 떨어진다. 학술적인 내용 뿐 아니라 날조, 변조, 도용의 온상이라는 평가도 있다. 그리고 전문가들에 대한 대중의 신뢰도를 떨어뜨려 사회적 비용을 높이고 있다. . 처음엔 연구자들이 출판사의 먹이가 되고있다는 인식이 많아서 약탈적이라는 표현이 생겼지만, 몇몇 연구자들은 그 사실을 알고도 계속 약탈적 학술지에 계속 투고했다. 그래서 추악한 공생관계(ugly symbiosis)라는 평가도 있다. . 피해 경력이 많지 않은 연구자들은 학회에 참석하거나 학회에서 발표할 기회가 적은 만큼 약탈적 학회, 가짜 학회의 피해를 보는 경우가 많다. 학술활동의 부실여부를 판정 하는 명확한 기준을 국가가 제시하거나 특정 학술단체의 부실 여부를 판정하는 것은 쉬운 일이 아니고, 그러한 사례도 없다. 따라서 누구든지 순진한 연구자가 될 수 있으며, 자신의 연구 결과를 공유할 곳을 선택하는 것에 대해 신중할 필요가 있다. 또한 연구자는 이 학회에 자신의 시간과 돈, 평판을 사용할 가치가 있는지 스스로 확인해야 한다. 판정 기준 약탈적 학술지 판정 기준은 다음과 같다. 논문의 질적 관리가 없다시피하고 투고 즉시 수리한다. 엉터리 원고도 수리한다.. 미리 알려주는 것이 아니고 논문 접수 이후에 APC를 알려온다. . 연구자의 투고를 적극적으로 홍보한다. . 본인의 동의없이 편집위원으로 등록되어 있거나 편집 위원의 사임을 인정하지 않는다. . 가짜 연구원이 편집위원으로 활동한다, . 기존 학술지의 명칭이나 웹사이트 스타일을 모방한다. . 잘못된 연락처가 적혀있고 조작의 위험이 있는 출판 방식을 주장한다. 엉터리 국제 표준 연속 간행물 번호를 사용한다. . 엉터리 피인용지수를 사용한다. . 대책 제프리 빌은 약탈적 학술지 판정기준을 만들고 목록을 작성하여 블로그에 공개했다. 하지만 그렇게 지목된 출판사들로부터 공격과 소송에 시달렸으며 콜로라도 대학 덴버 캠퍼스로부터 압력을 받았다. 2017년 1월 실직 우려로 블로그를 닫았다. 약탈적 심사를 막기 위해 공개심사(open peer review)나 출판후 심사 등이 제안되었다. 심사의 수준을 평가하기 보다 약탈적 학술지를 사기, 기만의 관점에서 바라봐야 한다는 의견도 있다. 학술 출판 규범위원회, DOAJ, 오픈 액세스 학술 출판사 협회, 세계 의학 편집인 협회(World Association of Medical Editors) 등은 좋은 출판사와 약탈적 출판사를 구분하기 위해 투명성이 중요하다고 주장했다. 몇개의 학술지는 사후 심사를 위한 사이트를 개설했으며 사후 심사에서는 질적 판단에 중점을 두고 있다. OA 학술지가 아닌 곳까지도 사후 심사 움직임이 확산되고 있다. . 도서관과 출판사들도 약탈적 출판사를 경계하는 캠페인을 진행 중이다. . 개도국의 젊은 연구자의 출판을 돕는 움직임도 있으며 또 약탈적 학술지를 확인하는 기준을 만들기 위한 노력도 지속되고 있다. . 각주 참고 자료 Updated Beall 's List of Predatory Journals 유럽의 박사가 익명으로 유지하고있는 벨리스트 Updated Beall 's List of Predatory Publishers 유럽의 박사가 익명으로 유지하고있는 빌리스트 List at predatory journals List of predatory publishers 같이 보기 오픈 액세스 전자 저널 소칼 사건 빌의 목록 띵크 체크 서브밋 오픈 액세스 윤리적 논란이 있는 사업 관행

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory%20publishing

Predatory publishing

Predatory publishing, also write-only publishing or deceptive publishing, is an exploitative academic publishing business model that involves charging publication fees to authors only superficially checking articles for quality and legitimacy, and without providing editorial and publishing services that legitimate academic journals provide, whether open access or not. Namely, the rejection rate of predatory journals is low, but seldom is zero. The phenomenon of "open access predatory publishers" was first noticed by Jeffrey Beall, when he described "publishers that are ready to publish any article for payment". However, criticisms about the label "predatory" have been raised. A lengthy review of the controversy started by Beall appears in The Journal of Academic Librarianship. Predatory publishers are so regarded because scholars are tricked into publishing with them, although some authors may be aware that the journal is poor quality or even fraudulent but publish in them anyway. New scholars from developing countries are said to be especially at risk of being misled by predatory publishers. According to one study, 60% of articles published in predatory journals receive no citations over the five-year period following publication. Beall's List, a report that for 5 years was regularly updated by Jeffrey Beall of the University of Colorado until January 2017, set forth criteria for categorizing publications as predatory. A demand by Frontiers Media to open a misconduct case against Beall, which was launched by his university and later closed with no findings, was one of several reasons Beall may have taken his list offline, but he has not publicly shared his reasoning. After the closure, other efforts to identify predatory publishing have sprouted, such as the paywalled Cabell's blacklist, as well as other lists (some based on the original listing by Beall). History In March 2008, Gunther Eysenbach, publisher of an early open access journal, drew attention to what he called "black sheep among open access publishers and journals" and highlighted in his blog publishers and journals which resorted to excessive spam to attract authors and editors, criticizing in particular Bentham Science Publishers, Dove Medical Press, and Libertas Academica. In July 2008, Richard Poynder's interview series brought attention to the practices of new publishers who were "better able to exploit the opportunities of the new environment." Doubts about honesty and scams in a subset of open-access journals continued to be raised in 2009. Concerns for spamming practices from these journals prompted leading open access publishers to create the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association in 2008. In another early precedent, in 2009 the Improbable Research blog had found that Scientific Research Publishing's journals duplicated papers already published elsewhere; the case was subsequently reported in Nature. In 2010, Cornell University graduate student Phil Davis (editor of the Scholarly Kitchen blog) submitted a manuscript consisting of computer-generated nonsense (using SCIgen) which was accepted for a fee (but withdrawn by the author). Predatory publishers have been reported to hold submissions hostage, refusing to allow them to be withdrawn and thereby preventing submission in another journal. Predatory publishing does not refer to a homogeneous category of practices. The name itself was coined by American librarian Jeffrey Beall who created a list of "deceptive and fraudulent" Open Access (OA) publishers which was used as reference until withdrawn in 2017. The term has been reused since for a new for-profit database by Cabell's International. On the one hand, Beall's list as well as Cabell's International database do include truly fraudulent and deceptive OA publishers, that pretend to provide services (in particular quality peer review) which they do not implement, show fictive editorial boards and/or ISSN numbers, use dubious marketing and spamming techniques or even hijacking known titles. On the other hand, they also list journals with subpar standards of peer review and linguistic correction. The number of predatory journals thus defined has grown exponentially since 2010. The demonstration of existing unethical practices in the OA publishing industry also attracted considerable media attention. A 2020 study has found hundreds of scientists say they have reviewed papers for journals termed 'predatory' — although they might not know it. An analysis of the Publons has found that it hosts at least 6,000 records of reviews for more than 1,000 predatory journals. "The researchers who review most for these titles tend to be young, inexperienced and affiliated with institutions in low-income nations in Africa and the Middle East." Bohannon's experiment In 2013, John Bohannon, a staff writer for the journal Science and for popular science publications, tested the open access system by submitting to a number of such journals a deeply flawed paper on the purported effect of a lichen constituent, and published the results in a paper called, "Who's Afraid of Peer Review?". About 60% of those journals, including journals of Elsevier, SAGE, Wolters Kluwer (through its subsidiary Medknow), and several universities, accepted the faked medical paper. PLOS ONE and Hindawi rejected it. "Dr Fraud" experiment In 2015, four researchers created a fictitious sub-par scientist named Anna O. Szust ( is Polish for "fraudster"), and applied on her behalf for an editor position to 360 scholarly journals. Szust's qualifications were dismal for the role of an editor; she had never published a single article and had no editorial experience. The books and book chapters listed on her CV were made-up, as were the publishing houses that published the books. One-third of the journals to which Szust applied were sampled from Beall's List of predatory journals. Forty of these predatory journals accepted Szust as editor without any background vetting and often within days or even hours. By comparison, she received minimal to no positive response from the "control" journals which "must meet certain standards of quality, including ethical publishing practices." Among journals sampled from the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), 8 of 120 accepted Szust. The DOAJ has since removed some of the affected journals in a 2016 purge. None of the 120 sampled journals listed in Journal Citation Reports (JCR) offered Szust the position. The results of the experiment were published in Nature in March 2017, and widely presented in the press. SCIgen experiments SCIgen, a computer program that randomly generates academic computer science papers using context-free grammar, has generated papers that have been accepted by a number of predatory journals as well as predatory conferences. Federal Trade Commission vs. OMICS Group, Inc. On 25 August 2016, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) filed a lawsuit against the OMICS Group, iMedPub, Conference Series, and the individual Srinubabu Gedela, an Indian national who is president of the companies. In the lawsuit, the defendants are accused of "deceiving academics and researchers about the nature of its publications and hiding publication fees ranging from hundreds to thousands of dollars". The FTC was also responding to pressure to take action against predatory publishers. Attorneys for the OMICS Group published a response on their website, claiming "your FTC allegations are baseless. Further we understand that FTC working towards favoring some subscription based journals publishers who are earring Billions of dollars rom scientists literature", suggesting that corporations in the scientific publishing business were behind the allegations. In March 2019, the FTC won the suit in a summary judgement and was awarded $50,130,811 in damages and a broad injunction against OMICS practices. It is unlikely that the FTC will ever collect the award, since the rulings of US courts are not enforceable in India, and since OMICS does not have property in the US. Characteristics Recognizing common characteristics of predatory publishers can help to avoid them. Complaints that are associated with predatory open-access publishing include: Accepting articles quickly with little or no peer review or quality control, including hoax and nonsensical papers. Notifying academics of article fees only after papers are accepted. Aggressively campaigning for academics to submit articles or serve on editorial boards. Listing academics as members of editorial boards without their permission, and not allowing academics to resign from editorial boards. Appointing fake academics to editorial boards. Mimicking the name or web site style of more established journals. Making misleading claims about the publishing operation, such as a false location. Using ISSNs improperly. Citing fake or non-existent impact factors. Boasting about being "indexed" by academic social networking sites (like ResearchGate) and standard identifiers (like ISSNs and DOIs) as if they were prestigious or reputable bibliographic databases. Favoritism and self-promotion in peer review. Predatory publishers have also been compared to vanity presses. Beall's criteria In 2015, Jeffrey Beall used 26 criteria related to poor journal standards and practices, 9 related to journal editors and staff members, 7 related to ethics and integrity, 6 related to the publisher's business practices, and 6 'other' general criteria related to publishers. He also listed 26 additional practices, which were 'reflective of poor journal standards' which were not necessarily indicative of predatory behaviour. Eriksson and Helgesson's 25 criteria In 2016, researchers Stefan Eriksson and Gert Helgesson identified 25 signs of predatory publishing. They warn that a journal will not necessarily be predatory if they meet one of the criteria, "but the more points on the list that apply to the journal at hand, the more sceptical you should be." The full list is quoted below: The publisher is not a member of any recognized professional organisation committed to best publishing practices (like COPE or EASE) The journal is not indexed in well-established electronic databases (like MEDLINE or Web of Science) The publisher claims to be a "leading publisher" even though it just got started The journal and the publisher are unfamiliar to you and all your colleagues The papers of the journal are of poor research quality, and may not be academic at all (for instance allowing for obvious pseudo-science) There are fundamental errors in the titles and abstracts, or frequent and repeated typographical or factual errors throughout the published papers The journal website is not professional The journal website does not present an editorial board or gives insufficient detail on names and affiliations The journal website does not reveal the journal's editorial office location or uses an incorrect address The publishing schedule is not clearly stated The journal title claims a national affiliation that does not match its location (such as "American Journal of ..." while being located on another continent) or includes "International" in its title while having a single-country editorial board The journal mimics another journal title or the website of said journal The journal provides an impact factor in spite of the fact that the journal is new (which means that the impact cannot yet be calculated) The journal claims an unrealistically high impact based on spurious alternative impact factors (such as 7 for a bioethics journal, which is far beyond the top notation) The journal website posts non-related or non-academic advertisements The publisher of the journal has released an overwhelmingly large suite of new journals at one occasion or during a very short period of time The editor in chief of the journal is editor in chief also for other journals with widely different focus The journal includes articles (very far) outside its stated scope The journal sends you an unsolicited invitation to submit an article for publication, while making it blatantly clear that the editor has absolutely no idea about your field of expertise Emails from the journal editor are written in poor language, include exaggerated flattering (everyone is a leading profile in the field), and make contradictory claims (such as "You have to respond within 48 h" while later on saying "You may submit your manuscript whenever you find convenient") The journal charges a submission or handling fee, instead of a publication fee (which means that you have to pay even if the paper is not accepted for publication) The types of submission/publication fees and what they amount to are not clearly stated on the journal's website The journal gives unrealistic promises regarding the speed of the peer review process (hinting that the journal's peer review process is minimal or non-existent)—or boasts an equally unrealistic track-record The journal does not describe copyright agreements clearly or demands the copyright of the paper while claiming to be an open access journal The journal displays no strategies for how to handle misconduct, conflicts of interest, or secure the archiving of articles when no longer in operation A user friendly web base interface is available. Growth and structure Predatory journals have rapidly increased their publication volumes from 53,000 in 2010 to an estimated 420,000 articles in 2014, published by around 8,000 active journals. Early on, publishers with more than 100 journals dominated the market, but since 2012 publishers in the 10–99 journal size category have captured the largest market share. As of 2022, almost one third of the 100 largest publishers (by journal count) could be deemed predatory. The regional distribution of both the publisher's country and authorship is highly skewed, with three-quarters of the authors from Asia or Africa. Authors paid an average fee of US $178 each for articles to be published rapidly without review, typically within 2 to 3 months of submission. As reported in 2019, some 5% of Italian researchers have published in predatory journals, with a third of those journals engaging in fraudulent editorial practices. Causes and impact The root cause of exploitative practices is the author-facing an article-processing charge (APC) business model, in which authors are charged to publish rather than to read. Such a model provides incentives for publishers to focus on the quantity of articles published, rather than their quality. APCs have gained increasing popularity in the last two decades as a business model for OA, due to the guaranteed revenue streams they offer, as well as a lack of competitive pricing within the OA market, which allows vendors full control over how much they choose to charge. Ultimately, quality control relies on good editorial policies and their enforcement, and the conflict between rigorous scholarship and profit can be successfully managed by selecting which articles are published purely based on (peer-reviewed) methodological quality. Most OA publishers ensure their quality by registering their titles in the Directory of Open Access Journals and complying with a standardised set of conditions. A recent study has shown that Beall's criteria of "predatory" publishing were in no way limited to OA publishers and that, applying them to both OA and non-OA journals in the field of library and information science, even top tier non-OA journals could be qualified as predatory (; see also on difficulties of demarcating predatory and non-predatory journals in biomedicine). The majority of predatory OA publishers and authors publishing in these appear to be based in Asia and Africa, as well as Europe and the Americas. It has been argued that authors who publish in predatory journals may do so unwittingly without actual unethical perspective, due to concerns that North American and European journals might be prejudiced against scholars from non-Western countries, high publication pressure or lack of research proficiency. Hence predatory publishing also questions the geopolitical and commercial context of scholarly knowledge production. Nigerian researchers, for example, publish in predatory journals due to the pressure to publish internationally while having little to no access to Western international journals, or due to the often higher APCs practiced by mainstream OA journals. More generally, the criteria adopted by high JIF journals, including the quality of the English language, the composition of the editorial board or the rigour of the peer review process itself tend to favour familiar content from the "centre" rather than the "periphery". It is thus important to distinguish between exploitative publishers and journals – whether OA or not – and legitimate OA initiatives with varying standards in digital publishing, but which may improve and disseminate epistemic contents. In Latin America, a highly successful system of free of charge OA publishing has been in place for more than two decades, thanks to organisations such as SciELO and REDALYC. Response Blacklists Beall's List University of Colorado Denver librarian and researcher Jeffrey Beall, who coined the term "predatory publishing", first published his list of predatory publishers in 2010. Beall's list of potential, possible, or probable predatory scholarly open-access publishers attempted to identify scholarly open access publishers with questionable practices. In 2013, Nature reported that Beall's list and web site were "widely read by librarians, researchers, and open-access advocates, many of whom applaud his efforts to reveal shady publishing practices." Others have raised the objection that "(w)hether it's fair to classify all these journals and publishers as 'predatory' is an open question—several shades of gray may be distinguishable." Beall's analyses have been called sweeping generalizations with no supporting evidence, and he has also been criticized for being biased against open-access journals from less economically developed countries. One librarian wrote that Beall's list "attempts a binary division of this complex gold rush: the good and the bad. Yet many of the criteria used are either impossible to quantify..., or can be found to apply as often to established OA journals as to the new entrants in this area... Some of the criteria seem to make First World assumptions that aren't valid worldwide." Beall differed with these opinions and wrote a letter of rebuttal in mid-2015. Following the Who's Afraid of Peer Review? investigation, the DOAJ has tightened up its inclusion criteria, with the purpose of serving as a whitelist, very much like Beall's has been a blacklist. The investigation found that "the results show that Beall is good at spotting publishers with poor quality control." However, the managing director of DOAJ, Lars Bjørnshauge, estimates that questionable publishing probably accounts for fewer than 1% of all author-pays, open-access papers, a proportion far lower than Beall's estimate of 5–10%. Instead of relying on blacklists, Bjørnshauge argues that open-access associations such as the DOAJ and the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association should adopt more responsibility for policing publishers: they should lay out a set of criteria that publishers and journals must comply with to win a place on a 'white list' indicating that they are trustworthy. Beall has been threatened with a lawsuit by a Canadian publisher which appears on the list. He reports that he has been the subject of online harassment for his work on the subject. His list has been criticized for relying heavily on analysis of publishers' web sites, not engaging directly with publishers, and including newly founded but legitimate journals. Beall has responded to these complaints by posting the criteria he uses to generate the list, as well as instituting an anonymous three-person review body to which publishers can appeal to be removed from the list. For example, a 2010 re-evaluation resulted in some journals being removed from Beall's list. In 2013, the OMICS Publishing Group threatened to sue Beall for $1 billion for his "ridiculous, baseless, [and] impertinent" inclusion of them on his list, which "smacks of literal unprofessionalism and arrogance". An unedited sentence from the letter read: "Let us at the outset warn you that this is a very perilous journey for you and you will be completely exposing yourself to serious legal implications including criminal cases lunched against you in INDIA and USA." Beall responded that the letter was "poorly written and personally threatening" and expressed his opinion that the letter "is an attempt to detract from the enormity of OMICS's editorial practices". OMICS' lawyers stated that damages were being pursued under section 66A of India's Information Technology Act, 2000, which makes it illegal to use a computer to publish "any information that is grossly offensive or has menacing character" or to publish false information. The letter stated that three years in prison was a possible penalty, although a U.S. lawyer said that the threats seemed to be a "publicity stunt" that was meant to "intimidate". Section 66A has been criticised in an India Today editorial for its potential for misuse in "stifling political dissent, crushing speech and ... enabling bullying". Beall could have been sued for defamation, and would not have been able to fall back on truth as a final defense; under section 66A, the truth of any information is irrelevant if it is grossly offensive. In an unrelated case in 2015, Section 66A was struck down by the Supreme Court of India, which found that it had no proximate connection to public order, "arbitrarily, excessively and disproportionately invades the right of free speech", and that the description of offences is "open-ended, undefined and vague." As such, it is not possible for the OMICS Group to proceed against Beall under section 66A, but it could mount a defamation case. Finally, in August 2016, OMICS was sued for "deceptive business practices related to journal publishing and scientific conferences" by the Federal Trade Commission (a US government agency), who won an initial court ruling in November 2017. Beall's list was used as an authoritative source by South Africa's Department of Higher Education and Training in maintaining its list of accredited journals: articles published in those journals will determine funding levels for their authors; however, journals identified as predatory will be removed from this list. ProQuest is reviewing all journals on Beall's list, and has started removing them from the International Bibliography of the Social Sciences. In January 2017, Beall shut down his blog and removed all its content, citing pressure from his employer. Beall's supervisor wrote a response stating that he did not pressure Beall to discontinue his work, or threaten his employment; and had tried hard to support Beall's academic freedom. In 2017, Ramzi Hakami reported on his own successful attempt to get an intentionally poor paper accepted by a publisher on the list and referenced a resurrected version of Beall's list. This version includes Beall's original list and updates by an anonymous purported "postdoctoral researcher in one of the [E]uropean universities [who has] a hands-on experience with predatory journals." Cabells' Predatory Reports At the May 2017 meeting of the Society for Scholarly Publishing, Cabell's International, a company that offers scholarly publishing analytics and other scholarly services, announced that it intended to launch a blacklist of predatory journals (not publishers) in June, and said that access would be by subscription only. The company had started work on its blacklist criteria in early 2016. In July 2017, both a black list and a white list were offered for subscription on their website. Other lists Since Beall's list closed, other list groups have started. These include Kscien's list, which use Beall's list as a starting point, updating it to add and remove publishers. According to a 2020 systematic review of 93 lists, only three were assessed as evidence-based. Science funders Poland On 18 September 2018, Zbigniew Błocki, the director of the National Science Centre, the largest agency that funds fundamental research in Poland, stated that if articles financed by NCN funds were published in journals not satisfying standards for peer review, then the grant numbers would have to be removed from the publications and funds would have to be returned to the NCN. Russia Both the Russian Science Foundation and the Russian Foundation for Basic Research require their grant recipients to publish only in the journals included into either Web of Science or Scopus databases. This policy aims at: (1) preventing the researchers from falling into the traps of predatory publishers, without having the Foundations to issue their own lists of acceptable journals; (2) making sure, that the results of their funded works are readily discovered by other people, since Web of Science and Scopus are subscribed to by most reputable institutions. However, in parallel with the withdrawal of Clarivate from Russia in 2022 and the pause in Elsevier services from 2022 onwards, the Web of Science and Scopus listing is no longer considered as essential by the Russian agencies. Other efforts More transparent peer review, such as open peer review and post-publication peer review, has been advocated to combat predatory journals. Others have argued instead that the discussion on predatory journals should not be turned "into a debate over the shortcomings of peer review—it is nothing of the sort. It is about fraud, deception, and irresponsibility..." In an effort to "set apart legitimate journals and publishers from non-legitimate ones", principles of transparency and best practice have been identified and issued collectively by the Committee on Publication Ethics, the DOAJ, the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association, and the World Association of Medical Editors. Various journal review websites (crowd-sourced or expert-run) have been started, some focusing on the quality of the peer review process and extending to non-OA publications. A group of libraries and publishers launched an awareness campaign. A number of measures have been suggested to further combat predatory journals. Others have called on research institutions to improve the publication literacy notably among junior researchers in developing countries. Some organisations have also developed criteria in which predatory publishers could be spotted through providing tips. As Beall has ascribed predatory publishing to a consequence of gold open access (particularly its author-pays variant), one researcher has argued for platinum open access, where the absence of article processing charges removes the publisher's conflict of interest in accepting article submissions. More objective discriminating metrics have been proposed, such as a "predatory score" and positive and negative journal quality indicators. Others have encouraged authors to consult subject-area expert-reviewed journal listings, such as the Directory of Nursing Journals, vetted by the International Academy of Nursing Editors and its collaborators. It has been argued that the incentives for fraud need to be removed. Bioethicist Arthur Caplan has warned that predatory publishing, fabricated data, and academic plagiarism erodes public confidence in the medical profession, devalues legitimate science, and undermines public support for evidence-based policy. In 2015, Rick Anderson, associate dean in the J. Willard Marriott Library, University of Utah, challenged the term itself: "what do we mean when we say 'predatory,' and is that term even still useful?... This question has become relevant because of that common refrain heard among Beall's critics: that he only examines one kind of predation—the kind that naturally crops up in the context of author-pays OA." Anderson suggests that the term "predatory" be retired in the context of scholarly publishing. "It's a nice, attention-grabbing word, but I'm not sure it's helpfully descriptive... it generates more heat than light." A 2017 article in The New York Times suggests that a significant number of academics are "eager" to publish their work in these journals, making the relationship more a "new and ugly symbiosis" than a case of scholars being exploited by "predators". Similarly, a study published in January 2018 found that "Scholars in the developing world felt that reputable Western journals might be prejudiced against them and sometimes felt more comfortable publishing in journals from the developing world. Other scholars were unaware of the reputation of the journals in which they published and would not have selected them had they known. However, some scholars said they would still have published in the same journals if their institution recognised them. The pressure to 'publish or perish' was another factor influencing many scholars' decisions to publish in these fast-turnaround journals. In some cases, researchers did not have adequate guidance and felt they lacked the knowledge of research to submit to a more reputable journal." In May 2018, the University Grants Commission in India removed 4,305 dubious journals from a list of publications used for evaluating academic performance. To further define and distinguish predatory journals, Leonhard Dobusch and Maximilian Heimstädt in 2019 proposed a tripartite classification of Open Access journals with below-average peer review quality. Based on their procedures, there would be 1) "aspirant" 2) "junk" and 3) "fake" journals. While aspirant journals are science-oriented despite their below-average peer review (e.g. student-run journals), junk and fake journals are predominantly or exclusively profit-oriented. Junk and fake Open Access journals have superficial or no peer review procedures, despite their claims of being peer-reviewed. In April, 2019, 43 participants from 10 countries met in Ottawa, Canada to formulate a consensus definition: “Predatory journals and publishers are entities that prioritize self-interest at the expense of scholarship and are characterized by false or misleading information, deviation from best editorial and publication practices, a lack of transparency, and/or the use of aggressive and indiscriminate solicitation practices.” Adequacy of peer review was not included in the definition because this factor was deemed too subjective to evaluate. Critics of this definition argued that excluding the quality of peer review from the definition "could strengthen rather than weaken" predatory journals. In March 2022, the InterAcademy Partnership published a report, Combatting Predatory Academic Journals and Conferences, with a series of recommendations. See also List of scholarly publishing stings Author mill Diploma mill Conflicts of interest in academic publishing (covers publishers' COIs) Hijacked journal Journalology Mega journal Open access journal Peer review failures Predatory conference Pseudo-scholarship Center for Promoting Ideas Explanatory notes References Further reading External links Think. Check. Submit. "Predatory journals: No definition, No defence. (2019). Nature. "Leading scholars and publishers from ten countries have agreed [on] a definition of predatory publishing that can protect scholarship." AMWA – EMWA – ISMPP Joint Position statement Open access (publishing) Ethically disputed business practices Ethically disputed research practices Deception

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제2차 세계 대전 개요

제2차 세계 대전 소개를 위해 정리한 개요이다. 제2차 세계 대전은 1939년부터 1945년까지 지속된 세계 대전으로, 미국, 소련, 영국 등의 연합국들과 나치 독일, 이탈리아 왕국, 일본 제국 등의 추축국 간의 전쟁이었다. 6천만여 명이 사망한, 세계의 역사에서 가장 참혹한 전쟁이었다. 제2차 세계 대전의 특징 추축국 대 연합국 유럽 전쟁 태평양 전쟁 현대전 기갑전 총력전 세계 대전 제2차 세계 대전의 원인 아시아에서의 제2차 세계 대전 발발 전 사건 유럽에서의 제2차 세계 대전 발발 전 사건 제국주의 팽창주의 베르사유 조약 제2차 세계 대전 참전국 제2차 세계 대전의 연합국 영국 프랑스 (1939년 9월 – 1940년 6월) / 자유 프랑스 (1940년 6월 – ) 소련 (1941년 6월 – ) 미국 (1941년 12월 – ) 중화민국 추축국 일본 제국 나치 독일 이탈리아 왕국 (1940년 6월 – 1943년 9월) / 이탈리아 사회공화국 (1943년 9월 – ) 헝가리 왕국 루마니아 왕국 불가리아 왕국 제2차 세계 대전 연표 제2차 세계 대전 이전 사건 연표 아시아에서의 제2차 세계 대전 발발 전 사건 유럽에서의 제2차 세계 대전 발발 전 사건 겨울전쟁 연표 북아프리카 전역 연표 제2차 세계 대전 연표 (1939년) 제2차 세계 대전 연표 (1940년) 제2차 세계 대전 연표 (1941년) 제2차 세계 대전 연표 (1942년) 제2차 세계 대전 연표 (1943년) 제2차 세계 대전 연표 (1944년) 제2차 세계 대전 연표 (1945년) 사건 연표 폴란드 침공 (1939년 9월 1일 – 10월 6일) 가짜 전쟁 (1939년 9월 3일 – 1940년 5월 10일) 대서양 전투 (1939년 9월 3일 – 1945년 5월 8일) 겨울 전쟁 (1939년 11월 30일 – 1940년 3월 13일) 베저위붕 작전 (1940년 4월 9일 – 6월 10일) 프랑스 공방전 (1940년 5월 10일 – 6월 25일) 다이너모 작전 (1940년 5월 26일 – 6월 4일) 영국 본토 항공전 (1940년 7월 10일 – 10월 31일) 유고슬라비아 침공 (1941년 4월 6일 - 17일) 바르바로사 작전 (1941년 6월 22일 – 12월 5일) 레닌그라드 포위전 (1941년 9월 8일 – 1944년 1월 27일) 모스크바 공방전 (1941년 10월 2일 – 1942년 1월 7일) 진주만 공격 (1941년 12월 7일) 네덜란드령 동인도 전역 (1942년 1월 11일 - 3월 9일) 싱가포르 전투 (1942년 2월 8일 – 15일) 산호해 해전 (1942년 5월 4일 – 8일) 미드웨이 해전 (1942년 6월 4일 – 7일) 제1차 엘 알라메인 전투 (1942년 7월 1일 – 27일) 과달카날 전역 (1942년 8월 7일 - 1943년 2월 9일) 디에프 기습 (1942년 8월 19일) 스탈린그라드 전투 (1942년 8월 23일 – 1943년 2월 2일) 제2차 엘 알라메인 전투 (1942년 10월 23일 – 11월 11일) 횃불 작전 (1942년 11월 8일 – 16일) 쿠르스크 전투 (1943년 7월 5일 – 8월 23일) 연합군의 시칠리아 침공 (1943년 7월 9일 – 8월 17일) 연합군의 이탈리아 침공 (1943년 9월 3일 – 17일) 몬테카시노 전투 (1944년 1월 17일 – 5월 18일) 싱글 작전 (1944년 1월 22일 – 6월 5일) 임팔 전투 (1944년 3월 8일 - 7월 3일) 노르망디 상륙 (1944년 6월 6일) 바그라티온 작전 (1944년 6월 22일 – 8월 19일) 용기병 작전 (1944년 8월 15일 – 9월 14일) 마켓 가든 작전 (1944년 9월 17일 – 25일) 휘르트겐 숲 전투 (1944년 9월 19일 – 12월 16일) 벌지 전투 (1944년 12월 16일 – 1945년 1월 25일) 도쿄 대공습 (1945년 3월 10일) 베를린 공방전 (1945년 4월 16일 – 5월 2일) 유럽 전승 기념일 (1945년 5월 8일) 히로시마·나가사키 원자폭탄 투하 (1945년 8월 6일, 8월 9일) 만주 전략공세작전 (1945년 8월 9일 - 8월 20일) 대일 전승 기념일 (1945년 8월 15일) 지역별 제2차 세계 대전 유럽 전구 서부 전선 동부 전선 이탈리아 전역 지중해 및 중동 전구 서아프리카 전역 동아프리카 전역 태평양 전쟁 동남아시아 전역 나라별 제2차 세계 대전 그리스 그린란드 독일 루마니아 미국 미얀마 불가리아 영국 지브롤터 유고슬라비아 이탈리아 헝가리 제2차 세계 대전의 훈장 독일 철십자 미국 명예 훈장 은성훈장 수훈 비행 십자장 에어 메달 소련 소비에트 연방영웅 레닌 훈장 적기훈장 영국 빅토리아 훈장 바스 훈장 대영 제국 훈장 제2차 세계 대전의 종전과 여파 유럽의 제2차 세계 대전 종전 냉전 초강대국 각주 제2차 세계 대전

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline%20of%20World%20War%20II

Outline of World War II

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to World War II: World War II, or the Second World War was a global military conflict that was fought between September 1, 1939, and September 2, 1945. The war pitted two major military alliances against each other: the Allies of the United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, China and others against the Axis of Germany, Japan, Italy and others. Over 60 million people, the majority of them civilians, were killed, making it the deadliest conflict in human history. The Second World War was known for modern warfare and tactics such as air warfare, strategic bombing, blitzkrieg and the first, and only, use of nuclear weapons in warfare. It is also known for the numerous war crimes committed during its duration, mostly by Axis forces but also by Allied forces, that left tens of millions of civilians dead through genocides, massacres and starvation; such as the Holocaust, Three Alls Policy, Genocide of ethnic Poles, Unit 731, Nanjing massacre, Hunger Plan and the Warsaw Uprising. Causes of World War II World War I Treaty of Versailles Imperialism, expansionism and nationalism Expansionist nationalism Lebensraum Japanese nationalism Events preceding World War II in Europe Nazi Party Adolf Hitler Events preceding World War II in Asia Statism in Shōwa Japan Japanese invasion of Manchuria Xi'an Incident Second Sino-Japanese war Participants in World War II The Axis powers Major Axis powers Germany Japan Italy Other Axis powers Hungary Romania Slovakia Bulgaria Croatia Finland The Allied powers The 'Big Five' major allies Soviet Union United States United Kingdom China France Other major allies Poland Yugoslavia Greece Canada Netherlands Belgium Czechoslovakia India Australia People in World War II Leaders in World War II Axis leaders Adolf Hitler – Führer (leader) of Germany Hirohito – Emperor of Japan Benito Mussolini – Prime Minister of Italy Allied leaders Joseph Stalin – Leader of the Soviet Union Franklin D. Roosevelt – President of the United States Winston Churchill – Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Chiang Kai-shek – Leader of China Military forces of World War II List of World War II aces by country List of World War II air aces British 51st (Highland) Infantry Division (World War II) British Army Groups in WWII British Brigades in World War II British Corps in World War II 17th Airborne Division 18th Airborne Division Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust History of the Jews during World War II List of individuals and groups assisting Jews during the Holocaust American Minority Groups in World War II Hispanic Americans in World War II Timeline of World War II The following list includes some of the largest events in World War II: 1939 August 23: Germany and the Soviet Union sign a non-aggression pact September 1: Germany invades Poland, beginning the war September 3: War is declared on Germany by the United Kingdom and France, the Battle of the Atlantic and Phoney War begins September 17: After the Soviet Union defeats Japan in Mongolia, they invade Poland as well November 30: The Soviet Union invades Finland 1940 April 9: Germany invades Denmark and Norway May 10: Germany invades France and the low countries May 26: British troops evacuate Dunkirk July 10: Germany begins an air campaign against Britain September 7: Germany begins a major bombing campaign against Britain 1941 June 22: Germany invades the Soviet Union September 8: The Siege of Leningrad begins October 2: The Battle of Moscow begins December 7: Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, bringing the United States into the war 1942 February 8: Fall of Singapore May 4: Battle of the Coral Sea June 4: Battle of Midway July 1: First Battle of El Alamein July 17: Battle of Stalingrad August 19: Dieppe Raid October 23: Second Battle of El Alamein November 8: Operation Torch 1943 July 4: Battle of Kursk July 9: Allied invasion of Sicily September 3: Allied invasion of Italy and surrender of Italy 1944 January 17: Battle of Monte Cassino January 22: Landings at Anzio April 19: Operation Ichi-Go June 6: D-day June 22: Destruction of Army Group Center August 1: Warsaw Uprising August 15: Invasion of Southern France September 17: Operation Market Garden September 19: Battle of Hürtgen Forest October 23: Battle of Leyte Gulf December 16: Battle of the Bulge 1945 April 16 - May 2: Battle of Berlin May 8: Victory in Europe Day August 6 and 9: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki August 15: Victory over Japan Day September 2: Surrender of Japan World War II by region Theatres and major campaigns Europe Eastern front Western front Mediterranean and Middle Eastern theatre Italian Campaign Arctic theatre Arctic convoys Asia Second Sino-Japanese War South-East Asian Theatre Pacific Ocean theatre Africa For all theatres in Africa, see: North African campaign West Africa campaign East African campaign Other Home front during World War II By country Europe Albania Belarus Bulgaria Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II Carpathian Ruthenia Estonia Occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany Finland France Germany Nazi Germany Gibraltar Greece Axis occupation of Greece during World War II Hungary Ireland Italy Italian Campaign Allied invasion of Sicily Allied invasion of Italy Latvia Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany Leningrad Oblast Netherlands Soviet Union Spain United Kingdom Yugoslavia Invasion of Yugoslavia Occupation of Baltic republics by Nazi Germany Occupation of Belarus by Nazi Germany Occupation of Denmark German occupation of the Channel Islands Orders, decorations, and medals of Nazi Germany History of Poland (1939–1945) Invasion of Poland Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany Soviet invasion of Poland Slovak invasion of Poland Occupation of Poland (1939–1945) Administrative division of Polish territories during World War II War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II Polish culture during World War II Romania Asia Burma India Nepal Philippines Vietnam Africa Egypt South Africa Southern Rhodesia Oceania Australia New Zealand Axis naval activity in New Zealand waters The Americas United States Canada Greenland War crimes The Second World War was characterized by many instances of War crimes: Genocide The Holocaust Nazism Nazi Party Nazi eugenics Political views of Adolf Hitler Anti-Jewish legislation in prewar Nazi Germany Diary of Anne Frank Nazi book burnings Nazi ghettos Nazi concentration camps Nazi extermination camps Auschwitz Belzec Chełmno Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka History of Jews in Europe List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust Nazi human experimentation Racial policy of Nazi Germany Other genocides Nazi genocide of ethnic Poles Romani genocide Massacres Three Alls Policy Nanjing massacre Massacres during the Warsaw Uprising Wola massacre Ochota massacre Katyn massacre Mistreatment of civilians Comfort women Unit 731 Rape during the occupation of Germany Population transfer in the Soviet Union Technology during World War II Technology during World War II German military technology during World War II Allied technological cooperation during World War II Technological escalation during World War II Equipment of World War II Lists of World War II military equipment Equipment losses in World War II Vehicles of World War II List of World War II military vehicles by country List of World War II military vehicles of Germany List of World War II ship classes List of World War II ships List of World War II ships of less than 1000 tons List of WW2 Luftwaffe aircraft by manufacturer List of aircraft of Italy, World War II List of aircraft of Japan, World War II List of aircraft of Russia, World War II List of aircraft of World War II List of aircraft of the French Air Force during World War II List of aircraft of the British, World War II List of aircraft of the Luftwaffe, World War II List of aircraft of the U.S. military, World War II List of armored fighting vehicles of World War II List of broadsides of major World War II ships List of undersea-carried planes during World War II List of weapons on Japanese combat aircraft List of prototype WWII combat vehicles List of foreign vehicles used by Nazi Germany in World War II List of helicopters used in World War II List of jet aircraft of World War II List of limited service World War II combat vehicles Weapons of World War II Nazi chocolate bar bomb Nazi belt buckle pistol Other initiatives in World War II Nazi plunder Propaganda during World War II American propaganda during World War II Walt Disney's World War II propaganda production List of Allied propaganda films of World War II British propaganda during World War II Nazi propaganda Soviet propaganda during World War II Common military awards Soviet Union Hero of the Soviet Union Order of Lenin Order of Suvorov Order of the October Revolution Order of the Red Banner Order of Victory United States Medal of Honor Purple Heart Silver Star Bronze Star Distinguished Flying Cross Air Medal World War II Victory Medal Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal American Campaign Medal United Kingdom Victoria Cross Air Force Cross Order of the Bath Order of the British Empire Distinguished Flying Cross Africa Star Pacific Star France and Belgium Croix de Guerre Poland Cross of the Valorous Order of Polonia Restituta Virtuti Militari Nazi Germany Iron Cross Aftermath of World War II The end of World War II End of World War II in Europe End of World War II in the Pacific Immediate events War reparations Japanese reparations Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union Nuremberg trials The post-war world Cold War Emergence of United States and USSR as global superpowers NATO Warsaw Pact Iron Curtain Proxy wars Decolonization Post–World War II baby boom Pursuit of Nazi collaborators World War II in popular culture See also Lists of World War II topics Opposition to World War II Outline of war Outline of World War I Notes References Bibliography External links Directories Yahoo—"World War II" Directory of Online World War II Indexes & Records WWW-VL: History: WWII General World War II Database The Second World War—Spartacus Educational Deutsche Welle special section on World War II created by one of Germany's public broadcasters on World War II and the world 60 years after. Canada and WWII End of World War II in Germany World War II Encyclopedia by the History Channel World War II Awards and their recipients. Media U.S. National Archives Photos World War II Poster Collection hosted by the University of North Texas Libraries' *Digital Collections World War II Propaganda Leaflet Archive World War 2 Pictures In Colour Multimedia map—Presentation that covers the war from the invasion of the Soviet Union to the fall of Berlin Radio news from 1938 to 1945 The Art of War Online Exhibition at the UK National Archive On-line documents World War II Military Situation Maps. Library of Congress After Action Reports (AAR's) and other official documents about the American Divisions during the Second World War Maps from the Pacific and Italian theaters Officially Declassified U.S. Government Documents about World War II The Soviet History of World War II, 28 October 1959—Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Current Intelligence. Daily German action reports Stories WW2 People's War—A project by the BBC to gather the stories of ordinary people from World War II Documentaries The World at War (1974) is a 26-part Thames Television series that covers most aspects of World War II from many points of view. It includes interviews with many key figures (Karl Dönitz, Albert Speer, Anthony Eden etc.) (Imdb link) The Second World War in Colour (1999) is a three episode documentary showing unique footage in color (Imdb link) Battlefield (documentary series) is a television documentary series initially issued in 1994–1995 that explores many of the most important battles fought during the Second World War. The War'' (2007) is 7-part PBS documentary recounting the experiences of a number of individuals from American communities. World War II World War II outline

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B1%EB%A0%B9%20%28%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%85%EA%B5%90%29

성령 (기독교)

기독교의 성령 (Holy Spirit in Christianity)은 기독교에서 삼위일체 하느님가운데 제 3위이시다. 대부분의 기독교 교파 들에게 성령 혹은 성신은 삼위 일체의 3위 ( hypostasis)이다 : 삼위 일체의 하느님은 성부 하느님 , 성자 하느님, 성령 하느님으로 나타난다. 따라서 하느님은 각 각의 인격으로 계신다. 삼위 일체 교리를 거부하는 비삼위일체론자들은 주류 기독교와 성령에 대한 그들의 신앙 이 크게 다르며 일반적으로 유니테리언니즘, 비니테리안, 양태론 및 다른 여러 이단들이 이 범주에 속한다. 일부 기독교 신학자들은 성령을 유대인 성경에 있는 Ruach Hakodesh (하코데쉬의 영), Elohim (하느님의 영 ), Ruach YHWH (야웨의 영), Ruach Hakmah (지혜의 성령 ) 등과 동일한 분으로 본다. 신약 성경에서 그분은 그리스도의 영, 진리의 영, 보혜사 및 성령과 동일하다. 신약은 예수의 지상의 삶과 사역 중에서 성령과 사이의 긴밀한 관계에 대해 자세히 설명한다. 마태와 누가의 복음서와 니케아 신조는 예수님은 " 마리아로 부터성령에 의해서 잉태되었다고 진술한다. 성령은 예수가 침례를 받는 동안 비둘기처럼 그에게 내려 왔으며 최후의 만찬이 끝난 후 그의 작별 담화에서 예수님은 떠나신한 후에 성령을 제자들에게 보내겠다고 약속 하셨다. 성령은 니케아 신조 (Nicene Creed)에서 "주님, 생명의 주"라고 불리며, 많은 기독교 교단이 지니고 있는 몇 가지 핵심 신념을 요약한다. 개종의 삼자 일체 성령에 성령의 참여는 마태 복음의 마지막 부분에 있는 제자들에 대한 예수님의 부활 후 마지막 가르침에서 분명하다 ( 28:19 ). "모든 민족을 제자로 삼아 성부와 성자의 이름으로 세례를 주고 " 와 " 두세 사람이 내 이름으로 함께 모인 곳에 나도 그 가운데 있다 "라고 말했다. 1 세기 이래로 그리스도인들은 삼위 일체 공식 "아버지, 아들, 성령"의 이름으로 기도와 용서, 축복에서 하느님께 구했다. 사도 행전의 책에서 성령의 강림은 그리스도의 부활 후 50 일째에 일어났고 현재 오순절의 절기를 맞아 그리스도교 국가에서 기념되고 있다. 기독교 신학에서 성령론은 성령을 연구하는 학문을 말한다. 어원학 및 사용법 코이네 헬라어 pneûma ( , pneuma )은 신약 성서에서 약 385 번 발견되며 일부 학자는 3-9 번 차이가있다. Pneuma는 4 개의 정경 복음서에서 105 번, 사도 행전에서 69 번, 바오로 인 서신서에서 161 번, 다른 곳에서 50 번 나타난다. 이러한 용도는 다양하다 : 133 건의 경우, 일반적인 의미의 "정신"과 153 가지의 "영적"을 의미한다.   약 93 번, 성령에 대한 언급 때때로 pneuma라는 이름으로 그리고 때로는 명시 적으로 paûûma tò Hagion ( ). (경우에 따라 단순히 바람 이나 삶 을 의미하기 위해 일반적으로 사용되기도 한다. 그것은 일반적으로 벌 게이트 역에서는 영(Spiritus) 및 성령()으로 번역되었다. 영어 용어 "성신"과 "성령"은 완전한 동의어이다: 하나가에서 유래 고대 영어 가스트 과에서 다른 라틴어 외래어의 . 프뉴마처럼, 두 용어는 호흡, 애니메이션 힘 과에 영혼을 언급한다. 고전 영어 용어는 다른 모든 게르만 어 (예: 독일 가이스트 비교)와 비슷하지만 좀더 오래되었고, 킹 제임스 바이블(King James Bible)은 상호 교환적으로 사용하였으며 20세기의 성경 번역들은 "성령"을 압도적으로 선호한다. 일반적인 영어 용어 "유령"은 점점 더 죽은 사람의 정신만을 언급하게 되었다. 이름 유대인 성경 출처 : וְר֣וּחַ קָדְשׁ֑וֹ (Ruah qadesow) - 성령 ( 이사야 63:10) וְר֣וּחַ קָ֝דְשְׁךָ֗ (Ruah qadseḵa) - 성령 ( 시편 51:11) וְר֣וּחַ אֱלֹהִ֔ים (Ruah Elohim) - 하나님의 영 ( 창세 1 : 2) נִשְׁמַת-ר֨וּחַ חַיִּ֜ים (Nismat Ruah hayyim) - 생명의 생명의 숨결 (창세 7:22) ר֣וּחַ יְהוָ֑ה (Ruah YHWH) - 영의 영 (이사야 11 : 2) 지혜의 영 (이사야 11 : 2) 지혜의 영 (눅 11 : 2) ר֤וּחַ עֵצָה֙ וּגְבוּרָ֔ה (Ruah esah ugeburah) - 변호의 정신과 능력 (이사야 11 : 2) 지식의 정신과 야웨의 두려움 (이사야 11 : 2) 신약 성서 πνεύματος ἁγίου (Pneumatos Hagiou) - 성령 (Mt 1,18) πνεύματι θεοῦ (Pneumati Theou) - 신의 정신 (Mt 12,28) ὁ παράκλητος (Ho Paraclētos) - The Intercesor (Jn 16,7) πνεμμα τῆς ἀληθείας (Pneuma tēs Alētheias) - 진리의 영 (Jn 16, 13) Πνεῦμα Χριστοῦ (Pneuma Christou) - 그리스도의 영 (1 Pt, 11) πνεμμα (Pneuma) - 성령(Jn 3,8) Πνεύματος (Pneumatos) - 성령(Jn 3,8) 성령의 숭배 이슬람의 성령 유대교의 성령 성령의 중보 기적 하나님의 일곱 영 참고 문헌 출처 Charles Williams, The descent of the Dove: a short history of the Holy Spirit in the church (1950) Faber, London Catechism of the Catholic Church: CHAPTER THREE. I BELIEVE IN THE HOLY SPIRIT (nos. 683–686); ARTICLE 8. "I BELIEVE IN THE HOLY SPIRIT" (nos. 687–747) 삼상신 기독교의 신 기독교 용어 성령 삼위일체 성령론

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy%20Spirit%20in%20Christianity

Holy Spirit in Christianity

For the majority of Christian denominations, the Holy Spirit, or Holy Ghost, is believed to be the third person of the Trinity, a triune God manifested as God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit, each being God. Nontrinitarian Christians, who reject the doctrine of the Trinity, differ significantly from mainstream Christianity in their beliefs about the Holy Spirit. In Christian theology, pneumatology is the study of the Holy Spirit. Due to Christianity's historical relationship with Judaism, theologians often identify the Holy Spirit with the concept of the Ruach Hakodesh in Jewish scripture, on the theory that Jesus was expanding upon these Jewish concepts. Similar names, and ideas, include the Ruach Elohim (Spirit of God), Ruach YHWH (Spirit of Yahweh), and the Ruach Hakodesh (Holy Spirit). In the New Testament it is identified with the Spirit of Christ, the Spirit of Truth, the Paraclete and the Holy Spirit. The New Testament details a close relationship between the Holy Spirit and Jesus during his earthly life and ministry. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke and the Nicene Creed state that Jesus was "conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary". The Holy Spirit descended on Jesus like a dove during his baptism, and in his Farewell Discourse after the Last Supper Jesus promised to send the Holy Spirit to his disciples after his departure. The Holy Spirit is referred to as "the Lord, the Giver of Life" in the Nicene Creed, which summarises several key beliefs held by many Christian denominations. The participation of the Holy Spirit in the tripartite nature of conversion is apparent in Jesus' final post-resurrection instruction to his disciples at the end of the Gospel of Matthew, "Make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them into the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit." Since the first century, Christians have also called upon God with the trinitarian formula "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" in prayer, absolution and benediction. In the book of the Acts of the Apostles the arrival of the Holy Spirit happens fifty days after the resurrection of the Christ, and is celebrated in Christendom with the feast of Pentecost. Etymology and usage The Koine Greek word pneûma (, pneuma) is found around 385 times in the New Testament, with some scholars differing by three to nine occurrences. Pneuma appears 105 times in the four canonical gospels, 69 times in the Acts of the Apostles, 161 times in the Pauline epistles, and 50 times elsewhere. These usages vary: in 133 cases it refers to "spirit" and in 153 cases to "spiritual". Around 93 times, the reference is to the Holy Spirit, sometimes under the name pneuma and sometimes explicitly as the pneûma tò Hagion (). (In a few cases it is also simply used generically to mean wind or life.) It was generally translated into the Vulgate as Spiritus and . The English terms "Holy Ghost" and "Holy Spirit" are complete synonyms: one derives from the Old English gast and the other from the Latin loanword . Like pneuma, they both refer to the breath, to its animating power, and to the soul. The Old English term is shared by all other Germanic languages (compare, e.g., the German Geist) and it is older; the King James Bible typically uses "Holy Ghost". Beginning in the 20th century, translations overwhelmingly prefer "Holy Spirit", partly because the general English term "ghost" has increasingly come to refer only to the spirit of a dead person. Names Hebrew Bible Source: וְר֣וּחַ קָדְשׁ֑וֹ (rûaḥ qādəšô) – His Holy Spirit (Isaiah 63:10) וְר֣וּחַ קָ֝דְשְׁךָ֗ (rûaḥ qādəšəkā) – Your Holy Spirit (Psalm 51:11) וְר֣וּחַ אֱלֹהִ֔ים (rûaḥ ĕlōhîm) – Spirit of God (Genesis 1:2) נִשְׁמַת־ר֨וּחַ חַיִּ֜ים (nišəmat-rûaḥ ḥayîm) – The Breath of the Spirit of Life (Genesis 7:22) ר֣וּחַ יְהוָ֑ה (rûaḥ YHWH) – Spirit of YHWH (Isaiah 11:2) ר֧וּחַ חָכְמָ֣ה וּבִינָ֗ה (rûaḥ ḥākəmâ ûbînâ) – Spirit of Wisdom and Understanding (Isaiah 11:2) ר֤וּחַ עֵצָה֙ וּגְבוּרָ֔ה (rûaḥ ʿēṣâ ûgəbûra) – Spirit of Counsel and Might (Isaiah 11:2) ר֥וּחַ דַּ֖עַת וְיִרְאַ֥ת יְהוָֽה (rûaḥ daʿat wəyīrəʾat YHWH) – Spirit of Knowledge and Fear of YHWH (Isaiah 11:2) New Testament πνεύματος ἁγίου (Pneumatos Hagiou) – Holy Spirit (Matthew 1:18) πνεύματι θεοῦ (Pneumati Theou) – Spirit of God (Matthew 12:28) ὁ παράκλητος (Ho Paraclētos) – The Comforter, cf. Paraclete John 14:26 (John 16:7) πνεῦμα τῆς ἀληθείας (Pneuma tēs Alētheias) – Spirit of Truth (John 16:13) Πνεῦμα Χριστοῦ (Pneuma Christou) – Spirit of Christ (1 Peter 1:11) Depending on context: πνεῦμα (Pneuma) – Spirit (John 3:8) Πνεύματος (Pneumatos) – Spirit (John 3:8) Biblical portrayal Old Testament What the Hebrew Bible calls "Spirit of God" and "Spirit of Elohim" is called in the Talmud and Midrash "Holy Spirit" (ruacḥ ha-kodesh). Although the expression "Holy Spirit" occurs in Ps. 51:11 and in Isa. 63:10–11, it had not yet acquired quite the same meaning which was attached to it in rabbinical literature: in the latter it is equivalent to the expression "Spirit of the Lord". In Gen.1:2 God's spirit hovered over the form of lifeless matter, thereby making the Creation possible. Although the ruach ha-kodesh may be named instead of God, it was conceived of as being something distinct; and, like everything earthly that comes from heaven, the ruach ha-kodesh is composed of light and fire. The most characteristic sign of the presence of the ruach ha-kodesh is the gift of prophecy. The use of the word "ruach" (Hebrew: "breath", or "wind") in the phrase ruach ha-kodesh seems to suggest that Judaic authorities believed the Holy Spirit was a kind of communication medium like the wind. The spirit talks sometimes with a masculine and sometimes with a feminine voice; the word ruacḥ is both masculine and feminine. New Testament The term Holy Spirit appears at least 90 times in the New Testament. The sacredness of the Holy Spirit to Christians is affirmed in all three Synoptic Gospels, which proclaim that blasphemy against the Holy Spirit is the unforgivable sin. The participation of the Holy Spirit in the Trinity is suggested in Jesus' final post-Resurrection instruction to his disciples at the end of the Gospel of Matthew (28:19): "Go ye therefore, and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them into the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit". Synoptic Gospels The Holy Spirit is mentioned by all three authors of the synoptic Gospels. Most of the references are by the author of the Gospel of Luke; this emphasis is continued by the same author in the Book of Acts. The Holy Spirit does not simply appear for the first time at Pentecost after the resurrection of Jesus, but is present in Luke (in chapters 1 and 2) prior to the birth of Jesus. In Luke 1:15, John the Baptist was said to be "filled with the Holy Spirit" prior to his birth, and the Holy Spirit came upon the Virgin Mary in Luke 1:35. Later, in Luke 3:16, John the Baptist stated that Jesus baptized not with water but with the Holy Spirit; and the Holy Spirit descended on Jesus during his baptism in the Jordan River. In Luke 11:13, Jesus provided assurances that God the Father would "give the Holy Spirit to those who ask him". Mark 13:11 specifically refers to the power of the Holy Spirit to act and speak through the disciples of Jesus in time of need: "Be not anxious beforehand what ye shall speak: but whatsoever shall be given you in that hour, that speak ye; for it is not ye that speak, but the Holy Spirit." Matthew 10:20 refers to the same act of speaking through the disciples, but uses the term "Spirit of your Father". Acts of the Apostles The Acts of the Apostles has sometimes been called the "Book of the Holy Spirit" or the "Acts of the Holy Spirit". Of the seventy or so occurrences of the word Pneuma in Acts, fifty-five refer to the Holy Spirit. From the start, in Acts 1:2, the reader is reminded that the ministry of Jesus, while he was on earth, was carried out through the power of the Holy Spirit and that the "acts of the apostles" continue the acts of Jesus and are also facilitated by the Holy Spirit. Acts presents the Holy Spirit as the "life principle" of the early Church and provides five separate and dramatic instances of its outpouring on believers in Acts 2:1–4, 4:28–31, 8:15–17, 10:44, and 19:6. References to the Holy Spirit appear throughout Acts, for example Acts 1:5 and 8 stating towards the beginning, "For John indeed baptized with water; but ye shall be baptized in the Holy Spirit. ...Ye shall receive power, when the Holy Spirit is come upon you", referring to the fulfillment of the prophecy of John the Baptist in Luke 3:16, "he shall baptize you in the Holy Spirit". Johannine literature Three separate terms, namely Holy Spirit, Spirit of Truth and Paraclete are used in the Johannine writings. The "Spirit of Truth" is used in John 14:17, 15:26, and 16:13. The First Epistle of John then contrasts this with the "spirit of error" in 1 John 4:6. 1 John 4:1–6 provides the separation between spirits "that confesseth that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh is of God" and those who in error refuse it – an indication of their being evil spirits. In John 14:26, Jesus states: "But the Comforter, [even] the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, he shall teach you all things". The identity of the "Comforter" has been the subject of debate among theologians, who have proposed multiple theories on the matter. Pauline epistles The Holy Spirit plays a key role in the Pauline epistles; and the Apostle Paul's pneumatology is closely connected to his theology and Christology, to the point of being almost inseparable from them. The First Epistle to the Thessalonians, which was likely the first of Paul's letters, introduces a characterization of the Holy Spirit in 1 Thessalonians 1:6 and 1 Thessalonians 4:8 which is found throughout his epistles. In 1 Thessalonians 1:6 Paul refers to the imitation of Christ (and himself) and states: "And ye became imitators of us, and of the Lord, having received the word in much affliction, with joy of the Holy Spirit", whose source is identified in 1 Thessalonians 4:8 as "God, who giveth his Holy Spirit unto you". These two themes of receiving the Spirit "like Christ" and God being the source of the Spirit persist in Pauline letters as the characterization of the relationship of Christians with God. For Paul the imitation of Christ involves readiness to be shaped by the Holy Spirit, as in Romans 8:4 and 8:11: "But if the Spirit of him that raised up Jesus from the dead dwelleth in you, he that raised up Christ Jesus from the dead shall give life also to your mortal bodies through his Spirit that dwelleth in you." The First Epistle to the Thessalonians also refers to the power of the Holy Spirit in 1 Thessalonians 1:5, a theme also found in other Pauline letters. In the Apocrypha The view of the Holy Spirit as responsible for Mary's pregnancy, found in the Synoptic Gospels, is different from that found in the apocryphal Gospel of the Hebrews, adopted as canonical by the 4th century Nazarenes, in which Jesus speaks of the Holy Spirit as his mother and thus as female. Some thought femininity incompatible with the idea that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit; according to the apocryphal Gospel of Philip, for example, Some say, "Mary conceived by the Holy Spirit." They are in error. They do not know what they are saying. When did a woman ever conceive by a woman? Jesus and the Holy Spirit The New Testament details a close relationship between the Holy Spirit and Jesus during his earthly life and ministry. The Apostles' Creed echoes the statements in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, stating that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary. Specific New Testament references to the interaction of Jesus and the Holy Spirit during his earthly life, and the enabling power of the Holy Spirit during his ministry include: "Spirit without measure" having been given to Jesus in John 3:34, referring to the word spoken by Jesus (Rhema) being the words of God. Baptism of Jesus, with the Holy Spirit descending on him as a dove in Matthew 3:13–17, Mark 1:9–11 and Luke 3:21–23. Temptation of Jesus, in Matthew 4:1 the Holy Spirit led Jesus to the desert to be tempted. The Spirit casting out demons in Exorcising the blind and mute man miracle. Rejoice the Spirit in Luke 10:21 where seventy disciples are sent out by Jesus. Acts 1:2 states that until his death and resurrection, Jesus "had given commandment through the Holy Spirit unto the apostles". Referring to the sacrifice of Jesus to be crucified out of obedience to the father, Hebrews 9:14 states that Jesus "through the eternal Spirit offered himself without blemish unto God". In his Farewell Discourse to his disciples, Jesus promised that he would "send the Holy Spirit" to them after his departure, in John 15:26 stating: "whom I will send unto you from the Father, [even] the Spirit of truth ... shall bear witness of me". Mainstream doctrines The theology of spirits is called pneumatology. The Holy Spirit is referred to as the Lord and Giver of Life in the Nicene creed. He is the Creator Spirit, present before the creation of the universe and through his power everything was made in Jesus Christ, by God the Father. Christian hymns such as "Veni Creator Spiritus" ("Come, Creator Spirit") reflect this belief. In early Christianity, the concept of salvation was closely related to the invocation of the "Father, Son and Holy Spirit", and since the first century, Christians have called upon God with the name "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" in prayer, baptism, communion, exorcism, hymn-singing, preaching, confession, absolution and benediction. This is reflected in the saying: "Before there was a 'doctrine' of the Trinity, Christian prayer invoked the Holy Trinity". For the majority of Christian denominations, the Holy Spirit is the third Person of the Holy Trinity – Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and is Almighty God. As such he is personal and also fully God, co-equal and co-eternal with God the Father and Son of God. He is different from the Father and the Son in that he proceeds from the Father (and, according to Roman Catholics, Old Catholics, Lutherans, Anglicans, and other Protestants, from the Father and the Son) as described in the Nicene Creed. The Triune God is thus manifested as three Persons (Greek hypostases), in One Divine Being (Greek: Ousia), called the Godhead (from Old English: Godhood), the Divine Essence of God. In the New Testament, by the power of the Holy Spirit Jesus was conceived in the womb of the Virgin Mary, while maintaining her virginity. The Holy Spirit descended over Jesus in a corporeal way, as a dove, at the time of his baptism, and a voice from Heaven was heard: "This is my beloved Son with whom I am well pleased." He is the Sanctifier, the Helper, Comforter, the Giver of graces, he who leads persons to the Father and the Son. The Holy Spirit is credited with inspiring believers and allowing for them to interpret all the sacred scripture, and leads prophets both in Old Testament and New Testament. Christians receive the Fruits of the Holy Spirit by means of his mercy and grace. God the Holy Spirit The Christian doctrine of the Trinity includes the concept of God the Holy Spirit, along with God the Son and God the Father. Theologian Vladimir Lossky has argued that while, in the act of the Incarnation, God the Son became manifest as the Son of God, the same did not take place for God the Holy Spirit which remained unrevealed. Yet, as in 1 Corinthians 6:19, God the Spirit continues to dwell in the faithful. In a similar way, the Latin treatise De Trinitate (On the Trinity) of Augustine of Hippo affirms: "For as the Father is God, and the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, which no one doubts to be said in respect to substance, yet we do not say that the very Supreme Trinity itself is three Gods, but one God. ...But position, and condition, and places, and times, are not said to be in God properly, but metaphorically and through similitudes. ...And as respects action (or making), perhaps it may be said most truly of God alone, for God alone makes and Himself is not made. Nor is He liable to passions as far as belongs to that substance whereby He is God. ...So the Father is omnipotent, the Son omnipotent, and the Holy Spirit is omnipotent; yet not three omnipotents, but one omnipotent. ...Whatever, therefore, is spoken of God in respect to Himself, is both spoken singly of each Person, that is, of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit; and together of the Trinity itself, not plurally but in the singular." In Christian theology the Holy Spirit is believed to perform specific divine functions in the life of the Christian or the church. The action of the Holy Spirit is seen as an essential part of the bringing of the person to the Christian faith. The new believer is "born again of the Spirit". The Holy Spirit enables Christian life by dwelling in the individual believers and enables them to live a righteous and faithful life. The Holy Spirit also acts as comforter or Paraclete, one who intercedes, or supports or acts as an advocate, particularly in times of trial. And he acts to convince the unredeemed person both of the sinfulness of their actions and of their moral standing as sinners before God. Another faculty of the Holy Spirit is the inspiration and interpretation of scripture. The Holy Spirit both inspires the writing of the scriptures and interprets them to the Christian and the church. Procession of the Holy Spirit In John 15:26, Jesus says of the Holy Spirit: "But when the Helper comes, whom I will send to you from the Father, the Spirit of truth, who proceeds from the Father, he will bear witness about me." In 325, the First Council of Nicaea, being the first ecumenical council, ended its Creed with the words "and in the Holy Spirit". In 381, the First Council of Constantinople, being the second ecumenical council, expanded the Creed and stated that Holy Spirit "proceeds from the Father" (ἐκ τοῦ Πατρὸς ἐκπορευόμενον). This phrase was based on John 15:26 (ὃ παρὰ τοῦ πατρὸς ἐκπορεύεται). In 451, the Council of Chalcedon, being the fourth ecumenical council, affirmed the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed. During the same time, the question of procession of the Holy Spirit was addressed by various Christian theologians, expressing diverse views and using different terminology, thus initiating the debate that became focused on the Filioque clause. In 589, the Third Council of Toledo in its third canon officially accepted the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father and the Son (a Patre et Filio procedere). During the next few centuries, two distinctive schools of thought were gradually shaped, Eastern and Western. Eastern theologians were teaching that Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father only (notion referred as monoprocessionism), while Western theologians were teaching that Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son (notion referred as filioquism). Debates and controversies between two sides became a significant point of difference within Christian pneumatology, inclusive of their historical role in setting the stage for the Great Schism of 1054. Fruit and Gifts of the Spirit The fruit of the Holy Spirit consists of "permanent dispositions" (in this similar to the permanent character of the sacraments), virtuous characteristics engendered in the Christian by the action of the Holy Spirit. Galatians 5:22–23 names nine aspects and states: But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, long-suffering, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, meekness, self-control; against such there is no law. In the Epistle to the Galatians these nine characteristics are in contrast to the "works of the flesh" and highlight the positive manifestations of the work of the Holy Spirit in believers. The "gifts of the Holy Spirit" are distinct from the Fruit of the Spirit, and consist of specific abilities granted to the individual Christian. They are frequently known by the Greek word for gift, charisma, in English charism, from which the term charismatic derives. There is no generally agreed upon exhaustive list of the gifts, and various Christian denominations use different lists, often drawing upon 1 Corinthians, Romans 12 and Ephesians 4. Pentecostal denominations and the charismatic movement teach that the absence of the supernatural gifts was due to the neglect of the Holy Spirit and his work by the major denominations. Believers in the relevance of the supernatural gifts sometimes speak of a Baptism with the Holy Spirit or Filling with the Holy Spirit which the Christian needs to experience in order to receive those gifts. However, many Christian denominations hold that the Baptism with the Holy Spirit is identical with conversion, and that all Christians are by definition baptized in the Holy Spirit. The "seven gifts of the Holy Spirit" are poured out on a believer at baptism, and are traditionally derived from Isaiah 11:1–2, although the New Testament does not refer to Isaiah 11:1–2 regarding these gifts. These 7 gifts are: wisdom, understanding, counsel, fortitude (strength), knowledge, piety and fear of the Lord. This is the view of the Catholic Church and many other mainstream Christian groups. Denominational variations Christian denominations have doctrinal variations in their beliefs regarding the Holy Spirit. A well-known example is the Filioque controversy regarding the Holy Spirit – one of the key differences between the teachings of the main Western Churches and various Eastern Christian denominations (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Church of the East). The Filioque debate centers around whether the Nicene Creed should state that the Spirit "proceeds from the Father" and then have a stop, as the creed was initially adopted in Greek (and followed thereafter by the Eastern Church), or should say "from the Father and the Son" as was later adopted in Latin and followed by the Western Church, filioque being "and from the Son" in Latin. Towards the end of the 20th century, discussions took place about the removal of Filioque in the Nicene Creed from Anglican prayer books along the lines of the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox approach, but these still have not reached a state of final implementation. The majority of mainstream Protestantism hold similar views on the theology of the Holy Spirit as the Roman Catholic Church, but there are significant differences in belief between Pentecostalism and the rest of Protestantism. Pentecostalism has a focus on "Baptism with the Spirit", relying on Acts 1:5 which refers to "now you will baptize with the Holy Spirit". The more recent Charismatic movements have a focus on the "gifts of the Spirit" (such as healing, prophecy, etc.) and rely on 1 Corinthians 12 as a scriptural basis, but often differ from Pentecostal movements. Non-trinitarian views about the Holy Spirit differ significantly from mainstream Christian doctrine. Catholicism The Holy Spirit has been a topic in at least two papal encyclicals: Divinum illud munus – Pope Leo XIII (1897) Dominum et vivificantem – Pope John Paul II (1986) The topic of the Holy Spirit is discussed extensively in the Catechism of the Catholic Church as "I believe in the Holy Spirit" in paragraphs 683 through 747. Jehovah's Witnesses and Christadelphians Jehovah's Witnesses and Christadelphians view the Holy Spirit not as an actual person separate from God the Father, but as God's eternal "energy" or "active force", that he uses to accomplish his will in creation and redemption. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) believe that the Holy Ghost is the third member of the Godhead, and is a personage of spirit, without a body of flesh and bones. Unlike in many other denominations, the term "Holy Ghost" remains much more common than "Holy Spirit" in LDS contexts. Nevertheless, the Holy Ghost is sometimes referred to as the Spirit, the Holy Spirit, the Spirit of God, the Spirit of the Lord, or the Comforter. Latter-day Saints believe in a kind of social trinitarianism and subordinationism, meaning that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost are understood as being unified in will and purpose, but not in substance. The Holy Ghost is believed to be subordinate to the Father and the Son and operates under their direction. The Holy Ghost, like all intelligent beings, is believed to be fundamentally eternal, uncreated, and self-existent. The LDS Church teaches that the influence of the Holy Ghost can be received before baptism, but the gift, or constant companionship, of the Holy Ghostwhich comes by the laying-on of hands by a properly ordained priesthood holder with a line of authority traced back to Christ through Peteris obtained only after baptism when a person is confirmed. Joseph Smith, the founder of the church, taught, "You might as well baptize a bag of sand as a man," he said, "if not done in view of the remission of sins and getting of the Holy Ghost. Baptism by water is but half a baptism, and is good for nothing without the other half that is, the baptism of the Holy Ghost". Symbolism and art Symbolism The Holy Spirit is frequently referred to by metaphor and symbol, both doctrinally and biblically. Theologically speaking these symbols are a key to understanding of the Holy Spirit and his actions, and are not mere artistic representations. Water – signifies the Holy Spirit's action in Baptism, such that in the manner that "by one Spirit [believers] were all baptized", so they are "made to drink of one Spirit". Thus the Spirit is also personally the living water welling up from Christ crucified as its source and welling up in Christians to eternal life. The Catechism of the Catholic Church, item 1137, considers the Water of Life reference in the Book of Revelation "one of most beautiful symbols of the Holy Spirit". Anointing – The symbolism of blessing with oil also signifies the Holy Spirit, to the point of becoming a synonym for the Holy Spirit. The coming of the Spirit is referred to as his "anointing". In some denominations anointing is practiced in Confirmation; ("chrismation" in the Eastern Churches). Its full force can be grasped only in relation to the primary anointing accomplished by the Holy Spirit, that of Jesus. The title "Christ" (in Hebrew, messiah) means the one "anointed" by God's Spirit. Fire – symbolizes the transforming energy of the Holy Spirit's actions. In the form of tongues "as of fire", the Holy Spirit rested on the disciples on the morning of Pentecost. Cloud and light – The Spirit comes upon the Virgin Mary and "overshadows" her, so that she might conceive and give birth to Jesus. On the mountain of transfiguration, the Spirit in the "cloud came and overshadowed" Jesus, Moses and Elijah, Peter, James and John, and "a voice came out of the cloud, saying, 'This is my Son, my Chosen; listen to him!'" The dove – When Christ comes up from the water of his baptism, the Holy Spirit, in the form of a dove, comes down upon him and remains with him. Wind – The Spirit is likened to the "wind that blows where it will," and described as "a sound from heaven like the rush of a mighty wind." Art, literature and architecture Art The Holy Spirit has been represented in Christian art both in the Eastern and Western Churches using a variety of depictions. The depictions have ranged from nearly identical figures that represent the three persons of the Holy Trinity, to a dove, to a flame. The Holy Spirit is often depicted as a dove, based on the account of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus like a dove when he was baptized in the Jordan. In many paintings of the Annunciation, the Holy Spirit is shown in the form of a dove, coming down towards Mary on beams of light, as the Archangel Gabriel announces Jesus Christ's coming to Mary. A dove may also be seen at the ear of Gregory the Great – as recorded by his secretary – or other church father authors, dictating their works to them. The dove also parallels the one that brought the olive branch to Noah after the deluge, as a symbol of peace. The book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the apostles at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame of fire. Ancient Celtic Christians depicted the Holy Spirit as a goose called Ah Geadh-Glas, which means wild goose. A goose was chosen rather than the traditional dove because geese were perceived as more free than their dove counterparts. Literature The Holy Spirit has traditionally been a subject matter of strictly theological works focused on proving the central doctrines concerning the Holy Spirit, often as a response to arguments from religious groups who deny these foundational Biblical truths. In recent years, however, the Holy Spirit has made an entrance into the world of (Christian) literature through books such as The Shack published in 2007. Visual arts Holy Spirit cathedrals See also Cult of the Holy Spirit Gender of the Holy Spirit Holy Spirit in Islam Holy Spirit in Judaism Intercession of the Spirit Miracle Seven Spirits of God Chaplet in Honour of the Holy Spirit References Sources Further reading Charles Williams, The descent of the Dove: a short history of the Holy Spirit in the church (1950) Faber, London Swete, Henry Barclay (1912). The Holy Spirit in the Ancient Church: a Study of Christian Teaching in the Age of the Fathers. . External links Catechism of the Catholic Church: Chapter Three. I Believe in the Holy Spirit (nos. 683–686); Article 8. "I Believe in the Holy Spirit" (nos. 687–747) Christianity Deities and spirits Christian terminology Creator gods Wisdom gods God in Christianity Pneumatology

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스타십 (로켓)

스페이스X 스타쉽 또는 스타쉽 발사 시스템(SpaceX Starship 또는 SLS, Starship Launch System)은 미국의 스페이스X가 개발중인 재활용 가능한 우주 발사체이다. 한때 BFR(Big Falcon Rocket), 또는 ITS(Interplanetary transport system)라는 이름으로 불리기도 했다. 역사 스타쉽은 100톤 이상의 인공위성을 지구궤도에 발사한다. 우주 발사체는 소형(SLV), 중형(MLV), 대형(HLLV), 초대형(SHLLV)이 있다. 2018년 한국이 최초발사한 누리호 시험발사체는 소형 발사체이다. 스타쉽은 50톤 이상의 인공위성을 지구 저궤도에 발사하는 초대형 발사체(SHLLV)이다. 유명한 초대형 발사체로는 아폴로 11호를 달에 보낸 새턴 5호, 오랫동안 미국이 사용했던 우주 왕복선및 나사의 아르테미스 미션 및 게이트웨이 우주정거장 구축에 사용될 우주 발사 시스템(SLS) 등이 있다. 2022년에 지구 궤도상에서 최초발사할 계획인데, 세계 최초이며, 세계 유일의 재활용 가능한 초대형 발사체(SHLLV)이다. 2단계로 구성된 다단 액체연료 로켓이며, 1단과 2단이 발사된 후에 발사대로 다시 날아와 착륙하여, 다음에도 재발사가 가능하다. 2단은 필요에 따라 유인우주선과 화물선, 공중 연료 보급선으로 전환이 가능하다. 엔진은 진공추력 200톤의 LOX/메테인의 랩터 (로켓 엔진)을 사용한다. 1단 슈퍼 헤비에는 랩터 엔진 28개, 2단 스타쉽에는 해수면 랩터 엔진 3개, 진공 랩터 엔진 3개를 사용한다. 스페이스X는 이 로켓으로 화성에 식민지를 건설할 계획이며, 2020년 4월 나사의 달 유인 착륙 시스템 세가지 중 하나로 선정되어 향후 10개월간의 디자인 기간동안 아르테미스 프로그램의 재정적 지원이 약속되었다. 개발 과거 개발 방향 2012, MCT(Mars Colonial Transporter, 화성 식민지화 운송수단) 2005년, 지구 저궤도상에 최소 100t의 화물을 수송할 것으로 예정되었던 이 발사체계는 2012년 일론 머스크의 전체적인 화성 식민지화 계획과 함께 공개되었다. 2014년 4월, 한 전문매체는 2020년 초반까지 스페이스X가 랩터 엔진을 사용하여 이러한 계획을 실현시킬 수 있을 것이라고 예상했다. 2016, ITS(Interplanetary Transport System, 행성간 이동 시스템) 2016년 9월 중순, 일론 머스크는 본인 트위터 계정을 통해 'MCT라는 명칭이 더이상 이어지지 않을 것'임을 언급했고 '스타쉽이 화성 너머로 진출 할 수 있기 때문'이라고 설명했다. 이러한 발상에 의해 새롭게 선정된 명칭은 행성간 이동 시스템, ITS였으나 머스크 본인은 이에 만족하지 못하여 '나는 BFR과 BFS라는 명칭이 나쁘지 않다고 생각한다....개발 코드명은 BFR이 될 것'이라며 레딧에 2016년 10월 23일 글을 남겼다. 이러한 ITS의 개발 방향에 대한 세부 사항은 2016년 9월 27일 열린 제67회 국제 우주 총회에서 공개되었다. ITS부스터(ITS Booster, 현 수퍼헤비)와 행성간 우주선(Interplanetary Spaceship, 현 스타쉽)에 대한 내용이 발표되었으며 ITS 부스터의 경우 직경 12m에 높이 77.5m, 행성간 우주선의 경우 직경 12m에 높이 49.5m의 규격을 가질 것으로 알려졌다. ITS 부스터와 행성간 우주선은 각각 130MN, 56MN의 추력을 생산할 예정이었다. 같은 시기에 랩터 엔진의 첫 연소 테스트가 진행되었으며 이때 처음 구상되었던 ITS 탱커(공중 급유선)에 대한 아이디어가 지금까지 이어지고 있다. 2017~2018, BFR(Big Falcon Rocket, 대형 팰컨 로켓) 2017년 9월 치러진 제68회 국제 우주 총회에서 ITS의 새로운 디자인이 공개되었고 그 이름은 BFR로 확정되었다. BFR(Big Falcon Rocket)의 직경은 ITS 대비 3m 감소한 9m가 되었으며 전신 탄소 섬유 소재 채용이 예정되었다. 2단계 발사체의 구분이 정리되어 BFS(Big Falcon Ship)으로 불리게 되었고 3가지 용도로 그 명칭을 나누게 되었다. 각각 지구 궤도상, 달, 화성에 화물 운송, 승무원 수송, 연료 보급 등의 용도에 맞추어 BFS Cargo, BFS Crew, BFS Tanker라는 이름으로 불렸다. 공기 역학을 응용한 기체 제어를 위해 델타 윙과 플랩 장비를 탑재할 것으로 알려졌고 BFS의 경우 하단에 해면 추력 엔진 4기와 진공 엔진 2기를 사용할 것임이 공개되며 처음으로 이에 대한 세부 내용이 발표되었다. 텍사스, 루이지애나, 루이지애나, 콜롬비아주에 BFR 개발을 위한 시설 건축이 학정되었다. 2019~현재, SLS(Starship Launch System, 스타쉽 발사 시스템) 슈퍼 헤비(Super Heavy) 스타쉽의 1단 발사체가 될 예정인 슈퍼 헤비는 72미터 높이에 9미터 직경을 가질 것으로 예정되어 있으며, 3,600,000 kg의 무게를 가질 것으로 추측된다. 알루미늄 외곽과 내부 연료 탱크, 골조는 탄소 섬유로 제작될 것으로 알려졌다. 극저온에서 발사체에 뒤틀림이 생기는 것을 막기 위함이라고 언급되었다. 31개의 랩터 엔진은 72,000 킬로뉴턴의 추력을 생산할 전망이다. 2019년 10월, 슈퍼 헤비의 디자인 변경이 언급되었으며 6개의 착륙용 다리 및 다리를 감싸는 페어링 구조, 4개의 마름모꼴 그리드핀(상승 비행시 로켓의 비행 안정성을 높혀주는 망 형태의 장치, 다만 스페이스X 계열의 로켓에서는 일반적인 사용과는 달리 로켓의 위에 부착되어 공기저항을 유발하여 로켓의 착륙 절차에 수평을 유지하기 위해 사용된다) 등등 세부적인 디자인 요소가 확정되었다. 2022년과 2023년 사이에 슈퍼헤비 프로토타입의 실질적인 테스트 비행이 진행될 예정이며 SH BN1 프로토타입의 제작이 확인되었다. 착륙(슈퍼 헤비) 2016년 9월, 일론 머스크는 ITS 부스터를 발사대에 착륙시키는 것에 대한 가능성을 제기했고, 2017년 9월에는 BFB(Big Falcon Booster)를 통해 발사대 착륙 과정을 재연했다. 일론 머스크는 수퍼 헤비 시제품의 초기 개발 단계에는 VTVL을 위해 착륙용 다리를 사용할 것이라고 밝혔다. 하지만 2021년 1월, 일론머스크는 부스터를 착륙다리를 활용하지 않고 그리드핀을 이용한 착륙방식으로 변경한다고 이야기했다. 결국 2021년 10월 21일, 발사대의 거대한 팔인 Catch arm이 설치되며 이 말은 현실이 되었다. 부스터가 착륙할 때 발사대의 Catch arm이 부스터를 공중에서 잡아 다시 발사대에 올려놓는 착륙방식이 실현되기까지 얼마 안남았다는걸 보여준다. 스타쉽(Starship) 2019년 10월, 스타쉽 2단 추진체는 50미터 높이에 9미터 직경을 가질 것으로 언급되었으며, 6개의 랩터 엔진 중 3기는 해상 착륙 및 대기권 내 점화를 위한 일반 랩터 엔진, 남은 3기는 외기권에서의 점화 및 추진을 위한 랩터 엔진 진공의 탑재가 예정되었다. 랩터 엔진의 총 추력은 11,500 킬로뉴턴이 될 전망이다. 당시 공개된 디자인 컨셉을 배경으로 SN1부터 SN16까지 16개의 프로토타입의 제작이 지금까지 확인되었다. 2020년 8월과 9월 동안 각각 스타쉽 SN5와 SN6이 150m 고도에 도달한 후 하강하며 시험 비행을 성공적으로 완수했다. 2020년 내에 스타쉽의 첫 정식 규격 시제품인 스타쉽 SN8이 15km 고도에 도달한 후 하강하는 시험 비행을 수행했으나 하강 중 엔진 내의 부품 손상으로 착륙에 실패하였다. 2021년 2월 SN9이 일정고도 도달 후 하강하는 과정에서 자세 제어가 이뤄지지 않아 착륙에 실패하였다. 스타쉽의 2단 추진체는 다른 우주 발사체 디자인과는 달리 2단 추진체로서와의 역할과 우주에서의 장기 체류를 위한 목적을 모두 성취하고자 하고 있다. 또한 대기권 진입에서의 열기를 견딜 수 있으며 이를 통해 완전한 재사용이 가능하게끔 계획되고 있다. 스타쉽은 아래와 같은 목적에 따라 다양한 파생형을 가질 것으로 전망된다. 유인 우주선 : 대용량, 장기간 체류가 가능한 우주 발사체로서 승객과 화물을 다른 행성으로, 또는 지구 저궤도로 보내거나 지구 장거리 고속 이동에 사용하기 위한 목적으로 제작될 전망이다. 무인 우주선 : 인공위성을 지구 궤도로 발사 및 위치 가능한 우주 발사체로서, 우주 쓰레기의 회수 및 물자의 운송에도 사용될 전망이다. 공중 급유선 : 다른 행성으로 이동하기 위해 정차 궤도에 위치하여 있는 스타쉽에 지구 저궤도 탈출을 위한 연료를 제공하기 위한 화물 목적 단독의 우주 발사체로서, 달을 향한 고중량 발사에도 사용될 전망이다. 월면 운송수단(HLS) : 지구 대기 접근을 위한 에어 브레이크와 열 차폐막이 제거된 형태의 우주 발사체로서, 아르테미스 프로그램의 게이트웨이 우주정거장과 도킹하기 위한 도킹 포트와 흰 페인트 도색의 채용이 예정되었다. 2020년 4월 30일, 미국 항공 우주국의 아르테미스 프로그램의 일환으로 유인 달 착륙선으로서 사용이 확정되었다. 달 표면의 손상을 줄이고자 상단부에 착륙 점화 장치를 부착했다. 착륙(스타쉽) 현재 착륙 방식은 기존 착륙 다리를 이용하여 착륙하는 방식이지만, 일론머스크는 조금더 미래에는 부스터처럼 스타쉽도 발사대에 달린 거대한팔(Catch arm)로 공중에서 잡는 착륙방식으로 바뀐다고 말했다. 시험 발사 목록 프로토타입 목록 스타쉽 시험용 탱크 수퍼헤비 각주 외부 링크 Official website 39-page slide deck of graphics, charts and images. 우주발사체 우주 개발 스페이스X 유인 우주선

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX%20Starship

SpaceX Starship

Starship is a two-stage super heavy lift launch vehicle and spacecraft under development by SpaceX. It is currently the tallest and most powerful space launch vehicle to have flown. Starship is intended to be fully reusable, which means both stages will be recovered after a mission and reused. The Starship space vehicle is designed to supplant SpaceX's Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy rockets, build SpaceX's Starlink satellite constellation, and serve crewed spaceflight. SpaceX plans to use Starship vehicles as tankers, refueling other Starships to allow missions to geosynchronous orbit, the Moon, and Mars. A lunar lander variant of Starship is to land astronauts on the Moon as part of NASA's Artemis program. Starship is ultimately meant to enable SpaceX's ambition of colonizing Mars. Starship is made up of the Super Heavy booster and the Starship spacecraft. The booster and spacecraft are both powered by clusters of Raptor rocket engines, which burn liquid methane and liquid oxygen. Both stages are constructed primarily of stainless steel, a material chosen as an alternative to a series of prior designs. The booster will use its engines to slow itself down before it is caught by a pair of mechanical arms attached to the launch tower. Meanwhile, the Starship spacecraft is protected during atmospheric reentry by its thermal protection system, using a so called ‘belly flop’ manoeuvre where the spacecraft turns from a horizontal into a vertical position, then lands using its engines. The Starship system aims to achieve frequent space launches at low cost. Development follows an iterative and incremental approach involving frequent, and often destructive, test flights of prototype vehicles. The first flight test of the Starship system took place on 20 April 2023 and ended four minutes after launch with the destruction of the test vehicle. History Early design conceptions Starting with a 2012 announcement of plans to develop a rocket with substantially greater capabilities than SpaceX's existing Falcon 9, the company created a succession of preliminary designs for such a vehicle under various names (Mars Colonial Transporter, Interplanetary Transport System, BFR). Some were substantially different from the current design; the largest one, the Interplanetary Transport System or ITS, massed fully fueled, had a liftoff thrust of and could carry to low Earth orbit while being completely reused. For comparison, the Saturn V had a liftoff thrust of . It also was made of carbon composite. Despite this, they all shared some common features such as being fully reusable and being very large. In 2019, Starship's structural material was changed from carbon composites to stainless steel. Musk cited the low cost and ease of manufacture, increased strength of stainless steel at cryogenic temperatures, as well as its ability to withstand high heat, as the reasons for the design change. The high temperature at which 300-series steel transitions to plastic deformation would eliminate the need for a heat shield on Starship's leeward side, while the much hotter windward side would be cooled by allowing fuel or water to bleed through micropores in a double-wall stainless steel skin, removing heat by evaporation. However, in July 2019, Musk indicated on Twitter that this would probably not be pursued, instead, thin reusable heat shield tiles which work in a similar way to those of the Space Shuttle would be used. The high melting point of Starship’s stainless steel allows the tiles to be lighter and thinner. In 2019, SpaceX began to refer to the entire vehicle as Starship, with the second stage being called Starship and the booster Super Heavy. In September 2019, Musk further detailed the lower-stage booster, the upper-stage's method of controlling its descent, the heat shield, orbital refueling capacity, and potential destinations besides Mars. The aft flaps on the spacecraft were reduced from three to two. In 2019, the design reverted to six Raptor engines, with three optimized for sea-level and three optimized for vacuum. Initial Super Heavy test flights would use fewer engines, perhaps about 20. Later in 2019 Musk stated that Starship was expected to have an empty mass of and be able to initially transport a payload of , growing to over time. Musk hinted at an expendable variant that could place 250 tonnes into low orbit. The Raptor design was refined with higher thrust versions. The initial 37 engines were reduced to 31 in 2020. Musk stated that SpaceX would complete hundreds of cargo flights before carrying human passengers. In April 2021, SpaceX publicly forecast that Earth to Earth passenger flights would be common within five years. Low-altitude flights SpaceX was already constructing the first full-size Starship Mk1 and Mk2 upper-stage prototypes, at the SpaceX facilities in Boca Chica, Texas, and Cocoa, Florida, respectively. Neither prototype flew: Mk1 was destroyed in November 2019 during a pressure stress test and Mk2's Florida facility was abandoned and deconstructed throughout 2020. After the Mk prototypes, SpaceX began naming its new Starship upper-stage prototypes with the prefix "SN", short for "serial number". No prototypes between SN1 and SN4 flew either—SN1 and SN3 collapsed during pressure stress tests, and SN4 exploded after its fifth engine firing. In June 2020, SpaceX started constructing a launch pad for orbit-capable Starship rockets. The first flight-capable Starship, SN5, was cylindrical as it had no flaps or nose cone: just one Raptor engine, fuel tanks, and a mass simulator. On 5 August 2020, SN5 performed a high flight and successfully landed on a nearby pad. On 3 September 2020, the similar-looking Starship SN6 repeated the hop; later that month, the Raptor Vacuum engine was fired in full duration at McGregor, Texas. High-altitude flights Starship SN8 was the first fully complete Starship upper-stage prototype. It underwent four preliminary static fire tests between October and November 2020. On 9 December 2020, SN8 flew, slowly turning off its three engines one by one, and reached an altitude of . After SN8 dove back to the ground, its engines were hampered by low methane header tank pressure during the landing attempt, which led to a hard impact with the landing pad. Because SpaceX had violated its launch license and ignored warnings of worsening shock wave damage, the Federal Aviation Administration investigated the incident for two months. On 2 February 2021, Starship SN9 launched to in a flight path similar to SN8. The prototype crashed upon landing because one engine did not ignite properly. A month later, on 3 March, Starship SN10 launched on the same flight path as SN9. The vehicle landed hard and crushed its landing legs, leaning to one side. A fire was seen at the vehicle's base. It exploded less than ten minutes later, probably due to a propellant tank rupture. On 30 March, Starship SN11 flew into thick fog along the same flight path. The vehicle exploded during descent, possibly due to excess propellant in a Raptor's methane turbopump. In March 2021, the company disclosed a public construction plan for two sub-orbital launch pads, two orbital launch pads, two landing pads, two test stands, and a large propellant tank farm. The company soon proposed developing the surrounding Boca Chica Village, Texas into a company town named Starbase. Locals raised concerns about SpaceX's authority, power, and a potential threat for eviction through eminent domain. In early April, the orbital launch pad's fuel storage tanks began mounting. Starship prototypes SN12, SN13, and SN14 were scrapped before completion; SN15 was selected to fly instead. SN15 had better avionics, structure, and upgraded engines. On 5 May 2021, SN15 launched, completed the same maneuvers as older prototypes, and landed safely. Even though SN15, like SN10, had a small fire in the engine area after landing, it was extinguished, completing the first successful high-altitude test. According to a later report by SpaceX, SN15 experienced several issues while landing, including the loss of tank pressure and an engine. Development towards first orbital launch In July 2021, Super Heavy BN3 conducted its first full-duration static firing and lit three engines. Around this time, SpaceX changed their naming scheme from "SN" to "Ship" for Starship crafts, and from "BN" to "Booster" for Super Heavy boosters. A month later, using cranes, Ship 20 was stacked atop Booster 4 to form the full launch vehicle for the first time; Ship 20 was also the first craft to have a body-tall heat shield. In October 2021, the catching mechanical arms, also known as "chopsticks", were installed onto the integration tower and the first tank farm's construction was completed. Two weeks later, NASA and SpaceX announced plans to construct Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 49. The public spotted the Raptor 2 engine at the start of 2022. Raptor 2 has a simpler design, less mass, wider throat, and an increase in central combustion chamber pressure from to . These changes yielded an increase in thrust from to , but a decrease of 3 seconds (~0.9%) of specific impulse. In February 2022, after stacking Ship 20 on top of Booster 4 using mechanical arms, Elon Musk gave a presentation on Starship, Raptor engine and Florida spaceport development at Starbase. In June 2022, the Federal Aviation Administration determined that Starbase did not need a full environmental impact assessment but that SpaceX must address issues identified in the preliminary environmental assessment. In July, Booster 7 tested spinning the liquid oxygen turbopumps on all thirty-three Raptor engines, resulting in an explosion at the vehicle's base, which destroyed a pressure pipe and causing minor damage to the launchpad. By the end of November, Ship 24 had performed 2- and full 6-engine static test fires, while Booster 7 had performed static fires with 1, 3, 7, 14, 11 engines and finally on February 9, 2023, a static fire with 31 engines at 50% throttle (33 was attempted but one engine was disabled pre-firing, and another engine aborted). In January 2023, Starship underwent a full wet dress rehearsal at Starbase, where it was filled with more than of propellant. First attempted orbital test flight After a canceled launch attempt on 17 April 2023, due to a frozen valve, Booster 7 and Ship 24 lifted off on 20 April at 13:33 UTC in the first orbital flight test. Three engines were disabled during the launch sequence and several more failed during the flight. The spacecraft also lost thrust vectoring control of the Raptor engines later in the flight, which led to the rocket starting an out of control tumbling motion. The vehicle reached a maximum altitude of . At around 3 minutes following liftoff, the rocket received a command to activate the automated flight termination system. However, the flight termination system failed to destroy the vehicle, the vehicle tumbled for another 40 seconds, and finally exploded. Had the launch proceeded as planned, the spacecraft would have continued to fly with its ground track passing through the Straits of Florida and eastward around the globe, with a hard splashdown in the Pacific Ocean around northwest of Kauai in the Hawaiian Islands, having made nearly one full revolution around the Earth. Preparations for the second orbital test flight After the first test flight significant work was done on the launch mount to repair the damage it sustained during the test and to prevent future issues. The foundation of the launch tower was reinforced and a steel water deluge flame deflector was built under the launch mount. Ship 25 was rolled to the suborbital launch site in May and underwent spin prime and static fire testing ahead of flight. Once that was completed, Booster 9 was rolled to the launch site to undergo cryogenic proof testing, spin primes and static fires of its set of engines. As of September 7th, Ship 25 is stacked onboard Booster 9 on the launch mount. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) oversaw the investigation of Starship's first flight failure, at the end of which SpaceX reported it had identified 63 needed corrective actions before another Starship launch license could take place. On September 8, 2023, the FAA concurred with SpaceX's report and closed the investigation. The FAA also announced that the full investigatory report would not be released due to confidential contents including export control information. FAA officials stated, "The closure of the mishap investigation does not signal an immediate resumption of Starship launches at Boca Chica." A launch license approval from the FAA could come as early as October. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service has yet to start a formal review of SpaceX's modifications, and depending on the situation, the next launch may not occur until 2024. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service received the final biological assessment from the Federal Aviation Administration. William Gerstenmaier, SpaceX’s Vice President of Build and Flight Reliability, called for the FAA to increase licensing staff. On October 19, the FWS surveyed the area around Starbase and the consultation with the FAA has been extended into November. The FWS is reviewing the changes to the launch pad, especially the water deluge system. On October 31, 2023, the FAA concluded the safety review portion of the launch license, however, the FWS environmental review has not yet concluded. Funding As part of the development of the Human Landing System for the Artemis program, SpaceX was awarded in April 2021 a $2.89 billion contract from NASA to develop the Starship lunar lander for Artemis III. Blue Origin, a bidding competitor to SpaceX, disputed the decision and began a legal case against NASA and SpaceX in August 2021, stalling the work of SpaceX and NASA on the program with SpaceX for the duration of these legal disputes. It was dismissed by the Court of Federal Claims after three months, and Blue Origin was awarded $3.4 billion for their lunar lander two years later. In 2022, NASA awarded SpaceX $1.15 billion for a second lunar lander for Artemis 4. The same year, SpaceX was awarded a $102 million five-year contract to develop the Rocket Cargo program for the United States Space Force. SpaceX develops the Starship with private funding. SpaceX Chief Financial Officer Bret Johnsen disclosed in court that SpaceX has invested more than $3 billion into the Starbase facility and Starship systems from July 2014 to May 2023. Elon Musk stated in April 2023 that SpaceX expects to spend about $2 billion on Starship development in 2023. Design When stacked and fully fueled, Starship has a mass of approximately , a diameter of , and a height of . The rocket has been designed with the goal of being fully reusable to reduce launch costs and maintenance between flights. In its fully reusable configuration Starship is designed to carry to low Earth orbit, while the expended configuration is projected to have a payload capacity of . The rocket consists of the Super Heavy first-stage or booster, and the Starship second-stage or spacecraft, powered by the Raptor and Raptor Vacuum engines. The bodies of both rocket stages are made from stainless steel, giving Starship its strength for atmospheric entry and distinctive look. According to Eric Berger of Ars Technica, the manufacturing process starts with rolls of steel, which are unrolled, cut, and welded along the cut edge to create a cylinder of in diameter, in height, and 4 mm (0.16 in) thick, and around in mass. These cylinders, along with the nose cones, are stacked and welded along their edges to form the outer layer of the rocket. Inside, the methane and oxygen tanks are separated by the robot-made domes. Also according to Berger, Starship's reusability and stainless-steel construction has influenced the Terran R rocket and Project Jarvis, the second stage of Blue Origin's New Glenn super heavy-lift launch vehicle. Raptor engine Raptor is a family of rocket engines developed by SpaceX exclusively for use in Starship and Super Heavy vehicles. It burns liquid oxygen and methane in a highly efficient but complex full-flow staged combustion power cycle. The Raptor engine uses methane as the fuel of choice over other rocket propellants because it produces less soot and can be directly synthesized from carbon dioxide and water, using the Sabatier reaction. Unlike previous reusable rocket engines such as the RS-25, the engines are designed to be reused many times with little maintenance. The engine structure itself is mostly aluminum, copper, and steel; oxidizer-side turbopumps and manifolds subject to corrosive oxygen-rich flames are made of an Inconel-like SX500 superalloy. Raptor's main combustion chamber can contain of pressure, the highest of all rocket engines. Certain components are 3D printed. The Raptor's gimbaling range is 15°, higher than the RS-25's 12.5° and the Merlin's 5°. In mass production, SpaceX aims to produce each engine at a unit cost of US$250,000. Raptor operates with an oxygen-to-methane mixture ratio of about , lower than the stoichiometric mixture ratio of necessary to burn all propellants completely. Operation at the stoichiometric ratio provides better performance in theory but usually results in overheating and destruction of the engine. The propellants leave the pre-burners. They are injected into the main combustion chamber as hot gases instead of liquid droplets, enabling much higher power density as propellants mix rapidly via diffusion. The methane and oxygen are at such high temperatures and pressures that they ignite on contact, eliminating the need for igniters in the main combustion chamber. At sea level, the standard Raptor engine produces at a specific impulse of 327 seconds, increasing to 350 seconds in a vacuum. Raptor Vacuum, used on the Starship upper stage, is modified with a regeneratively cooled nozzle extension made of brazed steel tubes, increasing its expansion ratio to about 90 and its specific impulse in vacuum to 380 seconds. Super Heavy booster The first-stage booster, named Super Heavy is tall and wide, and contains thirty-three Raptor engines arranged in concentric rings. The outermost ring of 20 engines are of the "Raptor Boost" configuration with gimbal actuators removed to save weight and a modified injector with reduced throttle performance in exchange for greater thrust. At full power, all engines produce a collective of thrust. The booster's tanks can hold of propellant, consisting of of liquid oxygen and of liquid methane. However, current designs can only hold of propellant. The final design will have a dry mass between and , with the tanks weighing and the interstage . The booster is equipped with four electrically actuated grid fins, each with a mass of . Adjacent pairs of grid fins are only spaced sixty degrees apart instead of being orthogonal (as is the case on Falcon 9) to provide more authority in the pitch axis. Also, unlike Falcon 9, the grid fins do not retract and remain extended during ascent. The booster can be lifted through protruding hardpoints located between gridfins. Above the grid fins is the vented interstage, which enables starship to use hot staging, which is when the second stage separates when some of the first stages engine are still firing. According to Elon Musk, this process may provide up to 10% increase in payload to orbit. During unpowered flight in the vacuum of space, control authority is provided by cold gas thrusters fed with residual ullage gas. Starship spacecraft The Starship spacecraft is tall, in diameter, and has 6 Raptor engines, 3 of which are optimized for use in outer space. Future vehicles may have an additional 3 Raptor Vacuum engines for increased payload capacity. The vehicle's payload bay, measuring tall by in diameter, is the largest of any active or planned launch vehicle; its internal volume of is slightly larger than the ISS's pressurized volume. SpaceX may also provide a tall payload bay configuration for even larger payloads.Starship has a total propellant capacity of across its main tanks and header tanks. The header tanks are better insulated due to their position and are reserved for use to flip and land the spacecraft following reentry. A set of reaction control thrusters, which use the pressure in the fuel tank, control attitude while in space. The spacecraft has four body flaps to control the spacecraft's orientation and help dissipate energy during atmospheric entry, composed of two forward flaps and two aft flaps. According to SpaceX, the flaps replace the need for wings or tailplane, reduce the fuel needed for landing, and allow landing at destinations in the Solar System where runways don't exist (for example, Mars). Under the forward flaps, hardpoints are used for lifting and catching the spacecraft via mechanical arms. The flap's hinges are sealed in aero-covers because they would be easily damaged during reentry. Starship's heat shield, composed of thousands of hexagonal black tiles that can withstand temperatures of , is designed to be used many times without maintenance between flights. The tiles are made of silica and are attached with pins rather than glued, with small gaps in between to allow for heat expansion. Their hexagonal shape facilitate mass production and prevent hot plasma from causing severe damage to the vehicle. Variants For satellite launch, Starship will have a large cargo door that will open to release payloads and close upon reentry instead of a more conventional jettisonable nose-cone fairing. Instead of a cleanroom, payloads are integrated directly into Starship's payload bay, which requires purging the payload bay with temperature-controlled ISO class 8 clean air. To deploy Starlink satellites, the cargo door is be replaced with a slot and dispenser rack, whose mechanism has been compared to a Pez candy dispenser. Crewed Starship vehicles would replace the cargo bay with a pressurized crew section and have a life support system. For long-duration missions, such as crewed flights to Mars, SpaceX describes the interior as potentially including "private cabins, large communal areas, centralized storage, solar storm shelters, and a viewing gallery." Starship's life support system is expected to recycle resources such as air and water from waste. Starship Human Landing System (HLS) is a crewed lunar lander variant of the Starship vehicle that is extensively modified for landing, operation, and takeoff from the lunar surface. It features modified landing legs, a body-mounted solar array, a set of thrusters mounted mid-body to assist with final landing and takeoff, two airlocks, and an elevator to lower crew and cargo onto the lunar surface. Starship HLS will be able to land more than of payload on the Moon per flight. Starship will be able to be refueled by docking with separately launched Starship propellant tanker spacecraft in orbit. Doing so would increase the spacecraft's mass capacity and allow it to reach higher-energy targets, such as geosynchronous orbit, the Moon, and Mars. A Starship propellant depot could store methane and oxygen on-orbit, and will be used by Starship HLS to replenish its fuel tanks. Planned mission profile The payload is to be integrated into Starship at a separate facility and then rolled out to the spaceport. After Super Heavy and Starship are stacked onto their launch mount by lifting from hardpoints, they are loaded with fuel via the quick disconnect arm and support. Roughly four hundred truck deliveries are needed for one launch, although some commodities are provided on-site via an air separation unit. Then, the arm and mount detach, all thirty-three engines of Super Heavy ignite, and the rocket lifts off. After two minutes, at an altitude of , Super Heavy cuts off 30 of its engines, leaving only three center ones running at 50% thrust. Then, the ship ignites its engines while still attached to the booster and separates. The booster then returns to the launch site in a controlled descent, being caught by a pair of mechanical arms. After six minutes of flight, about of propellant remains inside the booster. Meanwhile, the Starship spacecraft accelerates to orbital velocity. Once in orbit, the spacecraft is planned to be refueled by one or more tanker variant Starships, increasing the spacecraft's capacity. Musk estimated in a tweet that 8 launches would be needed to completely refuel a Starship in low Earth orbit, having extrapolated this by using Starship's payload to orbit and combining it with how much fuel a fully fueled Starship contains. To land on bodies without an atmosphere, such as the Moon, Starship will fire its engines and thrusters to slow down. To land on bodies with an atmosphere such as the Earth and Mars, Starship first slows by entering the atmosphere via a heat shield. The spacecraft would then perform a "belly-flop" maneuver by diving back through the atmosphere body at a 60° angle to the ground, controlling its fall using four flaps at the front and aft sides of the spacecraft. Shortly before landing, the Raptor engines fire, using fuel from the header tanks, causing the spacecraft to resume vertical orientation. At this stage, Raptor engines' gimbaling, throttle, and reaction control system's firing help to maneuver the craft. A pseudospectral optimal control algorithm by the German Aerospace Center predicted that the landing flip would tilt up to 20° from the ground's perpendicular line, and the angle would be reduced to zero on touchdown. Future Starships are envisioned to be caught by mechanical arms, like the booster. If Starship's rocket stages land on a pad, a mobile hydraulic lift moves them to a transporter vehicle. If the rocket stages land on a floating platform, they will be transported by a barge to a port and finally transported by road. The recovered Super Heavy and Starship will either be positioned on the launch mount for another launch or refurbished at a SpaceX facility. Potential uses Starship's reusability is expected to reduce launch costs, expanding space access to more payloads and entities. Musk has predicted that a Starship orbital launch will eventually cost $1 million. Eurospace's director of research, Pierre Lionnet, however, stated that Starship's launch price would likely be higher because of the rocket's development cost (estimated by Musk in 2023 to be roughly 10 billion USD, with 3-5 billion having been spent as of 2023). Crewed and cargo launches Starship also plans to launch the second generation of SpaceX's Starlink satellites, which deliver global high-speed internet. A space analyst at financial services company Morgan Stanley stated development of Starship and Starlink are intertwined, with Starship launch capacity enabling cheaper Starlink launches, and Starlink's profits financing Starship's development costs. In deficit from its inception to 2022, Starlink was first reported slightly profitable in 2023. As of 19 August 2022, the Superbird-9 communication satellite is Starship's first and only known contract for externally made commercial satellites. The satellite weighs dry mass, planned for 2024 launch to a geostationary orbit. In the future, the spacecraft's crewed version could be used for space tourism—for example, the DearMoon project funded by Yusaku Maezawa. Another example is the third flight of the Polaris program announced by Jared Isaacman. Farther in the future, Starship may host point-to-point flights (called "Earth to Earth" flights by SpaceX), traveling anywhere on Earth in under an hour. SpaceX president and chief operating officer Gwynne Shotwell said point-to-point travel could become cost competitive with conventional business class flights. John Logsdon, an academic on space policy and history, said point-to-point travel is unrealistic, as the craft would switch between weightlessness to 5 g of acceleration. In January 2022, SpaceX was awarded a $102 million five-year contract to develop the Rocket Cargo program for the United States Space Force. Space exploration Starship's lunar lander Starship HLS was initially chosen by NASA as the sole lunar lander for the Artemis 3 and Artemis 4 crewed missions, as part of the Artemis program. In 2023 NASA awarded a contract to Blue Origin to develop a second lunar lander amidst concerns by NASA over delays in the Starship HLS development timeline. The lander is to be launched into a low earth orbit, and refueled by multiple Starship tanker spacecraft. Once it has enough fuel, it will perform a trans lunar injection burn and enter a near-rectilinear halo orbit around the moon. Then, the crews on board the Orion spacecraft are launched with the Space Launch System. Orion then docks with Starship HLS, and the crew transfers into the lander. The lander then performs a powered descent, landing near the lunar south pole. The crew will then perform the surface portion of their mission. The HLS will then ascend with the crew and rendezvous with the Orion spacecraft. The crew then transfers into the Orion spacecraft and Orion performs a burn to return to earth. Opinions differ on how Starship's planned low launch cost will affect the cost of space science. According to Waleed Abdalati, former NASA Chief Scientist, the planned low launch cost would cheapen satellite replacement and enable more ambitious missions for budget-limited programs. According to Lionnet, low launch cost might not reduce the overall cost of a science mission significantly: of the Rosetta space probe and Philae lander's mission cost of $1.7 billion, the cost of launch (by the expendable Ariane 5) only made up ten percent. Astronomers have called to consider Starship's larger mass to orbit and wider cargo bay for proposed space telescopes such as LUVOIR, and to develop larger telescopes to take advantage of these capabilities. Starship's 9 meters fairing width could hold an 8 meters-wide large space telescope mirror in a single piece, alleviating the need for complex origami deployments such as that of the JWST's 6.5m mirror which added cost and delays. The low launch cost could also allow probes to use heavier, more common, cheaper materials, such as glass instead of beryllium for large telescope mirrors. At 5 tons, the JWST represents only 10% of the mass deliverable by a Starship to the Sun-Earth L2 point, and therefore minimizing the weight of the telescope would not have been a dominant design consideration. A refueled Starship could launch 100 ton observatories to the Moon, L2 Lagrange point and anywhere else in the solar system. Starship might also launch probes orbiting Neptune or Io, or large sample-return missions. Astrophysicists have noted Starship could deploy multiple antennae up to 30 meters in length, opening up radio astronomy to frequencies below 30MHz and wavelengths greater than 10m. This would give the ability to study the Universe's dark ages, unfeasible on Earth due to the atmosphere and human radio background. Space colonization Starship is intended to be able to land crews on Mars. The spacecraft is launched to low Earth orbit, and is then refueled by around five tanker spacecraft before heading to Mars. After landing on Mars, the Sabatier reaction is used to synthesize liquid methane and liquid oxygen, Starship's fuel, in a power-to-gas plant. The plant's raw resources are Martian water and Martian carbon dioxide. On Earth, similar technologies could be used to make carbon-neutral propellant for the rocket. SpaceX and Musk have stated their goal of colonizing Mars to ensure the long-term survival of humanity, with an ambition of sending a thousand Starship spacecraft to Mars during a Mars launch window in a very far future. Musk had maintained an interest in Mars colonization since 2001, when he joined the Mars Society and researched Mars-related space experiments before founding SpaceX in 2002. Musk has made tentative estimates of Starship's Mars landing; in March 2022, he gave a date of 2029 for the first crewed Mars landing. SpaceX has not published technical plans about Starship's life support systems, radiation protection, or in-orbit refueling. Facilities Testing and manufacturing Starbase consists of a manufacturing facility and launch site, and is located at Boca Chica, Texas. Both facilities operate twenty-four hours a day. A maximum of 450 full-time employees may be onsite. The site is planned to consist of two launch sites, one payload processing facility, one seven-acre solar farm, and other facilities. , the expansion plan's permit has been withdrawn by the United States Army Corps of Engineers, citing lack of information provided. The company leases Starbase's land for the STARGATE research facility, owned by the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley. It uses part of it for Starship development. At McGregor, Texas, the Rocket Development facility tests all Raptor engines. The facility has two main test stands: one horizontal stand for both engine types and one vertical stand for sea-level-optimized rocket engines. Other test stands are used for checking Starship's reaction control thrusters and Falcon's Merlin engines. The McGregor facility previously hosted test flights of landable first stages—Grasshopper and F9R Dev1. In the future, a nearby factory, which was under construction, will make the new generation of sea-level Raptors while SpaceX's headquarters in California will continue building the Raptor Vacuum and test new designs. At Florida, a facility at Cocoa purifies silica for Starship heat-shield tiles, producing a slurry that is then shipped to a facility at Cape Canaveral. In the past, workers constructed the Starship Mk2 prototype in competition with Starbase's crews. The Kennedy Space Center, also in Florida, is planned to host other Starship facilities, such as Starship launch sites at Launch Complex 39A, the planned Launch Complex 49, and a production facility at Roberts Road. This production facility is being expanded from "Hangar X", the Falcon rocket boosters' storage and maintenance facility. It will include a building, loading dock, and a place for constructing integration tower sections. Launch sites Starbase is planned to host two launch sites, named Pad A and Pad B. A launch site at Starbase has large facilities, such as a tank farm, an orbital launch mount, and an integration tower. Smaller facilities are present at the launch site: tanks surrounding the area containing methane, oxygen, nitrogen, helium, hydraulic fluid, etc.; subcoolers near the tank farm cool propellant using liquid nitrogen; and various pipes are installed at large facilities. Each tank farm consists of eight tanks, enough to support one orbital launch. The current launch mount on Pad A has a water sound suppression system, twenty clamps holding the booster, and a quick disconnect mount providing liquid fuel and electricity to the Super Heavy booster before it lifts off. The integration tower or launch tower consists of steel truss sections, a lightning rod on top, and a pair of mechanical arms that can lift, catch and recover the booster. The decision was made to enable flights and reduce the rocket's mass and part count. The mechanical arms are attached to a carriage and controlled by a pulley at the top of the tower. The pulley is linked to a winch and spool at the base of the tower using a cable. Using the winch, the carriage, and mechanical arms can move vertically, with support from bearings attached at the sides of the carriage. A linear hydraulic actuator moves the arms horizontally. Tracks are mounted on top of arms, which are used to position the booster or spacecraft. The tower is mounted with a quick disconnect arm extending to and contracting from the Starship spacecraft; its functions are similar to the quick disconnect mount that powers the booster. Since 2021, the company is constructing a second Starship launch pad in Cape Canaveral, Florida, in Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39A, which is currently used to launch Crew Dragon capsules to the International Space Station. SpaceX plans to make a separate pad at 39A's north, named Launch Complex 49. Because of Launch Complex 39A's Crew Dragon launches, the company is studying how to strengthen the pad against the possibility of a Starship explosion and proposed to retrofit Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40 instead. The towers and mechanical arms at the Florida launch sites should be similar to the one at Starbase, with improvements gained from the experience at Boca Chica. Phobos and Deimos were the names of two Starship offshore launch platforms, both in renovation as of March 2022. Before being purchased from Valaris Limited in June 2020, they were nearly identical oil platforms named Valaris 8501 and Valaris 8500. However, following further analysis from SpaceX, it has been announced that the offshore platforms were not suitable for Starship launches. The platforms were sold in early 2023. Community reception Outside the space community, reception to Starship's development among nearby locales has been mixed, especially from cities close to the Starbase spaceport. Proponents of SpaceX's arrival said the company would provide money, education, and job opportunities to the country's poorest areas. Fewer than one-fifth of those 25 or older in the Rio Grande Valley have a bachelor's degree, in comparison to the national average of one-third. The local government has stated that the company boosted the local economy by hiring residents and investing, aiding the three-tenths of the population who live in poverty. Activist Elias Cantu of the League of United Latin American Citizens said the company encourages Brownsville's gentrification, with an ever-increasing property valuation. Even though Starbase had originally planned to launch Falcon rockets when the original environmental assessment was completed in 2014, the site in 2019 was subsequently used to develop Starship, ultimately requiring a revised environmental assessment. Some of the tests have ended in large explosions, causing major disruption to residents and wildlife reserves. The Carrizo/Comecrudo Tribe and environmental activists also allege that SpaceX have overpoliced the area, disrupting indigenous ceremonies and local fishing. Starship's first integrated spaceflight attempt blasted large amounts of sand in the air, reaching communities within a 10-km (6-mile) radius. A small brushfire on nearby state parkland also occurred. There were concerns about the launch's impact on the health of both human residents and endangered species because of the sand blast, which was rumored to be concrete and silt particulate matter before analyses ruled against it. The impact of the first launch led to a lawsuit against the FAA, later joined by SpaceX, from four environmental groups and the Carrizo/Comecrudo Tribe. The disruption to residents is compounded by SpaceX's frequent closures of the road to the beach for vehicle testing. Some residents have moved away or requested financial reparations from the company. Notes See also Comparison of orbital launch systems Comparison of orbital launcher families Long March 9, a super-heavy-lift launch vehicle developed by China, designed to be reusable and close to Starship in tons to orbit SpaceX reusable launch system development program References External links Programmatic Environmental Assessment by the Federal Aviation Administration Starship of SpaceX on eoPortal directory, administered by the European Space Agency Tim Dodd's Starship interviews with Elon Musk on YouTube: A conversation with Elon Musk about Starship, 2019 Starbase and Starship tour, 2021: part 1, part 2, and part 3 Launch tower and Raptor engine tour, 2022: overview, launch infrastructure, Raptor engine Articles containing video clips Cargo spacecraft Crewed spacecraft SpaceX launch vehicles VTVL rockets Proposed reusable launch systems Reusable spaceflight technology Reusable spacecraft Reusable launch systems

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이레네 파레데스

이레네 파레데스 에르난데스(, 1991년 7월 4일 ~ )는 스페인의 여자 축구 선수로 현재 FC 바르셀로나 페메니에서 수비수로 활약하고 있으며 스페인 여자 대표팀 주장을 맡고 있다. 클럽 경력 레알 소시에다드 페메니노 2008년 레알 소시에다드 페미니노에 입단하며 프로에 정식 입문한 후 2010-11 시즌까지 공식전 89경기 7골을 기록했고 특히 2010-11 코파 델 레이나에서 팀의 창단 첫 컵대회 4강 진출의 돌풍을 이끌어냈다. 아틀레틱 빌바오 페메니노 2010-11 시즌을 마친 후 아틀레틱 빌바오 페메니노로 트레이드되었고 이후 2015-16 시즌까지 공식전 139경기 20골로 2015-16 프리메라 디비시온 페메니나 우승, 3연속 리그 준우승(2011-12, 2012-13, 2013-14), 2014-15 리그 3위, 코파 델 레이나 2회 준우승(2011-12, 2013-14) 등의 성과를 거두는 등 5시즌동안 빌바오의 주축 수비수로 활약했다. 파리 생제르맹 페미닌 2015-16 시즌을 끝으로 빌바오와 결별한 후 프랑스 디비지옹 1 페미닌의 명문팀인 파리 생제르맹 페미닌으로 둥지를 옮겨 2020-21 시즌까지 5시즌동안 공식전 125경기 22골을 기록하면서 2020-21 시즌 리그 우승, 3연속 리그 준우승(2017-18, 2018-19, 2019-20), 2016-17 리그 3위, 2016-17년 UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 준우승, 2회 연속 챔피언스리그 4강 진출(2019-20, 2020-21), 2017-18 쿠프 드 프랑스 페미닌 우승, 2번의 쿠프 드 프랑스 페미닌 준우승(2016-17, 2019-20) 등의 굵직한 성적을 남겼다. FC 바르셀로나 페메니 2020-21 시즌을 마친 뒤 FC 바르셀로나 페메니 이적을 통해 5년만에 고국으로 복귀한 후 현재까지 2022년 스페인 여자 슈퍼컵 우승, 2021-22 시즌 리그 우승, 2021-22년 UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 준우승 등의 성과를 남겼다. 국가대표 경력 2011년 11월 20일 루마니아와의 UEFA 여자 유로 2013 예선 2조 4차전(4-0 승)에서 스페인 여자 대표팀 소속으로 국제 A매치 데뷔전을 치렀고 2013년 10월 27일 최약체팀인 에스토니아와의 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 유럽 지역 예선 2조 1차전에서 A매치 데뷔골을 터뜨리며 팀의 6-0 대승에 일조했다. 그 뒤 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵을 통해 처음으로 월드컵 본선 무대를 밟았으나 팀은 이 대회 본선에서 1무 2패·E조 최하위의 성적을 거두며 조별리그 탈락의 고배를 마셨고 이후 2019년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 유럽 지역 예선에서 4골을 터뜨려 2회 연속 여자 월드컵 본선행을 이끈 뒤 2019년 여자 월드컵 본선에서도 맹활약하며 스페인 여자 축구 역사상 첫 월드컵 16강 진출의 큰 공을 세웠다. 이에 앞서 2017년 알가르브컵과 2018년 키프로스컵에도 참가하여 스페인 여자 축구 역사상 2회 연속 국제 대회 우승컵을 들어올리는 기쁨을 맛보았고 특히 2017년 알가르브컵에서는 생애 첫 최우수선수에 선정되는 영예까지 안았다. 수상 클럽 레알 소시에다드 페메니노 코파 델 레이나 : 4강 (2010-11) 아틀레틱 빌바오 페메니노 프리메라 디비시온 페메니나 : 우승 (2015-16), 준우승 (2011-12, 2012-13, 2013-14), 3위 (2014-15) 코파 델 레이나 : 준우승 (2011-12, 2013-14) 파리 생제르맹 페미닌 디비지옹 1 페미닌 : 우승 (2020-21), 준우승 (2017-18, 2018-19, 2019-20), 3위 (2016-17) 쿠프 드 프랑스 페미닌 : 우승 (2017-18), 준우승 (2016-17, 2019-20) UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 : 준우승 (2016-17), 4강 (2019-20, 2020-21) FC 바르셀로나 페메니 프리메라 디비시온 페메니나 : 우승 (2021-22) UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 : 준우승 (2021-22) 스페인 여자 슈퍼컵 : 우승 (2022) 국가대표팀 (여자) 알가르브컵 : 우승 (2017) 키프로스컵 : 우승 (2018) 개인 알가르브컵 최우수선수 : 2017 국제 축구 선수 협회 선정 월드 11 : 2017 UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 드림팀 : 2020-21 UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 올해의 수비수상 : 2020-21 1991년 출생 살아있는 사람 스페인의 여자 축구 선수 스페인 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 여자 축구 수비수 UEFA 여자 유로 2013 참가 선수 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 UEFA 여자 유로 2017 참가 선수 2019년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 리가 F의 축구 선수 스페인의 성소수자 스포츠 선수 UEFA 여자 유로 2022 참가 선수 파리 생제르맹 FC 페미닌의 축구 선수 FC 바르셀로나 페메니의 축구 선수 2023년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 프랑스의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 디비지옹 1 페미닌의 축구 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irene%20Paredes

Irene Paredes

Irene Paredes Hernández (born 4 July 1991) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for Liga F club Barcelona and the Spain national team. Club career Real Sociedad Born in Legazpi, Gipuzkoa in the Basque Country, Paredes joined local side Zarautz in 2007. She then moved to Real Sociedad a year later. On 5 October 2008, she made her senior debut against Málaga in a league game. Athletic Bilbao After spending three seasons at Real Sociedad, Paredes signed for Basque rivals Athletic Bilbao in 2011. She spent five seasons there, winning the Primera División in her final season with the club in 2015–16. She also won three Copa Euskal Herria against her former club Real Sociedad in 2011, 2013 and 2015. On 10 June 2012, she was sent off for the first time in her career in their 1–2 loss against Espanyol in the 2012 Copa de la Reina final. Paris Saint-Germain In 2016, Paredes signed for Paris Saint-Germain. She played her first UEFA Women's Champions League season after joining PSG and reached the final, where her team lost 6–7 on penalties to Lyon. On 31 May 2018, she won her first trophy with the club as PSG defeated Lyon 1–0 in the final of the 2018 Coupe de France Féminine. She was named as captain of PSG before the start of the 2018–19 season. In May 2019, Paredes extended her contract with PSG for two more years, keeping her at the club till 30 June 2021. On 21 September, Paredes played in her first final as captain as PSG were defeated 3–4 on penalties by Lyon in the inaugural Trophée des Championnes. On 4 June 2021, Paredes led PSG to their first ever league title, ending Lyon's run of 14 consecutive titles. She also led PSG to the semifinals of the Women's Champions League where her team lost to eventual champions Barcelona. Barcelona On 8 July 2021, Paredes signed a two-year deal with Barcelona after her contract with PSG expired. On 4 September, Paredes made her official Barcelona debut in a 5–0 routing of Granadilla Tenerife. On 17 October, Paredes scored her first goal for Barcelona in a 5–0 victory against Sporting Huelva. On 17 November, she scored her first Women's Champions League goal for Barcelona as she headed in the second goal in a 5–0 defeat of 1899 Hoffenheim in the group stage. On 23 January 2022, Paredes won her first title with Barcelona after her side thrashed Atlético Madrid 7–0 in the final to win their second Supercopa de España Femenina title. On 9 February, Paredes returned after recovering from Covid-19 and scored the fourth goal in the 9–1 thrashing of Real Sociedad. On 13 February, Paredes suffered a muscle tear in her left thigh during their 3–0 win against Athletic Bilbao and was ruled out for over four weeks. On 13 March, Paredes won her second Spanish league title, and her first with Barça, after Barcelona won 5–0 against Real Madrid. On 22 March, Paredes returned from her injury when she came on at the 65th minute in a 3–1 victory against Real Madrid in the first leg of the Champions League quarter final. On 30 March, she made her Camp Nou debut in the return leg of Barça's 5–2 quarter final victory against Real Madrid. On 21 May, Paredes started against Lyon as Barcelona were defeated 1–3 in the Champions League final at the Allianz Stadium in Turín. On 29 May, she won her third trophy with Barcelona as her team thrashed Sporting Huelva 6–1 in the Copa de la Reina final. On 18 August, Paredes was announced as the fifth captain of Barcelona before the start of the new season. On 19 January 2023, Paredes was sent-off during Barcelona's 3–1 victory over Real Madrid in the semi-final of the 2022-23 Supercopa de España Femenina and was subsequently suspended for the final. Three days later, her side defeated Real Sociedad 3–0 to win the trophy. On 27 January, Paredes extended her contract with Barcelona until June 2025. On 30 April, she won her second league title with Barcelona when her side beat Sporting Huelva 3–0. On 3 June, Paredes played the entire match as Barcelona won 3–2 against VfL Wolfsburg in the final to win her first Women's Champions League title. International career She played her first minutes for the Spain national team in November 2011 against Romania. In June 2013, national team coach Ignacio Quereda confirmed Paredes as a member of his 23-player squad for the UEFA Women's Euro 2013 finals in Sweden. At the tournament, she scored an unfortunate own goal in Spain's 3–1 quarter-final defeat to Norway. On 27 October 2013, she scored her first goal for Spain, in a 6–0 home win against Estonia at a 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup qualification match. She was also called up to be part of Spain's squad at the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup in Canada and at the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup in France. On 5 March 2018, she marked her 50th appearance for Spain by opening the scoring with a header in a 2–0 victory against Czech Republic in the last group match of the Cyprus Cup. On 14 February 2022, Paredes was ruled out of the inaugural edition of the Arnold Clark Cup after suffering a muscle tear in her left thigh and was replaced by Sheila García. On 6 April 2023, Paredes made her return to the national team in a 4–2 international friendly win against Norway after she had resigned from the national team, along with her captaincy role in October 2022, following disagreements between a few players and the RFEF over unfavourable conditions in the dressing room. On 20 August, she won the FIFA Women's World Cup after Spain defeated England 1–0 in the final. Personal life Paredes is in a relationship with former Spain hockey player Lucía Ybarra. During her stint at PSG, the couple lived together in Saint-Germain-en-Laye. In April 2021, Paredes and Ybarra announced that they were expecting their first child together. On 13 September, Paredes announced the arrival of their son Mateo, who was born the day before, in an Instagram post. Paredes had already asked coach Jorge Vilda not to summon her to the national squad for 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup qualification due to the forthcoming birth. Style of play Paredes has been described to be a multifaceted defender, who is a commanding presence in the air. She is also a very skillful and technically gifted ball-playing defender as she contributes to her team's build-up while dribbling the ball up the field and connecting with the attackers. She is an attacking threat inside the opponent's penalty area from free-kicks and corners as she has demonstrated with her prowess in goalscoring through headers. Career statistics Club International Scores and results list Spain's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Paredes goal. Honours Athletic Bilbao Primera División: 2015–16 Paris Saint-Germain Division 1 Féminine: 2020–21 Coupe de France Féminine: 2017–18 Barcelona Primera División: 2021–22, 2022–23 UEFA Women's Champions League: 2022–23 Copa de la Reina: 2021–22 Supercopa de España Femenina: 2021–22, 2022–23 Spain FIFA Women's World Cup: 2023 Algarve Cup: 2017 Cyprus Cup: 2018 Individual Algarve Cup Best player: 2017 FIFA FIFPro World XI: 2017 UEFA Women's Champions League Squad of the Season: 2020–21, 2022–23 UEFA Women's Champions League Defender of the Season: 2020–21 References External links Irene Paredes at FC Barcelona (archive) Irene Paredes at BDFutbol 1991 births Living people People from Goierri Spanish women's footballers Spain women's international footballers Liga F players Real Sociedad Femenino players Athletic Club (women) players Paris Saint-Germain Féminine players FC Barcelona Femení players Women's association football defenders 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup players Expatriate women's footballers in France Spanish expatriate sportspeople in France Division 1 Féminine players 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup players LGBT association football players Spanish LGBT sportspeople Footballers from Gipuzkoa UEFA Women's Euro 2022 players UEFA Women's Euro 2017 players 21st-century Spanish women 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup players FIFA Women's World Cup-winning players

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8A%B9%EB%B3%84%EA%B7%BC%EB%A1%9C%EA%B0%90%EB%8F%85%EA%B4%80%20%EC%A1%B0%EC%9E%A5%ED%92%8D

특별근로감독관 조장풍

《특별근로감독관 조장풍》()은 2019년 4월 8일부터 2019년 5월 28일까지 방송된 MBC 월화 미니시리즈이다. 줄거리 과거 국가대표급 유도 선수 출신이자 체육 교사로서 건실한 삶을 꿈꿨으나 '욱'하는 성격 때문에 퇴출 된 후 무사안일을 최우선으로 하는 공무원이 된 '조진갑'이 고용노동부 근로감독관으로 일하며 사회의 악덕 '갑'들을 응징하는 이야기를 다룬 사회풍자 드라마. 등장 인물 주요 인물 김동욱 : 조진갑 역 (아역 김동하, 김영준) - 별명 조장풍. 왕년 체육교사. 현재 7급 공무원 근로감독관 박세영 : 주미란 역 - 조진갑 전처. 형사 김경남 : 천덕구 역 - 조장풍의 옛 제자. 왕년 날리던 일진. 현재 흥신소 갑을기획 사장 류덕환 : 우도하 역 - 조장풍의 옛 제자. 명성그룹 법무팀 변호사. 미리내재단 신임 이사장 구원시 노동지청 강서준 : 이동영 역 - 조진갑의 동네 후배. 근로감독관 이원종 : 하지만 역 - 구원시 노동지청장. ‘칠치빠빠’(칠 때 치고 빠질 때 빠진다)를 아는 타이밍의 귀재 안상우 : 황두식 역 - 악덕 근로감독관 갑을기획 유수빈 : 백부장 역 - 본명 백원만. 덕구 꼬붕 1. 추심전문가 김시은 : 오대리 역 - 본명 오아름. 덕구 꼬붕 2. 기계장비 전문 명성그룹 설인아 : 고말숙 역 - 최서라의 개인 비서. 천덕구의 연인 오대환 : 구대길 역 - 미리내장학재단 이사장. 상도여객 실질적 사장 이상이 : 양태수 역 - 조장풍의 옛 제자. 최서라의 외동아들. 티에스 사장 송옥숙 : 최서라 역 - 양태수의 어머니. 명성그룹 회장 전국환 : 양인태 역 - 양태수의 아버지. 최서라의 남편. 국회의원 조진갑의 가족 김홍파 : 조진철 역 - 조진갑의 아버지 이나윤 : 조진아 역 (아역 심혜연) - 주미란과 조진갑의 딸 주변 인물 차정원 : 김지란 역 - 공안부 노동사건 담당 검사. 양태수와 정략결혼 예정 고건한 : 김선우 역 - 조장풍의 옛 제자. 상도여객 버스 기사 그 외 인물 김진성 : 구민재 역 - 대길의 아들 추연규 박우영 한여울 한지원 김광태 윤여학 이동용 황재열 : 상도여객 노조위원장 역 양승걸 이성진 김용진 백옥균 성현미 윤종구 김태랑 박상용 지성근 이창 오규택 안찬웅 이원찬 서범식 서병덕 장문규 문학진 임재근 설창희 이용규 이하영 : 공시선생님 역 장욱현 : 경비 역 이응민 : 경비 역 홍리걸 : 덕구 친구 역 박성훈 : 덕구 친구 역 전해성 : 군수 아들 역 박용 서광재 유순웅 신철진 문영동 금동현 신재원 홍제이 : 지호 역 이준서 : 중국집 배달 알바생 역 김승찬 : 피자 배달 알바생 역 장호준 : 치킨 배달 알바생 역 이동현 : 보쌈 배달 알바생 역 박계윤 : 분식 배달 알바생 역 안혜원 : 임산부 역 조민규 : 회사원 역 정세현 : 알바생 역 한송호 : 버스 정비 기사 역 방인준 : 버스 기사 역 남천우 : 버스회사 직원 역 진주원 : 문 비서 역 김새롬 : 비서 역 심나은 : 비서 역 허수빈 : 비서 역 정지은 : 비서 역 김혜진 : 비서 역 차소윤 : 비서 역 김주영 : 웨이트리스 역 윤미경 : 장은지 역 - 은미의 언니 박지안 : 장은미 역 - 휴먼테크 파견 직원 이규현 : 이창규 역 - 명성 병원 인턴 박지연 : 창규의 아내 역 - 명성그룹에 의한 최대 피해자 임하비 : 창규의 딸 진희역 김여름 : 취준생 역 장예림 : 취준생 역 김규희 : 취준생 역 김명훈 : 노래방 직원 역 이지훈 : 맹과장 역 - 산재재심사위원회 직원 김왕근 최시훈 손진환 신우철 최나무 이현걸 : 남 비서 역 - 양인태의 비서 정현석 류지훈 안수빈 - 심현숙 역 - 도지사 후보 이서환 장욱현 문정기 한수혁 권혁범 김원식 진현광 민정섭 장준호 이윤상 김주찬 황보권 : 티에스 직원 역 장예진 : 고위층 하객 역 박세훈 : 방송실 직원 역 박소영 : 간호사 역 서희 : 간호사 역 최나무 : 간호사 역 황다경 : 간호사 역 이원찬 김주찬 정호 : 보안직원 역 박대영 최준환 김환 : 관제실 직원 역 권구남 : 엔지니어 역 정지호 : 상도여객 바지사장 역 전정일 : 정이사 역 정예녹 : 유정 역 김민상 황선영 : 양학수의 부인 역 안세민 김인식 : PD 역 홍석빈 : 구대길의 운전기사 역 장명운 문진승 특별출연 서경석 : 토론 진행자 - 도지사 후보 TV토론회 사회자 에브리 싱글 데이 : 결혼식 축하공연 제작진 기획 : 강대선 제작 : 김승조, 최진호 프로듀서 : 홍석우 극본 : 김반디 연출 : 박원국, 성치욱 촬영감독 : 김선철, 최정길 촬영 : 이정아, 이명준 조명 : 김광민, 윤경현 동시 : 박용준, 이현도 장비 : 최창진, 이기리 미술 : 한지선 무술 : 정두홍 편집 : 오세레나 음악 : 문성남 음악효과 : 홍가희 조연출 : 박선영, 조무경, 백수영 작곡 : 정차식, 최성훈, 김영진, 김민희, 박현, 장효주, 김홍갑, 천세훈 OST : 뮤직스토리 이유진, 송승준 사운드트랙 Part. 1 Part. 2 Part. 3 Part. 4 Part. 5 시청률 수상 및 후보 관련 상품 DVD 특별근로감독관 조장풍 DVD (6Disc) 발매일 : 2019년 7월 12일 동시간대 드라마 KBS 월화 미니시리즈 《국민 여러분!》 (2019년 4월 1일 ~ 2019년 5월 28일) SBS 월화 미니시리즈 《해치》 (2019년 2월 11일 ~ 2019년 4월 30일) 《초면에 사랑합니다》 (2019년 5월 6일 ~ 2019년 6월 25일) 같이 보기 대한민국의 텔레비전 드라마 목록 (ㅌ) 2019년 대한민국의 텔레비전 드라마 목록 각주 외부 링크 특별근로감독관 조장풍 공식사이트 문화방송 월화드라마 2019년 드라마 대한민국의 노동 정치인을 소재로 한 작품 김반디 시나리오 작품 2010년대 대한민국의 텔레비전 프로그램 2019년에 시작한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 2019년에 종료한 대한민국 TV 프로그램

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special%20Labor%20Inspector

Special Labor Inspector

Special Labor Inspector () is a 2019 South Korean television series starring Kim Dong-wook, Park Se-young, Ryu Deok-hwan and Kim Kyung-nam. It aired from April 8 to May 28, 2019 on MBC TV. Synopsis The series follows the story of a civil servant who is appointed as a labor inspector in the Ministry of Employment and Labor. Cast Main Kim Dong-wook as Jo Jin-gap, a pure-hearted, hardworking, and honest person with strong sense of justice. He was once a promising judo athlete but was forced to quit after trying to protest an unfair result. He then attempted to become a fitness teacher, but it did not last long as he was unable to control his quick temper in front of the chairman's son. He eventually studied and passed the level nine civil servant exam and becomes a civil servant for a secured government position. However, everything changes when he is assigned as a labor inspector for the Ministry of Employment and Labor. Park Se-young as Joo Mi-ran, Jin-gap's ex-wife who is a former judo athlete turned detective. Ryu Deok-hwan as Woo Do-ha, an ace lawyer of the legal department at Myeongseong Group. Kim Kyung-nam as Cheon Deok-gu, Jin-gap's former pupil who becomes his loyal secret investigator. Supporting Seol In-ah as Go Mal-sook, the personal secretary of Myeongseong Group's chairperson. Oh Dae-hwan as Goo Dae-gil Lee Won-jong as Ha Ji-man Kang Seo-joon as Lee Dong-young Song Ok-sook as Choi Seo-ra Go Geon-han as Kim Sun-woo Shin Cheol-jin Yoo Su-bin Lee Sang-yi as Yang Tae-soo Special appearance Lee Gyu-hyun as Lee Chang Gyu, as an intern doctor. Production The first script reading of the cast was held in early January 2019. Ryu Deok-hwan and Park Se-young have previously worked together in the 2012 series Faith. Ratings Awards and nominations Notes References External links MBC TV television dramas Korean-language television shows 2019 South Korean television series debuts 2019 South Korean television series endings South Korean action television series South Korean comedy television series

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%A4%ED%83%95%EC%9D%98%20%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC

설탕의 역사

설탕의 역사()는 과거부터 현대에 이르기까지 설탕의 발견, 재배, 제조, 확산, 대중화 과정과 그 영향들에 대해 기술한다. 설탕은 1세기 이후 인도 북부의 사탕수수 식물로부터 처음 생산되었다. "설탕(sugar)"이란 단어는 산스크리트어 "sharkara"로부터 유래되었다고 추정되며, 기원전 1500년에서 기원전 500년 사이에 쓰여진 인도의 산스크리트 문학에는 인도 벵골 지역에서 사탕수수를 재배하고, 설탕을 제조한 최초의 기록이 등장한다. 투박하게 만들어진 설탕에 대한 산스크리트 이름은 "공이나 덩어리를 만들다"라는 뜻의 "구다(guda)"였다. 설탕의 역사는 5가지 주요 단계로 나뉜다. 기원전 약 8000년경에 동남아시아 지역에서 사탕수수를 재배하고, 사탕수수 식물로부터 사탕수수액을 추출. 약 2000년전 인도에서 사탕수수 추출액으로부터 설탕 알갱이를 만드는 제조법을 발명하고, 1세기 초반에 인도에서 설탕 결정 알갱이를 정제하는 과정의 개선. 설탕의 생산 방법의 개선과 함께 중세 이슬람 세계에 사탕수수의 재배 및 설탕 제조의 확산. 16세기 초부터 서인도 제도와 아메리카 대륙의 열대 지역에 사탕수수의 재배와 설탕 제조의 확산. 17세기에서 19세기까지 설탕 생산 방법에서 집중적인 개선이 뒤따름. 19세기와 20세기에 사탕무 설탕, 고과당 옥수수 시럽, 기타 감미료의 보급 및 발전. 중세가 끝나갈 무렵 세계적으로 알려진 설탕은 매우 비싸고 "훌륭한 향신료"로 간주되었지만, 1500년경부터 기술의 향상과 신대륙으로부터의 설탕 공급이 설탕을 훨씬 더 값싼 대량 상품으로 바꾸기 시작했다. 사탕수수 재배의 확산 사탕수수의 작물화가 시작된 곳은 두 곳으로 하나는 뉴기니섬의 파푸아인이 작물화한 Saccharum officinarum(사카룸 오피키나룸) 이고, 다른 하나는 타이완과 중국 남부의 오스트로네시아인들이 작물화한 Saccharum sinense이다. 파푸아인들과 오스트로네시아인들은 원래 가축화된 돼지 사료로 사탕수수를 주로 사용했다. Saccharum officinarum 과 Saccharum sinense 의 확산은 오스트로네시아인들의 이주와 밀접하게 관련되어 있다. Saccharum barberi는 Saccharum officinarum 의 도입 이후 인도에서만 재배되었다. Saccharum officinarum 은 파푸아인들에 의해 뉴기니섬과 월리스 선의 동쪽에 있는 섬들에서 처음으로 작물화가 되었으며, 이곳은 현대 생물다양성의 중심지이다. 약 6000년전부터 Saccharum robustum 으로부터 인위선택 과정을 거쳐 Saccharum officinarum를 재배하게 되었다. Saccharum officinarum 은 뉴기니섬으로부터 서쪽으로 퍼져나가 동남아시아의 섬들에서 오스트로네시아인들과 접촉한 후 Saccharum spontaneum 과 교배되었다. 두 번째 작물화의 중심지는 중국 남부와 타이완으로 Saccharum sinense는 오스트로네시아인들의 주요 재배종이었다. Saccharum sinense는 적어도 5500년전에 오스트로네시아인들의 주요 작물들 중 하나였다. 단맛이 더 나는 Saccharum officinarum 의 도입은 동남아시아 섬 전체에 걸쳐 사탕수수 재배종을 점차적으로 Saccharum officinarum 로 대체했을 것이다. 동남아시아 섬들로부터 동쪽으로 퍼져나간 Saccharum officinarum 은 약 3500년전에 오스트로네시아 항해자들에 의해 폴리네시아와 미크로네시아로 퍼져나갔다. 또한 Saccharum officinarum 은 오스트로네시아 상인들에 의해 약 3000년전에 서쪽으로는 인도로, 북쪽으로는 중국으로 퍼져나갔으며, 그 곳에서 Saccharum officinarum 은 Saccharum sinense 와 Saccharum barberi 와 잡종교배 되었다. Saccharum officinarum 은 유라시아 대륙 서부와 지중해까지 퍼져나갔다. 사탕수수 추출액을 설탕 결정으로 정제하는 과정이 진행된 인도에서는 종종 중국 사신들이 사탕수수의 재배 및 설탕 정제 방법에 대해 알아보기 위해 방문했다. 6세기에는 사탕수수 경작과 설탕 가공이 페르시아에까지 이르렀고, 아랍 세계의 확장에 의해 지중해 세계까지 지식이 전파되었다. 중세의 아랍인들은 그들이 어디를 가든지 그들과 함께 설탕 및 설탕 생산 기술을 가져다 주었다. 15세기에 스페인과 포르투갈의 탐험과 정복은 이베리아반도의 남서부로 설탕을 가져오게 했다. 엔히크 항해왕자는 1425년에 마데이라 제도에 사탕수수를 전파했으며, 스페인 사람들은 카나리아 제도를 정복하여 그들에게 사탕수수를 전파했다. 1493년에 크리스토퍼 콜럼버스는 그의 두 번째 항해에서 사탕수수 묘목을 신대륙에 특히, 히스파니올라섬으로 가져갔다. 초기 인도에서 사탕수수의 이용 사탕수수는 열대 남아시아와 동남아시아에서 유래되었다. Saccharum barberi는 인도에서 유래되었고, Saccharum edule 와 Saccharum officinarum는 뉴기니섬에서 유래되었다. 사람들은 사탕수수를 씹어서 단맛을 뽑아먹었다. 인도인들은 굽타 제국(350년경) 시기에 설탕을 결정화하는 방법을 발견했다. 푸라나누루(Purananuru), 아인쿠루누루(Ainkurunuru), 페룸파나트루파다이(Perumpaanaatruppadai), 파티나파알라이(Paṭṭiṉappālai), 아카나누루(Akananuru)와 같은 타밀 상감문학에서 사탕수수의 재배, 기계를 이용한 사탕수수액의 추출, 인도 남부 타밀 지방에서 설탕 추출에 대한 많은 언급이 있다. 푸라나누루(392년)에서 "여기에서 사탕수수는 상감시대동안 알려지지 않은 장소로부터 타밀 지역으로 옮겨진다."라고 언급되고 있다. 푸라나누루와 아인쿠루누루에서는 거대한 기계를 사용하여 사탕수수액을 추출하는 것은 코끼리가 만든 소리와 비교되었고, 설탕을 만드는 과정동안 생기는 연기는 산 위의 구름에 비유되었다. 인도 무역상들은 다양한 무역로를 통해 설탕을 운반했다. 불교 승려들에 의해 설탕으로 결정화하는 방법이 중국으로 전파되었다. 인도 북부의 하르샤의 통치 기간(재위: 606년~647년)동안 당나라에서 인도 사절들은 당 태종(재위: 626년~649년)이 설탕에 대해 관심을 보이자, 사탕수수의 재배법을 중국인들에게 가르쳤고, 이어서 중국은 7세기에 사탕수수 재배를 처음으로 시작했다. 중국측 문서는 설탕 정제 기술을 얻기 위해서 647년부터 시작된 두 번에 걸친 인도로의 사절단 파견에 대해 기록하고 있다. 남아시아, 중동, 중국에서는 설탕이 요리 및 디저트의 필수품이 되었다. 초기 정제 방법은 사탕수수 추출액을 얻기 위해 사탕수수를 갈거나 두드린 다음, 추출액을 끓이거나 햇볕에 말려서 자갈처럼 보이는 설탕 고형물을 얻었다. "설탕(sugar)"에 대한 산스크리트어인 "sharkara"는 "자갈(gravel)" 또는 "모래(sand)"를 의미한다. 마찬가지로 중국어에서는 "자갈 설탕(gravel sugar)"이라는 뜻의 용어 "砂糖(사탕)"을 사용한다. 1792년에 영국에서 설탕 가격이 엄청난 가격으로 올랐다. 영국 동인도 회사는 본국의 설탕 가격을 낮추는데 도움을 달라는 요청을 받았다. 1792년 3월 15일 영국 정부의 장관들은 영국령 인도에서 정제된 설탕 생산과 관련된 보고서를 제출했다. 벵골의 설립자인 J. 패터슨(J. Paterson) 부관은 인도에서 생산될 수 있는 정제당이 여러 가지 면에서 우위에 있으며, 서인도 제도에서 보다 더 싸게 설탕을 생산할 수 있다고 보고하였다. 중세 이슬람 세계와 유럽에서의 설탕 고대 그리스인들과 로마인들은 식품으로써가 아닌 수입 의약품으로써 설탕에 대해 기록했다. 예를 들어 1세기에 그리스의 의사 디오스코리데스는 다음과 같이 기술했다. 1세기에 로마의 대플리니우스는 설탕을 다음과 같이 약용으로 기록했다. 중세에 아랍 사업가들은 인도로부터 설탕 생산 기술을 받아들이고, 설탕 산업을 확대했다. 중세 아랍인들은 경우에 따라 현지에 제당소를 갖춘 대규모 플랜테이션을 세웠다. 열대성 기후대에 세워지는 사탕수수 설탕 공장은 많은 양의 물과 열을 필요로 한다. 인공적인 관개시설의 사용을 통해 중세 아랍 세계 전역에 사탕수수 재배가 퍼져나갔다. 사탕수수는 9세기경부터 시칠리아 토후국 시기동안 중세 남부 유럽에서 처음으로 광범위하게 재배되었다. 시칠리아 외에도 알안달루스(현재 스페인 남부에 위치한)는 10세기 초에 설탕 생산의 주요 중심지였다. 설탕은 아랍 세계로부터 유럽 전역으로 수출되었다. 중세 후기 서구의 저작물에서 설탕 소비에 대한 언급이 증가하는데, 이는 중세 후기에 설탕의 수입량이 증가했다는 것을 보여준다. 그러나 설탕은 여전히 값비싼 수입품이었다. 14세기와 15세기에 영국에서 무게당 설탕의 가격은 인도양을 가로질러 운송되어야 했던 육두구, 생강, 정향, 후추와 같은 열대 아시아에서 수입된 향신료와 거의 같을 만큼 비쌌다. 클라이브 폰팅(Clive Ponting)은 메소포타미아에 소개된 사탕수수 재배가 10세기까지 레반트, 동부 지중해의 섬들, 특히 키프로스까지 확산되었음을 추적했다. 또한 폰팅은 사탕수수의 재배가 아프리카 동부 해안을 따라 잔지바르까지 퍼져나갔다고 기록했다. 십자군은 성지에서 "달콤한 소금"을 운반하던 대상과 마주쳤는데, 군사행동이 끝난 후 설탕을 유럽으로 가지고 왔다. 12세기 초에 베네치아는 티레 부근의 일부 마을을 획득하고, 유럽으로 수출할 설탕을 생산하기 위해 토지를 개간했고, 이 곳에서 또 다른 감미료인 꿀을 보충했다. 12세기 후반에 쓰여진 《십자군 연대기》의 저자인 티레의 윌리엄은 설탕을 "인류의 사용과 건강에 매우 필수적인 가장 귀중한 생산품"이라고 평했다. 설탕에 대한 최초의 영어 기록은 13세기 후반에 등장했다. 폰팅은 유럽의 초기 설탕 사업가의 노예에 대한 의존도를 다음과 같이 설명하고 있다. 1390년대에 사탕수수로부터 얻은 추출액의 양을 두 배로 늘릴 수 있는 더 나은 압착 기술이 개발되었고, 이러한 압착 기술의 발전은 안달루시아 지방과 알가르브 지방에 대한 설탕 플랜테이션의 경제적 팽창을 야기했다. 이러한 팽창은 1455년 마데이라 제도에서 시칠리아 출신의 조언자들과 제당소를 건설하기 위한 제노바의 자본을 사용하여 시작되었다. 마데이라 제도에 대한 접근성은 베네치아 상인들의 설탕에 대한 독점권을 원하지 않는 제노바 상인들과 플랑드르 상인들을 끌어들였다. 1480년에 앤트워프는 마데이라 제도에서 설탕 무역에 종사하는 70여척의 선박들을 보유하고 있었으며, 정제 및 유통 과정은 앤트워프에 집중되어 있었다. 1480년대에는 설탕 생산이 카나리아 제도까지 확대되었다. 1490년대까지 설탕 생산에 있어서 마데이라 제도는 키프로스를 따라잡았다. 아프리카 노예들은 카스티야 왕국의 발렌시아 주변의 설탕 플렌테이션에서 일했다. 16세기에 유대교 율법서인 《슐칸 아루크》(Shulchan Aruch)의 저자인 유대교 지도자인 요세프 카로(Joseph Karo)는 이집트 카이로에 있는 유대인들이 안식일에 레모네이드를 만들기 위해 레몬 주스와 물을 혼합한 다음 설탕을 사용한다고 언급했다. 신대륙에서의 설탕 생산 포르투갈인들은 설탕을 브라질로 가져갔다. 1540년까지 산타카타리나섬에는 800개의 제당소가 있었고, 브라질, 데메라라(Demarara), 수리남의 북쪽 해안에는 2,000개의 제당소가 있었다. 1501년에 히스파니올라섬에서 첫 번째 설탕 수확이 있었다. 1520년대에 많은 제당소가 쿠바와 자메이카에 건설되었다. 1550년 이전에 신대륙에 세워진 약 3,000개의 작은 제당소들은 주철 기어, 레버, 액슬(axle) 및 기타 장비에 대한 전례없는 수요를 창출했다. 설탕 생산의 확장에 따라 유럽에서 개발된 주형과 철주물들이 전문적으로 거래되었다. 제당소의 건설은 18세기에 산업혁명이 일어나는데 필요한 기술 발전을 촉발시켰다. 1625년 이후에 네덜란드인들은 남아메리카에서 카리브해 섬까지 사탕수수를 가져갔고, 바베이도스에서 버진 제도까지 사탕수수를 재배했다. 당대의 사람들은 설탕의 가치를 종종 사향, 진주, 향신료와 같은 귀중한 물품과 비교했다. 특히 영국의 식민지 정책에 의해 설탕의 생산이 다원화됨에 따라 설탕의 가격은 서서히 하락하였다. 이전에는 설탕이 부자들만의 사치품이었지만, 설탕의 소비는 가난한 사람들 사이에서도 점차 흔해지게 되었다. 설탕의 생산은 북미 대륙의 식민지, 쿠바, 브라질에서 증가했다. 처음에는 유럽의 계약 노동자들과 아메리카의 원주민 노예들이 노동력에 포함되었다. 그러나 천연두 같은 유럽의 질병과 말라리아와 황열 같은 아프리카의 질병들은 곧 아메리카 원주민의 수를 줄여나갔다. 유럽인들은 말라리아와 황열에 매우 취약했고, 계약 노동자들의 공급은 제한적이었다. 아프리카 노예들은 말라리아와 황열에 대한 내성이 강하고, 아프리카 해안으로부터 노예의 공급이 풍부했기 때문에 설탕 플랜테이션 노동자 공급의 주된 원천이 되었다. 18세기 동안 설탕은 엄청나게 인기를 끌었다. 예를 들어 영국의 설탕 소비량은 1710년보다 1770년에 5배 증가했다. 1750년에 이르러서 설탕은 곡물을 제치고 유럽 무역에서 가장 가치있는 상품이 되었다. 설탕은 모든 유럽 수입품의 5분의 1을 차지했고, 18세기 후반에 설탕의 5분의 4는 서인도 제도의 영국과 프랑스의 식민지로부터 나왔다. 설탕 시장은 일련의 호황을 겪었다. 많은 유럽인들의 식습관이 크게 바뀌어 수요가 증가하고, 설탕 생산량이 크게 증가하였다. 예를 들어 유럽인들은 잼, 사탕, 차, 커피, 코코아, 가공 식품, 다른 달콤한 식품들을 훨씬 더 많이 섭취하기 시작했다. 이러한 증가하는 수요 열풍에 발맞추어 서인도 제도의 설탕 생산지에서는 더 많은 설탕을 생산하는 것에 착수했다. 실제로 서인도 제도는 서유럽인들이 소비한 설탕의 90%까지 생산했다. 일부 섬들은 다른 작물을 생산하는 것보다 설탕을 생산하는 것이 보다 성공적임을 입증했다. 바베이도스와 영국의 리워드 제도에서 설탕은 각각 수출의 93%와 97%를 차지했다. 농장주들은 나중에 설탕 생산을 더욱 늘릴 수 있는 방법을 개발하기 시작했다. 예를 들어 작물 재배시 보다 생산적인 방법을 사용하기 시작했다. 또한 그들은 보다 발전된 제당소를 건설하고, 더 나은 품종의 사탕수수를 재배하기 시작했다. 18세기에 프랑스 식민지 특히, 생도맹그가 가장 성공적인 설탕 생산지였는데, 새로운 품종의 사탕수수 재배와 함께 더 발전된 관개시설, 수력 및 기계 장치를 이용하여 이익이 증가했다. 이러한 개선에도 불구하고 설탕의 가격은 특히, 네덜란드에 대항한 반란과 나폴레옹 전쟁과 같은 사건 발생동안 급등했다. 설탕에 대한 수요는 많았고, 설탕 플랜테이션 농장주들은 이러한 상황을 어떻게 이익으로 활용할 것인지를 정확하게 알고 있었다. 유럽인들이 카리브해의 더 큰 섬들에 설탕 플랜테이션을 설립함에 따라 특히, 영국에서 설탕 가격이 하락했다. 18세기에 이르러서 과거의 사치품이었던 상품을 일반 소비자들도 사용할 수 있게 되었다. 영국에서는 처음에 대부분의 설탕을 차에 타는데 사용했지만, 후에 사탕과 초콜릿에 설탕을 사용하였다. 많은 영국인들(특히 어린이들)이 잼을 먹었다. 설탕 공급업체들은 보통 설탕봉의 형태로 설탕을 판매했으며, 소비자들은 플라이어와 비슷한 공구인 슈거 닙스(sugar nips)를 사용하여 설탕 조각을 뜯어내야 했다. 사탕수수는 토양을 빠르게 고갈시켰기 때문에, 농장주들은 유럽에서 설탕 수요가 계속 증가함에 따라 19세기에는 더 신선한 토양을 가진 더 큰 섬으로 생산 시설을 옮겨가야 했다. 영국에서 1인당 설탕의 평균 소비량은 1700년에 4파운드에서 1800년에 18파운드, 1850년에 36파운드, 20세기까지 100파운드 이상으로 증가했다. 쿠바는 산악 지대가 없는 편평한 지대를 가지고 있었기 때문에 카리브해에서 가장 풍부한 땅(설탕을 주요 작물로 재배)이 되었다. 거의 4분의 3의 토지가 작물 재배에 이상적인 기복이 진 평야였다. 쿠바 사람들은 설탕 작물을 수확할 때 더 나은 방법을 사용했기 때문에 쿠바는 다른 섬들보다 번성했다. 쿠바 사람들은 물레방아, 에워싸인 가마, 증기기관, 진공솥과 같은 현대적인 제당 기술을 사용했다. 이러한 모든 기술들은 생산성을 향상시켰다. 또한 쿠바는 카리브해 제도의 다른 지역들보다 더 오랫동안 노예제도를 유지했다. 아이티 혁명으로 아이티 공화국이 세워진 후에 아이티의 설탕 생산량은 감소했고, 쿠바는 세계 최대의 설탕 생산지인 생도맹그를 대체하였다. 브라질에서 오랫동안 설탕을 생산해왔는데, 남아메리카의 다른 지역 뿐만 아니라 아프리카와 태평양의 새로운 유럽 식민지에도 설탕 생산이 퍼졌고, 특히 피지에서 중요하게 되었다. 모리셔스, 나탈(Natal), 오스트레일리아의 퀸즐랜드주에서 설탕 재배가 시작되었다. 설탕 생산지들은 이제 전세계에서 흘러 들어온 노동자들과 노예가 아닌 계약 노동으로 노동력을 사용하는 경향이 있다. 19세기 후반에 45만명 이상의 계약 노동자들이 인도에서 영국령 서인도 제도로 갔고, 나머지 인도 노동자들은 나탈, 모리셔스, 피지로 갔고, 이들은 나중에 이들 지역 인구의 대다수를 차지하게 되었다. 오스트레일리아의 퀸즐랜드주에서는 태평양 섬들로부터 노동자들이 이주했다. 하와이에는 중국과 일본 출신 노동자들이 이주하였다. 네덜란드인들은 많은 사람들을 자와섬에서 수리남으로 이주시켰다. 설탕 플랜테이션들은 아프리카 노예들이 없었다면 번창할 수 없었을 것이라고 언급되고 있다. 콜롬비아에서는 설탕 재배가 매우 일찍 시작되었고, 사업가들은 많은 아프리카 노예들을 수입해서 작물을 경작시켰다. 콜롬비아의 산업화는 라트비아 출신의 유대인 이민자인 제임스 마틴 에더(James Martin Eder)가 남미 최초의 증기 동력식 제당소인 마누엘리타(Manuelita)를 설립함으로써 1901년에 시작되었다. 사탕무의 부상 1747년에 독일의 화학자인 안드레아스 마르크그라프(Andreas Marggraf)는 사탕무 뿌리에 수크로스가 존재함을 확인했다. 이러한 발견은 얼마동안은 그저 호기심이 있는 정도로 남아있었지만, 결국 마르크그라프의 제자인 프란츠 아샤르(Franz Achard)는 프로이센의 프리드리히 빌헬름 3세(재위: 1797년~1840년)의 후원하에 슐레지엔의 쿠네른(오늘날 폴란드의 코나리)에 사탕무 가공 공장을 건설했다. 수익이 거의 나지 않았지만, 이 공장은 1801년부터 나폴레옹 전쟁(기간: 1803년~1815년)동안 파괴될 때까지 운영되었다. 영국의 봉쇄에 의해 카리브해의 상품을 수입할 수 없었던 나폴레옹은 영국 상인들과 거래하기를 원치 않았고, 1813년에 설탕의 수입을 금지했다. 사탕무 설탕 산업은 특히 장바티스트 케루엘(Jean-Baptiste Quéruel)이 벤자민 델레세르(Benjamin Delessert)의 사업체를 산업화시킨 후에 나타났다. 선진국에서의 설탕 산업은 인력 수요가 낮은 기계 장치에 의존한다. 하루에 약 1,500톤의 설탕을 생산하는 대형 사탕무 정제 공장은 24시간 생산 가동을 위해 약 150명의 상주 인력을 필요로 한다. 사탕무는 전세계 설탕 생산량의 약 30%를 차지한다. 기계화 18세기 후반부터 설탕의 생산은 점점 더 기계화되었다. 증기기관은 1768년 자메이카에서 처음으로 제당소에 동력을 공급했으며, 발생한 증기는 열처리 공정 과정에서 직접 불을 떼는 것을 대체하였다. 1813년 영국의 화학자 에드워드 찰스 하워드(Edward Charles Howard)는 개방된 용기가 아닌 밀폐된 용기에서 증기로 사탕수수 추출액을 가열하고 부분적인 진공 상태로 유지되는 설탕 정제 방법을 발명했다. 압력을 감소시키면 물은 더 낮은 온도에서 끓기 때문에, 이러한 방식은 연료를 절감시켰고, 캐러멜화로 소실되는 설탕의 양을 감소시켰다. 미국의 기술자 노버트 릴리외(Norbert Rillieux)에 의해 설계된 다중효용 증발기(multiple-effect evaporator)는 연료 효율성을 더욱 향상시켰다. 다중효용 증발기는 일련의 진공솥으로 구성되어 있으며, 이전의 진공솥보다 낮은 압력으로 유지된다. 각 솥의 증기는 최소한의 열을 소모하면서 다음으로 열을 공급한다. 현대 산업은 물을 증발시키기 위해 다중효용 증발기를 이용한다. 당밀로부터 설탕을 분리하는 과정 또한 기계적인 공정의 대상이 되었다. 데이비드 웨스턴(David Weston)은 1852년 하와이에서 이러한 작업에 원심분리기를 처음으로 적용시켰다. 기타 감미료 미국과 일본에서는 고과당 옥수수 시럽이 특히 청량음료와 가공식품과 같은 일부 용도에서 설탕을 대체했다. 고과당 옥수수 시럽을 생산하는 과정은 1957년 리처드 O. 마셜(Richard O. Marshall)과 얼 R. 쿠이(Earl R. Kooi)에 의해 처음 개발되었다. 산업적인 생산 공정은 1965년~1970년에 일본의 경제산업성 산하 산업과학기술원의 타카사키(Y. Takasaki) 박사에 의해 개발되었다. 고과당 옥수수 시럽은 1975년부터 1985년까지 미국의 여러 가공식품 및 청량음료에 급속히 도입되었다. 미국에서 1977년에 부과된 설탕 관세와 설탕 쿼터는 설탕의 수입 비용을 크게 증가시켰고, 미국의 제조업자들은 더 값싼 감미료를 찾았다. 미국의 설탕 가격이 전세계 가격의 두 배이고, 옥수수 재배자들에게 지급되는 정부의 보조금을 통해 옥수수의 가격이 낮게 유지되기 때문에 옥수수로부터 추출한 고과당 옥수수 시럽이 보다 경제적이다. 고과당 옥수수 시럽은 매력적인 대용품이 되었으며, 대다수의 미국 식품 및 음료 제조업체들은 설탕보다 고과당 옥수수 시럽을 더 선호한다. 코카콜라와 펩시 같은 청량음료 제조사들은 다른 나라에서는 설탕을 사용하지만, 미국에서는 1984년에 고과당 옥수수 시럽으로 설탕을 대체했다. 미국인들은 평균적으로 2008년에 고과당 옥수수 시럽을 약 17.1 kg 을 섭취했으며, 수크로스를 21.2 kg을 섭취했다. 최근에는 가공식품에서 고과당 옥수수 시럽의 사용 증가가 대사 증후군, 고혈압, 이상지질혈증, 지방간, 인슐린 저항성 및 비만을 비롯한 다양한 건강 상태들과 관련이 있을 수 있다는 가설이 제기되었다. 그러나 고과당 옥수수 시럽이 수크로스나 다른 단당류들보다 건강에 좋지 않다는 증거는 현재까지는 거의 없다. 고과당 옥수수 시럽의 과당 함량과 과당 대 포도당의 비율은 사과 주스와 크게 다르지 않다. 일부 연구자들은 과당이 다른 단당류들보다 지방을 합성하는 과정을 더 촉진시킬 수 있다고 가정한다. 가장 일반적으로 사용되는 고과당 옥수수 시럽의 조합은 수크로스와 마찬가지로 과당과 포도당의 비율이 거의 1 : 1이며, 따라서 고과당 옥수수 시럽은 과당과 포도당으로 분해되는 수크로스 대사의 첫 단계 이후의 대사과정이 동일하다. 고과당 옥수수 시럽의 보급이 증가함에 따라 식품 중에 당류의 칼로리가 증가하게 되어, 관련 질병의 발생을 증가시킬 수 있다. 같이 보기 설탕 수크로스 사탕수수 사탕수수 (종) 사탕무 음식의 역사 설탕 산업 각주 참고 문헌 음식의 역사 설탕

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20sugar

History of sugar

The history of sugar has five main phases: The extraction of sugar cane juice from the sugarcane plant, and the subsequent domestication of the plant in tropical India and Southeast Asia sometime around 4,000 BC. The invention of manufacture of cane sugar granules from sugarcane juice in India a little over two thousand years ago, followed by improvements in refining the crystal granules in India in the early centuries AD. The spread of cultivation and manufacture of cane sugar to the medieval Islamic world together with some improvements in production methods. The spread of cultivation and manufacture of cane sugar to the West Indies and tropical parts of the Americas beginning in the 16th century, followed by more intensive improvements in production in the 17th through 19th centuries in that part of the world. The development of beet sugar, high-fructose corn syrup and other sweeteners in the 19th and 20th centuries. Sugar was first produced from sugarcane plants in India sometime after the first century AD. The derivation of the word "sugar" is thought to be from Sanskrit (śarkarā), meaning "ground or candied sugar," originally "grit, gravel". Sanskrit literature from ancient India, written between 1500 and 500 BC provides the first documentation of the cultivation of sugar cane and of the manufacture of sugar in the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. Known worldwide by the end of the medieval period, sugar was very expensive and was considered a "fine spice", but from about the year 1500, technological improvements and New World sources began turning it into a much cheaper bulk commodity. The spread of sugarcane cultivation There are two centers of domestication for sugarcane: one for Saccharum officinarum by Papuans in New Guinea and another for Saccharum sinense by Austronesians in Taiwan and southern China. Papuans and Austronesians originally primarily used sugarcane as food for domesticated pigs. The spread of both S. officinarum and S. sinense is closely linked to the migrations of the Austronesian peoples. Saccharum barberi was only cultivated in India after the introduction of S. officinarum. Saccharum officinarum was first domesticated in New Guinea and the islands east of the Wallace Line by Papuans, where it is the modern center of diversity. Beginning at around 6,000 BP they were selectively bred from the native Saccharum robustum. From New Guinea it spread westwards to Island Southeast Asia after contact with Austronesians, where it hybridized with Saccharum spontaneum.The second domestication center is mainland southern China and Taiwan where S. sinense was a primary cultigen of the Austronesian peoples. Words for sugarcane exist in the Proto-Austronesian languages in Taiwan, reconstructed as *təbuS or **CebuS, which became *tebuh in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian. It was one of the original major crops of the Austronesian peoples from at least 5,500 BP. Introduction of the sweeter S. officinarum may have gradually replaced it throughout its cultivated range in Island Southeast Asia. From Island Southeast Asia, S. officinarum was spread eastward into Polynesia and Micronesia by Austronesian voyagers as a canoe plant by around 3,500 BP. It was also spread westward and northward by around 3,000 BP to China and India by Austronesian traders, where it further hybridized with Saccharum sinense and Saccharum barberi. From there it spread further into western Eurasia and the Mediterranean. India, where the process of refining cane juice into granulated crystals was developed, was often visited by imperial convoys (such as those from China) to learn about cultivation and sugar refining. By the sixth century AD, sugar cultivation and processing had reached Persia, and from there that knowledge was brought into the Mediterranean by the Arab expansion. "Wherever they went, the [medieval] Arabs brought with them sugar, the product and the technology of its production." Spanish and Portuguese exploration and conquest in the fifteenth century carried sugar south-west of Iberia. Henry the Navigator introduced cane to Madeira in 1425, while the Spanish, having eventually subdued the Canary Islands, introduced sugar cane to them. In 1493, on his second voyage, Christopher Columbus carried sugarcane seedlings to the New World, in particular Hispaniola. Early use of sugarcane in India Sugarcane originated in tropical Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Different species likely originated in different locations with S. barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea. Originally, people chewed sugarcane raw to extract its sweetness. Indians discovered how to crystallize sugar during the Gupta dynasty, although literary evidence from Indian treatises such as Arthashastra in the 2nd century AD indicates that refined sugar was already being produced in India. Indian sailors, consumers of clarified butter and sugar, carried sugar by various trade routes. Travelling Buddhist monks brought sugar crystallization methods to China. During the reign of Harsha (r. 606–647) in North India, Indian envoys in Tang China taught sugarcane cultivation methods after Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626–649) made his interest in sugar known, and China soon established its first sugarcane cultivation in the seventh century. Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 AD, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining. In India, the Middle East and China, sugar became a staple of cooking and desserts. Early refining methods involved grinding or pounding the cane in order to extract the juice, and then boiling down the juice or drying it in the sun to yield sugary solids that looked like gravel. The Sanskrit word for "sugar" (sharkara) also means "gravel" or "sand". Similarly, the Chinese use the term "gravel sugar" (Traditional Chinese: 砂糖) for what is known in the west knows as "table sugar". In 1792, sugar prices soared in Great Britain. On 15 March 1792, his Majesty's Ministers to the British parliament presented a report related to the production of refined sugar in British India. Lieutenant J. Paterson, of the Bengal Presidency, reported that refined sugar could be produced in India with many superior advantages, and a lot more cheaply than in the West Indies. Cane sugar in the medieval era in the Muslim World and Europe There are records of knowledge of sugar among the ancient Greeks and Romans, but only as an imported medicine, and not as a food. For example, the Greek physician Dioscorides in the 1st century (AD) wrote: "There is a kind of coalesced honey called sakcharon [i.e. sugar] found in reeds in India and Eudaimon Arabia [i.e. Yemen] similar in consistency to salt and brittle enough to be broken between the teeth like salt. It is good dissolved in water for the intestines and stomach, and [can be] taken as a drink to help [relieve] a painful bladder and kidneys." Pliny the Elder, a 1st-century (AD) Roman, also described sugar as medicinal: "Sugar is made in Arabia as well, but Indian sugar is better. It is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut. Sugar is used only for medical purposes." During the medieval era, Arab entrepreneurs adopted sugar production techniques from India and expanded the industry. Medieval Arabs in some cases set up large plantations equipped with on-site sugar mills or refineries. The cane sugar plant, which is native to a tropical climate, requires both a lot of water and a lot of heat to thrive. The cultivation of the plant spread throughout the medieval Arab world using artificial irrigation. Sugar cane was first grown extensively in medieval Southern Europe during the period of Arab rule in Sicily beginning around the 9th century. In addition to Sicily, Al-Andalus (in what is currently southern Spain) was an important center of sugar production, beginning by the tenth century. From the Arab world, sugar was exported throughout Europe. The volume of imports increased in the later medieval centuries as indicated by the increasing references to sugar consumption in late medieval Western writings. But cane sugar remained an expensive import. Its price per pound in 14th and 15th century England was about equally as high as imported spices from tropical Asia such as mace (nutmeg), ginger, cloves, and pepper, which had to be transported across the Indian Ocean in that era. Ponting traces the spread of the cultivation of sugarcane from its introduction into Mesopotamia, then the Levant and the islands of the eastern Mediterranean, especially Cyprus, by the 10th century. He also notes that it spread along the coast of East Africa to reach Zanzibar. Crusaders brought sugar home with them to Europe after their campaigns in the Holy Land, where they encountered caravans carrying what they called "sweet salt". Early in the 12th century, Venice acquired some villages near Tyre and set up estates to produce sugar for export to Europe, where it supplemented honey as the only other available sweetener. Crusade chronicler William of Tyre, writing in the late 12th century, described sugar as "a most precious product, very necessary for the use and health of mankind". The first record of sugar in English is in the late 13th century. Ponting recounts the reliance on slavery of the early European sugar entrepreneurs: The crucial problem with sugar production was that it was highly labour-intensive in both growing and processing. Because of the huge weight and bulk of the raw cane it was very costly to transport, especially by land, and therefore each estate had to have its own factory. There the cane had to be crushed to extract the juices, which were boiled to concentrate them, in a series of backbreaking and intensive operations lasting many hours. However, once it had been processed and concentrated, the sugar had a very high value for its bulk and could be traded over long distances by ship at a considerable profit. The [European sugar] industry only began on a major scale after the loss of the Levant to a resurgent Islam and the shift of production to Cyprus under a mixture of Crusader aristocrats and Venetian merchants. The local population on Cyprus spent most of their time growing their own food and few would work on the sugar estates. The owners therefore brought in slaves from the Black Sea area (and a few from Africa) to do most of the work. The level of demand and production was low and therefore so was the trade in slaves — no more than about a thousand people a year. It was not much larger when sugar production began in Sicily. In the Atlantic ocean [the Canaries, Madeira, and the Cape Verde Islands], once the initial exploitation of the timber and raw materials was over, it rapidly became clear that sugar production would be the most profitable way of getting money from the new territories. The problem was the heavy labour involved because the Europeans refused to work except as supervisors. The solution was to bring in slaves from Africa. The crucial developments in this trade began in the 1440's... During the 1390s, a better press was developed, which doubled the amount of juice that was obtained from the sugarcane and helped to cause the economic expansion of sugar plantations to Andalusia and to the Algarve. It started in Madeira in 1455, using advisers from Sicily and (largely) Genoese capital for the mills. The accessibility of Madeira attracted Genoese and Flemish traders keen to bypass Venetian monopolies. "By 1480 Antwerp had some seventy ships engaged in the Madeira sugar trade, with the refining and distribution concentrated in Antwerp. The 1480's saw sugar production extended to the Canary Islands. By the 1490's Madeira had overtaken Cyprus as a producer of sugar." African slaves also worked in the sugar plantations of the Kingdom of Castile around Valencia. Sugar cultivation in the New World The Portuguese took sugar to Brazil. By 1540, there were 800 cane sugar mills in Santa Catarina Island and there were another 2,000 on the north coast of Brazil, Demarara, and Surinam. The first sugar harvest happened in Hispaniola in 1501; and many sugar mills had been constructed in Cuba and Jamaica by the 1520s. The approximately 3,000 small sugar mills that were built before 1550 in the New World created an unprecedented demand for cast iron gears, levers, axles and other implements. Specialist trades in mold-making and iron casting developed in Europe due to the expansion of sugar production. Sugar mill construction sparked development of the technological skills needed for a nascent industrial revolution in the early 17th century. After 1625, the Dutch transported sugarcane from South America to the Caribbean islands, where it was grown from Barbados to the Virgin Islands. Contemporaries often compared the worth of sugar with valuable commodities including musk, pearls, and spices. Sugar prices declined slowly as its production became multi-sourced throughout the European colonies. Once an indulgence only of the rich, the consumption of sugar also became increasingly common among the poor as well. Sugar production increased in the mainland North American colonies, in Cuba, and in Brazil. The labour force at first included European indentured servants and local Native American enslaved people. However, European diseases such as smallpox and African ones such as malaria and yellow fever soon reduced the numbers of local Native Americans. Europeans were also very susceptible to malaria and yellow fever, and the supply of indentured servants was limited. African slaves became the dominant source of plantation workers, because they were more resistant to malaria and yellow fever, and because the supply of enslaved people was abundant on the African coast. In the process of whitening sugar, the charred bones of dead enslaved people often supplemented the traditionally used animal bones. During the 18th century, sugar became enormously popular. Great Britain, for example, consumed five times as much sugar in 1770 as in 1710. By 1750, sugar surpassed grain as "the most valuable commodity in European trade — it made up a fifth of all European imports and in the last decades of the century four-fifths of the sugar came from the British and French colonies in the West Indies." From the 1740s until the 1820s, sugar was Britain's most valuable import. The sugar market went through a series of booms. The heightened demand and production of sugar came about to a large extent due to a great change in the eating habits of many Europeans. For example, they began consuming jams, candy, tea, coffee, cocoa, processed foods, and other sweet victuals in much greater amounts. Reacting to this increasing trend, the Caribbean islands took advantage of the situation and set about producing still more sugar. In fact, they produced up to ninety percent of the sugar that the western Europeans consumed. Some islands proved more successful than others when it came to producing the product. In Barbados and the British Leeward Islands, sugar provided 93% and 97% respectively of exports. Planters later began developing ways to boost production even more. For example, they began using more farming methods when growing their crops. They also developed more advanced mills and began using better types of sugarcane. In the eighteenth century "the French colonies were the most successful, especially Saint-Domingue, where better irrigation, water-power and machinery, together with concentration on newer types of sugar, increased profits." Despite these and other improvements, the price of sugar reached soaring heights, especially during events such as the revolt against the Dutch and the Napoleonic Wars. Sugar remained in high demand, and the islands' planters knew exactly how to take advantage of the situation. As Europeans established sugar plantations on the larger Caribbean islands, prices fell in Europe. By the 18th century all levels of society had become common consumers of the former luxury product. At first most sugar in Britain went into tea, but later confectionery and chocolates became extremely popular. Many Britons (especially children) also ate jams. Suppliers commonly sold sugar in the form of a sugarloaf and consumers required sugar nips, a pliers-like tool, to break off pieces. Sugarcane quickly exhausts the soil in which it grows, and planters pressed larger islands with fresher soil into production in the nineteenth century as demand for sugar in Europe continued to increase: "average consumption in Britain rose from four pounds per head in 1700 to eighteen pounds in 1800, thirty-six pounds by 1850 and over one hundred pounds by the twentieth century." In the 19th century Cuba rose to become the richest land in the Caribbean (with sugar as its dominant crop) because it formed the only major island landmass free of mountainous terrain. Instead, nearly three-quarters of its land formed a rolling plain — ideal for planting crops. Cuba also prospered above other islands because Cubans used better methods when harvesting the sugar crops: they adopted modern milling methods such as watermills, enclosed furnaces, steam engines, and vacuum pans. All these technologies increased productivity. Cuba also retained slavery longer than the most of the rest of the Caribbean islands. After the Haitian Revolution established the independent state of Haiti, sugar production in that country declined and Cuba replaced Saint-Domingue as the world's largest producer. Long established in Brazil, sugar production spread to other parts of South America, as well as to newer European colonies in Africa and in the Pacific, where it became especially important in Fiji. Mauritius, Natal and Queensland in Australia started growing sugar. The older and newer sugar production areas now tended to use indentured labour rather than enslaved people, with workers "shipped across the world ... [and] ... held in conditions of near slavery for up to ten years... In the second half of the nineteenth century over 450,000 indentured labourers went from India to the British West Indies, others went to Natal, Mauritius and Fiji (where they became a majority of the population). In Queensland workers from the Pacific islands were moved in. On Hawaii, they came from China and Japan. The Dutch transferred large numbers of people from Java to Surinam." It is said that the sugar plantations would not have thrived without the aid of the African enslaved people. In Colombia, the planting of sugar started very early on, and entrepreneurs imported many African enslaved people to cultivate the fields. The industrialization of the Colombian industry started in 1901 with the establishment of Manuelita, the first steam-powered sugar mill in South America, by Latvian Jewish immigrant James Martin Eder. The rise of beet sugar Sugar was a luxury in Europe until the early 19th century, when it became more widely available, due to the rise of beet sugar in Prussia, and later in France under Napoleon. Beet sugar was a German invention, since, in 1747, Andreas Sigismund Marggraf announced the discovery of sugar in beets and devised a method using alcohol to extract it. Marggraf's student, Franz Karl Achard, devised an economical industrial method to extract the sugar in its pure form in the late 18th century. Achard first produced beet sugar in 1783 in Kaulsdorf. In 1801, under the patronage of King Frederick William III of Prussia (reigned 1797–1840), the world's first beet sugar production facility was established in Cunern, Silesia (then part of Prussia). While never profitable, this plant operated from 1801 until its destruction during the Napoleonic Wars (ca. 1802–1815). The works of Marggraf and Achard were the starting point for the sugar industry in Europe, and for the modern sugar industry in general, since sugar was no longer a luxury product and a product almost only produced in warmer climates. In France, Napoleon cut off from Caribbean imports by a British blockade, and at any rate not wanting to fund British merchants, banned imports of sugar in 1813 and ordered the planting of 32,000 hectares with beetroot. A beet sugar industry emerged, especially after Jean-Baptiste Quéruel industrialized the operation of Benjamin Delessert. The United Kingdom Beetroot Sugar Association was established in 1832 but efforts to establish sugar beet in the UK were not very successful. Sugar beets provided approximately 2/3 of world sugar production in 1899. 46% of British sugar came from Germany and Austria. Sugar prices in Britain collapsed towards the end of the 19th century. The British Sugar Beet Society was set up in 1915 and by 1930 there were 17 factories in England and one in Scotland, supported under the provisions of the British Sugar (Subsidy) Act 1925. By 1935 homegrown sugar was 27.6% of British consumption. By 1929 109,201 people were employed in the British sugar beet industry, with about 25,000 more casual labourers. Mechanization Beginning in the late 18th century, the production of sugar became increasingly mechanized. The steam engine first powered a sugar mill in Jamaica in 1768, and soon after, steam replaced direct firing as the source of process heat. In 1813 the British chemist Edward Charles Howard invented a method of refining sugar that involved boiling the cane juice not in an open kettle, but in a closed vessel heated by steam and held under partial vacuum. At reduced pressure, water boils at a lower temperature, and this development both saved fuel and reduced the amount of sugar lost through caramelization. Further gains in fuel-efficiency came from the multiple-effect evaporator, designed by the United States engineer Norbert Rillieux (perhaps as early as the 1820s, although the first working model dates from 1845). This system consisted of a series of vacuum pans, each held at a lower pressure than the previous one. The vapors from each pan served to heat the next, with minimal heat wasted. Modern industries use multiple-effect evaporators for evaporating water. The process of separating sugar from molasses also received mechanical attention: David Weston first applied the centrifuge to this task in Hawaii in 1852. Other sweeteners In the United States and Japan, high-fructose corn syrup has replaced sugar in some uses, particularly in soft drinks and processed foods. The process by which high-fructose corn syrup is produced was first developed by Richard O. Marshall and Earl R. Kooi in 1957. The industrial production process was refined by Dr. Y. Takasaki at Agency of Industrial Science and Technology of Ministry of International Trade and Industry of Japan in 1965–1970. High-fructose corn syrup was rapidly introduced to many processed foods and soft drinks in the United States from around 1975 to 1985. A system of sugar tariffs and sugar quotas imposed in 1977 in the United States significantly increased the cost of imported sugar and U.S. producers sought cheaper sources. High-fructose corn syrup, derived from corn, is more economical because the domestic U.S. price of sugar is twice the global price and the price of corn is kept low through government subsidies paid to growers. High-fructose corn syrup became an attractive substitute, and is preferred over cane sugar among the vast majority of American food and beverage manufacturers. Soft drink makers such as Coca-Cola and Pepsi use sugar in other nations, but switched to high-fructose corn syrup in the United States in 1984. The average American consumed approximately of high-fructose corn syrup in 2008, versus of sucrose. In recent years it has been hypothesized that the increase of high-fructose corn syrup usage in processed foods may be linked to various health conditions, including metabolic syndrome, hypertension, dyslipidemia, hepatic steatosis, insulin resistance, and obesity. However, there is to date little evidence that high-fructose corn syrup is any unhealthier, calorie for calorie, than sucrose or other simple sugars. The fructose content and fructose:glucose ratio of high-fructose corn syrup do not differ markedly from clarified apple juice. Some researchers hypothesize that fructose may trigger the process by which fats are formed, to a greater extent than other simple sugars. However, most commonly used blends of high-fructose corn syrup contain a nearly one-to-one ratio of fructose and glucose, just like common sucrose, and should therefore be metabolically identical after the first steps of sucrose metabolism, in which the sucrose is split into fructose and glucose components. At the very least, the increasing prevalence of high-fructose corn syrup has certainly led to an increase in added sugar calories in food, which may reasonably increase the incidence of these and other diseases. See also Sugar Cane and Rum Museum Castillo Serrallés Hacienda Mercedita Food history Sugar industry Sugar Museum (Berlin) Notes Bibliography Sugar: The Most Evil Molecule from Science History Institute History of food and drink

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모리스 피터슨

모리스 러셀 피터슨 주니어(Morris Russell Peterson Jr., 1977년 8월 26일 ~ )는 은퇴한 미국의 프로 농구 선수이다. 그는 또한 인디애나 페이서스와 뉴욕 닉스의 전 선수 조너선 벤더의 사촌이기도 하다. 대학 경력 미시간주 플린트에서 태어난 피터슨은 미시간 주립 대학교에서 대학 농구를 활약하고 2000년 NCAA 타이틀로 그들을 이끈 도움을 주었다. 대학에서 자신의 시니어 해에 피터슨은 득점, 필드골 퍼센티지와 프리스로 퍼센티지에서 팀을 이끌었다. 그는 팀의 사상 30의 두 자리의 수 득점 성과들을 가졌다. 그는 "올해의 빅텐 선수"와 "퍼스트 팀 올빅텐"으로 투표되었고, 5개의 다른 투표들에서 퍼스트 혹은 세컨드 팀의 올아메리칸 선수로서 놓였다. 그는 2000년 NBA 드래프트에서 토론토 랩터스에 의하여 전체 21위로 선발되어 자신의 첫 3개의 시즌 동안 그들의 경기의 다수에서 출발 선수였다. 2009년 1월 17일 미시간 주립 대학교는 일리노이 파이팅 일리니를 상대로 자신들의 경기가 있기 전에 대학의 다른 사상 거대한 선수들과 함께 그의 등번호 42를 영구 결번 시켰다. NBA 경력 토론토 랩터스 2000년 랩터스에 의하여 첫 라운드에서 드래프트된 피터슨은 자신이 당판에 걸은 순간으로부터 팬들의 총아가 되었다. 자신의 프로 경력에서 어떤 초기의 성공을 즐기는 동안 피터슨의 상연은 안내된 랩터스의 소년들의 새로운 시기의 자국을 좇아서 올라가기 전에 확고한 쇠퇴를 향하여 더욱 팽창력 있는 지도 역할을 고용하고 자신을 엘리트층 주변의 방어자, 위험한 상연자와 견실한 득점자로 변형시켰다. 2005년 12월 28일 피터슨은 랩터스의 선수로서 활약한 경력 경기들의 기록을 세워 418개의 경기들과 함께 앨빈 윌리엄스를 앞섰다. 피터슨은 또한 2006년 4년 동안 자신의 첫 경기를 놓칠 때까지 371개의 연속적 경기 출연의 최장기적 경기들을 활약하면서 NBA를 이끌기도 하였다. 피터슨은 2005년 ~06년 시즌에 활약한 82개의 경기들을 통하여 경력 사상의 포인트와 리바운드를 게시하고, 한 경기에 16.8 포인트와 4.6 리바운드를 평균하고 2.3 어시스트에서 던졌다. 아마 그의 경력의 가장 큰 하이라이트는 2007년 3월 30일 워싱턴 위저즈를 상대로 2개의 팀들의 플레이오프 시드를 결심시킨 경기에서 일어났다. 랩터스는 3.8초 만이 남으면서 190 대 106으로 추적하였다. 워저즈의 마이클 러핀은 풀코트 패스를 가로 막고, 시간이 다 되게 공을 공중 높이로 던져 올렸다. 그러나 공은 그의 손들로부터 미끄러지고, 높이 충분치 않게 던져졌다. 피터슨이 공을 잡고 "아베 마리아"의 3 포인트 슛을 쏘아 연장 경기 시간을 경기를 보내는 데 그것을 가라앉히면서 아직도 시계에 충분한 시간이 남았다. 피터슨은 4번째 쿼터에서 9.3초 만이 남으면서 자신의 첫 교대와 함께 경기에서 55초 만을 활약하였다. 랩터스는 위저즈를 123 대 118로 꺾었다. 브라이언 콜란젤로를 계약한 후, 랩터스의 개조하는 진행이 피터슨을 포함하려고 하지 않은 것 같아 보였다. 그 일은 그가 사라질 2007년 여름에 그의 계약이 만기 되기 전에 시간의 문제일 뿐이었다. 뉴올리언스 호니츠 2007년 7월 13일 뉴올리언스 호니츠는 2천 3백만 달러의 가치에 피터슨을 4년 계약으로 맺었다. 오클라호마시티 선더 2010년 7월 8일 호니츠는 그해의 드래프트에서 전체 11위 선발 선수 콜 올드리치와 더불어 피터슨을 2명의 첫 라운드 드래프트의 선발 선수들(21위의 크레이크 브래킨스와 26위의 퀸시 폰덱스터)을 위하여 오클라호마시티 선더로 이적시켰다. 샬럿 밥캐츠 2011년 2월 24일 피터슨은 나지 모하메드를 위한 교환에서 D. J. 화이트와 함께 샬럿 밥캐츠로 이적되었다. 자신의 계약이 밥캐츠에 의하여 손떼게 되면서 그는 4일 후에 포기되었다. 방송 경력 2015년 1월 14일 TSN은 분석자로서 피터슨이 자신들의 방송 팀에 가입할 것이라고 공고하였다. 랩터스의 경기들의 네트워크의 일관 프로를 위하여 피터슨은 TSN 스튜디오와 캐나다 토론토의 에어 캐나다 센터에 있는 현장 둘다에서 잭 암스트롱, 리오 로틴스, 맷 데블린과 로드 블랙의 TSN 방송 팀에 가입하였다. 피터슨은 스포츠센터를 위하여 분석을 연설하고 네트워크의 확장된 NCAA 보도를 통하여 나올 것이었다. 2017년으로 봐서 피터슨은 더 이상 TSN에 분석자가 아니다. 영예 2006년 3월 31일 피닉스 선스와 경기에서 경력 사상 38 포인트를 득점 2000년 토론토 랩터스에 의하여 첫 라운드의 드래프트 선택 (전체 21위) 2005년 4월 3일 디트로이트 피스턴스와 경기에서 자신의 800번째 경력 3 포인트 필드골을 기록 그해 4월 8일 경력 사상 14 리바운드 2006년에 끝난 371개와 함께 활약한 최장기 활동 연속 경기 보유 활약한 경기(542)와 3 포인트 필드골(801)을 위한 랩터스 경력 기록 보유 외부 링크 NBA profile Michigan State profile 1977년 출생 살아있는 사람 아프리카계 미국인 농구 선수 토론토 랩터스 선수 오클라호마시티 선더 선수 슈팅 가드 스몰 포워드 미시간 주립 대학교 동문 미시간주 출신

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris%20Peterson

Morris Peterson

Morris Russell Peterson Jr. (born August 26, 1977) is an American retired professional basketball player who played eleven seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for Michigan State University, where in the 1999–2000 season he led the Spartans to the national title as Big Ten Player of the Year. He is also a cousin of former NBA player Jonathan Bender. College career Born in Flint, Michigan, Peterson played collegiate basketball at Michigan State University, and helped lead them to the 2000 NCAA title. In his senior year at MSU, Peterson led the team in scoring, field goal percentage, and free throw percentage. He had a team-high 30 double-digit scoring efforts. He was voted Big Ten Player of the Year and First Team All-Big Ten, and he placed as first or second team All-American on five different polls. He was selected 21st overall by the Raptors in the 2000 NBA draft, and was a starter in the majority of their games during his first three seasons. On January 17, 2009, MSU retired his number 42 with MSU's other all-time greats before their game against the Illinois Fighting Illini. NBA career Toronto Raptors Drafted in the first round by the Raptors in 2000, Peterson was a fan favorite from the moment he stepped on the floor. While enjoying some early success in his professional career, Peterson's production faced a steady decline, before stepping up in the wake of the new era of Raptor youngsters being ushered in, taking on a more expansive leadership role and transforming himself into an elite perimeter defender, a clutch performer and consistent scorer. He is known for his three-point shooting, acrobatic shots, defense, and fearless driving to the basket. On December 28, 2005, Peterson set a record for career games played as a Raptor, surpassing Alvin Williams with 418 games played. Peterson also leads the NBA in longest consecutive games played, appearing in 371 straight until November 22, 2006, when he missed his first game in over four years. Peterson posted career highs in points and rebounds averaging 16.8 points and 4.6 rebounds and threw in 2.3 assists per game through 82 games played in the 2005–06 season. Perhaps the biggest highlight of his career occurred against the Washington Wizards on March 30, 2007 in a game that helped determine the two teams' playoff seeding. The Raptors trailed 109–106 with only 3.8 seconds left and no timeouts remaining. The Wizards' Michael Ruffin intercepted the full-court pass and tried to toss the ball high into the air so that the clock would run out. But the ball slipped from his hands and was not thrown high enough. There was still enough time on the clock as Peterson caught the ball and launched a "Hail Mary" three-pointer and sank it to send the game into overtime. Peterson only played 55 seconds in the game, with his first shift beginning with only 9.3 seconds left in the fourth quarter. The Raptors went on to defeat the Wizards, 123–118. After signing Bryan Colangelo, it became apparent that the re-building process of the Raptors would not include Peterson. It was only a matter of time before his contract expired in the summer of 2007 that he would be gone. New Orleans Hornets On July 13, 2007, the New Orleans Hornets signed Peterson to a four-year contract, worth $23 million. Oklahoma City Thunder On July 8, 2010, the Hornets traded Peterson along with #11 overall pick in the 2010 draft, Cole Aldrich, to the Oklahoma City Thunder for two 2010 first-round draft picks (#21, Craig Brackins and #26, Quincy Pondexter). Charlotte Bobcats On February 24, 2011, Peterson was traded to the Charlotte Bobcats along with D.J. White in exchange for Nazr Mohammed. He was waived four days later when his contract was bought out by the Bobcats. Peterson's final NBA game was played on December 12, 2010 in a 106 - 77 win over the Cleveland Cavaliers where he recorded 2 points. Broadcasting career On January 14, 2015, TSN announced that Peterson would join their broadcast team as an analyst. For the network's package of Toronto Raptors games, Peterson joined TSN's broadcast team of Jack Armstrong, Leo Rautins, Matt Devlin, and Rod Black both in the TSN Studio and on-site at the Air Canada Centre in Toronto, Ontario. Peterson will also deliver analysis for SportsCentre and appear throughout the network's expanded NCAA coverage, including TSN's wall-to-wall coverage of NCAA March Madness. As of 2017, Peterson is no longer an analyst on TSN. Restaurant On January 23, 2018 Peterson, in a partnership with Viktor Palushaj, opened "MoPetes Sports Retreat" just outside of his hometown of Flint in neighboring Flint Township, Michigan. The menu features Michigan inspired dishes such as The Flintstones Combos, Flint-Town Reuben sandwich, the Izzo sub, and The National Champ Philly cheese steak sandwich. Accolades Career-high: March 31, 2006 Peterson scored a career-best 38 points vs. the Phoenix Suns. First-round draft choice (21st overall) by Toronto in 2000. Recorded his 800th career three-point field goal April 3, 2005 vs. the Detroit Pistons. Had a career-high 14 rebounds April 8, 2005. Held the longest active streak of games played, with 371, ending in 2006. Held Raptors career records for games played (542) and 3-point field goals (801). NBA career statistics Regular season |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 80 || 49 || 22.6 || .431 || .382 || .717 || 3.2 || 1.3 || .8 || .2 || 9.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 63 || 56 || 31.6 || .438 || .364 || .751 || 3.5 || 2.4 || 1.2 || .2 || 14.0 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 82 || 80 || 36.0 || .392 || .337 || .789 || 4.4 || 2.3 || 1.1 || .4 || 14.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 82 || 29 || 26.2 || .405 || .371 || .809 || 3.2 || 1.4 || 1.1 || .2 || 8.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 82 || 61 || 30.6 || .420 || .385 || .832 || 4.1 || 2.1 || 1.1 || .2 || 12.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | style="background:#cfecec;"| 82* || 77 || 38.3 || .436 || .395 || .820 || 4.6 || 2.3 || 1.3 || .2 || 16.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 71 || 12 || 21.3 || .429 || .359 || .683 || 3.3 || .7 || .6 || .2 || 8.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| New Orleans | 76 || 76 || 23.6 || .417 || .394 || .765 || 2.7 || .9 || .6 || .1 || 8.0 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| New Orleans | 43 || 9 || 12.0 || .399 || .388 || .632 || 2.0 || .4 || .3 || .1 || 4.4 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| New Orleans | 46 || 39 || 21.2 || .385 || .363 || .611 || 2.7 || .9 || .5 || .1 || 7.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Oklahoma City | 4 || 0 || 5.8 || .400 || .000 || .000 || .8 || .3 || .0 || .0 || 1.0 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career | 711 || 488 || 27.2 || .418 || .373 || .773 || 3.5 || 1.5 || .9 || .2 || 10.7 Playoffs |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2001 | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 8 || 3 || 13.8 || .514 || .444 || .750 || 1.5 || 1.9 || .8 || .0 || 5.4 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2002 | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 5 || 5 || 30.8 || .367 || .118 || .800 || 2.8 || 2.2 || 1.0 || .6 || 9.2 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2007 | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 6 || 2 || 30.5 || .517 || .500 || .833 || 4.5 || .3 || .3 || .3 || 6.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2008 | style="text-align:left;"| New Orleans | 12 || 12 || 23.1 || .485 || .471 || .667 || 2.6 || .6 || .5 || .2 || 7.2 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2009 | style="text-align:left;"| New Orleans | 2 || 0 || 10.5 || .200 || .333 || .750 || 1.5 || .5 || .5 || .0 || 3.0 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career | 33 || 22 || 22.6 || .457 || .387 || .767 || 2.6 || 1.1 || .6 || .2 || 6.7 References External links NBA Profile Michigan State profile 1977 births Living people African-American basketball players All-American college men's basketball players American expatriate basketball people in Canada American men's basketball players Basketball players from Flint, Michigan Michigan State Spartans men's basketball players New Orleans Hornets players Oklahoma City Thunder players Shooting guards Small forwards Toronto Raptors draft picks Toronto Raptors players 21st-century African-American sportspeople 20th-century African-American sportspeople

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%85%B9%EB%91%90%EA%BD%83%20%28%EB%93%9C%EB%9D%BC%EB%A7%88%29

녹두꽃 (드라마)

《녹두꽃》은 2019년 4월 26일부터 7월 13일까지 방송되었던 SBS 금토 드라마다. 줄거리 1894년 동학 농민 운동의 역사 속에서 농민군과 토벌대로 갈라져 싸워야 했던 이복형제의 파란만장한 휴먼스토리를 그린 사극 드라마. 등장인물 주요 인물 조정석 : 백이강(白利康) 역 (아역 김승한, 박상훈) - 백가네 얼자 출신. 이현의 이복형. 만득과 유월이의 아들. 동학농민 운동꾼 별동대 대장 윤시윤 : 백이현(白利賢) 역 (아역 정현준) - 백가네 적자. 이강의 이복동생. 만득과 채씨부인의 아들. 고부방 이방. 집강소 집강 → 일본 낭인 우두머리 도깨비 (오니) → 신관 사또, 명심의 옛 정인. 한예리 : 송자인(宋慈璘) 역 - 송봉길의 외동딸. 전주여각 주인. 이강의 정인 최무성 : 전봉준 역 - 동학 농민 운동을 이끈 민초들의 영웅 녹두장군 백가네 박혁권 : 백만득(白晩得) 역 - 전라도 고부 관아 이방. 만석꾼. 이강과 이현의 아버지 황영희 : 채씨 부인(蔡氏) 역 - 백만득의 정실부인. 이현의 어머니 백은혜 : 백이화(白利華) 역 - 백가네 장녀. 이현의 누나. 김당손의 부인 서영희 : 유월이 역 - 백가네 여종. 이강의 어머니. 집강소 집사 정선철 : 남 서방 역 - 백가네 집사. 행랑아범 동학 사람들 민성욱 : 최경선 역 - 태인 주산리의 접주. 농민군 선봉부대 지휘관 안길강 : 해승 역 - 승려. 최경선 부대의 일원 노행하 : 버들이 역 - 최경선 부대의 저격수. 운봉 일대를 주름잡던 명포수의 딸 병헌 : 번개 역 - 본명 학동. 최경선 부대의 전령. 별동대 척후 정규수 : 동록개 역 - 백정, 최경선 부대의 일원 박지환 : 김경천 역 - 순창 출신의 빈농. 최경선 부대의 일원 김정호 : 김개남 역 - 태인 대접주. 농민군 총관령 홍우진 : 손화중(孫和重) 역 - 정읍 출신의 무장 접주. 농민군 총관령 이태검 : 송희옥(宋喜玉) 역 - 전봉준의 처족 7촌. 대외 연락망 주도 고부 사람들 최원영 : 황석주 역 - 전라도 고부 도계 서원의 강장. 이현의 스승. 전봉준의 막역지우. 명심의 오라버니 박규영 : 황명심(黃明心) 역 - 황석주의 누이동생. 이현의 옛 정인 조희봉 : 홍가 역 - 전라도 고부 관아 형방. 만득의 최측근 → 석주의 최측근 → 이현의 최측근 조현식 : 억쇠 역 - 전라도 고부 관아 통인. 이강의 오른팔. 고부방 아전 행수 김도연 : 철두 역 - 전라도 고부 관아 통인. 이강의 오른팔 김하균 : 박원명(朴元明) 역 - 고부 군수. 조병갑의 후임 전주 사람들 박지일 : 송봉길 역 - 전라도 보부상의 대부. 전라도 임방의 도접장. 자인의 아버지 김상호 : 최덕기(崔德氣) 역 - 전주여각 행수. 군인 출신. 봉길의 의형제 문원주 : 김당손 역 - 만득과 채씨부인의 사위. 전라감영의 군교. 이화의 남편. 이현의 자형 이순원 : 김문현(金文顯) 역 - 전라감사 그 외 인물 서재규 : 이두황 역 - 관군 장수 남문철 : 김학진 역 - 전라도 관찰사 윤서현 : 홍계훈 역 - 양호초토사 손우현 : 이규태 역 - 관군 선봉장 곽민호 : 김덕명 역 - 호남창의대장소 지도부의 일원 최희도 : 오시영 역 - 호남창의대장소 지도부의 일원 전국환 : 대원군 역 - 고종의 아버지 김지현 : 민비 역 - 고종의 정비. 흥선대원군 이하응의 며느리 이기찬 : 다케다 요스케 역 - 일본 외교관. 낭인 집단의 간자. 이현의 선배 이찬영 : 고종 역 - 조선 제26대 임금. 대한제국 1대 황제 황만익 : 김홍집 역 - 갑오개혁의 주역. 조선 왕조 마지막 영의정 최대훈 : 민영휘 역 - 병조판서 (특별출연) 김인우 : 오토리 게이스케 역 - 일본 공사 오용 : 이노우에 가오루 역 김성강 : 정여창 역 - 청나라 제독 문종원 : 원세개 역 - 조선주재 청국 통상사의 김중희 : 손병희 역 최시훈 : 두령 역 김은수 : 나장 역 특별출연 장광 : 조병갑 역 - 고부 군수 이정헌 : 이용태 역 - 안핵사 전무송 : 최시형 역 - 동학 제2대 교주 민정기 : 무명의 민란 가담자 1 역 한상진 : 무명의 민란 가담자 2 역 김유리 : 무명의 민란 가담자 3 역 윤균상 : 무휼 역 - 진산의 혁명군 이준혁 : 홍대홍 역 - 진산의 혁명군 김경진 : 자인을 겁탈 하려 했던 남자 역 박성근 : 박동진 역 하성광 : 이건형 역 - 고종의 심복 채상우 : 이성계 역 - 동록개의 첫째 아들 김현빈 : 이방원 역 - 동록개의 둘째 아들 박훈 : 김창수 역 - 황해도 해주 접주 시청률 편성 변경 2019년 6월 15일 : 스포츠 중계로 인해 오후10시 25분으로 편성 변경. (31회, 32회) 수상 및 후보 참고 사항 이 화면은 레터박스로 구성되었으며 동학 농민 운동을 전봉준의 영웅적 일대기가 아닌 민초들의 삶과 항쟁에 초점을 맞춰 그려냈다는 호평을 받아 제 32회 한국방송작가상 드라마 부문 수상의 영예를 안게 되어 KBS 1TV 태조 왕건 (14회) 이후 한국방송작가상 드라마 수상작 중 두 번째 사극 부문 수상의 영예를 안았다. 같이 보기 대한민국의 텔레비전 드라마 목록 (ㄴ) 2019년 대한민국의 텔레비전 드라마 목록 각주 외부 링크 녹두꽃 공식홈페이지 녹두꽃 전회차 무료보기 2019년 드라마 SBS 금토드라마 정현민 시나리오 작품 2010년대 대한민국의 텔레비전 프로그램 2019년에 시작한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 2019년에 종료한 대한민국 TV 프로그램

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokdu%20Flower

Nokdu Flower

Nokdu Flower () is a 2019 South Korean television series starring Jo Jung-suk, Yoon Shi-yoon and Han Ye-ri. It aired from April 26 to July 13, 2019 on SBS TV. Synopsis The series tells the story of two half-brothers from separate mothers but share the same father who experienced different upbringings due to their respective mothers' different social statuses. The brothers find themselves fighting on the opposite sides of the Battle of Ugeumchi, which took place in 1894 during the Donghak Peasant Revolution. Their relationship is tested as both find themselves questioning their loyalties and values. Cast Main Jo Jung-suk as Baek Yi-kang, the illegitimate older son who was born out of wedlock as the son of his father's wife's handmaid and is discriminated against by his family due to his mother's low status. Park Sang-hoon as young Baek Yi-kang Yoon Shi-yoon as Baek Yi-hyun, the legitimate younger son who received an elite education in Japan and is preparing for the national civil service exam. Han Ye-ri as Song Ja-in, a daughter of an elite family who is charismatic and strong-minded. She also runs a shop where she trades goods for money. Supporting Park Hyuk-kwon as Baek Ga, Yi-kang and Yi-hyun's father who is a notorious and wealthy government official in the town of Gobu. He is greedy for reputation due to his inferiority complex about his low birth. Min Sung-wook as Choi Kyung-seon, Yi-kang's ally who is the commander of the vanguard unit of a rebel army. Choi Moo-sung as Jeon Bongjun, the owner of a local apothecary who becomes the revolutionary leader. Kim Sang-ho as Choi Deok-gi Choi Won-young as Hwang Seok-ju Jo Hyun-sik as Eok-soe Park Gyu-young as Hwang Myung-shim Byung Hun as Beon Gae Shim Wan-joon as Jae-yun Noh Haeng-ha as Beo-deul, sniper and Kyung Seon's unit. Ahn Gil-kang as Hae Seung, monk and Kyung Seon's unit. Seo Young-hee as Yoo Wol, Yi-kang's mother. Hwang Young-hee as Chae Jung-shil, Yi-hyun's mother. Baek Eun-hye as Baek Yi-hwa, Yi-hyun's sister. Moon Won-joo as Kim Dang-son, Yi-hwa's husband. Park Ji-il as Song Bong-gil Park Ji-hwan as Kim Ga Son Woo-hyeon as Lee Kyu-tae Special appearance Park Hoon as Kim Chang-soo, Donghak leader. (Ep. 48) Production Early working title of the series is Ugeumchi (). Ratings Awards and nominations Notes References External links Seoul Broadcasting System television dramas Korean-language television shows 2019 South Korean television series debuts 2019 South Korean television series endings South Korean historical television series Television series by C-JeS Entertainment

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%EC%97%B0%20%EC%97%B0%EC%97%AD

자연 연역

논리학 및 증명이론에서 자연 연역(自然演繹, natural deduction)이란 자연스러운 논리적 추론을 나타내는 증명 연산의 일종으로, 최대한 공리를 배제하고 오직 구문적인 추론 규칙만을 사용한 증명이 이루어지는 것이 특징이다. 이는, 추론규칙의 논리적 법칙을 표현하기 위해 많은 공리들을 이용하는 힐베르트 체계와는 대조된다. 역사 자연 연역은 20세기 초 논리학자들이 명제 논리의 공리화에 문제점을 느낀 것으로부터 시작되었다 할 수 있다. 그러한 공리화된 명제논리의 가장 유명한 예로는 러셀과 화이트헤드가 고안한 수학 원리가 있었다. 폴란드 학파의 얀 우카시에비치(Jan Łukasiewicz)는 논리를 더 자연스러운 방법을 통해 다룰 필요가 있음을 주장하였고, 이에 자극받은 스타니스와프 야시코프스키(Stanisław Jaśkowski)가 1929년 다이어그램 기법을 발표한 것을 시작으로 여러 연구를 진행하여 자연연역 체계를 논문에 제시하기도 하였으나 당시에는 잘 알려지지 않았다. 한편 독일의 게르하르트 겐첸은 독립적으로 1935년 자연 연역 체계를 개발하여 학위논문에 발표하였고 이것이 현대 자연 연역의 기반이 된다. 겐첸은 페아노 공리계의 일관성을 증명하기 위하여 바로 자연연역을 이용했으나, 그 복잡성에 불만을 느껴 1938년에는 시퀀트 계산으로 불리는 새로운 증명구조를 고안한다. 1960년대의 Dag Prawitz는 일련의 강의를 진행하며 자연연역을 포괄적으로 정리하기 시작하였고, 그의 1965년 논문 Natural deduction: a proof-theoretical study에서 제시된 형태는 현재 자연연역의 최종판으로서 양상 논리나 2차 술어 논리에 대한 응용도 제시되어 있다. 자연 연역 논리 자연 연역의 체계는 보통 공리를 가지지 않고 주어진 식에 정해진 변화를 가하는 추론규칙만을 사용한다. 잘 알려진 체계 System L에서는 증명의 구문규칙에 관한 다음의 9가지 추론규칙이 존재한다. 가정 규칙 "The Rule of Assumption" (A) 전건 긍정 "Modus Ponendo Ponens" (MPP) 이중 부정 규칙 "The Rule of Double Negation" 조건 증명 규칙 "The Rule of Conditional Proof" (CP) ∧-도입 규칙 "The Rule of ∧-introduction" (∧I) ∧-제거 규칙 "The Rule of ∧-elimination" (∧E) ∨-도입 규칙 "The Rule of ∨-introduction" (∨I) ∨-제거 규칙 "The Rule of ∨-elimination" (∨E) 귀류법 "Reductio Ad Absurdum" (RAA) System L에서 증명은 다음의 조건으로 정의된다: 정형논리식(wff)의 유한열로 이루어진다. 각 행은 L의 규칙에 의하여 정당화(형성)된다. 증명의 마지막 행이 '결론'이 되며, 이는 증명의 '전제'(들)만을 사용하여 도출된 것이어야 한다. 전제는 존재하지 않을 수도 있다. 전제가 없는 증명열을 정리(theorem)라 말한다. 곧 L에서 정리란 "L 속에서 공집합인 전제를 사용하여 증명가능한 열"로 정의될 수 있다. 흔히 각 행 옆에는 해당 행의 식의 성립의 근거가 되는 규칙과 행이 함께 표시된다. 다음은 System L (tabular)에서 증명의 예 (후건 부정): 증명의 예 (배중률) System L의 각 규칙들은 제각각 input으로 받아들일 수 있는 식의 타입을 규정해놓고 있으며 그 input에 쓰이는 가정을 다루는 법 역시 제각각 다르다. 위의 tabular 표기법과 유사한 Fitch diagram 표기법이 있는데, 근본적으로 표기방식 이외에 큰 차이는 없다. 그러나 표기법과 별개로 공리적 명제논리가 어떤 공리 또는 추론규칙을 채택하는가는 제각각 달라진다. 형식적 정의 명제의 유한열 이 전제식의 집합 로부터 결론식 로의 연역(deduction)이라 함은, 다음이 모두 성립함을 가리킨다: 모든 에 대하여, 가 전제식이거나(곧 이거나) 가 이전에 출현한 명제에 어떠한 추론규칙을 적용한 결과식이다. 공리적 명제논리의 종류에 따라 채택되는 공리나 추론규칙이 다르다. 예를 들어 프레게는 연역체계를 구성할 때 6개의 공리와 2개의 규칙을 정해놓았고, 프린키피아 마테마티카는 5개의 공리로부터 구성되는 체계를 보이기도 했다. 얀 우카시에비치의 명제 논리에서는 다음과 같은 공리계 A를 사용했다: [PL1] p → (q → p) [PL2] (p → (q → r)) → ((p → q) → (p → r)) [PL3] (¬p → ¬q) → (q → p) 그리고 추론규칙계 R에는 전건긍정(MP)을 포함했다. [MP] α, α → β ⊢ β 추론규칙에 의해 Σ에 포함되는 논리식과 공리들로부터 새로운 논리식을 도출해낼 수 있다. 판단과 명제 자연 연역의 일련의 과정은 이미 올바른 명제들에 추론규칙(inference rule)을 적용하여 또다른 올바른 명제를 이끌어내는 것이다. 즉 연역의 일련의 과정은 결론이 되는 명제에 대한 증명을 구성하는 과정이기도 하다. 논리에서 가장 중요한 판단인 "A는 참이다"라는 형태를 보면, 문자 A는 명제를 나타내는 어떠한 표현으로도 치환될 수 있는데, 이에 따라 진위 판단은 더 기본적인 판단, "A는 명제이다"라는 판단을 필요로 한다. 가장 기본적인 두 판단 "A는 명제이다"와 "A는 참이다"는 자연연역에서 각각 "A prop" 와 "A true"라는 약자로 표기된다. 형성 규칙(formation rule)의 일반적인 형태는 다음과 같다: 여기서 각 는 명제이고 추론 규칙의 이름이 "name" 칸에 들어간다. 직선 위의 명제를 전제(premise)라 하고, 직선 아래의 명제를 결론(conclusion)이라 한다. 두 명제 A와 B가 있다 하고 이로부터 복합 명제인 논리곱 를 구성해낸다 하자. 이 도식(꼴)을 추론규칙의 형식에 따라 이렇게 쓸 수 있다: 형성 규칙에 따라 명제를 형성하는 것은 그저 그것이 구성될 수 있음을 명시하는 것이지 그것이 참임을 의미하는 것은 아니다. 따라서 연언(), 선언(), 부정(), 함의(), 항진(), 모순()을 도입하는 다양한 formation 과정을 생각할 수 있고 이를 통해 항상 새로운 명제를 구성할 수 있다. 도입과 소거 참인 명제로부터 참인 명제를 이끌어내는 생성규칙을 추론규칙(inference rules)이라 부른다. 이 경우 각 명제가 true임이 드러나야 한다. 다만 흔히 추론규칙에 의한 연역임이 자명할 때 생략될 수 있다. 참인 명제에서 더 복합적인 참인 명제를 구성하는 추론규칙을 도입 규칙(introduction rules)이라 한다. 예컨대 논리곱을 도입한다는 것은 명제 "A true"와 "B true"에서 "A and B true"라는 결론을 이끌어낸다는 것이며, 이를 추론규칙으로 표기하면 다음과 같다: 이때 각 대상이 명제라는 것은 자명하다고 보아졌으며, 원래대로 정확히 표현하면 다음과 같이 된다: 아래는 여러 도입 규칙들이다: 논리곱을 도입하는 연언 도입: 논리합을 도입하는 선언 도입. 명제의 진리치가 세워지는 과정이 1가지가 아니므로 선언 도입은 사실 2가지 규칙의 총칭이다: 항진 도입. 항진(참)은 전제가 전혀 없는 경우에도 도출된다: 한편, 아무 전제도 없이 모순(거짓)을 도입하는 도입규칙은 존재하지 않는다. 따라서 더 단순한 판단으로부터 거짓을 추론해내는 것은 불가능하다. 도입규칙의 반대 꼴이 되는 소거 규칙(elimination rules)이라는 것이 존재하는데, 이는 거꾸로 복합적인 명제를 해체해내는 추론규칙이다. 예를 들어 논리곱을 제거하는 연언 소거가 있다: 추론규칙들을 적용하여 다음과 같이 논리곱의 교환법칙을 증명할 수 있다. 가설적 도출 논리학에는 가정에 의한 추론(inferece by assumptions)이 있다. 이를 나타내기 위하여 가설적 도출의 기법이 사용된다. A가 참임을 가정하여 B가 참임을 도출하였다는 것을, 다음과 같이 쓸 수 있다. 이에 관한 추론규칙으로는 함의 도입이 있다. A true를 가정했을 때 B true가 도출되면 (A ⊃ B) ture를 인정한다. 이와 연관된 규칙으로써 후건 부정, 즉 not B인 상황에서 A를 가정했을 때 B가 도출된다면 not A를 추론하는 것 등이 있다. 일관성, 완전성, 정규형 수리논리에서는 형식적 이론에서 모순이 추론될 수 없으면 그 이론은 일관적 또는 무모순적(consistent)이라 하고, 참인 문장을 추론 규칙에 의해 도출할 수 있으면 완전(complete)하다고 한다. 흔히 이들은 모델론적 방식으로 이해되지만 증명론에서 제한적 의미의(local) 무모순성과 완전성은 순수하게 구문론적인 방식만으로 확인될 수 있다. local consistency는 도입규칙이 이어지다가 바로 뒤에 소거규칙이 사용된 도출은 반드시 이러한 '우회'가 없는(즉, 이 소거규칙이 없는) 도출로도 대체될 수 있음을 말한다. 예를 들어 A와 B에서 연언 도입으로 A∧B를 도출하고 다시 연언 소거로 A를 도출했다고 하자. 이는 A에서 A를 도출하는 것으로 축약될 수 있다. 이 성질은 소거규칙의 '강도'를 확인해주는 것이다. 그말인즉슨 소거규칙이 '너무 강하면' 이미 언급되지 않은 정보를 도출하게 되어버려 local consistency가 성립할 수 없다. 한편 local completeness는 그 쌍대(dual)가 되는 개념으로 소거규칙이 '충분히 강해서' 본래의 식을 다시 도입할 수 있는 정도가 됨을 확인해준다. 예를 들어 A∧B를 도출하는 과정은, A∧B에 연언 소거를 적용하여 A와 B를 각각 도출하고 이 둘로부터 연언 도입으로 다시 A∧B를 도출하는 더 복잡한 과정으로 대체될 수 있다. 커리-하워드 대응(Curry-Howard correspondence)에 의하면 local consistency와 local completeness는 각각 람다 계산의 베타 축약(β-reduction)과 에타 변환(η-conversion)과 일치하는 개념이다. completeness에 나온 것처럼 소거와 도입을 차례로 적용하는 과정으로만 이루어진 도출을 표준형(normal form)이라 하며, 모든 도출은 대응하는 표준형을 가짐이 여러 방법으로 증명되어 있다. 이는 추상 재작성 시스템 연구와 연관된다. 고차 논리로의 확장 같이 보기 시퀀트 계산 1차 논리 양상 논리 연역 연역 논리학

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20deduction

Natural deduction

In logic and proof theory, natural deduction is a kind of proof calculus in which logical reasoning is expressed by inference rules closely related to the "natural" way of reasoning. This contrasts with Hilbert-style systems, which instead use axioms as much as possible to express the logical laws of deductive reasoning. Motivation Natural deduction grew out of a context of dissatisfaction with the axiomatizations of deductive reasoning common to the systems of Hilbert, Frege, and Russell (see, e.g., Hilbert system). Such axiomatizations were most famously used by Russell and Whitehead in their mathematical treatise Principia Mathematica. Spurred on by a series of seminars in Poland in 1926 by Łukasiewicz that advocated a more natural treatment of logic, Jaśkowski made the earliest attempts at defining a more natural deduction, first in 1929 using a diagrammatic notation, and later updating his proposal in a sequence of papers in 1934 and 1935. His proposals led to different notations such as Fitch-style calculus (or Fitch's diagrams) or Suppes' method for which Lemmon gave a variant called system L. Natural deduction in its modern form was independently proposed by the German mathematician Gerhard Gentzen in 1933, in a dissertation delivered to the faculty of mathematical sciences of the University of Göttingen. The term natural deduction (or rather, its German equivalent natürliches Schließen) was coined in that paper: Gentzen was motivated by a desire to establish the consistency of number theory. He was unable to prove the main result required for the consistency result, the cut elimination theorem—the Hauptsatz—directly for natural deduction. For this reason he introduced his alternative system, the sequent calculus, for which he proved the Hauptsatz both for classical and intuitionistic logic. In a series of seminars in 1961 and 1962 Prawitz gave a comprehensive summary of natural deduction calculi, and transported much of Gentzen's work with sequent calculi into the natural deduction framework. His 1965 monograph Natural deduction: a proof-theoretical study was to become a reference work on natural deduction, and included applications for modal and second-order logic. In natural deduction, a proposition is deduced from a collection of premises by applying inference rules repeatedly. The system presented in this article is a minor variation of Gentzen's or Prawitz's formulation, but with a closer adherence to Martin-Löf's description of logical judgments and connectives. Judgments and propositions A judgment is something that is knowable, that is, an object of knowledge. It is evident if one in fact knows it. Thus "it is raining" is a judgment, which is evident for the one who knows that it is actually raining; in this case one may readily find evidence for the judgment by looking outside the window or stepping out of the house. In mathematical logic however, evidence is often not as directly observable, but rather deduced from more basic evident judgments. The process of deduction is what constitutes a proof; in other words, a judgment is evident if one has a proof for it. The most important judgments in logic are of the form "A is true". The letter A stands for any expression representing a proposition; the truth judgments thus require a more primitive judgment: "A is a proposition". Many other judgments have been studied; for example, "A is false" (see classical logic), "A is true at time t" (see temporal logic), "A is necessarily true" or "A is possibly true" (see modal logic), "the program M has type τ" (see programming languages and type theory), "A is achievable from the available resources" (see linear logic), and many others. To start with, we shall concern ourselves with the simplest two judgments "A is a proposition" and "A is true", abbreviated as "A prop" and "A true" respectively. The judgment "A prop" defines the structure of valid proofs of A, which in turn defines the structure of propositions. For this reason, the inference rules for this judgment are sometimes known as formation rules. To illustrate, if we have two propositions A and B (that is, the judgments "A prop" and "B prop" are evident), then we form the compound proposition A and B, written symbolically as "". We can write this in the form of an inference rule: where the parentheses are omitted to make the inference rule more succinct: This inference rule is schematic: A and B can be instantiated with any expression. The general form of an inference rule is: where each is a judgment and the inference rule is named "name". The judgments above the line are known as premises, and those below the line are conclusions. Other common logical propositions are disjunction (), negation (), implication (), and the logical constants truth () and falsehood (). Their formation rules are below. Introduction and elimination Now we discuss the "A true" judgment. Inference rules that introduce a logical connective in the conclusion are known as introduction rules. To introduce conjunctions, i.e., to conclude "A and B true" for propositions A and B, one requires evidence for "A true" and "B true". As an inference rule: It must be understood that in such rules the objects are propositions. That is, the above rule is really an abbreviation for: This can also be written: In this form, the first premise can be satisfied by the formation rule, giving the first two premises of the previous form. In this article we shall elide the "prop" judgments where they are understood. In the nullary case, one can derive truth from no premises. If the truth of a proposition can be established in more than one way, the corresponding connective has multiple introduction rules. Note that in the nullary case, i.e., for falsehood, there are no introduction rules. Thus one can never infer falsehood from simpler judgments. Dual to introduction rules are elimination rules to describe how to deconstruct information about a compound proposition into information about its constituents. Thus, from "A ∧ B true", we can conclude "A true" and "B true": As an example of the use of inference rules, consider commutativity of conjunction. If A ∧ B is true, then B ∧ A is true; this derivation can be drawn by composing inference rules in such a fashion that premises of a lower inference match the conclusion of the next higher inference. The inference figures we have seen so far are not sufficient to state the rules of implication introduction or disjunction elimination; for these, we need a more general notion of hypothetical derivation. Hypothetical derivations A pervasive operation in mathematical logic is reasoning from assumptions. For example, consider the following derivation: This derivation does not establish the truth of B as such; rather, it establishes the following fact: If A ∧ (B ∧ C) is true then B is true. In logic, one says "assuming A ∧ (B ∧ C) is true, we show that B is true"; in other words, the judgment "B true" depends on the assumed judgment "A ∧ (B ∧ C) true". This is a hypothetical derivation, which we write as follows: The interpretation is: "B true is derivable from A ∧ (B ∧ C) true". Of course, in this specific example we actually know the derivation of "B true" from "A ∧ (B ∧ C) true", but in general we may not a priori know the derivation. The general form of a hypothetical derivation is: Each hypothetical derivation has a collection of antecedent derivations (the Di) written on the top line, and a succedent judgment (J) written on the bottom line. Each of the premises may itself be a hypothetical derivation. (For simplicity, we treat a judgment as a premise-less derivation.) The notion of hypothetical judgment is internalised as the connective of implication. The introduction and elimination rules are as follows. In the introduction rule, the antecedent named u is discharged in the conclusion. This is a mechanism for delimiting the scope of the hypothesis: its sole reason for existence is to establish "B true"; it cannot be used for any other purpose, and in particular, it cannot be used below the introduction. As an example, consider the derivation of "A ⊃ (B ⊃ (A ∧ B)) true": This full derivation has no unsatisfied premises; however, sub-derivations are hypothetical. For instance, the derivation of "B ⊃ (A ∧ B) true" is hypothetical with antecedent "A true" (named u). With hypothetical derivations, we can now write the elimination rule for disjunction: In words, if A ∨ B is true, and we can derive "C true" both from "A true" and from "B true", then C is indeed true. Note that this rule does not commit to either "A true" or "B true". In the zero-ary case, i.e. for falsehood, we obtain the following elimination rule: This is read as: if falsehood is true, then any proposition C is true. Negation is similar to implication. The introduction rule discharges both the name of the hypothesis u, and the succedent p, i.e., the proposition p must not occur in the conclusion A. Since these rules are schematic, the interpretation of the introduction rule is: if from "A true" we can derive for every proposition p that "p true", then A must be false, i.e., "not A true". For the elimination, if both A and not A are shown to be true, then there is a contradiction, in which case every proposition C is true. Because the rules for implication and negation are so similar, it should be fairly easy to see that not A and A ⊃ ⊥ are equivalent, i.e., each is derivable from the other. Consistency, completeness, and normal forms A theory is said to be consistent if falsehood is not provable (from no assumptions) and is complete if every theorem or its negation is provable using the inference rules of the logic. These are statements about the entire logic, and are usually tied to some notion of a model. However, there are local notions of consistency and completeness that are purely syntactic checks on the inference rules, and require no appeals to models. The first of these is local consistency, also known as local reducibility, which says that any derivation containing an introduction of a connective followed immediately by its elimination can be turned into an equivalent derivation without this detour. It is a check on the strength of elimination rules: they must not be so strong that they include knowledge not already contained in their premises. As an example, consider conjunctions. Dually, local completeness says that the elimination rules are strong enough to decompose a connective into the forms suitable for its introduction rule. Again for conjunctions: These notions correspond exactly to β-reduction (beta reduction) and η-conversion (eta conversion) in the lambda calculus, using the Curry–Howard isomorphism. By local completeness, we see that every derivation can be converted to an equivalent derivation where the principal connective is introduced. In fact, if the entire derivation obeys this ordering of eliminations followed by introductions, then it is said to be normal. In a normal derivation all eliminations happen above introductions. In most logics, every derivation has an equivalent normal derivation, called a normal form. The existence of normal forms is generally hard to prove using natural deduction alone, though such accounts do exist in the literature, most notably by Dag Prawitz in 1961. It is much easier to show this indirectly by means of a cut-free sequent calculus presentation. First and higher-order extensions The logic of the earlier section is an example of a single-sorted logic, i.e., a logic with a single kind of object: propositions. Many extensions of this simple framework have been proposed; in this section we will extend it with a second sort of individuals or terms. More precisely, we will add a new kind of judgment, "t is a term" (or "t term") where t is schematic. We shall fix a countable set V of variables, another countable set F of function symbols, and construct terms with the following formation rules: and For propositions, we consider a third countable set P of predicates, and define atomic predicates over terms with the following formation rule: The first two rules of formation provide a definition of a term that is effectively the same as that defined in term algebra and model theory, although the focus of those fields of study is quite different from natural deduction. The third rule of formation effectively defines an atomic formula, as in first-order logic, and again in model theory. To these are added a pair of formation rules, defining the notation for quantified propositions; one for universal (∀) and existential (∃) quantification: The universal quantifier has the introduction and elimination rules: The existential quantifier has the introduction and elimination rules: In these rules, the notation [t/x] A stands for the substitution of t for every (visible) instance of x in A, avoiding capture. As before the superscripts on the name stand for the components that are discharged: the term a cannot occur in the conclusion of ∀I (such terms are known as eigenvariables or parameters), and the hypotheses named u and v in ∃E are localised to the second premise in a hypothetical derivation. Although the propositional logic of earlier sections was decidable, adding the quantifiers makes the logic undecidable. So far, the quantified extensions are first-order: they distinguish propositions from the kinds of objects quantified over. Higher-order logic takes a different approach and has only a single sort of propositions. The quantifiers have as the domain of quantification the very same sort of propositions, as reflected in the formation rules: A discussion of the introduction and elimination forms for higher-order logic is beyond the scope of this article. It is possible to be in-between first-order and higher-order logics. For example, second-order logic has two kinds of propositions, one kind quantifying over terms, and the second kind quantifying over propositions of the first kind. Different presentations of natural deduction Tree-like presentations Gentzen's discharging annotations used to internalise hypothetical judgments can be avoided by representing proofs as a tree of sequents Γ ⊢A instead of a tree of A true judgments. Sequential presentations Jaśkowski's representations of natural deduction led to different notations such as Fitch-style calculus (or Fitch's diagrams) or Suppes' method, of which Lemmon gave a variant called system L. Such presentation systems, which are more accurately described as tabular, include the following. 1940: In a textbook, Quine indicated antecedent dependencies by line numbers in square brackets, anticipating Suppes' 1957 line-number notation. 1950: In a textbook, demonstrated a method of using one or more asterisks to the left of each line of proof to indicate dependencies. This is equivalent to Kleene's vertical bars. (It is not totally clear if Quine's asterisk notation appeared in the original 1950 edition or was added in a later edition.) 1957: An introduction to practical logic theorem proving in a textbook by . This indicated dependencies (i.e. antecedent propositions) by line numbers at the left of each line. 1963: uses sets of line numbers to indicate antecedent dependencies of the lines of sequential logical arguments based on natural deduction inference rules. 1965: The entire textbook by is an introduction to logic proofs using a method based on that of Suppes. 1967: In a textbook, briefly demonstrated two kinds of practical logic proofs, one system using explicit quotations of antecedent propositions on the left of each line, the other system using vertical bar-lines on the left to indicate dependencies. Proofs and type theory The presentation of natural deduction so far has concentrated on the nature of propositions without giving a formal definition of a proof. To formalise the notion of proof, we alter the presentation of hypothetical derivations slightly. We label the antecedents with proof variables (from some countable set V of variables), and decorate the succedent with the actual proof. The antecedents or hypotheses are separated from the succedent by means of a turnstile (⊢). This modification sometimes goes under the name of localised hypotheses. The following diagram summarises the change. The collection of hypotheses will be written as Γ when their exact composition is not relevant. To make proofs explicit, we move from the proof-less judgment "A true" to a judgment: "π is a proof of (A true)", which is written symbolically as "π : A true". Following the standard approach, proofs are specified with their own formation rules for the judgment "π proof". The simplest possible proof is the use of a labelled hypothesis; in this case the evidence is the label itself. For brevity, we shall leave off the judgmental label true in the rest of this article, i.e., write "Γ ⊢ π : A". Let us re-examine some of the connectives with explicit proofs. For conjunction, we look at the introduction rule ∧I to discover the form of proofs of conjunction: they must be a pair of proofs of the two conjuncts. Thus: The elimination rules ∧E1 and ∧E2 select either the left or the right conjunct; thus the proofs are a pair of projections—first (fst) and second (snd). For implication, the introduction form localises or binds the hypothesis, written using a λ; this corresponds to the discharged label. In the rule, "Γ, u:A" stands for the collection of hypotheses Γ, together with the additional hypothesis u. With proofs available explicitly, one can manipulate and reason about proofs. The key operation on proofs is the substitution of one proof for an assumption used in another proof. This is commonly known as a substitution theorem, and can be proved by induction on the depth (or structure) of the second judgment. Substitution theorem If Γ ⊢ π1 : A and Γ, u:A ⊢ π2 : B, then Γ ⊢ [π1/u] π2 : B. So far the judgment "Γ ⊢ π : A" has had a purely logical interpretation. In type theory, the logical view is exchanged for a more computational view of objects. Propositions in the logical interpretation are now viewed as types, and proofs as programs in the lambda calculus. Thus the interpretation of "π : A" is "the program π has type A". The logical connectives are also given a different reading: conjunction is viewed as product (×), implication as the function arrow (→), etc. The differences are only cosmetic, however. Type theory has a natural deduction presentation in terms of formation, introduction and elimination rules; in fact, the reader can easily reconstruct what is known as simple type theory from the previous sections. The difference between logic and type theory is primarily a shift of focus from the types (propositions) to the programs (proofs). Type theory is chiefly interested in the convertibility or reducibility of programs. For every type, there are canonical programs of that type which are irreducible; these are known as canonical forms or values. If every program can be reduced to a canonical form, then the type theory is said to be normalising (or weakly normalising). If the canonical form is unique, then the theory is said to be strongly normalising. Normalisability is a rare feature of most non-trivial type theories, which is a big departure from the logical world. (Recall that almost every logical derivation has an equivalent normal derivation.) To sketch the reason: in type theories that admit recursive definitions, it is possible to write programs that never reduce to a value; such looping programs can generally be given any type. In particular, the looping program has type ⊥, although there is no logical proof of "⊥ true". For this reason, the propositions as types; proofs as programs paradigm only works in one direction, if at all: interpreting a type theory as a logic generally gives an inconsistent logic. Example: Dependent Type Theory Like logic, type theory has many extensions and variants, including first-order and higher-order versions. One branch, known as dependent type theory, is used in a number of computer-assisted proof systems. Dependent type theory allows quantifiers to range over programs themselves. These quantified types are written as Π and Σ instead of ∀ and ∃, and have the following formation rules: These types are generalisations of the arrow and product types, respectively, as witnessed by their introduction and elimination rules. Dependent type theory in full generality is very powerful: it is able to express almost any conceivable property of programs directly in the types of the program. This generality comes at a steep price — either typechecking is undecidable (extensional type theory), or extensional reasoning is more difficult (intensional type theory). For this reason, some dependent type theories do not allow quantification over arbitrary programs, but rather restrict to programs of a given decidable index domain, for example integers, strings, or linear programs. Since dependent type theories allow types to depend on programs, a natural question to ask is whether it is possible for programs to depend on types, or any other combination. There are many kinds of answers to such questions. A popular approach in type theory is to allow programs to be quantified over types, also known as parametric polymorphism; of this there are two main kinds: if types and programs are kept separate, then one obtains a somewhat more well-behaved system called predicative polymorphism; if the distinction between program and type is blurred, one obtains the type-theoretic analogue of higher-order logic, also known as impredicative polymorphism. Various combinations of dependency and polymorphism have been considered in the literature, the most famous being the lambda cube of Henk Barendregt. The intersection of logic and type theory is a vast and active research area. New logics are usually formalised in a general type theoretic setting, known as a logical framework. Popular modern logical frameworks such as the calculus of constructions and LF are based on higher-order dependent type theory, with various trade-offs in terms of decidability and expressive power. These logical frameworks are themselves always specified as natural deduction systems, which is a testament to the versatility of the natural deduction approach. Classical and modal logics For simplicity, the logics presented so far have been intuitionistic. Classical logic extends intuitionistic logic with an additional axiom or principle of excluded middle: For any proposition p, the proposition p ∨ ¬p is true. This statement is not obviously either an introduction or an elimination; indeed, it involves two distinct connectives. Gentzen's original treatment of excluded middle prescribed one of the following three (equivalent) formulations, which were already present in analogous forms in the systems of Hilbert and Heyting: (XM3 is merely XM2 expressed in terms of E.) This treatment of excluded middle, in addition to being objectionable from a purist's standpoint, introduces additional complications in the definition of normal forms. A comparatively more satisfactory treatment of classical natural deduction in terms of introduction and elimination rules alone was first proposed by Parigot in 1992 in the form of a classical lambda calculus called λμ. The key insight of his approach was to replace a truth-centric judgment A true with a more classical notion, reminiscent of the sequent calculus: in localised form, instead of Γ ⊢ A, he used Γ ⊢ Δ, with Δ a collection of propositions similar to Γ. Γ was treated as a conjunction, and Δ as a disjunction. This structure is essentially lifted directly from classical sequent calculi, but the innovation in λμ was to give a computational meaning to classical natural deduction proofs in terms of a callcc or a throw/catch mechanism seen in LISP and its descendants. (See also: first class control.) Another important extension was for modal and other logics that need more than just the basic judgment of truth. These were first described, for the alethic modal logics S4 and S5, in a natural deduction style by Prawitz in 1965, and have since accumulated a large body of related work. To give a simple example, the modal logic S4 requires one new judgment, "A valid", that is categorical with respect to truth: If "A true" under no assumptions of the form "B true", then "A valid". This categorical judgment is internalised as a unary connective ◻A (read "necessarily A") with the following introduction and elimination rules: Note that the premise "A valid" has no defining rules; instead, the categorical definition of validity is used in its place. This mode becomes clearer in the localised form when the hypotheses are explicit. We write "Ω;Γ ⊢ A true" where Γ contains the true hypotheses as before, and Ω contains valid hypotheses. On the right there is just a single judgment "A true"; validity is not needed here since "Ω ⊢ A valid" is by definition the same as "Ω;⋅ ⊢ A true". The introduction and elimination forms are then: The modal hypotheses have their own version of the hypothesis rule and substitution theorem. Modal substitution theorem If Ω;⋅ ⊢ π1 : A true and Ω, u: (A valid) ; Γ ⊢ π2 : C true, then Ω;Γ ⊢ [π1/u] π2 : C true. This framework of separating judgments into distinct collections of hypotheses, also known as multi-zoned or polyadic contexts, is very powerful and extensible; it has been applied for many different modal logics, and also for linear and other substructural logics, to give a few examples. However, relatively few systems of modal logic can be formalised directly in natural deduction. To give proof-theoretic characterisations of these systems, extensions such as labelling or systems of deep inference. The addition of labels to formulae permits much finer control of the conditions under which rules apply, allowing the more flexible techniques of analytic tableaux to be applied, as has been done in the case of labelled deduction. Labels also allow the naming of worlds in Kripke semantics; presents an influential technique for converting frame conditions of modal logics in Kripke semantics into inference rules in a natural deduction formalisation of hybrid logic. surveys the application of many proof theories, such as Avron and Pottinger's hypersequents and Belnap's display logic to such modal logics as S5 and B. Comparison with other foundational approaches Sequent calculus The sequent calculus is the chief alternative to natural deduction as a foundation of mathematical logic. In natural deduction the flow of information is bi-directional: elimination rules flow information downwards by deconstruction, and introduction rules flow information upwards by assembly. Thus, a natural deduction proof does not have a purely bottom-up or top-down reading, making it unsuitable for automation in proof search. To address this fact, Gentzen in 1935 proposed his sequent calculus, though he initially intended it as a technical device for clarifying the consistency of predicate logic. Kleene, in his seminal 1952 book Introduction to Metamathematics, gave the first formulation of the sequent calculus in the modern style. In the sequent calculus all inference rules have a purely bottom-up reading. Inference rules can apply to elements on both sides of the turnstile. (To differentiate from natural deduction, this article uses a double arrow ⇒ instead of the right tack ⊢ for sequents.) The introduction rules of natural deduction are viewed as right rules in the sequent calculus, and are structurally very similar. The elimination rules on the other hand turn into left rules in the sequent calculus. To give an example, consider disjunction; the right rules are familiar: On the left: Recall the ∨E rule of natural deduction in localised form: The proposition A ∨ B, which is the succedent of a premise in ∨E, turns into a hypothesis of the conclusion in the left rule ∨L. Thus, left rules can be seen as a sort of inverted elimination rule. This observation can be illustrated as follows: In the sequent calculus, the left and right rules are performed in lock-step until one reaches the initial sequent, which corresponds to the meeting point of elimination and introduction rules in natural deduction. These initial rules are superficially similar to the hypothesis rule of natural deduction, but in the sequent calculus they describe a transposition or a handshake of a left and a right proposition: The correspondence between the sequent calculus and natural deduction is a pair of soundness and completeness theorems, which are both provable by means of an inductive argument. Soundness of ⇒ wrt. ⊢ If Γ ⇒ A, then Γ ⊢ A. Completeness of ⇒ wrt. ⊢ If Γ ⊢ A, then Γ ⇒ A. It is clear by these theorems that the sequent calculus does not change the notion of truth, because the same collection of propositions remain true. Thus, one can use the same proof objects as before in sequent calculus derivations. As an example, consider the conjunctions. The right rule is virtually identical to the introduction rule The left rule, however, performs some additional substitutions that are not performed in the corresponding elimination rules. The kinds of proofs generated in the sequent calculus are therefore rather different from those of natural deduction. The sequent calculus produces proofs in what is known as the β-normal η-long form, which corresponds to a canonical representation of the normal form of the natural deduction proof. If one attempts to describe these proofs using natural deduction itself, one obtains what is called the intercalation calculus (first described by John Byrnes), which can be used to formally define the notion of a normal form for natural deduction. The substitution theorem of natural deduction takes the form of a structural rule or structural theorem known as cut in the sequent calculus. Cut (substitution) If Γ ⇒ π1 : A and Γ, u:A ⇒ π2 : C, then Γ ⇒ [π1/u] π2 : C. In most well behaved logics, cut is unnecessary as an inference rule, though it remains provable as a meta-theorem; the superfluousness of the cut rule is usually presented as a computational process, known as cut elimination. This has an interesting application for natural deduction; usually it is extremely tedious to prove certain properties directly in natural deduction because of an unbounded number of cases. For example, consider showing that a given proposition is not provable in natural deduction. A simple inductive argument fails because of rules like ∨E or E which can introduce arbitrary propositions. However, we know that the sequent calculus is complete with respect to natural deduction, so it is enough to show this unprovability in the sequent calculus. Now, if cut is not available as an inference rule, then all sequent rules either introduce a connective on the right or the left, so the depth of a sequent derivation is fully bounded by the connectives in the final conclusion. Thus, showing unprovability is much easier, because there are only a finite number of cases to consider, and each case is composed entirely of sub-propositions of the conclusion. A simple instance of this is the global consistency theorem: "⋅ ⊢ ⊥ true" is not provable. In the sequent calculus version, this is manifestly true because there is no rule that can have "⋅ ⇒ ⊥" as a conclusion! Proof theorists often prefer to work on cut-free sequent calculus formulations because of such properties. See also Notes References (English translation Investigations into Logical Deduction in M. E. Szabo. The Collected Works of Gerhard Gentzen. North-Holland Publishing Company, 1969.) Translated and with appendices by Paul Taylor and Yves Lafont. Reprinted in Polish logic 1920–39, ed. Storrs McCall. Lecture notes to a short course at Università degli Studi di Siena, April 1983. PhD thesis. MSc thesis. External links Laboreo, Daniel Clemente, "Introduction to natural deduction." Domino On Acid. Natural deduction visualized as a game of dominoes. Pelletier, Jeff, "A History of Natural Deduction and Elementary Logic Textbooks." Levy, Michel, A Propositional Prover. Logical calculi Deductive reasoning Proof theory Methods of proof

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닥터 탐정

《닥터 탐정》은 SBS에서 2019년 7월 17일부터 2019년 9월 5일까지 방송된 SBS 수목드라마이다. 줄거리 산업현장의 사회 부조리를 통쾌하게 해결하는 닥터탐정들의 활약을 그린 색다른 형태의 메디컬 수사 드라마 등장 인물 주요 인물 박진희 : 도중은 역 - 최태영의 前 아내. 직업환경의학 전문의. 자본에 의해 은폐된 산업재해(구의역 스크린도어 사망 사고)에서 모티브를 얻은 비정규직 노동자의 산업재해. 공항철도 공항화물청사역에서 촬영.)와 감춰진 질환들을(옥시의 가습기가 어린이들로 하여금 호흡기 질환으로 사망하게 한 사건) 발굴하고 원인을 규명하는 ‘닥터 탐정’으로 활약 봉태규 : 허민기 역 (아역 : 조현도) - UDC 수석연구원. 직업환경의학계의 이단아. 나쁘게 말하면 지나치게 자유분방하고, 좋게 말하면 기발한 임기응변이 넘치는 처세술의 달인 이기우 : 최태영 역 - 도중은의 前 남편. TL그룹의 후계자. 머리부터 발끝까지 재벌 3세. 산업안전보건의인 도중은이 어린이들이 호흡기 질환으로 사망하는 이유가 가습기 때문임을 밝혀내도록 도왔고, 모성국이 킬러를 보내어 중은을 해치려 하자 지켜주고, 모성국에게 "이제는 살인까지 하려고 합니까?"라고 비난한다. 젊은 자본가인 자신을 얕보는 꼰대임원들을 차분한 독설과 논리정연한 반박으로써 더이상 반항하지 못하게 한다. UDC (미확진질환센터 / UNDIAGNOSED DISEASE CENTER) 박지영 : 공일순 역 - 미확진질환센터장. 미확진질환센터(UDC) 창시자로 미혼의 워커 홀릭 이영진 : 변정호 역 - UDC 간호실장. UDC 간호부문을 총괄. 그 어떤 의사보다 더 열정적으로 환자를 보살피는 터프한 나이팅게일 후지이 미나 : 석진이 역 - UDC 분석팀장. 재일교포3세. 일본으로 건너간 할아버지의 영향으로 한국에 대한 애정이 남다름. 한국어는 서툴지만 일을 향한 열정은 넘치는 워커홀릭 정강희 : 하진학 역 - UDC 화학물질팀장. 베테랑 산업위생 기사. 물질 측정에 있어서 박학다식. 라인 타기가 특기 이영석 : 고선생 역 - UDC 자원봉사자. 시니어 활동가로 UDC에서 서류 정리부터 복사, 택배 신청, 분석 물질 운반 등 필요한 잡일들을 도맡아 함 TL 그룹 류현경 : 최민 역 - TL의료원 병리과 레지던트. 최태영의 여동생. TL호텔에서 근무했고, 능력을 인정받아 후계자로서 손실이 없는 인물 이철민 : 권 실장 역 - TL그룹 회장 최곤의 심복이자 부하 최광일 : 모성국 역 - TL오쉠 본부장. 직업환경의학 전문의 출신. TL에서 일어나는 모든 화학물질 관련 질환, 직업환경적 문제들, 재해들에 대해 TG 책임이 없음을 증명해내는 사측 변호사. 임원들조차 모성국 본부장의 영향력 아래에 있었을 정도로 TL에서의 힘이 대단하다. 그 외 인물 박주형 : 임국신 역 - 최민의 남편 정순원 : 정 팀장 역 - TL오쉠 직원 권혁범 : 김도형 역 - TL메트로 하청업체 직원. 불의의 사고 이후 살인 용의자 누명을 쓰고 몸마저 망가져버렸다는 사실을 알게 됨 배누리 : 박혜미 역 - 하랑의 선배. 어려운 생계 문제로 꿈이 아닌 살기 위해 일을 해야만 하는 청년 문태유 : 권준일 역 - TL그룹 노조준비위원장. 삼성그룹을 모티브로 삼은 설정으로 보이는데, 무 노조 경영을 강행하는 즉, 민주노동조합 운동을 해고, 한직으로 이동 등의 불이익으로써 억압하는 TL그룹의 노동인권 탄압에 맞서 수 년째 힘겨운 싸움을 이어오고 있음. 김민호 : 권도윤 역 - 준일의 아들. 여느 어린이들처럼 밝고 명랑하지만, 아빠의 아픔을 이해하고 달랠 줄도 아는 속 깊은 아이. 요즈음 원인을 알 수 없는 기침 증세를 앓고 있다. 채유리 : 최서린 역 - 이혼한 도중은과 최태영의 딸이자 최곤의 손녀. 어른들의 탐욕에 희생양이 되어버린 불쌍한 아이 박근형 : 최곤 역 - TL그룹 회장. 최태영과 최민의 아버지. 인간과 상품을, 노동과 가치를 철저히 분리해내는 쉽게 말하면 노동자를 인권을 가진 인간이 아닌, 노동력의 가치에 따라 판단하는 몰인정한 존재. 자본주의라는 불평등한 사회구조의 수혜자라고 볼 수 있다. 신담수 : 고 부장 역 - TL메트로 하청업체 부장 이윤상 : 사장 역 - TL메트로 하청업체 차순배 : 국장 역 - 산업안전보건국 노행하 : 김양희 역 - TL케미컬의 실험을 담당하던 대학의 연구원 이정은 : 노숙자 역 이다해 : 여자친구 역 특별출연 황정민 : 정하랑 엄마 역 곽동연 : 정하랑 역 - 도중은 앞집에 사는 이웃. 직업고등학교 출신. TL메트로 정직원을 꿈꾸고 있는 인물로 스크린 도어 수리 담당. 차량에 치어 사망. 구의역에서 스크린도어를 수리중 열차에 치여 사망한 김 아무개 씨 산업재해(구의역 스크린도어 사망 사고)를 모티브로 한 인물. 오동민 : 베이커사장 역 윤소이 : 윤시월 역 - UDC 신임 연구팀장 촬영지 신길역 인천국제공항 서해수산연구소(미확인질환센터) 동작대교 인천백병원 - 경찰병원 아트센터 화이트블럭 시청률 동시간대 드라마 KBS 수목 미니시리즈 《저스티스》 (2019년 7월 17일 ~ 2019년 9월 5일) 참고 사항 이 화면은 레터박스로 구성되었다. 원래 도중은 역에는 김현주가 낙점됐으나 고사했다. 당초 초면에 사랑합니다 후속 월화 미니시리즈로 편성될 예정이었지만 SBS 측의 월화극 잠정 폐지 결정에 따라 수목 미니시리즈로 편성이 변경됐다. 같이 보기 대한민국의 텔레비전 드라마 목록 (ㄷ) 2019년 대한민국의 텔레비전 드라마 목록 각주 외부 링크 닥터 탐정 공식홈페이지 닥터 탐정 전회차 무료보기 SBS 드라마 스페셜 2010년대 대한민국의 텔레비전 프로그램 2019년 드라마 송윤희 시나리오 작품 2019년에 시작한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 2019년에 종료한 대한민국 TV 프로그램

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor%20Detective

Doctor Detective

Doctor Detective () is a 2019 South Korean television series starring Park Jin-hee, Bong Tae-gyu and Lee Ki-woo. It aired from July 17 to September 5, 2019 on SBS. Synopsis The story of doctors who try to uncover the truth behind industrial accidents. It also factors in real life occupational hazard events that happened to real South Korean citizens by tailoring the drama to the real life event. Cast Main Park Jin-hee as Do Joong-eun Bong Tae-gyu as Heo Min-ki Lee Ki-woo as Choi Tae-yeong Supporting Undiagnosed Disease Center Park Ji-young as Gong Il-soon Lee Young-jin as Byeon Jeong-ho Mina Fujii as Seok Jin-i Jung Kang-hee as Ha Jin-hak Lee Yeong-seok as Mr. Go TL Medical Center Ryu Hyun-kyung as Choi Min Lee Chul-min as Mr. Kwon Choi Kwang-il as Mo Seong-gook Others Park Joo-hyung as Im Gook-sin Jung Soon-won as Team leader Jeong Kwon Hyuk-bum as Kim Do-hyeong Bae Noo-ri as Park Hye-mi Moon Tae-yu as Kwon Jun-il Kim Min-ho as Kwon Do-yoon Chae Yoo-ri as Choi Seo-rin Park Geun-hyung as Choi Gon Shin Dam-soo as Mr. Go Lee Yoon-sang as President Cha Soon-bae as General manager Roh Haeng-ha as Kim Yang-hee Park Sung-joon Special appearances Kwak Dong-yeon as Jeong Ha-rang Hwang Jung-min as Ha-rang's mother Oh Dong-min as Bakery president Jang Won-hyung Yoon So-yi as Yoon Si-wol Original soundtrack Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Ratings In this table, represent the lowest ratings and represent the highest ratings. Each night's broadcast is divided into two 30-minute parts with a commercial break in between. References External links Seoul Broadcasting System television dramas Korean-language television shows 2019 South Korean television series debuts 2019 South Korean television series endings Television series by Studio S

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highway%20to%20Hell

Highway to Hell

《Highway to Hell》은 1979년 7월 27일에 발매된 호주의 하드 록 밴드 AC/DC의 여섯 번째 스튜디오 음반이다. 그것은 국제적으로 발매된 이 밴드의 다섯 번째 스튜디오 음반이었고 호주에서 발매된 여섯 번째 음반이었다. 이 음반은 1980년 2월 19일 이듬해 초에 세상을 떠난 리드 싱어 본 스콧의 마지막 음반이었다. 본 스콧의 죽음 1980년 2월 19일 화요일 33세의 본 스콧은 죽은 채 발견되었다. 그는 전날 저녁 캠던타운에 있는 클럽인 뮤직 머신에서 술을 많이 마시면서 보냈었다. 기절했던 스콧은 알리스테어 키니어라는 남자에게 쫓겨 집으로 돌아왔다. 키니어는 2005년 《메탈 해머》와 《클래식 록》 시사주간지 AC/DC에서 매기 몬탈바노에게 "그를 차에 두고 와서 초인종을 눌렀다"며 "그러나 현재 동거 중인 여자친구는 대답하지 않았다"고 말했어요. 본의 열쇠를 가져다가 플랫으로 몸을 들여보냈지만, 집에 아무도 없었어요. 본을 깨울 수 없어서 실버[스미스, 스콧의 전 여자친구]를 불러 조언을 구했어요. 그녀는 그가 자주 기절했다고 말했고, 단지 그가 그 일을 그만두는 것이 최선이었다고 말했어요." 그러자 키니어는 스콧을 자기 집으로 태워다 주었지만, 그 가수가 너무 무거워서 들어올릴 수 없다는 것을 알고 담요를 덮어주고 비틀거리며 잠자리에 들었다고 설명했다. 스콧의 시신은 다음날 아침 11시에 발견되었다. 밤새 스콧은 잠결에 토하고 목이 메어 죽은 모양이었다. 기타리스트 앵거스 영은 가장 먼저 알게 되었고 그의 형제/밴드 동료 맬컴 영에게 전화를 걸었는데, 그는 언론에서 알려지기 전에 스스로 스콧의 어머니에게 전화를 걸었다. 맬컴은 2000년 AC/DC의 비하인드 더 뮤직에서 스콧의 사망 소식은 "신문보다 밴드 중 한 곳에서 오는 것이 더 낫다"고 밝혔다. AC/DC 캠프는 스콧이 엄청난 양의 술을 마시는 것을 보면서도 쇼를 놓치거나 형편없는 공연을 하는 것을 결코 본 적이 없는 스콧의 죽음으로 인해 망연자실했다. 스캇의 장례식에서 AC/DC는 잠시 해체를 고려했지만 스콧의 아버지는 그룹을 계속 이어가야 한다고 주장했고, 불과 4개월 후에 이 밴드는 신인 가수 브라이언 존슨과 함께 첫 콘서트를 열었다. 앵거스는 "어릴 때, 죽음과 같은 것이 결코 여러분을 건드리지 않을 것이라고 생각합니다. 그렇게 가까운 비극은 처음이었어요." 2008년 베이시스트 클리프 윌리엄스는 《롤링 스톤》의 데이비드 프리케에게 "영부인들은 스콧의 죽음으로 심하게 흔들렸을 것으로 의심한다"며 "그러나 보여주지는 않았다"고 말했어요. 그들의 캐릭터에 없어요. 그들은 슬픔을 안고 그냥 장사를 시작했죠." 맬컴은 같은 인터뷰에서 스콧이 "아빠와 같다"고 설명했다. 그는 우리보다 겨우 몇 살 위였지만, 그런 것을 가지고 있었어요. 그는 두 마디로 뭔가를 해결할 수 있었어요." 반응 《Highway to Hell》은 AC/DC가 미국 톱 100을 돌파한 최초의 LP가 되었고, 결국 17위에 도달했고, 이 음반은 밴드를 하드 록 공연의 최고 등급으로 올려놓았다. AC/DC 음반(《Back in Black》 뒤를 이어) 중 두 번째로 많이 팔린 음반이며, 일반적으로 지금까지 만들어진 하드 록 음반 중 가장 위대한 음반으로 꼽힌다. 《롤링 스톤》의 그레트 코트는 "노래는 더 작고, 합창은 럭비팀 하모니가 살찌게 한다. 수상 순간: 스콧은 고관절의 '불꽃 속 샷 다운'을 서쪽의 마녀에게 걸맞는 꼬챙이로 닫는다." 2008년 《롤링 스톤》 커버 스토리에서 데이비드 프리케는 "슈퍼프로듀서 '머트' 랭이 AC/DC의 거친 그라나이트 록을 이번 음반에서 차트스마트 부기로 조각했다"고 지적했다. 올뮤직은 이 노래를 〈Highway to Hell〉이라고 부른다. 2003년 이 음반은 《롤링 스톤》이 선정한 역사상 가장 위대한 음반 500장 중 200위에 올랐으며, 2012년 개정 음반에도 다시 이름을 올렸다. 곡 목록 모든 곡들은 앵거스 영과 맬컴 영 그리고 본 스콧에 의해 작사/작곡하였다. 참여 인원 AC/DC 본 스콧 – 리드 보컬 앵거스 영 – 리드 기타 맬컴 영 – 리듬 기타, 백 보컬 클리프 윌리엄스 – 베이스 기타, 백 보컬 필 러드 – 드럼 인증 각주 외부 링크 Lyrics Highway to Hell 1979년 음반 AC/DC의 음반 애틀랜틱 레코드 음반

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highway%20to%20Hell

Highway to Hell

Highway to Hell is the sixth studio album by Australian hard rock band AC/DC, released on 27 July 1979. It is the first of three albums produced by Mutt Lange, and is the last album featuring lead singer Bon Scott, who died on 19 February 1980. Background By 1978, AC/DC had released five albums internationally and had toured Australia and Europe extensively. In 1977, they landed in America and, with virtually no radio support, began to amass a live following. The band's most recent album, the live If You Want Blood, had reached number 13 in the United Kingdom, and the two albums previous to that, 1977's Let There Be Rock and 1978's Powerage, had seen the band find their raging, blues-based hard rock sound. Although the American branch of Atlantic Records had rejected the group's 1976 LP Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap, it now believed the band was poised to strike it big in the States if only they would work with a producer who could give them a radio-friendly sound. Since their 1975 Australian debut High Voltage, all of AC/DC's albums had been produced by George Young and Harry Vanda. According to the book AC/DC: Maximum Rock & Roll, the band was not enthusiastic about the idea, especially guitarists Angus Young and Malcolm Young, who felt a strong sense of loyalty to their older brother George: The producer Atlantic paired the band with was South African-born Eddie Kramer, best known for his pioneering work as engineer for Jimi Hendrix but also for mega-bands Led Zeppelin and Kiss. Kramer met the band at Criteria Studios in Miami, Florida but, by all accounts, they did not get on. Geoff Barton quotes Malcolm Young in Guitar Legends magazine: "Kramer was a bit of a prat. He looked at Bon and said to us, 'Can your guy sing?' He might've sat behind the knobs for Hendrix, but he's certainly not Hendrix, I can tell you that much." Former AC/DC manager Michael Browning recalls in the 1994 book Highway to Hell: The Life and Times of AC/DC Legend Bon Scott, "I got a phone call from Malcolm in Florida, to say, 'This guy's hopeless, do something, he's trying to talk us into recording that Spencer Davis song,' 'Gimme Some Lovin',' 'I'm a Man,' whatever it was." Browning turned to Zambian-born producer Robert John "Mutt" Lange to step in. Lange was best known for producing the Boomtown Rats number-one hit "Rat Trap" and post-pub rock bands like Clover, City Boy, and Graham Parker. In 1979, singer Bon Scott told RAM magazine, "Three weeks in Miami and we hadn't written a thing with Kramer. So one day we told him we were going to have a day off and not to bother coming in. This was Saturday, and we snuck into the studio and on that one day we put down six songs, sent the tape to Lange and said, 'Will you work with us?'" The band had also signed up with new management, firing Michael Browning and hiring Peter Mensch, an aggressive American who had helped develop the careers of Aerosmith and Ted Nugent. Recording With "Mutt" Lange in place as producer, recording commenced at the Roundhouse Recording Studios in Chalk Farm, north London in March 1979. In his book Highway to Hell, Clinton Walker writes, "The band virtually moved into the Roundhouse Studios in Chalk Farm, spending the best part of three months there. That, to start with, was a shock to AC/DC, who had never previously spent more than three weeks on any one album... Sessions for the album—15 hours a day, day-in day-out, for over two months—were gruelling. Songs were worked and reworked." Lange's no-nonsense approach was appreciated by the band, whose own work ethic had always been solid. In an article by Mojos Sylvie Simmons, Malcolm Young stated that Lange "liked the simplicity of a band. We were all minimalist. We felt it was the best way to be... He knew we were all dedicated so he sort of got it. But he made sure the tracks were solid, and he could hear if a snare just went off." In the same article Angus Young added, "He was meticulous about sound, getting right guitars and drums. He would zero in—and he was good too on the vocal side. Even Bon was impressed with how he could get his voice to sound." Tour manager, Ian Jeffery, who was present during recordings recalled: In AC/DC: Maximum Rock & Roll, Arnaud Durieux writes that Lange, a trained singer, showed Scott how to breathe so he could be a technically better singer on songs like "Touch Too Much" and would join in on background vocals himself, having to stand on the other side of the studio because his own voice was so distinctive. The melodic backing vocals were a new element to the band's sound, but the polish Lange added did not detract from the band's characteristic crunch, thereby satisfying both the band and Atlantic Records at the same time. Lange also taught Angus some useful lessons, instructing him to play his solos while sitting next to the producer. Jeffrey recalled: "Mutt said: 'Sit here and I'll tell you what I want you to play.' Angus was like, 'You fucking will, will ya?' But he sat next to Mutt and Mutt didn't force it on him, just kind of pointed at the fretboard and, 'Here, this...' and 'Hold that...' and 'Now go into that...' It was the solo from "Highway To Hell". It was fantastic! And that really stood them all to attention on Mutt too. He wasn’t asking them to do anything he couldn’t do himself, or getting on their case saying it’s been wrong in the past; nothing like that. He really massaged them into what became that album." Tracks The album's most famous song is the title track. From the outset, Atlantic Records hated the idea of using the song as the album title, with Angus later telling Guitar Worlds Alan Di Perna: In a 2003 interview with Bill Crandall of Rolling Stone, Angus recalled the genesis of the song: The words to "Highway to Hell" took on a new resonance when Scott drank himself to death in 1980. AllMusic's Steve Huey observed: Scott's lyrics on Highway to Hell deal almost exclusively with lust ("Love Hungry Man", "Girls Got Rhythm"), sex ("Beating Around the Bush", "Touch Too Much", "Walk All Over You"), and partying on the town ("Get It Hot", "Shot Down in Flames"). In his 2006 band memoir, Murray Engelheart reveals that Scott felt the lyrics of songs like "Gone Shootin'" from the preceding Powerage were "simply too serious." "Touch Too Much" had been first recorded in July 1977, with a radically different arrangement and lyrics from its Highway to Hell incarnation. The final version was performed by Scott and AC/DC on the BBC music show Top of the Pops a few days before the singer's death in 1980. The song "If You Want Blood (You've Got It)" borrowed the title of the band's live album from the previous year and stemmed from Scott's response to a journalist at the Day on the Green festival in July 1978: when asked what they could expect from the band, Scott replied, "Blood". The opening guitar riff of "Beating Around the Bush" has been referred to by journalist Phil Sutcliffe as "almost a tribute... a reflection, I hesitate to say a copy" of "Oh Well" by Fleetwood Mac.Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Asked in 1998, "What's the worst record you've ever made?", Angus replied: "There's a song on Highway to Hell called 'Love Hungry Man' which I must have written after a night of bad pizza – you can blame me for that." Perhaps the album's most infamous song is "Night Prowler", mainly due to its association with serial killer Richard Ramírez. In June 1985, a highly publicised murder case began revolving around Ramirez, who was responsible for more than 15 brutal murders, as well as numerous rapes and attempted murders, in Los Angeles. Nicknamed the "Night Stalker", Ramírez was a fan of AC/DC, particularly "Night Prowler", and police claimed he left an AC/DC hat at one of the crime scenes. During the trial, Ramírez shouted "Hail Satan" and showed off a pentagram carved into his palm with the numbers 666 below it. This brought extremely bad publicity to AC/DC, whose concerts and albums faced protests by parents in Los Angeles. On the episode of VH1's Behind the Music about AC/DC, the band maintained that the song had been given a murderous connotation by Ramírez, but is actually about a boy sneaking into his girlfriend's bedroom at night while her parents are asleep, in spite of lyrics such as, "And you don't feel the steel, till it's hanging out your back". Release Highway to Hell was originally released on 27 July 1979 by Albert Productions, who licensed the album to Atlantic Records for release outside of Australia, and it was re-released by Epic Records in 2003 as part of the AC/DC Remasters series. In Australia, the album was originally released with a slightly different album cover, featuring flames and a drawing of a bass guitar neck superimposed over the same photo of the band used on the international cover; also, the AC/DC logo is a darker shade of maroon, but the accents are a bit lighter. The East German release had different and much plainer designs for the front and back of the album, apparently because the authorities were not happy with the sleeve as released elsewhere. "Highway to Hell" is featured in the 2003 film Final Destination 2 and the 2010 film Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief. "If You Want Blood (You've Got It)" is featured in the films Empire Records (1995), The Longest Yard (2005), The Dukes of Hazzard (2005), Shoot 'Em Up (2007), and Final Destination 5 (2011). "Walk All Over You" is featured in the 2010 film Grown Ups. "Touch Too Much" is featured on the soundtrack for the video game Grand Theft Auto IV: The Lost and Damned, and it was also the theme song for the World Wrestling Federation's SummerSlam event in 1998. Reception The album became AC/DC's first LP to break the top 100 of the US Billboard 200 chart, eventually reaching number 17, and it propelled the band into the top ranks of hard rock acts. It is the second-highest selling AC/DC album (behind Back in Black) and is generally considered one of the greatest hard rock albums ever made. On 25 May 2006, the album was certified 7× Platinum by the RIAA. Of the album, Greg Kot of Rolling Stone wrote: "The songs are more compact, the choruses fattened by rugby-team harmonies. The prize moment: Scott closes the hip-grinding 'Shot Down in Flames' with a cackle worthy of the Wicked Witch of the West." In a 2008 Rolling Stone cover story, David Fricke noted: "Superproducer 'Mutt' Lange sculpted AC/DC's rough-granite rock into chart-smart boogie on this album." AllMusic called the song "Highway to Hell" "one of hard rock's all-time anthems." The album was ranked number 199 on Rolling Stone magazine's 2003 list of the 500 greatest albums of all time; it was number 200 on the 2012 revised list. The 2010 book The 100 Best Australian Albums included Highway to Hell in the top 50 (Back in Black was No. 2). In 2013, AC/DC fans Steevi Diamond and Jon Morter (who was behind a Rage Against the Machine Facebook campaign in 2009) spearheaded a Facebook campaign to make "Highway to Hell" a Christmas number one single on the UK Singles Chart, to celebrate the 40th anniversary of AC/DC, and to prevent The X Factor from achieving another number one hit single. The campaign raised funds for Feel Yourself, a testicular cancer-awareness charity. The song peaked at number four on the Official Singles Chart for Christmas that year, making it AC/DC's first-ever UK Top 10 single. Track listing PersonnelAC/DCBon Scott – lead vocals Angus Young – lead guitar Malcolm Young – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Cliff Williams – bass, backing vocals Phil Rudd – drumsTechnical personnel' Producer: Robert John "Mutt" Lange Recording Studio: Roundhouse Recording Studios, London, England Recording Engineer: Mark Dearnley Mixing Studio: Basing Street Studios, London, England Mixing Engineer: Tony Platt Assistant Engineer: Kevin Dallimore Art Direction: Bob Defrin Photography: Jim Houghton Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications References External links Lyrics on AC/DC's official website Highway to Hell by Joe Bonomo in the 33 1/3 Series of books AC/DC albums Albert Productions albums 1979 albums Atlantic Records albums Albums produced by Robert John "Mutt" Lange

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%AC%ED%95%B4%EC%A4%98%202

구해줘 2

《구해줘 2》는 2019년 5월 8일부터 2019년 6월 27일까지 OCN에서 방송된 수목 드라마이다. 줄거리 사이비 종교로 인해 혼돈에 빠진 마을 사람들의 이야기를 담아내는 사이비 스릴러 작품이다. 등장 인물 주요 인물 엄태구 : 김민철 역 (아역 : 김승찬) - 헛된 믿음에 도전하는 미친 꼴통 천호진 : 최경석 역 - 한국대 법대 교수임과 동시에 교회의 장로. 진짜? 사이비? 의문의 남자. 김민철에 의해서 그가 지명 수배 중인 전과 10범 사기꾼인 것이 드러남. 이솜 : 김영선 역 (아역 : 김민서) - 민철의 8살 어린 동생. 가짜라도 믿고 싶은 청춘 김영민 : 성철우 역 - 마을을 변화시키는 목사 월추리 마을사람들 임하룡 : 박덕호 이장 역 - 마을 일이라면 누구보다 열심인 열혈이장. 최장로의 덕을 본 후로는 교회 일에 누구보다 앞장선다. 김영선 : 이장 처 역 - 월추리의 오지라퍼. 가부장적인 남편 등쌀에 날로 스트레스가 쌓여가는 월추리 대표 전업주부. 성혁 : 정병률 역 - 민철의 동네 선배. 서울 살이에 대한 로망을 버리지 못하던 중, 우연히 만난 진숙과 첫눈에 반해 결혼하고 월추리에 정착했다. 오연아 : 진숙 역 - 병률의 아내. 젊은 사람들이 다 떠나고 난 월추리에서 18년만에 아기를 출산할 예정이다. 이주실 : 이금림 역 - 성호 할머니이자 병률의 어머니 손보승 : 정성호 역 - 거구이지만 마음은 아직 6살 어린 아이. 마을 사람 모두가 함부로 대하는 성호에게 성목사가 유일하게 인간적으로 대해주었고, 그런 목사님을 위해 무엇이든 하겠다고 다짐한다. 이윤희 : 양계장 역 - 양계장을 운영하는 노총각. 천국의 자리를 사기 위해 누구보다 발 빠르게 움직인다. 우현 : 붕어 역 - 아내가 죽고 고향 월추리로 다시 돌아와 낚시터를 운영. 아무에게도 내비치지 않았던 자신의 속을 서울에서 온 장로라는 사람이 훤히 들여다보는 듯하다. 장원영 : 박칠성 역 - 민철의 동네 선배. 월추리에서 슈퍼를 운영하고 있으며, 인간적이고 따뜻한 사람. 교회에 나간 이후로 아내에게 생기가 되살아난 것만 같다. 김수진 : 김미선 역 - 칠성 처. 평생 열심히 살아왔는데, 덜컥 폐암에 걸렸다. 교회를 다니면서 죽음이 두렵지 않아졌다. 서영화 : 영선 모 역 - 강정희. 민철과 영선의 엄마. 비루하기만 했던 인생이 구원자와도 같은 성목사님을 만난 이후 변화하기 시작한다. 김미화 : 대구댁 역 읍내 사람들 조재윤 : 신필구 (아역: 서상원) 역 - 경기하주경찰서 월추리파출소장. 계급은 경감. 과거 민철과 관련된 사건 때문에 인생이 파탄 났다고 생각한다. 어떻게 든 죽이고 싶을 만큼 민철에 대한 분노가 가득하다. 한선화 : 고은아 역 - 읍내에 있는 cafe 아이리스 마담. 민철과 어린 시절 잠깐 만나다 헤어졌지만, 여전히 그에게 자꾸 마음이 간다. 백수장 : 수달 역 - 민철의 동네 후배. 민철의 앞에선 죽는 시늉도 하지만, 뒤에선 무슨 생각을 할 지 모른다. 민철을 위기로 몰아넣었다가도 중요한 순간에 그를 돕기도 한다. 그 외 인물 진현빈 : 최지웅 역 - 최경석의 수하. 3인조 중 리더. 최경석의 조카 차엽 : 이수호 역 - 최경석의 수하. 체격이 거대한 남자 멤버 이상미 : 은지 역 - 최경석의 수하. 최경석의 조직 중 여성 멤버 심달기 : 광미 역 - 이장의 딸 윤종빈 : 유환희 역 - 대구댁의 아들 김동범 : 정민 역 - 카페 '아이리스'에서 일하는 알바생 최원 : 박성신 역 - 경기하주경찰서 월추리파출소 경사 최기섭 : 김준태 역 - 경기하주경찰서 월추리파출소 경장 이설구 : 송 의원 역 - 민철의 감방 동기. 전직 외과 의사이며, 정형, 성형, 흉부 세가지 다 가능 양희명 : 정 도령 역 - 민철의 감방 동기 윤종구 : 영선 부 역 박기원 : 원로목사 역 최문수 : 최장로 처 역 민경옥 : 할매 1 역 송광자 : 할매 2 역 김영희 : 할매 3 역 손상경 : 덩치재소자 역 김문호 : 교도관 1 역 김영조 : 교도관 2 역 이동민 : 고딩 1 역 이존승 : 고딩 2 역 배재성 : 고딩 3 역 엄옥란 : 고깃집 사장 역 김승한 김준 : 6세 아이 역 이광모 박준수 한여울 : 김양 역 오난주 : 여관 주인 역 배한용 : 대머리 역 서정하 : 박소장 역 이원진 : 구급대원 오수 : 구회장 역 김주아 : 구회장부인 역 서혜빈 : 구회장 딸 역 최화영 : 60대 아저씨 역 최교식 : 카센터 직원 역 주병하 : 대학생 역 서광재 : 대학생 부 역 성낙경 : 오 사장 역 - 강남 룸싸롱 '아드망' 사장. 최경석의 동업자. 병률을 감금하고 마약을 제조 이규섭 : 곽 상무 역 - 강남 룸싸롱 '아드망' 상무 신재도 : 공인중개사 역 안려진 : 직원 역 송진우 남동하 : 부동산업자 역 최남욱 : 손님 1 역 김경훈 : 손님 2 역 박용식 : 앵커 역 엄지만 : 김신재 형사 역 - 경기지방경찰청 형사. 계급은 경위. 황치수 살인 사건 담당 한재영 : 황치수 역 - 성철우 목사와 성관계를 가졌다가 자살한 지선의 아버지 고만규 : 구급 2 역 심혜림 : 여신도 1 역 함진성 : 형사 역 정영도 : 앵커 역 채윤희 : 식당 주인 역 이재은 : 주인 아줌마 역 김재철 : 치킨집 사장 역 신안식 : 직원 1 역 오다경 : 직원 2 역 시청률 같이 보기 대한민국의 텔레비전 드라마 목록 (ㄱ) 2019년 대한민국의 텔레비전 드라마 목록 각주 외부 링크 구해줘 2 공식사이트 2019년 드라마 대한민국의 범죄 드라마 2010년대 대한민국의 텔레비전 프로그램 애니메이션을 바탕으로 한 작품 스튜디오 드래곤 텔레비전 프로그램 히든시퀀스 텔레비전 프로그램 2019년에 시작한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 2019년에 종료한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 OCN 수목드라마

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Save%20Me%202

Save Me 2

Save Me 2 () is a 2019 South Korean television series starring Uhm Tae-goo, Chun Ho-jin, Esom and Kim Young-min. It is the sequel to the 2017 series Save Me and is based on the 2013 animation movie The Fake. The series aired on OCN's Wednesdays and Thursdays at 23:00 KST time slot from May 8 to June 27, 2019. Synopsis A pseudo-religious group sows discord in the village of Wolchoori. Cast Main Uhm Tae-goo as Kim Min-chul Chun Ho-jin as Choi Kyung-suk Esom as Kim Young-sun Kim Young-min as Sung Chul-woo Supporting Im Ha-ryong as Park Duk-ho Sung Hyuk as Jung Byung-ryul Han Sun-hwa as Go Eun-ah Jo Jae-yoon as Shin Pil-goo Woo Hyun as Boongeo Oh Yeon-ah as Jin-sook Jang Won-young as Chil-sung Kim Soo-jin as Chil-sung's wife Jeon Ji-hoo as Choi Ji Woong Seo Woo-jin as Seo-joon Production The first script reading took place in February 2019 in Sangam, Seoul, South Korea. Ratings References External links OCN television dramas Korean-language television shows 2019 South Korean television series debuts 2019 South Korean television series endings South Korean thriller television series South Korean mystery television series Television series by Studio Dragon Sequel television series Television series by Hidden Sequence

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A0%EC%9E%85%EC%82%AC%EA%B4%80%20%EA%B5%AC%ED%95%B4%EB%A0%B9

신입사관 구해령

《신입사관 구해령》은 2019년 7월 17일부터 2019년 9월 26일까지 방송된 문화방송 수목 미니시리즈이다. 줄거리 격동의 19세기 초 '사필을 하는 계집'이라며 손가락질받으며 별종 취급받던 여사들이 주인공. 남녀가 유별하고 신분에는 귀천이 있다는 해묵은 진리와 맞서며 변화라는 소중한 씨앗을 심는 이야기를 그린 드라마. 등장인물 주요 인물 신세경 : 구해령 / 서희연 역 (아역 정윤하) - 26세. 예문관 권지(權知) 여사(女史), 문직의 딸. 재경의 의붓 여동생 차은우 : 이림 역 - 20세. 왕위 계승 서열 2순위 도원대군, 연애소설가 (필명 매화선생). 휘영군 이겸의 적장자. 해령의 집 공정환 : 구재경 역 (아역 엄지성) - 37세. 해령의 오빠. 너그럽고 자애로운데다가 몸가짐 또한 고운 소문난 동생바보 . 해령의 눈이 정수리 꼭대기에 달리게 만든 장본인이라 보여짐 양조아 : 설금 역 - 노처녀 해령 아씨 걱정에 볕들 날 없는 엄마 같고 언니 같은 몸종 이관훈 : 각쇠 역 - 32세. 해령네 노비, 재경의 서래원 시절 친구 동생. 말도 없고 표정도 없지만, 재경의 본심을 알고 이해하는 유일한 인물 왕실과 조정 박기웅 : 이진 역 - 28세. 왕세자. 도원대군 이림의 형 김민상 : 이태 역 - 54세. 현왕. 함영군 최덕문 : 민익평 역 - 59세. 좌의정. 민우원의 아버지 김여진 : 대비 임씨 역 - 65세. 세자에게 힘이 되어주는 인자한 대비마마. 왕세자와 도원대군의 할머니 예문관 한림 이지훈 : 민우원 역 - 28세. 정7품 봉교. 조정실세 좌의정 민익평의 아들 허정도 : 양시행 역 - 37세. 정7품 봉교. 표정은 늘 썩어있고, 자세는 삐딱하고, 근무태도는 더더욱 삐딱한 불량사관. 권지 신분인 여사들을 졸지에 서리로 만든 장본인. 겉보기엔 꼰대, 실은 후배들을 무진장 아낌 강훈 : 현경묵 역 - 31세. 정8품 대교. 해령의 예문관 생활을 괴롭히는 심술궂은 선배 남태우 : 손길승 역 - 35세. 정8품 대교. 푸근한 인상만큼 푸근한 마음씨를 가진 북촌 할아버지 윤정섭 : 황장군 역 - 28세. 정9품 검열. 그저 역사가 제일 재밌고 역사가 퉁 제일 좋은, 뼛속까지 문과인 열혈사관 지건우 : 성서권 역 - 29세. 정9품 검열. 우원과 함께 사관의 품위를 담당하고 있는 반듯한 선비. 오희준 : 안홍익 역 - 22세. 정9품 검열. 배알도 없고 줏대도 없는 예문관의 공식 딸랑이 이정하 : 김치국 역 - 19세. 정9품 검열. 어린 나이에 사관이 된 수재. 한평생 책만 읽고 산지라 앞뒤 꽉꽉 막혀 융통성이라고는 없고, 웬만한 영감보다 고지식함 예문관 권지 박지현 : 송사희 역 - 18세. 이조정랑 송재천의 딸 이예림 : 오은임 역 - 21세. 녹봉날만 기다리는 조선의 서글픈 직장인 장유빈 : 허아란 역 - 19세. 흉년이 들어 사람들이 굶는단 소식에 ‘그럼 고기를 먹으면 되잖아요?’ 되묻는 초특급 금수저 주변 인물 전익령 : 모화 역 (아역 조민아)- 41세. 짙은 녹색 복면을 쓰고 신출귀몰하는 의문의 여인 성지루 : 허삼보 역 - 45세. 녹서당 내관 (정5품) 류태호 : 송재천 역 - 55세. 이조정랑 김용운 : 귀재 역 - 35세. 익평의 수하. 사람을 베는 데 거리낌이 없고, 명을 위해서라면 무엇이든 할 수 있음 그 외 인물 유세례 : 대비전 상궁 역 서광재 박영수 : 김서방 역 - 서책점 주인 우미화 소희정 길정우 김지안 강다현 황현정 정수범 차광수 정찬 : 대제학 역 - 문영대감. 폐주사건 당시 일기청 담당 남정우 김귀선 권홍석 조재완 윤여학 최정은 정유나 김단우 하루비 조선기 강민서 : 생각시 역 이연서 : 유생 역 김윤호 : 유생 역 장호준 : 재경의 친구 역 김예린 : 세자빈 역 - 왕세자 이진의 정비. 빈궁 정예빈 : 선정 역 특별출연 서영주 : 이승훈 역 - 해령의 정혼자 이종혁 : 왈짜패 두목 역 조재윤 : 김척점 역 - 의금부 도사 파비앙 코르비노 : 쟝 바티스트 바흐텔레미 역 - 법란서인 (프랑스 이양인) 윤종훈 : 이겸 역 - 도원대군 이림의 아버지. 폐주 이승효 : 서문직 역 - 구해령의 아버지 (서래원의 중심인물) 김현수 : 영화 역 촬영지 광한루원 연화정 창덕궁 대장금파크 소수서원 문경새재도립공원 시청률 수상 목록 2019년 MBC 연기대상 최고의 1분 커플상 (신세경, 차은우) 2019년 MBC 연기대상 수목드라마 부문 남자 조연상 (이지훈) 2019년 MBC 연기대상 수목드라마 부문 여자 최우수 연기상 (신세경) 2019년 MBC 연기대상 수목드라마 부문 남자 우수상 (차은우) 결방 사유 2019년 9월 11일 : 《추석에도 나 혼자 산다》 방송 편성으로 인해 결방되었다. 2019년 9월 12일 : 《추석특집 나 혼자 산다 네 얼간이 스페셜》 방송 편성으로 인해 결방되었다. 참고 사항 이 화면은 레터박스로 구성되었다. 각주 외부 링크 신입사관 구해령 공식 홈페이지 2019년 드라마 문화방송 수목 미니시리즈 문화방송의 역사 드라마 김호수 시나리오 작품 초록뱀미디어의 텔레비전 프로그램 대한민국의 로맨스 드라마 2019년에 시작한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 2019년에 종료한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 2010년대 대한민국의 텔레비전 프로그램

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rookie%20Historian%20Goo%20Hae-ryung

Rookie Historian Goo Hae-ryung

Rookie Historian Goo Hae-ryung () is a 2019 South Korean television series starring Shin Se-kyung, in the title role as a free-spirited female historian, and Cha Eun-woo, as a prince working underground as a romance novelist. It is also a fictionalisation of part of the story of the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty and their right to be considered a true history. The series aired on MBC's Wednesdays and Thursdays at 21:00 KST time slot from July 17 to September 26, 2019, with Netflix carrying the series internationally. Synopsis The scenario intertwines two storylines. One of them occurs in a "nowadays" placed in the early 19th century of Joseon. The other occurred twenty years earlier (white horse year, 1810). The first one is treated lightly, in the Sungkyunkwan Scandal vein, with caricatures , jokes, gimmicks, students fights, etc. The second one, only depicted by short flash-backs, is about the unjust situation of the rank and file people, and the brutal suppression of anyone who dares to object. Nowadays, Nokseodang In the Joseon Dynasty, women were objectified and undervalued. But free-spirited lady Goo Hae-ryung is brave enough to follow her own view of life. Still single at 26 years old, she focuses on studying and gaining knowledge, and in defending those who are wronged and abused. Meanwhile, the young and handsome 20-year-old Prince Dowon has been living his life alone at the Nokseodang 綠嶼堂 (green island pavilion). Isolated inside the Huwon Garden, he has to stay away from the royal Court and finds comfort by writing hangul romance novels. Published under the pen name Maehwa 梅花 (plum blossom), these novels become famous all over Hanyang, especially to women readers. The two main characters meet, and this first meeting sparks a war of preferences. But politics disturb the romance. Suddenly, Korean books and European translations are banned, confiscated and burned. All the beard bearing red robes at court are infuriated that "so many noble ladies ran away to find the love of their life after reading Maehwa's books" . But this is only a "just cause". The real target is "The Story of Hodam", a book about events that occurred twenty years earlier. In their frenzy to search and destroy every single copy of this book, the king and councilor Min Ik-pyeong go so far as ask for the recruitment of female historians, with the intent of planting spies in each chamber of the Royal Palace. As a result, four female apprentices (Goo Hae-ryung among them) are selected and added to the existing eight recorders. They write the conversations between the royals and their subjects in the everyday collection of sachaek 사책 which will be compiled into the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty. Many gender stereotypes surface, only to be derided... and overcome. The twelve historians become embroiled in disputes with the Court, asserting their right under law to record all conversations between the royal family and courtiers, and even go on strike against the king. A smallpox epidemic will be the event that reconnects the two storylines. On the one hand, members of the court speculate on traditional remedies, and even attempt to kill the Prince by sending him to the infested provinces. On the other hand, Dowon organizes the state answer, seizing and distributing food while applying the 牛痘種書, 瑛眼 (vaccination treaty, by Yeongan) that was provided by the mysterious Moh-wa. Hae-ryung remembers being vaccinated by her father in the past and convinces the Prince to prove the method by being the first patient to be inocculated. Twenty years ago, Seoraewon A set of flash-backs disseminated all across the episodes describes the events of "twenty years ago". The former King, Yi Gyeom, Prince Huiyeong, styled Hodam, founded Seoraewon, together with Seo Mun-jik, styled Yeongan. The later was the dean, while Hodam was one of the teachers. The leading team was completed by Barthelemy Dominique, a medicine teacher, who was sent by the Paris Foreign Missions Society. As a result, Seoraewon was a school of Western studies aimed at educating people regardless of social class or gender. The Seoraewon name 曙來院 itself has the meaning of "Where Dawn Arrives". This is where Moh-wa learned vaccination and surgery. A conservative reaction ensued, led by Min Ik-pyeong. A forged letter of the King, allegedly saying "send more priests, and turn Joseon into a Catholic country" served as "just cause" for a massacre. Among the rare escapees were Dowon, the newborn son of Hodam and the 6 year-old Hae-ryung, the daughter of Yeongan. The series ends three years after "nowadays". Min Ik-pyeong and his proxy king are gone and Seoraewon is reinstated. Prince Yi Jin is in charge of the throne. Dowon can live in leisure outside of the Palace, wandering across the world, while Hae-ryung becomes a full-ranked member of the Yemungwan. Prince Yi Rim (Dowon) and Hae-ryung are still in a relationship but not married. They find time to travel together. Quotation (Goo Hae-ryung). "Even if you slash my throat, our brushes will not stop writing. If I die, another historian will take my place; if you kill that historian, another will take their place. Even if you kill every historian in this land, and take away all the paper and brushes, you won't be able to stop us. From mouth to mouth, teacher to student, elder to child, history will be told. That is the power of truth." Cast Main In the Netflix release, the following three characters are put forward in the opening sequence of each episode: Shin Se-kyung as Goo Hae-ryung (born Seo Hee-yeon) A noble lady who becomes one of the four female historians of the royal court. She is the daughter of Seo Moon-jik, the deceased dean of Seoraewon, and has been living with her guardian Jae-kyeong whom she regards as her older brother. She is among those Joseon women wanting to enforce their independence, moral and material as well, and to voice their ideas and opinions. As an historian, she is recognized as someone brave who does not fear anyone, even the King himself. She often cracks jokes even in the most dire circumstances, for example when she is locked in jail. Cha Eun-woo as Yi Rim (Prince Dowon) The first son of the dethroned King Huiyeong Yi Gyeom and the real heir to the throne. Not knowing his true lineage, he secretly works as a romance novelist under his nom de plume "Maehwa,". He does not involve himself in political matters, and regards his uncle King Yi Tae as his father and his cousin Crown Prince Yi Jin as his older brother. Spelled 島遠, Dowon means "Remote Island". Until he meets Hae-ryung, Yi Rim leads a pathologically lonely existence. She is his first and only friend. Park Ki-woong as Crown Prince Yi Jin People around Hae-ryung Gong Jung-hwan as Goo Jae-kyeong Hae-ryung's guardian; former student of medicine and Mo-hwa's classmate in the Seoraewon. He forged the letter used as a "just cause" for the Seorawon massacre. Later, his remorse made him write the banned book The Story of Hodam. Yang Jo-a as Seol-geum Hae-ryung's caretaker and confidant. She is a servant girl who lives vicariously through Hae-ryung's romantic adventures. Lee Kwan-hoon as Gak-soi Royal household and court Kim Min-sang as King Hamyeong Yi Tae He reluctantly let Yi Rim live but is threatened by Yi Rim's superior claim to the throne. From the beginning the King tries to neutralize Yi Rim as a rival, through sheer neglect. Choi Deok-moon as Left State Councillor Min Ik-pyeong Kim Ye-rin as Crown Princess Min Woo-hee Kim Yeo-jin as Queen Dowager Yim People from the Office of Royal Decrees (Yemun-gwan) The elders Lee Ji-hoon as Min Woo-won Heo Jeong-do as Yang Si-haeng Kang Hoon as Hyeon Kyeong-mook Nam Tae-woo as Son Gil-seung Yoon Jung-sub as Hwang Jang-goon Ji Gun-woo as Seong Seo-kwon Oh Hee-joon as Ahn Hong-ik Lee Jung-ha as Kimchi Guuk The other three female apprentices Park Ji-hyun as Song Sa-hee Lee Ye-rim as Oh Eun-im Jang Yoo-bin as Heo Ah-ran Others Jeon Ye-seo as Mo-hwa, a confidant of the Queen Dowager, skilled in archery, former student of medicine in the Seoraewon Sung Ji-ru as Heo Sam-bo, Prince Yi Rim's eunuch. He gives some atrocious courtship tips to Yi Rim. Ryu Tae-ho as Song Jae-cheon, "M. Yes", father of Song Sa-hee Kim Yong-un as Gwi Jae, Min Ik-pyeong's handy man Special appearances Seo Young-joo as Lee Seung-hoon : Hae-ryung husband-to-be, then magistrate of Songhwahyeon, E07 Fabien Yoon as: Jean Baptiste Barthélemy - a beomnanseoin (French national) who came to Joseon to look for his older brother Dominique - Jean's deceased older brother; teacher of medicine in the Seoraewon Yoon Jong-hoon as Prince Huiyeong Yi Gyeom (a.k.a. Hodam) The dethroned King and Prince Yi Rim's biological father Lee Seung-hyo as Seo Moon-jik (a.k.a. Yeongan) Hae-ryung's biological father who was executed for treason charges 20 years ago. He was the dean of Seoraewon Lee Do-yeop as Shim Geum-yeol. Woo Mi-hwa as Go Hae-ryung’s teacher. Production The drama's entire 13 billion won budget was financed by Netflix. Yeolhwajeong Pavilion—located in Ganggol Village, Deungnyang-myeon, Boseong County—is one of the filming locations of the series. Original soundtrack Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 Part 5 Part 6 Viewership Awards and nominations Notes References External links MBC TV television dramas 2019 South Korean television series debuts 2019 South Korean television series endings South Korean historical television series South Korean romance television series Television series by Chorokbaem Media Korean-language Netflix exclusive international distribution programming Television series set in the Joseon dynasty

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EB%AA%BD%20%28%EB%93%9C%EB%9D%BC%EB%A7%88%29

이몽 (드라마)

《이몽》(異夢)은 2019년 5월 4일부터 2019년 7월 13일까지 방영된 문화방송 주말 특별기획 드라마로, 대한민국 임시정부 수립 100주년을 기념하는 특집 드라마이다. 줄거리 일제 강점기 조선을 배경으로 일본인 손에 자란 조선인 의사 이영진과 무장한 비밀결사 의열단장 김원봉이 펼치는 첩보 액션 드라마. 등장인물 주요 인물 이요원: 이영진 역 - 36세. 외과의사 유지태: 김원봉 역 - 39세. 의열단장 임주환: 후쿠다 사부로 역 - 32세. 조선총독부 법무국 검사 남규리: 미키 역 - 29세. 송병수의 수양 딸. 경성구락부 가수 영진의 주변 인물 이해영: 히로시 역 - 54세. 영진의 양아버지. 총독부병원 부원장. 헌병대 소장 이영숙: 김현옥 역 - 51세. 영진네 집사. 어린 영진을 실제로 키우다시피 함 김태우: 유태준 역 - 42세. 한인 슈바이처. 영진의 선배 (특별출연) 윤지혜: 에스더 역 - 40세. 조선인 내과의사 (특별출연) 의열단 조복래: 김남옥 역 - 35세. 의열단원. 얼굴을 드러내기 쉽지 않은 원봉을 위해 궂은일도 마다 않음 백승환: 마자르 역 - 26세. 이화양장점 재단사로 위장한 카레이스키 출신 폭탄기술자 박하나: 차정임 역 - 34세. 梨花양장점 디자이너 이규호: 윤세주 역 - 39세. 푸줏간 주인. 원봉의 고향 친구. 도심 뒷골목 짱 허지원: 박혁 역 - 33세. 의열단원. 못 먹고 못사는 게 힘들어서 의열단원이 되었고, 잘 먹고 잘살 수 있다 기에 변절 김주영: 김승진 역 - 32세. 백두산을 넘나들던 역원 조선 총독부 전진기: 오다 역 - 53세. 오다 류지. 법무국장. 후쿠다의 상관. 히로시와는 육군사관학교 동기로 경쟁과 견제의 대상 설정환: 마루 역 - 29세. 히로시의 부관. 헌병대 조장(상사) 안신우: 켄타 역 - 52세. 총독부 경무국장. 켄타 오노. 마쓰우라의 상관 유상재: 로쿠 역 - 상해 일본 영사관 특수 요원. 전방에서 활약하며 주특기는 암살 종로경찰서 허성태: 마쓰우라 히로 역 - 조선인 태생 일본경찰 경부. 고문전문가 강필선: 다이키 역 - 32세. 종로경찰서 순사 이교엽: 마츠다 역 - 32세. 특무1과 형사 윤준성: 기무라 역 - 32세. 특무1과 형사 박선웅: 타로 역 - 32세. 특무1과 형사 조선 총독부 병원 윤종화: 이시다 역 - 45세. 이시다 시미즈. 조선총독부병원 외과 과장 김규종: 성준수 역 - 29세. 구 자혜병원 현 조선총독부병원 외과의사 안수빈: 하나코 역 - 간호사 청방 김법래: 두월성 역 - 52세. 중국 비밀결사인 청방(靑幇)의 보스 정성일: 진수 역 - 38세. 두월성 보좌관. 얼굴을 바꿔치는 중국 전통 기예 ‘변검’ 전수자 이선진: 이소민 역 - 35세. 16세에 중국에 건너온 조선계 여성 그 외 주변 인물 김서라: 유 마담 역 - 프랑스 이름 릴리. 경성구락부 마담, 서양인 상류층과 교류하며 많은 정보를 얻었고 경성에서 가장 많은 현금을 가장 빠르게 운용할 수 있는 사람 중 하나 유하복: 김구 역 - 57세. 대한민국임시정부의 수장. 항일운동 초기 김원봉의 무력투쟁에 반대 김도현: 무라이 역 - 36세. 만주 주둔 일본군 대위 김숙인: 마씨 역 - 50세. 마영성. 상해 거주 조선인. 전쟁터를 주름잡던 이중스파이 ‘검은 붓꽃’ 최종남: 민영준 역 - 자작. 유일하게 살아있는 중추원 고문. 합방 성명서에 찬성을 표명 이한위: 송병수 역 (특별출연) - 67세. 노다 헤이지로 백작. 친일반민족행위자. 총독과 독대할 수 있는 몇 안되는 조선인 그 외 인물 박소이: 유태준의 딸 역 한민채 안수빈 이사라 장서경 홍성덕 최광제 옥자연: 오광심 역 - 만주 민병대 대장 이강민: 윤봉길 역 임철형 정규수: 김승진의 아버지 역 김정미 최수임 이주석 : 신언준 역 이세희 : 간호사 역 특별출연 손병호: 이준형 역 촬영지 합천영상테마파크 공세리성당 운노의 집 순천드라마촬영장 옛 충남도청 시청률 편성 변경 2019년 5월 25일: MBC 스포츠 2019 FIFA U-20 월드컵 《대한민국 VS 포르투갈》 중계방송 관계로 2회 연속방송으로 편성 변경. (13회, 14회) 참고 사항 이요원이 분한 이영진 역은 당초 이영애가 낙점됐으나 스케줄 문제 때문에 고사했다. 평이한 내러티브에 예상 가능한 스토리 뿐 아니라 캐릭터들의 특성이 천편일률적이란 지적을 사 한자릿수 시청률로 기대 이하의 성적에 그쳤다. 같이 보기 대한민국의 텔레비전 드라마 목록 (ㅇ) 2019년 대한민국의 텔레비전 드라마 목록 각주 외부 링크 이몽 공식사이트 2019년 드라마 문화방송 주말 특별기획 드라마 조규원 시나리오 작품 2010년대 대한민국의 텔레비전 프로그램 2019년에 시작한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 2019년에 종료한 대한민국 TV 프로그램

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Different%20Dreams

Different Dreams

Different Dreams () is a 2019 South Korean television series starring Lee Yo-won, Yoo Ji-tae, Lim Ju-hwan and Nam Gyu-ri. It aired four episodes every Saturday on MBC TV from 20:45 to 23:10 (KST), from May 4 to July 13, 2019. The series celebrates the 100th anniversary of the March 1st Movement which led to the formation of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in 1919. Synopsis The story takes place in Gyeongseong (South Korea) and Shanghai (China) during the Japanese colonial rule of Korea. Lee Young-jin is a Korean surgeon who was raised by a Japanese family. She becomes a spy for the Korean government. Cast Main Lee Yo-won as Lee Young-jin (36 years old) Yoo Ji-tae as Kim Won-bong (39 years old) Lim Ju-hwan as Fukuda (32 years old) Nam Gyu-ri as Miki (29 years old) Supporting People around Lee Young-jin Lee Hae-young as Hiroshi Lee Young-sook as Kim Hyun-ok Kim Tae-woo as Yoo Tae-joon Yoon Ji-hye as Esther Heroic Corps Jo Bok-rae as Kim Nam-ok Baek Su-ho as Majar Park Ha-na as Cha Jeong-im Lee Kyu-ho as Yoon Se-ju Heo Ji-won as Park Hyeok Kim Joo-young as Kim Seung-jin Joseon Governor Office Jeon Jin-ki as Oda Seol Jung-hwan as Ma Roo (Maru) Ahn Shin-woo as Kenta Yu Sang-jae as Roku Jongno Police Station Heo Sung-tae as Matsuura Kang Pil-sun as Daiki Lee Kyo-yeob as Matsuda Yoon Joon-sung as Kimura Park Seon-woong as Taro Joseon Governor Office Hospital Yoon Jong-hwa as Ishida Kim Kyu-jong as Seong Joon-soo Cheongbang Kim Beob-rae as Do Wol-seong Jung Sung-il as Jin-soo Lee Sun-jin as Lee So-min Others Sora Jung as Yu Madam Yoo Ha-bok as Kim Gu Kim Do-hyun as Murai Kim Sook-in as Macey Lee Han-wi as Song Byung-soo Production Lee Young-ae was supposed to portray Lee Young-jin but she withdrew from the television series due to schedule conflicts. The series is entirely pre-produced. Filming began in October 2018 and wrapped up on April 28, 2019. The drama also serves as a reunion project for both Lee Yo-won and Nam Gyu-ri who both starred in the 2011 hit drama 49 Days. Original soundtrack Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 Part 5 Part 6 Part 7 Part 8 Part 9 Part 11 Ratings In this table, represent the lowest ratings and represent the highest ratings. NR denotes that the drama did not rank in the top 20 daily programs on that date. N/A denotes that the rating is not known. Notes References External links Korean-language television shows MBC TV television dramas Television series set in Korea under Japanese rule South Korean historical television series Television series set in the 1930s South Korean melodrama television series South Korean pre-produced television series 2019 South Korean television series debuts 2019 South Korean television series endings

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%93%B0%EC%8B%9C%EB%A7%88%20%EC%A0%90%EB%A0%B9%20%EC%82%AC%EA%B1%B4

쓰시마 점령 사건

쓰시마 점령 사건은 제정 러시아의 군함이 막말(幕末) 일본의 쓰시마(対馬) 아소 만(浅茅湾) 남부에 있는 이모자키(芋崎)를 점령해 막사와 공장, 연병장 등을 건설하고 반년 동안 체류했던 사건이다. 일본에서는 당시 쓰시마를 점령했던 군함의 이름을 따서 포샤트니크 사건 혹은 러시아 군함 쓰시마 점령 사건(ロシア軍艦対馬占領事件)이라고 부른다. 경과 러시아 군함의 진출 분큐(文久) 원년(1861년) 2월 3일(양력 3월 14일) 러시아 제국 해군 중위 니콜라이 브릴료프는 군함 포샤트니크 호로 쓰시마에 내항해, 오자키우라(尾崎浦)에 닻을 내리고 측량을 실시, 그 뒤 곧장 아소 만으로 진입해 들어 왔다. 러시아 함대의 중국 해역 함대 사령관이었던 이완 리하쵸프 대좌는 부동항을 확보하기 위해 쓰시마 해협에 근거지를 구축할 것을 제안하였는데, 일본과의 관계가 악화될 것을 염려한 제정 러시아 정부는 리하쵸프의 제안을 거절하였다. 그러나 제정 러시아의 해사대신(海事大臣)이었던 대공(大公) 콘스탄틴 니콜라예비치가 쓰시마로의 함대 파견을 허가하였고, 리하쵸프 사령관의 명령으로 포샤트니크 호가 파견되었던 것이다. 포샤트니크 호가 오자키우라에 닻을 내리자 당시 쓰시마를 다스리던 쓰시마 후추번의 번주 소 요시요리(宗義和)는 중신을 파견해 개항지도 아닌 곳에 닻을 내리는 것은 불법이라며 물러갈 것을 항의했고, 함장 브릴료프는 난파된 배라서 항해가 어렵다며 배를 수리하기 위해서 왔을 뿐이라고 회답했고, 나아가 수리 공장의 설치 자재나 식료품, 유녀(遊女)도 요구했다. 3월 4일에는 이모자키에 무단으로 상륙해 병사용 막사를 짓기 시작했다. 그 뒤 선체 수리를 명목으로 공장과 연병장까지 건설하였다. 쓰시마 후추번의 교섭 쓰시마 후추번내에서는 대응을 놓고 무력으로 배격해야 한다는 양이파와 분쟁을 피해야 한다는 온건파 사이에 논쟁이 벌어져 번내가 떠들썩하였다. 번주 소 요시요리는 사태를 악화시키는 일 없이 원만하게 해결하고자 시도하면서 문장사(問状使)를 포샤트니크 호에 파견해 그 비위를 여러 차례 추궁하였다. 그러나 러시아 함대측은 무응답으로 일관하였으며, 우세한 무력으로 위협하거나 쓰시마 현지 주민을 회유해 목재 ・ 우마 ・ 식량 ・ 목탄을 강탈하거나 매수하면서 장기 체류할 준비를 갖추었으며, 수병들이 작은 배를 동원해 연안을 측정하고 산야를 돌아다니며 야수를 포획하는 와중에 부녀자를 쫓아다니며 위협하는 수병도 있었다. 이에 격앙된 주민들과의 사이에 분쟁이 벌어지기도 했다. 브릴료프 함장은 쓰시마 후추번에 대해 번주와의 면회를 재삼 요구했고, 3월 23일에는 이모자키의 조차를 요구해 왔다. 러시아측로써는 무력으로 쓰시마 후추번의 승낙을 얻어내고 이를 기정사실화해서 막부의 인정을 받으려는 의도였다. 쓰시마 후추번은 대응에 고심했고, 면회 요구를 거절하면서 나가사키(長崎)와 에도(江戸)로 급히 사자를 파견해 막부의 지시를 구했다. 4월 12일, 러시아 병사가 소함정으로 오후나고시(大船越)의 수문(水門)을 통과하려는 것을 쓰시마 후추번의 경비병이 제지하자, 러시아 병사는 경비병 · 마쓰무라 신고로(松村安五郎)를 쏘아 죽이고 향사 2명을 포로로 납치해, 군함에 연행했다. 그 가운데 한 명인 요시노 슈노스케(吉野数之助)는 그 자리에서 혀를 깨물고 자살했다. 러시아군은 여기서 그치지 않고 이곳을 습격해 무기를 강탈하고, 몇몇 주민을 납치해 소 일곱 마리를 빼앗고 귀선하였다. 이어 다음날에는 수병 100여명을 파견해 오후나코시 마을을 약탈하기도 했다. 번주 소 요시카즈는 포샤트니크 호에 당장 퇴거할 것을 요구하면서도 쌀과 소금, 목탄을 주며 회유하고자 했다. 분쟁을 피하기 위해 번내 사민에게는 경거망동을 경계하는 한편, 몰래 연안에 포대를 축조해 사태에 대비했다. 또, 소 씨의 소령인 히젠(肥前) 다시로(田代)에서는 대관 히라타 헤이하치(平田平八)가 수병을 이끌고 쓰시마로 건너가, 러시아병을 물리칠 기세를 나타냈다. 막부의 대응 나가사키 부교(長崎奉行) ・ 오카베 나가쓰네(岡部長常)는 쓰시마 후추번에 대해 러시아와의 분쟁을 피하도록 신중한 대응을 지시하는 한편으로 불법행위를 힐문하는 글을 브릴료프 함장에게 보내고 사가(佐賀), 지쿠젠(筑前), 조슈(長州)를 비롯한 이웃 번의 제후들에게 실정을 조사하게 하였으며, 대책을 의논하였으나 이렇다 할 방법이 나오지 않았다. 막부는 보고를 받고 놀라서 하코다테 부교(箱館奉行) ・ 무라가키 노리마사(村垣範正)에게 명해 현지 주재 러시아 총영사 이오시프 고스케비치에게 포샤트니크 호 퇴거를 요구하였다. 또한 가이코쿠 부교(外国奉行) ・ 오구리 다다마사(小栗忠順)를 간린마루(咸臨丸)로 쓰시마로 급파해 사태 수습을 꾀했다. 분큐 원년 5월 7일 목부(目附) 미조구치 하치주고로(溝口八十五郎) 등을 거느리고 쓰시마에 도착한 다다마사는 5월 10일 함장 브릴료프와 회견하였다. 그 첫 번째 회담에서 러시아측은 증정품에 대한 답례를 구실로 번주 면담을 강력하게 요구했고, 오구리 다다마사는 이를 허가하겠다는 취지로 회답하였다. 5월 14일, 두 번째 회담에서 오구리 다다마사는 러시아 병사의 무단상륙을 조약 위반이라며 항의하였다. 5월 18일에 세 번째 회담에서 번주 면담 실현을 요구한 브릴료프에 대해 오구리 다다마사는(로주 안도 노부마사로부터 번주 면담은 쓰시마 거류를 인정하는 것이 되므로 허락할 수 없다고 당부를 받아두었다) 전언을 번복해 번주를 회견할 수 없다고 회답한다. 말이 다르다며 브릴료프는 맹렬히 항의를 했으나 다다마사는 「나를 사살해도 상관없다」며 교섭은 결렬되었다. 5월 20일에 오구리 다다마사는 쓰시마를 떠나 에도로 향했다. 에도로 돌아온 오구리 다다마사는 로주들에게 쓰시마를 직할령으로 삼을 것과 이번 사건의 절충은 정식 요구형식으로 할 것, 국제세론에 호소해야 할 것 등을 제언하였고, 로주는 이러한 의견을 받아들이지 않고 오구리 다다마사는 7월에 가이코쿠 부죠직에서 사임했다. 교섭이 막힌 쓰시마 후추번에서는 번주 면담을 실현하지 않을 수 없게 되어, 브릴료프는 군함을 쓰시마 후추번으로 회항해, 부하를 거느리고 번주 소 요시요리를 면담하였다. 번주 소 요시요리는 권총이나 망원경, 화약 및 집에서 기르는 가금류 몇 종을 선물로 바치며 장기 체류를 호소하였으나 러시아측은 이모자키의 영구 조차를 요구했고, 대가로 대포 50문의 진헌, 경비협력 등을 제의했으며, 쓰시마 후추번측은 막부에 직접 교섭해 달라고 응답했지만 요구를 받아들이지 않았다. 연도 경비를 서고 있던 번내 사민은 러시아군의 오만방자한 태도에 격노했지만 불상사는 일어나지 않았다. 영국의 개입 7월 9일에 영국 공사 러드퍼드 올콕과 영국 해군 중장 제임스 호프가 일본의 막부에 대해 영국 함대의 압력으로 러시아 군함을 퇴거시킬 것을 제안했고, 로주(老中) 안도 노부마사(安藤信正) 등과 협의하였다. 7월 23일 영국 동양함대 군함 두 척(엔카운터, 린도프)가 쓰시마로 회항해 시위행동을 행했고, 호프 중장은 러시아측에 엄중항의하였다. 그러나 실제로는 이 시점에서 올콕도 영국에 의한 쓰시마 점령을 본국 정부에 제안하고 있었다(8월 2일자 사카모토 후지요시坂本藤良 『오구니 가즈사노스케의 생애』小栗上野介の生涯 고단샤講談社). 또한 로주 안도 노부마사는 다시금 하코다테 부교 무라가키 노리마사를 시켜 러시아 영사에게 항의하였다. 이제까지 브릴료프의 행동을 그대로 보고만 있던 러시아 영사 이오시프 고스케비치는 영국의 간섭을 보고 형세가 불리해질 것으로 판단하고 군함 우푸르치니크 호를 쓰시마로 급파해 브릴료프를 설득해, 분큐 원년(1861년) 8월 15일(9월 19일) 포샤트니크 호는 쓰시마에서 물러났다. 9월, 가이코쿠 부교 노노야마 가네요시(野々山兼寛) 등은 막부의 명을 받고 쓰시마로 와서 하코다테 담판(箱館談判)의 결의에 의거해 러시아 함대가 쓰시마에 머무르던 당시에 설치되었던 시설들에 대한 처리에 나서서, 러시아인의 조영물은 파괴하고 그 재료는 나가사키에 보관했다. 러시아측의 의도는 극동에서의 근거지를 얻고 남해 항로를 확보하는 데에 있었는데, 당시 아시아 일대에 광대한 식민지를 가지고 있던 영국에 추월당해 자칫 쓰시마가 영국에 조차될 것을 두려워했다고 한다. 같이 보기 거문도 사건 막말의 사건 막말의 대외 관계 쓰시마시 (나가사키현)의 역사 쓰시마 후추번 러시아-일본 관계사 1861년 일본 1861년 러시아 1861년 분쟁 대한해협

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsushima%20incident

Tsushima incident

The Tsushima incident occurred in 1861 when the Russians attempted to establish a year-round anchorage on the coast of the island of Tsushima, a Japanese territory located between Kyushu and Korea. British version of events Arrival of the Posadnik On 13 March 1861, the Russian corvette Posadnik (Посадник, 1856), captained by Nicolai Birilev, arrived in Tsushima island in the inlet of Ozaki, the captain demanding landing rights. This event triggered fear in the Japanese Shogunate, as the Russians had already attempted to breach Japan's isolation policy in the northern island of Hokkaido with the events involving Adam Laxman in 1792, the burning of villages there in 1806, and the events leading to the arrest of Vasilii Golovnin in 1811. At that time, only a few Japanese ports were open to foreign ships (Hakodate, Nagasaki, Yokohama), and Tsushima was clearly not one of them, thus suggesting unfriendly intentions on the part of the Russians. If taken over by the Russians, Tsushima could have become an effective base for further aggression. Japan received British help to support its policy. As tension rose, a second Russian ship arrived, and requests were made by the Russians to build a landing base and to receive supplies. Clash On 13 May 1861, the Russians sent a launch to explore the eastern coast of the island, despite the presence of two Saga Domain warships, Kankō Maru and Denryū Maru, as well as one British warship. On May 21, 1861, a clash took place between the Russian sailors of a launch and a group of samurai and farmers, in which one farmer was killed and one samurai, who soon committed suicide, was captured by the Russians. In mid-July, Hakodate bugyō Muragaki Norimasa went directly to the Russian Consulate in Hakodate, demanding the departure of the ship to the Russian Consul Goshkevitch. Russian retreat As this strategy did not work, the Japanese asked the British to intervene, as they also had an interest in preventing the Russians from extending their influence in Asia. Admiral Hope arrived in Tsushima with two warships on 28 August, and on 19 September 1861 Posadnik finally had to leave Tsushima. Russian version of events Background The late 1850s saw a period of Russian expansion into the Sea of Japan, with the setting up a post in the estuary of the Amur in 1850, the acquisition of the present Primorsky Krai by the Treaty of Aigun (1858) and the Convention of Peking (1860), and the establishment of Vladivostok in 1860. In 1858 the Imperial Russian Navy leased a strip of Nagasaki Bay coastline across the village of Inasa as a winter anchorage for the Chinese Flotilla's emerging Pacific Fleet (all domestic anchorages froze up in winter). Flotilla commander Admiral Ivan Likhachev realized the dangers of basing the fleet in a foreign port, and settled on establishing a permanent base in Tsushima. He was aware that the British had attempted to set their flag there in 1859 and had conducted hydrographic surveys around the island in 1855. In 1860 he requested a go-ahead from the government in Saint Petersburg; the cautious foreign minister, Alexander Gorchakov, ruled out any incursions against British interests, while General Admiral Konstantin Nikolayevich suggested making a private deal with the head of Tsushima-Fuchū Domain, as long as it did not disturb "the West". In case of failure the Russian authorities would deny all knowledge of the expedition. Landing In line with Likhachev's will and Konstantin's advice Posadnik left Hakodate February 20, 1861 and on March 1 reached the village of Osaki on the western coast of Asō Bay (Tatamura Bay in historical reports). Sō Yoshiyori, head of Sō clan, immediately informed the Bakufu government, however, the cautious cabinet of Andō Nobumasa delayed their response and Yoshiyori had to act on his own. Birilev, captain of Posadnik, made personal contact with Sō, exchanged courtesy gifts, and secured Yoshiyori's consent to survey the Imosaki Bay; Posadnik arrived there on April 2. The crew disembarked, raised the Russian flag, and began building temporary housing, a landing jetty and prepared to refit the ship which needed repairs to propeller and stern tube. Japanese officials tacitly agreed with de facto establishing a naval base and even assigned a team of fifteen local carpenters to help the Russians; the latter rewarded Sō with a gift of small naval cannons. Likhachev inspected the bay twice, March 27 on board Oprichnik and April 16 on board Svetlana and recorded friendly behaviour of the Japanese, however, in April the situation irreversibly changed. Clash On April 12, 1861 when the Russians disembarked from their launches, a group of local peasants led by one Matsumura Yasugorō attempted to bar entrance and drive the Russians back. In the ensuing clash Yasugorō was killed, two Japanese peasants taken hostage, the rest fled; no Russian fatalities were recorded. Sō appeased the population, ordering them to wait for a Bakufu pronouncement, and did not take any action. Russian sources say nothing about presence of Japanese or British warship in the area. Aftermath Oguri Tadamasa, the messenger of Bakufu, arrived in Tsushima in May and politely told Birilev to leave; Birilev explained that he would not move unless his own Admiral ordered him to retreat. After 13 days of waiting in vain, Oguri left; he left a letter allowing contacts between Birilev and local administration without prejudices against further radical action by the Japanese. Birilev used the permit to the full, and persuaded the council of Japanese officials to issue a charter agreeing with Russian naval presence in Tsushima. Tsushima elders granted the coastline between Hiroura and Imosaki exclusively to the Russians and agreed to bar entrance to any other foreign nation. The charter, however, clearly said that all these concessions depended on good will of the central government. The latter vehemently opposed the deal and called the British envoy Rutherford Alcock for help. Alcock immediately dispatched two ships under command of Vice Admiral James Hope. Retreat Likhachev, as instructed by Konstantin, ordered a general retreat and sent the message to Tsushima with the Oprichnik. Birilev and Posadnik left Tsushima on September 7, 1861, while Oprichnik and Abrek stayed in the harbor; both left at the end of September 1861. Likhachev later said that the failure had its upside: "We did not allow the British conquest of the islands", an opinion indirectly supported by contemporary personal meetings between Gorchakov and ambassador Francis Napier; the latter, however, never gave a definite answer about British plans in Tsushima. Likhachev was demoted from his command and tendered a voluntary resignation, which was rejected; the admiral was given command of a Baltic Fleet squadron. The Russian Navy stayed at Nagasaki until the completion of the Port Arthur base in China. See also Sakoku Empire of Japan–Russian Empire relations Notes Sources Alexandr Shirokorad (2005). Rossiya vyhodit v mirovoy okean (Россия выходит в мировой океан). Veche. Moeshart, Herman J. (1996). The Russian Occupation of Tsushima - A Stepping-stone to British leadership in Japan in: Ian Neary (Ed.), Leaders and Leadership in Japan (Japan Library, ) Japan–Russia relations 1861 in Japan Diplomatic incidents

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8C%8C%ED%81%AC%EB%9D%BC%EC%B8%A0%20%EC%B6%A9%EB%8F%8C

파크라츠 충돌

파크라츠 충돌, 크로아티아에서 파크라츠 전투()는 1991년 3월 크로아티아의 파크라츠 마을에서 일어난 유혈 충돌이다. 유고슬라비아의 해체 기간 동안 크로아티아 내 민족 갈등으로 일어난 충돌이다. 이 충돌은 크로아티아 독립 전쟁으로 이어지는 분쟁에서 최초의 유혈 충돌이다. 파크라츠 충돌은 세르비아계 반군이 마을 경찰서와 시청을 장악하고 크로아티아인 정부 관리들을 억류하면서 시작되었다. 크로아티아 정부는 마을 내 반군 진압을 명령하며 내무부 특수경찰을 파견하였다. 양 측 사이 전투가 이뤄졌다. 이 충돌에 유고슬라비아 인민군(JNA)가 개입을 시도하였으나 마지막엔 크로아티아 정부가 마을을 다시 장악하였다. 유고 인민군과의 대립 이후 협정을 맺어 마을에서 특수경찰과 유고 인민군이 동시에 후퇴하였으며 세르비아계 반군이 마을 장악을 하기 이전 상태로 되돌린다는 것에 합의하였다. 배경 1990년, 크로아티아의 총선에서 크로아티아 사회주의 공화국 내 다수당으로 크로아티아 민주연합(HDZ)가 집권하며 크로아티아인과 세르비아인 내 민족 분쟁이 심해졌다. 유고 인민군은 크로아티아의 저항을 약화시키기 위해 크로아티아 영토방위군의 무기를 압수하였다. 8월 17일, 세르비아계 크로아티아인이 무장 봉기를 시작하여 민족 갈등이 반란으로 확산되며 크닌 인근의 달마티아 연안 세르비아계 인구 밀집 지역을 중심으로 리카, 코르둔, 바노비나, 슬라보니아 등 지역에서 반란 사태가 확대되었다. 세르비아계 크로아티아인은 크로아티아의 대통령 프라뇨 투지만의 크로아티아 독립 정책에 반발하며 1990년 7월 세르비아 국가위원회를 수립하였다. 이 위원회에서 크닌 서남쪽 작은 마을의 치과의사였던 밀란 바비치가 대통령으로 선출되었으며 크닌 경찰서장 밀란 마르티치는 준군사 민병대를 설립하였다. 이 두 사람은 나중에 크로아티아 내 세르비아인 밀집 지역을 통합하여 독립을 선포한 세르비아 크라이나 공화국(RSK)의 정치적, 군사적 지도자가 되었다. 1991년 초까지 크로아티아는 정규군이 없었다. 크로아티아는 국방력을 강화하기 위해 경찰요원을 2만명으로 약 두배 가까이 늘렸다. 이중 가장 효과가 좋았던 것은 군대 조직을 따른 12개 대대 3천명의 크로아티아 특수경찰 병력이었다. 또한 크로아티아 지역별로 예비경찰 16개 대대, 10개 중대 9천-1만명을 수립하였으나 무기가 부족했다. 1991년 크로아티아 인구총조사에 따르면 파크라츠에서 제일 많이 살고 있는 민족은 세르비아인으로 46.4%였으며 그 다음으로 크로아티아인이 35.8% 살고 있었다. 세르비아 민주당의 정치인 벨코 잘쿨라는 서슬라보니아의 세르비아계 크로아티아인의 총지도자가 되었다. 잘쿨라는 세르비아인이 크로아티아인에게서 독립해야 한다고 주장했다. 2월 22일, 잘쿨라가 통제하는 파크라츠 시의회는 크라이나 세르비아인 자치주로 가입하면서 파크라츠 경찰서를 크라이나 내무부 병력으로 붙여버리자는 투표를 결의해 통과시켰다. 2월 28일엔 크로아티아 헌법재판소가 투표가 무효라고 결론내렸다. 전개 1991년 2월, 바비치와 마르티치는 세르비아계 준군사에게 마을 경찰서 및 시청 건물을 장악하라는 명령을 내렸다. 3월 1일, 민병대는 마을 내 경찰관 16명을 무장해제하고 현지 크로아티아 정부를 비방하고 협박하기 시작했다. 파크라츠 경찰을 지휘하는 요보 베즈마르는 바비치와 마르티치의 편을 들었다. 이에 투지만 대통령은 내무부 장관에게 즉시 마을을 다시 크로아티아가 장악하도록 명령했다. 1991년 3월 2일 오전 4시 30분, 크로아티아 무장경찰 200명이 처음으로 파크라츠 마을에 도착했다. 벨로바르에서 파견된 "오메가" 특수경찰 중대는 바드례비나 마을을 통해 접근하였는데 많은 크로아티아 민간인이 파크라츠 공격에 따랐다. 파크라츠 외곽의 바리케이드는 저항 없이 함락되었으며, 크로아티아 경찰은 대립 없이 경찰서 건물을 확보하였다. 몇 시간 후, 베즈마르의 명령을 받은 군이 근처 언덕에서 경찰서를 향해 발포하기 시작했다. 이후 자그레브에서 출발한 루치코 대테러부대가 파크라츠에 도착했다. 베즈마르는 동쪽 프순산의 셰오비차 및 부체 마을로 후퇴했다. 마크로 루키치와 믈라덴 마르카치가 지휘하는 특수경찰은 세르비아인 경찰 32명을 포함한 세르비아계 반군 180명을 체포했으며 이 과정에서 사상자가 나오진 않았다. 파크라츠 경찰청장에 베즈마르가 해임되었고 이 자리엔 스테판 쿠프샤크가 취임했다. 크로아티아의 행동으로 유고 연방 정부가 개입에 나섰다. 유고슬라비아의 대통령이자 세르비아의 대표인 보리사브 요비치는 유고슬라비아의 국방부 장관인 벨코 카디예비치에게 현장에 유고 인민군을 투입하라는 명령을 내렸다. 유고 인민군 전차 10대가 처음으로 3월 1일 저녁에 파크라츠에 도착했으며 마을 여러 곳에 주둔했다. 전차 대부분은 마을 병원 근처에 주둔했다. 다음 날 오후에는 파크라츠에 밀란 첼레케티치 대령이 이끄는 유고 인민군 추가 부대가 도착하였고 크로아티아 특수경찰과 매우 가깝게 있었다. 첼레케티치 대령은 제32 (바라주딘) 군단 지휘관인 예브렘 초키치에게 명령을 내렸다. 초키치는 벨로바르에 주둔한 제256기계화여단의 기갑대대에 속한 3개 중대 배치를 승인했다. 파크라츠에 유고 인민군이 도착했을 때에는 크로아티아 특수경찰이 마을을 장악하는 것을 막기에는 너무 늦은 상태였다. 하지만 남은 세르비아계 반군이 주변 언덕에서 마을을 향해 총격하기 시작했다. 순찰하는 경찰 차량이 총격을 맞았다. 경찰은 유고 인민군이 있는 곳으로 후퇴하는 반군에게 총을 쏴 반격했으며, 유고 인민군은 이에 경찰 차량에게 발포했다. 이 총격은 연방 대통령의 크로아티아 대표인 스체판 메시치와 유고 인민군 중령 알레크산다르 바실레비치 사이 회담을 가져 크로아티아 특수경찰이 마을을 장악할 수 있도록 함에 따라 종료되었다. 유고 인민군은 특수경찰로부터 강제로 파크라츠 마을의 통제를 뺏을 계획을 가지고 있었다. 파크라츠-91 작전명을 가진 유고 인민군의 공격은 3월 3일 크로아티아 정부가 특수경찰을 철수시키기로 하면서 중지되었다. 유고 인민군도 유고슬라비아 연방 대통령의 결정에 따라 파크라츠에서 철수했으며 3월 12일까지 마을의 북부 접근로에 철수하였고 7일 후에는 완전 철수하였다. 여파 특수경찰 및 유고 인민군을 철수시키로 한 협정으로 마을은 원 상황으로 복귀하였다. 체포된 경찰관 32명 중 17명은 3월 5일까지 복직했으며 베즈메르를 포함한 5명은 결국 기소되었다. 이 사건은 크로아티아와 세르비아 및 유고 인민군의 지원을 받는 세르비아계 반군 사이의 첫 전면전이라는 점에서 크로아티아 독립 전쟁의 첫 전초전 격이 되었으며 이게 큰 의미가 있다. 세르비아 정부는 파크라츠 충돌에서 크로아티아인이 세르비아인에 대한 대량학살을 저질렀다는 민족주의적 선전을 악용했다. 세르비아 및 몬테네그로 언론에서는 파크라츠 충돌로 약 40명 이상이 사망했다고 보도했다. 혼란스럽고 부정확한 여러 보도에 관한 대표적인 예로, 베오그라드의 일간지 베체르녜 노보스티는 같은 날 1면에 파크라츠의 정통교회 신부가 살해당했다는 기사를 싣고, 2면에는 그 신부가 부상을 입었다는 기사를 싣었으며, 3면엔 그 신부의 인터뷰 질답을 싣었다. 유고슬라비아 대통령은 결국 파크라츠에서 사망한 사람은 아무도 없다는 발표를 해야 했다. 슬로보단 밀로셰비치가 당수인 세르비아 사회당(SPS)이 집권한 세르비아는 크로아티아 경찰의 작전을 "크로아티아 정부가 폭력적이고 파시즘적인 방법으로 잔인한 공격"을 했다고 비난했다. 이는 세르비아의 수도인 베오그라드에서 분위기가 더욱 심했다. 세르비아 사회당은 세르비아인에게 "크로아티아 HDZ의 폭력적인 행동에 반대하는 시위"에 모일 것을 촉구했다. 밀로셰비치는 파크라츠 충돌을 유고 인민군이 크로아티아를 강제 무장해제하는 명분으로 이용했다. 유고 인민군에게 전시 작전권을 부여하고 비상사태를 내릴 것을 요구하는 요청은 5월 15일 대통령직 회의에서 카디예비치가 안건을 제시하였다. 하지만 이 요구가 승인 거부되면서 밀로셰비치는 더 이상 연방 대통령의 권한을 인정하지 않겠다고 선언했다. 경찰의 개입으로 경찰이 쿠티나와 노브스카로 이동하는 중 오쿠차니의 세르비아계 지도자들은 마을 주민들에게 다른 개입이 오기 전에 미리 바리케이드를 세우라고 지시했다. 바리케이드는 무장 시민들이 지켰다. 파크라츠에서는 세르비아인 시위대 500명이 시의회 건물 앞에 모여 시의회 건물에 계양된 크로아티아의 국기를 내리라고 요구했다. 각주 참고 문헌 서적 저널 문헌 뉴스 르포 기타 문서 1991년 분쟁 1991년 크로아티아 크로아티아 독립 전쟁의 전투 1991년 3월

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakrac%20clash

Pakrac clash

The Pakrac clash, known in Croatia as the Battle of Pakrac (), was a bloodless skirmish that took place in the Croatian town of Pakrac in March 1991. The clash was a result of increasing ethnic tensions in Croatia during the breakup of Yugoslavia. It was one of the first serious outbreaks of violence in what became the Croatian War of Independence. The clash began after rebel Serbs seized the town's police station and municipal building and harassed Croatian government officials. The Croatian government carried out a counterstrike against the rebels, sending Interior Ministry special police to re-establish control. Fighting broke out between the two sides. Despite an attempted intervention by the Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA), the Croatian government reasserted its control over the town. After a standoff with the JNA, an agreement to pull out the special police and the JNA was reached, restoring the town to conditions before the Serb attempt to seize control of the police there. Background In 1990, following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union (, HDZ), ethnic tensions between Croats and Serbs worsened. The Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA) confiscated Croatia's Territorial Defence (Teritorijalna obrana - TO) weapons to minimize resistance. On 17 August, the tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs, centred on the predominantly Serb-populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin, parts of the Lika, Kordun, Banovina, and eastern Croatia. The Croatian Serbs established the Serbian National Council in July 1990 to coordinate opposition to Croatian President Franjo Tuđman's policy of pursuing independence. Milan Babić, a dentist from the southern town of Knin, was elected president and Knin's police chief Milan Martić established paramilitary militias. The two men eventually became the political and military leaders of the Republic of Serb Krajina (RSK), a self-declared state incorporating the Serb-inhabited areas of Croatia. In the beginning of 1991, Croatia had no regular army. To bolster its defence, Croatia doubled police personnel to about 20,000. The most effective part of the force was 3,000-strong special police deployed in twelve battalions adopting military organisation. There were also 9,000–10,000 regionally organised reserve police, which was organized in 16 battalions and 10 companies but lacked weapons. According to the Croatian 1991 census, Serbs were the largest ethnic group in the municipality of Pakrac (46.4%), followed by Croats (35.8%). Serb Democratic Party politician Veljko Džakula became the political leader of Croatian Serbs in western Slavonia. He held a view that Serbs should secede from Croatia. On 22 February, the municipal council controlled by Džakula voted to join the Serbian Autonomous Oblast of Krajina (later renamed the RSK) and subordinate the Pakrac police station to the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Krajina. The vote was annulled by the Constitutional Court of Croatia on 28 February. Timeline In February 1991, Babić and Martić directed Serb paramilitaries to take over the town's police station and municipal buildings. On 1 March, the paramilitaries disarmed the town's 16 Croatian policemen and subjected local Croatian officials to a campaign of vilification and intimidation. The police in Pakrac were commanded by Jovo Vezmar, who sided with Babić and Martić. In response, President Franjo Tuđman ordered the Croatian Interior Ministry to restore the government's authority over the town. At 04:30 on 2 March 1991, the first part of a 200-strong Croatian police force entered Pakrac. A company of the "Omega" special police unit, dispatched from Bjelovar, approached via the village of Badljevina, where a number of Croatian civilians followed the force towards Pakrac. A barricade outside Pakrac was cleared with no resistance, and the Croatian police secured the town's police station unopposed. Several hours later, shots were fired at the police station from a nearby hill by a force commanded by Vezmar. Soon afterwards, a second Croatian special police unit, the Lučko Anti-Terrorist Unit, arrived from Zagreb. Vezmar retreated east towards the villages of Šeovica and Bučje on the Psunj Mountain. The special police, commanded by Marko Lukić and Mladen Markač, arrested 180 ethnic-Serb rebels, including 32 ethnic-Serb policemen, without either side sustaining deaths or injuries. Vezmar was replaced by Stjepan Kupsjak as the Pakrac police chief. The Croatian action prompted an intervention from the federal Yugoslav government. Borisav Jović, the Serbian representative on the collective Presidency of Yugoslavia, supported a request by Yugoslav Defence Minister Veljko Kadijević to send the JNA to the scene. The first ten JNA tanks arrived in Pakrac late in the evening of 1 March and took positions in various parts of the town; most of them were stationed near the town hospital. The next afternoon, an additional JNA unit led by Colonel Milan Čeleketić arrived in Pakrac, taking positions close to the Croatian special police. Čeleketić was acting on the orders of Major General Jevrem Cokić, commander of the 32nd (Varaždin) Corps. Cokić authorised deployment of three companies of the armoured battalion of the 265th Mechanised Brigade based in Bjelovar. The arrival of JNA tanks in Pakrac came too late to stop the Croatian special police from retaking the town. However, it prompted the remaining Serb rebels to begin shooting at the town from the surrounding hills. Shots were fired at a police vehicle on patrol. The policemen shot back at men retreating towards a JNA position, and the JNA shot at the police vehicle in return. The shooting ended when talks between Croatian member of the federal presidency Stjepan Mesić and JNA Colonel Aleksandar Vasiljević produced an agreement that the Croatian police would be allowed to retain control of the town. The JNA planned to retake control of Pakrac from the special police by force. The attack, codenamed Pakrac-91, was cancelled when the Croatian authorities agreed to withdraw the special police by the evening of 3 March. The JNA withdrew from Pakrac following a decision of the Yugoslav Presidency, abandoning the northern approaches to the town on 12 March, and pulling out completely seven days later. Aftermath The agreement to withdraw the special police and the JNA largely restored status quo ante bellum. 17 of the 32 arrested policemen returned to service by 5 March; charges were eventually filed against five, including Vezmar. The incident had a lasting significance because it was the first serious skirmish in what would become the Croatian War of Independencea full-scale war between Croatia and its rebel Serb population supported by Serbia and the JNA. The Serbian government used the Pakrac clash to strengthen nationalist propaganda claims that Croatia was committing genocide against its Serb population. Up to 40 deaths from the clash were reported by Serbian and Montenegrin media outlets. In an indication of the confused and highly inaccurate nature of the reporting, the Belgrade daily newspaper Večernje novosti reported on its front page that the town's Orthodox priest had been killed, on its second page that he had been wounded, and on its third page it printed a statement from him. The Yugoslav presidency finally issued a statement that nobody had been killed in Pakrac. In Serbia, the ruling Socialist Party of Serbia (SPS), led by Slobodan Milošević, condemned the Croatian police action as a "brutal attack by the Croatian government on the population of Pakrac [using] violent and fascist methods"a statement that was carried prominently by the state-controlled Radio Television Belgrade. The SPS urged Serbs to attend "protest meetings against the violent behaviour of the Croatian HDZ government". Milošević used the Pakrac clash to demand that the JNA be authorised to forcibly disarm Croatia. The request, specifically demanding the granting of wartime powers to the JNA and the introduction of a state of emergency, was made through Kadijević at a Presidency session of 11–15 May. The request was refused, and Milošević declared that he no longer recognised the authority of the federal presidency. The police intervention prompted Serb political leaders in Okučani to urge the local population to erect barricades around the town in to pre-empt another intervention—stating that police forces were moving in from Kutina and Novska. The barricades were guarded by armed civilians. In Pakrac, approximately 500 Serb protesters gathered in front of the municipal council building to the demand the removal of the flag of Croatia. Footnotes References Books Scientific journal articles News reports Other sources Conflicts in 1991 1991 in Croatia Battles of the Croatian War of Independence Battles and conflicts without fatalities March 1991 events in Europe

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9D%EB%A7%A8%20X5

록맨 X5

《록맨 X5》(Mega Man X5)는 캡콤이 만든 액션게임 록맨 X의 5번째 작품이다. 시스템 전작과 마찬가지로 엑스, 제로 모두 정식 플레이 가능하며, 서브탱크 또한 E탱크 2개 W탱크 1개. 록맨 X5의 8 보스 일람 크리센트 그레즐리(Crescent Grizzly)/그리즐리 슬래쉬(Grizzly Slash) 이명은 '폭주 아이언클로(暴走アイアンクロー)' 곰 형태의 레프리로이드. 약점은 스파이크 로즈레드의 무기 X:크레센트 샷(Crescent Shot) - 3방향 랜덤으로 초승달 모양의 샷을 발사. 차지 시 엑스를 둘러싸는 날카로운 기를 생성하며, 방어능력도 있다. Z:초승달베기(三日月斬) - 점프한 상태에서 회전모션으로 세이버로 공격. 더블점프가 가능하다. 다크 네크로버트(Dark Necrobat)/다크 디지(Dark Dizzy) 박쥐 형태의 레프리로이드 무기 X:다크 홀드(Dark Hold) - 적의 움직임을 멈추게 할 수 있다. 차지기술은 없지만, 공중에서는 어디서는 사용 가능. Z:다크 홀드(Dark Hold) - 적의 움직임을 멈추게 할 수 있다. 제로 한정으로만 공중에서 사용 불가능하지만, 오직 지면에 닿아 있을 때만 사용 가능. 볼트 크라켄(Volt Kraken)/스퀴드 애들러(Squid Adler) 이명은 '초전자의 함정(超電磁の罠)' 오징어/크라켄 형태의 레프리로이드. 약점은 타이달 멕코인의 젤 세이버(X), 비수상(Z)으로 맞으면 몸이 마비가 된다. 무기 X:트라이 썬더(Tri-Thunder) - 상, 하, 전 3방향으로 동시에 전기를 발사. 벽에 닿으면 구(球)형으로 변한다. 차지 시 임의의 지점에서 수직방향으로 전기로 공격한다. Z:전인(電刃) - 전기가 흐르는 세이버로 위쪽으로 공격한다. 샤이닝 호타루닉스(Shining Hotarunicus)/이지 글로(Izzy Glow) 약점은 볼트 크라켄의 트라이 썬더와 전인으로 맞으면 몸이 감전되어 아래로 떨어진다. 무기 X:윌 레이저(Will Laser) - 반딧불이 모양의 메카를 발사. 메카는 상하전후 조종이 가능하다. 차지 시 앞쪽으로 레이저를 발사한다. Z:멸섬광(滅閃光) - 제로 주변으로 에너지 탄을 발사. 포위되었을 때 쓰기 좋다. 타이들 멕코인(Tidal Makkoeen)/더프 멕월렌(Duff McWhalen) 이명은 '대해의 수호신(大海の守護神)' 향유고래 형태의 레프리로이드로 이름의 유래는 향유고래를 뜻하는 일본어 茉香鯨(まっこうくじら)에서 나왔다. 스테이지마다 거대한 잠수함과 싸우는 데 머리, 꼬리, 몸통 순이다. 약점은 크리센트 샷(X), 초승달베기(Z)에 맞으면 온 몸에 금이 가고 얼어붙는다. 무기 X:젤 세이버(Gel Shaver) - 땅 위를 이동하는 푸른색 샷을 발사. 차지 시 양쪽으로 총 8개의 얼음덩어리를 생성한다. Z:비수상(飛水翔) - 에어대쉬로 몸통공격. 공격중에는 무적이며, 3방향 비행이 가능하다. 스파이럴 페가시온(Spiral Pegasion)/더 스카이버(The Skiver) 무기 X:윙 스파이럴(Wing Spiral) - 위쪽 방향으로 회오리로 공격. 차지 시 앞쪽으로 회오리를 날리며, 회오리는 이동하면서 크기가 커진다. Z:질풍(疾風) - 대쉬하며 순간적으로 그림자를 생성하여 공격한다. 스파이크 로즈레드(Spike Rosered)/액슬 더 레드(Axle the Red) 이명은 '진홍의 환술(真紅の幻術)' 장미 형태의 레프리로이드. 스테이지 거의 마지막에서 가이아 아머 풋 파츠 획득 가능. 보스의 약점은 그랜드 파이어(X), 단지염(Z)으로 맞추면 불꽃을 무서워하는 식물처럼 몸이 붉게 달아오른다. 무기 X:스파이크 로프(Spike Rope) - 스파이크가 박힌 녹색 구체로 공격. 공격범위는 좁지만 벽을 관통할 수 있다. 차지 시 벽에 바운드되는 보라색을 띄는 구체를 발사한다. Z:쌍환몽(双幻夢) - 제로의 앞쪽에 분신을 만들어 더블공격한다. 번 디노렉스(Burn Dinorex)/매트렉스(Mattrex) 이명은 '쥬라기 지옥(ジュラシックインフェルノ)' 티라노사우루스 형태의 레프리로이드. 스파이럴 페가시온과 같은 레플리포스 출신으로, 방제 임무를 주로 수행하는 부대 소속이었다. 스테이지 2구역에서는 두 갈래 길이 있는데 윗길로 가면 중간보스인 프테라노돈 형태의 메카 프테라노이드가 출현 약점은 젤 세이버로 약점 반응은 없지만 데미지를 많이 줄 수 있어 쉽게 클리어. 아랫길은 라이드아머를 타고 용암바다 속으로 들어간다. 보스룸 직전의 밑에 캡슐에서 가이아 아머 암 파츠 획득 가능. 보스의 약점은 윙 스파이럴(X), 질풍(Z)으로 맞으면 바람에 휩싸여 몸이 떠오른다. 무기 X:그라운드 파이어(Ground Fire) - 바닥으로 불덩어리를 발사. 바닥이나 벽에 닿으면 사방에 불똥이 튄다. 차지 시 양손에서 길게 뿜어나오는 불덩어리를 발사한다. Z:단지염(断地炎) - 점프한 상태에서 아래쪽으로 불꽃 세이버로 공격. 바닥에 닿으면 사방에 불똥이 튄다. 평가 각주 외부 링크 공식 웹사이트 Mega Man X5 - 모비게임스 2000년 비디오 게임 록맨 X 플레이스테이션 (콘솔) 게임 플레이스테이션 네트워크 게임 윈도우 게임 22세기를 배경으로 한 비디오 게임 일본의 비디오 게임 슈퍼히어로 게임

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mega%20Man%20X5

Mega Man X5

Mega Man X5, known as in Japan, is an action-platform video game and the fifth main installment in the Mega Man X series. Developed by Capcom, it was first released for the PlayStation in Japan on November 30, 2000, and in North America and PAL territories the following year. In 2002, the game was ported to Microsoft Windows as retail packages in both Japan and North America. Players control X and Zero, heroes who traverse eight selectable stages and acquire the special weapon of each stage's boss. Mega Man X5 was intended to be the final game in its series, according to Capcom producer Keiji Inafune. Its story is set in the 22nd century, in a world where humans coexist with androids called "Reploids". X and Zero once again face their nemesis Sigma who aims to destroy the planet and infect all Reploids with a virus. The design of X's upgrades, new villains, and new tactics for the platform franchise were the biggest focus from Capcom when developing the game. It was a commercial success and garnered a generally positive reception among critics, many of whom agreed that it would satisfy diehard fans of the series despite the stale gameplay formula and presentation of the story. It was re-released in 2006 as part of the Mega Man X Collection for the PlayStation 2 and in the Mega Man X Legacy Collection 2 in 2018 for additional consoles. Gameplay The gameplay in Mega Man X5 is similar to the previous installments of the Mega Man X series. The player is presented with a series of action-platforming stages that can be cleared in any order desired. The core aspects of gameplay are largely unchanged from previous installments, though X5 differs from its predecessor in a few notable ways. Before each level, players can choose whether to play as the shooter X or the swordsman Zero. X focuses on distanced combat using his X-Buster while the latter instead uses his Z-Saber in close combat. Defeating bosses results in the two characters gaining new weapons and techniques, respectively. and for the first time in the franchise, players are able to change the game's difficulty. The characters gain the new movement mechanics of crouching and hanging from ropes. Between the two characters, the one not chosen at the start of the game is disadvantaged – X loses his "Fourth Armor" (a less-powerful recreation of his armor from Mega Man X4), and Zero loses his Z-Buster weapon. X has four enhancing armor sets available: the Fourth Armor, the secret Ultimate Armor, and two others that must be assembled from parts found in capsules. X cannot wear any individual armor part without the rest of the matching set. Zero can find and enter Dr. Light's armor capsules, but in most cases he cannot use the armor parts inside – he can only retrieve them to deliver to X. If Zero reaches the capsule containing X's Ultimate Armor, Dr. Light offers him the "Black Zero" armor instead, which enhances his abilities. After the introduction stage, the player has 16 attempts to challenge four Maverick bosses in stages to complete the Enigma weapon needed to protect the planet from a space colony. A mid-boss named Dynamo also appears at predetermined intervals, stalling the player for time. If X is infected by a sufficient number of Sigma's viruses, his health begins to rapidly decline. Zero is affected differently by this level of infection – he becomes briefly invincible, with increased attack power. At any point between levels, the player can choose to fire the Enigma at the Eurasia, though the chance of success increases as the game progresses. Plot Like other entries in the series, Mega Man X5 takes place in "21XX", an unspecified year in the 22nd century, where humans have adapted to life with intelligent androids dubbed "Reploids". However, a series Reploids become Mavericks, causing crimes and chaos. The series' primary antagonist is Sigma, a Maverick who spreads a computer virus across the Earth, causing a series of new infected Mavserick. He also hires a Reploid mercenary named Dynamo to hijack the space colony Eurasia to make it collide with Earth. To prevent Eurasia from striking the planet, the Maverick Hunters pursue two options: firing a powerful cannon called "Enigma" at Eurasia to vaporize it, or failing that, launching a space shuttle and piloting it into the colony to destroy it. To maximize their chances of success, Hunters X and Zero are dispatched to collect parts for the two devices with the aid of their new teammates Alia, Douglas, and Signas. The necessary parts to upgrade the Enigma and shuttle are held by eight Mavericks, and X and Zero must defeat them to claim the parts. Whether the Enigma succeeds or fails, a new virus appears on the Earth, identified by Alia as the Sigma virus. If either one of the two methods succeeds, X and Zero proceed to hunt for the source of the virus. If the shuttle fails or if time expires, the colony crashes into the planet, nearly destroying it, and Zero is then infected by the virus. In either case, once the virus' origin is discovered, the Hunters investigate, penetrating a bizarre underground fortress. In the fortress, X and the infected Zero cross paths, where mutual suspicion and mistrust leads them to duel. After the duel, the story diverges into a few possible paths, each with its own ending. If Zero's mind is unaffected by the virus, he saves himself and X from Sigma, and they confront Sigma together. Upon defeating him, Sigma attempts to make the Hunters' victory for naught by taking them down with him. X tries to save Zero but is ambushed by Sigma and both Hunters are critically damaged. At this point, the endings diverge again depending on the player's chosen character. If Zero defeats Sigma, he reflects on his origin and life before dying. If X defeats Sigma, he inherits Zero's beam saber weapon and lives on as a Hunter. If Zero becomes a Maverick as a result of the virus, he sacrifices himself to save X from Sigma, and X continues on alone. Upon defeating Sigma, X is badly damaged. A mysterious figure recovers him but deletes all his memories of Zero. Development Mega Man X5 was originally intended to be the final game in the Mega Man X series. According to producer Keiji Inafune, he had little to do with the title and told the staff his idea. Much to the dismay of Inafune, Capcom decided to publish Mega Man X6 the following year, in which Zero survived his fight from X5. Haruki Suetsugu, an artist for Mega Man X4, designed almost all of the characters and promotional artwork for X5, adding various details to differentiate the characters from each other. Advancements in technology allowed the team to improve the visuals of the game over the previous installment. X5 uses still images without voiceovers instead of the animated cutscenes displayed in X4, which bothered Suetsugu as the price players paid was the same as before. Artist Hitoshi Ariga agreed with this sentiment as the boss characters were unvoiced. Suetsugu believed that the navigator Alia might be the most fitting heroine in the series in contrast to the tragic Iris from Mega Man X4. Alia stood out as the only female character, which Suetsugu did not mind since the game is aimed towards a young demographic. As the idea of having a calm woman as navigator proved difficult to execute, the other navigator Roll Caskett from Mega Man Legends was used as a reference. The villain Dynamo was based on Western movies, with a design that combined features from X and Zero. X's new Falcon Armor was designed by Ryuji Higurashi to resemble a bird with a beak-shaped chest piece, wings coming out of the back, and a talon-like arm cannon. Suetsugu designed the Gaea Armor to resemble Sanagiman from the Inazuman manga series. Other new characters were introduced to expand the roster of the Maverick Hunters beyond just the fighters, with Signus being the most mature among them and possibly having connections to the Repliforce from X4. Douglas and Lifesaver were created as minor characters for the roles of mechanic and doctor, respectively. The game does not employ voice acting, except that yells in the Japanese version were performed by Showtaro Morikubo, who replaced Kentarō Itō as X's voice actor, and by Ryōtarō Okiayu for Zero. Morikubo found the task challenging as he was debuting as a musician during the release of X5. The Maverick bosses in the English localization of the game are named after members of the American hard rock band Guns N' Roses. Capcom voice actress Alyson Court, who was involved in the game's English localization, chose the new names as a tribute to her then-husband's love of the band. For the Mega Man X Legacy Collection 2 release, the names of the Maverick bosses were changed to translations of their original Japanese names. The musical score for Mega Man X5 was composed by Naoto Tanaka, Naoya Kamisaka, and Takuya Miyawaki. The Japanese version of the game features "Monkey" as the opening theme and as the closing theme, both composed and performed by Morikubo and his band Mosquito Milk. The theme songs were included in the Rockman Theme Song Collection, published by Suleputer in 2002, and all of the game's instrumental and vocal music was included on the Capcom Music Generation: Rockman X1 ~ X6 soundtrack, released by Suleputer in 2003. The game was first released in Japan for the PlayStation on November 30, 2000. The North American release followed the next month on January 31, 2001. It was later released in Europe on August 3, 2001. A Microsoft Windows port was first released to retail in Asia on July 30, 2001, in Japan on May 24, 2002, and in North America on August 20, 2002. The game was included in the North American Mega Man X Collection for GameCube and PlayStation 2 in 2006. In 2014, the PlayStation Network released Mega Man X5 alongside X4. It became available for Windows via Steam, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch as a part of Mega Man X Legacy Collection 2 on July 24, 2018, worldwide and July 26, 2018, in Japan. Reception Mega Man X5 was generally well-received as an appealing sidescroller, although several sites commented that it did not contribute new major ideas to the franchise. GameRevolution enjoyed the contrasting gameplay system between X and Zero as well as the improved graphics. Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine stated that the game's difficulty felt harsher than previous installments as a result of enemy placement but still appreciated the focus on more checkpoints and continues, which balance it out. While they also appreciated the storytelling and multiple endings, they panned the idea of being forced into several cutscenes in the middle of the game without offering new ideas. Eurogamer agreed that players would need to properly collect most power-ups, like heart-shaped items, to make X and Zero able to fight the bosses. He found the system so repetitive that he instead recommended playing the related series, Legends, which he finds more innovative. Electronic Gaming Monthly found several parts of the game to be similar to Mega Man X4 and that the characters' interactions were cheesy. GameSpot said the gameplay would appeal to non-Mega Man fans and gamers in general due to the attention given to detail and the design of the new bosses. GamePro was more positive on the new content and improvements made over X4 and found it important for most fans. Regarding the game's presentation, responses were mixed. GameRevolution enjoyed the narrative associated with Armageddon but still felt it was poorly executed due to having to retread previous stages at the cost of losing hours to attack the colony. Both IGN and GameSpot enjoyed the presentation for relying on nostalgic tracks fitting for popular Super Nintendo games. The PC port was also the focus of some reviews, with Absolute Games criticizing the lack of noticeable improvements to the visuals or gameplay compared to Mega Man X4. On the other hand, Wolf praised the handling of stages and skills needed to defeat the bosses. According to the Japanese publication Famitsu, Mega Man X5 was the third best-selling video game in Japan during its release week, with 46,033 copies sold. It placed at number eight the following week with an additional 22,963 copies sold. Media Create sales information showed that the game was the 96th best-selling video game in Japan in 2000. Dengeki Online reported that Mega Man X5 sold a total of 215,687 copies in Japan by the end of 2001, listing it as the 132nd best-selling game of the year in the region. Toy Retail Sales Tracking (TRST) data showed that X5 was the fifth best-selling PlayStation game in North America for the month of February 2001. The game was eventually re-released as part of Sony's PlayStation The Best for Family collection of budget titles in Japan. References External links Official website Official PC website Mega Man X5 at MobyGames 2000 video games Malware in fiction Mega Man X games PlayStation (console) games PlayStation Network games Superhero video games Video games about impact events Video games about terrorism Video games about viral outbreaks Video games developed in Japan Video games set in the 22nd century Video games set in China Video games set in Egypt Video games set in Norway Video games set in Russia Video games set in Somalia Video games set in South Korea Video games set in Ukraine Windows games

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%8C%EB%A6%AC%ED%8A%B8%EB%B9%84%EC%B2%B4%20%ED%98%B8%EC%88%98%20%EC%82%AC%EA%B1%B4

플리트비체 호수 사건

플리트비체 호수 사건() 또는 플리트비체 피의 부활절()은 크로아티아 독립 전쟁에서 처음으로 사상자가 발생한 충돌이다. 1991년 3월 31일 크로아티아의 플리트비체 호수에서 크로아티아 경찰과 세르비아계 크로아티아인이 세운 SAO 크라이나의 무장 반군이 서로 충돌했다. 전투로 SAO 크라이나의 병사가 플리트비체 국립공원 지역을 장악했으나 이후 크로아티아가 탈환했다. 이 충돌로 양측에서 1명이 사망하며 민족 갈등이 매우 심각해졌다. 이 전투에서 유고슬라비아의 대통령이 유고슬라비아 인민군에게 진군하여 양 측 사이에 완충 지대를 수립하라는 명령을 내렸다. 유고 인민군이 다음 날 도착하여 크로아티아 경찰에게 철수를 요구하는 최후통첩을 보냈다. 플리트비체 호수 지역을 점령한 크로아티아 특수경찰은 4월 2일까지 철수했으나 새로 설치된 크로아티아 경찰서에 90명이 여전히 주둔하였다. 경찰서는 3달 후 유고 인민군이 포위하여 1991년 8월에 함락되었다. 배경 1990년, 크로아티아의 총선에서 크로아티아 사회주의 공화국 내 다수당으로 크로아티아 민주연합(HDZ)가 집권하며 크로아티아인과 세르비아인 내 민족 분쟁이 심해졌다. 유고 인민군은 크로아티아의 저항을 약화시키기 위해 크로아티아 영토방위군의 무기를 압수하였다. 8월 17일, 세르비아계 크로아티아인이 무장 봉기를 시작하여 민족 갈등이 반란으로 확산되며 크닌 인근의 달마티아 연안 세르비아계 인구 밀집 지역을 중심으로 리카, 코르둔, 바노비나, 슬라보니아 등 지역에서 반란 사태가 확대되었다. 세르비아계 크로아티아인은 크로아티아의 대통령 프라뇨 투지만의 크로아티아 독립 정책에 반발하며 1990년 7월 세르비아 국가위원회를 수립하였다. 이 위원회에서 크닌 서남쪽 작은 마을의 치과의사였던 밀란 바비치가 대통령으로 선출되었으며 크닌 경찰서장 밀란 마르티치는 준군사 민병대를 설립하였다. 이 두 사람은 나중에 크로아티아 내 세르비아인 밀집 지역을 통합하여 독립을 선포한 세르비아 크라이나 공화국(RSK)의 정치적, 군사적 지도자가 되었다. 1991년 초까지 크로아티아는 정규군이 없었다. 크로아티아는 국방력을 강화하기 위해 경찰요원을 2만명으로 약 두배 가까이 늘렸다. 이중 가장 효과가 좋았던 것은 군대 조직을 따른 12개 대대 3천명의 크로아티아 특수경찰 병력이었다. 또한 크로아티아 지역별로 예비경찰 16개 대대, 10개 중대 9천-1만명을 수립하였으나 무기가 부족했다. 세르비아계의 통제 하에 영토를 통일하기 위한 노력으로 크로아티아 내의 세르비아계 지도자들은 1991년 3월 25일 플라트비체 호수에서 정치 집회를 열어 SAO 크라이나에 호수 지역을 편입할 것을 요구했다. 3일 후인 3월 28일엔 SAO 크라이나 특수경찰이 지역을 장악하고 무장한 민간인의 도움으로 플리트비체 국립공원에 있는 크로아티아 공무원들을 내쫓았다. SAO 크라이나가 플라트비체 호수에 주둔시킨 병력은 대략 백여명이었다. 이 지역은 상대적으로 인구 밀도가 낮았으며 세르비아인들에겐 명백한 위협이 없었다. 기자 팀 주다흐는 이 움직임은 리카 및 바노비아 지역의 세르비아 마을을 연결하는 공원 남북을 잇는 도로를 장악하여 전략적 목표를 달성하러는 시도였을 것이라고 추측했다. 전개 크로아티아는 플리트비체 호수 지역을 탈환하기 위해 카를로바츠와 고스피치 지역의 추가 경찰력 지원을 바탕으로 자그레브 안팎의 루치코 대테러부대, 라키테, 실레메 특수경찰 등 여러 특수경찰 병력을 파견하였다. 요시프 루치치가 지휘하는 경찰병력은 여러 버스, 승합차, 병력수송장갑차 등을 동원하여 플라트비체 호수 지역으로 진격했다. 루치치가 직접 지휘하는 180명 가량의 라키테 특수경찰부대(SPU)는 코라나강 다리를 통해 짙은 안개 속에서 자그레브에서 나 있는 주도로를 통해 도착했다. 코라나강 다리는 1991년 3월 30일에서 31일로 넘어가는 자정에 루츠코 부대가 장악하였다. 보조병력은 리치코 페트로보 셀로를 통해 플리트비체 호수 지역으로 접근했으며 쿠므로베츠 특수경찰부대는 호수와 고스피치 사이 류보노 고개를 장악해 주병력의 우익을 안전하게 만들었다. 크로아티아가 보낸 총 공격군은 대략 3백명 가까이 되었다. 경찰 부대는 3월 31일 부활절 오전 7시 직전 플리트비체 호수 인근의 SAO 크라이나가 설치한 바리케이드 부근에서 기습당했다. SAO 크라이나 병력은 크로아티아 경찰이 탄 차량을 공격하다 2시간 30분 후에 국립공원 우체국으로 후퇴하였다. 크로아티아는 진격하였으나 깊은 눈에 방해를 받으며 부상자 6명이 발생했다. 공격군은 오전 11시에 목표를 달성했다. 공격 작전이 완료될 즈음, 요시프 요비치가 후퇴하는 SAO 크라이나 병사의 기관총의 총탄에 맞아 사망하면서 크로아티아 독립 전쟁 최초의 크로아티아군의 사망자가 발생했다. 그 직후 유고슬라비아 공군이 양 측의 부상자를 싣기 위해 밀 Mi-8 헬리콥터를 보냈으며 1시간 반 후 호수 지역을 떠났다. 헬리콥터는 이 당시 유고 공군의 최고지휘관인 3성장군 안톤 투스가 크로아티아 내무부 장관 요시프 볼코바츠의 요청에 따라 파견한 것이었다. 플리트비체 호수 주변의 전투가 끝나며 남쪽에 있는 코레니차에서 산발적인 총격 사건이 들려왔다. 같은 날 오후, 플리트비체 호수에 크로아티아 경찰서가 세워졌으며 토미슬라브 일리치가 지역 경찰 지휘관으로 임명되었다. 경찰서엔 고스피치에서 재배치된 경찰관 90명 가량이 배치되었다. 같은 날 저녁 유고슬라비아의 대통령직은 충돌에 대해 논의하기 위해 비상회의를 열었다. 대통령직의 세르비아계 대표인 보리사브 요비치의 주장으로 유고 인민군이 개입하여 지역을 장악해 추가 전투를 막기로 하였다. 세르비아 의회도 긴급의회를 소집하여 플리트비체 호수의 충돌을 실질적인 전쟁 명분으로 간주하고 자그레브와 충돌하는 크라이나의 세르비아계에게 "모든 필요한 지원"을 해 줄 것이라고 결론내렸다.다음 날 SAO 크라이나는 호수 지역을 세르비아 영토로 편입하며 크로아티아 내의 세르비아계 공화국의 헌법과 법률을 준수하는 곳이라는 결의안을 통과시켰다. 크로아티아 정부는 세르비아의 대통령인 슬로보단 밀로셰비치가 유고슬라비아가 느슨한 연합으로 바뀌지 않는 한 독립을 밀고 나갈 것이라는 크로아티아를 막기 위해 일을 벌인다고 비난했다. 또한 유고 인민군이 크로아티아 정부를 전복시키러 시도한다고 비난했다. 유고 인민군의 개입 4월 1일, 유고 인민군은 제1군구와 제5군구의 병력을 출동시켜 플리트비체 호수 지역에 양 집단을 분리시키는 완충지역을 수립했다. 출동 병력엔 바냐루카에 주둔하던 제329기갑여단 기갑대대, 델니체에 주둔하던 제6산악여단 대대, 야스트레바르스코와 카를로바츠에 주둔하던 제4기갑여단 정찰대대 및 기계화대대, 자그레브에 주둔하던 제306대공경포병연대 대대, 사모보르에 주둔하던 제367통신연대 통신중대, 리예카에 주둔하던 제13헌병대대 중대, 리예카에 주둔하던 제13프롤레타리아차량화여단 방공포 부대들이 있었다. 최종적으로는 제5군구가 플리트비체 호수 지역에 전진지휘부를 수립했다. 플리트비체 호수 지역의 유고 인민군은 중령 이반 슈티마츠의 지휘를 받았다. 제5군구 지휘관인 소장 안드리야 라셰타의 명령으로 유고 인민군의 개입은 양 측 중 어디도 보호하는 것이 아니며 특정 기간 동안 민족 분쟁을 막기 위해 파견된 것 뿐이라고 기자회견을 열었다. 하지만 크로아티아 정부는 유고 인민군의 움직임에 격렬하게 반발했다. 대통령 투지만의 측근인 마리오 노빌로는 유고 인민군 측이 크로아티아 관료에게 경찰이 플리트비체에서 철수하지 않으면 교전할 것이라고 말했다고 주장했다. 라디오 방송에서 투지만 대통령은 유고 인민군은 행동 지침이 달라지지 않을 경우 적대병력으로 간주할 것이라고 말했다. 4월 2일, 유고 인민군은 플리트비체의 크로아티아 경찰에게 철수하라고 최후통첩을 내렸다. 같은 날 특수경찰은 플리트비체에서 철수했으나, 신설된 경찰서의 경찰관 90명은 그대로 남아있었다. 여파 충돌에서 크로아티아 측 사망자는 경찰관 요시프 요비치 1명이었다. SAO 크라이나 병력도 라이코 부카디노비치가 전투 중 사망하면서 전쟁 중 첫 세르비아계 크로아티아인의 교전 중 사망자가 발생했다. 총 20명이 부상을 입었으며 이 중 7명이 크로아티아 경찰이다. 크로아티아 경찰은 SAO 크라이나 병사 29명을 포로로 잡았으며, 이 중 18명을 반란 혐의로 기소하였다. 수감자 중에는 나중에 세르비아 크라이나 공화국의 대통령이 되는 고란 하지치도 있었으나 그는 얼마 가지 않아 풀러났다. 정부는 하지치의 석방은 선의의 표시라고 설명했으나 볼코바츠는 1991년 크로아티아 정부와 협력한 이력 때문에 풀러난 것이라고 주장했다. 전투 이후 이탈리아인이 대부분인 관광객 400명은 플리트비체 호수에서 피난하였다. 플리트비체 호수의 충돌은 크로아티아의 전반적 상황을 악화시켰고 민족 분쟁이 심화되었다. 유고 인민군의 개입으로 플리트비체 호수에서 세르비아계와 크로아티아계가 분리되었으나, 이 지역의 상황은 충돌 이후 악화되었다. 인근의 플라슈키에서는 지역 경찰서에 크로아티아인이 쫓겨나고 세르비아인 관료로 바뀌었다. SAO 크라이나와 크로아티아 양측 모두 사보르스코-리치카 야세니차-오구린 도로에 바리케이드를 세우며 봉쇄하였다. 여름이 되면 도로 봉쇄 지역은 플라슈키 북쪽에서 사보르스코 남쪽까지로 확대되었으며 크로아티아 정부는 4월 2일에 30개나 되는 경찰서를 새로 신설했다. 도로가 봉쇄된 곳에서는 유고 인민군 차량만 통행이 가능했으며, 지역의 식량, 의약품, 전력 부족이 가속화되었다. 5월 2일에는 SAO 크라이나의 집권당인 세르비아 민주당이 플리트비체 호수 지역에서 크로아티아 경찰을 철수하라는 조직적인 행진과 정치적 집회를 열었다. 바비치와 보이슬라브 셰셸가 이끄는 행진은 플리트비체 호수 인근에서 유고 인민군의 저지로 전진하지 못했으며 티토나 코레니차로 돌아갔다. 유고 인민군은 7월 1일 크로아티아 경찰이 유고 인민군 장교 2명을 납치하고 투옥했다는 구실로 플리트비체 호수 경찰서를 봉쇄했다. 7월 6일부터는 SAO 크라이나 병력과 유고 인민군이 플리트비체 호수 동남쪽의 티토바 코레니차-고스피치 도로가 있는 류보로 고개를 공격하기 시작했으며 이달 말까지 크로아티아 국가방위군을 몰아내고 고개를 장악하였다. 여름 내내 유고 인민군은 4월에 플리트비체 호수에 배치한 병력을 이용하여 리카 지역의 크로아티아군과 지속적으로 전투를 벌였다. 이 전투는 8월 30일 유고 인민군이 플리트비체 경찰서를 점거하고 다음 날 고스피치 전투가 시작되면서 격렬해졌다. 여러 문헌에서 요시프 요비치는 크로아티아 독립 전쟁 최초의 사망자라고 기록한다. 1994년엔 그의 출생지였던 아르자노에 추모비가 세워졌다. 전후엔 그가 사망한 장소에 추모비가 세워졌으며 매년 충돌 기념식이 열린다. 플리트비체 호수에선 매년 충돌과 요비치 추모식이 열린다. 각주 참고 문헌 서적 저널 문헌 뉴스 르포 기타 문헌 1991년 크로아티아 1991년 분쟁 크로아티아 독립 전쟁의 전투 1991년 3월 1991년 4월

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plitvice%20Lakes%20incident

Plitvice Lakes incident

The Plitvice Lakes incident ( or Plitvički krvavi Uskrs, both translating as "Plitvice Bloody Easter") was an armed clash at the beginning of the Croatian War of Independence. It was fought between Croatian police and armed forces from the Croatian Serb-established SAO Krajina at the Plitvice Lakes in Croatia, on 31 March 1991. The fighting followed the SAO Krajina's takeover of the Plitvice Lakes National Park and resulted in Croatia recapturing the area. The clash resulted in one killed on each side and contributed to the worsening ethnic tensions. The fighting prompted the Presidency of Yugoslavia to order the Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA) to step in and create a buffer zone between the opposing forces. The JNA arrived at the scene the following day and presented Croatia with an ultimatum requesting the police to withdraw. Even though the special police units which captured the Plitvice Lakes area did pull out on 2 April, a newly established Croatian police station, staffed by 90 officers, remained in place. The police station was blockaded by the JNA three months later, and captured in late August 1991. Background In 1990, following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia, ethnic tensions worsened. The Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA) confiscated Croatia's Territorial Defence (Teritorijalna obrana – TO) weapons to minimize resistance. On 17 August, the tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs, centred on the predominantly Serb-populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin, parts of the Lika, Kordun, Banovina regions and eastern Croatia. They established a Serbian National Council in July 1990, to coordinate opposition to Croatian President Franjo Tuđman's policy of pursuing independence for Croatia. Milan Babić, a dentist from the southern town of Knin, was elected president. Knin's police chief, Milan Martić, established paramilitary militias. The two men eventually became the political and military leaders of the SAO Krajina, a self-declared state incorporating the Serb-inhabited areas of Croatia. In the beginning of 1991, Croatia had no regular army. In an effort to bolster its defence, Croatia doubled the size of its police force to about 20,000. The most effective part of the force was the 3,000-strong special police that were deployed in 12 battalions adopting military organisation. In addition there were 9,000–10,000 regionally organised reserve police. The reserve police were set up in 16 battalions and 10 companies, but they lacked weapons. In an effort to consolidate territory under their control, Croatian Serb leaders organised a political rally at the Plitvice Lakes on 25 March 1991, demanding the area be annexed to the SAO Krajina. Three days later, on 28 March, SAO Krajina special police seized the area, and with the help of armed civilians, removed the Croatian management of the Plitvice Lakes National Park. The force deployed by the SAO Krajina to the Plitvice Lakes was estimated to be approximately 100-strong. The region was relatively sparsely populated and there was no obvious threat to Serbs there. Journalist Tim Judah suggests that the move may have been motivated by a desire to control a strategic road that ran north–south through the park, linking the Serb communities in the Lika and Banovina regions. Timeline Croatia deployed special police forces, specifically the Lučko, Rakitje and Sljeme special police units based in and around Zagreb, supported by additional police forces drawn from Karlovac and Gospić to retake the Plitvice Lakes area. The Croatian police force, commanded by Josip Lucić, used several buses and passenger cars, as well as an armoured personnel carrier, to approach the Plitvice Lakes area. The main 180-strong group of the Rakitje Special Police Unit (SPU), directly commanded by Lucić, arrived in dense fog, along the main road from Zagreb via the Korana River bridge. The bridge was secured by the Lučko unit shortly before midnight on 30/31 March 1991. An auxiliary force approached the Plitvice Lakes via Ličko Petrovo Selo, while the Kumrovec SPU was deployed in the area between the lakes and Gospić, where it captured the Ljubovo Pass to secure the right flank of the main effort. The total attacking force comprised approximately 300 troops. The approaching convoy was ambushed at a barricade set up by the SAO Krajina force near Plitvice Lakes before 7:00 in the morning of Easter Sunday, 31 March 1991. The SAO Krajina force attacked the vehicles carrying the Croatian police and held their position until they fell back to the national park post office two and a half hours later. The Croatian advance, additionally hindered by deep snow, was achieved at a cost of six wounded. The attacking force secured its objectives by 11:00 am. As the attacking operation reached its completion, the Croatian military sustained its first combat fatality of the Croatian War of Independence, when Josip Jović was killed by a machine gun covering retreating SAO Krajina troops. Shortly afterwards, the Yugoslav Air Force dispatched a Mil Mi-8 helicopter to attend to wounded on both sides, and it left the area after an hour and a half. The helicopter was dispatched by Colonel General Anton Tus, head of the Yugoslav Air Force at the time, following a request by Josip Boljkovac, Interior Minister of Croatia. As the fighting around Plitvice ended, sporadic gunfire was reported near Titova Korenica, to the south. The same afternoon, a Croatian police station was established at the Plitvice Lakes and Tomislav Iljić was appointed its commanding officer. The station was staffed by approximately 90 police officers who were redeployed from Gospić. The Presidency of Yugoslavia met in an emergency session the same evening to discuss the clash. At the insistence of Serbia's representative on the Presidency, Borisav Jović, the JNA was ordered to intervene, gain control in the area and prevent further combat. The Serbian parliament also met in an emergency session, treating the clashes as a virtual casus belli and voting to offer the Krajina Serbs "all necessary help" in their conflict with Zagreb. The following day, the SAO Krajina adopted a resolution to the effect that the territory was incorporated into Serbia, whose constitution and laws were adopted for use in the Serb-held areas of Croatia. Croatian authorities accused Serbia's president, Slobodan Milošević, of stage-managing the unrest in order to break Croatia's resolve to declare independence unless Yugoslavia was transformed into a loose confederation. They also accused him of attempting to coax the JNA to overthrow Croatian government. JNA intervention On 1 April, the JNA established a buffer zone to separate the belligerents at Plitvice Lakes, deploying elements of the 1st and the 5th Military Districts. Those were an armoured battalion of the 329th Armoured Brigade based in Banja Luka, a battalion of the 6th Mountain Brigade based in Delnice, a reconnaissance company and a mechanised battalion of the 4th Armoured Brigade based in Jastrebarsko and Karlovac, a battalion of the 306th Light Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment based in Zagreb, a signals company of the 367th Signals Regiment based in Samobor, a company of the 13th Military Police Battalion based in Rijeka and an anti-aircraft artillery battery drawn from the 13th Proletarian Motorised Brigade based in Rijeka. Finally, the 5th Military District set up a forward command post at the Plitvice Lakes. The JNA force at the Plitvice Lakes was commanded by Colonel Ivan Štimac. The commanding officer of the 5th Military District, Major General Andrija Rašeta, in overall command of the JNA intervention, told the media that his men were not protecting either side and were there only to prevent ethnic confrontations for an indeterminate period. However, the Croatian government reacted furiously to the JNA move. Tuđman's aide, Mario Nobilo, claimed that the JNA had told Croatian officials that it would engage the police if they did not leave Plitvice. In a radio address, Tuđman said that the JNA would be regarded as a hostile army of occupation if its course of action remained unchanged. On 2 April, the JNA handed the Croatian authorities an ultimatum, requesting the police leave Plitvice. The special police left Plitvice the same day, but the 90 officers staffing the newly established police station remained in place. Aftermath Police officer Josip Jović was the only Croatian fatality in the incident. The SAO Krajina force also suffered one killed in the fighting—Rajko Vukadinović, who was the first Croatian Serb combat fatality in the war. A total of 20 people were wounded, seven of whom were the Croatian police. The Croatian forces captured 29 SAO Krajina troops, 18 of whom were formally charged with insurgency. Among the prisoners was Goran Hadžić, later to become the President of the Republic of Serbian Krajina, although he was quickly released. Hadžić's release was explained as a goodwill gesture by the authorities, but Boljkovac claims he was released because he was collaborating with the Croatian authorities in 1991. Approximately 400 tourists, most of them Italian, were evacuated from the Plitvice Lakes after the fighting. The clash at the Plitvice Lakes worsened the overall situation in Croatia and led to an escalation of the conflict. Even though the Croatian and Serb forces were separated by the JNA at the Plitvice Lakes, the situation in the area continued to deteriorate following the clash. In nearby Plaški, Croatian police personnel left the local police station and were replaced by Serb officers. Both SAO Krajina and Croatian forces set up several roadblocks on the Saborsko–Lička Jasenica–Ogulin road. By summer, the blockades were extended to the north of Plaški and south of Saborsko, where Croatian authorities established another 30-strong police station on 2 April. Only JNA vehicles were permitted to pass the roadblocks, and that brought about a shortage of food, medicine and electricity in the area. On 2 May, the Serb Democratic Party, the ruling party in the SAO Krajina, organised a protest march to the Plitvice Lakes and a political rally demanding the Croatian police withdraw from Plitvice. The march, led by Babić and Vojislav Šešelj, was prevented from reaching the Plitvice Lakes by the JNA and forced to return to Titova Korenica. The JNA imposed a blockade of the Plitvice Lakes police station on 1 July, on the pretext that the Croatian police had abducted and imprisoned two JNA officers. By 6 July, the SAO Krajina forces and the JNA commenced attacks on the Ljubovo Pass southeast of the Plitvice Lakes, on the Titova Korenica–Gospić road, driving the Croatian National Guard back and capturing the pass by the end of the month. Throughout the summer, the JNA continued to engage Croatian forces in Lika using the units deployed to the Plitvice Lakes in April. The fighting escalated further on 30 August, when the JNA captured the Plitvice Lakes police station and the following day when the Battle of Gospić began. Jović is largely viewed in Croatia as the first casualty of the Croatian War of Independence. A monument dedicated to him was erected in his birthplace of Aržano in 1994. After the war, a monument was erected at the site of his death, where annual commemorations of the clash are held. The clash and Jović's death are commemorated annually at the Plitvice Lakes. References Sources Books Scientific journal articles News reports Other sources 1991 in Croatia Battles of the Croatian War of Independence Conflicts in 1991 March 1991 events in Europe

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99%EC%9E%90%20%EB%AA%A9%EB%A1%9D

생물학자 목록

다음은 생물학자들의 목록이다. A-Z 에드워드 O. 윌슨 (1929) J. B. S. 홀데인 (1892–1964) J.L.B. 스미스 (1897–1968) ㄱ 가이우스 플리니우스 세쿤두스 (23–79) 거티 코리 (1886–1957) 게오르크 빌헬름 슈텔러 (1709–1746) 게오르크 포르스터 (1754–1794) 권터 블로벨 (1936) 그레고어 멘델 (1822–1884) 기무라 모토 (1924–1994) ㄴ 노먼 볼로그 (1914) 니콜라스 틴베르헌 (1907–1988) 니콜라이 바빌로프 (1887–1943) 니콜라이 프르제발스키 (1839–1888) ㄷ 다이앤 포시 (1932–1985) 데이비드 H. 허블 (1926) 데이비드 더글라스 (1799–1834) 데이비드 볼티모어 (1938) 도네가와 스스무 (1939) ㄹ 라차로 스팔란차니 (1729–1799) 레나토 둘베코 (1914–2012) 레오나르도 다 빈치 (1452–1519) 레이철 카슨 (1907–1964) 레지널드 이네스 포콕 (1863–1947) 로널드 피셔 (1890–1962) 로버트 브라운 (1773–1858) 로버트 브룸 (1866–1951) 로버트 포춘 (1813–1880) 로버트 훅 (1635–1703) 로베르트 바라니 (1876–1936) 로베르트 코흐 (1843–1910) J. 로빈 워런 (1937) 로저 울컷 스페리 (1913–1994) 로절린드 프랭클린 (1920–1958) 루돌프 야코프 카메라리우스 (1665–1721) 루돌프 피르호 (1821–1902) 루서 버뱅크 (1849–1926) 루이 아가시 (1807–1873) 루이 파스퇴르 (1822–1895) 뤼크 몽타니에 (1932) 리처드 도킨스 (1941) 리처드 액설 (1946) 리처드 오언 (1804–1892) 리타 레비몬탈치니 (1909) 린 마굴리스 (1938) 린다 B. 벅 (1947) ㅁ 마르첼로 말피기 (1628–1694) 마사 체이스 (1927–2003) 마저리 래티머 (1907–2004) 마티아스 야코프 슐라이덴 (1804–1881) 마틴 로드벨 (1925–1998) 막스 델브뤽 (1906–1981) ㅂ 바버라 매클린톡 (1902–1992) 발터 플레밍 (1843–1905) 배리 마셜 (1951) 배리 볼턴 (1802–1879) 베르나르도 우사이 (1887–1971) 벤 바레스 (1955) 빌헬름 요한센 (1857–1927) ㅅ 산티아고 라몬 이 카할 (1852–1934) 살바도르 에드워드 루리아 (1912–1991) 샤를 루이 알퐁스 라브랑 (1845–1922) 샤를 리셰 (1850–1935) 셀먼 에이브러햄 왁스먼 (1888–1973) 스탠리 코헨 (1922) 스티븐 제이 굴드 (1941–2002) 시드니 브레너 (1927) 시드니 올트먼 (1939) ㅇ 아르망 다비드 (1826–1900) 아리스토텔레스 (384 BC–322 BC) 아서 콘버그 (1918–2007) 아우구스트 바이스만 (1834–1914) 아우구스트 크로그 (1874–1949) 아치볼드 비비언 힐 (1886–1977) 안톤 판 레이우엔훅 (1632–1723) 알렉산더 폰 미덴도르프 (1815–1894) 알렉산더 폰 훔볼트 (1769–1859) 알렉산더 플레밍 (1881–1955) 알렉산드르 오파린 (1894–1980) 알렉시 카렐 (1873–1944) 알바르 굴스트란드 (1862–1930) 알브레히트 코셀 (1853–1927) 알시드 도르비니 (1802–1857) 앙드레 르보프 (1902–1994) 앨프리드 뉴턴 (1829–1907) 앨프리드 러셀 월리스 (1823–1913) 앨프리드 셔우드 로머 (1894–1973) 앨프리드 허시 (1908–1997) 얀 잉엔하우스 (1730–1799) 에두아르트 슈트라스부르거 (1844–1912) 에드거 에이드리언 (1889–1977) 에드워드 B. 루이스 (1918–2004) 에드워드 드링커 코프 (1840–1897) 에른스트 마이어 (1904–2005) 에른스트 하르테르트 (1859–1933) 에른스트 헤켈 (1834–1919) 에릭 F. 위샤우스 (1947) 에릭 캔들 (1929) 에밀 테오도어 코허 (1841–1917) 에티엔 조프루아 생틸레르 (1772–1844) 엔델 툴빙 (1927) 엘리 메치니코프 (1845–1916) 엘리자베스 블랙번 (1948) 오스니얼 찰스 마시 (1831–1899) 오타 도모코 (1933) 오토 프리츠 마이어호프 (1884–1951) 요제프 게르하르트 추카리니 (1797–1848) 요한 볼프강 폰 괴테 (1749–1832) 월터 로스차일드 (1868–1937) 윈스턴 처칠 (1831–1881) 윌리엄 도널드 해밀턴 (1936–2000) 율리우스 폰 작스 (1832–1897) 이래즈머스 다윈 (1731–1802) 이반 파블로프 (1849–1936) ㅈ 자크 모노 (1910–1976) 자크 쿠스토 (1910–1997) 장바티스트 라마르크 (1744–1829) 장앙리 파브르 (1823–1915) 존 "잭" 호너 (1946) 제1대 뱅크스 준남작 조지프 뱅크스 (1743–1820) 제럴드 에덜먼 (1929) 제인 구달 (1934) 제임스 D. 왓슨 (1928) 제임스 러브록 (1919) 조너스 소크 (1914–1995) 조르주 퀴비에 (1769–1832) 뷔풍 (1707–1788) 조안 러프가든 (1946) 조지 로버트 그레이 (1808–1872) 조지 쇼 (생물학자) (1751–1813) 조지 에밀 펄레이드 (1912) 조지 워싱턴 카버 (1860–1943) 조지 월드 (1906–1997) 조지 C. 윌리엄스 (1926) 조지프 돌턴 후커 (1817–1911) 조지프 레이디 (1823–1891) 존 굴드 (1804–1881) 존 메이너드 스미스 (1920–2004) 존 뮤어 (1838–1914) 존 스티븐스 헨슬로 (1796–1861) J.E. 그레이 (1800–1875) 존 에클스 (1903–1997) 존 제임스 오듀본 (1786–1851) 존 화이트 (c. 1756–1832) 줄리어스 액설로드 (1912–2004) 줄리언 헉슬리 (1887–1975) 쥘 보르데 (1870–1961) ㅊ 찰스 다윈 (1809–1882) 찰스 대븐포트 (1866–1944) 찰스 스콧 셰링턴 (1857–1922) 찰스 워터턴 (1782–1865) 최재천 (1954년) ㅋ 카를 에른스트 폰 베어 (1792–1876) 카를 폰 프리슈 (1886–1982) 카를루스 샤가스 (1879–1934) 카밀로 골지 (1843–1926) 칼 워즈 (1928–2012) 칼 퍼디낸드 코리 (1896–1984) 칼 페테르 툰베리 (1743–1828) 칼 폰 린네 (1707–1778) 캐리 멀리스 (1944) 콘라트 게스너 (1516–1565) 콘라트 로렌츠 (1903–1989) 크레이그 벤터 (1946) 크리스티아네 뉘슬라인폴하르트 (1942) 클로드 베르나르 (1813–1878) ㅌ 테오도시우스 도브잔스키 (1900–1975) 테오도어 슈반 (1810–1882) 테오프라스토스 (372 BC – 287 BC) 템플 그랜딘 (1947) 토르스텐 비셀 (1924) 토머스 스탬퍼드 래플스 (1781–1826) 토머스 헌트 모건 (1868–1945) 토머스 헨리 헉슬리 (1825–1895) 트로핌 리센코 (1898–1976) ㅍ 파라켈수스 (1493–1541) 파울 에를리히 (1854–1915) 프란체스코 레디 (1626–1697) 프랑수아 자코브 (1920) 프랜시스 크릭 (1916–2004) 프레더릭 그리피스 (1879–1941) 프리드리히 뢰플러 (1852–1915) 필리프 프란츠 폰 지볼트 (1796–1866) ㅎ 하워드 플로리 (1898–1968) 핸스 애돌프 크레브스 (1900–1981) 헨리 월터 베이츠 (1825–1892) 후고 폰 몰 (1805–1872) 휘호 더프리스 (1848–1935) 같이 보기 노벨 생리학·의학상 수상자 목록 생물학자 목록 생물학자 목록 목록

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20biologists

List of biologists

This is a list of notable biologists with a biography in Wikipedia. It includes zoologists, botanists, biochemists, ornithologists, entomologists, malacologists, naturalists and other specialities. A Ab–Ag John Jacob Abel (1857–1938), American biochemist and pharmacologist, founder of the first department of pharmacology in the United States. John Abelson (born 1938), American biologist with expertise in biophysics, biochemistry, and genetics Richard J. Ablin (born 1940), American immunologist. Research on prostate cancer. Discovered prostate-specific antigen (PSA) which led to the development of the PSA test Erik Acharius (1757–1819), Swedish botanist who studied lichens Gary Ackers (1939–2011), American biophysicist who worked on thermodynamics of macromolecules. Gilbert Smithson Adair (1896–1979), British protein chemist who identified cooperative binding of oxygen binding haemoglobin. Arthur Adams (1820–1878), English physician and naturalist who classified crustaceans and molluscs Michel Adanson (1727–1806), French naturalist who studied the plants and animals of Senegal Julius Adler (born 1930), American biochemist and geneticist known for work on chemotaxis. Monique Adolphe (born 1932), French cell biologist, pioneer of cell culture Edgar Douglas Adrian (1st Baron Adrian) (1889–1977), British electrophysiologist, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1932) for research on neurons Adam Afzelius (1750–1837), Swedish botanist who collected botanical specimens later acquired by Uppsala University Carl Adolph Agardh (1785–1859), Swedish botanist who classified plant orders and classes Jacob Georg Agardh (1813–1901), Swedish botanist known for classification of algae Louis Agassiz (1807–1873), Swiss zoologist who studied the classification of fish; opponent of natural selection Alexander Agassiz (1835–1910), American zoologist, son of Louis Agassiz, expert of marine biology and on mining Nikolaus Ager (also Nicolas Ager, Agerius) (1568–1634), French botanist, author of De Anima Vegetativa Al–An Nagima Aitkhozhina (1946–2020), Kazakh molecular biologist, structural and functional organisation of the genome of higher organisms and the molecular mechanisms of regulation of its expression. William Aiton (1731–1793), Scottish botanist, director of the botanical garden at Kew Bruce Alberts (born 1938), American biochemist, former President of the United States National Academy of Sciences, known for studying the protein complexes involved in chromosome replication, and for the book Molecular Biology of the Cell Robert Alberty (1921–2014), American physical biochemist, with many contributions to enzyme kinetics. Alfred William Alcock (1859–1933), British systematist of numerous species, aspects of biology and physiology of fishes Nora Lilian Alcock (1874–1972), British pioneer in plant pathology who did research on fungal diseases Boyd Alexander (1873–1910), English ornithologist who made surveys of birds in the Gold Coast (now Ghana), and the Bonin Islands Richard D. Alexander (1929–2018), American evolutionary biologist whose scientific pursuits integrated systematics, ecology, evolution, natural history and behaviour Salim Ali (1896–1987), Indian ornithologist who conducted systematic bird surveys across India Frédéric-Louis Allamand (1736–1809), Swiss botanist who described several plant genera Warder Clyde Allee (1885–1955), American zoologist and ecologist, identified the Allee effect (correlation between population density and individual fitness) Joel Asaph Allen (1838–1921), American zoologist who studied birds and mammals, known for Allen's rule Jorge Allende (born 1934), Chilean biochemist known for contributions to the understanding of protein biosynthesis George James Allman (1812–1898), British naturalist who did important work on the gymnoblasts June Dalziel Almeida (1930–2007), Scottish virologist who pioneered techniques for characterizing viruses, and discovered Coronavirus Tikvah Alper (1909–1995), South African radiobiologist who showed that the infectious agent of scrapie contains no nucleic acid Prospero Alpini (1553–1617), Italian botanist, the first in Europe to describe coffee and banana plants Sidney Altman (1939–2022), Canadian-born molecular biologist, winner of the 1989 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on RNA Am–As Bruce Ames (born 1928), American biochemist, inventor of the Ames test for mutagenicity (sometimes regarded as a test for carcinogenicity) John E. Amoore (1939–1998), British biochemist and zoologist, originator of the stereochemical theory of olfaction. José Alberto de Oliveira Anchieta (1832–1897), Portuguese naturalist who identified many new species of mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles Mortimer Louis Anson (1901–1968), American biochemist and protein chemist who proposed that protein folding was reversible Jakob Johan Adolf Appellöf (1857–1921), Swedish marine zoologist who made important contributions to knowledge of cephalopods Agnes Robertson Arber (1879–1960), British plant morphologist and anatomist, historian of botany and philosopher of biology Aristotle (384 BC–322 BC), Greek philosopher, sometimes regarded as the first biologist, he described hundreds of kinds of animals Emily Arnesen (1867–1928), Norwegian zoologist who worked on sponges Frances Arnold (born 1956), American biochemist and biochemical engineer, pioneer of the use of directed evolution to engineer enzymes. Ruth Arnon (born 1933), Israeli biochemist, who works on anti-cancer and influenza vaccinations. She participated in developing the multiple sclerosis drug Copaxone. Peter Artedi (1705–1735), Swedish naturalist who developed the science of ichthyology Gilbert Ashwell (1916–2014), American biochemist, pioneer in the study of cell receptor Ana Aslan (1897–1988), Romanian biologist who studied arthritis and other aspects of aging William Astbury (1898–1961), British physicist, molecular biologist and X-ray crystallographer At–Az David Attenborough (born 1926), British natural history broadcaster Jean Baptiste Audebert (1759–1800), French naturalist. Primarily an artist, he illustrated books of natural history, including Histoire naturelle des singes, des makis [lemurs] et des galéopithèques Jean Victoire Audouin (1797–1841), French zoologist: entomologist, herpetologist, ornithologist and malacologist John James Audubon (1786–1851), French and American ornithologist and illustrator, who identified 25 new species Charlotte Auerbach (1899–1994), German and British geneticist, founded the discipline of mutagenesis after discovering the effect of mustard gas on fruit flies Caroline Austin, British molecular biologist known for her work on human DNA topoisomerase enzymes Richard Axel (born 1946), American Nobel Prize–winning physiologist who discovered how to insert foreign DNA into a host cell Julius Axelrod (1912–2004), American biochemist, winner of the 1970 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research on catecholamine neurotransmitters Francisco Ayala (born 1934), Spanish-American evolutionary biologist and philosopher William Orville Ayres (1817–1887), American physician and ichthyologist with publications in popular sources Félix de Azara (1746–1811), Spanish naturalist who described more than 350 South American birds B Ba Charles Cardale Babington (1808–1895), British botanist and archaeologist Churchill Babington (1821–1889), British classical scholar, archaeologist and botanist John Bachman (1790–1874), American ornithologist; also one of the first scientists to argue that blacks and whites are the same species Curt Backeberg (1894–1966), German horticulturist, known for classification of cacti Karl Ernst von Baer (1792–1876), German naturalist (in Estonia), biologist, geologist, meteorologist, geographer, and a founding father of embryology Liberty Hyde Bailey (1858–1954), American botanist, one of the first to recognize the importance of Gregor Mendel's work Donna Baird (thesis 1980), American epidemiologist and evolutionary-population biologist, concerned with women's health Spencer Fullerton Baird (1823–1887), American naturalist, ornithologist, ichthyologist and herpetologist who collected and classified many species Scott Baker (born 1954), American marine biologist, cetacean expert John Hutton Balfour (1808–1884), Scottish botanist, author of numerous books, including Manual of Botany Clinton Ballou (1923–2021), American biochemist who worked on the metabolism of carbohydrates and the structures of microbial cell walls Henri Heim de Balsac (1899–1979), zoologist. David Baltimore (born 1938), American biologist, known for work on viruses. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1975 Outram Bangs (1863–1932), American zoologist who collected many bird species; author of more than 70 books and articles, 55 of them on mammals Joseph Banks (1743–1820), English naturalist, botanist who collected 30,000 plant specimens and discovered 1,400. Robert Bárány (1876–1936), Austro-Hungarian (later Swedish) physician. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1914) for studies of the vestibular system Horace Barker (1907–2000), American biochemist and microbiologist Ben Barres (1954–2017), American neurobiologist who studied mammalian glial cells of the central nervous system Benjamin Smith Barton (1766–1815), American botanist, author of Elements of botany, or Outlines of the natural history of vegetables, the first American textbook of botany John Bartram (1699–1777), American botanist, described by Carl Linnaeus as the "greatest natural botanist in the world" William Bartram (1739–1823), American botanist, ornithologist, natural historian, and explorer, author of Bartram's Travels (as now known) Anton de Bary (1831–1888), German surgeon, botanist, microbiologist, and mycologist, considered a founding father of plant pathology (phytopathology) as well as the founder of modern mycology Dorothea Bate (1878–1951), Welsh palaeontologist and pioneer of archaeozoology who studied fossils Henry Walter Bates (1825–1892), English naturalist who gave the first scientific account of mimicry Patrick Bateson (1938–2017), English biologist and science writer, president of the Zoological Society of London August Johann Georg Karl Batsch (1762–1802), German botanist, mycologist who discovered almost 200 species of mushrooms Gaspard Bauhin (1560–1624), Swiss botanist who introduced binomial nomenclature into taxonomy, foreshadowing Linnaeus Be–Bi George Beadle (1903–1989), American geneticist. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1958 for discovery of the role of genes in regulating biochemical reactions within cells. 7th president of the University of Chicago. Johann Matthäus Bechstein (1757–1822), German naturalist, ornithologist, entomologist and herpetologist known for his treatise on singing birds Naturgeschichte der Stubenvögel Rollo Beck (1870–1950), American ornithologist known for collecting birds and reptiles, including three of the last four individuals of the Pinta Island tortoise Jon Beckwith (born 1935), American microbiologist and geneticist who worked on bacterial genetics. Charles William Beebe (1877–1962), American biologist, known for work on pheasants, and numerous books on natural history Martinus Beijerinck (1851–1931), Dutch microbiologist and botanist who discovered viruses and investigated nitrogen fixation by bacteria Helmut Beinert (1913–2007), German-American biochemist, a pioneer of the use of electron paramagnetic resonance in biological systems Thomas Bell (1792–1880), English zoologist, surgeon and writer who described and classified Darwin's reptile specimens and crustaceans David Bellamy (1933–2019), English broadcaster, activist and ecologist Boris Pavlovich Belousov (1893–1970), Soviet chemist and biophysicist who discovered the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction Stephen J. Benkovic (born 1938), American bioorganic chemist specializing in mechanistic enzymology Edward Turner Bennett (1797–1836), English zoologist who described a new species of African crocodile George Bentham (1800–1884), English botanist, known for his taxonomy of plants, written with Joseph Dalton Hooker, Genera Plantarum Jacques Benoit (1896–1982), French biologist, physician. One of the pioneers of neuroendocrinology and photobiology. Robert Bentley (1821–1893), English botanist, known for Medicinal Plants (four volumes) Wilson Teixeira Beraldo (1917–1998), Brazilian physician and physiologist, co-discoverer of bradykinin Paul Berg (1926–2023), American biochemist known for work on gene splicing of recombinant DNA. Hans Berger (1873–1941), German neuroscientist, one of the founders of electroencephalography Carl Bergmann (1814–1865), German anatomist, physiologist and biologist who developed Bergmann's rule relating population and body sizes with ambient temperature Rudolph Bergh (1824–1909), Danish physician and zoologist who studied sexually transmitted diseases, and also molluscs Claude Bernard (1813–1878), French physiologist, father of the concepts of the milieu intérieur and homeostasis Samuel Stillman Berry (1887–1984), American zoologist who established 401 mollusc taxa, and worked on chitons, cephalopods, and also land snails Thomas Bewick (1753–1828), English ornithologist and illustrator, author of A General History of Quadrupeds Gabriel Bibron (1806–1848), French zoologist, expert on reptiles and author (with André Marie Constant Duméril) of Erpétologie Générale Klaus Biemann (1926–2016), Austrian chemist, the "father of organic mass spectrometry" Ann Bishop (1899–1990), English biologist who specialized in protozoology and parasitology Biswamoy Biswas (1923–1994), Indian ornithologist who studied, in particular, the birds of Nepal and Bhutan Bl–Bo Elizabeth Blackburn (born 1948), Australian/US Nobel Prize–winning researcher in the field of telomeres and the "telomerase" enzyme John Blackwall (1790–1881), British entomologist, author of A History of the Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville (1777–1850), French zoologist, taxonomic authority on numerous zoological species, including Blainville's beaked whale Albert Francis Blakeslee (1874–1954), American botanist, best known for research on Jimsonweed and the sexuality of fungi Thomas Blakiston (1832–1891), English naturalist. "Blakiston's Line" separates animal species of Hokkaidō and northern Asia, from those of Honshū and southern Asia. Frank Nelson Blanchard (1888–1937), American herpetologist who described new subspecies of snakes. Frjeda Blanchard (1889–1977), American plant and animal geneticist who demonstrated Mendelian inheritance in reptiles. William Thomas Blanford (1832–1905), English geologist and naturalist, editor of The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Pieter Bleeker (1819–1878), Dutch ichthyologist whose papers described 511 new genera and 1,925 new species Günter Blobel (1936–2018), German Nobel Prize-winning biologist who discovered that newly synthesized proteins contain "address tags" which direct them to the proper location within the cell Konrad Emil Bloch (1912–2000), German-American biochemist who worked on cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism Steven Block (born 1952), American biophysicist who measured the mechanical properties of single bio-molecules David Mervyn Blow (1931–2004), British X-ray crystallographer noted for work on protein structure Carl Ludwig Blume (Karel Lodewijk Blume, 1789–1862), German-Dutch botanist who studied the flora of southern Asia, particularly Java Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840), German physiologist and anthropologist who classified human races on the basis of skull structure Edward Blyth (1810–1873), English zoologist who classified many birds of India José Vicente Barbosa du Bocage (1823–1907), Portuguese zoologist with many papers on mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, and others Pieter Boddaert (1730–1795/1796), Dutch physician and naturalist who named many mammals, birds and other animals Brendan J. M. Bohannan (no date information), American microbial and evolutionary biologist, expert on the microbes of Amazonia Charles Lucien Bonaparte (1803–1857), French naturalist who coined Latin names for many bird species James Bond (1900–1989), American ornithologist, author of Birds of the West Indies Franco Andrea Bonelli (1784–1830), Italian ornithologist, author of a Catalogue of the Birds of Piedmont, which described 262 species August Gustav Heinrich von Bongard (1786–1839), German botanist in St Petersburg, one the first botanists to describe the plants of Alaska John Tyler Bonner (1920–2019), American developmental biologist, expert on slime moulds Charles Bonnet (1720–1793), Genevan naturalist who published work on many subjects, including insects and plants Aimé Bonpland (1773–1858), French explorer and botanist who collected and classified about 6,000 plants unknown in Europe Jules Bordet (1870–1961), Belgian immunologist and microbiologist, winner of the 1919 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of the complement system in the immune system Antonina Georgievna Borissova (1903–1970), Russian botanist who specialized on the flora of the deserts and semi-desert of central Asia Norman Borlaug (1914–2009), American agricultural scientist, humanitarian, Nobel Peace Prize, and the father of the Green Revolution Louis Augustin Guillaume Bosc (1759–1828), French botanist, invertebrate zoologist, and entomologist, who made a systematic examination of the mushrooms of the southern United States George Albert Boulenger (1858–1937), Belgian and British zoologist, author of 19 monographs on fishes, amphibians, and reptiles Jules Bourcier (1797–1873), French ornithologist, expert on hummingbirds Paul D. Boyer (1918–2018), American biochemist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1997 for studies of ATP synthase Br–Bu Margaret Bradshaw (born 1941), New Zealand Antarctic researcher who has worked on Devonian invertebrate palaeontology Johann Friedrich von Brandt (1802–1879), German-Russian naturalist who described various birds; also an entomologist, specialising in beetles and millipedes Sara Branham Matthews (1888–1962), American microbiologist and physician best known for her research into the isolation and treatment of Neisseria meningitidis Christian Ludwig Brehm (1787–1864), German ornithologist who described many German species of birds Alfred Brehm (1829–1884), German zoologist, author of many works on animals and especially birds Sydney Brenner (1927–2019), British molecular biologist who worked on the genetic code, and later established the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans as a model organism for developmental biology. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2002) Thomas Mayo Brewer (1814–1880), American naturalist, specializing in ornithology and oology (the study of birds' eggs) William Brewster (1851–1919), American ornithologist, curator of mammals and birds at Harvard. Mathurin Jacques Brisson (1723–1806), French zoologist, author of Le Règne animal and Ornithologie Nathaniel Lord Britton (1859–1934), American botanist, coauthor of Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Canada, and the British Possessions Thomas D. Brock (1926–2021), American microbiologist who discovered of hyperthermophiles such as Thermus aquaticus Adolphe Theodore Brongniart (1801–1876), French botanist, author of many works, including Histoire des végétaux fossiles Robert Broom (1866–1951), South African paleontologist, author many many papers and books, including The mammal-like reptiles of South Africa and the origin of mammals Adrian John Brown (1852–1920), British expert on brewing and malting, pioneer of enzyme kinetics James H. Brown (born 1942), American ecologist known for his metabolic theory of ecology Patrick O. Brown (born 1954), American biochemist who has developed experimental methods with DNA microarrays to investigate genome organization Robert Brown (1773–1858), Scottish botanist known for pioneering use of the microscope in botany David Bruce (1855–1931), Scottish pathologist and microbiologist who investigated Malta fever (now called brucellosis) and discovered trypanosomes Jean Guillaume Bruguière (1750–1798), French naturalist, mainly interested in molluscs and other invertebrates Thomas Bruice (1925–2019), American bioorganic chemist, pioneer of chemical biology Morten Thrane Brünnich (1737–1827), Danish zoologist, author of Ornithologia Borealis and Ichthyologia Massiliensis Francis Buchanan-Hamilton (1762–1829), Scottish zoologist and botanist who studied plants and fishes in India Eduard Buchner (1860–1917), German chemist and physiologist who overthrew the doctrine of vitalism by showing that fermentation occurred in cell-free extracts of yeast Linda B. Buck (born 1947), American physiologist noted for work on the olfactory system. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2004). Buffon (Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, 1707–1788), French naturalist. Author of many works in evolution, including Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière. Walter Buller (1838–1906), New Zealand naturalist, a dominant figure in New Zealand ornithology. Author of A History of the Birds of New Zealand. Alexander G. von Bunge (1803–1890), German-Russian botanist who studied Mongolian flora. Luther Burbank (1849–1926), American horticulturalist who developed more than 800 strains and varieties of plants, many of commercial importance Hermann Burmeister (1807–1892), German Argentinian zoologist, entomologist, herpetologist, and botanist, who described many new species of amphibians and reptiles Frank Macfarlane Burnet (1899–1985), Australian virologist. Nobel Prize in 1960 for predicting acquired immune tolerance and for developing the theory of clonal selection. Carolyn Burns (born 1942), New Zealand ecologist who studies the physiology and population dynamics of southern hemisphere zooplankton and food-web interactions Robert H. Burris (1914–2010), American biochemist, expert on nitrogen fixation Carlos Bustamante (born 1951), Peruvian-American biophysicist who uses "molecular tweezers" to manipulate DNA for biochemical experiments Ernesto Bustamante (born 1950), Peruvian biochemist, specialist in mitochondria demonstrated the importance of mitochondrial hexokinase in glycolysis in rapidly growing malignant tumour cells. He currently works on DNA paternity testing. C Ca Jean Cabanis (1816–1906), German ornithologist, founder of the Journal für Ornithologie Ángel Cabrera (1879–1960), Spanish zoologist, author of South American Mammals George Caley (1770–1829), English explorer and botanist, discoverer of Mount Banks, Australia Rudolf Jakob Camerarius (1665–1721), German botanist, chiefly known for studies of the reproductive organs of plants Augustin Pyramus de Candolle (1778–1841), Swiss botanist who documented many plant families and created a new plant classification system Charles Cantor (born 1942), American biophysicist, known for pulse field gel electrophoresis, and as Director of the Human Genome Project Elizabeth P. Carpenter (no date information), British structural biologist, professor Philip Pearsall Carpenter (1819–1877), British conchologist, author of Catalogue of the collection of Mazatlan shells, in the British Museum: collected by Frederick Reigen Alexis Carrel (1873–1944), French biologist and surgeon, winner of the 1912 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on sutures and organ transplants, advocate of eugenics Elie-Abel Carrière (1818–1896), French botanist, an authority on conifers who described many new species Clodoveo Carrión Mora (1883–1957), Ecuadorian paleontologist and naturalist who discovered many species and one genus Sean B. Carroll (born 1960), American evolutionary development biologist, author of The Making of the Fittest: DNA and the Ultimate Forensic Record of Evolution and other books Rachel Carson (1907–1964), American marine biologist, author of Silent Spring George Washington Carver (1860–1943), American agriculturist, author of bulletins on crop production, including How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it for Human Consumption John Cassin (1813–1869), American ornithologist, who named many birds not described in the works of his predecessors Alexandre de Cassini (1781–1832), French botanist who named many flowering plants and new genera in the sunflower family, many of them from North America Amy Castle (1880–1971), New Zealand entomologist, who worked primarily on the Lepidoptera William E. Castle (1867–1962), American geneticist who contributed to the mathematical foundations of Mendelian genetics, and anticipated what is now known as the Hardy–Weinberg law. Mark Catesby (1683–1749), English naturalist who studied flora and fauna in the New World. Author of Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands Ce–Ch Thomas Cech (born 1947), American biochemist who discovered catalytic RNA, Nobel Prize in 1989 Andrea Cesalpino (1519–1603), Italian botanist who classified plants according to their fruits and seeds, rather than alphabetically or by medicinal properties Francesco Cetti (1726–1778), Italian zoologist, author of Storia Naturale di Sardegna (Natural History of Sardinia) Carlos Chagas (1879–1934), Brazilian physician who identified Trypanosoma cruzi as cause of Chagas disease Adelbert von Chamisso (Louis Charles Adélaïde de Chamissot, 1781–1838), German botanist, whose most important contribution was the description of many Mexican trees Britton Chance (1913–2010), American biochemist, inventor of the stopped-flow method Min Chueh Chang (1908–1991), Chinese-American reproductive biologist who studied the fertilisation process in mammalian reproduction, with work that led to the first test tube baby Jean-Pierre Changeux (born 1936), French biochemist and neuroscientist, originator of the allosteric model of cooperativity Frank Michler Chapman (1864–1945), American ornithologist, who promoted the use of photography in ornithology, especially in his book Bird Studies With a Camera. Erwin Chargaff (1905–2002), Austrian-American biochemist known for Chargaff's rules Emmanuelle Charpentier (born 1968), French microbiologist, geneticist and biochemist who discovered genome editing with CRISPR. Martha Chase (1927–2003), American biologist who carried out the Hershey–Chase experiment, which showed that genetic information is held and transmitted by DNA, not by protein Thomas Frederic Cheeseman (1846–1923), New Zealand botanist and naturalist with wide-ranging interests, including sea slugs Sergei Chetverikov (1880–1959), Russian population geneticist who showed how early genetic theories applied to natural populations, and thus contributed towards the modern synthesis of evolutionary theory Charles Chilton (1860–1929), New Zealand zoologist with 130 papers on crustaceans, mostly amphipods, isopods and decapods, from all around the world, but especially from New Zealand Carl Chun (1852–1914), German marine biologist specializing in cephalopods and plankton. He discovered and named the vampire squid Aaron Ciechanover (born 1947). Israeli biochemist known for work on protein turnover, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2004 Cl–Co Albert Claude (1899–1983), Belgian-American cell biologist who developed cell fractionation; Nobel Prize 1974 W. Wallace Cleland (1930–2013). American biochemist known for work on enzyme kinetics and mechanism Nathan Cobb (1859–1932), American biologist who described over 1000 different nematode species and laid the foundations of nematode taxonomy Leonard Cockayne (1855–1934), New Zealand botanist especially active in plant ecology and theories of hybridisation Alfred Cogniaux (1841–1916), Belgian botanist who worked especially with orchids Stanley Cohen (1922–2020), American biochemist, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1986) for his discovery of growth factors Edwin Joseph Cohn (1892–1953), American protein chemist known for studies on blood and the physical chemistry of protein Mildred Cohn (1913–2009), American pioneer in the use of nuclear magnetic resonance to study enzymes James J. Collins (born 1965), American biologist, synthetic biology and systems biology pioneer Timothy Abbott Conrad (1803–1877), American paleontologist and naturalist who studied the shells of the Tertiary and Cretaceous formations, as well as existing species of molluscs James Graham Cooper (1830–1902), American surgeon and naturalist who contributed to both zoology and botany Edward Drinker Cope (1840–1897), American paleontologist and comparative anatomist, also a herpetologist and ichthyologist, and founder of the Neo-Lamarckism school of thought Carl Ferdinand Cori (1896–1984), Czech-American biochemist and pharmacologist, 1947 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for work on the Cori cycle Gerty Cori (1886–1957), Czech-American biochemist, first American woman to win a Nobel Prize in science (Physiology or Medicine, 1947), for unraveling the mechanism of glycogen metabolism Charles B. Cory (1857–1921), American ornithologist who collected many birds. Author of The Birds of Haiti and San Domingo and other books. Emanuel Mendes da Costa (1717–1791), English botanist, naturalist, philosopher, author of A Natural History of Fossils, British Conchology, and other books Elliott Coues (1842–1899), American army surgeon, historian, ornithologist, and author of Key to North American Birds, did much to promote the systematic study of ornithology Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer (1907–2004), South African zoologist who discovered the Coelacanth Jacques-Yves Cousteau (1910–1997), French naval officer, explorer, conservationist, filmmaker, innovator, scientist, photographer, author and researcher who studied the sea and all forms of life in water Miguel Rolando Covian (1913–1992), Argentine-Brazilian neurophysiologist known for research on the neurophysiology of the limbic system, regarded as the father of Brazilian neurophysiology Frederick Vernon Coville (1867–1937), American botanist, author of Botany of the Death Valley Expedition Cr–Cu Robert K. Crane, (1919–2010), American biochemist who discovered sodium–glucose cotransport Lucy Cranwell (1907–2000), New Zealand botanist who organized the Cheeseman herbarium of about 10,000 specimens in Auckland Philipp Jakob Cretzschmar (1786–1845), German physician and zoologist (especially birds and mammals) Francis Crick (1916–2004), British molecular biologist, biophysicist and neuroscientist, best known for discovering the structure of DNA (with James Watson); Nobel Prize 1962 Joseph Charles Hippolyte Crosse (1826–1898), French conchologist, expert on molluscs, co-editor of the Journal de Conchyliologie Nicholas Culpeper (1616–1654), English botanist, author of The English Physitian Allan Cunningham (1791–1839), English botanist, "King's Collector for the Royal Garden at Kew" (in Australia) Gordon Herriot Cunningham (1892–1962), New Zealand mycologist who published extensively on the taxonomy of fungi Kathleen Curtis (1892–1993), New Zealand mycologist and plant pathologist, a founder of plant pathology in New Zealand William Curtis (1746–1799), English botanist, author of Flora Londinensis Georges Cuvier (1769–1832), French naturalist, author of Le Règne Animal (the Animal Kingdom), the "founding father of paleontology" D Da Valerie Daggett (thesis 1990), American bioengineer who simulates proteins and other biomolecules by molecular dynamics Anders Dahl (1751–1789), Swedish botanist whose name is recalled in the Dahlia, author of Observationes botanicae circa systema vegetabilium William Healey Dall (1845–1927), American malacologist, one of the earliest scientific explorers of interior Alaska. He described many mollusks of the Pacific Northwest of America Keith Dalziel (1921–1994), British biochemist, pioneer in systematizing the kinetics of two-substrate enzyme-catalysed reactions Carl Peter Henrik Dam (1895–1976), Danish physiologist who discovered vitamin K Marguerite Davis (1887–1967), American biochemist, co-discoverer of vitamins A and B Jivanayakam Cyril Daniel (1927–2011), Indian naturalist, director of the Bombay Natural History Society, author of The Book of Indian Reptiles Charles Darwin (1809–1882), British naturalist, author of The Origin of Species, in which he expounded the theory of natural selection, the starting point of modern evolutionary biology Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802), English physician and naturalist, founding member of the Lunar Society, grandfather of Charles Darwin Jean Dausset (1916–2009), French immunologist who worked on the major histocompatibility complex Charles Davenport (1866–1944), American biologist and eugenicist, founded the Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Gertrude Crotty Davenport (1866–1946), American zoologist prominent in the eugenics movement Armand David (Père David) (1826–1900), French zoologist and botanist, commissioned by the Jardin des Plantes to undertake scientific journeys through China Bernard Davis (1916–1994), American biologist who worked on microbial physiology and metabolism Richard Dawkins (born 1941), British evolutionary biologist and writer of popular science, author of The Selfish Gene, The Blind Watchmaker, The God Delusion and other influential books Margaret Oakley Dayhoff (1925–1983), American biochemist, pioneer in bioinformatics. De–Di Pierre Antoine Delalande (1787–1823), French naturalist employed by the National Museum of Natural History to collect natural history specimens Max Delbrück (1906–1981), German-American physicist and biologist who demonstrated that natural selection acting on random mutations applied to bacteria, one of the creators of molecular biology; Nobel Prize 1969. Richard Dell (1920–2002), New Zealand malacologist, author of The Archibenthal Mollusca of New Zealand Stefano Delle Chiaje (1794–1860), Italian zoologist, botanist, anatomist and physician who worked on medicinal plants and on the taxonomy of invertebrates Paul Émile de Puydt (1810–1888), Belgian botanist, author of Les Orchidées, histoire iconographique ..., active in political philosophy as well as botany René Louiche Desfontaines (1750–1833), French botanist and ornithologist who collected many plants in Tunisia and Algeria Gérard Paul Deshayes (1795–1875), French geologist and conchologist, distinguished for research on mollusc fossils Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest (1784–1838), French zoologist, author of Histoire Naturelle des Tangaras, des Manakins et des Todiers (natural history of various birds) Margaret Dick (1918–2008), pioneering Australian microbiologist Ernst Dieffenbach (1811–1855), German naturalist, one of the first scientists to work in New Zealand Johann Jacob Dillenius (1684–1747), German botanist who worked in England on rare plants and mosses Lewis Weston Dillwyn (1778–1855), British botanist and conchologist, also active in porcelain manufacture and politics, author of The British Confervae, an illustrated study of British freshwater algae John T. Dingle (active from 1959) British biologist and rheumatologist. Joan Marjorie Dingley (1916–2008), New Zealand mycologist, world authority on fungi and New Zealand plant diseases Zacharias Dische (1895–1988), Ukrainian-Jewish-American biochemist who discovered metabolic regulation by feedback inhibition Malcolm Dixon (1899–1985), British biochemist, authority on enzyme structure, kinetics, and properties; author (with Edwin Webb) of Enzymes. Do–Du Walter Dobrogosz (born 1933), American microbiologist, discoverer of Lactobacillus reuteri Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900–1975), American geneticist of Ukrainian origin, one of the leading evolutionary biologists of his time Rembert Dodoens (1517–1585), Flemish botanist who classified plants according to their properties and affinities (rather than listing them alphabetically) Anton Dohrn (1840–1909), German marine biologist, Darwinist, founder of the world's first zoological research station, in Naples David Don (1799–1841), British botanist who described major conifers discovered in his time, including the Coast Redwood. George Don (1798–1856), British botanist known for his four-volume A General System of Gardening and Botany. James Donn (1758–1813), English botanist, curator of the Cambridge University Botanic Gardens, and author of Hortus Cantabrigiensis Jean Dorst (1924–2001), French ornithologist, authority on bird migration and one of the writers of Le Peuple Migrateur (Winged Migration) Edward Doubleday (1810–1849), British entomologist known for The Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera Henry Doubleday (1808–1875), British entomologist, author of the first catalogue of British butterflies and moths, Synonymic List of the British Lepidoptera Jennifer Doudna (born 1964), American biochemist known for CRISPR-mediated genome editing; Nobel Prize 2020 David Douglas (1799–1834), Scottish botanist who studied conifers. The Douglas-fir is named after him. Patricia Louise Dudley (1929–2004), American zoologist who studied copepods (small crustaceans) Peter Duesberg (born 1936), German-American virologist who discovered the first retrovirus, and expert on genetic aspects of cancer, but his research contributions are overshadowed by his unpopular views on AIDS Félix Dujardin (1802–1860), French zoologist who studied protozoans, and also the structure of the insect brain Renato Dulbecco (1914–2012), Italian-American virologist awarded the Nobel Prize for work on oncoviruses Ronald Duman (1954–2020), American neuroscientist whose work in biological psychiatry concerned the biological mechanisms behind antidepressants André Marie Constant Duméril (1774–1860), French zoologist at the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, who worked on herpetology and ichthyology Auguste Duméril (1812–1870), French zoologist, professor of herpetology and ichthyology, noted for Catalogue méthodique de la collection des Reptiles Charles Dumont de Sainte-Croix (1758–1830), French lawyer, but also an amateur ornithologist who described a number of Javanese bird species Michel Felix Dunal (1789–1856), French botanist known for work on the genus Solanum Robin Dunbar (born 1947), British anthropologist and evolutionary psychologist, a specialist in primate behaviour. Gerald Durrell (1925–1995), British naturalist, writer, zookeeper, conservationist, and television presenter, writer of popular books, such as My Family and Other Animals Christian de Duve (1917–2013), Belgian cytologist and biochemist, discoverer of peroxisomes and lysosomes E Sylvia Earle (born 1935), American oceanographer, author of Blue Hope: Exploring and Caring for Earth's Magnificent Ocean Lindon Eaves (1944–2022), British geneticist (and priest) known for statistical modelling and the genetics of personality and social attitudes John Carew Eccles (1903–1997), Australian neurophysiologist and winner of the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on the synapse Christian Friedrich Ecklon (1795–1868), Danish botanical collector, particularly of South African plants and apothecary Gerald Edelman (1929–2014), American immunologist who discovered the structure of antibodies Robert Stuart Edgar (1930– 2016), American geneticist who studied mechanisms of formation of virus particles John Tileston Edsall (1902–2002), American protein chemist at Harvard, author of Proteins, Amino Acids and Peptides George Edwards (1693–1773), British naturalist, ornithologist and illustrator, author of A Natural History of Uncommon Birds Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg (1795–1876), German zoologist, comparative anatomist, geologist, and microscopist Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915), German immunologist who discovered the first effective treatment for syphilis Karl Eichwald (1795–1876), Baltic German geologist, physician, and naturalist, who described new species of reptiles Theodor Eimer (1843–1898), German professor of zoology and comparative anatomy who studied speciation and kinship in butterflies George Eliava (1892–1937), Georgian-Soviet microbiologist who worked with bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) Gertrude B. Elion (1918–1999), American pharmacologist known for using rational drug design for the discovery of new drugs Daniel Giraud Elliot (1835–1915), American zoologist, founder of the American Ornithologist Union Gladys Anderson Emerson (1903–1984), American historian and nutritionist, the first to isolate pure Vitamin E Günther Enderlein (1872–1968), German zoologist, entomologist, microbiologist, physician and manufacturer of pharmaceutical products Stephan Ladislaus Endlicher (1804–1849), Austrian botanist, numismatist and Sinologist, director of the Botanical Garden of Vienna Michael S. Engel (born 1971), American paleontologist and entomologist who works on insect evolutionary biology and classification George Engelmann (1809–1884), German-American botanist who described the flora of the west of North America Adolf Engler (1844–1930), German botanist who worked on plant taxonomy and phytogeography, author of Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben (1744–1777), German naturalist, author of Anfangsgründe der Naturlehre and Systema regni animalis, founder of the first academic veterinary school in Germany Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz (1793–1831), Baltic German biologist and explorer. The Latin name (Eschscholtzia californica) of the California poppy commemorates him Constantin von Ettingshausen (1826–1897), Austrian botanist known for his palaeobotanical studies of flora from the Tertiary era Alice Catherine Evans (1881–1975), American microbiologist who demonstrated that Bacillus abortus caused the disease brucellosis (undulant fever or Malta fever) in both cattle and humans Warren Ewens (born 1937), Australian-American mathematical population geneticist working on the mathematical, statistical and theoretical aspects of population genetics Thomas Campbell Eyton (1809–1880), English naturalist who studied cattle, fishes and birds, author of History of the Rarer British Birds F Fa–Fl Jean Henri Fabre (1823–1915), French teacher, physicist, chemist and botanist, best known for the study of insects Johan Christian Fabricius (1745–1808), Danish entomologist who named nearly 10,000 species of animals, and established the basis of insect classification. David Fairchild (1869–1954), American botanist who introduced many exotic plants into the USA Hugh Falconer (1808–1865), Scottish geologist, botanist, palaeontologist, and paleoanthropologist who studied the flora, fauna, and geology of India, Assam, and Burma John Farrah (1849–1907), English businessman and amateur biologist Leonardo Fea (1852–1903), Italian zoologist who made large collections of insects and birds Christoph Feldegg (1780–1845), Austrian naturalist who made a large collection of birds David Fell (born 1947), British biochemist and pioneer of systems biology, author of Understanding the Control of Metabolism Honor Fell (1900–1986), British zoologist who developed tissue and organ culture methods Sérgio Ferreira (1934–2016), Brazilian pharmacologist who discovered bradykinin potentiating factor, important for anti-hypertension drugs Alan Fersht (born 1943), British chemist and biochemist, expert on enzymes and protein folding Harold John Finlay (1901–1951), New Zealand paleontologist and conchologist known for work on marine malacofauna of New Zealand Otto Finsch (1839–1917), German ethnographer, naturalist and colonial explorer, known for a monograph on parrots Edmond H. Fischer (1920–2021), Swiss-American biochemist known for protein kinases and phosphatases; Nobel Prize 1992 Johann Fischer von Waldheim (1771–1853), German entomologist known for the classification of invertebrates Paul Henri Fischer (1835–1893), French physician, zoologist, malacologist and paleontologist James Fisher (1922–1970), English author, editor, broadcaster, naturalist and ornithologist Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), British biologist and statistician, one of the founders of population genetics Leopold Fitzinger (1802–1884), Austrian zoologist known for classification of reptiles Tim Flannery (born 1956), Australian biologist who has discovered numerous species of mammals Alexander Fleming (1881–1955), British physician and microbiologist who discovered penicillin; Nobel Prize 1945 Charles Fleming (1916–1987), New Zealand ornithologist, palaeontologist Walther Flemming (1843–1905), German physician and anatomist, discoverer of mitosis and chromosomes Thomas Bainbrigge Fletcher (1878–1950), English officer in the Royal Navy, and an amateur lepidopterist who became an expert on microlepidoptera Louis B. Flexner (1902–1996), American biochemist who worked on memory and brain function Howard Walter Florey (1898–1968), Australian pharmacologist who was the co-inventor of penicillin; Nobel Prize 1945 Fo–Fu Otto Folin (1867–1934), Swedish-American chemist who developed methods for analysing protein-free blood filtrates E. B. Ford (1901–1988), British ecological geneticist who studied the genetics of natural populations, and invented the field of ecological genetics Margot Forde (1935–1992), New Zealand botanist who studied plant taxonomies of Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang and the Caucasus Peter Forsskål (1732–1763), Finnish explorer, orientalist, naturalist, and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus Georg Forster (1754–1794), German naturalist, ethnologist, travel writer, journalist and revolutionary Peter Forster (born 1967), German geneticist researching human origins and ancestry, and prehistoric languages Johann Reinhold Forster (1729–1798), German naturalist and ornithologist, the naturalist on James Cook's second Pacific voyage, Robert Fortune (1813–1880), Scottish botanist and plant hunter who introduced many ornamental plants to Britain, Australia and the USA Dian Fossey (1932–1985), American zoologist, one of the world's foremost primatologists Ruth Fowler Edwards (1930–2013), British geneticist who studied effects of sex hormones on pregnancy and embryonic mortality in mice Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat (1910–1999), German-American biochemist and virologist who studied tobacco mosaic virus Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958), British x-ray crystallographer whose contributed to the discovery of the structure of DNA Francisco Freire Allemão e Cysneiro (1797–1874), Brazilian botanist who collected many Brazilian plants Perry A. Frey (born 1935), American biochemist known for work on enzyme mechanisms Irwin Fridovich (1929–2019), American biochemist who discovered and studied superoxide dismutase Elias Magnus Fries (1794–1878), Swedish mycologist and botanist, one of the founders of modern mushroom taxonomy Karl von Frisch (1886–1982), Austrian ethologist and Nobel laureate, best known for pioneering studies of bees Imre Frivaldszky (1799–1870), Hungarian botanist who wrote on plants, snakes, snails and insects Joseph S. Fruton (1912–2007), Polish-American biochemist who worked on proteases, best known for his book General Biochemistry Leonhart Fuchs (1501–1566), German physician and botanist, author of a book on medicinal plants José María de la Fuente Morales (1855–1932), Spanish priest and poet who studied insects and collected reptiles and amphibians Louis Agassiz Fuertes (1874–1927), American ornithologist, illustrator and major American bird artist Kazimierz Funk (1884–1967), Polish-American biochemist, discoverer of vitamin B3 (niacin). Robert F. Furchgott (1916–2009), American biochemist known for discovering the biological roles of nitric oxide; Nobel Prize 1998 G Ga–Gh Elmer L. Gaden (1923–2012), American biochemical engineer, the "father of biochemical engineering" Joseph Gaertner (1732–1791), German botanist, author of De Fructibus et Seminibus Plantarum François Gagnepain (1866–1952), French botanist who studied the Annonaceae Joseph Paul Gaimard (1796–1858), French naval surgeon and naturalist Biruté Galdikas (born 1946), Lithuanian-Canadian primatologist, expert on orangutans Robert Gallo (born 1937), American virologist and co-discoverer of HIV Francis Galton (1822–1911), British polymath, proponent of social Darwinism, eugenics and scientific racism William Gambel (1823–1849), American naturalist, ornithologist, and botanist, the first to collect specimens in Santa Fe Prosper Garnot (1794–1838), French surgeon and naturalist who collected specimens in South America Charles Gaudichaud-Beaupré (1789–1854), French botanist on a circumglobal expedition in 1817–1820 Michael Gazzaniga (born 1939), American cognitive neuroscientist, best known for his research on split-brain patients Patrick Geddes (1854–1932), Scottish biologist, sociologist, geographer and pioneering town planner Howard Scott Gentry (1903–1993), American botanist, authority on agaves John Gerard (1545–1611/12), English botanist, author of Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes Conrad von Gesner (1516–1565), Swiss physician, naturalist, bibliographer, and philologist, the father of modern scientific bibliography Luca Ghini (1490–1566), Italian physician and botanist, creator of the first recorded herbarium and the first botanical garden in Europe Gi–Gm Clelia Giacobini (1931–2010), Italian microbiologist, a pioneer of microbiology applied to conservation-restoration Quentin Gibson (1918–2011), British-American biochemist known for work on haem proteins Walter Gilbert (born 1932). American biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize (1980) for work on DNA sequencing. John H. Gillespie (first publication 1973), American molecular evolutionist and population geneticist Ernest Thomas Gilliard (1912–1965), American ornithologist on expeditions to South America and New Guinea. Charles Henry Gimingham (1923–2018), British botanist who studied heathlands and heathers. Charles Frédéric Girard (1822–1895), French biologist, ichthyologist, herpetologist Johann Friedrich Gmelin (1748–1804), German naturalist who named many species of gastropods Johann Georg Gmelin (1709–1755), German naturalist who travelled Siberia Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin (1744–1774), German botanist who explored the rivers Don and Volga Go–Gra Frederick DuCane Godman (1834–1919), English naturalist and ornithologist Émil Goeldi (1859–1917), Swiss-Brazilian naturalist and zoologist Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832), German poet, novelist and biologist who developed a theory of plant metamorphosis Joseph L. Goldstein (born 1940), American biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for studies of cholesterol Eugene Goldwasser (1922–2010), American biochemist who identified erythropoietin Camillo Golgi (1843–1926), Italian physician and Nobel prize winner, pioneer in neurobiology Jane Goodall (born 1934), British primatologist, ethologist and anthropologist who studied chimpanzee society George Gordon (1806–1879), British botanist, expert on conifers Philip Henry Gosse (1810–1888), English naturalist, originator of the Omphalos hypothesis, or "Last Thursdayism" Michael M. Gottesman (born 1946), American biochemist who discovered of P-glycoprotein. Augustus Addison Gould (1805–1866), American physician, conchologist and malacologist John Gould (1804–1881), English ornithologist whose work on finches contributed to the theory of natural selection Stephen Jay Gould (1941–2002), American paleontologist and popular science writer Alfred Grandidier (1836–1921), French naturalist and explorer, author of L'Histoire physique, naturelle et politique de Madagascar Guillaume Grandidier (1873–1957), French geographer, ethnologist, zoologist who studied Madagascar Temple Grandin (born 1947), American animal scientist, a designer of humane livestock facilities and writer on her experience with autism Sam Granick (1909–1977), American biochemist known for studies of iron metabolism. Chapman Grant (1887–1983), American herpetologist, historian, and publisher Pierre-Paul Grassé (1895–1985), French zoologist, expert on termites and proponent of neo-Lamarckian evolution Asa Gray (1810–1888), American botanist who argued that religion and science are not necessarily mutually exclusive George Robert Gray (1808–1872), English zoologist, author of Genera of Birds John Edward Gray (1800–1875), English zoologist who described many species new to science Andrew Jackson Grayson (1819–1869), American ornithologist and artist, author of Birds of the Pacific Slope Gre–Gu David E. Green (1910–1983), American biochemist, pioneer in the study of enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation William King Gregory (1876–1970), American zoologist, expert on mammalian dentition, contributor to evolutionary theory Janet Grieve (born 1940), New Zealand biological oceanographer known for work on marine taxonomy and biological productivity Frederick Griffith (1879–1941), British bacteriologist who studied the epidemiology and pathology of bacterial pneumonia Jan Frederik Gronovius (1690–1762), Dutch botanist, patron of Linnaeus, author of Flora Virginica Pavel Grošelj (1883–1940), Slovene biologist who studied the nervous system of jellyfish Colin Groves (1942–2017), British-Australian biologist and anthropologist, author of Primate Taxonomy Félix Édouard Guérin-Méneville (1799–1874), French entomologist commemorated in the scientific names of dozens of genera and species Johann Anton Güldenstädt (1745–1781), German naturalist and explorer who worked on the biology, geology, geography, and linguistics of the Caucasus Allvar Gullstrand (1862–1930), Swedish ophthalmologist, awarded the Nobel Prize for work on the lens of the eye Johann Ernst Gunnerus (1718–1773), Norwegian bishop and botanist, author of Flora Norvegica Irwin Gunsalus (1912–2008), American biochemist who discovered lipoic acid, and coauthor of The Bacteria: A Treatise on Structure and Function Albert Günther (1830–1914), British zoologist, ichthyologist and herpetologist who classified many reptile species Herbert ("Freddie") Gutfreund (1921–2021), Austrian-British biochemist known for methods for studying fast enzyme-catalysed reactions H Ha Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919), German physician, zoologist, and evolutionist who argued that "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny" Hermann August Hagen (1817–1893), German entomologist specialised in Neuroptera and Odonata J. B. S. Haldane (1892–1964), British (later Indian) biologist known for work in physiology, genetics, evolutionary biology and mathematics; co-founder of population genetics John Scott Haldane (1860–1936), Scottish physician and physiologist who made many important discoveries about the human body and the nature of gases William Donald Hamilton (1936–2000), British evolutionary biologist who provided a rigorous genetic basis to explain altruism Philip Handler (1917–1981), American nutritionist and biochemist who discovered the tryptophan-nicotinic acid relationship. Sylvanus Charles Thorp Hanley (1819–1899), British conchologist and malacologist Arthur Harden (1865–1940), British biochemist who studied the fermentation of sugar and fermentative enzymes Thomas Hardwicke (1755–1835), English soldier and naturalist who collected numerous specimens Alister Clavering Hardy (1896–1985), English marine biologist and pioneer student of the biological basis of religion Richard Harlan (1796–1843), American naturalist, zoologist, physicist and paleontologist, author of Fauna Americana and American Herpetology Denham Harman (1916–2014), American biogerontologist, father of the free radical theory of aging Ernst Hartert (1859–1933), German ornithologist who studied hummingbirds Gustav Hartlaub (1814–1900), German physician and zoologist who studied exotic birds Hamilton Hartridge (1886–1976), British eye physiologist who invented the continuous-flow method for fast reactions Karl Theodor Hartweg (1812–1871), German botanist who collected plants from the Pacific region from Ecuador to California Leland H. Hartwell (born 1939), American geneticist known for discoveries of proteins that control cell division William Harvey (1578–1657), British physician who demonstrated the circulation of blood William Henry Harvey (1811–1866), Irish botanist and phycologist who specialised in algae Hans Hass (1919–2013), Austrian biologist and underwater diving pioneer who studied coral reefs, stingrays and sharks Frederik Hasselquist (1722–1752), Swedish naturalist who collected specimens for Linnaeus in the Eastern Mediterranean Arthur Hay (1824–1878), Scottish soldier and ornithologist who collected birds, insects, reptiles and mammals He James Hector (1834–1907), Scottish geologist, naturalist, and surgeon Charles Hedley (1862–1926), British-Australian naturalist, expert on molluscs Reinhart Heinrich (1946–2006), German biophysicist who introduced and developed metabolic control analysis Oskar Heinroth (1871–1945), German biologist who studied behaviour of ducks and geese, a founder of ethology Edmund Heller (1875–1939), American zoologist and explorer who worked on mammals Wilhelm Hemprich (1796–1825), German naturalist who studied the marine life of the Red Sea Willi Hennig (1913–1976), German biologist who studied dipterans and created the theory of cladistics Victor Henri (1872–1940), Russian-French physical chemist who applied ideas of physical chemistry to enzyme properties John Stevens Henslow (1796–1861), English mineralogist, botanist and clergyman Johann Hermann (1738–1800), French physician and naturalist who collected many mammals, birds, reptiles and fish Albert William Herre (1868–1962), American ichthyologist and lichenologist known for taxonomic work in the Philippines Alfred Hershey (1908–1997), American bacteriologist, Nobel Prizewinner for his work on virus genetics Avram Hershko (born 1937), Hungarian-Israeli biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for discovering ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation Philip Hershkovitz (1909–1997), American mammalogist noted especially as a primatologist Leo George Hertlein (1898–1972), American paleontologist who studied mollusks, echinoderms, and brachiopods Hi–Ho Archibald Vivian Hill (1886–1977), British physiologist, winner of the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for elucidation of mechanical work in muscles Robin Hill (1899–1991), British plant biochemist known for the Hill reaction of photosynthesis Dorothy Hodgkin (1910–1994) British X-ray crystallographer, Nobel Prize in 1964 for work in protein crystallography. Brian Houghton Hodgson (1800–1894), English naturalist who described many Himalayan birds and mammals Jan van der Hoeven (1802–1868), Dutch zoologist who wrote about crocodiles butterflies, lancelets, lemurs and molluscs Bruno Hofer (1861–1916), German fisheries scientist which studied fish parasitology and pathology Johann Centurius Hoffmannsegg (1766–1849), German botanist, entomologist and ornithologist Jacques Bernard Hombron (1798–1852), French naturalist and explorer who described Antarctic plants and animals Leroy Hood (born 1938), American biochemist who developed high speed automated DNA sequencer Robert Hooke (1635–1703), British natural philosopher and secretary to the Royal Society Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817–1911), British botanist, explorer and director of Kew Botanic Gardens William Jackson Hooker (1785–1865), British botanist, director of Kew Botanic Gardens Frederick Gowland Hopkins (1861–1947), British biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize in 1929 for work on vitamins Bernard Horecker (1914–2010]. American biochemist at Cornell University known for elucidation of the pentose phosphate pathway. John "Jack" Horner (born 1946), American paleontologist, specialized in dinosaurs Norman Horowitz (1915–2005), American geneticist who devised experiments to test whether life might exist on Mars Thomas Horsfield (1773–1859), American naturalist who described Indonesian plants and animals Bernardo Houssay (1887–1971), Argentine physiologist awarded the Nobel Prize in 1947 for work on sugar metabolism Martinus Houttuyn (1720–1798), Dutch naturalist who studied Pteridophytes, Bryophytes and Spermatophytes Albert Howard (1873–1947), British botanist, expert on compost Henry Eliot Howard (1873–1940), English ornithologist, who studied territorial behaviour in birds Hr–Hy Sarah Blaffer Hrdy (born 1946), American anthropologist who works on evolutionary psychology and sociobiology David H. Hubel (1926–2013), Canadian-American neurobiologist, awarded the Nobel Prize in 1981 for studies of the structure and function of the visual cortex. François Huber (1750–1831), Swiss entomologist who specialized in honey bees Ambrosius Hubrecht (1853–1915), Dutch zoologist whose major work was in embryology and placentation of mammals William Henry Hudson (1841–1922), Argentinian-British ornithologist, advocate of Lamarckian evolution, critic of Darwinism and vitalist Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), German naturalist and explorer whose work on botanical geography laid the foundation for the field of biogeography Allan Octavian Hume (1829–1912), British ornithologist who made a large collection of Indian birds George Evelyn Hutchinson (1903–1991), British-American ecologist and limnologist who applied mathematics to ecology Frederick Hutton (1835–1905), English biologist and geologist who used natural selection to explain the natural history of New Zealand Hugh Huxley (1924–2013), British molecular biologist who worked on muscle physiology Julian Sorell Huxley (1887–1975), English zoologist and contributor to the modern evolutionary synthesis; first Director-General of UNESCO Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895), English zoologist who clarified relationships between invertebrates Alpheus Hyatt (1838–1902), American zoologist and palaeontologist, proponent of neo-Lamarckism Libbie Hyman (1888–1969), American invertebrate zoologist, author of A Laboratory Manual for Elementary Zoology Josef Hyrtl (1810–1894), Austrian anatomist, author of a well-known textbook of human anatomy I Hermann von Ihering (1850–1930), German-Brazilian zoologist who collected specimens in Brazil to send to Germany Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger (1775–1813), German zoologist and entomologist who overhauled the Linnaean system. Jan Ingenhousz (1730–1799), Dutch physiologist, biologist and chemist known for discovering photosynthesis Tom Iredale (1880–1972), English conchologist and ornithologist who published many systematic names Paul Erdmann Isert (1756–1789), German botanist who collected plant specimens from West Africa Harvey Itano (1920–2010), American biochemist who studied the molecular basis of sickle cell anaemia J François Jacob (1920–2013), French biologist awarded the Nobel prize for studies of the regulation of transcription Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin (1727–1817), Dutch-Austrian botanist, chemist and mineralogist who collected plants in the Caribbean region Honoré Jacquinot (1815–1887), French surgeon and zoologist who described and illustrated mollusc species Daniel H. Janzen (born 1939), American entomologist and ecologist who has catalogued the biodiversity of Costa Rica William Jardine (1800–1874), Scottish naturalist known for his book series The Naturalist's Library Feliks Pawel Jarocki (1790–1865), Polish zoologist, curator of a large zoological collection Alec Jeffreys (born 1950), British biochemist and geneticist who invented genetic fingerprinting William Jencks (1927–2007), American biochemist who applied chemical mechanisms to enzyme-catalysed reactions, author of Catalysis in Chemistry and Enzymology Thomas C. Jerdon (1811–1872), British physician, zoologist and botanist who described bird species of India. John L. Jinks (1929–1987), British geneticist known for cytoplasmic inheritance Wilhelm Johannsen (1857–1927), Danish pharmacist, botanist, plant physiologist and geneticist who introduced the terms gene, phenotype and genotype Pauline Johnson, English immunologist and microbiologist concerned with innate and adaptive immune mechanisms David Starr Jordan (1851–1931), ichthyologist and eugenicist, founding president of Stanford University Félix Pierre Jousseaume (1835–1921), French zoologist and malacologist who collected specimens from the Red Sea Mike Joy (born 1959), New Zealand freshwater ecologist and science communicator Thomas H. Jukes (1906–1999), British-American biologist known for work in nutrition and molecular evolution Adrien-Henri de Jussieu (1797–1853), French botanist, author of Cours élémentaire de botanique and Géographie botanique Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748–1836), botanist who classified flowering plants Bernard de Jussieu (1699–1777), French naturalist who classified the plants in the royal garden at Versailles Ernest Everett Just (1883–1941), American biologist, author of Basic Methods for Experiments on Eggs of Marine Animals K Ka–Ke Zbigniew Kabata (1924–2014), Polish specialist in fish parasitology, author of The Parasitic Copepoda of British Fishes Henrik Kacser (1918–1995), British geneticist and biochemist, founder of metabolic control analysis Emil T. Kaiser (1938–1988), Hungarian-American protein chemist known work on enzyme modification Pehr Kalm (1716–1779), Swedish-Finnish botanist who studied the life cycle of the 17-year periodical cicada Eric R. Kandel (born 1929), Austrian-American neuroscientist awarded the Nobel Prize for work on memory Ferdinand Karsch (1853–1936), German arachnologist, entomologist, and anthropologist Gustav Karl Wilhelm Hermann Karsten (1817–1908), German botanist and traveller who named many plants Bernard Katz (1911–2003), German-British neuroscientist and biophysicist awarded the Nobel Prize for work on nerve biochemistry Rudolf Kaufmann (1909–c. 1941), German trilobitologist known for his contributions to allopatric speciation and punctuated equilibrium Stuart Kauffman (born 1939), American biologist widely known for his promotion of self-organization as a factor in producing the complexity of biological systems and organisms Johann Jakob Kaup (1803–1873), German naturalist who believed in an innate mathematical order in nature Janet Kear (1933–2004), English ornithologist who studied waterfowl Douglas Kell (born 1953), British biochemist known for research on functional genomics John Kendrew (1917–1997), British x-ray crystallographer awarded the Nobel Prize for determining the crystal structure of myoglobin Gerald A. Kerkut (1927–2004), British zoologist and physiologist whose book The Implications of Evolution has been claimed to support creationism Anton Kerner von Marilaun (1831–1898), Austrian botanist who studied phytogeography and phytosociology Robert Kerr (1755–1813), Scottish surgeon who translated part of Linnaeus's Systema Naturae as The Animal Kingdom Warwick Estevam Kerr (1922–2018), Brazilian geneticist who studied bee genetics and introduced African bees to Brazil Kh–Ku Har Gobind Khorana (1922–2011), Indian-American biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for work on the genetic code. Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska (1925–2015), Polish paleontologist who led several paleontological expeditions to the Gobi desert Motoo Kimura (1924–1994), Japanese mathematical biologist, working in the field of theoretical population genetics Carolyn King (thesis 1971), New Zealand zoologist specialising in mammals, particularly small rodents and mustelids Norman Boyd Kinnear (1882–1957), Scottish zoologist involved in the drafting of the Protection of Birds Act of 1954 William Kirby (1759–1850), English entomologist considered the "founder of entomology" Heinrich von Kittlitz (1799–1874), Prussian artist, naval officer, explorer and naturalist, collector of many specimens Aaron Klug (1926–2018), Lithuanian/South African/British crystallographer awarded the Nobel Prize for work on the structures of nucleic acid-protein complexes Jeremy Randall Knowles (1935–2008), British and American biochemist known for research on enzyme mechanisms Wilhelm Kobelt (1840–1916), German zoologist and malacologist, curator of the Senckenberg Museum Fritz Köberle (1910–1983), Austrian-Brazilian physician and pathologist, student of Chagas disease Karl Koch (1809–1879), German botanist who made botanical explorations in the Caucasus region Robert Koch (1843–1910), German Nobel Prize-winning physician and bacteriologist, who introduced Koch's postulates Emil Theodor Kocher (1841–1917), German physician awarded the Nobel Prize for his work on the thyroid gland Alexander Koenig (1858–1940), German naturalist who founded the Museum Koenig in Bonn Albert von Kölliker (1817–1905), Swiss physiologist who studied invertebrates, and later amphibians and mammalian embryos Charles Konig (1774–1851), German naturalist who described fossils in the British Museum Arthur Kornberg (1918–2007), American biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of DNA polymerase Roger D. Kornberg (born 1947), American biochemist at Stanford awarded the Nobel Prize for studies on RNA polymerase Adriaan Kortlandt (1918–2009), Dutch ethologist associated with the "Rift valley theory" Daniel E. Koshland Jr. (1920–2007), American biochemist known for protein flexibility (induced fit) Albrecht Kossel (1853–1927), German physician awarded the Nobel Prize for determining the chemical composition of nucleic acids Hans Adolf Krebs (1900–1981), German-British biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the citric acid cycle Gerard Krefft (1830–1881), German-Australian zoologist and palaeontologist, authot of The Snakes of Australia Eduardo Krieger (born 1930), Brazilian physician and physiologist known for research on hypertension Kewal Krishan (born 1973), Indian biological anthropologist working in forensic anthropology Schack August Steenberg Krogh (1874–1949), Danish physiologist, awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for studies of the mechanism of regulation of skeletal muscle capillaries Winston Patrick Kuo, Chinese-American computational biologist Heinrich Kuhl (1797–1821), German zoologist who studied the fauna of Java L La Henri Laborit (1914–1995), French surgeon and physiologist who introduced the psychiatric use of chlorpromazine Bernard Germain de Lacépède (1756–1825), French naturalist who studied reptiles and fish David Lack (1910–1973), British ornithologist who introduced Lack's Principle to explain the evolution of avian clutch sizes Frédéric de Lafresnaye (1783–1861), French ornithologist who described new bird species Keith Laidler (1916–2003), British-Canadian expert on chemical and enzyme kinetics Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829), French evolutionist, coined many terms like biology and fossils Aylmer Bourke Lambert (1761–1842), British botanist, author of A description of the genus Pinus Charles Lamberton (1876–1960), French paleontologist who specialized in the recently extinct subfossil lemurs Hildegard Lamfrom (1922–1984), German-American molecular biologist who developed a system for studying cell-free protein synthesis Hugh Lamprey (1928–1996), British ecologist and bush pilot who developed methods for estimating game densities in Africa Charles Francis Laseron (1887–1959), American-born Australian naturalist and malacologist John Latham (1740–1837), English naturalist who named many Australian birds, author of A General Synopsis of Birds Pierre André Latreille (1762–1833), French entomologist who studied arthropod systematics and taxonomy Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran (1845–1922), French physician awarded the Nobel Prize for discovering malaria is caused by a protozoon Barbara Lawrence (1909–1997), sometimes known as Barbara Lawrence Schevill, was an American paleozoologist and mammalogist George Newbold Lawrence (1806–1855), American ornithologist who conducted Pacific bird surveys Michel Lazdunski (born 1938), French neuroscientist known for work on ion channels Le William Elford Leach (1790–1836), English zoologist and marine biologist, an expert on crustaceans Colin Leakey (1933–2018), British tropical botanist and specialist in bean science Louis Leakey (1903–1972), Kenyan archaeologist and naturalist known for excavations in Olduvai Gorge Mary Leakey (1913–1996), British paleoanthropologist who discovered the robust Zinjanthropus skull at Olduvai Gorge Meave Leakey (born 1942), British paleontologist who discovered Kenyanthropus platyops Richard Leakey (1944–2022), Kenyan paleontologist, archaeologist and conservationist who led an expedition to the Omo River, Ethiopia Joseph LeConte (1823–1901), American physiologist who worked on monocular and binocular vision Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), Dutch biologist, developer of the microscope François Leguat (c. 1637–1735), French naturalist who described species of birds and tortoises endemic to Rodrigues Albert L. Lehninger (1917–1986), American biochemist who discovered that oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes occurs in mitochondria Joseph Leidy (1823–1891), American paleontologist, parasitologist and anatomist who worked on dinosaur fossils Johann Philipp Achilles Leisler (1771–1813), German physician and naturalist who named many bird species Luis Federico Leloir (1906–1987), Argentinian biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for work on sugar nucleotides, carbohydrate metabolism, and renal hypertension Juan Lembeye (1816–1889), Spanish ornithologist, author of Aves de la Isla de Cuba Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Italian (Florentine) artist, who, as an anatomist, dissected and illustrated many specimens Jean Baptiste Leschenault de la Tour (1773–1826), French botanist and ornithologist who collected plant and bird specimens in Australia and Java René-Primevère Lesson (1794–1849), French naturalist who described amphibian and reptile species Charles Alexandre Lesueur (1778–1846), French naturalist, artist and explorer who described numerous turtle species François Le Vaillant (1753–1824), French ornithologist who described species of birds collected in Africa Phoebus Levene (1869–1940), Russian-American biochemist who discovered that DNA was composed of nucleobases and phosphate Michael Levitt (1947), South African-Israeli-British-American biophysicist awarded the Nobel Prize for developing multiscale models of complex chemical systems Edward B. Lewis (1918–2004), American geneticist awarded the Nobel Prize for discovering the Drosophila Bithorax complex Richard Lewontin (1929–2021), American evolutionary biologist, mathematician, geneticist, and social commentator Li–Ly Choh Hao Li (1913–1987), Chinese-American biochemist who discovered and synthesized human pituitary growth hormone Wen-Hsiung Li (born 1942), Taiwanese molecular evolutionary biologist known fr studies of the molecular clock Emmanuel Liais (1826–1900), French botanist who studied the plants of remote regions of Brazil Martin Lichtenstein (1780–1867), German zoologist who described new species of amphibians and reptiles Justus von Liebig (1803–1873), German chemist who contributed to agricultural and biological chemistry, one of the founders of organic chemistry. John Lightfoot (1735–1788), English conchologist and botanist, author of Flora Scotica which deals with Scottish plants and fungi David R. Lindberg (born 1948), American malacologist and biologist whose work has focused on sea snails Aristid Lindenmayer (1925–1989), Hungarian biologist who developed a system to model the behaviour of plant cells John Lindley (1799–1865), English botanist whose works included botanical textbooks for his students Heinrich Friedrich Link (1767–1850), German botanist who studied many different subjects, including physics chemistry, geology, mineralogy, botany and zoology Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), Swedish botanist, father of the binomial nomenclature system Fritz Lipmann (1899–1986), German-American biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for work in intermediary metabolism Jacques Loeb (1859–1924), German-American biologist who studied marine invertebrates and carried out an experiment on artificial parthenogenesis in sea urchins Friedrich Loeffler (1852–1915), German bacteriologist who discovered the organisms causing diphtheria and foot-and-mouth disease Konrad Lorenz (1903–1989), Austrian awarded the Nobel Prize for work in ethology John Claudius Loudon (1783–1843), English botanist, author of An Encyclopædia of Gardening James Lovelock (1919–2022), English chemist and father of the Gaia hypothesis Hedvig Lovén (1867 - 1943), Swedish botanists who studied plant respiration Percy Lowe (1870–1948), English ornithologist who worked on fossil ostriches in China Peter Wilhelm Lund (1801–1880), Danish zoologist and paleontologist who described pre-historic Pleistocene megafauna Salvador Luria (1912–1991), Italian-American microbiologist awarded the Nobel prize winner for work on viruses Adolfo Lutz (1855–1940), Brazilian epidemiologist, pathologist who studied tropical medicine and medical zoology André Lwoff (1902–1994), French microbiologist awarded the Nobel for work on viral infection of bacteria Marguerite Lwoff (1905–1979), French microbiologist and virologist who worked on the taxonomy of ciliate protozoa Richard Lydekker (1849–1915), English naturalist influential in the science of biogeography Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen (1911–1979), German biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for work on cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism Trofim Lysenko (1898–1976), Soviet biologist and agronomist whose denunciation of genetics was very damaging M Ma–Mc Jules François Mabille (1831–1904), French malacologist who discovered and studied many mollusc species William MacGillivray (1796–1852), Scottish botanist and ornithologist, author A Manual of British Ornithology John Macleod (1876–1935), British biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of insulin Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694), Italian anatomist and biologist who described physiological features related to the excretory system Ramon Margalef (1919–2004), Spanish ecologist who applied information theory and mathematical models Emanuel Margoliash (1920–2008), Israeli-American biochemist whose work on cytochrome c sequences formed the starting point for studies of protein evolution Leo Margolis (1927–1997), Canadian parasitologist which showed that parasites could be used to identify fish stocks Lynn Margulis (1938–2011), American evolutionary theorist who proposed that organelles were "captured" bacteria Othniel Charles Marsh (1831–1899), American paleontologist who collected Mesozoic reptiles, Cretaceous birds, and Mesozoic and Tertiary mammals Barry Marshall (born 1951), Australian physician and microbiologist, awarded the 2005 Nobel Prize for elucidating the relationship between stomach ulcers and bacteria Bruce Marshall (born 1948), New Zealand malacologist who has named many species and genera Fermín Martín Piera (1954–2001), Spanish specialist in the systematics of Scarabaeoidea (beetles) Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius (1794–1868), German botanist and explorer who collected many specimens John Martyn (1699–1768), English botanist, author of Historia Plantarum Rariorum Thomas Martyn (1735–1825), English priest and botanist, author of Plantæ Cantabrigiensis and Flora Rustica John Marwick (1891–1978), New Zealand palaeontologist and geologist who studied and classified mollusc fossils Teresa Maryańska (1937–2019), Poland, paleontologist specializing in dinosaurs Ruth Mason (1913–1990), New Zealand botanist specialising in the taxonomy and ecology of freshwater plants Francis Masson (1741–1805), Scottish botanist and explorer, author of Stapeliae Novae, about South African succulents Gregory Mathews (1876–1949), Australian ornithologist whose papers dealt especially with taxonomy and nomenclature Sara Branham Matthews (1888–1962), American microbiologist, listed under B (Branham). Paul Matschie (1861–1926), German zoologist who described 11 new species of reptiles William Diller Matthew (1871–1930), Canadian-American paleontologist who worked primarily on mammal fossils Humberto Maturana (1928–2021), Chilean philosopher and biologist known in particular for autopoiesis Polly Matzinger (born 1947), American immunologist known for the idea that antigen-presenting cells respond to "danger signals" Carl Maximowicz (1827–1891), Russian botanist who studied flora of the Far East Harold Maxwell-Lefroy (1877–1925), English entomologist who investigated the use of chemicals to control insects Robert May (1936–2020), Australian mathematician who advanced the field of population biology by application of mathematical techniques Ernst Mayr (1904–2005), ornithologist, systematist, philosopher of biology; originator of modern definition of "species" Barbara McClintock (1902–1992), American biologist, winner of a Nobel Prize for her work on the transposon, or "jumping gene" James V. McConnell (1925–1990), American biological psychologist who studied learning and memory transfer in planarians Eileen McLaughlin (thesis 1993), New Zealand biologist who studies assisted reproduction Mark McMenamin (born 1958), American paleontologist who has studied the Cambrian explosion and the Ediacaran biota Bruce McEwen (1938–2020), American neuroendocrinologist and stress hormone expert Me–Mi Edmund Meade-Waldo (1855–1934), English ornithologist who discovered chick rearing behaviour of sandgrouse Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (1845–1916), Russian microbiologist awarded the Nobel Prize for work on the immune system and phagocytosis Johann Wilhelm Meigen (1764–1845), German entomologist known for pioneering work on Diptera. Gregor Mendel (1822–1884), Austrian monk who is often called the "father of genetics" for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants Édouard Ménétries (1802–1861), French entomologist, an authority on Lepidoptera and Coleoptera Maud Leonora Menten (1879–1960), Canadian biochemist and histologist known for work on the kinetics of enzyme action Archibald Menzies (1754–1852), Scottish naturalist who introduced Araucaria araucana ("monkey-puzzle tree") to England Clinton Hart Merriam (1855–1942), American zoologist and ornithologist, author of Mammals of the Adirondacks John C. Merriam (1869–1945), American paleontologist known for his taxonomy of vertebrate fossils at the La Brea Tar Pits Don Merton (1939–2011), New Zealand conservationist who saved the black robin from extinction, and also discovered the lek breeding system of the kakapo Franz Meyen (1804–1840), Prussian physician and botanist, author of Phytotomie, the first major study of plant anatomy Rodolphe Meyer de Schauensee (1901–1984), Swiss-American ornithologist noted for his study of South American birds Otto Fritz Meyerhof (1884–1951), German-American physician and biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for research on muscles Leonor Michaelis (1875–1949), German biochemist known for work on enzyme kinetics, and on quinones André Michaux (1746–1802), French botanist and explorer noted for his study of North American flora Aleksandr Fyodorovich Middendorf (1815–1894), Russian zoologist who described the effects of permafrost on the spread of animals and plants Nicholai Miklukho-Maklai (1846–1888), Russian marine biologist and anthropologist who studied indigenous people of New Guinea Gerrit Smith Miller Jr. (1869–1956), American zoologist who concluded that the jaw of "Piltdown man" came from a fossil ape and the skullcap from a modern human Jacques Miller (born 1931), French-Australian immunologist who discovered the function of the thymus John Frederick Miller (1759–1796), English illustrator (primarily of botany) Kenneth R. Miller (born 1948), American evolutionary biologist and author of Finding Darwin's God Philip Miller (1691–1771), Scottish botanist, author of The Gardener's and Florists Dictionary or a Complete System of Horticulture Alphonse Milne-Edwards (1835–1900), French zoologist who studied fossil birds and deep-sea exploration Henri Milne-Edwards (1800–1885), French zoologist known for work on crustaceans César Milstein (1927–2002), Argentinian-British biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for developing the use of monoclonal antibodies Maria Rosa Miracle Solé (1945–2017), Spanish Professor Emeritus of Ecology at the University of Valencia Peter D. Mitchell (1920–1992), British biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for the theory of chemiosmosis George Jackson Mivart (1827–1900), English biologist, author of On the Genesis of Species Mo-Mu Hugo von Mohl (1805–1872), German botanist who first observed cell division under a microscope Paul Möhring (1710–1792), German naturalist who pioneered the classification of bird species Juan Ignacio Molina (1740–1829), Chilean naturalist, an early proponent of gradual evolution Brian Molloy (1930–2022), New Zealand botanist, a leading authority on New Zealand orchids Pérrine Moncrieff (1893–1979), New Zealand ornithologist, author of New Zealand birds and how to identify them Jacques Monod (1910–1976), French geneticist and biochemist, awarded the Nobel Prize for discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis George Montagu (1753–1815), English naturalist, author of Ornithological Dictionary Luc Montagnier (1932–2022), French virologist, awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of HIV Rita Levi-Montalcini (1909–2012), Italian-American neurologist awarded Nobel Prize for her co-discovery of growth factors Tommaso di Maria Allery Monterosato (1841–1927), Italian malacologist who studied the fossil deposits of Mount Pellegrino Pierre Dénys de Montfort (1766–1820), French naturalist who investigated the existence of gigantic octopuses George Thomas Moore (1871–1956), American botanist who worked on plant pathology Marianne V. Moore (active 1978–2017), American marine biologist Alfred Moquin-Tandon (1804–1863), French naturalist, author of L'Histoire Naturelle des Iles Canaries Otto Andreas Lowson Mörch (1828–1878), Swedish malacologist who described various taxa of molluscs Thomas Hunt Morgan (1868–1945), American geneticist who worked on mutations in the fruit fly Drosophila Mary Morgan-Richards (thesis 1985), New Zealand evolutionary biologist whose research focusses on topics such as speciation and hybridisation Harold J. Morowitz (1927–2016), American biophysicist who studied the application of thermodynamics to living systems, including the origin of life Desmond Morris (born 1928), British zoologist and biologist, author of The Naked Ape Roger Morse (1927–2000), American entomologist, expert on bees and beekeeping Guy Mountfort (1905–2003), English ornithologist and conservationist, author of A Field Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe Ladislav Mucina (born 1956), Slovak botanist who works on plant ecology and biogeography Ferdinand von Mueller (1825–1896), German-Australian physician, geographer, and botanist who collected and studied many Australian plants John Muir (1838–1914), Scottish-American naturalist and conservationist who co-founded the Sierra Club Otto Friedrich Müller (1730–1784), Danish naturalist who studied worms and other invertebrates Fritz Müller (1821–1897), German-Brazilian naturalist who studied the natural history of the Atlantic forest south of São Paulo Hermann Müller (Thurgau) (1850–1927), Swiss botanist and oenologist who published on topics in viticulture and winemaking Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller (1725–1776), German zoologist who classified the dugong, guanaco, potto and other species Salomon Muller (1804–1864), Dutch naturalist and explorer who collected specimens in the Dutch East Indies Kary Mullis (1944–2019), American biochemist, awarded Nobel Prize after inventing the polymerase chain reaction Otto von Münchhausen (1716–1774), German botanist who studied oaks in particular John Murray (1841–1914), Scottish-Canadian marine biologist and oceanographer who collected marine species N Gary Paul Nabhan (born 1952), Lebanese-American conservationist, co-author of Forgotten Pollinators David Nachmansohn (1899–1983), German biochemist who elucidated the role of phosphocreatine in muscular energy production Carl Nägeli (1817–1891), Swiss botanist who studied cell division and pollination Johann Friedrich Naumann (1780–1857), German founder of scientific ornithology, author of The Natural History of German Birds John Needham (1713–1781), English priest and naturalist who claimed to have observed spontaneous generation Joseph Needham (1900–1995), British biochemist, historian (of Chinese science) who studied embryology and morphogenesis Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck (1776–1858), German botanist and zoologist who described many plant species Masatoshi Nei (born 1931), Japanese-American evolutionary biologist and molecular population geneticist Wendy Nelson (thesis 1980), New Zealand marine phycologist who studies seaweeds Randolph M. Nesse (born 1948), American evolutionary biologist and psychiatrist who has studied aging Charles F. Newcombe (1851–1924), British botanist who studied the botany of North America Frank Newhook (1918–1999), New Zealand plant pathologist who studied fungal pathogens Alfred Newton (1829–1907), English ornithologist, author of a four-volume Dictionary of Birds Margaret Morse Nice (1883–1974), American ornithologist, author of Studies in the Life History of the Song Sparrow Henry Alleyne Nicholson (1844–1899), British zoologist who studied fossil invertebrates Hermann Niemeyer (1918–1991), Chilean biochemist and paediatrician known for work on mammalian metabolism Marshall Warren Nirenberg (1927–2010), American biochemist and geneticist who took the first step in deciphering the genetic code Elmer Noble (1909–2001), American parasitologist who described a pathogenic myxosporean Alfred Merle Norman (1831–1918), English clergyman and naturalist who studied invertebrates Alfred John North (1855–1917), Australian ornithologist who described many birds for the first time Paul Nurse (born 1949), British geneticist awarded the Nobel Prize for work control of the cell cycle Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (born 1942), German biologist awarded the Nobel Prize for studies of genes involved in the development of fruit fly embryos Thomas Nuttall (1786–1858), English botanist and zoologist, author of the Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and of Canada O Oc–Ok Severo Ochoa (1905–1993), Spanish and American biochemist, Nobel Prize awarded the Nobel Prize for work on elucidating the genetic code Eugene P. Odum (1913–2002), American ecologist, coauthor of Fundamentals of Ecology Howard T. Odum (1924–2002), American ecologist who pioneered the field of systems ecology William Ogilby (1808–1873), British zoologist concerned with classification and naming of animal species William Robert Ogilvie-Grant (1863–1924), Scottish ornithologist who made many collecting trips, including Socotra and Madeira and the Canaries Sergey Ognev (1886–1951), Russian zoologist who studied Russian mammals Alexander George Ogston (1911–1996), British biochemist who explained how an achiral substance can have a chiral product in the tricarboxylate cycle Tomoko Ohta (born 1933), Japanese molecular biologist who developed the nearly neutral theory of evolution Reiji Okazaki (1930–1975), Japanese molecular biologist who discovered Okazaki fragments, important in DNA replication Tsuneko Okazaki (born 1933), Japanese molecular biologist who discovered Okazaki fragments, important in DNA replication Lorenz Oken (1779–1851), German naturalist who developed a classification of animals Ol–Ow Giuseppe Olivi (1769–1795), Italian naturalist who studied the fauna of the seabed Mark A. O'Neill (born 1959), British biologist and computer scientist who has worked on artificial life and biologically inspired computing Aleksandr Oparin (1894–1980), Russian biologist and biochemist, best known for his work on the origin of life Alcide d'Orbigny (1802–1857), French naturalist who collected many specimens in South America George Ord (1781–1866), American ornithologist, author of American Ornithology Eleanor Anne Ormerod (1828–1901), English entomologist who developed agricultural entomology Edward Latham Ormerod (1819–1873), English physician and entomologist, author of British Social Wasps Joan Oró (1923–2004), Spanish biochemist known for studies of the origin of life Anders Sandøe Ørsted (1816–1872), Danish botanist who travelled in Central America and the Caribbean and published papers on the flora Henry Fairfield Osborn (1857–1935), American eugenicist who led many fossil-hunting expeditions to the American Southwest William Charles Osman Hill (1901–1975), British anatomist, primatologist and expert on primate anatomy Halszka Osmólska (1930–2008), Polish paleontologist specializing in dinosaurs Emile Oustalet (1844–1905), French zoologist who studied birds in particular Ray D. Owen (1915–2014), American immunologist whose work led to modern immunology and organ transplantation Richard Owen (1804–1892), British biologist, paleontologist, and taxonomist of fossil and extant organisms P Pa–Pe George Emil Palade (1912–2008), Romanian-American biologist who discovered ribosomes, awarded the Nobel Prize for innovations in electron microscopy and cell fractionation Paul Maurice Pallary (1869–1942), French-Algerian malacologist who named many mollusc species Peter Simon Pallas (1741–1811), Prussian zoologist who described numerous animal species Edward Palmer (1829–1911), British botanist who collected American plants for the Smithsonian Institution Josif Pančić (1814–1888), Serbian botanist who documented the flora of Serbia Paracelsus (Theophrastus von Hohenheim) (1493–1541), Swiss physician and alchemist who pioneered toxicology Pia Parolin (born 1964), Italian biologist and tropical ecologist, photographer, author Carl Parrot (1867–1911), German gynaecologist and ornithologist interested in the distribution and migration of birds Louis Pasteur (1822–1895), French biologist, microbiologist, and chemist who established principles of vaccination William Paterson (1755–1810), British soldier, botanist and explorer who collected botanical, geological and insect specimens in Australia David J. Patterson (born 1950) (Belfast) British then Irish biologist, studied protist taxonomy and evolution, later biodiversity informatics, Zoological Society of London, Silver medal Robert Patterson (1802–1872), Irish naturalist, author of The natural history of the insects mentioned in Shakespeare's plays Daniel Pauly (born 1946), French marine biologist who has developed techniques to estimate the growth and mortality of fishes Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), Russian physiologist, psychologist and physician who discovered conditioning, and awarded the Nobel Prize for work on the digestive system Titian Peale (1799–1885), American ornithologist, entomologist, photographer, and explorer Louise Pearce (1885–1959), American pathologist who helped develop a treatment for African sleeping sickness Donald C. Peattie (1898–1964), American botanist, author of A Natural History of Western Trees Eva J. Pell (born 1948), American plant pathologist who studies the physiological and biochemical impact of air pollutants Paul Pelseneer (1863–1945), Belgian zoologist, primarily a malacologist, but interested in all aspects of zoology Jean-Marie Pelt (1933–2015), French botanist who studied medicinal plants, of Afghanistan, Chile, Europe, and Yemen Thomas Pennant (1726–1798), Welsh naturalist and antiquary, author of History of Quadrupeds David Penny (born 1939), New Zealand biologist known for theoretical biology, molecular evolution, human evolution, and the history of science Henri Perrier de la Bâthie (1873–1958), French botanist who studied the plants of Madagascar. George Perry (born 1771), English naturalist, author of Conchology, or the natural history of shells Samuel Victor Perry (1918–2009) British biochemist, pioneer in muscle biochemistry Christian Hendrik Persoon (1761–1836), German mycologist who wrote extensively on fungi Wilhelm Peters (1815–1883), German naturalist who described the mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, river fish, insects and botany of Mozambique Pf–Pu Ludwig Karl Georg Pfeiffer (1805–1877), German physician, botanist and conchologist who named more than 20 new genera and species Rodolfo Amando Philippi (1808–1904), German-Chilean zoologist who described three new species of South American lizards Constantine John Phipps (1744–1792), English explorer, the first modern European to describe the polar bear and the ivory gull David Andrew Phoenix (born 1966), British biochemist who studies properties of biologically active amphiphilic peptides. Frederick Octavius Pickard-Cambridge (1860–1905), English entomologist, expert on spiders Octavius Pickard-Cambridge (1828–1917), English entomologist, mainly interested in spiders, but also on birds, butterflies and moths Charles Pickering (1805–1878), American naturalist, author of Races of Man and Their Geographical Distribution Henry Augustus Pilsbry (1862–1957), American zoologist, malacologist, leader in invertebrate taxonomy Gregory Goodwin Pincus (1903–1967), American biologist and co-inventor of the combined oral contraceptive pill Ronald Plasterk (born 1957), Dutch politician and molecular biologist who has worked on zebrafish development Pliny the Elder (23–79), Roman natural philosopher, author of Naturalis Historia an encyclopedia, a model of later ones Reginald Innes Pocock (1863–1947), British taxonomist, expert on spiders and millipedes Felipe Poey (1799–1891), Cuban zoologist who worked on butterflies and fish Giuseppe Saverio Poli (1746–1825), Italian physicist and zoologist, whose collection included, especially, Lepidoptera, Cnidaria and Mollusca Winston Ponder (born 1941), New Zealand malacologist who has described many marine and freshwater animals, especially micromolluscs Arthur William Baden Powell (1901–1987), New Zealand malacologist and paleontologist who studied and classified New Zealand molluscs Thomas Littleton Powys (1833–1896), English ornithologist, author of Notes on the Birds of Northamptonshire and Neighbourhood Karel Presl (1794–1852), Bohemian botanist, authority on Czech flora Alice Pruvot-Fol (1873–1972), French malacologist who described many new species, mostly on the basis of preserved animals Nikolai Przhevalsky (1839–1888), Russian explorer who described some previously unknown animal species, including Przewalski's horse Jan Evangelista Purkyně (1787–1869), Czech anatomist and physiologist who discovered the discovered the Purkinje effect and introduced the term protoplasm Frederick Traugott Pursh (1774–1820), German-American botanist who studied the plants collected on the Lewis and Clark Expedition Frank W. Putnam (1917–2006), American biochemist who worked on the structure and function of blood proteins Paul Émile de Puydt (1810–1888), Belgian botanist, interested in particular in orchids Q Juda Hirsch Quastel(1899–1987), British-Canadian biochemist known for research in neurochemistry, metabolism and cancer Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau (1810–1892), French naturalist whose work ranged from the annelids to man. Jean René Constant Quoy (1790–1869), French zoologist who studied the origins of coral reefs R Ra George Radda (born 1936), Hungarian chemist, known for molecular imaging of heart metabolism Gustav Radde (1831–1903), German naturalist and explorer whose work encompassed birds, amphibians, reptiles, lizards, snakes and insects Thomas Stamford Raffles (1781–1826), British biologist who studied mammals, fish, birds and insects Constantine Samuel Rafinesque (1783–1840), French zoologist and botanist who described many North American species Émile Louis Ragonot (1843–1895), French entomologist who named many genera of butterflies and moths Rama Das V.S. (1933–2010), Indian botanist who studied photosynthesis. Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934), Spanish histologist awarded the Nobel prize for work on neuroanatomy and the central nervous system Edward Pierson Ramsay (1842–1916), Australian ornithologist, author of Catalogue of the Australian Birds in the Australian Museum at Sydney Austin L. Rand (1905–1982), Canadian zoologist who studied birds of Madagascar and New Guinea Suresh Rattan (born 1955), Indian biogerontologist who has formulated the concepts of essential lifespan and virtual gerontogenes John Ray (1627–1705), English naturalist whose classification of plants Historia Plantarum was a step towards modern taxonomy Re Francesco Redi (1626–1697), Italian physician known for his experiment in 1668 which is regarded as one of the first steps in refuting abiogenesis Lovell Augustus Reeve (1814–1865), English conchologist, author of many publications on mollusc shells Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach (1823–1889), German orchidologist, the world's leading authority on orchids Ludwig Reichenbach (1793–1879), German botanist and ornithologist who introduced the idea of displaying invertebrate creatures as glass models Anton Reichenow (1847–1941), German ornithologist known for classifying birds in six groups Caspar Georg Carl Reinwardt (1773–1854), Dutch botanist who studied amphibians and reptiles as well as plants Bernhard Rensch (1900–1990), German evolutionary biologist who searched for universal rules, such as Allen's Rule, Gloger's Rule and Rensch's rule Ralf Reski (born 1958), German botanist and biotechnologist who developed Physcomitrella as model organism Ri Achille Richard (1794–1852), French botanist who studied and described several genera of orchids Jean Michel Claude Richard (1787–1868), French botanist and plant collector Louis Claude Richard (1754–1821), French botanist who collected botanical specimens in the Caribbean region Olivier Jules Richard (1836–1896), French lichenologist who worked on the anatomy and symbiosis of lichens. John Richardson (1787–1865), Scottish naturalist who explored the Arctic region Charles Richet (1850–1935), French physiologist awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery of anaphylaxis Charles Wallace Richmond (1868–1932), American ornithologist, compiler of the Richmond Index of Latin names of birds Robert Ridgway (1850–1929), American ornithologist, author of The Birds of North and Middle America Henry Nicholas Ridley (1855–1956), British botanist who promoted rubber as a commercial product Christina Riesselman (thesis 2011), American paleoceanographer whose research focus is on Southern Ocean response to changing climate Ro–Ru Austin Roberts (1883–1948), South African zoologist, posthumous author of The mammals of South Africa Harold E. Robinson (1932–2020), American botanist and entomologist who worked on sunflowers and the bryophytes Maurício Rocha e Silva (1910–1983), Brazilian physician and pharmacologist, codiscoverer of bradykinin Martin Rodbell (1925–1998), American biochemist and molecular endocrinologist awarded the Nobel Prize for work on signal transduction in cells George Romanes (1848–1894), Scottish-Canadian evolutionary biologist and physiologist who laid the foundation of comparative psychology Alfred Romer (1894–1973), American paleontologist whose textbook Vertebrate Paleontology laid the foundation for classifying vertebrates Robert Rosen (1934–1998), American theoretical biologist who studied the defining principles of life Joel Rosenbaum (born 1933), American cell biologist who studies cilia and flagella in the model species Chlamydomonas Harald Rosenthal (born 1937), German hydrobiologist known for his work in fish farming and ecology Miriam Louisa Rothschild (1908–2005), British entomologist, an authority on fleas, and the first person to work out the flea's jumping mechanism Walter Rothschild (1868–1937), British zoologist interested in the taxonomy of birds and butterflies Joan Roughgarden (born 1946), American ecologist, evolutionary biologist and philosopher of science William Roxburgh (1759–1815), Scottish botanist who studied sugarcane, indigo and sago Adriaan van Royen (1704–1779), Dutch botanist known for work on the flora of Southeast Asia Karl Rudolphi (1771–1832), Swedish-German physiologist regarded as the father of helminthology Eduard Rüppell (1794–1884), German naturalist and explorer, the first naturalist to traverse Ethiopia S Sa Joseph Sabine (1770–1837), English naturalist, authority on the moulting, migration, and habit of British birds Julius von Sachs (1832–1897), German botanist who first demonstrated hydroponics Frederick Sanger (1918–2013), British biochemist twice awarded the Nobel Prize, for protein sequencing and for nucleic acid sequencing Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1772–1844), French naturalist who established the principle of unity of composition Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1805–1861), French zoologist who coined the term éthologie (ethology), authority on deviation from normal structure Carl Ulisses von Salis-Marschlins (1762–1818), Swiss naturalist interested in botany, entomology, and conchology Edward James Salisbury (1886–1978), British botanist with "notable contributions to plant ecology and to the study of the British flora generally" Richard Anthony Salisbury (1761–1829), British botanist, shunned by many botanists of his day Jonas Salk (1914–1995), American biologist developed one of the first successful polio vaccines Robert Sapolsky (born 1957), American neuroscientist who studies sources of stress in wild baboons Georg Ossian Sars (1837–1927), Norwegian marine biologist who studied the eggs and larvae of fish Michael Sars (1809–1869), Norwegian taxonomist who described life-histories and reproductive cycles, behaviour and geographical dispersal of fish Konstantin Satunin (1863–1915), Russian zoologist who described mammals of Russia and Central Asia William Saunders (1822–1900), American botanist responsible for introducing many fruits and vegetables to American agriculture Marie Jules César Savigny (1777–1851), French zoologist who wrote about the fauna in the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea Thomas Say (1787–1843), American naturalist, the father of American descriptive entomology and American conchology Sc George Schaller (born 1933), American zoologist, one of the preeminent field biologists of the 20th century Albert Schatz (1920–2005), American microbiologist who discovered streptomycin Paul Schimmel (born 1940) American biochemist who developed nucleic acid sequencing and coauthored Biophysical Chemistry Friedrich Schlechter (1872–1925), German taxonomist and botanist, author of several works on orchids Hermann Schlegel (1804–1884), German ornithologist, herpetologist and ichthyologist who believed that species are fixed Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804–1881), German botanist and co-founder of the cell theory George Schoener (1864–1941), German-American botanist who experimented on rose breeding, especially in the use of wild species Rudolph Schoenheimer (1898–1941), German-American biochemist, pioneer of radioactive tagging of molecules Johann David Schoepf (1752–1800), German botanist and zoologist who studied turtles Heinrich Wilhelm Schott (1794–1865), German botanist who studied plants of the arum family Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber (1739–1810), German naturalist who wrote a series of books that focused on the mammals of the world Leopold von Schrenck (1826–1894), Russian zoologist, geographer and ethnographer who studied the native peoples of Russia Charles Schuchert (1858–1942), American invertebrate paleontologist, a leader in the development of paleogeography Stefan Schuster (born 1961) German biophysicist, pioneer in metabolic control analysis and metabolic pathway analysis Theodor Schwann (1810–1882), German physician and physiologist whose major contribution to biology was the extension of cell theory to animals Neena Schwartz (1926–2018), American endocrinologist known for her work on female reproductive biology Georg August Schweinfurth (1836–1925), Baltic German botanist and ethnologist who explored East Central Africa Philip Sclater (1829–1913), English zoologist and ornithologist who identified the main zoogeographic regions of the world. Giovanni Antonio Scopoli (1723–1788), Italian-Austrian naturalist who collected plants and insects in the Alps Se–Sl Henry Seebohm (1832–1895), English ornithologist and traveller, author of A History of British Birds Michael Sela (1924–2022) Israeli immunologist who works on synthetic antigens, molecules that trigger the immune system Prideaux John Selby (1788–1867), English botanist and ornithologist, best known for his Illustrations of British Ornithology Nikolai Alekseevich Severtzov (1827–1885), Russian explorer and naturalist, author of Vertical and Horizontal Distribution of Turkestan Wildlife Richard Bowdler Sharpe (1847–1909), English zoologist and ornithologist who described many new species of bird George Shaw (1751–1813), English botanist and zoologist who published English descriptions with scientific names of several Australian animals in Zoology of New Holland George Ernest Shelley (1840–1910), English ornithologist, author of The Birds of Africa Charles Scott Sherrington (1857–1922), British physiologist and neuroscientist, awarded the Nobel Prize for work on the functions of neurons Philipp Franz von Siebold (1796–1866), German botanist who studied Japanese flora and fauna, and introduced Western medicine to Japan George Gaylord Simpson (1902–1984), American paleontologist participated in the modern synthesis, and wrote Tempo and Mode in Evolution Rolf Singer (1906–1994), German-born mycologist, taxonomist of gilled mushrooms (agarics) Sm–So John Kunkel Small (1869–1938), American botanist who documented the flora of Florida Andrew Smith (1797–1872), Scottish surgeon, explorer, ethnologist and zoologist, author of Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa Edgar Albert Smith (1847–1916), British zoologist and malacologist who published many separate memoirs on the Mollusca Emil L. Smith (1911–2009) American protein chemist known for studies of protein evolution Frederick Smith (1805–1879), British entomologist who specialized on Hymenoptera James Edward Smith (1759–1828), English botanist, founder and first President of the Linnean Society of London Johannes Jacobus Smith (1867–1947), Dutch botanist who collected specimens of plants of the Dutch East Indies as well as describing and cataloguing their flora James Leonard Brierley Smith (1897–1968), South African ichthyologist who identified a taxidermied fish as a coelacanth John Maynard Smith (1920–2004), British theoretical and mathematical evolutionary biologist and geneticist who discussed the evolution of sex and signalling theory, as well as other fundamental problems Oliver Smithies (1925–2017) British-American geneticist and physical biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for gel electrophoresis John Otterbein Snyder (1867–1943), American ichthyologist who documented the native fishes of San Francisco Bay Solomon H. Snyder (born 1938), American neuroscientist who co-discovered endorphins Daniel Solander (1733–1782), Swedish botanist who described and catalogued many plants of Australia and New Zealand Alberto Sols (1917–1989), Spanish biochemist known for studies of metabolic regulation and for rejuvenating biochemistry in Spain Louis François Auguste Souleyet (1811–1852), French zoologist and malacologist who studied marine molluscs of the Pacific Sp Douglas Spalding (1841–1877), English biologist who researched on animal behavior and discovered imprinting Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729–1799), Italian biologist whose research on biogenesis paved the way for the downfall of the theory of spontaneous generation Anders Sparrman (1748–1820), Swedish naturalist, author of A voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, towards... Walter Baldwin Spencer (1860–1929), British-Australian evolutionary biologist and anthropologist, known for fieldwork with Aboriginal peoples in Central Australia Roger W. Sperry (1913–1994), American neuropsychologist awarded the Nobel Prize for his split-brain research Maximilian Spinola (1780–1857), Italian entomologist who described many taxa Johann Baptist von Spix (1781–1826), German naturalist who made a comparative morphology of the skulls of primates, reptiles, birds and others Herman Spöring (1733–1771), Finnish explorer, draughtsman, botanist and naturalist, who collected specimens from the south Pacific Kurt Sprengel (1766–1833), German physician and botanist who studied the history of medicine Stewart Springer (1906–1991), American ichthyologist noted for shark classification, behavior and distribution of species Richard Spruce (1817–1893), English botanist and explorer who collected plants in South America Sta–Ste Agustín Stahl (1842–1917), Puerto Rican zoologist and botanist who studied the plants of Puerto Rico Franklin Stahl (born 1929), American molecular biologist and geneticist who participated in the experiment to show semiconservative DNA replication Edward Stanley (1775–1851), English naturalist with a large collection of living animals Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller (1725–1776), German zoologist who classified the dugong, guanaco, potto and other species G. Ledyard Stebbins (1906–2000), American botanist and geneticist, one of the leading evolutionary biologists of the 20th century. Japetus Steenstrup (1813–1897), Danish zoologist who discovered the possibility of using fossils to interpreting climate and vegetation changes Charles M. Steinberg (1932–1999), American immunobiologist and geneticist, co-discoverer of the amber-mutants that led to the recognition of stop codons Franz Steindachner (1834–1919), Austrian ichthyologist and herpetologist who published work on fishes, reptiles and amphibians Joan Steitz (born 1941), American biochemist known for work on RNA Thomas A. Steitz (1940–2018), American biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for pioneering work on the ribosome Leonhard Hess Stejneger (1851–1943), Norwegian-American ornithologist, herpetologist and zoologist known for work on reptiles and amphibians Georg Wilhelm Steller (1709–1746), German ornithologist who worked in Russia, a pioneer of Alaskan natural history James Francis Stephens (1792–1853), English entomologist and naturalist, author of Manual of British Beetles Kaspar Maria von Sternberg (1761–1838), Bohemian botanist, the "Father of Paleobotany" Karl Stetter (born 1941), German microbiologist, expert on microbial life at high temperatures Nettie Maria Stevens (1861–1912), American who discovered sex chromosomes, after observing sperm from male mealworms Frederick Campion Steward (1904–1993), British botanist, pioneer of plant tissue culture, genetic engineering and plant biotechnology Sti–Stu Edward Charles Stirling (1848–1919), Australian anthropologist who reconstructed the skeleton of an enormous marsupial Gerald Stokell (1890–1972), New Zealand horticulturist and ichthyologist who described native fish Witmer Stone (1866–1939), American ornithologist, botanist, and mammalogist, author of The Plants of Southern New Jersey Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr (1749–1821), German physician, chemist and naturalist, the taxonomic authority of the genus Mellivora Vida Stout (1930–2012), New Zealand limnologist whose research focused on the biology and chemistry of South Island lakes Eduard Strasburger (1844–1912), German botanist who proposed that new cell nuclei only arise from the division of other nuclei Erwin Stresemann (1889–1972), German ornithologist who compiled a comprehensive account of avian biology John Struthers (1823–1899), Scottish anatomist known for the ligament of Struthers, a rare character in humans Alfred Henry Sturtevant (1891–1970), American geneticist who constructed the first genetic map of a chromosome Samuel Stutchbury (1798–1859), English naturalist and geologist co-discoverer of Thecodontosaurus, the fourth dinosaur genus to be named Lubert Stryer (born 1938), American biophysicist who developed the use of fluorescence spectroscopy, best known for his textbook Biochemistry Su–Sz Richard Summerbell (born 1956), Canadian mycologist whose research explores opportunistic fungal pathogens Carl Jakob Sundevall (1801–1875), Swedish zoologist who developed a phylogeny for birds based on the muscles of the hip and leg Mriganka Sur (born 1953), Indian cognitive neuroscientist specializing in neuroplasticity Henry Suter (1841–1918), Swiss-New Zealand zoologist, naturalist and palaeontologist who studied the terrestrial and freshwater molluscs of New Zealand Mary Sutherland (1893–1955), New Zealand botanist who pioneered work in agricultural forestry William John Swainson (1789–1855), English ornithologist, malacologist, conchologist, entomologist and artist Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680), Dutch biologist and microscopist who showed that the egg, larva, pupa, and adult of an insect are different forms of the same animal Olof Swartz (1760–1816), Swedish botanist known for his taxonomic work and studies of pteridophytes Robert Swinhoe (1836–1877), English naturalist who catalogued many Southeast Asian birds William Henry Sykes (1790–1872), British ornithologist who catalogued birds and mammals from the Deccan Albert Szent-Györgyi (1893–1986), Hungarian biochemist, the first to isolate vitamin C, awarded the Nobel Prize for analysis of the tricarboxylate cycle T Ta–Ti Władysław Taczanowski (1819–1890), Polish zoologist who mainly worked on ornithology but also described reptiles, arachnids and other taxa Armen Takhtajan (1910–2009), Armenian botanist who worked on plant evolution, systematics and biogeography Charles Tanford (1921–2009), American protein chemist known for analysis of the hydrophobic effect Diana Temple (1925–2006), Australian pharmacologist known for work on respiratory pharmacology Peter Gustaf Tengmalm (1754–1803), Swedish physician and naturalist who worked on both medicine and ornithology Coenraad Jacob Temminck (1778–1858), Dutch zoologist whose Manuel d'ornithologie was the standard work on European birds for many years Theophrastus (372 BC – 287 BC), biologist and the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic school, popularizer of science Johannes Thiele (1860–1935), German zoologist and malacologist whose classification of Gastropoda remained in use for many years Mason Blanchard Thomas (1866–1912), American phytopathologist and botanist, coauthor of A laboratory manual of plant histology Michael Rogers Oldfield Thomas (1858–1929), British zoologist whose work on mammals, led to the description of many new species D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson (1860–1942), Scottish biologist, author of On Growth and Form William Thompson (1805–1852), Irish ornithologist and naturalist who published numerous notes on many aspects of birds Charles Wyville Thomson (1832–1882), Scottish marine biologist who studied the biological conditions of the deep seas Louis-Marie Aubert du Petit-Thouars (1758–1831), French botanist known for his work on orchids from Madagascar, Mauritius and Réunion Carl Peter Thunberg (1743–1828), Swedish naturalist who collected and described plants and animals from southern Africa and Asia Samuel Tickell (1811–1875), British ornithologist who contributed to the ornithology and mammalology of India Niko Tinbergen (1907–1988), Dutch ethologist awarded the Nobel Prize for work on organization and social behavior patterns of animals Ignacio Tinoco Jr. (1930–2016), American chemist known for pioneering work on RNA folding Arne Tiselius (1902–1971), Swedish biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for development of protein electrophoresis. To–Tu Agostino Todaro (1818–1892), Italian botanist who described Sicilian plants Susumu Tonegawa (born 1939), Japanese biologist, awarded the Nobel Prize discovery of the genetic principle for generation of antibody diversity, later primarily interested in neuroscience John Torrey (1796–1873), American botanist who described plants of the USA Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708), French botanist, the first to make a clear definition of the concept of genus for plants John Kirk Townsend (1809–1851), American ornithologist who collected animal specimens for John James Audubon Thomas Stewart Traill (1781–1862), Scottish doctor and naturalist, specialist in medical jurisprudence Abraham Trembley (1710–1784), Swiss naturalist, known for being the first to study freshwater polyps Melchior Treub (1851–1910), Dutch botanist who worked on plants of south-east Asia Henry Baker Tristram (1822–1906), English clergyman and ornithologist who tried to reconcile evolution and creation Robert Trivers (born 1943), American evolutionary biologist and sociobiologist known for the theories of reciprocal altruism and parental investment Édouard Louis Trouessart (1842–1927), French naturalist who wrote Microbes, ferments and moulds Frederick W. True (1858–1914), American naturalist who initially studied invertebrates, and later cetaceans George Washington Tryon Jr. (1838–1888), American malacologist, who named more than 5,600 new molluscs species Chen-Lu Tsou (1923–2006), Chinese biochemist known for work on enzyme inactivation kinetics, and as the "face of Chinese biochemistry" in the west Bernard Tucker (1901–1950), English ornithologist, a leader of the collaborative Oxford Bird Census in 1927 Edward Tuckerman (1817–1886), American botanist who studied lichens and other alpine plants Endel Tulving (born 1927), Estonian-Canadian neuroscientist, known for his pioneering research on human memory Marmaduke Tunstall (1743–1790), English ornithologist, author of Ornithologica Britannica Ruth Turner (1915–2000), American marine biologist, expert on shipworms, wood-boring bivalve mollusks William Turton (1762–1835), British naturalist, author of A manual of the land and freshwater shells of the British Islands U Jakob von Uexküll (1864–1944), Estonian biologist who discussed the relationship of animals with their environment, and founded biosemiotics Merton F. Utter (1917–1980), American microbiologist and biochemist known for work on intermediary metabolism V Va Sebastien Vaillant (1669–1722), French botanist who studied plants in the Royal Garden Achille Valenciennes (1794–1865), French zoologist who studied parasitic worms in humans James W. Valentine (1926–2023), American evolutionary biologist Pablo Valenzuela (born 1941), Chilean biochemist known for genetic studies of hepatitis viruses Ruth van Heyningen (1917–2019), British biochemist known for her research on the lens and cataracts Donald Van Slyke (1883–1971), Dutch-American biochemist known for the measurement of gas and electrolyte levels in tissues Francisco Varela (1946–2001), Chilean biologist known for introducing the concept of autopoiesis Nikolai Vavilov (1887–1943), Soviet botanist and geneticist, who defended "bourgeois pseudoscience" (genetics) against Lysenkoism Damodaran M. Vasudevan (born 1942), Indian physician, immunologist and educationist, authority on allergy and immunology, also on cancer Ve–Vr Craig Venter (born 1946), American biotechnologist known for sequencing the human genome and transfecting a cell with a synthetic chromosome Jules Verreaux (1807–1873), French botanist and ornithologist who collected plants and animals (including human remains) in Africa and Australia Addison Emery Verrill (1839–1926), American zoologist who studied marine organisms Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot (1748–1831), French ornithologist who studied changes in plumage, and studied live birds Nicholas Aylward Vigors (1785–1840), Irish zoologist who popularized the classification of birds on the basis of the quinarian system Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902), German biologist and pathologist, founder of cell theory, known as "the father of modern pathology" Oswaldo Vital Brazil (1865–1950), Brazilian physician and immunobiologist, discoverer of several antivenoms against snake, scorpion and spider bites Bert Vogelstein (born 1949), American geneticist, pioneer in cancer genomics Karel Voous (1920–2002), Dutch ornithologist, author of Owls of the Northern Hemisphere Mary Voytek (thesis 1995), American biogeochemist and microbial ecologist who has studied environmental controls on microbial transformations of nutrients Hugo de Vries (1848–1935), Dutch botanist known for suggesting the concept of genes W Wa Frans de Waal (born 1948), Dutch ethologist, primatologist and psychologist whose research centers on primate social behavior Coslett Herbert Waddell (1858–1919), Irish priest and botanist known for work on difficult genera of flowering plants Jeremy Wade (born 1960), British writer and TV presenter with a special interest in rivers and freshwater fish Amy Wagers (thesis 1999), American biologist, stem cell and regenerative biology Johann Georg Wagler (1800–1832), German herpetologist and ornithologist, author of Monographia Psittacorum Warren H. Wagner (1920–2000), American botanist who developed an algorithm for analysing phylogenetic relationships between species Göran Wahlenberg (1780–1851), Swedish naturalist who worked on plant geography, author of Flora lapponica Selman Waksman (1888–1973), American biochemist, awarded the Nobel Prize for work on antibiotics Charles Athanase Walckenaer (1771–1852), French entomologist who placed the black widow in its current genus George Wald (1906–1997), American biologist, winner of the 1967 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on visual perception John E. Walker (born 1941), British biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for work on ATPases and ATP synthase Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913), British naturalist and explorer, known for independently conceiving the theory of natural selection Nathaniel Wallich (1786–1854), Danish botanist who described many Indian plant species Benjamin Dann Walsh (1808–1869), British-American entomologist who studied agricultural insect pests William Grey Walter (1910–1977), American-British neurophysiologist and roboticist who improved techniques of electroencephalography James C. Wang (born 1938), Chinese-American biochemist who discovered topoisomerases Deepal Warakagoda (born 1965), Sri Lankan ornithologist who identified new bird species of Sri Lanka Otto Heinrich Warburg (1883–1970), German biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for pioneering studies of respiration J. Robin Warren (born 1937), Australian pathologist awarded the 2005 Nobel Prize for discovering that most stomach ulcers are caused by bacteria Arieh Warshel (born 1940). Israeli-American biochemist awarded the Nobel Prize for computational studies of functional properties of biological molecules. Charles Waterton (1782–1865), English naturalist who introduced curare to Europe James D. Watson (born 1928), American molecular biologist, awarded the Nobel Prize-winning for discovering the structure of DNA We–Wh Edwin C. Webb (1921–2006), British (later Australian) biochemist known for systematic classification of enzymes Philip Barker Webb (1793–1854), English botanist, author of Histoire Naturelle des Iles Canaries Hugh Algernon Weddell (1819–1877), English physician and botanist specializing in South American flora Jean Weigle (1901–1968), Swiss physicist and molecular biologist who worked on the interactions between bacteriophage λ and E. coli Robert Weinberg (born 1942), American cancerologist who studies oncogenes and the genetic basis of cancer August Weismann (1834–1914), German biologist who argued that inheritance only takes place by means of the germ cells Friedrich Welwitsch (1806–1872), Austrian explorer and botanist who discovered the plant Welwitschia mirabilis in Angola Karl Wernicke (1848–1905), German physician and neuroanatomist who discovered Wernicke's area Hans Westerhoff (born 1953), Dutch biochemist known for work in systems biology and metabolic regulation Victor Westhoff (1916–2001), Dutch botanist who published work on phytosociology and conservation Alexander Wetmore (1886–1978), American ornithologist, author of A Systematic Classification for the Birds of the World William Morton Wheeler (1865–1937), American entomologist and myrmecologist who studied the behavior and classification of ants William Joseph Whelan (1924–2021) British-American biochemist noted for research on glycogen and as a founder of international unions such as the IUBMB Gilbert White (1720–1795), English naturalist known for Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne John White (c. 1756–1832), English botanist who studied the native flora and fauna of Australia Wi–William Robert Wiedersheim (1848–1923), German anatomist known for his list of 86 "vestigial organs" in The Structure of Man: An Index to His Past History Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied (1782–1867), German explorer and ethnologist, the first in Europe to show real images of Brazilian Indians Hans Wiehler (1930–2003), German-American botanist who studied Gesneriaceae Eric F. Wieschaus (born 1947), American developmental biologist awarded the Nobel Prize for work on the genetic control of embryonic development Torsten Wiesel (born 1924), Swedish-American neurobiologist awarded the Nobel Prize for work on information processing in the visual system Joan Wiffen (1922–2009), New Zealand paleontologist who discovered numerous dinosaur fossils in New Zealand Siouxsie Wiles (thesis about 2005), British microbiologist who studies how glowing bacteria help to understand microbial infections Maurice Wilkins (1916–2004). New Zealand and British x-ray crystallographer awarded the Nobel Prize for work on the structure of DNA Carl Ludwig Willdenow (1765–1812), German botanist, pharmacist, and plant taxonomist, one of the founders of phytogeography George C. Williams (1926–2010), American evolutionary biologist known for his criticism of group selection, and for introducing the gene-centric view of evolution Mark Williamson (thesis 1958), British zoologist, expert on biological invasions Willu–Wyn Francis Willughby (1635–1672), English ornithologist and ichthyologist who introduced innovative and effective ways of classifying animals Alexander Wilson (1766–1813), Scottish-American ornithologist, author of American Ornithology (nine volumes) Allan Charles Wilson (1934–1991), New Zealand biochemist and evolutionary biologist who pioneered molecular approaches to evolutionary changes and reconstructing phylogenies David Sloan Wilson (born 1949), American evolutionary biologist who supports the concept of group selection E. A. Wilson (1872–1912), English naturalist and artist who painted British birds and objects seen in Antarctica Edward O. Wilson (1929–2021), American entomologist and father of sociobiology, expert on ants, two-time winner of the Pulitzer Prize Sergei Winogradsky (1856–1953), Russian microbiologist, ecologist and soil scientist who pioneered the cycle-of-life concept and studied nitrifying bacteria Caspar Wistar (1761–1818), American anatomist and physician who developed anatomical models to assist in teaching anatomy Henry Witherby (1873–1943), British ornithologist who introduced a bird-ringing scheme William Withering (1741–1799), English botanist who introduced the use of digitalis, the active principle in foxgloves, as a remedy Carl Woese (1928–2012), American microbiologist who used phylogenetic taxonomy of 16S ribosomal RNA to defined the Archaea as a new domain of life Friedrich Wöhler (1800–1882), German chemist known for his synthesis of urea from ammonium cyanate (a nail in the coffin of vitalism) Lewis Wolpert (1929–2021), South-African-British developmental biologist known for the French flag model of embryonic development Wong Siew Te (born 1969), Malaysian zoologist known for studies of the Malayan sun bear and efforts for its conservation Flossie Wong-Staal (1947–2020), American virologist known for complete genetic mapping of HIV Sewall Wright (1889–1988), American geneticist, known for work on evolutionary theory and on path analysis, co-founder of population genetics Dorothy Wrinch (1894–1976), British mathematical biologist who promoted the cyclol structure for proteins V. C. Wynne-Edwards (1906–1997), Scottish zoologist known for advocacy of group selection, the theory that natural selection acts on groups X John Xantus de Vesey (1825–1894), Hungarian-American zoologist who collected natural history specimens for the United States National Museum Y William Yarrell (1784–1856), English zoologist, author of The History of British Fishes and A History of British Birds Ada Yonath (born 1939), Israeli crystallographer awarded the Nobel Prize for pioneering work on the structure of the ribosome J. Z. Young (1907–1997), British neurophysiologist who discovered the squid giant axon in the course of work on signal transmission in nerves Z Floyd Zaiger (1926–2020), American fruit geneticist who developed varieties of peaches, plums and other fruits Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann (1743–1815), German zoologist who wrote one of the first works on the geographical distribution of mammals Karl Alfred von Zittel (1839–1904), German palaeontologist, author of Handbuch der Palaeontologie Joseph Gerhard Zuccarini (1797–1848), German botanist who described plants from Japan, Mexico and other places Margarete Zuelzer (1877–1943), German zoologist who specialized in the study of protozoa References See also List of biochemists List of biogerontologists List of botanists by author abbreviation List of carcinologists List of coleopterists List of ecologists List of herpetologists List of malacologists List of mammalogists List of microbiologists List of mycologists List of ornithologists List of pathologists List of Russian biologists List of zoologists by author abbreviation List of Nobel Prize winners in physiology or medicine List List of biologists List

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트레할로스

트레할로스()는 포도당 2분자로 구성된 이당류이다. 일부 세균, 균류, 식물 및 무척추동물은 트레할로스를 에너지원으로 합성하고, 결빙 및 물 부족에서 살아남기 위해 트레할로스를 이용하기도 한다. 트레할로스를 추출하는 것은 한 때 어렵고 비용이 많이 드는 과정이었지만, 2000년경에 하야시바라사(社) (일본, 오카야마)는 녹말로부터 트레할로스를 저렴하게 추출하는 기술을 개발했다. 트레할로스는 높은 보습 능력을 가지고 있으며, 식품, 화장품, 의약품에 사용된다. 구조 트레할로스는 두 분자의 α-포도당 사이에 α(1→1)α 글리코사이드 결합에 의해 형성된 이당류이다. 다른 2가지 이성질체는 자연에서 발견되지 않는다. 트레할로스는 자연에서 이당류 및 일부 중합체에서 단위체로도 발견된다. 합성 적어도 3가지의 생물학적 대사경로가 트레할로스의 생합성을 지원한다. 산업적인 공정을 통해 옥수수 녹말로부터 트레할로스를 얻을 수 있다. 특성 화학적 특성 트레할로스는 2분자의 포도당이 α(1→1)α 글리코사이드 결합으로 연결되어 형성된 비환원당으로, 정식 계통명은 α-D-글루코피라노실-(1↔1)-α-D-글루코피라노사이드이다. 이러한 결합으로 인해 트레할로스는 산가수분해에 매우 강한 저항성을 가지게 되고, 높은 온도와 산성 조건에서도 안정성을 갖는다. 글리코사이드 결합은 알데하이드 또는 케톤 작용기가 단백질의 리신 또는 아르지닌 잔기에 결합(당화, glycation 이라고 불리는 과정)하지 않도록 비환원당을 폐쇄된 고리 형태로 유지시킨다. 트레할로스는 높은 온도(>80 °C)를 제외하고는 수크로스보다 용해도가 낮다. 트레할로스는 이수화물(dihydrate)로써 장사방형의 결정을 형성하고, 결정형에서 수크로스 열량 함량의 90%를 가지고 있다. 무수 형태의 트레할로스는 즉시 수분을 되찾아 이수화물을 형성하고, 열처리시 흥미로운 물리적 특성을 나타낼 수 있다. 트레할로스 수용액은 농도 의존성 클러스터링 경향을 나타낸다. 수소 결합을 형성할 수 있는 능력으로 인해, 트레할로스는 물에서 자가 결합하여 다양한 크기의 클러스터를 형성한다. 전체 원자 분자 동역학 시뮬레이션은 1.5~2.2몰의 농도를 보여주었고, 트레할로스 분자 클러스터가 여과되어 커다란 연속 응집체를 형성할 수 있음을 보여주었다. 트레할로스는 핵산과 직접적으로 상호작용하며, 이중 가닥 DNA의 용해를 촉진하고, 단일 가닥 핵산을 안정시킨다. 생물학적 특성 세균, 효모, 균류, 곤충, 무척추동물, 식물에 이르는 생물체들은 트레할로스를 만들 수 있는 효소를 가지고 있다. 자연에서 트레할로스는 식물과 미생물에서 발견된다. 동물에서 트레할로스는 메뚜기, 나비, 벌 같은 곤충과 새우 등에 존재하는데, 트레할로스는 혈당으로 역할을 한다. 트레할로스는 이화 효소인 트레할레이스에 의해 포도당으로 분해되어 사용된다. 또한 트레할로스는 말벌과 말벌 애벌레의 영양 교환액에도 존재한다. 트레할로스는 곤충이 비행에 사용하는 주된 에너지 저장 탄수화물이다. 이에 대한 한 가지 가능한 이유는 곤충의 트레할레이스에 의해 트레할로스의 글리코사이드 결합이 분해될 때 두 분자의 포도당을 방출하게 되고, 이는 비행에 따른 빠른 에너지 공급이 가능하도록 한다. 이것은 하나의 글리코사이드 결합의 분해로 한 분자의 포도당 분자를 방출하는 저장 다당류인 녹말로부터 포도당이 방출되는 효율의 2배이다. 식물에서 트레할로스는 해바라기씨, 고사리삼속, 부처손속의 식물들, 해조류에서 볼 수 있다. 균류에서 트레할로스는 표고버섯, 느타리버섯, 새송이버섯, 팽나무버섯과 같은 일부 버섯류에서 발견된다. 식물계 내에서 사막과 산악지대에서 자라는 부처손속(때로는 부활초라고 부름) 식물은 갈라지고 말라버릴 수 있지만, 트레할로스의 기능으로 인해 비가 온 후에 다시 초록색으로 변하고 다시 생기를 찾을 수 있다. 크립토바이오시스(cryptobiosis) 상태에서 트레할로스가 생명체 내에서 어떻게 작용하는지에 관한 두 가지 유력한 이론은 얼음 형성을 방지하는 상태라고 설명하는 유리화(琉璃化, vitrification) 이론과 물을 트레할로스로 대체하는 물 치환(water displacement) 이론이다. 영양 및 식이 특성 트레할로스는 잡식동물(사람을 포함)과 초식동물의 장 점막의 솔가장자리(brush border)에 존재하는 트레할레이스에 의해 포도당으로 빠르게 분해된다. 이는 포도당에 비해 혈당의 급격한 증가를 덜 일으킨다. 트레할로스는 22% 이상의 농도에서 수크로스의 약 45%에 해당하는 단맛을 낸다. 그러나 농도가 감소하면 트레할로스의 단맛은 수크로스의 단맛보다 빠르게 감소해서 2.3% 트레할로스 용액의 단맛은 같은 당량의 수크로스 용액의 단맛보다 6.5배 덜 달다. 트레할로스는 식품의 어는점을 낮추기 때문에 아이스크림과 같은 냉동식품에 일반적으로 사용된다. 카길사(社)는 "당신의 제품에 최고의 맛을 내기 위해 맛을 향상시키고 강화시키는" 물질로 트레할로스의 자사 브랜드인 "Treha"의 사용을 권장하고 있다. 트레할레이스 효소의 결핍은 인구의 10~15%가 결핍인 그린란드의 이누이트를 제외하고는 사람에게서 흔하지 않다. 의학적 사용 트레할로스는 히알루론산과 함께 건성각결막염을 치료하는데 사용되는 인공 눈물 제품의 성분이다. 연구 1832년에 H. A. L. 위거스(H. A. L. Wiggers)는 호밀의 맥각에서 트레할로스를 발견했고, 1859년에 피에르 베르텔로(Pierre Berthelot)는 바구미가 만드는 물질인 "Trehala manna"에서 물질을 분리하여 트레할로스(trehalose)라고 명명했다. 2018년 1월에 사람의 장에서 발견되는 세균인 Clostridium difficile의 일부 균주가 트레할로스에 반응한다는 것을 보여주는 연구가 발표되었다. 이 연구는 실험실에서 트레할로스를 공급했을 때 이들 균주들이 더 잘 자라고, 더 많은 독소를 생산한다는 것을 발견했다. 연구자들은 2000년경에 생산 비용이 낮아졌을 때 식료품에 트레할로스를 도입하는 시기와 병원에서 Clostridium difficile의 감염이 증가한 시기 사이에 상관관계가 있음을 지적하고, 트레할로스가 감염의 증가를 일으킬 수 있다고 시사했다. 그 당시에 트레할로스가 실제로 Clostridium difficile 감염의 증가를 유발했는지 또는 사람의 장에 있는 Clostridium difficile에 영향을 미쳤는지는 알져지지 않았다. 같이 보기 생물내성 동결보호제 크립토바이오시스 동결 건조 각주 더 읽을거리 , discussing 2010 paper: . 탄수화물 이당류 감미료

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trehalose

Trehalose

Trehalose (from Turkish tıgala – a sugar derived from insect cocoons + -ose) is a sugar consisting of two molecules of glucose. It is also known as mycose or tremalose. Some bacteria, fungi, plants and invertebrate animals synthesize it as a source of energy, and to survive freezing and lack of water. Extracting trehalose was once a difficult and costly process, but around 2000, the Hayashibara company (Okayama, Japan) discovered an inexpensive extraction technology from starch. Trehalose has high water retention capabilities, and is used in food, cosmetics and as a drug. A procedure developed in 2017 using trehalose allows sperm storage at room temperatures. Structure Trehalose is a disaccharide formed by a bond between two α-glucose units. It is found in nature as a disaccharide and also as a monomer in some polymers. Two other isomers exist, α,β-trehalose, otherwise known as neotrehalose, and β,β-trehalose (also referred to as isotrehalose). Neotrehalose has not been isolated from a living organism. Isotrehalose is also yet to be isolated from a living organism, but was found in starch hydroisolates. Synthesis At least three biological pathways support trehalose biosynthesis. An industrial process can derive trehalose from corn starch. Properties Chemical Trehalose is a nonreducing sugar formed from two glucose units joined by a 1–1 alpha bond, giving it the name The bonding makes trehalose very resistant to acid hydrolysis, and therefore is stable in solution at high temperatures, even under acidic conditions. The bonding keeps nonreducing sugars in closed-ring form, such that the aldehyde or ketone end groups do not bind to the lysine or arginine residues of proteins (a process called glycation). Trehalose is less soluble than sucrose, except at high temperatures (>80 °C). Trehalose forms a rhomboid crystal as the dihydrate, and has 90% of the calorific content of sucrose in that form. Anhydrous forms of trehalose readily regain moisture to form the dihydrate. Anhydrous forms of trehalose can show interesting physical properties when heat-treated. Trehalose aqueous solutions show a concentration-dependent clustering tendency. Owing to their ability to form hydrogen bonds, they self-associate in water to form clusters of various sizes. All-atom molecular dynamics simulations showed that concentrations of 1.5–2.2 molar allow trehalose molecular clusters to percolate and form large and continuous aggregates. Trehalose directly interacts with nucleic acids, facilitates melting of double stranded DNA and stabilizes single-stranded nucleic acids. Biological Organisms ranging from bacteria, yeast, fungi, insects, invertebrates, and lower and higher plants have enzymes that can make trehalose. In nature, trehalose can be found in plants, and microorganisms. In animals, trehalose is prevalent in shrimp, and also in insects, including grasshoppers, locusts, butterflies, and bees, in which trehalose serves as blood-sugar. Trehalase genes are found in tardigrades, the microscopic ecdysozoans found worldwide in diverse extreme environments. Trehalose is the major carbohydrate energy storage molecule used by insects for flight. One possible reason for this is that the glycosidic linkage of trehalose, when acted upon by an insect trehalase, releases two molecules of glucose, which is required for the rapid energy requirements of flight. This is double the efficiency of glucose release from the storage polymer starch, for which cleavage of one glycosidic linkage releases only one glucose molecule. In plants, trehalose is seen in sunflower seeds, moonwort, Selaginella plants, and sea algae. Within the fungi, it is prevalent in some mushrooms, such as shiitake (Lentinula edodes), oyster, king oyster, and golden needle. Even within the plant kingdom, Selaginella (sometimes called the resurrection plant), which grows in desert and mountainous areas, may be cracked and dried out, but will turn green again and revive after rain because of the function of trehalose. The two prevalent theories as to how trehalose works within the organism in the state of cryptobiosis are the vitrification theory, a state that prevents ice formation, or the water displacement theory, whereby water is replaced by trehalose. In bacterial cell wall, trehalose has a structural role in adaptive responses to stress such as osmotic differences and extreme temperature. Yeast uses trehalose as a carbon source in response to abiotic stresses. In humans, the only known function of trehalose is its ability to activate autophagy inducer. Trehalose has also been reported for anti-bacterial, anti-biofilm, and anti-inflammatory (in vitro and in vivo) activities, upon its esterification with fatty acids of varying chain lengths. Nutritional and dietary properties Trehalose is rapidly broken down into glucose by the enzyme trehalase, which is present in the brush border of the intestinal mucosa of omnivores (including humans) and herbivores. It causes less of a spike in blood sugar than glucose. Trehalose has about 45% the sweetness of sucrose at concentrations above 22%, but when the concentration is reduced, its sweetness decreases more quickly than that of sucrose, so that a 2.3% solution tastes 6.5 times less sweet as the equivalent sugar solution. It is commonly used in prepared frozen foods, like ice cream, because it lowers the freezing point of foods. Deficiency of trehalase enzyme is unusual in humans, except in the Greenlandic Inuit, where it occurs in 10–15% of the population. Metabolism Five biosynthesis pathways have been reported for trehalose. The most common pathway is TPS/TPP pathway which is used by organisms that synthesize trehalose using the enzyme trehalose-6-phosphate (T6P) synthase (TPS). Second, trehalose synthase (TS) in certain types of bacteria could produce trehalose by using maltose and another disaccharide with two glucose units as substrates. Third, the TreY-TreZ pathway in some bacteria converts starch that contain maltooligosaccharide or glycogen directly into trehalose. Fourth, in primitive bacteria, trehalose glycisyltransferring synthase (TreT) produces trehalose from ADP-glucose and glucose. Fifth, trehalose phosphorylase (TreP) either hydrolyses trehalose into glucose-1-phosphate and glucose or may act reversibly in certain species. Vertebrates do not have the ability to synthesize or store trehalose. Trehalase in humans is found only in specific location such as the intestinal mucosa, renal brush-border, liver and blood. Expression of this enzyme in vertebrates is initially found during the gestation period that is the highest after weaning. Then, the level of trehalase remained constant in the intestine throughout life. Meanwhile, diets consisting of plants and fungi contain trehalose. Moderate amount of trehalose in diet is essential and having low amount of trehalose could result in diarrhea, or other intestinal symptoms. Medical use Trehalose is an ingredient, along with hyaluronic acid, in an artificial tears product used to treat dry eye. Outbreaks of Clostridium difficile were initially associated with trehalose,. This finding was disputed in 2019. History In 1832, H.A.L. Wiggers discovered trehalose in an ergot of rye, and in 1859 Marcellin Berthelot isolated it from Trehala manna, a substance made by weevils and named it trehalose. Trehalose has long been known as an autophagy inducer that acts independently of mTOR. In 2017 research was published showing that trehalose induces autophagy by activating TFEB, a protein that acts as a master regulator of the autophagy-lysosome pathway. See also Biostasis Cryoprotectant Cryptobiosis Freeze drying Lentztrehalose Trehalosamine References External links Trehalose in sperm preservation Carbohydrates Disaccharides Sugars Orphan drugs

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%EB%85%84%20%EB%B2%A0%EB%84%A4%EC%88%98%EC%97%98%EB%9D%BC%20%EB%8C%80%ED%86%B5%EB%A0%B9%20%EC%9C%84%EA%B8%B0

2019년 베네수엘라 대통령 위기

2019년 베네수엘라 대통령 위기는 2018년 베네수엘라 대통령 선거가 부정 선거였다며 무효를 선언한 야권 지도자 후안 과이도 국회의장과 이에 저항하는 니콜라스 마두로 대통령과의 정치적 분쟁이다. 미국은 과이도를, 러시아는 마두로를 지지하고 있다. 역사 2018년 5월, 2018년 베네수엘라 대통령 선거가 조기에 실시되었다. 니콜라스 마두로 현직 대통령이 68% 득표율로 재선되면서 2번째 임기를 시작했다. 당시 주요 야당 인사 대다수는 수감되거나 선거에 출마할 수 없도록 가택연금 조치 등이 취해졌다. 대통령 선거가 종료되고 나서, 야권의 유력 후보들은 가택 연금과 수감 등으로 나설 수 없는 상황에서 치러졌다며 대통령 선거가 무효임을 선언하고 마두로 퇴진 운동을 벌여왔다. 베네수엘라 헌법에 따르면 대통령이 공석일 때 30일 이내에 대통령 선거를 치러야 하며 그 사이에 국회의장이 임시 대통령직을 수행한다. 2019년 1월까지만 해도 후안 과이도 국회의장이 누군지 아는 베네수엘라 국민이 20%도 채 안 되었다. 2019년 1월 23일, 후안 과이도 국회의장은 베네수엘라 수도 카라카스에서 열린 대규모 반정부 시위에서, 마두로 대통령이 행사하던 국가원수 권한을 인수한다고 선언했다. 그러면서, 과도정부 수반으로서 자유투표를 실시해 헌정 질서를 회복하겠다고 말했다. 이 선이 나온 즉시, 미국, 캐나다, 유럽 연합(EU), 아르헨티나, 콜롬비아 등은 과이도 정부를 인정했다. 도널드 트럼프 미국 대통령은 같은 날, 현재 베네수엘라 국회가 유일한 합법 기관이라면서, 과이도 의장의 임시 대통령 선언을 인정한다고 발표했다. 그러자 니콜라스 마두로 대통령은 미국이 이번 사태의 배후에 있다며 미국과의 단교를 선언하고 72시간 내 미국 외교관들의 출국을 명령했는데, 미국은 마두로 정권이 그럴 자격이 없다며, 이를 무시했다. 2019년 1월 24일, 후안 과이도 국회의장은 "누구든지 베네수엘라의 헌정 질서를 되돌리는 데 도움을 줄 경우 사면을 고려하겠다"고 말했다. 마두로 대통령의 하야를 전제로 더 이상 책임을 묻지 않겠다는 의사를 공표했다. 독일, 프랑스, 영국, 스페인, 포르투갈, 네덜란드, 벨기에 등 EU 주요 7개국은 마두로 대통령이 2019년 2월 3일까지 대통령 선거 재실시를 발표하지 않으면 과이도 의장을 임시대통령으로 인정하겠다고 경고했다. 2019년 2월 2일, 최초로 현역 장군이 과이도 국회의장을 공개 지지했다. 베네수엘라 공군의 프란시스코 야네스 장군은 유튜브에 공개된 동영상에서 마두로 대통령을 '독재자'로, 과이도 의장을 '대통령'으로 부르며 과이도 의장에 대한 지지 의사를 밝혔다. 그는 또 "베네수엘라 군부의 90%가 마두로에 반대한다"고 주장했다. 하지만 베네수엘라 공군 참모총장은 야네스의 배반을 비판하며, 그가 공군 사령부 전략 기획 책임자라서 실제로 그의 지휘를 받는 군인은 없다고 주장했다. 니콜라스 마두로 대통령은 이러한 대통령 선거 불복이 야당의 쿠데타 시도라면서, 2020년에 실시될 예정인 총선거를 2019년에 조기에 실시하여 후안 과이도 국회의장을 교체하겠다는 입장이다. 대통령의 실정 석유는 베네수엘라 수출 소득의 96%를 차지하고 예산의 절반을 충당할 만큼 절대적인 비중을 차지하고 있다. 베네수엘라는 특히 미국에 중요한 원유 공급처로, 베네수엘라가 수출하는 원유의 약 41%가 미국에 수출된다. 베네수엘라는 확인 매장량으로 세계 최대의 석유를 보유하고 있고, 금 매장량도 세계 최대임을 입증하는 절차를 밟고 있다. 가스 매장량은 세계 4위, 다이아몬드와 알루미늄 등 매장량도 엄청나다. 1922년 로열 더치 쉘의 지질조사팀이 베네수엘라에 엄청난 석유자원이 매장되어 있다는 사실을 발견했다. 이 때부터 베네수엘라는 세계 1위 석유 보유량의 국가가 되어, 석유로 엄청난 돈을 벌었다. 베네수엘라의 경제는 석유에만 의존하기 때문에 유가가 폭락하면 순식간에 경제가 망한다는 약점을 갖고 있었다. 베네수엘라는 1980년대에 유가 하락으로, 1989년에는 국가부도로 IMF 구제 금융을 받았다. 이로 인해 베네수엘라에서는 서방 강대국들의 경제 약탈이 발생했다. 1992년 육군 공수부대 중령이던 우고 차베스와 젊은 장교들이 쿠데타를 시도했지만, 실패했다. 그러나 대중의 인기가 높아서 1998년 우고 차베스 대통령이 처음 당선되고 나서, 사회주의를 선언하고, 극단적인 반미주의 정책을 실시했다. 베네수엘라는 2012년부터 시작된 유가 하락의 직격탄을 맞았다. 2012년 10월 대통령 선거에서 우고 차베스 대통령이 4선에 성공했다. 하지만 암 투병 중이었던 차베스가 위독해지면서 2013년 1월 10일에 열릴 예정이던 취임식을 무기한 연기하였다. 우고 차베스 대통령은 니콜라스 마두로 부통령을 자신의 후계자로 지목했다. 니콜라스 마두로는 2013년 3월 5일에 향년 59세를 일기로 사망한 우고 차베스의 뒤를 이어 베네수엘라의 대통령으로 취임했다. 2018년 5월 7일, 우파 야권이 장악한 베네수엘라 국회가 발표한 자료에 따르면 2017년 5월 1일부터 2018년 4월 30일까지 1년간 소비자 물가는 13,779% 상승하면서 137배 정도 폭등했다. 같이 보기 2014–2017년 베네수엘라 시위 2019년 베네수엘라 봉기 각주 베네수엘라 위기 2019년 정치 2019년 베네수엘라 헌정위기 베네수엘라의 정치사 2020년 베네수엘라 2022년 베네수엘라 2021년 베네수엘라 2023년 베네수엘라

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuelan%20presidential%20crisis

Venezuelan presidential crisis

The Venezuelan presidential crisis was a political crisis concerning the leadership and the legitimate president of Venezuela between 2019 and 2023, with the nation and the world divided in support for Nicolás Maduro or Juan Guaidó. Venezuela is engulfed in a political and economic crisis which has led to more than seven million people leaving the country since 2015. The process and results of the 2018 presidential elections were widely disputed. The opposition-majority National Assembly declared Maduro a usurper of the presidency on the day of his second inauguration and disclosed a plan to set forth its president Guaidó as the succeeding acting president of the country under article 233 of the Venezuelan Constitution. A week later, the Supreme Tribunal of Justice declared that the presidency of the National Assembly was the "usurper" of authority and declared the body to be unconstitutional. Minutes after Maduro took the oath as president, the Organization of American States (OAS) approved a resolution in a special session of its Permanent Council declaring Maduro's presidency illegitimate and urging new elections. Special meetings of the OAS on 24 January and in the United Nations Security Council on 26 January were held but no consensus was reached. Secretary-General of the United Nations António Guterres called for dialogue. During the 49th General Assembly of the Organization of American States on 27 June, Guaidó's presidency was recognized by the organization. Guaidó and the National Assembly declared he was acting president and swore himself in on 23 January. At his peak, Guaidó was recognized as legitimate by about 60 countries; despite never running as president, Maduro by about 20 countries. However, Guaidó's international support waned over time. Internationally, support followed geopolitical lines, with Russia, China, Cuba, Iran, Syria, and Turkey supporting Maduro, while the majority of Western and Latin American countries supported Guaidó as acting president. Support for Guaidó began to decline when a military uprising attempt in April 2019 failed to materialize. Following the failed uprising, representatives of Guaidó and Maduro began mediation, with the assistance of the Norwegian Centre for Conflict Resolution. After the second meeting in Norway, no deal was reached. In July 2019 negotiations started again in Barbados with representatives from both sides. In September, Guaidó announced the end of dialogue following a forty-day absence by the Maduro government as a protest against the recent sanctions by the United States. In March 2020, the United States proposed a transitional government that would exclude both Maduro and Guaidó from the presidency. U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo said that sanctions did not apply to humanitarian aid during the coronavirus pandemic health emergency and that the United States would lift all sanctions if Maduro agreed to organize elections that did not include himself. Guaidó accepted the proposal, while Venezuela's foreign minister, Jorge Arreaza, rejected it. By January 2020, efforts led by Guaidó to create a transitional government had been unsuccessful and Maduro continued to control Venezuela's state institutions. In January 2021, the European Union stopped recognizing Guaidó as president, but still did not recognize Maduro as the legitimate president; the European Parliament reaffirmed its recognition of Guaidó as president, and the EU threatened with further sanctions. After the announcement of regional elections in 2021, Guaidó announced a "national salvation agreement" and proposed the negotiation with Maduro with a schedule for free and fair elections, with international support and observers, in exchange for lifting international sanctions. In December 2022, three of the four main opposition political parties (Justice First, Democratic Action and A New Era) backed and approved a reform to dissolve the interim government and create a commission of five members to manage foreign assets, as deputies sought a united strategy ahead of the next Venezuelan presidential election scheduled for 2024, stating that the interim government had failed to achieve the goals it had set. Background Since 2010, Venezuela has been suffering a socioeconomic crisis under Nicolás Maduro and briefly under his predecessor Hugo Chávez, as rampant crime, hyperinflation and shortages as a result of sanctions, diminish the quality of life. Javier Corrales stated in a 2020 Journal of Democracy that Maduro "presided over one of the most devastating national economic crises seen anywhere in modern times." As a result of discontent with the government, the opposition was elected to hold the majority in the National Assembly for the first time since 1999 following the 2015 parliamentary election. After the election, the lame duck National Assembly consisting of Bolivarian officials filled the Supreme Tribunal of Justice, the highest court in Venezuela, with Maduro allies. The tribunal stripped three opposition lawmakers of their National Assembly seats in early 2016, citing alleged "irregularities" in their elections, thereby preventing an opposition supermajority which would have been able to challenge President Maduro. In January 2016, the National Assembly declared a "health humanitarian crisis" given the "serious shortage of medicines, medical supplies and deterioration of humanitarian infrastructure", asking Maduro's government to "guarantee immediate access to the list of essential medicines that are basic and indispensable and that must be accessible at all times." The tribunal approved several actions by Maduro and granted him more powers in 2017. As protests mounted against Maduro, he called for a constituent assembly that would draft a new constitution to replace the 1999 Venezuela Constitution created under Chávez. According to Rafael Villa – writing in Defence Studies in 2022 – "Maduro's leadership [was] not consensual" and among the changes he had made to overcome his "political fragility" was promoting an excessive number of officers within the military, and the election of a 2017 Constituent National Assembly to replace the opposition-led National Assembly, which was elected in 2015. Many countries considered these actions a bid by Maduro to stay in power indefinitely, and over 40 countries stated that they would not recognize the 2017 Constituent National Assembly (ANC). The Democratic Unity Roundtable, the main opposition to the incumbent ruling party, boycotted the election, saying that the ANC was "a trick to keep [the incumbent ruling party] in power." Since the opposition did not participate in the election, the Great Patriotic Pole coalition and its supporters, including the incumbent United Socialist Party of Venezuela, won all seats in the assembly by default. On 8 August 2017, the ANC declared itself to be the government branch with supreme power in Venezuela, banning the opposition-led National Assembly from performing actions that would interfere with the assembly while continuing to pass measures in "support and solidarity" with President Maduro, effectively stripping the National Assembly of all its powers. Maduro disavowed the National Assembly in 2017. As of 2018, some considered the National Assembly the only "legitimate" institution left in the country and human rights organizations said there were no independent institutional checks on presidential power. 2018 election and calls for transitional government In February 2018, Maduro called for presidential elections four months before the prescribed date. He was declared the winner in May 2018 after multiple major opposition parties were banned from participating, among other irregularities; many said the elections were invalid. Some politicians both internally and internationally said Maduro was not legitimately elected and considered him an ineffective dictator. In the months leading up to his 10 January 2019 inauguration, Maduro was pressured to step down by nations and bodies including the Lima Group (excluding Mexico), the United States and the OAS; this pressure was increased after the new National Assembly of Venezuela was sworn in on 5 January 2019. Between the May 2018 presidential election and Maduro's inauguration, there were calls to establish a transitional government. Signs of impending crisis showed when a Supreme Tribunal Justice and Electoral Justice seen as close to Maduro defected to the United States just a few days before the 10 January 2019 second inauguration of Nicolás Maduro. The justice, , said that Maduro was "incompetent" and "illegitimate". Minutes after Maduro took the oath as president of Venezuela, the OAS approved a resolution in a special session of its Permanent Council declaring Maduro's presidency illegitimate and urging new elections. Maduro's election was supported by Turkey, Russia, China, and the Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA). In December 2018, Guaidó had traveled to Washington, D.C., met with OAS Secretary General Luis Almagro. On 14 January 2019, he traveled to Colombia for a Lima Group meeting, in which Maduro's mandate was rejected. According to an article in El País, the January Lima Group meeting and the stance taken by Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs Chrystia Freeland were key. El País describes Donald Trump's election—coinciding with the election of conservative presidents in Colombia and Brazil, along with deteriorating conditions in Venezuela—as "a perfect storm", with decisions influenced by U.S. officials including Vice President Mike Pence, Secretary of State Pompeo, National Security Advisor John Bolton and legislators Mario Díaz-Balart and Marco Rubio. Venezuelans Carlos Vecchio, Julio Borges and Gustavo Tarre were consulted and the Trump administration decision to back Guaidó formed on 22 January, according to El País. Díaz-Balart said that the decision was the result of two years of planning. Justification for the challenge The Venezuelan opposition says its actions are based on the 1999 Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, specifically Articles 233, 333 and 350. The first paragraph of Article 233 states that "when the president-elect is absolutely absent before taking office, a new election shall take place [...] And while the president is elected and takes office, the interim president shall be the president of the National Assembly." Article 333 calls for citizens to restore and enforce the Constitution if it is not followed. Article 350 calls for citizens to "disown any regime, legislation or authority that violates democratic values, principles and guarantees or encroaches upon human rights." Article 233 was invoked after the death of Hugo Chávez in 2013, which took place soon after his inauguration, and extraordinary elections were called within thirty days. Invoked by the National Assembly, Guaidó was declared acting president until elections could be held; Diego A. Zambrano, an assistant professor of law at Stanford Law School, says that "Venezuelan lawyers disagree on the best reading of this provision. Some argue Guaidó can serve longer if the electoral process is scheduled within a reasonable time." The National Assembly announced that it will designate a committee to appoint a new National Electoral Council, in anticipation of free elections. 2019 events Inauguration of Maduro In January 2019, Leopoldo López's Popular Will party attained the leadership of the National Assembly of Venezuela according to a rotation agreement made by opposition parties, naming Juan Guaidó as president of the legislative body. Guaidó began motions to form a provisional government shortly after assuming his new role on 5 January 2019, stating that whether or not Maduro began his new term on the 10th, the country would not have a legitimately elected president in either case, calling for soldiers to "enforce the Constitution" Signs of impending crisis showed when a Supreme Court Justice and Electoral Justice seen as close to Maduro defected to the United States just a few days before the 10 January 2019 second inauguration of Nicolás Maduro. The justice, , said that Maduro was "incompetent" and "illegitimate". Minutes after Maduro took the oath as president of Venezuela, the OAS approved a resolution in a special session of its Permanent Council declaring Maduro's presidency illegitimate and urging new elections. Maduro's election was supported by Turkey, Russia, China, and the Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA). Guaidó announced a public assembly, referred to as an open cabildo, on 11 January, a rally in the streets of Caracas, where Guaidó spoke on behalf of the National Assembly saying that the country had fallen into a de facto dictatorship and had no leader. Guaidó said that the National Assembly would "take the responsibility that touches us". Leaders of other political parties, trade unions, women, and students also spoke at the rally. The opposition considered assuming the powers of the executive branch legitimate based on constitutional processes; The National Assembly specifically invoked Articles 233, 333, and 350 of the Constitution. Guaidó announced nationwide protests to be held on 23 January—the same day as the removal of Marcos Pérez Jiménez in 1958—using a slogan chant of ¡Sí se puede!. The National Assembly worked with the coalition Frente Amplio Venezuela Libre to create a plan for the demonstrations, organizing a unified national force. On 11 January, plans to offer incentives for the armed forces to disavow Maduro were announced. Guaidó declared acting president During Guaidó's speech, he said he was "willing to assume command ... only possible with the help of Venezuelans". Following Guaidó's speech, the National Assembly released a press statement saying that Guaidó had assumed the role of acting president. The Assembly retracted the statement later published another clarifying Guaidó's position as "willing to assume command ... only possible with the help of Venezuelans". Maduro's response was to call the opposition a group of "little boys", describing Guaidó as "immature". The Minister for Prison Services, Iris Varela, threatened that she had picked out a prison cell for Guaidó and asked him to be quick in naming his cabinet so she could prepare prison cells for them as well. The president of the Supreme Tribunal of Justice of Venezuela in exile, based in Panama, wrote to Guaidó, requesting him to become acting president of Venezuela. OAS Secretary-General Luis Almagro was the first to give international official support to Guaidó's claim, tweeting "We welcome the assumption of Juan Guaidó as interim president of Venezuela in accordance with Article 233 of the Political Constitution. You have our support, that of the international community and of the people of Venezuela." Later that day, Brazil and Colombia gave their support to Guaidó as acting president of Venezuela. Guaidó briefly detained, plans continue Guaidó was detained on 13 January by the Bolivarian Intelligence Service (SEBIN) and released 45 minutes later. The SEBIN agents who intercepted his car and took him into custody were fired. The Information Minister, Jorge Rodríguez, said the agents did not have instructions and the arrest was orchestrated by Guaidó as a "media stunt" to gain popularity; BBC News correspondents said that it appeared to be a genuine ambush to send a message to the opposition. Almagro condemned the arrest, which he called a "kidnapping", while Pompeo referred to it as an "arbitrary detention". After his detention, Guaidó said that Rodríguez's admission that the SEBIN agents acted independently showed that the government had lost control of its security forces; he called Miraflores (the presidential palace) "desperate", and stated: "There is one legitimate president of the National Assembly and of all Venezuela." On 15 January 2019, the National Assembly approved legislation to work with dozens of foreign countries to request that these nations freeze Maduro administration bank accounts. Guaidó wrote a 15 January 2019 opinion piece in The Washington Post entitled "Maduro is a usurper. It's time to restore democracy in Venezuela"; he outlined Venezuela's erosion of democracy and his reasoning for the need to replace Maduro on an interim basis according to Venezuela's constitution. On 21 January, over two dozen National Guardsmen participated in a mutiny against Maduro with the assistance of residents in the area during the early morning hours. Government forces repressed the protestors tear gas and the officers were later captured. During the night, over thirty communities in Caracas and surrounding areas participated in strong protests against the Maduro government. The strongest protests occurred in San José de Cotiza, where the rebel National Guardsmen were arrested, with demonstrations spreading throughout nearby communities, with cacerolazos heard throughout Caracas. One woman who was confused for a protester was killed in San José de Cotiza by members of a colectivo, who stole her phone. On 22 January, Vice President Mike Pence called Guaidó personally and assured him that the United States would support his declaration. Guaidó declares himself acting president On 23 January, Guaidó swore to serve as acting president. On that morning, Guaidó tweeted, "The world's eyes are on our homeland today." On that day, millions of Venezuelans demonstrated across the country and world in support of Guaidó, with a few hundred supporting Maduro outside Miraflores. At one end of the blocked street was a stage where Guaidó spoke and took an oath to serve as interim president. Minutes after his speech, the United States announced that it recognized Guaidó as interim president while presidents Iván Duque of Colombia and Jair Bolsonaro of Brazil, beside Canadian prime minister Chrystia Freeland, announced at the World Economic Forum that they too recognized him. The Venezuelan National Guard used tear gas on gathering crowds at other locations, and blocked protesters from arriving. Some protests grew violent, and at least 13 people were killed. Michelle Bachelet of the United Nations requested a UN investigation into the security forces' use of violence. Guaidó began to appoint individuals in late January to serve as aides or diplomats, including Carlos Vecchio as the Guaidó administration's diplomatic envoy to the US, Gustavo Tarre to the OAS, and Julio Borges to represent Venezuela in the Lima Group. He announced that the National Assembly had approved a commission to implement a plan for the reconstruction of Venezuela, called Plan País (Plan for the Country), and he offered an Amnesty law, approved by the National Assembly, for military personnel and authorities who help to "restore constitutional order". The Statute Governing the Transition to Democracy was approved by the National Assembly on 5 February. As of July 2019, the National Assembly had approved Juan Guaidó's appointment has named 37 ambassadors and foreign representatives to international organizations and nations abroad. Maduro response Maduro accused the United States of backing a coup and said he would cut ties with them. He said Guaidó's actions were part of a "well-written script from Washington" to create a puppet state of the United States, and appealed to the American people in a 31 January video, asking them not to "convert Venezuela into another Vietnam". Maduro asked for dialogue with Guaidó, saying "if I have to go meet this boy in the Pico Humboldt at three in the morning I am going, [...] if I have to go naked, I am going, [I believe] that today, sooner rather than later, the way is open for a reasonable, sincere dialogue". He stated he would not leave the presidential office, saying that he was elected in compliance with the Venezuelan constitution. With the two giving speeches to supporters at the same time, Guaidó replied to Maduro's call for dialogue, saying he would not initiate diplomatic talks with Maduro because he believed it would be a farce and fake diplomacy that could not achieve anything. On 18 February, Maduro's government expelled a group of Members of the European Parliament that planned to meet Guaidó. The expulsion was condemned by Guaidó as well as Pablo Casado, president of the Spanish People's Party, and the Colombian government. Maduro's Foreign Minister Jorge Arreaza defended the expulsions, saying that the constitutional government of Venezuela "will not allow the European extreme right to disturb the peace and stability of the country with another of its gross interventionist actions." Humanitarian aid crisis Shortages in Venezuela have been present since 2007 during the presidency of Hugo Chávez. In 2016, the National Assembly of Venezuela declared a humanitarian crisis, asking Maduro's government to provide access to essential medicines and medical supplies. Before the presidential crisis, the Maduro government denied several offers of aid, stating that there was not a humanitarian crisis and that such claims were used to justify foreign intervention. Maduro's refusal of aid worsened the effects of Venezuela's crisis. During the presidential crisis, Maduro initially refused aid, stating that Venezuela is not a country of "beggars". Guaidó made bringing humanitarian aid to the country a priority. In early February, Maduro prevented the American-sponsored aid from entering Venezuela via Colombia, and Venezuela's communications minister, Jorge Rodriguez, said there was a plot between Colombia, the CIA and exiled Venezuelan politician Julio Borges to oust Maduro. Humanitarian aid intended for Venezuela was also stockpiled on the Brazilian border, and two indigenous Pemon people were killed as they attempted to block military vehicles from entering the area, when members of armed forces loyal to Maduro fired upon them with live ammunition. Guaidó issued an ultimatum to the Venezuelan Armed Forces, stating that humanitarian aid would enter Venezuela on 23 February and that the armed forces "will have to decide if it will be on the side of the Venezuelans and the Constitution or the usurper". Guaidó defied the restriction imposed by the Maduro administration on him leaving Venezuela, secretly crossed the border, saying that with the help of the Venezuelan military, and appeared at the Venezuela Aid Live concert in Cúcuta, Colombia on 22 February, also to be present for the planned delivery of humanitarian aid. Testing Maduro's authority, he was met by presidents Iván Duque of Colombia, Sebastián Piñera from Chile, and Mario Abdo Benítez from Paraguay, as well as the OAS Secretary-General Luis Almagro. On 23 February, trucks with humanitarian aid attempted to enter Venezuela from Brazil and Colombia; the attempts failed, with only one truck able to deliver aid. At the Colombia–Venezuela border, the caravans were tear-gassed or shot at with rubber bullets by Venezuelan personnel. The National Guard repressed demonstrations on the Brazilian border and colectivos attacked protesters near the Colombian border, leaving at least four dead, and more than 285 injured. Lima Group meeting and Latin American tour Guaidó traveled from Cúcuta to Bogotá for a 24 February meeting with US Vice President Mike Pence, and a 25 February meeting of the Lima Group. The group urged the International Criminal Court to pursue charges of crimes against humanity for the Maduro administration's use of violence against civilians and blockade of humanitarian aid. Pence did not rule out the use of US military force. The Venezuelan government responded saying that Pence was trying to order others to take the country's assets, and saying that its basic rights were being disregarded in a campaign to unseat Maduro. Brazil's vice president said it would not permit its territory to be used to invade Venezuela, and the European Union cautioned against the use of military force. The Lima Group rejected the use of force as well. The US FAA warned pilots not to fly below 26,000 feet over Venezuela, and US military officials said they had flown reconnaissance flights off the coast of Venezuela to gather classified intelligence about Maduro. From Bogotá, Guaidó embarked on a regional tour to meet with the presidents of Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, and Ecuador, to discuss ways to rebuild Venezuela and defeat Maduro. Guaidó's trip was approved by Venezuela's National Assembly, as required by the Constitution of Venezuela, but he faced the possibility of being imprisoned when returning to Venezuela because of the travel restriction placed upon him by the Maduro administration. He re-entered Venezuela on 4 March, via Simón Bolívar International Airport in Maiquetía, and was received at the airport by diplomats and in Caracas by a crowd of supporters. German ambassador Daniel Kriener was accused of interference in internal affairs and expelled from Venezuela because of his role in helping Guaidó re-enter. Blackouts In March 2019, Venezuela experienced a near total electrical blackout, and lost 150,000 barrels per day in crude oil production during the blackout. Full recovery of oil production was expected to take months, but by April, Venezuela's exports were steady at a million barrels daily, "partially due to inventory drains". Experts and state-run Corpoelec (Corporación Eléctrica Nacional) sources attributed the electricity shortages to lack of maintenance, underinvestment, corruption and to a lack of technical expertise in the country resulting from a brain drain; Nicolás Maduro's administration attributes them to sabotage. Guaidó said that Venezuela's largest-ever power outage was "the product of the inefficiency, the incapability, the corruption of a regime that doesn't care about the lives of Venezuelans", Maduro's Attorney General, Tarek William Saab, called for an investigation of Guaidó, alleging that he had "sabotaged" the electric sector. While Maduro visited hydroelectric facilities in Ciudad Guayana on 16 March, promising to restructure the state-run power company Corpoelec, his Vice President Delcy Rodríguez announced that Maduro would restructure his administration, asking the "entire executive Cabinet to put their roles up for review". Guaidó announced he would embark on a tour of the country beginning 16 March, to organize committees for Operation Freedom with the goal to claim the presidential residence, Miraflores Palace. From the first rally in Carabobo state, he said, "We will be in each state of Venezuela and for each state we have visited the responsibility will be yours, the leaders, the united, [to] organize ourselves in freedom commands." United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) commissioner Michelle Bachelet's office sent a five-person delegation to Venezuela in March. On 20 March, Bachelet delivered a preliminary oral report before the UN Human Rights Council, in which she outlined a "devastating and deteriorating" human rights situation in Venezuela, expressed concern that sanctions would worsen the situation, and called on authorities to show a true commitment to recognizing and resolving the situation. Elvis Amoroso, Maduro's comptroller, alleged in March that Guaidó had not explained how he paid for his February 2019 Latin American trip, and said Guaidó would be barred from running for public office for fifteen years. The comptroller general is not a judicial body; according to constitutional lawyer José Vicente Haro, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled in 2011 that an administrative body cannot disallow a public servant from running. Constitutional law expert Juan Manuel Raffalli stated that Article 65 of Venezuela's Constitution provides that such determinations may only be made by criminal courts, after judgment of criminal activity. Red Cross aid effort In March, Francesco Rocca, president of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, announced that the Red Cross was preparing to bring humanitarian aid to the country in April to help ease both the chronic hunger and the medical crisis. The Wall Street Journal said that the acceptance of humanitarian shipments by Maduro was his first acknowledgement that Venezuela is "suffering from an economic collapse." After a 9 April meeting with the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Maduro indicated for the first time that he was prepared to accept international aid. Guaidó called on Venezuelans to "stay vigilant to make sure incoming aid is not diverted for 'corrupt' purposes". Following the joint report from Human Rights Watch and Johns Hopkins in April 2019, increasing announcements from the United Nations about the scale of the humanitarian crisis, and the softening of Maduro's position on receiving aid, the ICRC tripled its budget for aid to Venezuela. The first Red Cross delivery of supplies for hospitals arrived on 16 April, offering an encouraging sign that the Maduro administration would allow more aid to enter. According to The New York Times, "armed pro-government paramilitaries" fired weapons to disrupt the first Red Cross delivery, and officials associated with Maduro's party told the Red Cross to leave. According to the Associated Press, having long denied that there was a humanitarian crisis in Venezuela, Maduro positioned the delivery "as a necessary measure to confront punishing U.S. economic sanctions." Having "rallied the international community", Guaidó "quickly claimed credit for the effort." Revocation of Guaidó's parliamentary immunity Chief justice Maikel Moreno asked that the Constituent Assembly (ANC), controlled by Maduro loyalists, remove Guaidó's parliamentary immunity as president of the National Assembly, moving the Maduro administration a step closer towards prosecuting Guaidó. Guaidó supporters disagree that the Maduro-backed institutions have the authority to ban Guaidó from leaving the country and consider acts of the ANC "null and void". The Venezuelan Constitution provides that only the National Assembly can bring the president to trial by approving the legal proceeding in a "merit hearing". On 2 April, after the ANC voted to remove his parliamentary immunity, Guaidó promised to continue fighting "Maduro's 'cowardly, miserable and murderous' regime." Military uprising attempt On 19 April, Guaidó called for a "definite end of the usurpation" and the "largest march in history" on 1 May. Coinciding with his speech, NetBlocks stated that state-run CANTV again blocked access to social media in Venezuela. On 30 April 2019, Leopoldo López, who was held under house arrest by the Maduro administration, was freed on orders from Guaidó. The two men, flanked by members of the Venezuelan armed forces near La Carlota Air Force Base in Caracas, announced an uprising, stating that this was the final phase of "Operation Freedom". Though Guaidó said his forces held La Carlota, when supporters approached the base, Guaidó and a few dozen supporters stayed in a nearby overpass outside. Maduro was not seen during the day, but he appeared with his Defense Minister Padrino on that evening's televised broadcast, and announced he would replace Manuel Cristopher Figuera, Director General of the Bolivarian Intelligence Service (SEBIN), who had broken with Maduro during the uprising, saying it was time to "rebuild the country" and that "scoundrels were plundering the country." The United States said Maduro had prepared to leave Venezuela that morning, but Russia and Cuba helped convince him to stay. Both Russia and Maduro denied that he had plans to leave Venezuela. Guaidó's supporters were forced to retreat by security forces using tear gas. Colectivos fired on protesters with live ammunition, and one protester was shot in the head and killed. Human Rights Watch said it believed that "security forces fired shotgun pellets at demonstrators and journalists." By the end of the day, one protester had died, and López was at the Spanish embassy, while about 25 military personnel received asylum in the Panamanian embassy in Caracas. Guaidó acknowledged he had received insufficient military backing, but added that "Maduro did not have the support nor the respect of the Armed Forces" and called for strikes beginning on 2 May, with the aim of a general strike later in the month. Russia and the US each charged the other with interference in another country's affairs. Negotiations Following the failed military uprising, momentum surrounding Guaidó had subsided and fewer supporters gathered at demonstrations, with Guaidó resorting to negotiations with Maduro. Guaidó's deputy chief Rafael Del Rosario acknowledged that the debacle on 30 April made the prospect of removing Maduro more difficult. Beginning negotiations was a setback for Guaidó's movement, with the Associated Press stating, "Participation in the mediation effort is a reversal for the opposition, which has accused Maduro of using negotiations between 2016 and 2018 to play for time". According to the New York Times, years of difficulties has made Maduro "adept at managing, if not solving, cascading crises", while Phil Gunson of the International Crisis Group stated that despite facing issues, Maduro "must be very pleased that he is now in the driving seat", with the ability to use the actions of Guaidó and international actors for propaganda purposes. By May 2019, Trump had decided that Guaidó was weak; Bolton attributed a change of Trump's position to a comment made by President of Russia Vladimir Putin to Trump in a phone call that Guaidó's claim to the presidency would be the equivalent of Hillary Clinton declaring herself president following the 2016 United States presidential election. Representatives of Guaidó and Maduro began mediation with the assistance of the Norwegian Centre for Conflict Resolution (NOREF), with Jorge Rodríguez and Héctor Rodríguez serving as representatives for Maduro while and Stalin González were representatives for Guaidó. Guaidó confirmed that there was an envoy in Norway, but assured that the opposition would not take part in "any kind of false negotiation" and that talks must lead to Maduro's resignation, a transitional administration and free and fair elections. In July 2019, Norway's commission carried out a third round of discussions between Guaidó's and Maduro's representatives in Barbados. By August 2019, the Maduro administration decided to halt talks with Guaidó's commission after Trump administration imposed new additional sanctions on Venezuela, ordering a freeze on all Venezuelan government assets in the United States and barred transactions with US citizens and companies. Second visit of the OHCHR Ahead of a three-week session of the UN Human Rights Council, the OHCHR chief, Michelle Bachelet, visited Venezuela from 19 to 21 June. The Human Rights Commissioner met separately with both Maduro and Guaidó during her visit, as well as with Maduro's Attorney General Tarek William Saab, several human right activists, and families of victims who experienced torture and state repression. Protests occurred in front of the UN office in Caracas during the last day of the visit, denouncing rights abuses carried out by Maduro's administration. Gilber Caro, who was released two days before the visit, joined the protest. Bachelet announced the creation of a delegation maintained by two UN officials that will remain in Venezuela to monitor the humanitarian situation. Bachelet expressed concern that the recent sanctions on oil exports and gold trade could worsen the crisis that has increased since 2013, calling the measures "extremely broad" and that they are capable of exacerbating the suffering of the Venezuelan people. She also called for the release of political prisoners in Venezuela. This was the first time a United Nations High Commissioner of Human Rights visited Venezuela. The final published report addressed the extrajudicial executions, torture, forced disappearances and other human rights violations reportedly committed by Venezuelan security forces in the recent years. Bachelet expressed her concerns for the "shockingly high" number of extrajudicial killings and urged for the dissolution of the Special Action Forces (FAES). According to the report, 1,569 cases of executions as consequence as a result of "resistance to authority" were registered by the Venezuelan authorities from 1 January to 19 March. Other 52 deaths that occurred during 2019 protests were attributed to colectivos. The report also details how the Venezuelan government "aimed at neutralising, repressing and criminalising political opponents and people critical of the government" since 2016. Guaidó supported the investigation, stating "the systematic violation of human rights, the repression, the torture... is clearly identified in the (UN) report". Maduro administration described the report as a "biased vision" and demanded it be "corrected". In the words of his foreign minister, "It's a text lacking in scientific rigor, with serious errors in methodology and which seems like a carbon copy of previous reports". Maduro would later state that the OHCHR "has declared itself an enemy" to Maduro and the Bolivarian Revolution. Speaking to reporters after the UN Human Rights Council, Bachelet announced the release of 22 Venezuelan prisoners, including 20 students, judge Maria Lourdes Afiuni, in her second house arrest since March, and journalist Braulio Jatar, arrested in 2016. Bachelet welcomed the conditional releases and the acceptance of the two officers delegation as "the beginning of positive engagement on the country's many human rights issues". In October 2019, Venezuela competed for one of the two seats to the United Nations Human Rights Council, along with Brazil and Costa Rica, and was elected with 105 votes in a secret ballot by the 193-member United Nations General Assembly. Brazil was re-elected with 153 votes, while Costa Rica was not having garnered 96 votes and entering the month of the election as competition to Venezuela. The United States, Lima Group and human rights groups lobbied against Venezuela's election. On 16 September 2020, the United Nations accused the Maduro government of crimes against humanity. Torture and death of Acosta Arévalo On 26 June, Maduro said that his government had arrested several defecting military, thus foiling a plot to remove him from power and to assassinate him, his wife and Diosdado Cabello. The alleged plan also included the rescue of Raúl Baduel, a retired general imprisoned for a second time in 2017, to install him as president. Maduro accused Israel, Colombia, Chile and the United States of involvement in the plot. Jorge Rodríguez said that the foiled plan involved the bombing of a government building, the seizing of La Carlota air base, and a bank robbery. Guaidó dismissed the allegations as lies; opposition members have frequently accused Maduro of coercion of arrested suspects and fabrication of plots for political gain. In the wake of the coup allegations, an alleged kidnapping attempt directed at members of Guaidó's entourage occurred on a Caracas highway. Eight armed men on motorcycles dressed as civilians allegedly surrounded a vehicle containing two of Guaidó's aides. Guaidó, who was in a car further ahead, spoke with the armed civilians, according to photos and a video released by his press team and published by Infobae. According to Guaidó, the group received orders from the Venezuelan Military Counter-intelligence agency DGCIM, but were not "hostile". Navy captain Rafael Acosta Arévalo, who had been arrested on charges related to the alleged foiled coup attempt and transferred to a military hospital, died during detention on 28 June. Maduro administration did not provide a cause of death but announced an investigation on the matter. Acosta Arevalo's wife, human rights advocates, Juan Guaidó and the US Department of State accused Maduro's administration of torturing the captain to death. The Lima Group and the European Union called for an independent investigation. The preliminary autopsy determined that Acosta Arévalo's cause of death was "severe cerebral edema [brain swelling] caused by acute respiratory failure caused by a pulmonary embolism caused by rhabdomyolysis [a potentially life-threatening breakdown of muscle fibers] by multiple trauma". Operación Alacrán An investigation led by Armando.info reported that nine members of the National Assembly defended individuals sanctioned by the United States for their involvement in the controversial Local Committees for Supply and Production (CLAP) program. The investigation reported that the implicated lawmakers had written letters of support to the United States Treasury and others to a Colombian man named Carlos Lizcano, who authorities were investigating over his possible links to Alex Saab, a Colombian businessman associated with the food distribution program and under United States sanctions. According to Armando.info, the lawmakers wrote the letters despite being aware of evidence that tied Lizcano to Saab. Guaidó condemned the actions of the nine legislators, suspending them from their positions and stating that it was "unacceptable to use a state institution to attempt to whitewash the reputation of thieves". The scandal damaged Guaidó's reputation among his supporters in Venezuela, with some members of the opposition beginning to call for new leadership, according to analysts and those involved. The Maduro government increased its pressure by "deploying bribes, intimidation and repression" attempting to divide the opposition to maintain power. Dollarization Following increased sanctions throughout 2019, the Maduro government abandoned policies established by Chávez such as price and currency controls. In a November 2019 interview with José Vicente Rangel, President Maduro described dollarization as an "escape valve" that helps the recovery of the country, the spread of productive forces in the country and the economy. However, Maduro said that the Venezuelan bolívar would still remain as the national currency. The Economist wrote that Venezuela had also obtained "extra money from selling gold, both from illegal mines and from its reserves, and narcotics". Its article continued to explain that the improving economy led to more difficulties for Guaidó as Venezuelans who had a better situation were less likely to protest against Maduro. 2020 events Internal parliamentary election disrupted The 2020 Venezuelan National Assembly Delegated Committee election of 5 January, to elect the Board of Directors of the National Assembly was disrupted. The events resulted in two competing claims for the Presidency of the National Assembly: one by Luis Parra and one by Juan Guaidó. Parra was formerly a member of Justice First, but was expelled from the party on 20 December 2019 based on the Operación Alacrán corruption allegations, which he denied. From inside the legislature, Parra declared himself president of the National Assembly, a move that was welcomed by the Maduro administration. The opposition disputed this outcome, saying that quorum had not been achieved and that no votes were counted. Police forces had blocked access to parliament to some opposition members, including Guaidó and journalists. Later in the day, a separate session was carried out at the headquarters of El Nacional newspaper, where 100 of the 167 deputies voted to re-elect Guaidó as president of the parliament. Guaidó was sworn in a session on 7 January after forcing his way in through police barricades. On the same day, Parra reiterated his claim to the parliament's presidency. Russia is the only foreign government to have officially recognized Luis Parra's investiture, while the European Union, the United States, Canada, and most Latin American countries recognized Guaidó's re-election. Guaidó second international tour On 19 January, Guaidó once again exited Venezuela and arrived in Colombia, planning to meet with Mike Pompeo, as well as traveling to Europe and the United States later, defying his exit prohibition for a second time. Guaidó travelled to Brussels, Belgium, and on 22 January met with Margaritis Schinas, Vice-President of the European Commission, and Josep Borrell, High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs. On 23 January, Guaidó participated in the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland. During his trip in Europe, Guaidó also met with Boris Johnson, Emmanuel Macron, and Angela Merkel. Afterwards, Guaidó travelled to Canada and met with Prime Minister Justin Trudeau. On February 4, he was invited to President Donald Trump's 2020 State of the Union address to Congress, and was applauded by the crowd, which was composed of members of both Democratic and Republican parties. Diosdado Cabello declared that "nothing" would happen to Guaidó when he returned to Venezuela. After meeting with Donald Trump in the White House, Constituent Assembly member Pedro Carreño said that if Guaidó wanted to come back as "commander-in-chief", "we will receive him with this peinilla", hitting his podium with a machete. Guaidó was allowed back into Venezuela by officials through Simón Bolívar International Airport on 12 February, despite the travel ban imposed by Maduro's government. Security forces installed an anti-aircraft gun in the Caracas-La Guaira highway and blocked the highway; opposition deputies had to reach the airport on foot to receive Guaidó. Due to the block, several ambassadors were also unable to go to the airport. Upon Guaidó's arrival at the Simón Bolívar International Airport, around two hundred Maduro supporters surrounded and jostled Guaidó, his wife Fabiana Rosales and several opposition deputies that waited for him at the airport. Some journalists were also attacked and had their equipment stolen by the group. Tens of military and police officials were present and did not intervene to prevent the attack. Several passengers declared to local outlets that Maduro's administration sent a group of pro-government activists to insult and harass the opposition members with impunity, including employees of the recently sanctioned Conviasa airline. The Inter American Press Association condemned the attacks on the journalists. The following day, the opposition and relatives denounced that Guaidó's uncle, Juan José Márquez, had been missing for 24 hours after receiving his nephew in the airport, blaming Maduro's government. His wife declared that Márquez was detained in the migration area and that his whereabouts were unknown. Afterwards, in his television talk show Con El Mazo Dando, Diosdado Cabello accused Márquez of carrying explosives when he landed in Venezuela. Hours later, a court formalized Márquez's detention, copying Cabello's accusations. Márquez was detained in the Caracas headquarters of the Directorate General of Military Counterintelligence, despite him being a civilian. Barquisimeto shooting On 29 February Juan Guaidó mobilized a march against the government of Nicolás Maduro in the Juan de Villegas parish, Barquisimeto, Lara state. The day of the march, pro-government colectivos shot at Guaidó, who was in a van at the time of the shooting. Bolivarian National Intelligence Service agents were also reported of having participated in the attack. Guaidó's vehicle received nine gunshots and the shooting left a total of ten wounded. COVID-19 pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have spread to Venezuela on 13 March, when the Maduro administration announced the first two cases. On 16 March, Maduro reversed the country's official position against the International Monetary Fund (IMF), asking the institution for US$5 billion to combat the pandemic, a first during Maduro's presidency, being a critic of the institution. The IMF rejected the deal as it was not clear, among its member states, on who it recognizes as Venezuela's president. According to a report by Bloomberg, the Maduro administration also tried to request aid of $1 billion from the IMF after the first request was denied. Guaidó called for the creation of a "national emergency government", not led by Maduro, on 28 March. According to Guaidó, a loan of US$1.2 billion was ready to be given in support of a power-sharing coalition between pro-Maduro officials, the military and the opposition in order to fight the pandemic in Venezuela. If accepted, the money would go to assist families affected by the disease and its economic consequences. US Department of Justice indictment On 26 March, the US Department of State offered $15 million on Nicolás Maduro, and $10 million each on Diosdado Cabello, Hugo Carvajal, Clíver Alcalá Cordones and Tareck El Aissami, for information leading to their arrest in relation to charges of drug trafficking and narco-terrorism. Maduro had been offering to hold talks with the opposition about handling the outbreak in the country shortly before the indictment and then called them off. After being indicted, retired general Clíver Alcalá in Colombia published a video claiming responsibility for a stockpile of weapons and military equipment seized in Colombia. According to Alcalá, he had made a contract with Guaidó and "American advisers" in order to buy weapons to remove Maduro. Alcalá did not present any evidence and Guaidó rejected the allegations. After wishing farewell to his family, Alcalá surrendered to US authorities on 27 March. Transitional government proposals On 31 March, US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo said that sanctions did not apply to humanitarian aid during the COVID-19 pandemic in Venezuela and that the US would lift all sanctions if Maduro agreed to organize elections that did not include himself in a period of six to twelve months. Pompeo reiterated US support for Juan Guaidó. The US proposed a transitional government that would exclude both Maduro and Guaidó from the presidency. The deal would enforce a power-sharing scenario between the different government factions. Elections would have to be held within the year, and all foreign militaries, particularly Cuba and Russia, would have to leave the country. The US were still seeking Maduro's arrest at the time of the announcement. Other aspects of the US deal would include releasing all political prisoners and setting up a five-person council to lead the country; two members each chosen by Maduro and Guaidó would sit on the council, with the last member selected by the four. The European Union also agreed to remove sanctions if the deal went ahead. Experts have noted that the deal is similar to earlier proposals but explicitly mentions who would lead a transitional government, something which stalled previous discussions, and comes shortly after the US indicted Maduro, which might pressure him to peacefully leave power. Guaidó accepted the proposal while Venezuela's foreign minister Jorge Arreaza rejected it and declared that only parliamentary elections would take place in 2020. Arreaza said that "decisions about Venezuela would be made in Caracas and not in Washington or other capitals" and that "the most important transition for Venezuela was the one started many years ago from capitalism to socialism." After various members of Guaidó's team were arrested on 30 March, Guaidó denounced a new wave of attacks against him. Following that, Attorney General Tarek William Saab called Juan Guaidó to appear before the Public Ministry on 2 April based on Alcalá's accusations. Guaidó did not accept to appear before the public prosecutor. The day of the citation, two more members of Guaidó's office were arrested, charged for alleged "attempted coup d'etat" and "magnicide". Guaidó's team reported that "With this new assault by the dictatorship, there are now 10 [of its] members that have been detained by security forces. Five of them in the last 72 hours." Reuters reported that during the pandemic allies of both Nicolás Maduro and Juan Guaidó had secretly begun exploratory talks, according to sources on both sides. Guaidó and US Special Representative for Venezuela Elliott Abrams have denied that negotiations have taken place. The Associated Press reported that the National Assembly agreed to establish a monthly $5,000 salary for the lawmakers funded from an $80 million "Liberation Fund" made up of Venezuelan assets seized by the Trump administration. Guaidó's communications team issued a statement denying that such salary had been approved, saying that lawmakers have gone unpaid since Maduro cut off funding after the opposition won the legislature in 2015 and that the deputies would determine an appropriate, as well as communicating it transparently. It also said that the $14 million in funding destined for the National Assembly would cover not only the deputies' personal income, but also office expenses, staff costs, travel and other related legislative expenses. Operation Gideon Eight former Venezuelan soldiers were killed and seventeen rebels were captured on 3 May, including two American security contractors, after approximately 60 men landed in Macuto and tried to invade Venezuela. The members of the naval attack force were employed as private military contractors by Silvercorp USA and the operation aimed to depose Maduro from power. Parliamentary election The opposition parties that make up the Democratic Unity Roundtable coalition agreed unanimously not to participate in the election, stating the reason as irregularities and their complaints during the planning of the process and arguing that it was likely the election would be fraudulent. Twenty-seven political parties signed the agreement, including the four largest opposition parties Popular Will, Justice First, Democratic Action and A New Era. The opposition criticized the appointment of the members of the National Electoral Council by the Supreme Tribunal, stating that it is under the purview of the National Assembly, and at least seven political parties had their board of directors suspended or replaced by the pro-government Supreme Tribunal of Justice, including Popular Will, Justice First, Democratic Action, and Copei, as well as left-wing political parties, including Tupamaro, Fatherland for All, and Red Flag. Opposition politicians Henrique Capriles and Stalin González initially encouraged participation in the elections. They later withdrew and demanded better electoral conditions. The Lima Group, the International Contact Group, the European Union and the United States rejected holding parliamentary elections in 2020, insisting in the necessity of holding elections "with free and fair conditions". The International Contact Group, headed by Uruguay, stated the formation of the Electoral Council "undermines the credibility of the next electoral process." The Organization of American States (OAS) stated the appointment of the Electoral Council was "illegal", rejecting it, and further stated that independent bodies are needed for "transparent, free and fair" elections to take place in the country. In July, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, headed by Michelle Bachelet, said that "the recent decisions of the Supreme Tribunal of Justice diminish the possibility to build conditions for democratic and credible electoral processes" and "appoint new National Electoral Council rectors without the consensus of all the political forces." 2021 events As a response to the position of the Popular Will party of focusing on a timetable for presidential, parliamentary and regional elections, Leopoldo López said that "telling us from Europe that we are maximalist because we want freedom is a colonialist comment [...] that we should renounce our dream of freedom when you already have it." On 5 August 2021, Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador announced that Mexico would host talks between the Maduro government and the political opposition. 2022 events San Carlos attack On 11 June 2022, pro-government followers attacked Guaidó after an opposition march in San Carlos, Cojedes state, throwing objects at him and violently removing him from the restaurant he was holding a meeting in. Nosliw Rodríguez, former PSUV deputy and candidate for the Cojedes governorship, was identified as one of the people that led the attack against Guaidó. Interim government dissolution On 30 December 2022, three of the four main political parties (Justice First, Democratic Action and A New Era) backed a reform of the Statute for the Transition to Democracy to dissolve the interim government and create a commission of five members to manage foreign assets, stating that the interim government had failed to achieve the goals it had set. The amendment was voted by the opposition National Assembly as deputies sought a united strategy ahead of the presidential elections scheduled for 2024. The reform was approved with 72 votes in favor, 29 against and 8 abstentions. Recognition, reactions, and public opinion At his peak, Guaidó's claim as the interim president of Venezuela was recognized 57 countries, "including the US, Canada and most Latin American and European countries". Other countries were divided between a neutral position, support for the National Assembly in general without endorsing Guaidó, and support for Maduro's presidency; internationally, support followed traditional geopolitical lines, with Russia, China, Iran, Syria, Cuba, and Turkey supporting Maduro, and the US, Canada, and most of Western Europe supporting Guaidó. The European Parliament recognized Guaidó as interim president. In 2019, the European Union unanimously recognized the National Assembly, but Italy dissented on recognizing Guaidó. In January 2021, the European Union stopped recognizing Guaidó's claim, but still did not recognize Maduro as the legitimate president; the European Parliament reaffirmed its recognition of Guaidó as president, and the EU threatened with further sanctions. The OAS approved a resolution on 10 January 2019 "to not recognize the legitimacy of Nicolás Maduro's new term". In a 24 January special OAS session, sixteen countries including the US recognized Guaidó as interim president, but they did not achieve the majority needed for a resolution. The United Nations called for dialogue and deescalation of tension, but could not agree on any other path for resolving the crisis. Twelve of the fourteen members of the Lima Group recognize Guaidó; Beatriz Becerra—on the day after she retired as head of the human rights subcommittee for the European Parliament—said that the International Contact Group, jointly sponsored by Uruguay and Mexico, had been of no use and "has been an artifact that has served no purpose since it was created". She said there had been no progress on the 90-day deadline for elections that the group established when it was formed, and she considered that the Contact Group should be terminated and efforts coordinated through the Lima Group. During the 49th General Assembly of the Organization of American States, on 27 June, Guaidó's presidency was recognized by the organization. The Venezuelan Observatory of Social Conflictivity stated that there were on average 69 protests daily in Venezuela during the first three months of 2019, for a total of 6,211 protests, representing a significant increase over previous years (157% of protests for the same period in 2018, and 395% relative to the number in 2017). Following the failed uprising on 30 April, support for Guaidó declined, attendance to his demonstrations subsided and participants in committees organized by Guaidó stated that there has been little progress. Reuters reported in June that analysts have predicted that Maduro would maintain his position as he gains confidence that his actions against the opposition go "relatively unpunished". By the end of 2019, support for Guaidó dropped, with protests organized by his movement resulting with low participation. Pollster Datanálisis published figures showing that support for Guaidó decreased from 61% in February to 42% in November 2019. According to Jesús Seguías, the head of the Venezuelan analysis firm Datincorp, "For years Washington and the Venezuelan opposition have said that Nicolás Maduro, and before him Hugo Chávez, were weak and about to fall [...] but it's clear that's not the case". Analyst Carlos Pina stated that as "[t]he military support to President Maduro remains intact", the opposition will need to "rethink its strategy" and that "Guaidó has also been very limited in suggesting or proposing a strategy that could change the current [status quo]." Into December 2019, Venezuelan pollster Meganálisis surveys showed that 10% of respondents approved of Guaidó, compared to 9% who supported Maduro. As of January 2023, following the opposition vote to dissolve Guaidó's interim government, the United States stopped recognizing Guaidó's presidential claim. A spokesperson for the White House and State Department said that the US "recognized the National Assembly elected in 2015, which Guaidó had led, as Venezuela's 'only remaining democratically elected institution'." Defections The Miami Herald reported that dozens of arrests were made in anticipation of a military uprising, and Defense Minister Vladimir Padrino López ordered a counterintelligence effort to locate conspirators or possible defectors. According to France 24, Maduro declared "military deserters who fled to Colombia have become mercenaries" as part of a "US-backed coup". Guaidó declared that the opposition had held secret meetings with military officials to discuss the Amnesty Law. Hugo Carvajal, the head of Venezuela's military intelligence for ten years during Hugo Chávez's presidency and "one of the government's most prominent figures", publicly broke with Maduro and endorsed Guaidó as acting president. During the 30 April 2019 uprising attempt, Manuel Cristopher Figuera, the Director General of Venezuela's National Intelligence Service, SEBIN, broke with Maduro. Certain top military figures recognized Guaidó, and around 1,400 military personnel have defected to Colombia, but the top military command stays loyal to the government. Following the 23 January events, some Venezuelan diplomats in the United States supported Guaidó; the majority returned to Venezuela on Maduro's orders. Foreign military involvement In early 2019, with Cuban and Russian-backed security forces in the country, United States military involvement became the subject of speculation. Senior U.S. officials have declared that "all options are on the table", but they have also said that "our objective is a peaceful transfer of power". Colombian guerrillas from National Liberation Army (ELN) have vowed to defend Maduro, with ELN leaders in Cuba stating that they have been drafting plans to provide military assistance to Maduro. Article 187 of the Venezuelan Constitution provides that "[i]t shall be the function of the National Assembly: (11) To authorize the operation of Venezuelan military missions abroad or foreign military missions within the country." In every demonstration summoned by Guaidó, there have been numerous signs demanding the application of Article 187, and a March poll showed 87.5% support for foreign intervention. Venezuelan politicians such María Corina Machado and Antonio Ledezma, former mayor of Caracas, have also demanded the application of the article. According to Giancarlo Fiorella, writing in Foreign Affairs, the "loudest calls for intervention are coming not from the White House and its media mouthpieces but from some members of the Venezuelan opposition and from residents of the country desperate for a solution—any solution—to their years-long plight." Fiorella states that "talk of invoking article 187(11) has become commonplace" in Venezuela, adding that "the push for a military intervention in Venezuela is most intense not among hawks in Washington but inside the country itself." Guaidó has said he would call for intervention "when the time comes", but in media interviews, he has not stated he supports removing Maduro by force. The National Assembly approved in July 2019 the reincorporation of Venezuela to the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance, a mutual defense pact signed in 1947 that has never been enacted and from which Venezuela retired in 2013. Venezuela's reincorporation to the pact "can be used to request military assistance against foreign troops inside the country." In a 4 December 2019 interview with Vox, Guaidó stated: "We sense a firm commitment from the United States. [...] I think they're doing everything they could be doing under these circumstances, as are Colombia and Brazil." When asked if he was nearer from removing Maduro from power than in January 2019, Guaidó replied: "Absolutely. Back then we didn't have multiple countries recognizing and supporting us. [...] Today, we have way more tools at our disposal than we did one year ago." Bloomberg News reported two days later that the Trump administration began to doubt that an opposition led by Guaidó would remove Maduro from office. The United States reportedly had no military option regarding Venezuela, although it began to debate on whether to partner with Russia to encourage Maduro to leave office or to increase pressure on Cuba, which is the Maduro government's main supporter. Cuban presence According to professor Erick Langer of Georgetown University, "Cuba and Russia have already intervened." A Cuban military presence of at least 15,000 personnel was in Venezuela in early 2018, while estimates ranging from hundreds to thousands of Cuban security forces were reported in 2019. In April 2019, Trump threatened a "full and complete embargo, together with highest-level sanctions" on Cuba if its troops do not cease operations in Venezuela. Russian presence Two nuclear weapon-capable Russian planes landed in Venezuela in December 2018 in what Reuters called a "show of support for Maduro's socialist government." According to the Kremlin, there are about 100 Russian military personnel in Venezuela "to repair equipment and provide technical co-operation". On 23 March 2019, two Russian planes landed in Venezuela carrying 99 troops and 35 tonnes of matériel. Alexey Seredin from the Russian Embassy in Caracas said the two planes were "part of an effort to maintain Maduro's defense apparatus, which includes Sukhoi fighter jets and anti-aircraft systems purchased from Russia." National Assembly deputy Williams Dávila said the National Assembly would investigate the "penetration of foreign forces in Venezuela." Assets and reserves Venezuela's third-largest export (after crude oil and refined petroleum products) is gold. The World Gold Council reported in January 2019 that Venezuela's foreign-held gold reserves had fallen by 69% to US$8.4 billion during Maduro's presidency. In 2018, Maduro's government exported $900 million worth of gold out of Venezuela into Erdoğan's Turkey. In April 2019, Rubio warned the United Arab Emirates and Turkey not be "accomplices" in the "outrageous crime" of exporting Venezuela's gold. In mid-December 2018, a Venezuelan delegation went to London to arrange for the Bank of England to return the $1.2 billion in gold bullion that Venezuela stores at the bank. Unnamed sources told Bloomberg that the Bank of England declined the transfer due to a request from US Secretary of State Pompeo and National Security Adviser Bolton, who wanted to "cut off the regime from its overseas assets". In his memoir The Room Where It Happened, Bolton said UK Foreign Minister Jeremy Hunt was "delighted to cooperate on steps they could take, for example freezing Venezuela's gold deposits in the Bank of England, so the regime could not sell the gold to keep itself going". In an interview with the BBC, Maduro asked Britain to return the gold instead of sending humanitarian aid, saying that the gold was "legally Venezuela's, it belongs to the Central Bank of Venezuela" and could be used to solve the country's problems. Guaidó asked the British government to ensure that the Bank of England does not provide the gold to the Maduro government. Maduro also said that the US has frozen $10 billion in Venezuelan accounts through its sanctions. In mid-February 2019, a National Assembly legislator Ángel Alvarado said that eight tonnes of gold worth over US$340 million had been taken from the vault while the head of the Central Bank was abroad. In March, Ugandan investigators reported that the gold could have been smuggled into that country. Government sources said another eight tonnes of gold was taken out of the Central Bank in the first week of April 2019; the government source said that there were 100 tonnes left. The gold was removed while minimal staff was present and the bank was not fully operational because of the ongoing, widespread power outages; the destination of the gold was not known. In 2009, Venezuela's foreign reserves peaked at US$43 billion; by July 2017, they had fallen below $10 billion "for the first time in 15 years", and as of March 2019, they had dropped to US$8 billion. About two-thirds of Venezuela's reserves are in gold. Part of Venezuela's remaining reserves are held by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in financial instruments called SDRs. In 2018, Venezuela had almost $1 billion in IMF SDRs, but it had drawn US$600 million in one year. To access SDR reserves, IMF rules require than a government be recognized by a majority of IMF members, and there is no majority recognition for either man claiming the Venezuelan presidency; the IMF denied Maduro access to the remaining US$400 million—"one of the regime's last remaining sources of cash" according to Bloomberg. The IMF has not recognized Guaidó; Ricardo Hausmann—Guaidó's representative recognized by the Inter-American Development Bank—said the "IMF is safeguarding the assets until a new government takes over. 'Those funds will be available when this usurpation ends.'" The US has given Guaidó control of "key Venezuelan bank accounts", and has said it will give Guaidó control of US assets once his administration is in power. The Portuguese bank Novo Banco stopped Maduro's attempt to transfer over US$1 billion through BANDES subsidiary, Banco Bandes Uruguay, in early 2019. Over two months later, Maduro responded that Portugal had illegally blocked the money, and asked that it be returned to buy food and medicine. In 2020, the English High Court ruled in favor of Juan Guaidó in a hearing over whether Guaidó or Nicolás Maduro should control $1 billion of its gold stored in the Bank of London. In 2022, the United Kingdom Supreme Court ruled in favor of Juan Guaidó again regarding the control of the gold stored in the Bank of London. Sanctions During the crisis in Venezuela, the United States, Canada, Mexico, Panama, Switzerland individually, and the countries of the European Union collectively, have applied sanctions against people associated with Maduro's administration, including government officials, members of the military and security forces, and private individuals. As of 27 March 2018, the Washington Office on Latin America said 78 Venezuelans associated with Maduro had been sanctioned by several countries. On 15 January 2019, the National Assembly approved legislation to work with dozens of foreign countries to request that these nations freeze Maduro administration bank accounts. Through April 2019, the U.S. sanctioned more than 150 companies, vessels and individuals, in addition to revoking visas of 718 individuals associated with Maduro. Christian Krüger Sarmiento, director of Colombia Migration, announced on 30 January 2019 that the Colombian government maintained a list of people banned from entering Colombia or subject to expulsion. As of January 2019, the list had 200 people with a "close relationship and support for the Nicolás Maduro regime", but Krüger said the initial list could increase or decrease. As the humanitarian crisis deepened and expanded, the Trump administration levied more serious economic sanctions against Venezuela. In January 2019, during the presidential crisis, the United States imposed sanctions on the Venezuelan state-owned oil and natural gas company PDVSA to pressure Maduro to resign. On 15 April 2019, Canada announced that another round of sanctions on 43 individuals were applied on 12 April based on the Special Economic Measures Act. The government statement said those sanctioned are "high ranking officials of the Maduro regime, regional governors and/or directly implicated in activities undermining democratic institutions". The United States Department of the Treasury has also placed restrictions on transactions with digital currency emitted by or in the name of the government of Venezuela, referencing "Petro", a DIGITAL token. and on Venezuela's gold industry. After the detention of Guaidó's chief of staff, Roberto Marrero, in March 2019, the US also sanctioned the Venezuelan bank BANDES and its subsidiaries. The Treasury Department sanctioned seven additional individuals for their involvement in the disputed internal parliamentary elections of the National Assembly in January 2020. An October 2020 report published by the Washington Office on Latin America (WOLA) by Venezuelan economist Luis Oliveros found that "while Venezuela's economic crisis began before the first U.S. sectoral sanctions were imposed in 2017, these measures 'directly contributed to its deep decline, and to the further deterioration of the quality of life of Venezuelans' ". The report concluded that economic sanctions "have cost Venezuela's government as much as $31 billion since 2017" Censorship and media control The Venezuelan press workers union denounced that in 2019, 40 journalists had been illegally detained as of 12 March; the National Assembly Parliamentary Commission for Media declared that there had been 173 aggressions against press workers as of 13 March. As of June 2019, journalists have been denied access to seven sessions of the National Assembly by the National Guard. Between 12 January and 18 January, Internet access to Wikipedia (in all languages) was blocked in Venezuela after Guaidó's page on the Spanish Wikipedia was edited to show him as president. Later on 21 January, the day of the National Guard mutiny in Cotiza, Internet access to some social media was reported blocked for CANTV users. The Venezuelan government denied it had engaged in blocking. During the 23 January protests, widespread Internet outages for CANTV users were reported. Live streams of the National Assembly sessions and Guaidó's speeches have been regularly disrupted for CANTV users. Since 22 January, some radio programs have been ordered off air; other programs have been temporarily canceled or received censorship warnings, including a threat to close private television and radio stations if they recognized Guaidó as acting president or interim president of Venezuela. The website "Voluntarios X Venezuela" was promoted by Guaidó and the National Assembly to gather volunteers for humanitarian aid. Between 12 and 13 February, CANTV users that tried to access were redirected to a mirror site with a different URL address. The mirror site asked for personal information, including names, ID, address and telephone numbers. The phishing website used the .ve domain controlled by Conatel. This manipulation was denounced as a technique to identify dissidents to the government. Following the phishing incident, the official site was completely blocked for CANTV users on 16 February. During the 2020 election to choose the president of the National Assembly, independent journalists were also impeded from covering the event. Maduro's Ministry of Information, which has no relationship to the National Assembly, allowed reporters from state-run media to enter the legislative palace. Other reporters were not allowed in and told to watch it on a live feed from outside. State communications service CANTV reportedly blocked access to social media sites Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube on the day of the election. Block tracking website NetBlocks reported that the block began as the National Assembly session did. During the COVID-19 pandemic in Venezuela, the National Assembly created a webpage to provide information on the coronavirus disease 2019 to the public. The access to the site was restricted for CANTV users. During Juan Guaidó's return to Venezuela in February 2020, after his second international tour, various media workers were insulted, harassed, robbed and physically aggressed by a group of supporters and pro-Maduro agitators that received him in the airport. According to the Venezuelan Press Working Union (SNTP), Venezuelan security forces were present and witnessed the attacks, but did not intervene. When journalists were going to file the complaint to the authorities, security forces impeded their access to the prosecutor office. Closure of social media accounts In September 2020, Facebook closed 55 accounts, 42 pages and 36 Instagram accounts linked to CLS Strategies, a Washington-based public relations firm. Facebook said these were fake accounts used to secretly manipulate politics in Bolivia, Venezuela and Mexico in violation of Facebook's prohibition on foreign interference. The Stanford Internet Observatory, a disinformation research group, reported that CLS Strategies employees had previous professional ties to opposition political leaders in Venezuela. Arrests and detentions Multiple individuals associated with Guaidó were arrested or detained by the Maduro government. Roberto Marrero—Guaidó's chief of staff and Leopoldo López's attorney—was arrested by SEBIN during a raid on his home on 21 March. Gilber Caro, an alternate deputy and member of Guaidó's party, Popular Will, was re-arrested by the Bolivarian Intelligence Service on 26 April 2019. Eleven other members of Guaidó's team have been summoned to appear before SEBIN.Most of the individuals who were seen with Guaidó during the attempted uprising and many legislators were either arrested or in hiding. In May 2019, the TSJ ordered the prosecution of seven National Assembly members for their actions on 30 April. The rival Constituent Assembly stripped the members of their parliamentary immunity. The National Assembly dismissed the sentence, holding that the members of the Tribunal are illegitimate and that their ruling violates the parliamentary immunity of the deputies. As of 2 May 2019, there were 205 arrests related to protests. National Assembly Vice President Edgar Zambrano was arrested on 8 May 2019. With the seven deputies charged several crimes, an El País article stated that the Venezuelan parliament, elected to a majority in the 2015 elections, has been "systematically blocked" and dismembered by "political persecution" of 60% of its elected members. There was no preliminary merit hearing as required by law; an additional three deputies were indicted without a preliminary merit hearing. Three of the recently sanctioned members sought temporary refuge in foreign embassies. On 13 July 2019, two of Guaidó's security guards were arrested in Caracas. According to Information Minister Jorge Rodríguez, the two guards had attempted to sell rifles that had been taken from a National Guard armory ahead of the failed uprising on 30 April 2019. Guaidó said that the guards were arrested while protecting his family during his tour around the country. He dismissed the weapon sale allegations and speculated that the authorities would torture and frame the two men by planting weapons on them. Rodríguez announced that evidence would be presented during the next round of talks. See also 2019 Venezuelan protests 2019 shipping of humanitarian aid to Venezuela International Conference on the Situation in Venezuela 2019 Bolivian political crisis Notes References Bibliography External links 2019 in Venezuela 2020 in Venezuela 2021 in Venezuela 2022 in Venezuela 2023 in Venezuela Conflicts in 2019 Conflicts in 2020 Conflicts in 2021 Conflicts in 2022 Conflicts in 2023 2019 in politics 2020 in politics 2021 in politics 2022 in politics 2023 in politics Constitutional crises Crisis in Venezuela Foreign relations of Venezuela Political history of Venezuela Articles containing video clips

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B4%20%EC%8B%9C%EC%9D%B8%20%EB%AA%A9%EB%A1%9D

한국어 시인 목록

아래는 한국어 시인 목록이다. 21세기 시인 가나다순 ㄱ 강은교 (1945) 고은 (1933) 고창수 (1934) 고형렬 (1954) 곽재구 (1954) 구상 (시인) (1919–2004) 기형도 (1960-1989) 김경 (시인) (1955-2018) 김경주 (시인) (1976) 김광규 (시인) (1941) 김광림 (시인) (1929) 김구용 (1922년) (1922–2001) 김기림 (1908-?) 김기택 (시인) (1957) 김남조 (1927) 김명순 (1896년) (1896–1951) 김명인 (시인) (1946) 김봉길 (시인) (1956) 김사인 (1956) 김상옥 (1920년) (1920–2004) 김선우 (시인) (1970) 김소월 (1902–1934) 김수영 (1921–1968) 김수영 (1921–1968) 김승희 (1952) 김신용 (1945) 김언 (1973) 김영랑 (1903–1950) 김영무 (1944–2001) 김영현 (소설가) (1955) 김정환 (시인) (1954) 김종길 (1926) 김종철 (시인) (1947) 김종해 (시인) (1941) 김춘수 (1922–2004) 김행숙 (1970) 김혜순 (1955) 김후란 (1934) ㄴ 나희덕 (1966) 노천명 (1912-1957) 나태주 (1945) ㄷ 도종환 (1954) ㅁ 마종기 (1939) 모윤숙 (1910–1990) 문덕수 (1928) 문정희 (시인) (1947) 문태준 (시인) (1970) ㅂ 박남수 (1918–1994) 박두진 (1916–1998) 박목월 (1916–1978) 박영근 (1958-2006) 박용래 (1925–1980) 박이문 (1930) 박인환 (시인) (1926–1956) 박재삼 (1933–1997) 박정대 (1965) 박희진 (1931–2015) 백석 (1912~1996) 복거일 (1946) ㅅ 서정주 (1915–2000) 성봉수 (1964) 성찬경 (1930–2013) 신경림 (1936) 신용목 (1974) ㅇ 오규원 (1941–2007) 오세영 (시인) (1942) 오탁번 (1943) 원효 (617–686) 유안진 (1941) 유치환 (1908–1967) 윤동주 (1917–1945) 윤진화 (1974) 이근화 (1976) 이명랑(작가) (1973) 이상 (작가) (1910–1937) 이상화 (시인) (1901–1943) 이성복 (1952) 이성부 (1942–2012) 이육사 (1904–1944) 이윤택 (1952) 이장욱 (1968) 이제하 (1937) 이형기 (1933–2005) 이혜경 (소설가) (1960) 이후 (소설가) (1982) ㅈ 장석남 (1965) 장정일 ( 1962) 장철문 (1966) 전경린 (1962) 정지용 (1902-?) 정지용 (1902–??) 정호승 (1950) 조기천 (1913–1951) 조병화 (1921-2003) 조정권 (1949) 조지훈 (1920-1968) 주요한 (1900-1979) ㅊ 채호기 (1957) 천상병 (1930-1993) 최남선 (1890 -1957) 최승호 (시인) (1954) 최영미 (시인) (1961) 최정례 (1955) 최승자 (1952) ㅎ 하승무 (1963) 한태호 (1952) 허수경 (시인) (1964) 홍윤석 (1925) 황동규 (1938) 황인숙 (1958) 황지우 (1952) 만해 한용운 (1879–1944) 시간 순서에 따른 목록 1970년대 이근화 (1976) 김경주 (시인) (1976) 신용목 (1974) 김언 (1973) 김선우 (시인) (1970) 문태준 (시인) (1970) 한강 (소설가) (1970) 1960년대 이장욱 (1968) 나희덕 (1966) 장철문 (1966) 박정대 (1965) 장석남 (1965) 하승무 (1964) 성봉수 (1964) 허수경 (시인) (1964) 장정일 (1962) 전경린 (1962) 최영미 (시인) (1961) 기형도 (1960-1989) 이혜경 (소설가) (1960) 1950년대 황인숙 (1958) 김기택 (시인) (1957) 채호기 (1957) 김봉길 (1956) 김사인 (1956) 김영현 (소설가) (1955) 최정례 (1955) 도종환 (1954) 김정환 (시인) (1954) 곽재구 (1954) 고형렬 (1954) 이성복 (1952) 황지우 (1952) 김승희 (1952) 이윤택 (1952) 최승자 (1952) 정호승 (1950) 1940년대 조정권 (1949) 박희진 (1947) 김종철 (시인) (1947) 문정희 (시인) (1947) 오규원 (1947) 복거일 (1946) 김명인 (시인) (1946) 김신용 (1945) 강은교 (1945) 천상병 (1945) 김영무 (1944-2001) 오탁번 (1943) 이가림 (1943) 이성부 (1942-2012) 최승호 (시인) (1942) 유안진 (1941) 김종해 (시인) (1941) 김광규 (시인) (1941) 1930년대 황동규 (1938) 이제하 (1937) 신경림 (1936) 김후란 (1934) 고창수 (1934) 박재삼 (1933) 고은 (1933) 이형기 (1933) 천상병 (1930-1993) 성찬경 (1930-2013) 박이문 (1930) 1920년대 김광림 (시인) (1929) 문덕수 (1928) 김남조 (1927) 박인환 (시인) (1926) 김종길 (1926) 홍윤석 (1925) 박용래 (1925-1980) 김춘수 (1922-2004) 김구용 (1922년) (Kim Kku) (1922-2001) 김수영 (1921-1968) 김상옥 (1920년) (1920-2004) 조지훈 (1920-1968) 1910년대 구상 (시인) (1919-2004) 윤동주 (1918-1945) 박남수 (1919-1994) 박목월 (1916-1978) 서정주 (1915-2000) 백석(1912~1996) 노천명 (1912-1957) 이상 (작가) (1910-1937) 1900년대 정지용 (1903-?) 김기림 (1908-?) 유치환 (1908-1967) 김영랑 (1903-1950) 이육사 (1904-1944) 정지용 (1903-?) 정지용 (1902–??) 김소월 (1902-1934) 이상화 (시인) (1901~1943) 주요한 (1900-1979) 1890년대 김명순 (1896년) (1896-1951) 최남선 (1890-1957) 19세기 시인 만해 한용운 (1879-1944) 18세기 시인 윤선도 (1587–1671) 허난설헌 (1563–1589) 초기의 시인 석천 김각 (1536-1610) 황진이 (1522-1565) 이색 (1328-1395 [1396?]) 최충 (984-1068) 균여 (917—973) 최치원 (857-915) 원효 (617–686)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Korean-language%20poets

List of Korean-language poets

This is a list of Korean-language poets. Twentieth-century poets Alphabetical list B Baek Seok (1912–1996) Bok Koh-il (born 1946) C Chae Ho-ki (born 1957) Cheon Sang-byeong (1930–1993) Cheon Yang-hee (born 1942) Cheong Chi-yong (1902–1950) Cho Byung-hwa (1921–2003) Cho Chi-hun (1920–1968) Cho Chung-kwon (born 1949) Ch'oe Hae (1901–1932) Choi Jeong-rye (born 1955) Choi Nam-son (1890–1957) Choi Seung-ho (born 1954) Choi Young-mi (born 1961) Chu Yo-han (1900–1979) D Do Jong-hwan (born 1954) G Gi Hyeong-do (1960–1989) Go Hyeong-ryeol (born 1954) H Ha Seung-moo (born 1963) Heo Su-gyeong (born 1964) Hong Yun-suk (born 1925) Hwang In-suk (born 1958) Hwang Tong gyu (born 1938) Hwang Ji-U (born 1952) J Jang Cheol-mun (born 1966) Jang Jeong-il (born 1962) Jang Seok Nam (1965) Jeong Ho-seung (born 1950) Jeong Ji-yong often romanized in literature as Cheong Chi-yong (정지용) (1902–1950) Jo Ki-chon (1913–1951) Jon Kyongnin (born 1962) K Kang Eun-gyo (born 1945) Kim Chunsu (1922–2004) Kim Eon (born 1973) Kim Gi-taek (born 1957) Kim Gu-yong (Kim Kku; 1922–2001) Kim Haengsook (born 1970) Kim Hu-ran (born 1934) Kim Hyesoon (born 1955) Kim Jeong-hwan (born 1954) Kim Jong-chul (born 1947) Kim Jonghae (born 1941) Kim Jong-gil (born 1926) Kim Kyungrin (1918–2006) Kim Kwang-kyu (born 1941) Kim Kwang-lim (born 1929) Kim Kirim (1908-?) Kim Kyung-ju (born 1976) Kim Myeong-in (born 1946) Kim Myeong-sun (1896–1951) Kim Nam-jo (born 1927) Kim Nyeon-gyun (born 1942) Kim Sa-in (born 1956) Kim Sang-ok (1920–2004) Kim Sinyong (born 1945) Kim Seon-wu (born 1970) Kim Seung-hee (born 1952) Kim Soo-young (1921–1968) Kim Sowol (1902–1934) Kim Su-yeong (1921–1968) Kim Yeong-hyeon (born 1955) Kim Young-moo (1944–2001) Kim Youngtae (1936–2007) Kim Yeong-nang (1903–1950) Kwak Jae-gu (born 1954) Ko Chang-soo (born 1934) Ko Un (born 1933) Ko Hyeong-ryeol (born 1954) Ku Sang (1919–2004) L Lee Hae-in (born 1945) Lee Hyeonggi (1933–2005) Lee Hye-gyeong (1960) Lee Jangwook (1968) Lee Seong-bok (1952) Lee SungBoo (1942–2012) Lee Yuksa (1904–1944) Lee Yuntaek (born 1952) Lee Ze-ha (born 1937) M Ma Jonggi (born 1939) Manhae [pen name of Han Yong-un] (1879–1944) Moon Chung-hee (born 1947) Moh Yoon-sook (1910–1990) Moon Deoksu (born 1928) Moon Taejun (born 1970) N Noh Cheonmyeong (1912–1957) O Oh Kyu Won (1947–2007) Oh Sae-Young (born 1942) Oh Takbeon (born 1943) P Pak Tu-jin (1916–1998) Park Hee-Jin (1931–2015) Park In-hwan (1926–1956) Park Jaesam (1933–1997) Park Jeong-dae (born 1965) Park Nam-su (1918–1994) Park Mok-wol (1916–1978) Ynhui Park (born 1930) Park Yong-rae (1925–1980) Park Young-geun (1958–2006) R Ra Hee-Duk (born 1966) S Seo Jeong-ju ("Midang") (1915–2000) Seung-Moo Ha (born 1964) Shin Kyeong-nim (born 1936) Shin Yong-Mok (born 1974) Sung Chan-gyeong (1930–2013) W Wonhyo (617–686) Y Yi Geun-hwa (born 1976) Yi Ho-woo (1912–1970) Yi Sang (1910–1937) Yi Sang-hwa (1901–1943) Yu Anjin (born 1941) Yu Chi-hwan (1908–1967) Yoo Yeong (1917–2002) Yun Dong-ju (1917–1945) Chronological list 1970s Yi Geun-hwa (born 1976) Kim Kyung-ju (born 1976) Shin Yong-Mok (born 1974) Kim Eon (born 1973) Kim Seon-wu (born 1970) Moon Taejun (born 1970) Han Kang (born 1970) 1960s Lee Jangwook (born 1968) Ra Hee-Duk (born 1966) Jang Cheol-mun (born 1966) Park Jeong-dae (born 1965) Jang Seok Nam (born 1965) Seung-Moo Ha (born 1964) Heo Su-gyeong (born 1964) Ha Seung-moo (born 1963) Jang Jeong-il (born 1962) Jon Kyongnin (born 1962) Choi Young-mi (born 1961) Gi Hyeong-do (1960–1989) Lee Hye-gyeong (born 1960) 1950s Hwang In-suk (1958) Park Young-geun (1958–2006) Kim Gi-taek (born 1957) Chae Ho-ki (born 1957) Kim Sa-in (born 1956) Kim Yeong-hyeon (born 1955) Choi Jeong-rye (born 1955) Do Jong-hwan (born 1954) Kim Jeong-hwan (born 1954) Kwak Jae-gu (born 1954) Go Hyeong-ryeol (born 1954) Lee Seong-bok (born 1952) Hwang Ji-U (born 1952) Kim Seung-hee (born 1952) Lee Yuntaek (born 1952) Jeong Ho-seung (born 1950) 1940s Cho Chung-kwon (born 1949) Park Hee-Jin (born 1947) Kim Jong-chul (born 1947) Moon Chung-hee (born 1947) Oh Kyu Won (born 1947) Bok Koh-il (born 1946) Kim Myeong-in (born 1946) Kim Sinyong (born 1945) Kang Eun-gyo (born 1945) Cheon Sang-byeong (born 1945) Kim Young-moo (1944–2001) Oh Takbeon (born 1943) Lee Garim (born 1943) Lee SungBoo (1942–2012) Choi Seung-ho (born 1942) Cheon Yang-hee (born 1942) Yu Anjin (born 1941) Kim Jonghae (born 1941) Kim Kwang-kyu (born 1941) 1930s Hwang Tong gyu (born 1938) Lee Ze-ha (born 1937) Shin Kyeong-nim (born 1936) Kim Hu-ran (born 1934) Ko Chang Soo (born 1934) Park Jaesam (born 1933) Ko Un (born 1933) Lee Hyeonggi (born 1933) Cheon Sang-byeong (1930–1993) Sung Chan-gyeong (1930–2013) Ynhui Park (born 1930) 1920s Kim Gwangrim (born 1929) Moon Deoksu (1928–2020) Kim Nam-Jo (born 1927) Park In-hwan (1926–1956) Kim Jong-Gil (1926–1956) Hong Yun-suk (1925–2015) Park Yong-rae (1925–1980) Kim Ch'un-su (1922–2004) Kim Kyu-yong (Kim Kku) (1922–2001) Kim Su-yŏng (1921–1968) Kim Sang-ok (1920–2004) Cho Chi-hun (1920–1968) 1910s Ku Sang (1919–2004) Park Nam-su (1919–1994) Kim Kyungrin (1918–2006) Yoo Yeong (1917–2002) Yun Dong-ju (1917–1945) Park Mok-wol (1916–1978) Sŏ Chŏng-ju (1915–2000) Baek Seok(1912–1996) Yi Ho-woo (1912–1970) Noh Cheonmyeong (1912–1957) Yi Sang (1910–1937) 1900s Kim Kirim (1908-?) Yu Chi-hwan (1908–1967) Lee Yuksa (1904–1944) Kim Yŏng-nang (1903–1950) Jeong Ji-yong, often romanized in literature as Cheong Chi-yong (정지용) (1902–1950) Kim Sowol (1902–1934) Yi Sang-hwa (1901–1943) Chu Yo-han (1900–1979) 1890s Kim Myeong-sun (1896–1951) Kim Ok (1896-unknown) Choi Nam-son (1890–1957) Nineteenth-century poets Han Yong-un [Manhae] (1879–1944) Seventeenth-century poets Yun Seondo (1587–1671) Heo Nanseolheon (1563–1589) Earlier poets Note: Some or all of these poets, though Korean, wrote in Chinese. Heo Nanseolheon (1563-1589) Seokcheon, pen name of Kim Gak (1536-1610) Hwang Jin-i (1522-1565) Song Deokbong (1521-1578) Yi Saek (1328-1395 [1396?]) Ch'oe Ch'ung (984-1068) Kyun Yeo (917—973) Choe Chiwon (857-915) Wonhyo (617–686) See also Korean poetry References Korean Poets

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EA%B3%84%20%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%B8%20%EB%AA%A9%EB%A1%9D

한국계 미국인 목록

아래는 저명한 한국계 미국인 목록이다. 예술 안필립 프랭크 조 데이비드 최 (화가) 정두리 피터 정 CYJO 황정목 재 리 짐 리 백남준 그레그 박 피터 손 비즈니스 장도원 김용 (1959년) 문국진 핑크베리 유일한 유기돈 조리 데이비드 장 주디 주 엔터테인먼트 티파니 영 제시카 (가수) 니콜 (1991년) 써니 (가수) 브라이언 티 제나 우슈코비츠 수잰 황 케빈 (1991년) 한예슬 스티븐 연 에런 유 자니 윤 칼 윤 릭 윤 김경태, PD 안필립 에일리 프레드 아미슨 니콜 빌더백 문 블러드굿 조니 용 보시 차학경 아든 조 존 조 마거릿 조 스미스 조 케네스 최 저스틴 전 제이미 정 제시 (가수) 조 한 마키플라이어 한희준 다니엘 헤니 조슈아 샤넬 이만 켄 정 카드 (음악 그룹) 조셉 칸 성 강 팀 강 대니얼 대 김 랜들 덕 김 애프터스쿨 스테파니 (대한민국의 가수) 김윤진 에스더 쿠 율 권 데니스 로턴 앤디 (가수) 보비 리 C. S. 리 이기홍 (배우) 제임스 기선 리 이지아 저스틴 리 (배우) 메건 리 (가수) 퍼트리샤 자 리 이승희 (1970년) 윌 윤 리 낸시 (가수) 마이크 모 에릭 남 레오나르도 남 리키 김 데니스 오 데니스 오 오순택 헤티엔 박 박재범 존 박 박준형 (가수) 린다 박 랜들 박 수주 (모델) 순이 프레빈 린지 프라이스 프니엘 손자 손 스테판 손 미케일라 디츠 언론 주주 장 법, 정부 강영우 고홍주 루시 고 존 유 성 김 강석희 (정치인) 앤디 김 김창준 (1939년) 영 김 신호범 문학 강용흘 김은국 (소설가) 메리 백 리 린다 수 박 종교 김은일 - Joel Kim, 캘리포니아 웨스트민스터신학교 학장 Julius Kim - The Gospel Coalition 대표 Walter Kim - National Association of Evangelicals 대표 Michael Oh - Lausanne Movement 국제사무총장 이광진 - James A. Lee, Southern Reformed College and Seminary 총장 Eugene Cho - Bread for the World 대표 군사 댄 최 안수산 피터 M. 리 음악 티파니 영 안 트리오 프리실라 안 에일리 에이머리 뉴이스트 장영주 아든 조 데이비드 최 (음악가) 덤파운데드 디아 프램프턴 메그 & 디아 조 한 홍혜경 사무엘 (가수) 태빈 브라이언 (가수) 제시카 (가수) 크리스탈 (가수) 니콜 (1991년) 크리스털 케이 일라이 (가수) 김조한 이진주 (음악가) 에릭 (가수) 존 명 에릭 남 캐런 오 유진 박 박재범 박준형 (가수) 박정현 테디 (음악가) 손호영 윤미래 타이거 JK 팀 (가수) 유승준 과학, 기술, 교육 백태웅 빅터 차 제프 한 한무영 데니스 홍 강성모 (공학자) 김재권 (철학자) 김종훈 (과학자) 김용 (1959년) 피터 김 하워드 고 이휘소 이창래 마크 폴란스키 미셸 리 서남표 우정은 스포츠 롭 레프스나이더 다윈 바니 사이먼 조 행크 콩거 토비 도슨 빌 데몽 제이크 더닝 벤 헨더슨 앤서니 김 클로이 김 크리스티나 김 케빈 킴 (1978년) 자넷 리 새미 리 (다이빙 선수) 문태종 나오미 나리 남 짐 팩 안젤라 박 리처드 박 BJ 펜 이선경 (1967년) 하인스 워드 미셸 위 카메론 린 제이드 (프로레슬러) 지미 왕 양 기타 서재필: 미국 시민이 된 최초의 한국인 송오균: 한국의 독립 활동가 송이균: 한국의 독립 활동가 외부 링크 Council of Korean Americans – a national KAPS – Korean American Professionals Society KorAmeLit.htm – selection of Korean-American literature KoreAm Journal – news Korean American Literature – comprehensive bibliography of Korean American authors and their books Arirang – interactive history of Korean Americans

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Korean%20Americans

List of Korean Americans

The following is a list of notable Korean Americans, including original immigrants who obtained American citizenship and their American descendants. To be included in this list, the person must have a Wikipedia article showing they are Korean American or must have references showing they are Korean American and are notable. Art and design Dana Tai Soon Burgess, choreographer, cultural figure Richard Chai, fashion designer Frank Cho, comic book artist (Spider-Man, The New Avengers), writer, and creator (Liberty Meadows) David Choe, abstract artist Michael Choi, comic book artist (Witchblade, X-23 and X-Force) Doo-Ri Chung, fashion designer Peter Chung, animator, creator of cult animated TV series Æon Flux CYJO (Cindy Hwang), photographer, "KYOPO project" Dennis Hwang, artist, Google doodler, game designer and artist of Pokémon Go Derek Kirk Kim, cartoonist and author of critically acclaimed graphic novel Same Difference and Other Stories Nic Cha Kim, founder of Gallery Row in Downtown Los Angeles Scott Kim, puzzlemaster, artist, computer game designer Yu Yeon Kim, curator of art Grace La, designer, principal of La Dallman, professor of architecture, Harvard University Graduate School of Design Il Lee, artist Jae Lee, comic book artist (Namor the Sub-Mariner, Inhumans) Jim Lee, best-selling comic book artist (X-Men, Batman, Superman) and co-creator (Gen¹³, WildC.A.T.s); co-founder of Image Comics; publisher and chief creative officer of DC Comics Lela Lee (1974– ), actress and cartoonist, creator of the comic strip and animated cartoons Kim, the Angry Little Asian Girl and Angry Little Girls Jiha Moon, artist Nam June Paik, Korean-born artist; father of video art Greg Pak, writer, director, actor (Robot Stories) Andy Park, comic book artist (Tomb Raider, X-Men) Peter Shin, a director of Family Guy Peter Sohn, animator at Pixar Animation Studios (The Good Dinosaur, Elemental) Amy Sol, contemporary artist based in Las Vegas, Nevada Tommy Yune, comic book writer and artist (Speed Racer, Robotech) and animation director (Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles) Jo Choi, photographer, Film director, and YouTuber Business Albert An, CEO of Tower Research Capital Nelson Chai, investment banker and former CFO of the New York Stock Exchange Do Won Chang, founder of Forever 21 Charlotte Cho, esthetician, author and co-founder of Soko Glam Timothy Hwang, founder and CEO of FiscalNote and president of the National Youth Association (NYA) Sabrina Kay, founder and chancellor of Fremont College David Kim, former CEO of Baja Fresh Daniel J. Kim, founder of Red Mango James Kim, founder of Amkor, billionaire Jim Kim, founder of venture capital firm Formation 8 Moon Kook-jin, founder of Kahr Arms, manufacturer of the Desert Eagle Brian Lee, co-founder of Legalzoom.com, ShoeDazzle.com, and The Honest Company Chong Moon Lee, founder of Diamond Multimedia Curtis Lee, founder and CEO of Luxe David Lee, real estate developer Michael Choe, CEO of Charlesbank Capital Partners Kewsong Lee, CEO of The Carlyle Group Young Lee, co-founder of Pinkberry Thai Lee, CEO and president of SHI International, billionaire Ilhan New, founder of La Choy Jane Park, founder of Julep, cosmetics company James Park, founder and CEO of Fitbit Sung Won Sohn, professor of economics at California State University, former president of LA Hanmi Bank Daewon Song, co-founder of Almost Skateboards James Sun, CEO and founder of GeoPage.com; The Apprentice finalist Lisa Song Sutton, businesswoman, attorney, former Miss Nevada United States and former congressional candidate Michael Yang, founder and CEO of mySimon, founder & CEO of Become.com and Michael Yang Capital Partners I LP Gideon Yu, co-owner of the San Francisco 49ers and Executive Chairman and CEO of Bowers & Wilkins Richard Yoo, founder and former CEO of Rackspace Community Leaders and Activists Ahn Changho, early 20th century immigrant community activist and leader, member of Korean independence movement Kenneth Bae, imprisoned by North Korea for human rights activity Emil J. Kang, non-profit arts administrator, curator, professor. Youngest president and first Asian-American to head a major symphony orchestra. First Korean-American to be nominated by the president of the United States for membership in the National Council on the Arts National Endowment for the Arts Angela E. Oh, attorney and social/political activist best known for her role as spokesperson for the Korean American community after the 1992 Los Angeles Riots and her position on President Bill Clinton's One America Initiative Park Yong-man, early 20th century immigrant community activist, member of Korean independence movement Song Oh-kyun, Korean independence activist (Originally from Pyongyang, North Korea) Song Yi-kyun, Korean independence activist and aviator (Originally from Pyongyang, North Korea) Criminals and murderers Seung-Hui Cho, murdered 32 people at Virginia Tech before committing suicide with a gun Fullerton Boys, Korean gangsters Culinary arts Danny Bowien, chef and owner of Mission Chinese Food in San Francisco and New York David Chang, chef, owner of Momofuku Noodle Bar, Momofuku Ko and Momofuku Ssäm Bar in New York City Roy Choi, co-founder and head chef of Kogi Korean BBQ food trucks and restaurants in Los Angeles Judy Joo, chef, owner of Jinjuu Restaurant (London and Hong Kong) Iron Chef on Iron Chef UK; judge on Iron Chef America and The Next Iron Chef; host of Korean Food Made Simple Cooking Channel; judge on Kitchen Inferno Ann Kim, chef and co-owner of Young Joni and popular pizzerias in Minneapolis, Minnesota Beverly Kim, finalist on Top Chef (Season 9); first winner of Top Chef Last Chance Kitchen; chef-owner of Parachute, Chicago, Illinois Kristen Kish, winner of Top Chef (Season 10); chef at Stir, Boston, Massachusetts Corey Lee, chef-owner of Michelin-starred Benu in San Francisco; former head chef at The French Laundry Edward Lee, contestant on Top Chef (season 9); host of television show Culinary Genius Maangchi (Emily Kim, 김광숙), author, popularizer of Korean cuisine and its preparation Entertainment Philip Ahn, actor Ralph Ahn, actor Amy Anderson, stand up comedian and actress Aubrey Anderson-Emmons, actress (Modern Family) Fred Armisen, actor, comedian Awkwafina, also known as Nora Lum, rapper, actress and comedian of Chinese and Korean descent Nicole Bilderback, actress Moon Bloodgood, actress Johnny Yong Bosch, actor, best known as Adam Park in Power Rangers Steve Byrne, comedian, actor Theresa Hak Kyung Cha, author, video and filmmaker Katie Chang, actress Timothy Chang, comedian and actor Karen Chee, comedian and comedy writer, Late Night with Seth Meyers Arden Cho, actress, Teen Wolf Henry Cho, comedian and actor John Cho, actor born in Seoul, South Korea and raised in Los Angeles, California he appeared in the American Pie franchise and Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle as well as the Star Trek reboot series as Hikaru Sulu; singer for the group Left of zed Margaret Cho, comedian, former star of the television sitcom All American Girl Smith Cho, actress SungWon Cho, actor, voice actor and YouTuber Kelly Choi, model, television presenter Kenneth Choi, actor Justin Chon, actor Daniel Chun, writer, co-producer (The Simpsons) Charlet Chung, actress and voice actress Jamie Chung, actress Philip W. Chung, playwright, founder and Artistic Director of Lodestone Theatre Ensemble Morena Corwin, model and Playboy playmate Piper Curda, actress and singer Joy Dietrich, film director Michaela Dietz, voice actress (Steven Universe) Joanna Gaines, star of Fixer Upper Jon Gosselin, father of sextuplets; a subject of the reality show Jon & Kate Plus 8 Mark Fischbach (Markiplier), YouTuber and actor Bong Soo Han, "father of American Hapkido"; choreographed and performed in the fight scenes of Billy Jack Daniel Henney, model, actor in South Korea Gene Hong, producer, writer, and actor on Wild 'N Out Chanel Iman, model Ken Jeong, comedian, actor Grace Jung, comedian, writer and director Joseph Kahn, music video and movie director Angela Kang, television showrunner, producer, and writer Michael Kang, writer/director (The Motel, West 32nd) Sung Kang, actor (The Motel, Better Luck Tomorrow, The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift) Tim Kang, actor (The Mentalist) Alan Kim, actor, youngest nominee for BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role Catherine Haena Kim, actress and model Daniel Dae Kim, actor Evan C. Kim, actor, best known for his role in the 1977 John Landis comedy The Kentucky Fried Movie Grace Kim, Playboy playmate Irene Kim, model and fashion designer Jacqueline Kim, actress Randall Duk Kim, actor Yunjin Kim, actress Esther Ku, comedian Yul Kwon, contestant on Survivor: Cook Islands Alexander Sebastien Lee, actor, filmmaker Alice Lee, actress Becky Lee, contestant on Survivor: Cook Islands Bobby Lee, comedian, actor, podcaster C.S. Lee, actor Chris Chan Lee, filmmaker Christopher HK Lee, film director (Fading Away, The Last Tear, Forgotten Victory, Ayla) Ki Hong Lee, actor (The Maze Runner) James Kyson Lee, actor Lee Ji-ah, actress Justin Lee, actor Lela Lee, actress and cartoonist Liz Lee, actress, My Life as Liz Patricia Ja Lee, actress, best known as Cassie Chan in Power Rangers Raymond Lee, actor (Quantum Leap (2022 TV series)) Rex Lee, actor (Entourage) Sung-Hi Lee, model who appears mostly in soft-core nude photoshoots Will Yun Lee, actor (Die Another Day) Ma Dong-seok, actor Charles Melton, actor (Riverdale, The Sun Is Also a Star) Mike Moh, actor, martial artist, stuntman (Kamen Rider: Dragon Knight) Leonardo Nam, actor Ricky Lee Neely, actor Soon Hee Newbold, filmmaker, actress, martial artist Dennis Oh, actor Sandra Oh, actress Soon-Tek Oh, actor Dennis Joseph O'Neil, model and actor Joy Osmanski, actress Hettienne Park, actress (Hannibal) Ho Sung Pak, actor, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Liu Kang and Shang Tsung in Mortal Kombat Grace Park, actress, Battlestar Galactica Joon Park, actor Linda Park, Korean-born actress (Enterprise) Randall Park, actor (Fresh Off the Boat) Soo Joo Park, model Steve Park, actor (In Living Color) Sydney Park, actress (Spork, Instant Mom, The Walking Dead, Spirit Riding Free, Wish Upon, Lifeline, Pretty Little Liars: The Perfectionists) Soon-Yi Previn, actress; wife of Woody Allen; adoptive daughter of Mia Farrow Lindsay Price, television actress Phillip Rhee, actor (Best of the Best movies), Tae Kwon Do and Hapkido master Eddie Shin, actor Keong Sim, actor Sonja Sohn, actress Stephen Sohn, model James Sun, first runner-up, The Apprentice 6 Brian Tee, actor (The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift) Jenna Ushkowitz, actress and singer (Glee) Suzanne Whang, host of HGTV's House Hunters, Polly on NBC's Las Vegas, award-winning stand-up comedian Joe Wong, comedian Eugene Lee Yang, filmmaker, actor, and co-creator of the online comedy series The Try Guys Han Ye-seul, actress Steven Yeun, actor (The Walking Dead) Aaron Yoo, actor (Disturbia) Christine Yoo, scriptwriter and director of Wedding Palace Johnny Yune, comedian and actor (They Call Me Bruce?) Karl Yune, model and actor (Memoirs of a Geisha, Anacondas: The Hunt for the Blood Orchid, brother of Rick Yune) Rick Yune, model and actor (Die Another Day, The Fast and the Furious) Journalism Virginia Cha, CNN News anchor Juju Chang, ABC News anchor and reporter Alina Cho, CNN News correspondent Liz Cho, ABC News anchor and reporter Sophia Choi, former CNN Headline News anchor, now at KVBC-DT Sarah Jeong, journalist specializing in information technology law and other technology-related topics; former member of the editorial board of The New York Times Jay Caspian Kang, Vice News Tonight correspondent Arnold Kim, founder of MacRumors James Kim, former senior editor at CNET Lee Ann Kim, anchor and reporter for KGTV; executive director of the San Diego Asian Film Festival Lisa Kim, NBC News news anchor for NBC11 Michael Kim, ESPN anchor Seung Min Kim, White House correspondent for The Washington Post Mina Kimes, ESPN Journalist Kyung Lah, CNN News correspondent Jean H. Lee, former Associated Press bureau chief in Seoul and Pyongyang Michelle Ye Hee Lee, The Washington Post reporter and current president of the Asian American Journalists Association MJ Lee, CNN News political correspondent Corina Knoll, Los Angeles Times reporter Suchin Pak, MTV News anchor and reporter Amara Sohn-Walker, CNN News correspondent Eun Yang, NBC4/WRC-TV News anchor and reporter, Washington, DC Phil Yu, founder and owner of the Angry Asian Man blog Eunice Yoon, China Bureau Chief and Senior Correspondent for CNBC Young Jean Lee, New York Times writer Law and government Judge Herbert Choy, appointed to the U.S Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit; first Asian American appointed to the federal bench Julie J. Chung, diplomat, Acting Assistant Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs Judge Donna Ryu, magistrate judge in the U.S. District Court of Northern California Judge Michael Hun Park, United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit Judge Kenneth K. Lee, United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit Wendy Lee Gramm, former head of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission and the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA); wife of former United States Senator Phil Gramm Yumi Hogan, First Lady of the State of Maryland; first Korean American first lady of a U.S. state and the first Asian American first lady in the history of Maryland BJ Kang, FBI agent, lead investigator of insider trading case against Raj Rajaratnam Young Woo Kang, policy advisor of the National Council on Disability of the US White House in 2001 Michael Kim, trial lawyer Harold Hongju Koh, dean of Yale Law School and former Assistant Secretary of State during the Clinton administration Lucy H. Koh, judge, US District Court for the Northern District of California, appointed 2010 Ronald Moon, Chief Justice of the Hawai'i Supreme Court Annabel Park, founder of Coffee Party USA Meroe Park, associate deputy director of the Central Intelligence Agency from 2013 to 2017 John Yoo, Berkeley law professor and former Deputy Attorney General in the United States Department of Justice Sung Kim, US Ambassador to the Philippines Elected officials Martha Choe, city councilmember in Seattle John Choi, county attorney of Ramsey County, Minnesota and former Saint Paul City Attorney Jun Choi, former mayor of Edison, New Jersey Dr. Steven Choi Ph.D, California State Assemblyman, 68th District Christopher Chung, the first elected mayor of Palisades Park, New Jersey, where Koreans constitute the majority of the population Hoon-Yung Hopgood, member of Michigan State House of Representatives, first Korean American elected to public office in Michigan Sam Park, member of Georgia's State House of Representatives, first Korean American and the first openly gay person of color elected to Georgia's General Assembly, representing the 101st District. Sukhee Kang, former Mayor of Irvine, California Mark L. Keam, member of the Virginia House of Delegates Andy Kim, US Congressperson from New Jersey (Democrat), former US diplomat and national security official Harry Kim, former Mayor of Hawaii County Jane Kim, Supervisor in San Francisco Jay Kim, former Republican Congressman from California Patty Kim, State Representative of Pennsylvania Ron Kim, first Korean American elected in New York State Young O. Kim, Republican Congresswoman from California's 39th congressional district (2021–present) Maria Robinson, member of Massachusetts House of Representatives, representing the 6th Middlesex District (2019-present), first Korean-American to be elected to the General Court of Massachusetts Cindy Ryu, Washington Washington House of Representatives, first female Korean American Mayor in the U.S.A. David Ryu, first Korean American elected to the Los Angeles City Council Paull Shin, Washington state senator; Korean adoptee Anna Song, trustee on the Santa Clara County Office of Education Michelle Steel, Republican Congresswoman from California's 48th congressional district (2021–present) Sam Yoon, Boston City Councillor (2005–2009), first Asian American to be elected to the position in the city Marilyn Strickland, Democrat Congresswoman from Washington's 10th congressional district Sylvia Luke, lieutenant governor of Hawaii, first Korean American elected to a statewide office in the U.S.A. David Oh, member of the Philadelphia City Council (2012-2023), first Asian American to be elected to the position in the city Helen Gym, member of the Philadelphia City Council (2016-2022), first Asian American woman to be elected to the position in the city Literature See Korean American writers for a more extensive list. Matthew J. Baek, illustrator, children's book author, and graphic designer Steph Cha, novelist Leonard Chang, novelist, short story and TV writer Alexander Chee, fiction writer, poet, journalist, and reviewer Kah Kyung Cho, philosopher and writer Franny Choi, poet Mary H.K. Choi, author Sook Nyul Choi, children's storybook writer Susan Choi, novelist Jenny Han, author of children's and young adult novels, including the 'To All the Boys I've Loved Before Series' Euny Hong, journalist and author of The Birth of Korean Cool: How One Nation is Conquering the World through Pop Culture Hyun Yi Kang, scholar and writer Minsoo Kang, historian and writer Younghill Kang, early Asian American writer; has been called "the father of Korean American literature" Crystal Hana Kim, author Elaine H. Kim, writer, editor and professor in Asian American Studies Elizabeth Kim, journalist and novelist Eugenia Kim, author Mike Kim, author Myung Mi Kim, poet Nancy Kim, author, lawyer Richard E. Kim, author, professor of literature Suki Kim, author, investigative journalist, novelist Suji Kwock Kim, poet, playwright, author of Notes From The Divided Country Corina Knoll, editor, journalist Cecilia Hae-Jin Lee, writer and artist R. O. Kwon, author Don Lee, author, editor Ed Bok Lee, poet, writer Min Jin Lee, novelist Mary Paik Lee, author of Quiet Odyssey(1990) Walter K. Lew, poet and scholar Nami Mun, novelist Gary Pak, writer, editor and professor of English, noted as one of the most important Asian Hawaiian writers Ty Pak, writer; speaker on Korean affairs and literature Linda Sue Park, American-born writer Ronyoung Kim, novelist T. K. Seung, philosopher and literary critic Cathy Song, poet Jane Jeong Trenka, author of The Language of Blood Monica Youn, poet, National Book Award finalist Young Jean Lee, playwright and director Ji-Yeon Yuh, reporter, writer, editor and professor in Asian American history Military JoAnne S. Bass, 19th Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force, first female senior enlisted service member of any United States military branch, first Asian American to hold the senior enlisted position in the Air Force Daniel Choi, U.S. Army officer and gay rights activist Susan Ahn Cuddy, first female gunnery officer in the United States Navy Major Gen. Sharon K.G. Dunbar, Commander of the Air Force District of Washington (AFDW); Commander of the 320th Air Expeditionary Wing, headquartered at Joint Base Andrews, Maryland Jeff Hwang, U.S. Air Force fighter pilot and 1999 winner of Mackay Trophy Andrew Kim, former head of CIA's Korea Mission Center Richard C. Kim, U.S. Army brigadier general, Deputy Commander of United States Army North Colonel Young-Oak Kim, highly decorated U.S. Army combat veteran of World War II and the Korean War; first non-white to command an Army combat battalion in US history Fred Ohr, World War II ace fighter pilot Peter M. Rhee, trauma surgeon and military veteran Sue Mi Terry, CIA intelligence analyst specializing in East Asia Music Ahn Trio, Juilliard-educated classical music trio, featured in print and television ads for Gap Priscilla Ahn, alternative/folk singer Ailee, singer based in South Korea AleXa, singer based in South Korea Amerie, R&B singer-songwriter, actress Anderson Paak, singer, rapper and multi-instrumentalist Aaron Kwak, also known as Aron, member of South Korean boy band NU'EST Sarah Chang, classical violinist and recipient of the Avery Fisher Prize Arden Cho, model, actress who also displays her singing and songwriting talents on YouTube David Choi, singer-songwriter and YouTube sensation Jae Chong, music producer, formerly of R&B group Solid Clara Chung, singer Dumbfoundead, rapper Dia Frampton, musician, younger sister of Meg Frampton Meg Frampton, musician, older sister of Dia Frampton Shinik Hahm, conductor, professor Joe Hahn, founding member of alternative rock band Linkin Park, multi-platinum and Grammy Award winner Heejun Han, singer and American Idol finalist (season 11) Huh Yun-jin, singer and member of South Korean girl group Le Sserafim Huening Kai,singer and member of South Korean boy band Tomorrow X Together Huening Bahiyyih,singer and member of South Korean girl group Kep1er Laine Hardy, singer and American Idol winner (season 17) Hei-Kyung Hong, soprano with The Metropolitan Opera Company Kim Samuel, former Produce 101 Contestant & Soloist Danny Im, member of South Korean hip hop group 1TYM, R&B singer based in South Korea Yuna Ito, Korean-Japanese, America-born J-pop singer and actress Jessi, singer and rapper Brian Joo, member of South Korean duo Fly to the Sky, R&B singer based in South Korea Jessica Jung, singer, musical actress of the South Korean version of Legally Blonde: The Musical; former member of group Girls' Generation; sister of Krystal Jung Krystal Jung, singer, dancer, actress, model; member of South Korean group f(x); sister of Jessica Jung Nicole Jung, singer, dancer, rapper and former member of KARA Crystal Kay, J-pop (Zainichi Korean) singer Bobby Kim (Ji-Won), SMTM Season 3 winner, rapper, singer, composer with IKON, MOBB David Kim, concertmaster of the Philadelphia Orchestra Dennis Kim, concertmaster of the Pacific Symphony Orchestra Eun Sun Kim, conductor of the San Francisco Opera Earl Kim, pianist and composer; Harvard University professor Eli Kim, member of South Korean boy band U-KISS George Han Kim (also known as Johan Kim), singer and member of former R&B group Solid Paul Kim, classical pianist Rebecca Kim, rapper, ex-member of band After School Stephanie Kim, singer, dancer and member of South Korean girl group The Grace Soovin Kim, violinist from New York City Andy Lee, singer, actor, and member of South Korean boy band Shinhwa JinJoo Lee, guitarist and member of DNCE. Kodi Lee, pianist and singer-songwriter Megan Lee, singer, actress Sean Lee, violinist, four-season concertmaster and teaching assistant at Juilliard Sunny Lee, singer, radio host, member of South Korean group Girls' Generation Kevin Kwan Loucks, pianist and arts entrepreneur Nancy McDonie, singer and member of South Korean group Momoland Lucia Micarelli, violinist Eric Mun, rapper, actor and leader/member of South Korean boy band Shinhwa John Myung, bass guitar player of progressive metal band Dream Theater Eric Nam, singer and TV host based in South Korea Soon Hee Newbold, composer, conductor and violinist Karen O, lead singer of the Yeah Yeah Yeahs Eugene Park, electric violinist in South Korea Jae Park, singer-songwriter, composer, and former guitarist for South Korean band Day6 Jay Park, hip hop singer, rapper, b-boy, dancer, and former ex leader of 2PM John Park, singer and first runner up of Superstar K2, Korean version of American Idol, semi-finalist on American Idol. Park Joon-hyung, rapper and leader/member of South Korean pop group g.o.d Lena Park, K-pop, R&B singer, songwriter, composer Mike Park, ska and punk musician, founder of Asian Man Records Teddy Park, member of 1TYM, singer/rapper/producer based in South Korea. Todd Park Mohr, lead vocals/guitars/keyboards/saxophone of Big Head Todd and the Monsters Peniel Shin, rapper, and member of South Korean boy group BTOB Son Hoyoung, singer and member of South Korean pop group g.o.d Susie Suh, singer-songwriter, signed with Epic Records T, R&B singer based in South Korea Nosaj Thing (Jason Chung), electronic musician Tiger JK, musician Tim, R&B singer based in South Korea Kevin Woo, singer, dancer and member of South Korean Boy Band U-KISS Steve Seung-Jun Yoo, singer and dancer formerly based in South Korea Scott Yoo, conductor, host of Now hear this on the PBS network. Tiffany Young, singer, musical actress Fame as Carmen Diaz; member of South Korean group Girls' Generation Michelle Zauner, singer and songwriter who performs under the name Japanese Breakfast Tokimonsta (Jennifer Lee), electronic music artist, producer, and DJ Religion Su Bong, Soen Sa Nim in the Kwan Um School of Zen and the designated heir of Seung Sahn's lineage Peter Ahn, translator of the New American Standard Bible Eugene Cho, President of Bread for the World Hae Jong Kim, Bishop of the United Methodist Church Julius Kim, President of The Gospel Coalition Walter Kim, President of National Association of Evangelicals James A. Lee, President of Southern Reformed College and Seminary Michael Oh, CEO of Lausanne Committee on World Evangelization Andrew S. Park, theologian Angela Warnick Buchdahl, rabbi Science, technology and education Tae-Ung Baik, professor of law at the University of Hawaii Manoa William S. Richardson School of Law; legal scholar of international human rights law and Korean law Victor Cha, professor in Asian studies, former Director for Asian Affairs in the White House's National Security Council Dennis Choi, neuroscientist at Emory University, member of the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, former executive vice president for neuroscience at Merck, former chairman of the department of neurology at Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine Howard Choi, spinal cord injury specialist Esther Choo, emergency physician and professor at the Oregon Health & Science University John Chun, designer of AC Cobra and Shelby Mustang GT350 and GT500 models; Tonka Toys designer Jefferson Han, one of the main developers of "multi-touch sensing" technology, owner of Perceptive Pixel company Moo-Young Han, physicist Dennis Hong, professor and the founding director of RoMeLa (Robotics & Mechanisms Laboratory) of the Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering Department at UCLA Waun Ki Hong, Division Head and Professor at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center and pioneer in field of cancer chemoprevention and cancer medicine. Hyun Yi Kang, scholar and writer; chair of Women's Studies and Associate Professor in Comparative Literature and English at University of California, Irvine Minsoo Kang, historian and writer at University of Missouri Sung-Mo "Steve" Kang, chancellor of University of California, Merced; former professor of electrical and computer engineering at various institutions Larry Kwak, world-renowned physician and scientist who has pioneered breakthrough innovations in immunology and cancer vaccines; and named one of Time Magazine's 100 Most Influential People in 2010. Jaegwon Kim, William Herbert Perry Faunce Professor of Philosophy at Brown University Jeong H. Kim, president of Bell Labs Jim Yong Kim, Francois Xavier Bagnoud Professor Health and Human Rights at Harvard University; former director of HIV/AIDS at the World Health Organization; 17th president of Dartmouth College; president of the World Bank June Huh, 2022 Fields medalist mathematician, professor at Princeton University Peter S. Kim, president of Merck, former MIT-Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research biochemist, member of National Academy of Sciences Howard Koh, professor of the Practice of Public Health; associate dean for Public Health Practice at the Harvard School of Public Health; former Massachusetts Commissioner of Public Health Bandy X. Lee, psychiatrist with Yale University and the co-author of the book, The Dangerous Case of Donald Trump Benjamin W. Lee, theoretical physicist (influenced development of the Standard Model) Chang-Rae Lee, professor of creative writing at Princeton University; novelist Jung-Min Lee, oncologist at the National Cancer Institute David Oh, NASA engineer and lead flight director of the Mars Curiosity rover Andrew S. Park, Methodist theologian Gary Pak, professor of English at University of Hawaii at Mānoa; one of the most important Asian Hawaiian writers No-Hee Park, Dean of the School of Dentistry at the University of California, Los Angeles. Mark L. Polansky, NASA astronaut Michelle Rhee, former chancellor of District of Columbia Public Schools; education reform advocate Sebastian Seung, computational neuroscientist, brain and cognitive sciences professor at MIT, and author of Connectomes Nam-Pyo Suh, doctor of engineering of Carnegie Mellon University, 14th president of KAIST in South Korea Jeannie Suk, assistant professor of law at Harvard Law School; award-winning writer Meredith Jung-En Woo, dean of the college and graduate school of arts and sciences at the University of Virginia, professor of political science and Korean studies Ji-Yeon Yuh, professor in Asian American history and Asian diasporas at the Northwestern University Joon Yun, radiologist; founder of Palo Alto Institute Sports Kenny Allen Former NFL player; Father is from Korea Darwin Barney, MLB player; grandfather is from Korea and grandmother is from Japan Marissa Brandt, Olympic ice hockey player Eugene Chung, former NFL player, first Korean American to be drafted in the 1st round, played offensive line Rich Cho, NBA executive, Vice President of Basketball Strategy of Memphis Grizzlies Simon Cho, Olympic speed skater; won the bronze medal in men's 5000 meter relay at the 2010 Vancouver Games John Choi, e-sports player Hank Conger, MLB player Emily Cross, Olympic fencer; won the silver medal in foil team at the 2008 Beijing Games Toby Dawson, Olympic skier, won the bronze medal in men's freestyle skiing at the 2006 Torino Games Bill Demong, Olympic skier; mother is half Korean Marcus Demps, American football player Will Demps, American football player Dane Dunning, MLB Player Jake Dunning, MLB player Tommy Edman, MLB player, mother is from Korea. Tom Farden, head coach of the Utah Red Rocks Marcus Freeman, head coach of Notre Dame Football, former NFL player James Hahn, professional golfer Kyle Hamilton, First-team All-American Notre Dame football player Benson Henderson, mixed martial artist, former UFC lightweight champion Sam Howell, American football quarterback John Huh, professional golfer Vicky Hurst, professional golfer Anthony Kim, professional golfer Chloe Kim, elite snowboarder, Winter X Games gold medalist (superpipe, 2015) Olympic gold medalist (halfpipe, 2018) Christina Kim, professional golfer Kevin Kim, tennis player Jessica Pegula, tennis player; daughter of Terry and Kim Pegula Kim Pegula, businesswoman and co-owner of Pegula Sports and Entertainment (Buffalo Bills, Buffalo Sabres, and other teams) alongside her husband Terry; born in Seoul and adopted by an American family at age 5 Younghoe Koo, American football player Tae Man Kwon, Hapkido Grand Master; 9th degree Black Belt Brandun Lee, professional boxer Jeanette Lee, pool player, nicknamed "The Black Widow" for her tendency to wear black John Lee, former football player Sammy Lee, diver, first American-born male Asian Olympic gold medalist David Lipsky, professional golfer; mother is from Korea Moon Tae-jong, professional basketball player Kyler Murray, NFL quarterback Kevin Na, professional golfer Naomi Nari Nam, figure skater Jim Paek, NHL hockey player Angela Park, professional golfer Jane Park, professional golfer Richard Park, NHL player B.J. Penn, mixed martial artist and former UFC lightweight and welterweight champion Rob Refsnyder, MLB player; born in Seoul, South Korea, and adopted by a couple from Southern California when he was five months old. Jhoon Rhee, taekwondo master and entrepreneur Terrmel Sledge, MLB player Daewon Song, professional skateboarder Sonya Thomas, aka "Black Widow," competitive eater, holder of 29 world titles Hines Ward, football player, MVP of Super Bowl XL Michelle Wie West, professional golfer Alex Yi, soccer player Ariane Andrew also known as Cameron, professional wrestler Mia Yim also known as Jade, professional wrestler James Yun, professional wrestler Ben Leber, NFL Linebacker Other Emma Broyles, Miss America 2022, as Miss Alaska. Philip Jaisohn, first Korean to become an American citizen; first Korean American to receive an American medical degree (Originally from Boseong County, Jeollanam-do, South Korea) References External links Council of Korean Americans – a national, nonpartisan, nonprofit organization of Korean American leaders KAPS – Korean American Professionals Society KorAmeLit.htm – selection of Korean-American literature KoreAm Journal – news, stories, and issues of Korean Americans nationwide Korean American Literature – comprehensive bibliography of Korean American authors and their books Arirang – interactive history of Korean Americans Americans Korean Americans Korean Korean

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%EC%9D%B8%20%EB%AA%A9%EB%A1%9D

시인 목록

아래는 국제적으로 저명한 시인 목록이다. A-Z C. S. 루이스 D. H. 로런스 G. K. 체스터턴 T. E. 흄 T. S. 엘리엇 W. E. B. 두 보이스 W. H. 오든 W. S. 길버트 ㄱ 가도 (당나라) 가브리엘라 미스트랄 가브리엘레 단눈치오 가이우스 루킬리우스 거트루드 스타인 게르하르트 하웁트만 게오르크 뷔히너 게오르크 트라클 고바야시 잇사 고트홀트 에프라임 레싱 구양수 굴원 귄터 그라스 기욤 9세 다키텐 공작 기욤 아폴리네르 ㄴ 나나크 나쓰메 소세키 낙빈왕 넬리 작스 노발리스 노자 니자미 니콜라스 그룬트비 닉 케이브 ㄷ 다이앤 애커먼 닥터 수스 단테 가브리엘 로세티 단테 알리기에리 데릭 월컷 데키무스 유니우스 유베날리스 도로시 파커 도시테이 오브라도비치 도연명 두목 두보 디트리히 본회퍼 딜런 토머스 ㄹ 라빈드라나트 타고르 라이너 마리아 릴케 라이언 애덤스 랠프 월도 에머슨 랭스턴 휴스 러디어드 키플링 레너드 코헨 레미 드 구르몽 레오폴 세다르 상고르 레지나 데리예프 로도스의 아폴로니오스 로런스 더럴 로버트 루이스 스티븐슨 로버트 번스 로버트 브라우닝 로버트 사우디 로버트 콘퀘스트 로버트 펜 워런 로버트 프로스트 로트레아몽 백작 로페 데 베가 루도비코 아리오스토 루미 루벤 다리오 루이 아라공 루이스 데 공고라 루이스 드 카몽이스 루이스 캐럴 루카누스 루크레티우스 루트비히 아힘 폰 아르님 루트비히 티크 ㅁ 마거릿 애트우드 마르쿠스 마닐리우스 마르티알리스 마르틴 발저 마리나 츠베타예바 마리우 지 안드라지 마사오카 시키 마쓰오 바쇼 마야 앤절로 마테오 마리아 보이아르도 마티아스 클라우디우스 막스 에른스트 매슈 아널드 매요신 맹호연 몰리에르 무하마드 이크발 미겔 데 우나무노 미라 바이 미켈란젤로 부오나로티 미하엘 엔데 미하이 에미네스쿠 미하일 레르몬토프 ㅂ 바첼 린지 바킬리데스 박용래 밥 딜런 백거이 버기 줄러 베르길리우스 베르톨트 브레히트 베티나 폰 아르님 벤 존슨 (문학가) 보리스 파스테르나크 볼테르 볼프람 폰 에셴바흐 브야사 블라디미르 나보코프 블라디미르 마야콥스키 블레즈 상드라르 비고 모텐슨 비센테 알레익산드레 비스와바 심보르스카 빅토르 위고 ㅅ 사디 사뮈엘 베케트 사포 (시인) 살바토레 콰시모도 새뮤얼 존슨 새뮤얼 테일러 콜리지 샤를 1세 도를레앙 공작 샤를 보들레르 샬럿 브론테 세르게이 예세닌 셰이머스 히니 셸 실버스타인 소식 (북송) 소포클레스 쇠렌 키르케고르 쉬즈모 쉴라 머피 쉴레이만 1세 슈테판 게오르게 스타티우스 스테판 말라르메 스티븐 스펜더 스티븐 크레인 시그프리드 서순 신기질 실비아 플래스 십자가의 요한 ㅇ 아나톨 프랑스 아네테 폰 드로스테휠스호프 아담 미츠키에비치 아담 자가예프스키 아르킬로코스 아르투어 슈니츨러 아르튀르 랭보 아리스토파네스 아미르 호스로우 아미리 바라카 아서 매컨 아서 시먼즈 아우소니우스 아이스킬로스 아카조메 에몬 안나 아흐마토바 안드레이 벨리 안드레이 보즈네센스키 알레산드로 만초니 알레이스터 크롤리 알렉산더 포프 알렉산드르 블로크 알렉산드르 푸시킨 알퐁스 드 라마르틴 알프레드 드 뮈세 알프레드 드 비니 앙드레 브르통 앙토냉 아르토 앤 브론테 앤드루 마벌 앨런 긴즈버그 앨리스 워커 앨저넌 찰스 스윈번 앨프리드 테니슨 야로슬라프 사이페르트 얀 네루다 얀 코하노프스키 양카 쿠팔라 어디 엔드레 에길 스칼라그림손 에두아르트 뫼리케 에드거 앨런 포 에드나 세인트 빈센트 밀레이 에드먼드 스펜서 에디스 시트웰 에른스트 모리츠 아른트 에리히 케스트너 에밀리 디킨슨 에밀리 브론테 에우리피데스 에우제니오 몬탈레 에즈라 파운드 엔니우스 엘리자베스 비숍 엘윈 브룩스 화이트 예브게니 옙투셴코 오그덴 나시 오디세아스 엘리티스 오마르 하이얌 오비디우스 오스카 와일드 옥타비오 파스 올더스 헉슬리 올리버 웬들 홈스 와스 왕유 요르기오스 세페리스 요사 부손 요사노 아키코 요제프 슈테판 요제프 폰 아이헨도르프 남작 요한 고트프리트 헤르더 요한 루드비그 루네베리 요한 볼프강 폰 괴테 우고 포스콜로 울리히 츠빙글리 원매 (청나라) 원이둬 월레 소잉카 월리스 스티븐스 월터 롤리 월터 스콧 월트 휘트먼 웬들 베리 위응물 윌리엄 S. 버로스 윌리엄 모리스 윌리엄 버틀러 예이츠 윌리엄 블레이크 윌리엄 서로이언 윌리엄 셰익스피어 윌리엄 워즈워스 윌리엄 카를로스 윌리엄스 윌리엄 헨리 데이비스 윌프레드 오언 육유 율리우시 스워바츠키 응우옌주 이래즈머스 다윈 이반 바조프 이반 부닌 이백 이상은 (당나라) 이욱 이청조 ㅈ 자코모 레오파르디 자크 프레베르 잠바티스타 마리노 장 드 라 퐁텐 장 라신 장 아르프 장 콕토 장 프루아사르 잭 케루악 제라르 드 네르발 제임스 1세 (스코틀랜드) 제임스 1세 (잉글랜드) 제임스 러셀 로웰 제임스 에이버리 (배우) 제임스 에이지 제임스 조이스 제프리 초서 조너선 스위프트 조르주 셰아데 조반니 보카치오 조반니 파스콜리 조비 조수에 카르두치 조식 (조위) 조조 조지 고든 바이런 조지 메러디스 조지 엘리엇 조지프 브로드스키 조지프 애디슨 존 게이 존 던 존 드라이든 존 릴리 (작가) 존 맥크래 존 메이스필드 존 밀링턴 싱 존 밀턴 존 베처먼 존 업다이크 존 웨인 (문학가) 존 웹스터 존 키츠 존 플레처 존 헨리 뉴먼 주나 반스 주세페 운가레티 질 알렉산더 에스바움 짐 모리슨 짐 캐럴 ㅊ 찰스 램 찰스 부코스키 찰스 웨슬리 체사레 파베세 체스와프 미워시 최치원 ㅋ 카비르 카툴루스 칼 샌드버그 칼리다사 칼리마코스 칼릴 지브란 컬로처이 칼만 케오스의 시모니데스 켄드릭 라마 크레티앵 드 트루아 크리스타 볼프 크리스토퍼 말로 클레망 마로 클레멘스 브렌타노 킹즐리 에이미스 ㅌ 타데우스 로제비치 타라스 셰우첸코 탈리에신 터누 트루베츠키 테드 휴스 테오도어 슈토름 테오도어 폰타네 테오크리토스 테오필 고티에 토르콰토 타소 토마스 킹고 토머스 맬러리 토머스 머턴 토머스 채터턴 토머스 하디 투팍 샤커 툴시다스 트리스탕 차라 티불루스 ㅍ 파블로 네루다 파울 첼란 패트릭 피어스 패티 스미스 팬 놀리 퍼시 비시 셸리 페데리코 가르시아 로르카 페드로 칼데론 데 라 바르카 페르난두 페소아 펜초 슬라베이코프 펫코 슬라베이코프 폴 로런스 던바 폴 발레리 폴 베를렌 폴 엘뤼아르 폴 오스터 폴 클로델 표도르 튜체프 퓌줄리 프란체 프레셰렌 프란체스코 페트라르카 프란츠 그릴파르처 프란츠 베르펠 프랑수아 비용 프랜시스 보몬트 프랜시스 콘퍼드 프로페르티우스 프리드리히 고틀리프 클로프슈토크 프리드리히 니체 프리드리히 실러 프리드리히 횔덜린 피르다우시 피에르 드 롱사르 피트 도허티 핀다로스 ㅎ 하뤼 마르틴손 하인리히 뵐 하인리히 하이네 하피즈 한스 마그누스 엔첸스베르거 한스 크리스티안 안데르센 한유 허먼 멜빌 헤로다스 헤르만 헤세 헤시오도스 헨리 데이비드 소로 헨리 워즈워스 롱펠로 헨리 필딩 헨리크 입센 호라티우스 호르헤 기옌 호르헤 루이스 보르헤스 호메로스 호세 마르티 호쑤언흐엉 후고 폰 호프만스탈 흐리스토 보테프 힐다 둘리틀 힐레어 벨럭

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20poets

List of poets

This is an alphabetical list of internationally notable poets. A Ab–Ak Aarudhra (1925–1968), Indian Telugu poet, born Bhagavatula Sadasiva Sankara Sastry Jonathan Aaron (born 1941), US poet Chris Abani (born 1966), Nigerian poet Henry Abbey (1842–1911), US poet Eleanor Hallowell Abbott (1872–1958), US poet and fiction writer Siôn Abel (fl. 18th c.), Welsh balladeer Aria Aber (born 1991), Afghan poet and novelist, resides in the US, writes & publishes primarily in English Lascelles Abercrombie (1881–1938), English poet and literary critic Arthur Talmage Abernethy (1872–1956), US journalist, minister, scholar; first North Carolina Poet Laureate Sam Abrams (born 1935), US poet, editor and critic Seth Abramson (born 1976), US poet Kosta Abrašević (1879–1898), Serbian poet Dannie Abse (1923–2014), Welsh poet in English Kathy Acker (1947–1997), US experimental novelist, punk poet and playwright Diane Ackerman (born 1948), US author, poet and naturalist Duane Ackerson (1942–2020), US writer of speculative poetry and fiction Milton Acorn (1923–1986), Canadian poet, writer and playwright Harold Acton (1904–1994), English writer, scholar and dilettante János Aczél (died 1523), Hungarian poet and provost Tamás Aczél (1921–1994), Hungarian poet Gilbert Adair (1944–2011), Scottish novelist, poet and critic Virginia Hamilton Adair (1919–2004), US poet Helen Adam (1909–1993), Scottish-US poet, collagist and photographer Draginja Adamović (1925–2000), Serbian poet John Adams (1704–1740), US poet Léonie Adams (1899–1988), US poet Ryan Adams (born 1974), US singer-songwriter and writer Hendrik Adamson (1891–1946), Estonian poet Fleur Adcock (born 1934), New Zealand poet mainly in England Joseph Addison (1672–1719), English essayist, poet, writer and politician Kim Addonizio (born 1954) US poet and novelist Artur Adson (1889–1977), Estonian poet Endre Ady (1877–1919), Hungarian poet Mariska Ady (1888–1977), Hungarian poet Aeschylus (525–456 BCE), Athenian tragedian Lucius Afranius (fl. c. 94 BCE), Roman comic poet Anastasia Afanasieva (born 1982), Ukrainian physician, poet, writer, translator John Agard (born 1949), Afro-Guyanese poet and children's writer Patience Agbabi (born 1965), British poet and performer James Agee (1909–1955), US novelist, screenwriter, and poet Deborah Ager (born 1977), US poet and editor István Ágh (born 1938), Hungarian poet Kelli Russell Agodon (born 1969), US poet Dritëro Agolli (1931–2017), Albanian poet Carlos Martínez Aguirre (born 1974), Spanish poet Delmira Agustini (1886–1914), Uruguayan poet Ishaaq bin Ahmed (1095 – 12th century), Arab scholar, poet and ancestor of the Somali Isaaq clan-family Ai (Florence Anthony, 1947–2010), US poet Ama Ata Aidoo (1940–2023), Ghanaian novelist, poet, playwright and academic Conrad Aiken (1889–1973), US poet and author Aganice Ainianos (1838–1892), Greek poet Akazome Emon (956–1041), Japanese poet and historian Mark Akenside (1721–1770), English poet and physician Rachel Akerman (1522–1544), Austrian Jewish poet writing in German Mehdi Akhavan-Sales (1929–1990), Iranian poet Bella Akhmadulina (1937–2010), Russian poet Anna Akhmatova (1889–1966), Russian poet Jan Nisar Akhtar (1914–1976), Indian Urdu poet Javed Akhtar (born 1945), Indian poet, lyricist and scriptwriter Salman Akhtar (born 1946), Indian US professor and poet writing in English and Urdu Al–Am Amina Al Adwan (born 1935), Jordanian writer, poet and critic Muhammad Taha Al-Qaddal (1951–2021), Sudanese poet Luigi Alamanni (1495–1556), Italian poet and statesman Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair (c. 1698–1770), Scottish Gaelic poet Ave Alavainu (born 1942), Estonian poet Gillebríghde Albanach (fl. 1200–1230), Scottish Gaelic poet and crusader Alcaeus (4th c. BCE), Athenian comic poet in Greek Alcaeus of Messene (fl. late 3rd/early 2nd c. BCE), Greek writer of verse epigrams Alcaeus of Mytilene (7th–6th c. BCE), Greek lyric poet from Lesbos Allamraju Subrahmanyakavi (1831–1892), Indian Telugu poet Guru Amar Das (1479–1574), Punjabi poet and Sikh guru Ammiel Alcalay (born 1956), US poet, scholar and critic Alcman (fl. 7th c. BCE), Ancient Greek lyric poet Amos Bronson Alcott (1799–1888), US poet and teacher Richard Aldington (1892–1962), English poet and writer Vasile Alecsandri (1821–1890), Romanian poet Tudur Aled (c. 1465–1525), Welsh poet writing in Welsh Claribel Alegría (1924–2018), Central US poet writing in Spanish Vicente Aleixandre (1898–1984), Spanish poet, Nobel Laureate 1977 Josip Murn Aleksandrov (1879–1901), Slovene symbolist poet Sherman Alexie (born 1966), US poet and writer Felipe Alfau (1902–1999), Catalan US novelist and poet Agha Shahid Ali (1949–2001) Indian, Kashmiri and US poet Taha Muhammad Ali (1931–2011), Palestinian poet Dante Alighieri (1265–1321), Italian poet James Alexander Allan (1889–1956), Australian poet August Alle (1899–1952), Estonian poet William Allegrezza (born 1974), US poet, professor and editor Dick Allen (1939–2017), US poet, critic and academic Donald Allen (1912–2004), US poet, editor and translator Elizabeth Akers Allen (1832–1911), US author and poet Ron Allen (1947–2010), US poet and playwright Artur Alliksaar (1923–1966), Estonian poet William Allingham (1824 or 1828–1889), Irish poet and man of letters Washington Allston (1779–1843), US painter and poet Damaso Alonso (1898–1990), Spanish poet, philologist and critic Alta (Alta Gerrey; born 1942), US poet and writer Natan Alterman (1910–1970), Israeli poet, journalist and translator Alurista (born 1947), Chicano poet and activist Al Alvarez (fl. 1929–2019), English poet Julia Alvarez (born 1950), Dominican-US poet, novelist and essayist Betti Alver (1906–1989), Estonian poet Moniza Alvi (born 1954), Pakistani-British poet and writer Ambroise (fl. c. 1190), Norman-French poet of Third Crusade Yehuda Amichai (1924–2000), Israeli poet Indran Amirthanayagam (born 1960), Sri Lankan US poet, essayist and translator Kingsley Amis (1922–1995), English author and poet A. R. Ammons (1926–2001), US author and poet An–Aq Anacreon (570–488 BCE), Greek lyric poet Alfred Andersch (1914–1980), German writer and publisher Mir Anees or Anis) (1803–1874), Indian poet in Urdu Guda Anjaiah (1955–2016), Telugu Indian poet, singer, lyricist and writer from Telangana Ardan Angarkhaev (born 1946), Russian poet and writer Temsüla Ao (born 1945), Indian Naga poet, short story writer, and ethnographer Ana Paula Arendt (born 1980), Brazilian classical poet Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875), Danish poet and children's writer Victor Henry Anderson (1917–2001), US poet, kahuna and teacher of the Feri Tradition Carlos Drummond de Andrade (1902–1987), Brazilian poet Mário de Andrade (1893–1945), Brazilian poet, novelist and critic Bernard André (1450–1522), French Augustinian poet: poet laureate to Henry VII of England Peter Andrej (born 1959), Slovenian poet and musician Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen (1919–2004), Portuguese poet and writer Bruce Andrews (born 1948), US poet of language Kevin Andrews (1924–1989), Anglo-Greek philhellene writer and archeologist Ron Androla (born 1954), US poet Guru Angad (1504–1552), Sikh Guru and Punjabi poet Aneirin (fl. 6th c.), Brythonic epic poet Ralph Angel (1951–2020), US poet and translator Maya Angelou (1928–2014), US poet James Stout Angus (1830–1923), Shetland poet mainly in Shetland dialect Marion Angus (1865–1946), Scottish poet in Scots J. K. Annand (1908–1993), Scottish children's poet Mika Antić (1932–1986), Serbian poet David Antin (1932–2016), US poet and critic Antler (born 1946), US poet Susanne Antonetta (born 1956), US poet and author Brother Antoninus (1912–1994), US poet Raymond Antrobus (living), British Chairil Anwar (1922–1949), Indonesian poet Johannes Anyuru (born 1979), Swedish poet Guillaume Apollinaire (1880–1918), French poet Apollonius of Rhodes (270 – post–245 BCE), Greek poet and librarian in Alexandria Maja Apostoloska (born 1976), Macedonian poet Philip Appleman (1926–2020), US poet and professor Lajos Áprily (1887–1967), Hungarian poet and translator Pawlu Aquilina (1929–2009), Maltese poet Ar Louis Aragon (1897–1982), French poet, novelist and editor János Arany (1817–1882), Hungarian poet Archilochus (c. 680 – c. 645 BCE), Greek lyric poet Walter Conrad Arensberg (1878–1954), US dadaist, critic and poet Tudor Arghezi (1880–1967), Romanian poet Ludovico Ariosto (1474–1533), Italian poet Aristophanes (c. 446 – c. 386 BCE), Greek dramatic poet Guru Arjan (1563–1606), Sikh guru and Punjabi poet Rae Armantrout (born 1947), US language poet Simon Armitage (born 1963), English poet, playwright and novelist Richard Armour (1906–1989), US poet and author Ernst Moritz Arndt (1769–1860), German author and poet Bettina von Arnim (1785–1859), German writer, composer and visual artist Ludwig Achim von Arnim (1781–1831), German poet and novelist Craig Arnold (1967–2009), US poet and professor Matthew Arnold (1822–1888), English poet and cultural critic Arnórr Þórðarson jarlaskáld (Poet of Earls, c. 1012 – 1070s), Icelandic skald Jean Arp (1886–1966), German-French sculptor, painter and poet Franciszka Arnsztajnowa (1865–1942), Polish poet Antonin Artaud (1896–1948), French playwright, poet and essayist As–Az M. K. Asante (born 1982), US author, poet and professor John Ashbery (1927–2017), US poet, 1976 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry Cliff Ashby (1919–2012), English poet and novelist Renée Ashley, US poet and novelist Anton Aškerc (1856–1912), Slovenian poet and Roman Catholic priest Adam Asnyk (1838–1897), Polish poet and dramatist Herbert Asquith (1881–1947), English poet Mina Assadi (born 1942), Iranian poet, author and songwriter Vishnu Raj Atreya (1944–2020), Nepali poet, author, songwriter and novelist Margaret Atwood (born 1939), Canadian poet, novelist and essayist W. H. Auden (1907–1973), Anglo-US poet, essayist Imre Augustich (Imre Augustič, 1837–1879), Slovenian/Hungarian poet Joseph Auslander (1897–1965), US poet, anthologist and novelist; US Poet Laureate, 1937–1941 Ausonius (c. 310–395), Latin poet and rhetorician at Burdigala (Bordeaux) Paul Auster (born 1947), US poet, novelist, playwright, essayist, and translator James Avery (1948–2013), US actor, poet and screenwriter Margaret Avison (1918–2007), Canadian poet Krayem Awad (born 1948), Viennese painter, sculptor and poet of Syrian origin Gennady Aygi (1934–2006), Russian poet Ayo Ayoola-Amale (born 1970), Nigerian poet Pam Ayres (born 1947), English humorous poet Robert Aytoun (1570–1638), Scottish poet Maryam Jafari Azarmani (born 1977), Iranian poet, essayist, critic and translator Jody Azzouni (born 1954), US philosopher and poet B Ba Mihály Babits (1883–1941), Hungarian poet and translator Ken Babstock (born 1970), Canadian poet Jimmy Santiago Baca (born 1952), US poet and writer of Apache/Chicano descent Bacchylides (fl. 5th c. BCE), Greek lyric poet Bellamy Bach (fl. 1980s), joint pseudonym of fiction writers and poets Harivansh Rai Bachchan (fl. 20th c.), Hindi poet Joseph M. Bachelor (also Joseph Morris, 1889–1947), US author, poet and educator Simon Bacher (1823–1991), Hebrew poet in Hungary Ingeborg Bachmann (1926–1973), Austrian poet and author Sutardji Calzoum Bachri (born 1941), Indonesian poet George Bacovia (1881–1957), Romanian poet Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński (1921–1944), Polish poet and soldier Julio Baghy (1891–1967), Hungarian Esperanto author and poet Bai Juyi (772–846), Chinese poet of Tang dynasty Joanna Baillie (1762–1851), Scottish poet and dramatist József Bajza (1804–1858), Hungarian poet and critic Józef Baka (1706/1707–1788), Polish/Lithuanian poet and Jesuit priest Vyt Bakaitis (born 1940), Lithuania-US translator, editor and poet David Baker (born 1954), US poet Hinemoana Baker (born 1968) New Zealand poet and musician Bâkî (1526–1600), Ottoman-Turkish language poet (pseudonym of Mahmud Abdülbâkî) John Balaban (born 1943), US poet and translator Bálint Balassi (1554–1594), Hungarian poet Béla Balázs (1884–1949), Hungarian poet and critic Edward Balcerzan (born 1937), Polish poet, critic and translator Stanisław Baliński (1898–1984), Polish poet and diplomat Jesse Ball (born 1978), US poet and novelist Zsófia Balla (born 1949), Hungarian poet from Romania Addie L. Ballou (1837–1916), US poet and suffragist Konstantin Balmont (1867–1942), Russian symbolist poet and translator Russell Banks (born 1940), US fiction writer and poet Anne Bannerman (1765–1829), Scottish poet Amiri Baraka (aka Leroi Jones) (1934–2014), US writer, poet and dramatist Marcin Baran (born 1963), Polish poet and journalist Stanisław Barańczak (1946–2014), Polish poet, critic and translator Anna Laetitia Barbauld (1743–1825), English poet, essayist and children's author Porfirio Barba-Jacob (1883–1942), Colombian poet and writer John Barbour (c. 1320–1395), Scottish poet, first major writer in Scots Alexander Barclay (c. 1476–1552), English/Scottish poet George Barker (1913–1991), English poet and author Les Barker (born 1947), English poet Coleman Barks (born 1937), US poet Christine Barkhuizen le Roux (1959–2020), South African poet Mihály Barla (Miháo Barla, c. 1778–1824), Slovenian poet and pastor in Hungary Mary Barnard (1909–2001), US poet, biographer and translator Djuna Barnes (1892–1982), US writer William Barnes (1801–1886), English writer, poet and philologist Catherine Barnett (born 1960), US poet and educator Richard Barnfield (1574–1620), English poet Willis Barnstone (born 1927), US poet and literary translator Maria Barrell (died 1803), poet, playwright and writer of periodicals Laird Barron (born 1970), US poet, author Sándor Barta (1897–1938), Hungarian poet executed in USSR Bernard Barton (1784–1849), English poet and Quaker Bertha Hirsch Baruch (fl. late 18th – early 19th c.), US writer, poet and suffragist Todd Bash (born 1965), US avant-garde playwright, poet and writer Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694), Japanese renku and haiku poet Michael Basinski (born 1950), US text, visual and sound poet Ellen Bass (born 1947), US poet Arlo Bates (1850–1918), US author, poet and educator David Bates (1809–1870), US poet Joseph Bathanti (born 1953), US poet, writer and professor; North Carolina Poet Laureate János Batsányi (1763–1845), Hungarian poet Dawn-Michelle Baude (born 1959), US poet, journalist and educator Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867), French poet, essayist and translator Cirilo Bautista (1941–2018), Philippines poet, writer and critic Charles Baxter (born 1947), US writer and poet James K. Baxter (1926–1972), New Zealand poet Be Jan Beatty (born 1952), US poet Francis Beaumont (1584–1616), English poet and dramatist Samuel Beckett (1906–1989), Irish avant-garde playwright, novelist and poet Joshua Beckman (living), US poet Matija Bećković (born 1939), Serbian writer and poet Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer (1836–1870), Spanish poet and fiction writer Thomas Lovell Beddoes (1803–1849), English poet, dramatist and physician Patricia Beer (1919–1999), English poet and critic Sapargali Begalin (1895–1983), Kazakh poet Aphra Behn (1640–1689), English Restoration dramatist; early professional female writer Ferenc Békássy (1893–1915), Hungarian poet Erin Belieu (born 1967), US poet Marvin Bell (1937–2020), US poet and teacher; first Poet Laureate of State of Iowa Gioconda Belli (born 1948), Nicaraguan poet and novelist Giuseppe Gioachino Belli (1791–1863), Italian sonneteer in Romanesco Xuan Bello (born 1965), Asturian poet Hilaire Belloc (1870–1953), Anglo-French writer and historian Andrei Bely (1880–1934), Russian novelist, poet and critic Stephen Vincent Benét (1898–1943), US author, poet and fiction writer William Rose Benét (1886–1950), US poet, writer and editor Elizabeth Benger (1775–1827), English poet, biographer and novelist Gottfried Benn (1886–1956), German essayist, novelist and expressionist poet Gwendolyn B. Bennett (1902–1981), African-US writer and poet Jim Bennett (born 1951), English poet in Liverpool punk era Richard Berengarten (born 1943) English poet, writer and translator Bo Bergman (1869–1967), Swedish writer and critic İlhan Berk (1918–2008), Turkish poet Charles Bernstein (born 1950), US poet and scholar Béroul (12th c.), Norman poet of episodic Tristan Daniel Berrigan (1921–2016), US poet, priest and peace activist Ted Berrigan (1934–1983), US poet James Berry (1924–2017), Jamaican poet based in England Wendell Berry (born 1934), US man of letters, critic and farmer John Berryman (1914–1972), US poet and scholar Dániel Berzsenyi (1776–1836), Hungarian poet Mary Ursula Bethell (1874–1945), New Zealand poet and social worker John Betjeman (1906–1984), English poet, writer and broadcaster Elizabeth Beverley (fl. 1815–1830), English poet, writer and entertainer Helen Bevington (1906–2001), US poet, prose writer and educator L. S. Bevington (1845–1895), English anarchist poet and essayist Bh–Bl Subramanya Bharathi (1882–1921), Tamil writer, poet and Indian independence activist Sujata Bhatt (born 1956), Indian poet in Gujarati Źmitrok Biadula (1886–1941), Jewish Belarusian poet, prose writer and independence activist Miron Białoszewski (1922–1983), Polish poet, novelist and playwright Zbigniew Bieńkowski (1913–1994), Polish poet, critic and translator Biernat of Lublin (c. 1465 – post-1529), Polish poet and fabulist Laurence Binyon (1879–1943), English poet, dramatist and art scholar Earle Birney (1904–1995), Canadian poet, fiction writer and dramatist Nevin Birsa (1947–2003), Slovene poet Balázs Birtalan (1969–2016), Hungarian poet and publicist Elizabeth Bishop (1911–1979), US poet and short-story writer; US Poet Laureate Ram Prasad Bismil (1897–1927), poet and revolutionary writing in Urdu and Hindi Bill Bissett (born 1939), Canadian anti-conventional poet Sherwin Bitsui (born 1975), US Navajo poet Paul Blackburn (1926–1971) US poet Richard Palmer Blackmur (1904–1965), US literary critic and poet Lucian Blaga (1895–1961), Romanian philosopher, poet and playwright Lewis Blake (born 1946), English poet William Blake (1757–1827), English painter, poet and printmaker Don Blanding (1894–1957), US poet, journalist, writer and speaker Adrian Blevins (born 1964), US poet Mathilde Blind (1841–1896), German-born English poet and writer Alexander Blok (1880–1921), Russian lyrical poet Benjamin Paul Blood (1832–1919), US philosopher and poet Robert Bloomfield (1766–1823), English laboring-class poet Roy Blumenthal (born 1968), South African poet Edmund Blunden (1896–1974), English poet, author and literary critic Wilfrid Scawen Blunt (1840–1922), English poet and writer Robert Bly (1926–2021), US poet, author and leader of mythopoetic men's movement Bo–Bri Johannes Bobrowski (1917–1965), East German author and poet Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375), Italian author and poet Jean Bodel (1165–1210), Old French poet Ádám Bodor (born 1936), Hungarian poet from Romania Louise Bogan (1897–1970), US poet; fourth US Poet Laureate Matteo Maria Boiardo (1440/1441–1494), Italian Renaissance poet Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux (1636–1711), French poet and critic Michelle Boisseau (1955–2017), US poet Christian Bök (born 1966), experimental Canadian poet Osbern Bokenam (c. 1393 – c. 1464), English poet and friar Eavan Boland (1944–2020), Irish poet Alan Bold (1943–1998), Scottish poet, biographer and journalist Heinrich Böll (1917–1985), German novelist Edmund Bolton (c. 1575 – c. 1633), English historian and poet Nozawa Bonchō (c. 1640–1714), Japanese haikai poet Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906–1945), German poet and Lutheran theologian Arna Wendell Bontemps (1902–1973), US poet and member of the Harlem Renaissance Luke Booker (1762–1835), English poet, cleric and antiquary Kurt Boone (born 1959), US poet Jorge Luis Borges (1899–1986), Argentine fiction writer, essayist and poet Tadeusz Borowski (1922–1951), Polish writer and journalist Hristo Botev (1848–1876), Bulgarian poet and revolutionary Gordon Bottomley (1874–1948), English poet and verse dramatist David Bottoms (born 1949), US poet; Georgia Poet Laureate Cathy Smith Bowers (born 1949), US poet; North Carolina Poet Laureate 2010–2012 Edgar Bowers (1924–2000), US poet and Bollingen Prize in Poetry winner Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński (1874–1941), Polish poet, critic and translator Mark Alexander Boyd (1562–1601), Scottish poet and mercenary Kay Boyle (1902–1992), US writer, educator and political activist Alison Brackenbury (born 1953), English poet Anne (Dudley) Bradstreet (c. 1612 – 1672) America's first published poet Di Brandt (born 1952), Canadian poet and literary critic Giannina Braschi (born 1953), US poet born in Puerto Rico Kamau Brathwaite (1930–2020), Barbadian writer Richard Brautigan (1935–1984), US fiction writer and poet Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956), German playwright, poet and lyricist Gerbrand Adriaensz Bredero (1585–1618), Dutch poet and playwright Radovan Brenkus (born 1974), Slovak writer and poet Christopher Brennan (1870–1932), Australian poet and scholar Joseph Payne Brennan (1918–1990), US poet and writer of fantasy and horror fiction Clemens Brentano (1778–1842), German poet and novelist André Breton (1896–1966), French writer, poet and founder of Surrealism Nicholas Breton (1545–1626), English poet and novelist Ken Brewer (1941–2006), US poet and scholar; Utah Poet Laureate Breyten Breytenbach (born 1939), South-African/French writer, poet and painter Robert Bridges (1844–1930), English poet; Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom Robert Bringhurst (born 1946), Canadian poet, typographer and author Bro–By Geoffrey Brock (born 1964), US poet and translator Eve Brodlique (1867–1949), British-born Canadian/American poet, author and journalist Joseph Brodsky (1940–1996), Russian poet and essayist Wladyslaw Broniewski (1897–1962), Polish poet and soldier William Bronk (1918–1999), US poet Anne Brontë (1820–1849), English novelist and poet, youngest of three Brontë sisters Charlotte Brontë (1816–1855), English novelist and poet, eldest of three Brontë sisters Emily Brontë (1818–1848), English novelist and poet Rupert Brooke (1887–1915), English poet Gwendolyn Brooks (1917–2000), African-US poet; US Poet Laureate Hans Adolph Brorson (1694–1764), Danish poet and Pietist bishop Joan Brossa (1919–1998), Catalan poet, playwright and artist Nicole Brossard (born 1943), French Canadian formalist poet and novelist Olga Broumas (born 1949), Greek poet in United States Flora Brovina (born 1949), Kosovar Albanian poet, pediatrician and women's rights activist Petrus Brovka (aka Pyotr Ustinovich Brovka) (1905–1980), Soviet Belarusian poet George Mackay Brown (1921–1996), Scottish poet, author and dramatist James Brown known as J. B. Selkirk (1832–1904), Scottish poet and essayist Sterling Brown (1901–1989), African-US academic writer and poet Thomas Edward Brown (1830–1897), Manx poet, scholar and theologian Frances Browne (1816–1887), Irish poet and novelist William Browne (1590–1643), English poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806–1861), English poet Robert Browning (1812–1889), English poet and playwright William Cullen Bryant (1794–1878), US romantic poet and journalist Colette Bryce (born 1970), Northern Irish poet Bryher (aka Annie Winifred Ellerman) (1894–1983), English novelist, poet and memoirist Valeri Bryusov (1873–1924), Russian poet, novelist and critic Jan Brzechwa (1898–1966), Polish poet and children's writer Dugald Buchanan (Dùghall Bochanan) (1716–1768), Scottish poet in Scots and Scottish Gaelic Robert Williams Buchanan (1841–1901), Scottish poet, novelist and dramatist Georg Büchner (1813–1837), German writer, poet and dramatist August Buchner (1591–1661), German Baroque poet and professor Vincent Buckley (1927–1988), Australian poet, essayist and critic David Budbill (1940–2016), US poet and playwright Andrea Hollander Budy (born 1947), US poet Teodor Bujnicki (1907–1944), Polish poet Charles Bukowski (1920–1994), US poet, novelist and short story writer Ivan Bunin (1870–1953) Russian poet and novelist Basil Bunting (1900–1985), English modernist poet Anthony Burgess (1917–1993), English writer, poet and playwright Robert Burns (1759–1796), Scottish poet and a lyricist Stanley Burnshaw (1906–2005), US poet John Burnside (born 1955), Scottish poet and writer, winner of T. S. Eliot and Forward poetry prizes William S. Burroughs (1914–1997), US novelist, poet and essayist Andrzej Bursa (1932–1957), Polish poet and writer Yosa Buson (1716–1783), Japanese haikai poet and painter Raegan Butcher (born 1969), US poet and singer Ray Buttigieg (born 1955), poet, composer and musician Ignazio Buttitta (1899–1997), Sicilian language poet Anthony Butts (born 1969), US poet Kathryn Stripling Byer (1944–2017), US poet and teacher; North Carolina Poet Laureate 2005–09 Witter Bynner (also Emanuel Morgan, 1881–1968), US poet, writer and scholar George Gordon Byron, Lord Byron (1788–1824), English poet and literary figure C Cab–Cav Lydia Cabrera (1899–1991), Cuban anthropologist and poet Dilys Cadwaladr (1902–1979), Welsh poet and fiction writer in Welsh Cædmon (fl. 7th c.), earliest Northumbrian poet known by name Maoilios Caimbeul (born 1944), Scots poet and children's writer in Gaelic Scott Cairns (born 1954), US poet, memoirist and essayist Alison Calder, Canadian poet and educator Angus Calder (1942–2008), Scots poet, academic and educator Pedro Calderón de la Barca y Barreda González de Henao Ruiz de Blasco y Riaño (1600–1681), Spanish dramatist, poet and writer of Spanish Golden Age Musa Cälil (1906–1944), Soviet Tatar poet Barry Callaghan (born 1937), Canadian author, poet and anthologist Michael Feeney Callan (born 1955), Irish poet, novelist and biographer Callimachus (c. 305 – c. 240 BCE), Hellenistic poet, critic and scholar at Library of Alexandria Robert Calvert (1944–1988), South African writer, poet and musician Norman Cameron (1905–1953), Scottish poet Luís de Camões (c. 1524–1580), early Portuguese poet Angus Peter Campbell (aka Aonghas P(h)àdraig Caimbeul, born 1952), Scottish poet, novelist, broadcaster and actor David Campbell (1915–1979), Australian poet and wartime pilot Roy Campbell (1901–1957), South African poet and satirist Thomas Campbell (1777–1844), Scottish poet Jan Campert (1902–1943), Dutch poet and journalist Remco Campert (1929–2022), Dutch poet and novelist Thomas Campion (1567–1619), English composer, poet and physician Matilde Camus (1919–2012), Spanish poet and researcher Melville Henry Cane (1879–1980), US poet and lawyer Ivan Cankar (1876–1918), Slovene playwright, essayist and poet May Wedderburn Cannan (1893–1973), English poet Edip Cansever (1928–1986), Turkish poet Cao Cao (155–220), Chinese poet and warlord Cao Pi (formally Emperor Wen of Wei) (187–226), Chinese poet and first emperor of state of Cao Wei; second son of Cao Cao Cao Zhi (192–232), Chinese poet; third son of Cao Cao Vahni Capildeo (born 1973), Trinidadian poet Ernesto Cardenal (1925–2020), Nicaraguan Roman Catholic poet and priest Giosuè Carducci (1835–1907), Italian poet and teacher Thomas Carew (1595–1639), English Cavalier poet Henry Carey (1687–1743), English poet, dramatist and songwriter Robert Carliell (died c. 1622), English didactic poet Bliss Carman (1861–1929), Canadian-US poet associated with Confederation Poets Fern G. Z. Carr (born 1956), Canadian poet, translator, teacher and lawyer Jim Carroll (1949–2009), US author, poet and punk musician Lewis Carroll (born Charles Lutwidge Dodgson) (1832–1898), English writer, mathematician and photographer Hayden Carruth (1921–2008), US poet and literary critic Ann Elizabeth Carson (born 1929), Canadian poet, artist and feminist Anne Carson (born 1950), Canadian poet, essayist and translator Elizabeth Carter (1717–1806), English poet and bluestocking Jared Carter (born 1939), US poet and editor William Cartwright (1611–1643), English dramatist and churchman Neal Cassady (1926–1968), figure in 1950s Beat Generation and 1960s psychedelic movement Cyrus Cassells (born 1957), US poet and professor Rosalía de Castro (1837–1885), Galician poet Catullus (c. 84–54 BCE), Latin poet under the Roman Republic Charles Causley (1917–2003), Cornish poet, schoolmaster and writer C. P. Cavafy (1863–1933), Greek poet, journalist and civil servant Guido Cavalcanti (1250s – 1300), Florentine poet and friend of Dante Alighieri Nick Cave (born 1957), Australian writer, musician and actor Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle-upon-Tyne (1623–1673), English writer, aristocrat and scientist Ce–Cl Paul Celan (1920–1970), Romanian-born Jewish poet and translator Thomas Centolella (living), US poet Blaise Cendrars (1887–1961), French poet and author Anica Černej (1900–1944), Slovene author and poet Luis Cernuda (1903–1963), Spanish poet and literary critic Aimé Césaire (1913–2008), French poet, author and politician from Martinique Mário Cesariny de Vasconcelos (1923–2006), Portuguese surrealist poet Úrsula Céspedes (1832–1874), Cuban poet Ashok Chakradhar (born 1951), Hindi author and poet John Chalkhill (fl. 1600), English poet Jean Chapelain (1595–1674), French poet and critic Arthur Chapman (1873–1935), US cowboy poet and columnist George Chapman (1559–1634), English dramatist, translator and poet Fred Chappell (born 1936), US author and poet; North Carolina Poet Laureate 1997–2002 René Char (1907–1998), French poet Charles, Duke of Orléans (1394–1465), poet Craig Charles (born 1964), English writer, poet and comedian Thomas Chatterton (1752–1770), English poet and forger of medieval poetry Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343–1400), poet, philosopher and alchemist Subhadra Kumari Chauhan (1904–1948), Indian poet writing in Hindi Reverend Fr. Fray Angelico Chavez (1910–1996), US writer, poet and Franciscan priest Susana Chávez (1974–2011), Mexican poet and human rights activist Syl Cheney-Coker (born 1945), Sierra Leone poet and novelist Andrea Cheng (1957–2015), Hungarian-US poet and children's author Kelly Cherry (born 1940), US author and poet; Poet Laureate of Virginia 2010–2012 G. K. Chesterton (1874–1936), English writer and poet Choe Chiwon (born 857), Korean (Silla) poet Fukuda Chiyo-ni (1703–1775), female Japanese haiku poet of Edo period Henri Chopin (1922–2008), avant-garde poet and musician Jean Chopinel (or Jean de Meun) (c. 1240 – c. 1305), French writer Chrétien de Troyes (fl. 12th c.), French poet Ralph Chubb (1892–1960), poet, painter and printer Charles Churchill (1732–1764), English poet and satirist John Ciardi (1916–1986) Italian-US poet, translator and etymologist Colley Cibber (1671–1757), English playwright and Poet Laureate Jovan Ćirilov (1931–2014), Serbian drama expert, writer and poet Carson Cistulli (born 1979), US poet, essayist and English professor Hélène Cixous (born 1937), French feminist writer, poet and playwright Amy Clampitt (1920–1994), US poet and author Kate Clanchy (born 1965), Scottish poet and writer John Clanvowe (c. 1341–1391), Anglo-Welsh poet and diplomat John Clare (1793–1864), English poet Elizabeth Clark (1918–1978), Scottish poet and playwright Austin Clarke (1896–1974), Irish poet George Elliott Clarke (born 1960), Canadian poet and academic Gillian Clarke (born 1937), Welsh poet and playwright in English Paul Claudel (1868–1955), French poet, dramatist and diplomat Claudian (c. 370–404), Latin poet at court of Emperor Honorius Matthias Claudius (Asmus, 1740–1815), German poet Hugo Claus (1929–2008), Belgian author, poet and film director Brian P. Cleary (born 1959), US humorist, poet and author Jack Clemo (1916–1994), English Christian poet Michelle Cliff (1946–2016), Jamaican-US author of fiction, prose poems and literary criticism Lucille Clifton (1936–2010), educator and Poet Laureate of Maryland Arthur Hugh Clough (1819–1861), English poet, educationalist and assistant to Florence Nightingale Coa–Con Grace Stone Coates (1881–1976), US poet and story writer Robbie Coburn (born 1994), Australian poet Alison Cockburn (1712–1794), Scottish poet, wit and socialite Jean Cocteau (1889–1963), French writer Judith Ortiz Cofer (1952–2016), Puerto Rican poet and author Leonard Cohen (1934–2016), Canadian singer-songwriter, poet and novelist Wanda Coleman (1946–2013), African-US poet Hartley Coleridge (1796–1849), English poet, biographer and essayist Mary Elizabeth Coleridge (1861–1907), English novelist, essayist and poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772–1834), English poet Edward Coletti (born 1944), Italian-US poet Billy Collins (born 1941), US poet; US Poet Laureate 2001–2003 William Collins (1721–1759), English poet William Congreve (1670–1729), English playwright and poet Stewart Conn (born 1936), Scottish poet and playwright Paul Conneally (born 1959), English poet, artist and musician Robert Conquest (1917–2015), Anglo-US historian and poet Henry Constable (1562–1613), English poet David Constantine (born 1944), English poet and translator Coo–Cz Clark Coolidge (born 1939), US poet Wendy Cope (born 1945), English poet Robert Copland (fl. 1508–1547), English printer, author and translator Julia Copus (born 1969), English poet and biographer Denys Corbet (1826–1909), Guernsey poet in Guernésiais Tristan Corbière (1845–1875), French poet Cid Corman (1924–2004), US poet, translator and editor Alfred Corn (born 1943), US poet and essayist Frances Cornford (1886–1960), English poet F. M. Cornford (1874–1943), English classical scholar and poet; husband of Frances Cornford Joe Corrie (1894–1968), Scottish miner, poet and playwright Gregory Corso (1930–2001), US Beat poet Jayne Cortez (1936–2012), US poet and performance artist George Coșbuc (1866–1918), Romanian poet, translator and teacher Charles Cotton (1630–1687), English poet, author and translator Abraham Cowley (1618–1667), English poet Malcolm Cowley (1898–1989), US novelist, poet and critic William Cowper (1731–1800), English poet and hymnist George Crabbe (1754–1832), English poet, naturalist and clergyman Hart Crane (1899–1932), US modernist poet Stephen Crane (1871–1900), US novelist, short story writer and poet Richard Crashaw (1613–1649), English Metaphysical poet Robert Creeley (1926–2005), US poet Octave Crémazie (1827–1879), French Canadian poet Ann Batten Cristall (1769–1848), English poet Charles Cros (1842–1888), French poet and inventor Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), English occultist and poet Andrew Crozier (1943–2008), English poet György Csanády (1895–1952), Hungarian poet and journalist Sándor Csoóri (1930–2016), Hungarian poet, essayist and politician Cui Hao (c. 704–754), Tang Dynasty Chinese poet Countee Cullen (1903–1946), US poet Necati Cumalı (1921–2001), Turkish writer of fiction writer, essayist and poet E. E. Cummings (1894–1962), US poet, essayist and playwright Allan Cunningham (1784–1842), Scottish poet and author James Vincent Cunningham (1911–1985), US poet, literary critic and teacher Allen Curnow (1911–2001), New Zealand poet and journalist Ivor Cutler (1923–2006), Scottish poet, songwriter and humorist Józef Czechowicz (1903–1939), Polish poet Gergely Czuczor (1800–1866), Hungarian poet, monk and academic Tytus Czyżewski (1880–1945), Polish poet, playwright and painter D Da–Dh Dalpatram (Dalpatram Dahyabhai Travadi) (1820–1898), Indian Gujarati language poet Roque Dalton (1935–1975), Salvador poet Ruby Dhal (born 1994), British-Afghan poet Sapardi Djoko Damono (1940–2020), Indonesian poet Samuel Daniel (1562–1619), English poet and historian David Daniels (1933–2008), US visual poet Jeffrey Daniels (living), African-US poet Thomas d'Angleterre, 12th-century poet in Old French Gabriele D'Annunzio (1863–1938), Italian poet, journalist, novelist and dramatist Hugh Antoine d'Arcy (1843–1925), French-born poet and writer Rubén Darío (1867–1916), Nicaraguan poet initiating modernismo Keki Daruwalla (born 1937), Indian poet and fiction writer in English Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802), English poet and herbalist Mahmoud Darwish (1941–2008), Palestinian poet and author Elizabeth Daryush (1887–1977), English poet; daughter of Robert Bridges Jibanananda Das (1899–1954), Bengali poet and author Petter Dass (died 1707), Norwegian poet Mina Dastgheib (born 1943), Iranian poet René Daumal (1908–1944), French para-surrealist writer and poet Jean Daurat (1508–1588), French poet, scholar and La Pléiade member William Davenant (1606–1668), English poet and playwright Guy Davenport (1927–2005), US writer, translator and illustrator Donald Davidson (1893–1968) US poet, essayist and critic John Davidson (1857–1909), Scottish balladeer, playwright and novelist Lucretia Maria Davidson (1808–1825), US poet Donald Davie (1922–1995), English poet and critic Alan Davies (born 1951), US poet, critic and editor Hugh Sykes Davies (1909–1984), English poet, novelist and communist Sir John Davies (1569–1626), English poet, lawyer and politician W. H. Davies (1871–1940), Welsh poet and writer Jon Davis, US poet Edward Davison (1898–1970), Scottish-US poet and critic; father of poet Peter Davison Peter Davison (1928–2004), US poet, essayist and editor; son of poet Edward Davison Denis Davydov (1784–1839), Russian soldier-poet of Napoleonic Wars Dayaram (1777–1853), Gujarati language poet Gábor Dayka (1769–1796), Hungarian poet Cecil Day-Lewis (1904–1972), Anglo-Irish poet; UK Poet Laureate 1968–1972 James Deahl (born 1945), Canadian poet and publisher Dulcie Deamer (1890–1972), Australian poet and novelist John F. Deane (born 1943), Irish poet and novelist Aleš Debeljak (1961–2016), Slovenian critic, poet and essayist Jean Louis De Esque (1879–1956), US poet and author Madeline DeFrees (1919–2015), US poet Jacek Dehnel (born 1980), Polish poet, translator and painter Thomas Dekker (1572–1641), English Elizabethan dramatist and pamphleteer Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (1651–1695), Mexican poet Baltasar del Alcázar (1530–1606), Spanish poet Walter de la Mare (1873–1956), English poet, short story writer and novelist Leconte de Lisle (1818–1894), French poet of Parnassian movement Christine De Luca (born 1947), Scottish poet in English and Shetland dialect François de Malherbe (1555–1628), French poet, critic and translator Alfred de Musset (1810–1857), French poet Gérard de Nerval (1808–1855), French poet, essayist and translator Sir John Denham (c. 1614–1669), English poet and courtier Tory Dent (1958–2005), US poet, critic and commentator Évariste de Parny (1753–1814), French poet Regina Derieva (1949–2013), Russian poet and writer Johan Andreas Dèr Mouw (1863–1919), Dutch poet and philosopher Toi Derricotte (born 1941), African-US poet Eustache Deschamps (1346–1406), medieval French poet Lord de Tabley (1835–1895), poet and botanist Babette Deutsch (1895–1982), US poet, critic and novelist Félix Lope de Vega y Carpio (1562–1635), Spanish playwright and poet Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, courtier and poet praised also for lost plays Alfred de Vigny (1797–1863), French poet, playwright and novelist Lakshmi Prasad Devkota (1909–1959), Nepali poet and essayist Phillippa Yaa de Villiers (born 1966), South African poet and performance artist Imtiaz Dharker (born 1954), Pakistan-born British poet, artist and filmmaker Dhurjati (c. 15th – 16th cc.), Telugu language poet Di–Dr Souéloum Diagho (living), Tuareg poet Pier Giorgio Di Cicco (1949–2019), Italian-Canadian poet; Poet Laureate of Toronto Jennifer K Dick (born 1970), US poet James Dickey (1923–1997), US poet and novelist; US Poet Laureate Emily Dickinson (1830–1886), US poet Matthew Dickman (born 1975), US poet, twin of Michael Dickman Michael Dickman (born 1975), US poet Blaga Dimitrova (1922–2003), Bulgarian poet and politician Ramdhari Singh Dinkar (1908–1974), Indian Hindi poet, essayist and academic Diane di Prima (1934–2020), US poet Paul Dirmeikis (born 1954), French poet Vladislav Petković Dis (1880–1917), Serbian poet Thomas M. Disch (1940–2008), US poet, novelist Tim Dlugos (1950–1990), US poet Henry Austin Dobson (1840–1921), English poet and essayist Stephen Dobyns (born 1941), US author, novelist and poet Lajos Dóczi (1845–1918), Hungarian playwright, poet and politician Hendrik Doeff (1777–1835), Dutch lexicographer and poet (in Japanese) and Commissioner in the Dejima trading post Gojko Đogo (born 1940), Serbian poet Pete Doherty (born 1979), English musician, songwriter and poet Digby Mackworth Dolben (1848–1867), English poet Joe Dolce (born 1947), Australian songwriter, poet and essayist María Magdalena Domínguez (1922–2021), Spanish poet John Donne (1572–1631), English poet, satirist and Anglican cleric H.D., Hilda Doolittle (1886–1961), US Imagist poet Ap Chuni Dorji, Bhutanese poet Edward Dorn (1929–1999), US poet and teacher Tishani Doshi (born 1975), Indian English poet and journalist Mark Doty (born 1953), US poet and memoirist Sarah Doudney (1841–1926), English poet and children's writer Charles Montagu Doughty (1843–1926), English poet, writer and traveler Alice May Douglas (1865–1943), US poet and author Gavin Douglas (1474–1522), Scottish bishop, makar and translator Keith Douglas (1920–1944), English war poet Rita Dove (born 1952), US poet and author; US Poet Laureate Ernest Dowson (1867–1900), English poet, novelist and short-story writer Jane Draycott (living), English poet Michael Drayton (1563–1631), English poet of Elizabethan era Aleksander Stavre Drenova (1872–1947), Albanian poet John Drinkwater (1882–1937), English poet and dramatist Annette von Droste-Hülshoff (1797–1848), German poet William Drummond (1585–1649), Scottish poet William Henry Drummond (1854–1907), Irish-born Canadian poet Elżbieta Drużbacka (1695 or 1698–1765), Polish poet John Dryden (1631–1700), English poet, critic and playwright Toru Dutt (1856–1877), Indian poet and translator writing in French and English Du–Dy Guillaume de Salluste Du Bartas (1544–1590), French Huguenot poet Joachim du Bellay (c. 1522–1560), French poet, critic and La Pléiade member W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963), US writer and activist Norman Dubie (born 1945), US poet Jovan Dučić (1871–1943), Bosnian Serb poet, writer and diplomat Du Fu (712–770), Chinese poet of Tang Dynasty Du Mu (803–852), Chinese poet of late Tang Dynasty Carol Ann Duffy (born 1955), Scottish poet and playwright; Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom Alan Dugan (1923–2003), US poet Sasha Dugdale (born 1974), English poet, playwright and translator Richard Duke (1658–1711), English clergyman and poet Paul Laurence Dunbar (1872–1906), African-US poet, novelist and playwright William Dunbar (c. 1460 – c. 1520), Scots makar Robert Duncan (1919–1988), US poet Camille Dungy (born 1972), US poet, academic and essayist Douglas Dunn (born 1942), Scottish poet, academic and critic Stephen Dunn (1939–2021), US poet Helen Dunmore (1952–2017), English poet, novelist and children's writer Edward Plunkett, Baron Dunsany (1878–1957), Irish poet Lawrence Durrell (1912–1990), English novelist, poet and dramatist Michael Madhusudan Dutt (1824–1873), Bengali poet and dramatist Stuart Dybek (born 1942), US poet, writer Sir Edward Dyer (1543–1607), English courtier and poet. Bob Dylan (born 1941), US singer-songwriter and writer E Joan Adeney Easdale (1913–1998), English poet Richard Eberhart (1904–2005), US poet Houshang Ebtehaj (1928–2022), Iranian poet Russell Edson (1935–2014), US poet, novelist and illustrator Terry Ehret (born 1955), US poet Max Ehrmann (1872–1945), US writer, poet, and attorney Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff (1788–1857), German poet and novelist Kristín Eiríksdóttir (born 1981), Icelandic poet George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans) (1819–1880), English novelist, journalist and translator T. S. Eliot (1888–1965), US/English publisher, playwright and critic Ebenezer Elliott ("Corn Law rhymer", 1781–1849), English poet Royston Ellis (born 1941), English poet Paul Éluard (1895–1952), French poet Odysseus Elytis (1911–1996) Greek poet Claudia Emerson (1957–2014), US poet; Poet Laureate of Virginia Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), US essayist, lecturer and poet Gevorg Emin (1918–1998), Armenian poet, essayist and translator Mihai Eminescu (1850–1889), Romanian poet, novelist and journalist William Empson (1906–1984), English literary critic and poet Yunus Emre (c. 1240 – c. 1321), Turkish poet and Sufi mystic Michael Ende (1929–1995), German fantasy and children's writer and poet Leszek Engelking (born 1955), Polish, poet, fiction writer and translator Paul Engle (1908–1991), US poet, novelist and playwright Ennius (c. 239 – c. 169 BCE), father of Latin poetry in Rome D. J. Enright (1920–2002), English poet, novelist and critic Hans Magnus Enzensberger (born 1929), German writer, poet and translator János Erdélyi (1814–1868), Hungarian poet and philosopher Louise Erdrich (born 1954), US novelist, poet and children's writer featuring Native US heritage Haydar Ergülen (born 1956), Turkish poet Max Ernst (1891–1976), German poet and artist Errapragada Erranna, 14th-century Telugu poet Wolfram von Eschenbach (c. 1170 – c. 1220), German Minnesinger poet and knight Clayton Eshleman (1935–2022), US poet, translator and editor Martín Espada (born 1957), US poet and teacher Florbela Espanca (1894–1930), Portuguese poet Salvador Espriu (1913–1985), Catalan poet in Spain Jill Alexander Essbaum (born 1971), US poet Alter Esselin (1889–1974), Yiddish US poet Claude Esteban (1935–2006), French poet Maggie Estep (born 1963), US slam poet and musician Jerry Estrin (1947–1993), US poet and editor Euripides (480–406 BCE), Athenian tragedian Margiad Evans (1909–1958), English poet and novelist Mari Evans (1923–2017), African-US poet William Everson (Brother Antoninus) (1912–1994), US poet and critic Gavin Ewart (1916–1995), English poet Elisabeth Eybers (1915–2007), South African/Dutch poet; poetry in Afrikaans F Fa–Fn Frederick William Faber (1814–1863), English poet, hymnist and theologian Kinga Fabó (1953–2021), Hungarian poet and essayist Faiz Ahmed Faiz (1911–1984), Indian/Pakistani poet Padraic Fallon (1905–1974), Irish poet Christian Falster (1690–1752), Danish poet and philologist Ferenc Faludi (1704–1779), Hungarian poet György Faludy (1910–2006), Hungarian poet and translator U. A. Fanthorpe (1929–2009), English poet Ahmad Faraz (1931–2008), Pakistani Urdu poet and scriptwriter Eleanor Farjeon (1881–1965), English children's writer, playwright and poet J. P. Farrell (born 1968), US poet and musician Forough Farrokhzad (1934–1967), Iranian poet Joseph Fasano (born 1982), American poet and novelist Elaine Feinstein (1930–2019), English poet, novelist and playwright Károly Fellinger (born 1963) Hungarian poet in Slovakia Fenggan (fl. 9th c.), Chinese Zen monk poet under Tang Dynasty Elijah Fenton (1683–1730), English poet, biographer and translator James Fenton (1931–2021), Northern Irish linguist and poet in Ulster Scots James Martin Fenton (born 1949), English poet, journalist and literary critic Ferdowsi (935–1020), Persian poet Teréz Ferenczy (1823–1853), Hungarian poet Robert Fergusson (1750–1774), Scottish poet Lawrence Ferlinghetti (1919–2021), US poet, painter and activist Leandro Fernández de Moratín (1760–1828), Spanish dramatist, translator and poet Jerzy Ficowski (1924–2006), Polish poet, writer and translator Henry Fielding (1707–1754), English novelist, dramatist and poet Juan de Dios Filiberto (1885–1964), Argentine poet and musician Anne Finch, Countess of Winchilsea (1661–1720), English nature poet Annie Finch (born 1956), US poet, librettist and translator Ian Hamilton Finlay (1925–2006), Scottish poet, writer and gardener Roy Fisher (1930–2017), English poet and jazz pianist Edward Fitzgerald (1809–1883), English poet and translator of Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam Robert Fitzgerald (1910–1985), US poet, critic and translator Marjorie Fleming (1803–1811), Scottish child poet and diarist Giles Fletcher the Elder (c. 1548–1611), English poet, diplomat and MP Giles Fletcher the Younger (c. 1586–1623), English poet John Fletcher (1579–1625), English playwright and poet John Gould Fletcher (1886–1950), US Imagist poet Phineas Fletcher (1582–1650), English poet; elder son of Giles Fletcher the elder, brother of Giles the younger F. S. Flint (1885–1960), English poet and translator Fo–Fu Jean Follain (1903–1971), French author and poet Theodor Fontane (1819–1898), German novelist, poet and realist writer John Forbes (1950–1998), Australian poet Carolyn Forché (born 1950), US poet, editor and translator Ford Madox Ford (1873–1939), English novelist, poet and critic John Ford (1586–1639), English playwright and poet John M. Ford (1957–2006), US SF and fantasy writer, game designer and poet Veronica Forrest-Thomson (1947–1975), Scots poet and critical theorist Ugo Foscolo (1778–1827), Italian writer, revolutionary and poet William Fowler (c. 1560–1612), Scottish poet, writer and translator Janet Frame (1924–2004), New Zealand author Anatole France (1844–1924), French poet, journalist and novelist Robert Francis (1901–1987), US poet Veronica Franco (1546–1591), Italian poet and courtesan G S Fraser (1915–1980), Scots poet, critic and academic Gregory Fraser (born 1963), US poet, editor and professor Naim Frashëri (1846–1900), Albanian poet and writer Louis-Honoré Fréchette (1839–1908), Canadian poet, politician and playwright Aleksander Fredro (1793–1876), Polish poet and playwright Grace Beacham Freeman (1916–2002), US poet and fiction writer; South Carolina Poet Laureate 1985–1986 Nicholas Freeston (1907–1978), English poet Erich Fried (1921–1988), Austrian-born British poet, writer and translator Jean Froissart (c. 1337 – c. 1405), French chronicler and court poet Robert Frost (1874–1963), US poet Gene Frumkin (1928–2007), US poet and teacher John Fuller (born 1937), English poet and author, son of Roy Fuller Roy Fuller (1912–1991), English poet Alice Fulton (born 1952), US poet and novelist; Bobbitt National Prize for Poetry winner John Furnival (1933–2020), British visual and concrete poet Milán Füst (1888–1967), Hungarian poet, novelist and playwright Fuzûlî (c. 1483–1556), Azerbaijani and Ottoman poet G Ga–Go Tadeusz Gajcy (1922–1944), Polish poet Konstanty Ildefons Gałczyński (1905–1953), Polish poet and stage writer Karina Galvez (born 1964), Ecuadorian poet James Galvin (born 1951), US poet Etienne-Paulin Gagne (1808–1876), French poet, essayist and inventor János Garay (1812–1853), Hungarian poet and journalist Robert Garioch (wrote as Robert Garioch Sutherland, 1909–1981), Scottish poet and translator Hamlin Garland (1860–1940), US novelist, poet and essayist Raymond Garlick (1926–2011), Anglo-Welsh poet and editor Richard Garnett (1835–1906), English scholar, biographer and poet Jean Garrigue (1914–1972), US poet Samuel Garth (1661–1719), English physician and poet George Gascoigne (1535–1577), English poet, soldier and would-be courtier David Gascoyne (1916–2001), English poet of the Surrealist movement Théophile Gautier (1811–1872), French poet, dramatist and novelist John Gay (1685–1732), English poet and dramatist Yehonatan Geffen (born 1947), Israeli author, poet and playwright Theodor Seuss Geisel (Dr. Seuss) (1904–1991), US writer, poet and cartoonist Juan Gelman (1930–2014), Argentinian poet, writer and translator Stefan George (1868–1933), German poet, editor and translator Dan Gerber (born 1940), US poet Ágnes Gergely (born 1933), Hungarian poet, novelist and translator Paul Gerhardt (1607–1676), German hymnist Cezary Geroń (1960–1998), Polish poet, journalist and translator Mirza Asadulla Khan Ghalib (1797–1869) Indian poet in Urdu and Persian Charles Ghigna (Father Goose) (born 1946), US children's author, poet and feature writer Reginald Gibbons (born 1947), US poet, fiction writer and critic Khalil Gibran (1883–1931), Lebanese-US artist, poet and writer Wilfrid Wilson Gibson (1878–1962), English poet Ryan Giggs (born 1973), Welsh poet, footballer and homewrecker Jack Gilbert (1925–2012), US poet W. S. Gilbert (1836–1911), English poet Zuzanna Ginczanka (Sara Ginzburg, 1917–1945), Polish poet Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997), US Beat Generation poet Dana Gioia (born 1950), US writer, critic and poet Nikki Giovanni (born 1943), US poet, writer and educator Zinaida Gippius (1869–1945), Russian poet, playwright and religious thinker Giglio Gregorio Giraldi (1479–1552), Italian scholar and poet Giuseppe Giusti (1809–1850), Italian poet Denis Glover (1912–1980), New Zealand poet and publisher Louise Glück (born 1943), US poet; US Poet Laureate Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708), Indian poet in Punjabi, Urdu, etc. Cyprian Godebski (1765–1809), Polish poet and novelist Gérald Godin (1938–1994), Canadian poet in French Patricia Goedicke (1931–2006), US poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832), German writer, artist and politician Octavian Goga (1881–1938), Romanian poet, playwright and translator Leah Goldberg (1911–1970), Hebrew-language poet, playwright and writer Rumer Godden (1907–1998), English children's writer and poet Ziya Gökalp (1876–1924), Turkish sociologist, writer and poet Oliver Goldsmith (1730–1774), Anglo-Irish writer and poet Pavel Golia (1887–1959), Slovenian poet and playwright George Gomri (born 1934), Hungarian poet and journalist (also in English) Luis de Góngora (1561–1627), Spanish lyric poet Lorna Goodison (born 1947), Jamaican poet Paul Goodman (1911–1972), US novelist, playwright and poet Barnabe Googe or Gooche (1540–1594), English pastoral poet and translator Adam Lindsay Gordon (1833–1870), Australian poet and politician Gábor Görgey (born 1929), Hungarian poet and politician Sergei Gorodetsky (1884–1967), Russian poet Hedwig Gorski (born 1949), US performance poet and artist Herman Gorter (1864–1927), Dutch poet and socialist Sir Edmund William Gosse (1849–1928), English poet, author and critic Remy de Gourmont (1858–1915), French poet, novelist and critic John Gower (c. 1330–1408), English poet and friend of Chaucer Gr–Gy Anders Abraham Grafström (1790–1870), Swedish historian, priest and poet James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose (1612–1650), Scottish nobleman, soldier and poet Jorie Graham (born 1950), US poet and first female Boylston Professor at Harvard W S Graham (1918–1986), Scottish poet Mark Granier (born 1957), Irish poet and photographer Alex Grant (living), Scottish US poet and teacher Günter Grass (1927–2015), German novelist, poet and playwright; 1999 Nobel Prize in Literature Richard Graves (1715–1804), English poet and essayist Robert Graves (1895–1985), English author and scholar Sir Alexander Gray (1882–1968), Scottish translator, writer and poet Thomas Gray (1716–1771), English poet Robert Greene (1558–1592), English author and poet Dora Greenwell (1821–1882), English poet Linda Gregg (1942–2019) US poet Horace Gregory (1898–1982), US poet, translator and critic Eamon Grennan (born 1941), Irish poet Fulke Greville, 1st Baron Brooke (1554–1628), English poet, dramatist and statesman Susan Griffin (born 1943), US poet and writer Ann Griffiths (1776–1805), Welsh poet and hymnist Bill Griffiths (1948–2007), English poet and Anglo-Saxon scholar Jane Griffiths (born 1970), English poet and literary historian Rachel Eliza Griffiths (born 1978), US poet, photographer and visual artist Mariela Griffor (born 1961), Chilean poet, short-story writer and scholar Geoffrey Grigson (1905–1985), English poet and critic Franz Grillparzer (1791–1872), Austrian writer, poet and dramatist Nicholas Grimald (1519–1562), English poet and dramatist Angelina Weld Grimké (1880–1958), African-US playwright and poet Charlotte Forten Grimké (1835–1914), African-US poet Rufus W. Griswold (1815–1857), US anthologist, poet and critic Stanisław Grochowiak (1934–1976), Polish poet and dramatist Nikanor Grujić (1810–1887), Serbian writer, poet and bishop Stanisław Grochowiak (1934–1976), Polish poet and dramatist Philip Gross (born 1952), English poet, novelist and playwright Igo Gruden (1893–1948), Slovene poet and translator N. F. S. Grundtvig (1783–1872), Danish poet, pastor and historian Wioletta Grzegorzewska (born 1974), Polish poet and writer Barbara Guest (1920–2006), US poet and prose stylist Edgar Guest (1881–1959), English-born US poet Paul Guest (living), US poet and memoirist Bimal Guha (born 1952), Bangladesh poet writing in Bengali Guillaume de Lorris (c. 1200 – c. 1240), French scholar and poet Jorge Guillén (1893–1984), Spanish poet Nicolás Guillén (1902–1989), Cuban poet, activist and writer Guido Guinizelli (c. 1230–1276), Italian poet Guiot de Provins (died after 1208), French poet and trouvère Malcolm Guite (born 1957) Gül Baba (died 1541), Ottoman Bektashi dervish poet Nikolay Gumilyov (1886–1921), Russian poet who founded acmeism Ivan Gundulić (Gianfrancesco Gondola) (1589–1638), Croatian Baroque poet Thom Gunn (1929–2004), Anglo-US poet Lee Gurga (born 1949), US haiku poet Ivor Gurney (1890–1937), English composer and poet Lars Gustafsson (1936–2016), Swedish poet, novelist and scholar Pedro Juan Gutiérrez (born 1950), Cuban novelist and poet Beth Gylys (born 1964), US poet and professor István Gyöngyösi (1620–1704), Hungarian poet Géza Gyóni (1884–1917), Hungarian poet Brion Gysin (1916–1986), English writer and sound poet Gabor G. Gyukics (born 1958), Hungarian-US poet and translator (also in English) H Ha Rafey Habib (living), Indian-born Muslim poet and scholar Marilyn Hacker (born 1942), US poet, translator and critic Hadraawi (born 1943), Somaliland poet and songwriter Hafez (1315–1390), Persian poet Hai Zi (1964–1989), Chinese poet John Haines (1924–2011), US poet and educator Donald Hall (1928–2018), US poet, writer and critic; US Poet Laureate Arthur Hallam (1811–1833), English poet, subject of In Memoriam A.H.H. by Alfred Tennyson Michael Hamburger (1924–2007), English translator, poet and academic Han Yu (768–824), Chinese essayist and poet of Tang dynasty Hanshan (fl. 9th c.), Chinese poet of Tang dynasty Thomas Hardy (1840–1928), English novelist and poet Charles Harpur (1813–1868), Australian poet Sir Theodore Wilson Harris (1921–2018), Guyanese poet, novelist and essayist Jim Harrison (1937–2016), US poet, novelist and essayist Tony Harrison (born 1937), English poet and playwright Carla Harryman (born 1952), US poet, essayist and playwright David Harsent (born 1942), English poet and TV scriptwriter Paul Hartal (born 1936), Hungarian-born Canadian poet, painter and critic Peter Härtling (1933–2017), German writer and poet Michael Hartnett (1941–1999), Irish poet writing in English and Irish Julia Hartwig (1921–2017), Polish poet, writer and translator Gwen Harwood (1920–1995), Australian poet and librettist Alamgir Hashmi (born 1951), English poet of Pakistani origin Ahmet Haşim (c. 1884–1933), Turkish poet Robert Hass (born 1941), US poet; former Poet Laureate Mohammed Abdullah Hassan (1856–1920), emir of the Dervish movement, of which Diiriye Guure was sultan Olav H. Hauge (1908–1994), Norwegian poet Gerhart Hauptmann (1862–1946), German dramatist, poet and novelist; Nobel Prize in Literature, 1912 Stephen Hawes (died 1523), English poet Robert Stephen Hawker (1803–1875), English poet, antiquarian and Anglican priest George Campbell Hay (1915–1984), Scottish poet and translator in Scottish Gaelic, Lowland Scots and English Gilbert Hay (fl. 15th c.), Scottish poet and translator in Middle Scots Robert Hayden (1913–1980), US poet, essayist and educator; 1976 US Poet Laureate William Hayley (1745–1820), English writer Tony Haynes (born 1960), US poet, songwriter and lyricist Ha Seung-moo((born October 13, 1963), Korean poet, professor and theologian He Seamus Heaney (1939–2013), Irish poet, playwright and translator; 1995 Nobel Prize in Literature Josephine D. Heard (1861 – c. 1921), US teacher and poet John Heath-Stubbs (1918–2006), English poet and translator Anne Hébert (1916–2000), Canadian poet and novelist Anthony Hecht (1923–2004), US poet Jennifer Michael Hecht (born 1965), US poet, historian and philosopher Allison Hedge Coke (born 1958), US poet, writer and performer Markus Hediger (born 1959), Swiss writer and translator Ilona Hegedűs (living), poet John Hegley (born 1953), English performance poet, comedian and songwriter Heinrich Heine (1797–1856), German poet, essayist and literary critic Lyn Hejinian (born 1941), US poet, essayist and translator Acharya Hemachandra (1089–1172), Jain scholar, poet and polymath Felicia Hemans (1793–1835), English poet Marian Hemar (1901–1972), Polish poet, songwriter and playwright Essex Hemphill (1957–1995), US poet and activist Hamish Henderson (1919–2002), Scottish poet, songwriter and catalyst for folk revival in Scotland William Ernest Henley (1849–1903), English poet, critic and editor Adrian Henri (1932–2000), English poet and painter Robert Henryson (died c. 1500), Scottish poet Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury (1583–1648), Anglo-Welsh soldier, historian, poet and philosopher; brother of George Herbert George Herbert (1593–1633), public orator and poet Mary Herbert, Countess of Pembroke (1561–1621) (née Sidney), early English woman in literature Zbigniew Herbert (1924–1998), Polish poet, essayist and dramatist Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803), German philosopher, theologian and literary critic Miguel Hernández (1910–1942), Spanish poet and playwright of Generation of '27 and Generation of '36 movements Herodas or Herondas (3rd c. BCE), Greek poet and author of humorous dramatic scenes in verse Antoine Héroet (died 1568), French poet Robert Herrick (1591–1674), English poet Thomas Kibble Hervey (1799–1859), Scottish-born English poet and critic Hesiod (fl. 750–650 BCE), Ancient Greek poet Phoebe Hesketh (1909–2005), English poet Hermann Hesse (1877–1962), German-Swiss poet, novelist and painter Dorothy Hewett (1923–2002), Australian feminist poet, novelist and playwright John Harold Hewitt (1907–1987), Northern Irish poet William Heyen (born 1940), US poet, literary critic, novelist Thomas Heywood (c. 1570s – 1641), English playwright, actor and author Hi–Hy Dick Higgins (1938–1998), English poet and publisher Scott Hightower (born 1952), US poet and teacher Nâzım Hikmet (1902–1963), Turkish poet, playwright and novelist Geoffrey Hill (1932–2016), English poet and professor Selima Hill (born 1945), English poet Hilda Hilst (1930–2004), Brazilian poet, playwright and novelist Ellen Hinsey (born 1960), US poet Hipponax (6th c. BCE) of Ephesus, Ancient Greek iambic poet Hirato Renkichi (1893–1922), Japanese avant-garde poet Rozalie Hirs (born 1965), Dutch poet Jane Hirshfield (born 1953), US poet George Parks Hitchcock (1914–2010), US poet, playwright and painter H. L. Hix (born 1960), US poet and academic Marian Hluszkewycz (1877–1935), Russian poet Thomas Hoccleve or Occleve (c. 1368 – 1426), English poet and clerk Michael Hofmann (born 1957), German-born poet and translator in English Hugo von Hofmannsthal (1874–1929), Austrian novelist, poet and dramatist James Hogg (1770–1835), Scottish poet and novelist David Holbrook (1923–2011), English writer, poet and academic Friedrich Hölderlin (1770–1843), German lyric poet Margaret Holford (1778–1852), English poet and novelist Barbara Holland (1933–2010), US author John Hollander (1929–2013), Jewish-US poet and literary critic Matthew Hollis (born 1971), English poet Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809–1894), US poet, professor and author Homer (fl. 8th c. BCE), Greek epic poet Thomas Hood (1799–1845), English humorist and poet; father of playwright and editor Tom Hood A. D. Hope (1907–2000), Australian satirical poet and essayist Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844–1889), English poet and Jesuit priest Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) (65–08 BCE), Roman lyric poet George Moses Horton (1797–1884), African-US poet Joan Houlihan, US poet A. E. Housman (1859–1936), English poet and classicist Libby Houston (living), English poet, botanist and rock climber Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1517–1547), English Renaissance poet Richard Howard (1929–2022), US poet, critic and essayist Fanny Howe (born 1940), US poet and fiction writer Susan Howe (born 1937), US poet, scholar and essayist Hrotsvitha (died c. 1002), poet and first known female dramatist, from Lower Saxony Mohammad Nurul Huda (born 1949), Bangladeshi poet in Bengali John Ceiriog Hughes (1832–1887), Welsh poet in Welsh Langston Hughes (1902–1967), US poet, novelist and playwright Ted Hughes (1930–1998), English poet and children's writer; Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom Richard Hugo (1923–1982), US poet Victor Hugo (1802–1885), French poet, novelist and dramatist Vicente Huidobro (1893–1948), Chilean poet Lynda Hull (1954–1994), US poet Keri Hulme (1947–2021), New Zealand poet and fiction writer Thomas Ernest Hulme (1883–1917), English critic and poet Alexander Hume (1560–1609), Scottish poet Leigh Hunt (1784–1859), English critic, essayist and poet Sam Hunt (born 1946), New Zealand poet Hồ Xuân Hương (1772–1822), Vietnamese poet Aldous Huxley (1894–1963), English novelist, poet and travel writer Helen von Kolnitz Hyer (1896–1983), US poet and writer; South Carolina Poet Laureate 1974–1983 I Khadijah Ibrahiim (fl. 2022), British poet Henrik Johan Ibsen (1828–1906), Norwegian playwright, director and poet Ibycus (fl. late 6th c. BCE), Ancient Greek lyric poet Ikkyu (1394–1481), Japanese Zen Buddhist monk and poet Vojislav Ilić (1860–1894), Serbian poet Gyula Illyés (1902–1983), Hungarian poet and novelist Maria Ilnicka (1825 or 1827–1897), Polish poet, novelist and translator Tonya Ingram (1991–2022), US poet Sir Dr. Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938), Indian poet in Urdu and Persian Avetik Isahakyan (1875–1957), Armenian lyric poet Sabit Ince (born 1954), Turkish lyric poet Inge Israel (1927–2019), Canadian poet and playwright Wacław Iwaniuk (1912–2001), Polish poet and journalist Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz (Eleuter, 1894–1980), Polish poet, dramatist and translator Sergey Izgiyaev (1922–1972), Russian poet, playwright and translator of Mountain Jewish descent J FP Jac (1955–2008), Danish poet Violet Jacob (1863–1946), Scottish poet in Scots Rolf Jacobsen (1907–1994), Norwegian poet and writer Ada Jafarey (1924–2015) Pakistani poet in Urdu Richard Jago (1715–1781), English poet Đura Jakšić (1832–1878), Serbian poet, painter and dramatist James I, King of Scots (1394–1437), author of The Kingis Quair James VI and I (1566–1625), King of Scots and of England and Ireland Christine James (born 1954), Welsh poet and academic Clive James (1939–2019), Australian author, poet and memoirist Ernst Jandl (1925–2000), Austrian writer, poet and translator Klemens Janicki (1516–1543), Polish poet in Latin Janus Pannonius (1434–1472), Hungarian/Slavonian poet in Latin Patricia Janus (1932–2006), US poet and artist Mark F. Jarman (born 1952), US poet and critic Randall Jarrell (1914–1965), US poet, children's author and novelist; US Poet Laureate Bruno Jasieński (1901–1938), Polish poet, novelist and playwright Mieczysław Jastrun (1903–1983), Polish poet and essayist László Jávor (1903–1992), Hungarian poet Robinson Jeffers (1887–1962), US poet Vojin Jelić (1921–2004), Croatian Serb poet and writer Rod Jellema (1927–2018), US poet, teacher and translator Simon Jenko (1835–1869), Slovene poet, lyricist and writer Elizabeth Jennings (1926–2001), English poet Jia Dao (779–843), Chinese poet active under Tang Dynasty John of the Cross (1542–1591), Spanish mystic and poet Edmund John (1883–1917), English poet Georgia Douglas Johnson (1880–1966), US poet Helene Johnson (1906–1995), African-US poet James Weldon Johnson (1871–1938), US author, poet and folklorist Lionel Johnson (1867–1902), English poet, essayist and critic Emily Pauline Johnson (in Mohawk: Tekahionwake) (1861–1913), Canadian writer, performer and poet marking First Nations heritage Samuel Johnson (1709–1784), English poet, essayist and lexicographer George Benson Johnston (1913–2004), Canadian poet, translator and academic Anna Jókai (1932–2017), Hungarian poet and prose writer David Jones (1895–1974), English artist and poet Edward Smyth Jones (1881–1968), African-American poet Richard Jones (living), English US poet Ben Jonson (1573–1637), English poet and dramatist June Jordan (1936–2002), US poet and educator Anthony Joseph (born 1966), British/Trinidadian poet, novelist and musician Jenny Joseph (1932–2018), English poet Jovan Jovanović Zmaj (1833–1904), Serbian poet, physician James Joyce (1882–1941), Irish novelist and poet Attila József (1905–1937), Hungarian poet Frank Judge (1946–2021), US editor, poet and film critic Ferenc Juhász (1928–2015), Hungarian poet Gyula Juhász (1883–1937), Hungarian poet Jamal Jumá, Iraqi poet and researcher Donald Justice (1925–2004), US poet Juvenal (fl. 1st c. – 2nd c. CE), Roman poet and satirist Jumoke Verissimo (born 1979), Nigerian poet Jaydeep Sarangi (born 1973), Indian poet in English K Ka–Kh Abhay K (born 1980), Indian poet and diplomat Kabir (1440–1518), mystic poet and sant of India Margit Kaffka (1880–1918), Hungarian poet and novelist Kālidāsa (fl. c. 4th c.), Sanskrit poet Kambar (c. 1180–1250), Tamil poet Anna Kamieńska (1920–1986), Polish poet, translator and critic Kannadasan (1927–1981), Tamil poet, author and lyricist Jim Kacian (born 1953), US haiku poet and editor Uuno Kailas (1901–1933), Finnish poet, author and translator Chester Kallman (1921–1975), US poet, librettist and translator László Kálnoky (1912–1985), Hungarian poet and translator Kálmán Kalocsay (1891–1976), Hungarian and Esperanto poet Anna Kamieńska (1920–1986), Polish poet, writer and critic Ilya Kaminsky (born 1977), Russian-US poet, critic and translator Orhan Veli Kanik (1914–1950), Turkish poet Sándor Kányádi (1929–2018), Hungarian poet and translator from Romania Jaan Kaplinski (1941–2021), Estonian poet, philosopher and critic Adeena Karasick (born 1965), Canadian/US poet, media artist and essayist Vim Karenine (born 1933), US poet, essayist and novelist György Károly (1953–2018), Hungarian poet and critic Franciszek Karpiński (1741–1825), Polish poet Mary Karr (born 1955), US poet, essayist and memoirist Siavash Kasrai (1927–1996), Iranian poet Julia Kasdorf (born 1962), US poet Laura Kasischke (born 1961), US poet and fiction writer Jan Kasprowicz (1860–1926), Polish poet, playwright and critic Lajos Kassák (1887–1967), Hungarian poet, novelist and painter Erich Kästner (1899–1974), German author, poet and satirist József Katona (1791–1830), Hungarian playwright and poet Bob Kaufman (1925–1986), US beat poet and surrealist Shirley Kaufman (1923–2016), US poet and translator Rupi Kaur (born 1992), Indo-Canadian poet and photographer Patrick Kavanagh (1904–1967), Irish poet and novelist Nikos Kavvadias (1910–1975), Greek poet Kazi Nazrul Islam (1899–1976), Bengali poet, musician and revolutionary John Keats (1795–1821), English Romantic poet Weldon Kees (1914–1955), US poet, novelist and critic Isabella Kelly (1759–1857), Scottish poet and novelist Arthur Kelton (died 1549/1550), rhymer on Welsh history Miranda Kennedy (born 1975), US poet Rann Kennedy (1772–1851), English poet Walter Kennedy (c. 1455–1518), Scottish makar X. J. Kennedy (born 1929), US poet, anthologist and children's writer Jane Kenyon (1947–1995), US poet and translator Géza Képes (1909–1989), Hungarian poet and translator Jack Kerouac (1922–1969), US novelist and poet Sidney Keyes (1922–1943), English poet killed in action in World War II Keorapetse Kgositsile (1938–2018), South African poet Mimi Khalvati (born 1944), Iranian-born British poet Dilwar Khan (1937–2013), Bangladeshi poet Khushal Khan Khattak (1613–1689), Pashtun Afghan poet, warrior and tribal chief Omar Khayyám (1048–1122), Persian mathematician, astronomer and poet Kherdian, David (born 1931), Armenian-American writer, poet, and editor Vladislav Khodasevich (1886–1939), Russian poet and literary critic Talib Khundmiri (1938–2011), Indian poet and humorist in Urdu Ab'ul Hasan Yamīn ud-Dīn Khusrow (1253–1325), Sufi poet, scholar and musician Ki–Ky Saba Kidane (born 1978), Eritrean poet Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), Danish philosopher and poet Emelihter Kihleng Pohnpeian poet and academic Andrzej Tadeusz Kijowski (born 1954), Polish poet and politician Takarai Kikaku (1661–1707), Japanese haikai poet and disciple of Matsuo Bashō Joyce Kilmer (1886–1918), US writer and poet Edward King (1612–1637), Irish-born subject of Milton's Lycidas Henry King (1592–1669), English poet and bishop William King (1663–1712), English poet Thomas Hansen Kingo (1634–1703), Danish bishop, poet and hymnist Gottfried Kinkel (1815–1882), German poet and revolutionary Galway Kinnell (1927–2014), US poet; Pulitzer Prize for Poetry 1982 John Kinsella (born 1963), Australian poet, novelist and essayist Thomas Kinsella (1928–2021), Irish poet, translator and editor Rudyard Kipling (1865–1936), English fiction writer and poet Easterine Kire (born 1959), Naga poet and novelist Danilo Kiš (1935–1989), Serbian fiction writer and poet Necip Fazıl Kısakürek (1904–1983), Turkish poet, novelist and playwright Atala Kisfaludy (1836–1911), Hungarian poet Iya Kiva (born 1984), Ukrainian poet Eila Kivikk'aho (1921–2004), Finnish poet Carolyn Kizer (1925–2014), US poet; Pulitzer Prize for Poetry 1985 Sarah Klassen (born 1932), Canadian poet and fiction writer August Kleinzahler (born 1949), US poet Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (1724–1803), German poet Franciszek Dionizy Kniaźnin (1750–1807), Polish poet and Jesuit Etheridge Knight (1931–1991), African-US poet Kobayashi Issa (1763–1828), Japanese haikai poet Jan Kochanowski (1530–1584), Polish Renaissance poet Kenneth Koch (1925–2002), US poet, playwright and professor Jan Kochanowski (1530–1584), Polish poet Petar Kočić (1877–1916), Bosnian Serb writer István Koháry (1649–1731), Hungarian poet Ferenc Kölcsey (1790–1838), Hungarian poet Aladár Komját (1891–1937), Hungarian poet Yusef Komunyakaa (born 1947), US poet and teacher; Pulitzer Prize for Poetry 1994 Béla Kondor (1931–1972), Hungarian poet, prose writer and painter Faik Konitza (1875–1942), Albanian poet Halina Konopacka (1900–1989), Polish poet and athlete Maria Konopnicka (1842–1910), Polish poet, novelist and children's writer Ted Kooser (born 1939), US poet; US Poet Laureate 2004–2006 Stanisław Korab-Brzozowski (1876–1901), Polish poet and translator Julian Kornhauser (born 1946), Polish poet, novelist and critic Apollo Korzeniowski (1820–1869), Polish expressionist poet József Kossics (Jožef Košič, 1788–1867), Hungarian/Slovenian poet and priest Laza Kostić (1841–1910), Serbian poet, writer and polyglot Dezső Kosztolányi (1885–1936), Hungarian poet and prose writer Gopi Kottoor (born 1956), Indian poet, playwright and editor Urszula Kozioł (born 1931), Polish poet Taja Kramberger (born 1970), Slovenian poet, translator and anthropologist Ignacy Krasicki (1735–1801), Polish poet and novelist Zygmunt Krasiński (1812–1859), Polish poet Zlatko Krasni (1951–2008), Serbian poet Ruth Krauss (1901–1993), US poet and children's book author Krayem Awad (born 1948), Syrian-Austrian painter, sculptor and poet Carolyn Kreiter-Foronda (born 1946), US writer; Poet Laureate of Virginia Katarzyna Krenz (born 1953), poet, novelist and painter Miroslav Krleža (1893–1981), Croatian/Yugoslav poet and novelist Antjie Krog (born 1952), South African poet, academic and writer Józef Krupiński (1930–1998), Polish poet Ryszard Krynicki (born 1943), Polish poet and translator Marilyn Krysl (born 1942), US poet and fiction writer Andrzej Krzycki (1482–1537), Polish poet and archbishop Žofia Kubini (fl. 17th c.), Hungarian poet in early Czech Paweł Kubisz (1907–1968), Polish poet and journalist Péter Kuczka (1923–1999), Hungarian poet and critic Anatoly Kudryavitsky (born 1954), Russian/Irish novelist, poet and translator Endre Kukorelly (born 1951), Hungarian poet and journalist Maxine Kumin (1925–2014), US poet; US Poet Laureate 1981–82 Stanley Kunitz (1905–2006), US poet; US Poet Laureate 1974 and 2000 Yanka Kupala (1882–1942), Belarus poet Tuli Kupferberg (1923–2010), US counterculture poet and author Jalu Kurek (1904–1983), Polish poet and prose writer Momoko Kuroda (黒田杏子, born 1938), Japanese haiku poet Mira Kuś (born 1958), Polish poet Kusumagraj (1912–1999), Indian Marathi poet, writer and humanist Onat Kutlar (1936–1995), Turkish writer and poet Stephen Kuusisto (born 1955), US poet Sir Francis Kynaston or Kinaston (1587–1642), English poet L La Jean de La Fontaine (1621–1695), French fabulist Ilmar Laaban (1921–2000), Estonian poet Pierre Labrie (born 1972), Canadian poet in French László Ladányi (1907–1992), Hungarian-Israeli poet and writer Jules Laforgue (1860–1887), Franco-Uruguayan poet Jarkko Laine (1947–2006), Finnish poet, writer and playwright Ivan V. Lalić (1931–1996), Serbian poet Philip Lamantia (1927–2005), US poet and lecturer Kendrick Lamar (born 1987), US poet and hip-hop artist Alphonse de Lamartine (1790–1869), French writer, poet and politician Charles Lamb (1775–1834), English essayist and poet Peter Lampe (born 1954), German scholar, writer and poet Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) (1802–1838), English poet and novelist. Walter Savage Landor (1775–1864), English writer and poet Antoni Lange (1863–1929), Polish poet, philosopher and translator William Langland (c. 1332 – c. 1386) probable English author of dream-vision Piers Plowman Emilia Lanier (1569–1645), English poet Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos (c. 1510–1556), Hungarian poet and historian Laozi (Lau-tzu) (fl. 6th c. BCE), Chinese philosopher and poet Alda Lara (1930–1962), Angolan poet Rebecca Hammond Lard (1772–1855), US poet Bruce Larkin (born 1957), US children's author and poet Philip Larkin (1922–1985), English poet and novelist Claudia Lars (1899–1974), Salvadoran poet Else Lasker-Schüler (1869–1945), German poet and playwright Lasus of Hermione (6th c. BCE), Greek lyric poet from Hermione in Argolid Evelyn Lau (born 1971), Canadian poet and novelist James Laughlin (1914–1997), US poet and publisher Ann Lauterbach (born 1942), US poet, essayist and professor Comte de Lautréamont (1846–1870), Uruguayan/French poet Dorianne Laux (born 1952), US poet Christine Lavant (1915–1973), Austrian poet and novelist D. H. Lawrence (1885–1930), English novelist, poet and critic Henry Lawson (1867–1922), Australian writer and poet; son of Louisa Lawson Louisa Lawson (1848–1920), Australian poet and feminist Robert Lax (1915–2000), US poet Laxmi Prasad Devkota (1909–1959), Nepalese poet and scholar Henryka Łazowertówna (1909–1942), Polish poet Le Edward Lear (1812–1888), English poet, artist and illustrator Stanisław Jerzy Lec (1909–1966), Polish poet and aphorist Joanna Lech (born 1984), Polish poet and novelist Jan Lechoń (1899–1956), Polish poet, critic and diplomat Francis Ledwidge (1887–1917), Irish war poet David Lee (born 1966), US poet Dennis Lee (born 1939), Canadian poet, editor and critic David Lehman (born 1948), US poet and editor Ágnes Lehóczky (born 1976), Hungarian poet, academic and translator Eino Leino (1878–1926), Finnish poet and journalist Brad Leithauser (born 1953), US poet, novelist and essayist Alexander Lenard (1910–1972) Hungarian writer and poet Sue Lenier (born 1957), English poet and playwright Lalitha Lenin (born 1946), Indian poet Krystyna Lenkowska (born 1957), Polish poet and translator Charlotte Lennox (c. 1730–1804), Scottish poet and novelist John Leonard (born 1965), Australian poet Giacomo Leopardi (1798–1837), Italian poet, essayist and philologist Mikhail Lermontov (1814–1841), Russian writer, poet and painter Ben Lerner (born 1979), US poet, novelist and critic Bolesław Leśmian (1877–1937), Polish poet and artist Rika Lesser (born 1953), US poet and translator Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781), German writer, philosopher and dramatist Denise Levertov (1927–1997), British-born US poet Dana Levin (born 1965), US poet and teacher Philip Levine (1928–2015), US poet; 2011–2012 US Poet Laureate Larry Levis (1946–1996), US poet D. A. Levy (1942–1968), US poet, artist and publisher William Levy (1939–2019), US poet, fiction writer and editor Oswald LeWinter (1931–2013), poet Alun Lewis (1915–1944), Welsh poet in English C. S. Lewis (1898–1963), Northern Irish novelist, poet and essayist Gwyneth Lewis (born 1959), Welsh poet; inaugural National Poet of Wales J. Patrick Lewis (born 1942), US children's poet Saunders Lewis (1893–1985), Welsh poet, dramatist and critic Wyndham Lewis (1884–1957), English painter and author Li–Ly Li Houzhu (937–978), Chinese poet and ruler of Southern Tang Kingdom (961–975 CE) José Lezama Lima (1910–1976), Cuban writer and poet Tim Liardet (born 1959), English poet, critic and professor Li Bai (701–762), Chinese Tang dynasty poet Jerzy Liebert (1904–1931), Polish poet Li Jiao, poet under Tang and Zhou dynasties Li Qingzhao (1084–1151), Chinese Song dynasty writer and poet Li Shangyin (813–858), Chinese late Tang-dynasty poet Tim Lilburn (born 1950), Canadian poet and essayist Anne Morrow Lindbergh (1906–2001), US author and aviator; wife of Charles Lindbergh Jack Lindeman (fl. late 20th c.), US poet and critic Sarah Lindsay (born 1958), US poet Rossy Evelin Lima (born 1986), Mexican poet Vachel Lindsay (1879–1931), US poet Ewa Lipska (born 1945), Polish poet László Listi (1628–1662), Hungarian poet Józef Łobodowski (1909–1988), Polish poet and political thinker Terry Locke (born 1946), New Zealand poet, anthologist and academic Thomas Lodge (1558–1625), English dramatist and writer Iain Lom (c. 1624 – c. 1710), Scottish Gaelic poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–1882), US poet and educator Michael Longley (born 1939), Northern Irish poet Federico García Lorca (1898–1936), Spanish poet, dramatist and stage director Audre Lorde (1934–1992), Caribbean-US writer, poet and librarian Richard Lovelace (1618–1658), English Cavalier poet Amy Lowell (1874–1925), US poet James Russell Lowell (1819–1891), US poet, critic and diplomat Robert Lowell (1917–1977), US poet; 1947 US Poet Laureate Maria White Lowell (1821–1853), US poet and abolitionist Solomon Löwisohn (1788–1821), Hungarian Jewish poet and historian in Hebrew and German Mina Loy (1882–1966), English poet, playwright and novelist Lu You (1125–1209), Chinese Song dynasty poet Stanisław Herakliusz Lubomirski (1642–1702), Polish poet, writer and politician Gherasim Luca (1913–1994), Romanian poet and surrealist Lucan (39–65 CE), Roman poet Edward Lucie-Smith (born 1933), English writer, poet and broadcaster Gaius Lucilius (fl. 2nd c. BCE), Roman satirist Lucilius Junior (fl. 1st c. CE), poet and Procurator of Sicily Lucretius (c. 99 BCE – c. 55 BCE), Roman poet and philosopher Fitz Hugh Ludlow (1836–1870), US author, journalist and explorer Edith Gyömrői Ludowyk (1896–1987), Hungarian poet and politician Luo Binwang (640–684), Chinese Tang-dynasty writer and poet Thomas Lux (1946–2017), US poet Mario Luzi (1914–2005), Italian poet John Lydgate (1370–1450), English monk and poet John Lyly (1553–1606), English writer, poet and dramatist Sir David Lyndsay of the Mount (c. 1490 – c. 1555), Scottish Lord Lyon and poet Sandford Lyne (1945–2007), US poet, educator and editor George Lyttelton (1709–1773), English poet, statesman and arts patron M Ma Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay (1800–1859), Anglo-Scottish poet and historian George MacBeth (1932–1992), Scottish poet and novelist Norman MacCaig (1910–1996), Scottish poet Elizabeth Roberts MacDonald (1864–1922), Canadian poet and writer Hugh MacDiarmid (1892–1978), Scottish poet George MacDonald (1824–1905), Scottish poet and novelist Sorley MacLean (1911–1996), Scottish Gaelic poet Gwendolyn MacEwen (1941–1987), Canadian writer and poet Antonio Machado (1875–1939), Spanish poet Arthur Machen (1863–1947), Welsh author and mystic Compton Mackenzie (1883–1972), Scottish writer, memoirist and poet Archibald MacLeish (1892–1987), US modernist poet and writer Aonghas MacNeacail (born 1942), writer in Scottish Gaelic Louis MacNeice (1907–1963), Irish poet and playwright Hector Macneill (1746–1818), Scottish poet and songwriter James Macpherson (1736–1796), Scottish writer and poet Haki R. Madhubuti (born 1942), African-US writer, poet and educator Jayanta Mahapatra (born 1928), Indian English poet John Gillespie Magee Jr. (1922–1941), US poet and aviator Eric Magrane (born 1975), US poet and geographer Derek Mahon (1941–2020), Northern Irish poet Rudolf Maister (1874–1934), Slovene poet and activist Gajanan Digambar Madgulkar (1919–1977), Marathi and Hindi poet and playwright János Majláth (1786–1855), Hungarian historian and poet Clarence Major (born 1936), US poet, painter and novelist Desanka Maksimović (1898–1993), Serbian poet and professor Majeed Amjad (1914–1974), Indian/Pakistani poet in Urdu Antoni Malczewski (1793–1826), Polish poet Marcin Malek (born 1975), Polish poet, writer and playwright Josh Malihabadi (born Shabbir Hasan Khan) (1898–1982), Indian Urdu poet Madayyagari Mallana (fl. 15th c.), Telugu poet Stephane Mallarme (1842–1898), French poet and critic David Mallet (c. 1705–1765), Scottish dramatist and poet Thomas Malory (1405–1471), English author of Le Morte d'Arthur Goffredo Mameli (1827–1849), Italian patriot, poet and writer Osip Mandelstam (also Mandelshtam, 1891–1938), Russian poet James Clarence Mangan (1803–1849), Irish poet Bill Manhire (born 1946), New Zealand poet and fiction writer; New Zealand Poet Laureate Marcus Manilius (fl. 1st c. CE), Roman poet and astrologer Maurice Manning (born 1966), US poet Ruth Manning-Sanders (1895–1988), Welsh-born English poet and author Robert Mannyng (1275–1340), English chronicler and monk in Middle English, French and Latin Chris Mansell (born 1953), Australian poet and publisher Jakobe Mansztajn (born 1982), Polish poet and blogger Manuchehri (Abu Najm Ahmad ibn Ahmad ibn Qaus Manuchehri; 11th c.), royal poet in Persia Alessandro Manzoni (1785–1873), Italian poet and novelist Sándor Márai (1900–1989), Hungarian/US poet and novelist Ausiàs March (1397–1459), Valencian poet and knight Morton Marcus (1936–2009), US poet and author Mareez (1917–1983), Indian poet in Gujarati Paul Mariani (born 1940), US poet and academic Marie de France (fl. 12th c.), poet probably French-born and resident in England Filippo Tommaso Marinetti (1876–1944), Italian poet and editor Giambattista Marino (1569–1625), Italian poet E. A. Markham (1939–2008), Montserrat poet, playwright and novelist Edwin Markham (1852–1940), US poet Đorđe Marković Koder (1806–1891), Serbian poet Christopher Marlowe (1564–1593), English dramatist, poet and translator Clément Marot (1496–1544), French Renaissance poet Don Marquis (1878–1937), US novelist, poet and playwright Edward Garrard Marsh (1783–1862), English poet and cleric John Marston (1576–1634), English playwright, poet and satirist José Martí (1853–1895), Cuban poet and writer Martial (40 – c. 102 CE), Roman epigrammatist Camille Martin (born 1956), Canadian poet and collage artist Harry Martinson (1904–1978), Swedish sailor, author and poet Andrew Marvell (1621–1678), English metaphysical poet and politician John Masefield (1878–1967), English poet and writer; UK Poet Laureate (1930–1967) Edgar Lee Masters (1868–1950), US poet, biographer and dramatist Dafydd Llwyd Mathau (fl. earlier 17th c.), Welsh poet in Welsh János Mattis-Teutsch (1884–1960), Hungarian-Romanian poet and artist Glyn Maxwell (born 1962), British poet, playwright and librettist Vladimir Mayakovsky (1893–1930), Russian/Soviet poet and playwright Karl May (1842–1912), German writer, poet and musician Bernadette Mayer (born 1945), US poet and prose writer Ben Mazer (born 1964), US poet and editor Mc–Me James McAuley (1917–1976), Australian poet and critic Susan McCaslin (born 1947), Canadian/US poet and critic J. D. McClatchy (1945–2018), US poet and critic Michael McClure (1932–2020), US poet, playwright and novelist John McCrae (1872–1918), Canadian poet, physician and artist Walt McDonald (1934–2022), US poet; Poet Laureate of Texas Dermit McEncroe (fl. early 18th century), Irish doctor and poet Elvis McGonagall, Scottish poet and comedian William Topaz McGonagall (1825–1902), Scottish writer of doggerel Roger McGough (born 1937), English comedian and poet Campbell McGrath (born 1962), US poet Wendy McGrath, Canadian poet and novelist Thomas McGrath (1916–1990), US poet Heather McHugh (born 1948), US poet, translator and educator Duncan Ban McIntyre (1724–1812), Scottish poet in Scottish Gaelic James McIntyre (1827–1906), Canadian writer of doggerel Claude McKay (1889–1948), Jamaican-US writer and poet Don McKay (born 1942), Canadian poet, editor and educator Rod McKuen (1933–2015), US poet, composer and singer James McMichael (born 1939), US poet Ian McMillan (born 1956), English poet, playwright and broadcaster Meera (1498–1546), Indian Hindu mystic poet and Krishna devotee Narsinh Mehta (c. 1414 – c. 1481), Indian poet-saint of Gujarat Mei Yaochen (1002–1060), Chinese Song dynasty poet Peter Meinke (born 1932), US poet and fiction writer Cecília Meireles (1901–1964), Brazilian poet Herman Melville (1819–1891), US fiction writer and poet Meng Haoran (689 or 691–740), Chinese Tang dynasty poet George Meredith (1828–1909), English poet and novelist Kersti Merilaas (1913–1986), Estonian poet Alda Merini (1931–2009) Italian writer and poet Stuart Merrill (1863–1915), US poet writing mainly in French James Merrill (1926–1995), US poet; 1977 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry Thomas Merton (1915–1968), US writer and Trappist monk W. S. Merwin (1927–2019), US poet and author; 1971 and 2009 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry; 2010 US Poet Laureate Sarah Messer (born 1966), US poet and writer Charlotte Mew (1869–1928), English poet Henry Meyer (1840–1925), US poet writing in Pennsylvania Dutch Ferenc Mező (1885–1961), Hungarian poet Mi–Mo Henri Michaux (1899–1984), Belgian/French poet, writer and painter Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (1475–1564), Italian poet and sculptor Tadeusz Miciński (1873–1918), Polish poet and playwright Adam Mickiewicz (1798–1855), Polish poet, essayist and publicist Veronica Micle (1850–1889), Austrian/Romanian poet Christopher Middleton (c. 1560–1628), English poet and translator Christopher Middleton (c. 1690–1770), Royal Navy officer and navigator Christopher Middleton (1926–2015), English poet Thomas Middleton (1580–1627), English poet and playwright Agnes Miegel (1879–1964), German writer and poet Josephine Miles (1911–1985), US poet and critic Jennifer Militello, US poet and professor Branko Miljković (1934–1961), Serbian poet Edna St. Vincent Millay (1892–1950), US lyric poet, playwright and feminist Alice Duer Miller (1874–1942), US writer and poet Grazyna Miller (1957–2009), Italian/Polish poet and translator Jace Miller, US poet Jane Miller (born 1949), US poet Joaquin Miller (1837–1913), US poet Leslie Adrienne Miller (born 1956), US poet Thomas Miller (1807–1874), English poet Vassar Miller (1924–1998), US writer and poet Spike Milligan (1918–2002), Irish comedian, poet and musician Czesław Miłosz (1911–2004), Polish poet; 1980 Nobel Prize in Literature John Milton (1608–1674), English poet and polemicist Sima Milutinović Sarajlija (1791–1847), Serbian adventurer, writer and poet Marijane Minaberri (1926–2017), French/Basque poet and radio broadcaster Robert Minhinnick (born 1952), Welsh poet, essayist and novelist Matthew Minicucci (born 1981), US poet and teacher Mir Taqi Mir (1725–1810), Indian poet in Urdu Gabriela Mistral (1889–1957), Chilean poet and feminist; 1945 Nobel Prize in Literature Adrian Mitchell (1932–2008), English poet, novelist and playwright. Silas Weir Mitchell (1829–1914), US physician and writer Stephen Mitchell (born 1943) US poet, translator and anthologist Waddie Mitchell (born 1950), US poet Ndre Mjeda (1866–1937), Albanian Gheg poet Stanisław Młodożeniec (1895–1959), poet Anis Mojgani (born 1977), US spoken-word poet and visual artist Molière (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin) (1622–1673), French playwright Atukuri Molla (1440–1530), Indian Telugu poet Aja Monet, Black American poet Harold Monro (1879–1932), English poet Harriet Monroe (1860–1936), US scholar, critic and poet John Montague (1929–2016), Irish poet Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax (1661–1715), English poet and statesman Eugenio Montale (1896–1981), Italian poet, writer and translator; 1975 Nobel Prize in Literature Alexander Montgomerie (c. 1550–1598), Scottish Jacobean courtier and makar Alan Moore (born 1960), Irish writer and poet Marianne Moore (1887–1972), US poet and writer Merrill Moore (1903–1957), US psychiatrist and poet Thomas Moore (1779–1852), Irish poet, singer and songwriter Dom Moraes (1938–2004), Goan writer, poet and columnist Kelly Ana Morey (born 1968), New Zealand novelist and poet Edwin Morgan (1920–2010), Scottish poet and translator J. O. Morgan (born 1978), Scottish poet John Morgan (1688–1733), Welsh clergyman, scholar and poet Lorin Morgan-Richards (born 1975), US poet and author Christian Morgenstern (1871–1914), German author and poet Eduard Mörike (1804–1875), German poet William Morris (1834–1896), English writer, poet and designer Jim Morrison (1943–1971), US songwriter and poet Jan Andrzej Morsztyn (1621–1693), Polish poet Zbigniew Morsztyn (c. 1628–1689), Polish poet Valzhyna Mort (born 1981), Belarus poet Viggo Mortensen (born 1958), US poet, actor and musician Moschus (fl. 2nd c. BCE), Greek bucolic poet Howard Moss (1922–1987), US poet, dramatist and critic Andrew Motion (born 1952), English poet, novelist and biographer; Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom 1999–2009 Enrique Moya (born 1958), Venezuelan poet, fiction writer and critic Mu–My Micere Githae Mugo (1942–2023), Kenyan playwright, author and poet Erich Mühsam (1878–1934), German-Jewish essayist, poet and, playwright Edwin Muir (1887–1959), Scottish Orcadian poet, novelist and translator Paul Muldoon (born 1951), Irish poet Lale Müldür (born 1956), Turkish poet and writer Laura Mullen (born 1958), US poet Anthony Munday (1553–1633), English playwright and writer George Murnu (1868–1957), Romanian archeologist, historian and poet Sheila Murphy (born 1951), US text and visual poet George Murray (born 1971), Canadian poet Joan Murray (born 1945), US poet, writer and playwright Les Murray (1938–2019), Australian poet, anthologist and critic Richard Murphy (1927–2018), Irish poet Susan Musgrave (born 1951), Canadian poet and children's writer Lukijan Mušicki (1777–1837), Serbian poet, prose writer and polyglot Nikola Musulin (fl. 19th c.), Serbian poet Togara Muzanenhamo (born 1975), Zimbabwean poet Christopher Mwashinga (born 1965), Tanzanian poet, author and Christian minister Lam Quang My (born 1944), Vietnamese poet in Polish and Vietnamese N Vladimir Nabokov (1899–1977), Russian novelist and poet in Russian and English Daniel Naborowski (1573–1640), Polish poet Cecilia del Nacimiento (1570–1646), Spanish nun, mystic, writer, and poet Ágnes Nemes Nagy (1922–1991), Hungarian poet and translator Gáspár Nagy (1949–2007), Hungarian poet Lajos Parti Nagy (born 1953), Hungarian poet, playwright and critic László Nagy (1925–1978), Hungarian poet and translator Guru Nanak Dev (1469–1539), first Sikh Guru and Punjabi poet Nannaya (c. 11th c.), earliest known Telugu author Philip Nanton (living), Vincentian poet Adam Naruszewicz (1733–1796), Polish-Lithuanian poet, historian and dramatist Ogden Nash (1902–1971), US poet known for light verse Thomas Nashe (1567–1601), English playwright, poet and satirist Imadaddin Nasimi (died c. 1417), Azerbaijani poet Momčilo Nastasijević (1894–1938), Serbian poet, novelist and dramatist Natsume Sōseki (1867–1916), Japanese novelist and poet Gellu Naum (1915–2001), Romanian poet, dramatist and children's writer Nedîm (c. 1681–1730), Ottoman poet John Neal (1793–1876), US writer, critic, activist and poet Henry Neele (1798–1828), English poet and scholar Walela Nehanda, Black American poet John Neihardt (1881–1973), US poet, historian and ethnographer Émile Nelligan (1879–1941), Quebec poet Marilyn Nelson (born 1946), US poet, translator and children's writer Howard Nemerov (1920–1991), US poet; US Poet Laureate 1963–1964 István Péter Németh (born 1960), Hungarian poet and literary historian Condetto Nénékhaly-Camara (1930–1972), Guinean poet and playwright Jan Neruda (1834–1891), Czech journalist, writer and poet Pablo Neruda (1904–1973), Chilean poet and politician; Nobel Prize for Literature 1971 Neşâtî (died 1674), Ottoman Sufi poet Henry John Newbolt (1862–1938), English historian and poet John Henry Newman (1801–1890), writer, poet and hymnist Aimee Nezhukumatathil (born 1974), Asian US poet Nguyễn Du (1766–1820), Vietnamese poet in ancient Chữ Nôm script B. P. Nichol (bpNichol, 1944–1988), Canadian poet Nicholas I of Montenegro (1841–1921), poet and king of Montenegro Grace Nichols (born 1950), Guyanese poet Norman Nicholson (1914–1987), English poet Lorine Niedecker (1903–1970), US poet Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz (1758–1841), Polish poet, playwright and statesman Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), German philosopher, poet and philologist Millosh Gjergj Nikolla (Migjeni) (1911–1938), Albanian poet and writer Nisami (1141–1209), Persian poet Nishiyama Sōin (1605–1682), Japanese haikai poet Moeen Nizami (born 1965), Pakistani poet, scholar and writer Petar II Petrović-Njegoš (1813–1851), Serbian poet, playwright and prince-bishop Yamilka Noa (born 1980), Cuban–Costa Rican poet Gábor Nógrádi (born 1947), Hungarian poet, essayist and children's novelist Christopher Nolan (1965–2009), Irish poet and author Fan S. Noli (1882–1965), Albanian/US writer, diplomat and historian Olga Nolla (1938–2001), Puerto Rican poet, writer and professor Harry Northup (born 1940), US actor and poet Caroline Norton (1808–1877), English writer, feminist and reformer Cyprian Norwid (1821–1883), Polish poet, dramatist and artist Alice Notley (born 1945), US poet Novalis (Friedrich von Hardenberg) (1772–1801), German poet and novelist Franciszek Nowicki (1864–1935), Polish poet and conservationist Alfred Noyes (1880–1958), English poet Oodgeroo Noonuccal (1920–1993), first Aboriginal Australian published poet Julia Nyberg (1784–1854), Swedish poet and songwriter Naomi Shihab Nye (born 1952), Palestinian-US poet, songwriter and novelist Robert Nye (1939–2016), English poet, novelist and children's writer Niyi Osundare (born 1947), Nigerian poet, dramatist and literary critic O Dositej Obradović (1742–1811), Serbian philosopher, writer and poet Sean O'Brien (born 1952), British poet, critic and playwright D. Michael O'Connor aka Damond Jiniya(Born 1974), North American singer, writer and poet Philip O'Connor (1916–1998), Anglo-French writer and poet Antoni Edward Odyniec (1804–1885), Polish poet Ron Offen (1930–2010), US poet, playwright and producer Dennis O'Driscoll (1954–2012), Irish poet Frank O'Hara (1926–1966), US writer, poet and art critic Hisashi Okuyama (born 1941), Japanese poet Porsha Olayiwola (born 1988), US poet Sharon Olds (born 1942), US poet Mary Oliver (1935–2015), US poet Charles Olson (1910–1970), US modernist poet Saishu Onoe (1876–1957), Japanese poet Onomacritus (c. 530–480 BCE), Attic poet, priest and seer George Oppen (1908–1984), US poet Artur Oppman (Or-Ot, 1867–1931), Polish poet Edward Otho Cresap Ord, II (1858–1923), US poet and painter Zaharije Orfelin (1726–1785), Serbian polymath and poet Władysław Orkan (1875–1930), Polish poet Peter Orlovsky (1933–2010), US poet and actor; partner of Allen Ginsberg Gregory Orr (born 1947), US poet Agnieszka Osiecka (1936–1997), Polish poet, writer and screenplay author Alice Oswald (born 1966), English poet Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072), Chinese Song Dynasty historian, essayist and poet Ovid (43 BCE – 17 CE), Roman poet Wilfred Owen (1893–1918), English poet and soldier İsmet Özel (born 1944), Turkish poet and scholar P Pa Ruth Padel (born 1946), English poet, author and critic Ron Padgett (born 1942), US poet, writer and translator Padmanābha (15th century) Dingal (Old Gujarati) poet and historian Dan Pagis (1930–1986), Israeli poet and Holocaust survivor Grace Paley (1922–2007), US short story writer and poet Francis Turner Palgrave (1824–1897), English critic and poet Palladas (), Greek poet Michael Palmer (born 1943), US poet and translator Sima Pandurović (1883–1960), Serbian poet Sumitranandan Pant (1900–1977), Indian poet in Hindi Daniele Pantano (born 1976), Swiss poet, translator, editor and scholar William Williams Pantycelyn (1717–1791), Welsh poet and hymnist in Welsh Park Yong-rae (1925–1980), Korean poet Andrew Park (1807–1863), Scottish poet Dorothy Parker (1893–1967), US poet, fiction writer and satirist Amy Parkinson (1855–1938), British-born Canadian poet Thomas Parnell (1679–1718), Irish poet and clergyman Nicanor Parra (1914–2018), Chilean mathematician and poet Henry Parrot (), English epigrammatist Giovanni Pascoli (1855–1912), Italian poet Ámbar Past (born 1949), Mexican poet, visual artist Boris Pasternak (1890–1960), Russian poet, novelist and translator Leon Pasternak (1910–1969), Polish poet and satirist Benito Pastoriza Iyodo (born 1954), Puerto Rican poet and fiction and literature writer Kenneth Patchen (1911–1972), US poet and novelist Ravji Patel (1939–1968), Indian poet Banjo Paterson (Andrew Barton Paterson) (1864–1941), Australian bush poet, journalist and author Don Paterson (born 1963), Scottish poet, writer and musician Coventry Patmore (1823–1896), English poet and critic Brian Patten (born 1946), English poet Lekhnath Paudyal (1885–1966), Nepalese poet Paul I, Prince Esterházy (1635–1713) Austro-Hungarian poet Cesare Pavese (1908–1950), Italian poet, novelist and critic Maria Pawlikowska-Jasnorzewska (1891–1945), Polish poet and dramatist Octavio Paz (1914–1998), Mexican writer, poet and diplomat Pe–Pl Thomas Love Peacock (1785–1866), English poet and novelist Patrick Pearse (1879–1916), Irish poet and writer James Larkin Pearson (1879–1981), US poet and publisher Allasani Peddana (fl. 15th/16th cc.), Telugu poet Charles Péguy (1873–1914), French poet, essayist and editor Kathleen Peirce (born 1956), US poet Gabino Coria Peñaloza (1881–1975), Argentine poet and lyricist Sam Pereira (living), US poet Lucia Perillo (1958–2016), US poet Persius (34–62 CE), Roman poet and satirist of Etruscan origin Fernando Pessoa (1888–1935), Portuguese poet, philosopher and critic Lenrie Peters (1932–2009), Gambian surgeon, novelist, poet and educationist Robert Peters (1924–2014), US poet, scholar and playwright Pascale Petit (born 1953), French-Welsh poet and artist Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca) (1304–1374), Italian scholar and poet Kata Szidónia Petrőczy (1659–1708), Hungarian poet and prose writer Marine Petrossian (born 1960), Armenian poet, essayist and columnist Veljko Petrović (1884–1967), Serbian poet, prose writer and theorist Mirko Petrović-Njegoš (1820–1867), Serbian and Montenegrin poet, soldier and diplomat Mario Petrucci (born 1958), English poet, author and translator of Italian origin Ambrose Philips (1674–1749), English poet and politician Katherine Philips (1632–1664), Anglo-Welsh poet Savitribai Phule (1831–1897), Indian social reformer, educationalist, and poet from Maharashtra Pi Rixiu (c. 834–883), Tang Dynasty poet Tom Pickard (born 1946), English poet and film maker Pindar (522–443 BCE), Theban lyric poet in Greek Robert Pinsky (born 1940), US poet, critic and translator; 1997–2000 US Poet Laureate Ruth Pitter (1897–1992), English poet Christine de Pizan (c. 1365 – c. 1430), Venetian historian, poet and philosopher Sylvia Plath (1932–1963), US poet and novelist William Plomer (1903–1973), South African novelist, poet and editor in English Po–Pu Jacek Podsiadło (born 1964), Polish poet, translator and essayist Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), US author, poet and critic Suman Pokhrel (born 1967), Nepalese poet, playwright and artist Wincenty Pol (1807–1872), Polish poet and geographer Margaret Steuart Pollard (1904–1996), English poet Edward Pollock (1823–1858), US poet John Pomfret (1667–1702), English poet and clergyman. Marie Ponsot (1921–2019), US poet, critic and essayist Vasko Popa (1922–1991), Serbian poet of Romanian descent Alexander Pope (1688–1744), English poet Antonio Porchia (1885–1968), Italian Argentinian poet Judith Pordon (born 1954), US poet, writer and editor Peter Porter (1929–2010), Australian poet based in England Halina Poświatowska (1935–1967), Polish poet and writer Roma Potiki (born 1958), New Zealand poet and playwright Wacław Potocki (1621–1696), Polish poet and moralist Ezra Pound (1885–1972), US expatriate poet and critic Alishetty Prabhakar (1952–1993), Telugu poet Tapan Kumar Pradhan (born 1972), Indian poet, translator and activist Adélia Prado (born 1935), Brazilian writer and poet Winthrop Mackworth Praed (1802–1839), English politician and poet Jaishankar Prasad (1889–1937), Indian poet in Hindi E. J. Pratt (1882–1964), Canadian poet Petar Preradović (1818–1872), Croatian poet, writer and general France Prešeren (1800–1849), Carniolan Romantic poet Jacques Prévert (1900–1977), French poet and screenwriter Richard Price (born 1966), Scottish poet, novelist and translator Robert Priest (born 1951), English-born Canadian poet, children's author and singer/songwriter F. T. Prince (1912–2003), English poet and academic Matthew Prior (1664–1721), English poet and diplomat Bryan Procter (1787–1874), English poet Sextus Propertius (50 or 45–15 BCE), Latin elegiac poet Kevin Prufer (born 1969), US poet, academic and essayist J. H. Prynne (born 1936), English poet Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer (1865–1940), Polish poet, novelist and playwright Zenon Przesmycki (Miriam, 1861–1944), Polish poet, translator and critic Jeremi Przybora (1915–2004), Polish poet, writer and singer Luigi Pulci (1432–1484), Italian poet known for Morgante Alexander Pushkin (1799–1837), Russian poet, novelist and playwright Q Nizar Qabbani (1923–1998), Syrian diplomat, poet and publisher Muhammad Tahir ul-Qadri (born 1951), Pakistani Sufi poet and scholar Sayyid Ahmedullah Qadri (1909–1985), Indian poet, writer and politician Aref Qazvini (1882–1934), Iranian poet, lyricist and musician Qu Yuan (343–278 BCE), Chinese poet Francis Quarles (1592–1644), English Christian poet Salvatore Quasimodo (1901–1968), Italian author and poet; 1959 Nobel Prize in Literature R Ra–Re Jean Racine (1639–1699), French dramatist Branko Radičević (1824–1853), Serbian lyric poet Leetile Disang Raditladi (1910–1971) poet from Botswana Sam Ragan (1915–1996), US poet, journalist and writer Shamsur Rahman (1929–2006), Bangladeshi poet and columnist Craig Raine (born 1944), English poet Kathleen Raine (1908–2003), English poet, critic and scholar Samina Raja (born 1961), Pakistani poet, writer and broadcaster Milan Rakić (1876–1938), Serbian poet Carl Rakosi (1903–2004), US Objectivist poet Martin Rakovský (c. 1535–1579), Hungarian poet and scholar Zsuzsa Rakovszky (born 1950), Hungarian poet and translator Maraea Rakuraku (living), New Zealand Māori poet, playwright and short story writer Sir Walter Raleigh (c. 1554–1618), English writer, poet and explorer Tenali Rama (16th c., CE), Telugu poet Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu (16th c., CE), Telugu poet Ramarajabhushanudu (mid 16th c. CE), Telugu poet and musician Guru Ram Das (1534–1581), Sikh guru and Punjabi poet Simón Darío Ramírez (1930–1992), Venezuelan poet Allan Ramsay (1686–1758), Scottish poet, playwright and publisher Dudley Randall (1914–2000), African-US poet and publisher Thomas Randolph (1605–1635), English poet and dramatist John Crowe Ransom (1888–1974), US poet, essayist and editor Addepalli Ramamohana Rao (1936–2016), Telugu poet and literary critic Ágnes Rapai (born 1952), Hungarian poet, writer and translator Noon Meem Rashid (1910–1975), Pakistani poet writing in Urdu Stephen Ratcliffe (born 1948), US poet and critic Dahlia Ravikovitch (1936–2005), Israeli poet and translator Tom Raworth (1938–2017), British poet and visual artist Herbert Read (1893–1968), English anarchist, poet and arts critic Peter Reading (1946–2011), English poet Angela Readman (born 1973), English poet James Reaney (1926–2008), Canadian poet, playwright and professor Malliya Rechana (mid-10th c. CE), Telugu poet Peter Redgrove (1932–2003), English poet Beatrice Redpath (1886–1937), Canadian poet and short story writer Henry Reed (1914–1986), English poet, translator and radio dramatist Ishmael Reed (born 1938), US poet, playwright and novelist Ennis Rees (1925–2009), US poet, professor and translator James Reeves (1909–1978), English poet, children's writer and writer on song Abraham Regelson (1896–1981), Israeli Hebrew poet, author and children's author Christopher Reid (born 1949), Hong Kong-born English poet, essayist and cartoonist James Reiss (1941–2016), US poet Mikołaj Rej (1505–1569), Polish poet and prose writer Robert Rendall (1898–1967), Orkney Scottish poet and amateur naturalist Pierre Reverdy (1889–1960), French poet of Surrealism, Dadaism and Cubism Jacobus Revius (born Jakob Reefsen) (1586–1658), Dutch poet, theologian and church historian Kenneth Rexroth (1905–1982), US poet, translator and critical essayist Sydor Rey (1908–1979), Polish poet and novelist Charles Reznikoff (1894–1976), US Objectivist poet Raees Warsi (born 1963), Pakistani poet, writer and lyricist writing in Urdu Ri–Ry Francisco Granizo Ribadeneira (1925–2009), Ecuadorian poet Anne Rice (1941–2021), US fiction writer Stan Rice (1943–2002), US poet and artist; husband of Anne Rice Adrienne Rich (1929–2012), US poet, essayist and feminist John Richardson (1817–1886), English Lake District poet Edgell Rickword (1898–1982), English poet, critic and journalist Lola Ridge (1873–1941), Irish-born US anarchist poet and editor Laura Riding (1901–1981), US poet, critic and novelist Anne Ridler (1912–2001), English poet and editor James Whitcomb Riley (1849–1916), US writer and poet John Riley (1937–1978), English poet of British Poetry Revival Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–1926), Bohemian-Austrian poet Gopal Prasad Rimal (1918–1973), Nepali poet and playwright Arthur Rimbaud (1854–1891), French symbolist poet of Decadent movement Alberto Ríos (born 1952), US poet and professor Khawar Rizvi (1938–1981), Pakistani poet and scholar in Urdu and Persian Emma Roberts (1794–1840), English travel writer and poet Michael Roberts (1902–1948), English poet, writer and editor Edwin Arlington Robinson (1869–1935), US poet Mary Robinson (1757–1800), English poet and novelist Peter Robinson (born 1953), English poet Roland Robinson (1912–1992), Australian poet and writer Georges Rodenbach (1855–1898), Belgian Symbolist poet and novelist W R Rodgers (1909–1969), Northern Irish poet, essayist and Presbyterian minister José Luis Rodríguez Pittí (born 1971), Panamanian poet and artist Theodore Roethke (1908–1963), US poet Samuel Rogers (1763–1855), English poet Rognvald Kali Kolsson (c. 1103–1158), Earl of Orkney and saint Matthew Rohrer (born 1970), US poet Géza Röhrig (born 1967), Hungarian poet and actor Radoslav Rochallyi (born 1980), Slovak writer David Romtvedt (living), US poet Pierre de Ronsard (1524–1585), French poet Peter Rosegger (1843–1918), Austrian poet Franklin Rosemont (1943–2009), US poet, artist and co-founder of Chicago Surrealist Group Penelope Rosemont (born 1942), US poet, writer and co-founder of Chicago Surrealist Group Michael Rosen (born 1946) UK children's poet and former children's poet laureate Isaac Rosenberg (1890–1918), English poet Barbara Rosiek (1959–2020), Polish poet, writer and psychologist Alan Ross (1922–2001), English poet, cricket writer and editor Christina Rossetti (1830–1894), English poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828–1882), English poet, illustrator and painter Andrus Rõuk (born 1957), Estonian artist and poet Raymond Roussel (1877–1933), French poet, novelist and playwright Nicholas Rowe (1674–1718), English dramatist, poet and miscellanist; UK Poet Laureate 1715 Samuel Rowlands (c. 1573–1630), English poet and pamphleteer Susanna Roxman (1946–2015), English poet born in Sweden Istvan Rozanich (1912–1984), Hungarian poet exiled in Venezuela Tadeusz Różewicz (1921–2014), Polish poet and writer Ljubivoje Ršumović (born 1939), Serbian poet Friedrich Rückert (1788–1866), German poet, translator and academic Muriel Rukeyser (1913–1980), US poet and political activist Zygmunt Rumel (1915–1943), Polish poet and partisan Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Balkhi Rumi (1207–1273), Persian Muslim poet, jurist and Sufi mystic Paul-Eerik Rummo (born 1942), Estonian poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg (1804–1877), Finnish poet in Swedish Nipsey Russell (1918–2005), US poet and comedian Lucjan Rydel (1870–1918), Polish poet and playwright Jarosław Marek Rymkiewicz (1935–2022), Polish poet, essayist and dramatist Ryōkan (1758–1831), Japanese calligrapher and poet S Sa–Se Umberto Saba (1883–1957), Italian poet and novelist Jaime Sabines (1926–1999), Mexican poet Nelly Sachs (1891–1970), Jewish German poet and playwright; 1966 Nobel Prize in Literature Charles Sackville, 6th Earl of Dorset and 1st Earl of Middlesex (1638–1706), English poet and courtier Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset (1536–1608), English statesman, poet and dramatist Vita Sackville-West (1892–1962), English author, poet and gardener Saʿdī Shīrāzī (1184–1283/1291), Persian poet Benjamin Alire Sáenz (born 1954), US poet, novelist and children's writer Ali Ahmad Said (Adunis) (born 1930), Syrian poet, essayist and translator Mellin de Saint-Gelais (c. 1491–1558), French Renaissance poet Akim Samar (1916–1943), Soviet poet and novelist seen as first Nanai language writer Sonia Sanchez (born 1934), African-US poet associated with Black Arts Movement Michal Šanda (born 1965), Czech writer and poet Carl Sandburg (1878–1967), US poet, writer and editor; three Pulitzer Prizes Jacopo Sannazaro (1458–1530), Italian poet, humanist and epigrammist from Naples Ann Sansom, English poet and writing tutor Aleksa Šantić (1868–1924), Bosnian Serb poet Taneda Santōka (1882–1940), Japanese free verse haiku poet Genrikh Sapgir (1928–1999), Russian poet and fiction writer Sappho (c. 630–612 – c. 570 BCE), ancient Greek lyric poet from Lesbos Jaydeep Sarangi (born 1973), Indian poet in English Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski (1595–1640), Polish poet in Latin William Saroyan (1908–1981), US author of Armenian descent Siegfried Sassoon (1886–1967), English war poet Subagio Sastrowardoyo (1924–1995), Indonesian poet, fiction writer and literary critic Satsvarupa Das Goswami (born 1939), US poet and artist William Saunders (1806–1851), Welsh poet in Welsh Richard Savage (c. 1697–1743), English poet Leslie Scalapino (1944–2010), US poet, writer and playwright Maurice Scève (c. 1500–1564), French poet Hermann Georg Scheffauer (1876–1927), US poet, architect and fiction writer Georges Schehadé (1905–1989), Lebanese playwright and poet in French Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805), German poet, philosopher and playwright Arno Schmidt (1914–1979), German author and translator Dennis Schmitz (1937–2019), US poet Johanna Schouten-Elsenhout (1910–1992), Surinamese poet and community leader, wrote in Sranan Tongo and English Arthur Schnitzler (1862–1931), Austrian author and dramatist Anton Schosser (1801–1849), Austrian dialect poet Philip Schultz (born 1945), US poet James Schuyler (1923–1991), US poet Delmore Schwartz (1913–1966), US poet and fiction writer Alexander Scott (c. 1520–1582/1583), Scottish poet Alexander Scott (1920–1989), Scottish poet and playwright Frederick George Scott (1861–1944), Canadian poet and author, father of F. R. Scott F. R. Scott (1899–1985), Canadian poet, academic and constitutional expert Tom Scott (1918–1995), Scottish poet Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832), Scottish historical novelist, playwright and poet Gil Scott-Heron (1949–2011), US soul musician and jazz poet George Bazeley Scurfield (1920–1991), English poet, novelist, author and politician Peter Seaton (1942–2010), US Language poet Władysław Sebyła (1902–1940), Polish poet Johannes Secundus (1511–1536), Dutch Neo-Latin poet Sir Charles Sedley, 5th Baronet (1639–1701), English poet, wit and dramatist George Seferis (pen name of Geōrgios Seferiádēs) (1900–1971), Greek poet and Nobel laureate Hugh Seidman (born 1940), US poet Rebecca Seiferle (living), US poet Jaroslav Seifert (1901–1986), Czech writer, poet and journalist; 1984 Nobel Prize in Literature Lasana M. Sekou (born 1959), Sint Maarten poet, essayist and journalist Semonides of Amorgos (c. 7th c. BCE), Greek iambic and elegiac poet Léopold Sédar Senghor (1906–2001), Senegalese poet, politician and cultural theorist Robert W. Service (1874–1958), Scottish-Canadian poet Vikram Seth (born 1952), Indian author and poet Anne Sexton (1928–1974), US poet; Confessional poetry, 1967 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry John W. Sexton (born 1958), Irish poet, fiction and children's writer Sh–Sj Thomas Shadwell (c. 1642–1692), English poet and playwright; Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom, 1689–1692 Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1565–1612), sultan of Golkonda and poet in Persian, Telugu and Urdu Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi (1941–2001), Pakistani Sufi spiritual leader, poet and author Parveen Shakir (1952–1994) Pakistani poet, teacher and a civil servant of the government of Pakistan William Shakespeare (c. 1564–1616), English poet and playwright Tupac Shakur (1971–1996), US rapper, actor and black activist Otep Shamaya (born 1979), US singer-songwriter, actress and poet Ahmad Shamlou (1925–2000), Iranian poet Paata Shamugia (born 1983), Georgian poet Ntozake Shange (1948–2018), US playwright and poet Jo Shapcott (born 1953), English poet, editor and lecturer Karl Shapiro (1913–2000), US poet; US Poet Laureate, 1946–1947 Brenda Shaughnessy (born 1970), US poet Luci Shaw (born 1928), English-born Christian poet Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822), English Romantic poet William Shenstone (1714–1763), English poet Bhupi Sherchan (1935–1989), Nepalese poet Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861), Ukrainian poet and artist Mustafa Sheykhoghlu (1340/1341 – 1410), Turkish poet and translator Masaoka Shiki (1867–1902), Japanese author, poet and literary critic Hovhannes Shiraz (1915–1984), Armenian poet James Shirley (1596–1666), English dramatist Avraham Shlonsky (1900–1973), Israeli poet and editor Sir Philip Sidney (1554–1586), English poet, courtier and soldier Eli Siegel (1902–1978), Latvian-US poet, critic and philosopher Robert Siegel (1939–2012), US poet and novelist August Silberstein (1827–1900), Austro-Hungarian poet and writer in German Jon Silkin (1930–1997), English poet Hilda Siller (1861-1945), American poet and short story writer Ron Silliman (born 1946), US poet of Language poetry Shel Silverstein (1930–1999), US poet, musician and children's writer Simeon Simev (born 1949), Macedonian poet, essayist and journalist Charles Simic (born 1938), Serbian-US poet; US Poet Laureate, 2007–2008 Simonides of Ceos (c. 556–468 BCE), Greek lyric poet, born at Ioulis on Kea Louis Simpson (1923–2012), Jamaican poet Bennie Lee Sinclair (1939–2000), US poet, novelist and story writer; South Carolina Poet Laureate, 1986–2000 Burns Singer (1928–1964), US poet raised in Scotland Marilyn Singer (born 1948), US children's writer and poet Ervin Šinko (1898–1967), Croatian-Hungarian poet and prose writer Lemn Sissay (born 1967), English author and broadcaster Charles Hubert Sisson (1914–2003), English poet and translator Edith Sitwell (1887–1964), English poet and critic; eldest of three literary Sitwells Sjón (born 1962), Icelandic author and poet Sk–Sp Egill Skallagrímsson (c. 910 – c. 990), Viking Age poet, warrior and farmer, protagonist of Egil's Saga John Skelton (1460–1529), English poet Sasha Skenderija (born 1968), Bosnian-US poet Ed Skoog (born 1971), US poet Jan Stanisław Skorupski (born 1938), Polish poet, essayist and esperantist Pencho Slaveykov (1866–1912), Bulgarian poet Petko Slaveykov (1827–1895), Bulgarian poet, publicist and folklorist Kenneth Slessor (1901–1971), Australian poet and journalist Anton Martin Slomšek (1800–1862), Slovene bishop, author and culture advocate Antoni Słonimski (1895–1976), Polish poet, playwright and artist Michaël Slory (1935–2018), Surinamese poet in Sranan Tongo, also in English, Dutch and Spanish Juliusz Słowacki (1809–1849), Polish Romantic poet Boris Slutsky (1919–1986), Russian poet Christopher Smart (1722–1771), English poet and playwright Hristo Smirnenski (1898–1923), Bulgarian poet and writer Bruce Smith (born 1946), US poet Charlotte Smith (1749–1806), English Romantic poet and novelist Clark Ashton Smith (1893–1961), US poet, sculptor and author Margaret Smith (born 1958), US poet, musician and artist Patti Smith (born 1946), US singer-songwriter, poet and visual artist Stevie Smith (1902–1971), English poet and novelist Sydney Goodsir Smith (1915–1975), Scottish poet in Braid Scots Tracy K. Smith (born 1972), US poet William Jay Smith (1918–2015), US poet; US Poet Laureate 1968–1970 Tobias Smollett (1721–1771), Scottish poet and author William De Witt Snodgrass (1926–2009), US poet Gary Snyder (born 1930), US poet, essayist and environmentalist Edith Södergran (1892–1923), Finnish poet in Swedish Sōgi (1421–1502), Japanese waka and renga poet David Solway (born 1941), Canadian poet, educational theorist and travel writer Marie-Ange Somdah (born 1959), Burkinabe poet and writer William Somervile (1675–1742), English poet Sophocles (c. 496–406 BCE), Athenian tragedian Charles Sorley (1895–1915), English war poet Gary Soto (born 1952), Mexican-US author and poet William Soutar (1898–1943), Scottish poet in English and Braid Scots Caroline Anne Southey (1786–1854), English poet Robert Southey (1774–1843), English Romantic poet and UK Poet Laureate, 1813–1843 Robert Southwell (1561–1595), English Catholic Jesuit priest, poet and clandestine missionary Wole Soyinka (born 1934), Nigerian poet and playwright and poet; 1986 Nobel Prize in Literature Bernard Spencer (1909–1963), English poet, translator and editor Stephen Spender (1909–1995), English poet, novelist. and essayist; US Poet Laureate 1965–66 Edmund Spenser (1552–1599), English poet St–Sz Edward Stachura (1937–1979), poet, prose writer and translator Leopold Staff (1878–1957), Polish poet William Stafford (1914–1993), US poet and pacifist; US Poet Laureate 1970–1971 A. E. Stallings (born 1968), US poet and translator Jon Stallworthy (1935–2014), English academic, poet and literary critic Harold Standish (1919–1972), Canadian poet and novelist Nichita Stănescu (1933–1983), Romanian poet Ann Stanford (1916–1987), US poet Anna Stanisławska (1651–1701), Polish poet George Starbuck (1931–1996), US neo-Formalist poet Andrzej Stasiuk (born 1960), Polish poet and novelist Statius (c. 45–96, CE), Roman poet Christian Karlson Stead, ONZ, CBE (born 1932), New Zealand novelist, poet and critic Stesichorus (c. 640–555 BCE), Greek lyric poet Joseph Stefan (1835–1893), Carinthian Slovenes physicist, mathematician and poet in Austria Stefan Stefanović (1807–1828), Serbian poet Gertrude Stein (1874–1946), US modernist in prose and poetry Eric Stenbock (1860–1895), Baltic German poet and writer of fantastic fiction Mattie Stepanek (1990–2004), US poet and advocate George Stepney (1663–1707), English poet and diplomat Anatol Stern (1899–1968), Polish poet and art critic Gerald Stern (1925–2022), US poet Marinko Stevanović (born 1961), Bosnian poet C. J. Stevens (1927–2021), US writer of poetry, fiction and biography Wallace Stevens (1880–1955), US modernist poet Robert Louis Stevenson (1850–1894), Scottish novelist, poet and travel writer Margo Taft Stever, US poet Trumbull Stickney (1874–1904), US classical scholar and poet James Still (1906–2001), US poet, novelist and folklorist Milica Stojadinović-Srpkinja (1828–1878), Serbian poet Dejan Stojanović (born 1959), Serbian-US poet, writer and philosopher Donna J. Stone (1933–1994), US poet and philanthropist Ruth Stone (1915–2011), US poet, author and teacher Lisa Gluskin Stonestreet (born 1968), US poet and editor Edward Storer (1880–1944), English writer, translator and poet linked with Imagism Theodor Storm (1817–1888), German writer and poet Alfonsina Storni (1892–1938), Latin US Modernist poet Mark Strand (1934–2014), Canadian-born US poet, essayist and translator; US Poet Laureate, 1990–1991 Botho Strauß (born 1944), German playwright, poet and novelist Joseph Stroud (born 1943), US poet Jesse Stuart (1907–1984), US writer of fiction and poetry Jacquie Sturm (born Te Kare Papuni) (1927–2009), New Zealand poet, fiction writer and librarian Su Shi (1037–1101), Song dynasty writer, poet and artist Su Xiaoxiao (died c. 501 CE), courtesan and poet under Southern Qi Dynasty Sir John Suckling (1609–1642), English poet and inventor of card game cribbage Suleiman the Magnificent (1494–1566), Islamic poet and Ottoman ruler Robert Sullivan (born 1967) New Zealand Māori poet, academic and editor Jovan Sundečić (1825–1900), Serbian poet Cemal Süreya (1931–1990), Turkish poet and writer Abhi Subedi (born 1945), Nepalese poet, playwright and critic Pingali Surana (16th c.), Telugu poet Robert Sward (1933–2022), US and Canadian poet and novelist Cole Swensen (born 1955), US poet, translator and copywriter Karen Swenson (born 1936), US poet May Swenson (1913–1989), US poet and playwright Marcin Świetlicki (born 1961), Polish poet, prose writer and musician Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), Anglo-Irish satirist, essayist and pamphleteer Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837–1909), English poet, playwright and novelist Anna Świrszczyńska (also Anna Swir) (1909–1984), Polish poet Joshua Sylvester (1563–1618), English poet Arthur William Symons (1865–1945), English poet, critic and editor John Millington Synge (1871–1909), Irish dramatist, poet and folklore collector Władysław Syrokomla (1823–1862), Polish poet and translator in Russian Empire Lőrinc Szabó (1900–1957), Hungarian poet and literary translator Fruzina Szalay (1864–1926), Hungarian poet and translator Mikołaj Sęp Szarzyński (c. 1550 – c. 1581), poet in Polish and Latin Arthur Sze (born 1950), Chinese US poet Bertalan Szemere (1812–1869), Hungarian poet and politician Gyula Szentessy (1870–1905), Hungarian poet George Szirtes (born 1948), Hungary-born British poet and translator Janusz Szpotański (1929–2001), Polish poet, satirist and translator Włodzimierz Szymanowicz (1946–1967), Polish poet and painter Wisława Szymborska (1923–2012), Polish poet, essayist and translator; 1996 Nobel Prize in Literature Szymon Szymonowic (1558–1629), Polish poet T Ta–Te Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941), Bengali polymath; 1913 Nobel Prize in Literature Judit Dukai Takách (Malvina, 1795–1836), Hungarian poet Bogi Takács (born 1983), Hungarian poet and fiction writer in US Kyoshi Takahama (1874–1959), Japanese poet Taliesin (fl. 6th c.), British poet of post-Roman period Meary James Thurairajah Tambimuttu (1915–1983), Tamil poet, editor and critic Maxim Tank (1912–1996), Belarus poet Tao Qian (365–427), Chinese poet Jovica Tasevski-Eternijan (born 1976), Macedonian poet, essayist and literary critic Alain Tasso (born 1962), Franco-Lebanese poet, painter and critic Torquato Tasso (1544–1595), Italian poet Allen Tate (1899–1979), US poet, essayist and commentator; US Poet Laureate 1943–1944 James Tate (1943–2015), US poet Emma Tatham (1829–1855), English poet Tracey Tawhiao (born 1967), New Zealand Maori poet and artist Apirana Taylor (born 1955), New Zealand poet, novelist and story-teller Edward Taylor (c. 1642–1729), colonial American poet, physician and pastor Emily Taylor (1795–1872), English poet and children's writer Henry Taylor (1800–1886), English poet and dramatist Henry S. Taylor (born 1942), US poet Jane Taylor (1783–1824), English poet and novelist Sara Teasdale (1884–1933), US lyric poet Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621–1675), Sikh Guru and Punjabi poet Telesilla (fl. 510 BCE), Greek poet Raipiyel Tennakoon (1899–1965), Sri Lankan poet William Tennant (1784–1848), Scottish scholar and poet. Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809–1892), English poet; Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom 1850–1892 Vahan Terian (1885–1920), Armenian poet, lyricist and public activist Elaine Terranova (born 1939), US poet Lucy Terry (c. 1730–1821), African-US poet; author of oldest known work by African American A. S. J. Tessimond (1902–1962), English poet Neyzen Tevfik (1879–1953), Turkish poet, satirist and performer Th–To Kálmán Thaly (1839–1909), Hungarian poet and politician Ernest Thayer (1863–1940), US writer and poet John Thelwall (1764–1834), English poet and essayist Theocritus (fl. 3rd c. BCE), Greek bucolic poet Antony Theodore (born 1954), German pastor poet and educator Jan Theuninck (born 1954), Belgian painter and poet Nandi Thimmana (15th – 16th cc.), Telugu poet Thiruvalluvar (around 31 BCE), Tamil poet and philosopher Dylan Thomas (1914–1953), Welsh poet and writer in English Edward Thomas (1878–1917), Welsh poet and essayist in English Lorenzo Thomas (1944–2005), US poet and critic R. S. Thomas (1913–2000), Welsh poet in English and Anglican priest John Thompson (1938–1976), English-born Canadian poet John Reuben Thompson (1823–1873), US poet, journalist, editor and publisher Francis Thompson (1859–1907), English poet and ascetic James Thomson (1700–1748), Scottish poet and playwright James Thomson (Bysshe Vanolis, 1834–1882), Scottish Victorian poet Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862), US author, poet and philosopher Georg Thurmair (1909–1984), German poet and hymn writer Maria Luise Thurmair (1918–2005), German poet and hymn writer Joseph Thurston (1704–1732), English poet Anthony Thwaite (1930–2021), English poet and writer Tibullus (c. 54–19 BCE), Latin poet and elegy writer Chidiock Tichborne (1558–1586), English conspirator and poet Thomas Tickell (1685–1740), English poet and man of letters Ludwig Tieck (1773–1853), German poet, translator, editor and critic Tikkana (1205–1288), Telugu poet, translator of Mahabharata Gary Tillery (born 1947), US writer, poet and artist Abdillahi Suldaan Mohammed Timacade (1920–1973), Somali poet Eugeniusz Tkaczyszyn-Dycki (born 1962), Polish poet Nick Toczek (born 1950), English writer, poet and broadcaster Melvin B. Tolson (1898–1966), US Modernist poet, educator and columnist Charles Tomlinson (1927–2015), English poet and translator Jean Toomer (1894–1967), US poet and novelist Mihály Tompa (1819–1868), Hungarian poet and pastor Álvaro Torres-Calderón (born 1975), Peruvian poet Kálmán Tóth (1831–1881), Hungarian poet Krisztina Tóth (born 1967), Hungarian poet and translator Sándor Tóth (1939–2019), Hungarian poet and journalist Cyril Tourneur (1575–1626), English poetic dramatist Ann Townsend (born 1962) US poet and essayist Tr–Tz Thomas Traherne (1636/1637–1674), English poet, clergyman and religious writer Georg Trakl (1887–1914), Austrian Expressionist poet Chrysanthemum Tran, Vietnamese-American poet Elizabeth Treadwell (born 1967), US poet Roland Michel Tremblay (born 1972), French Canadian writer and poet William S. Tribell (born 1977), US poet Duško Trifunović (1933–2006), Serbian poet and writer Calvin Trillin (born 1935), US humorist, poet and novelist Geeta Tripathee (born 1972), Nepali poet, lyricist, essayist and scholar Suryakant Tripathi (1896–1961), Indian poet in Hindi and Bengali Quincy Troupe (born 1939), US poet, editor and professor Tõnu Trubetsky (Tony Blackplait) (born 1963), Estonian glam punk musician and poet Marina Tsvetaeva (1892–1941), Russian/Soviet poet Kurt Tucholsky (1890–1935), German-Jewish journalist, satirist and writer Charlotte Maria Tucker (1821–1893), English poet and religious writer Tulsidas (1497/1532–1623), Hindu poet-saint, reformer and philosopher Hovhannes Tumanyan (1869–1923), Armenian writer and public activist Ğabdulla Tuqay (1886–1913), Tatar poet, critic and publisher George Turberville (c. 1540 – c. 1597), English poet Charles Tennyson Turner (1808–1879), English poet, elder brother of Alfred Tennyson Julian Turner (born 1955), English poet and mental health worker Thomas Tusser (1524–1580), English poet and farmer Hone Tuwhare (1922–2008), New Zealand Māori poet Julian Tuwim (1894–1953), Polish poet of Jewish descent Jan Twardowski (1915–2006), Polish poet and priest Chase Twichell (born 1950), US poet, professor and publisher Pontus de Tyard (c. 1521–1605), French poet and priest Fyodor Tyutchev (1803–1873), Russian Romantic poet Tristan Tzara (1896–1963), Romanian and French avant-garde poet and performance artist U Kornel Ujejski (1823–1897) Polish poet and political writer Erzsi Újvári (1899–1940), Hungarian poet Laura Ulewicz (1930–2007), US beat poet Kavisekhara Dr Umar Alisha (1885–1945), Telugu poet Jeff Unaegbu (born 1979), Nigerian writer, actor and documentary film maker Miguel de Unamuno (1864–1936), Spanish essayist, novelist and poet Giuseppe Ungaretti (1888–1970), Italian poet, critic and academic Unorthodox Australian Poet (born 1965), Australian poet Louis Untermeyer (1885–1977), US poet, anthologist and critic; US Poet Laureate 1961–1962 John Updike (1932–2009), US novelist, poet and critic Allen Upward (1863–1926), Irish-English Imagist poet and teacher Amy Uyematsu (1947–2023), Japanese-US poet V János Vajda (1827–1897), Hungarian poet and journalist Paul Valéry (1871–1945), French Symbolist author and poet Alfonso Vallejo (1943–2021), Spanish artist, playwright and poet César Vallejo (1892–1938), Peruvian poet, writer and playwright Jean-Pierre Vallotton (born 1955), French-Swiss poet and writer Valmiki poet harbinger in Sanskrit literature Cor Van den Heuvel (born 1931), US haiku poet, editor and archivist Mona Van Duyn (1921–2004), US poet; US Poet Laureate 1992–1993 Lin Van Hek (born 1944), Australian poet, writer and fashion designer Nikola Vaptsarov (1909–1942), Bulgarian poet Varand (born 1954), Armenian poet, writer and professor of literature Mahadevi Varma (1907–1987), Indian poet writing in Hindi Dimitris Varos (1949–2017), modern Greek poet, journalist and photographer Henry Vaughan (1621–1695), Welsh author, physician and metaphysical poet Thomas Vaux, 2nd Baron Vaux of Harrowden (1509–1556), English poet Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller (1877–1968), African-American poet, painter and sculptor Joana Vaz (c. 1500 – after 1570), Portuguese poet and courtier Vazha-Pshavela (aka Luka Razikashvili) (1861–1915), Georgian poet and writer Reetika Vazirani (1962–2003), US poet and educator Ivan Vazov (1850–1921), Bulgarian poet, novelist and playwright Attila Végh (born 1962), Hungarian poet and philosopher Maffeo Vegio (Latin: Maphaeus Vegius) (1407–1458), Italian poet in Latin Vemana (aka Kumaragiri Vema Reddy), Indian Telugu poet Gavril Stefanović Venclović (fl. 1680–1749), Serbian priest, writer, poet and illuminator Helen Vendler (born 1933), US poetry critic and professor Jacint Verdaguer (1845–1902), Catalan poet in Spain Paul Verlaine (1844–1896), French poet associated with Symbolist movement Paul Vermeersch (born 1973), Canadian poet Veturi (1936–2010), Telugu poet and songwriter Francis Vielé-Griffin (1864–1937), French symbolist poet Peter Viereck (1916–2006), US poet, professor and political thinker Gilles Vigneault (born 1928), Canadian Quebecois poet, publisher and singer-songwriter Judit Vihar (born 1944), Hungarian poet and literary historian Jose Garcia Villa (1908–1997), Philippines poet, literary critic and painter Xavier Villaurrutia (1903–1950), Mexican poet and playwright François Villon (c. 1431–1464), French poet, thief and barroom brawler Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro; 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BCE), Athenian poet Xin Qiji (1140–1207), Chinese poet Cali Xuseen Xirsi (also Yam Yam) (1946–2005), Somali poet active in 1960s Xu Pei (born 1966), Chinese-born German poet Xu Zhimo (1897–1931), Chinese poet Halima Xudoyberdiyeva (1947–2018), Uzbek poet Y Jūkichi Yagi (1898–1927), Japanese religious poet Leo Yankevich (born 1961), US poet and editor Peyo Yavorov (1878–1914), Bulgarian Symbolist poet Raushan Yazdani (1918–1967), Bengali poet and researcher W. B. Yeats (1865–1939), Irish poet; 1923 Nobel Prize in Literature Sergei Yesenin (1895–1925), Russian lyrical poet Yevgeny Yevtushenko (1933–2017), Soviet Russian poet, dramatist and film director Yi Suhyeong (1435–1528), politician and Confucian scholar, writer, and poet Lin Yining (1655 – c. 1730), Chinese poet, painter and composer Akiko Yosano (1878–1942), Japanese poet, feminist and pacifist Nima Yooshij (1895–1960), Iranian poet Andrew Young (1885–1971), Scottish poet and clergyman Edward Young (1681–1765), English poet Ian Young (born 1945), English/Canadian poet Kevin Young (born 1970), US poet and teacher Marguerite Young (1908–1995), US author of poetry, fiction and non-fiction Simpson Charles Younger (1850–1943), baseball player, soldier during the American Civil War, Civil Rights campaigner, and poet A. W. Yrjänä (Aki Ville Yrjänä; born 1967), Finnish poet, musician and songwriter Yuan Mei (1716–1797), Chinese poet, scholar and gastronome Z Tymon Zaborowski (1799–1828), Polish poet Adam Zagajewski (1945–2021), Polish poet, novelist and essayist Józef Bohdan Zaleski (1802–1886), Polish poet Wacław Michał Zaleski (1799–1849), Polish poet, critic and politician Esperanza Zambrano (1901–1992), Mexican poet Andrea Zanzotto (1921–2011), Italian poet Matthew Zapruder (born 1967), US poet, translator and professor Marya Zaturenska (1902–1982), US lyric poet Kazimiera Zawistowska (1870–1902), Polish poet and translator Abd al-Wahhab Abu Zayd (living), Saudi poet and translator Piotr Zbylitowski (1569–1649), Polish poet and courtier Katarzyna Ewa Zdanowicz-Cyganiak (born 1979), Polish poet and journalist Emil Zegadłowicz (1888–1941), Polish poet, playwright and translator Ludwig Zeller (1927–2019) Chilean poet Robert Zend (1929–1985), Hungarian-Canadian poet, fiction writer and artist Benjamin Zephaniah (born 1958), English writer, dub poet and Rastafarian Hristofor Zhefarovich (c. 1690–1753), Serbian painter, writer and poet Calvin Ziegler (1854–1930), German-US poet in Pennsylvania Dutch Narcyza Żmichowska (Gabryella, 1819–1876), Polish poet and novelist Radovan Zogović (1907–1986), Serbian/Montenegrin poet Miklós Zrínyi (1620–1664), Hungarian poet and statesman Zuhayr ibn Abī Sūlmā (520–609), pre-Islamic Arabian poet Louis Zukofsky (1904–1978), US objectivist poets Jerzy Żuławski (1874–1915), Polish poet, novelist and philosopher Juliusz Żuławski (1910–1999), Polish poet, critic and translator Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531), Swish poet, hymnist and Reformation leader Eugeniusz Żytomirski (1911–1975), Polish poet, playwright and novelist in Russia and Canada References de:Liste von Dichtern

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%94%ED%92%80%EB%A0%89%EC%8A%A4%20%EC%BD%A4%ED%94%84%EB%A0%88%EC%82%AC

암풀렉스 콤프레사

암풀렉스 콤프레사(Ampulex compressa), 에메랄드는쟁이벌(emerald cockroach wasp) 또는 보석는쟁이벌(jewel wasp)은 벌목 는쟁이벌과의 사회 생활을 하지 않는 단독성 벌(solitary wasp)이다. 생김새 암컷의 몸 길이는 약 22mm이다. 몸은 금속성 청녹색이다. 두 번째 및 세 번째 다리 쌍의 허벅지가 빨간색이다. 수컷은 더 작고 침이 없다. 분포 이 벌은 열대 지방, 특히 남아시아, 아프리카 그리고 태평양의 여러 섬들에서 발견된다. 암풀렉스 콤프레사는 1941년 생물적 방제의 방법으로 FX Williams에 의해 하와이에 도입되었다. 하지만 이 방법은 벌의 영토 경향과 적은 사냥 활동으로 인해 성공적이지 못했다. 이 종은 브라질 상파울루와 리우데자네이루 주 에서도 발견된다. 산토스 항구와 리우데자네이루 항구를 통해 이 나라에 정착했을 가능성이 높다. 생태 는쟁이벌과 벌들은 바퀴벌레를 사냥한다. 암풀렉스 콤프레사는 이질바퀴, 잔이질바퀴 그리고 Nauphoeta rhombifolia 같은 대형 바퀴류를 사냥한다. 바퀴벌레의 두부 신경절(뇌)과 같은 특정한 신경절들을 침으로 공격한다. 이 과정의 생화학적인 방법이 설명되었다. 벌은 바퀴벌레의 신경 전달 물질을 차단하는 독을 주입하고, 격렬하게 저항하던 바퀴벌레는 독이 주입된 후 도망가지 못하고 둔해지며 제 발로 끌려간다. 먹이를 잡은 는쟁이벌은 바퀴벌레 더듬이의 절반을 자르고 운반하여, 굴을 만들어 그 속에 먹이를 보관한다. 부화한 애벌레는 바퀴벌레 위에서 살며 4-5일 동안 먹고 그 다음 복부로 들어가며 내부기생성(endoparasitoid)로 살 수 있다. 8일 동안, 벌 유충은 적어도 유충이 번데기 단계에 들어가 바퀴벌레 몸 속에서 번데기를 형성할 때까지 바퀴벌레가 살아있을 가능성을 최대화하는 순서대로 바퀴벌레의 내장 기관을 소모한다. 결국, 완전히 자란 벌은 바퀴벌레의 몸에서 빠져나와 성충으로 활동하기 시작한다. 독이 있는 (특히, 단독성 벌들에서) 수많은 동물들이 먹이를 새끼를 위한 살아있는 음식으로 마비시키지만 암풀렉스 콤프레사는 처음부터 독특한 행동 방식으로 바퀴벌레의 행동을 남겨놓고 개정한다. 바퀴벌레를 잡아먹는 는쟁이벌속(Ampulex)의 몇몇 다른 종들도 비슷한 행동을 보인다. 는쟁이벌의 이런 방법은 바퀴벌레의 탈출 대응에만 영향을 미친다. 는쟁이벌의 침에 찔린 바퀴벌레는 약 72 시간 동안 생존 본능(헤엄이나 통증을 피하는 등)이 대폭 감소되지만, 비행이나 뒤집기와 같은 운동 능력은 손상되지 않는다. 생화학적 특성 는쟁이벌의 첫 번째 침 찌르기는 앞다리에 2~3분 정도의 마비를 일으키는 앞가슴 신경절(신경 조직의 덩어리)로 전달된다. 이 찌르기는 상당한 양의 γ 아미노 - 부티르산 (GABA) 및 상보 작용제인 타우린 및 β 알라닌을 주입한다. 합성은 일시적으로 신경 시냅스에서 증가 된 염소 이온 전도도를 통해 콜린성 전달을 억제함으로써 앞가슴 신경절에서 운동 활동 전위를 차단한다. 개별적으로 이 물질들은 모두 바퀴벌레의 단기적인 마비를 유발한다. 10 : 7 : 4 의 비율로 함께 주입 하면 효과가 오래 지속된다. GABA는 ligand-gated 염화물 통로를 활성화한다. GABA 수용체에 결합함으로써 타우린과 베타 알라닌은 시냅스 틈새에 의한 GABA의 섭취를 늦춤으로써 마비 효과의 지속 기간을 연장시킨다. 결합된 이 화합물 칵테일은 바퀴벌레가 움직이거나 방어하는 것을 방지하며, 벌은 두 번째 침을 찌른다. 두 번째 침 찌르기는 식도 신경절(subseophageal ganglion, SEG)에 투여되며 훨씬 정확하기 때문에 마비가 필요하고 상당히 길다. 는쟁이벌은 찌르는 동안 적극적으로 SEG를 탐색한다. 두 번째 침은 바퀴벌레가 자발적으로 걸을 수있는 능력이나 자신의 의지를 저해하지만, 바퀴벌레는 자극에 반응할 수 있다. 그것은 또한 바퀴벌레의 과한 몸 손질(grooming)과 신진 대사 과정의 변화를 일으키는 원인이 된다. 신진 대사 변화는 는쟁이벌 유충의 영양분을 보존하는 것으로 생각된다. 연구자들은 프로카인 주입을 통해 이 '좀비 상태'를 시뮬레이션하였다. 그들은 또한 세포 외 양극성 전극을 사용하여 바퀴벌레의 신경 활동이 적음을 확인했다. 독은 바퀴벌레의 신경절 내의 구조에서 octopaminergic 조절을 방해할 수 있다. 기본적으로 갑작스런 움직임에서 근육 수축을 조절하는 신경 전달 물질인 octopamine의 효과를 제한한다. 같이 보기 암풀렉스 디멘토르 : 태국에서 발견된 는쟁이벌속의 일종. Glyptapanteles: 고치벌과의 속의 하나. 타란튤라 호크 : 대모벌과의 일종. 각주 는쟁이벌과

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerald%20cockroach%20wasp

Emerald cockroach wasp

The emerald cockroach wasp or jewel wasp (Ampulex compressa) is a solitary wasp of the family Ampulicidae. It is known for its unusual reproductive behavior, which involves stinging a cockroach and using it as a host for its larvae. It thus belongs to the entomophagous parasites. Distribution The wasp is mostly found in the tropical regions of Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific islands. The flying wasps are more abundant in the warm seasons of the year. A. compressa was introduced to Hawaii by F.X. Williams in 1941 as a method of biocontrol. This has been unsuccessful because of the territorial tendencies of the wasp and the small scale on which they hunt. The species is also found in the Brazilian states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. A. compressa likely arrived in the country through the ports of Santos and Rio de Janeiro. Description The wasp has a metallic blue-green body, with the thighs of the second and third pair of legs red. The female is about 22 mm long; the male is smaller and lacks a stinger. Males can be less than half of a female in size if emerging from a smaller or a superparasitized host. The species undergoes four larval stages, where the initial younger larvae can be seen as external hemolymph-feeders on the paralysed roach's leg, and the last instar feeds internally. Upon pupation it produces a chocolate-coloured, thick, spindle-shaped cocoon which can be found inside the dead cockroach within the burrow. Reproductive behavior and lifecycle Female wasps of this species were reported to sting a cockroach (specifically a Periplaneta americana, Periplaneta australasiae, or Nauphoeta rhombifolia) twice, delivering venom. Researchers using radioactive labeling demonstrated that the wasp stings precisely into specific ganglia of the roach. It delivers an initial sting to a thoracic ganglion and injects venom to mildly and reversibly paralyze the front legs of its victim. A biochemically-induced transient paralysis takes over the cockroach, where the temporary loss of mobility facilitates the second venomous sting at a precise spot in the victim's head ganglia (brain), in the section that controls the escape reflex. As a result of this sting, the roach will first groom extensively, and then become sluggish and fail to show normal escape responses. The venom is reported to block receptors for the neurotransmitter octopamine. Once the host is incapacitated, the wasp proceeds to chew off half of each of the roach's antennae, after which it carefully feeds from exuding hemolymph. The wasp, which is too small to carry the roach, then leads the victim to the wasp's burrow, by pulling one of the roach's antennae in a manner similar to a leash. In the burrow, the wasp will lay one or two white eggs, about 2 mm long, between the roach's legs. It then exits and proceeds to fill in the burrow entrance with any surrounding debris, more to keep other predators and competitors out than to keep the roach in. With its escape reflex disabled, the stung roach simply rests in the burrow as the wasp's egg hatches after about 3 days. The hatched larva lives and feeds for 4–5 days on the roach, then chews its way into its abdomen and proceeds to live as an endoparasitoid. Over a period of 8 days, the final-instar larva will consume the roach's internal organs, finally killing its host, and enters the pupal stage inside a cocoon in the roach's body. Eventually, the fully grown wasp emerges from the roach's body to begin its adult life. Development is faster in the warm season. Adults live for several months. Mating takes about a minute, and only one mating is necessary for a female wasp to successfully parasitize several dozen roaches. While a number of venomous animals paralyze prey as live food for their young, A. compressa is different in that it initially leaves the roach mobile and modifies its behavior in a unique way. Several other species of the genus Ampulex show a similar behavior of preying on cockroaches. The wasp's predation appears only to affect the cockroach's escape responses. While a stung roach exhibits drastically reduced survival instincts (such as swimming, or avoiding pain) for about 72 hours, motor abilities such as flight or flipping over are unimpaired. Biomechanics The first sting is delivered to the prothoracic ganglion (mass of nerve tissue) which causes a 2- to 3-minute paralysis of the front legs. This sting injects significant quantities of γ amino-butyric acid (GABA) and complementary agonists taurine and β alanine. The concoction temporarily blocks the motor action potentials in the prothoracic ganglion by depressing cholinergic transmission through the increased chloride conductance across nerve synapses. Individually, all of these substances induce short-term paralysis of the cockroach. When they are injected together in a ratio of , the effect is longer lasting. GABA activates ligand-gated chloride channels by binding to GABA receptors. Taurine and beta-alanine likely extend the duration of the paralytic effect by slowing the uptake of GABA by the synaptic cleft. Combined, this cocktail of compounds prevents the cockroach from moving and defending itself while the wasp administers the second sting/series of stings. The second sting is administered to the subesophageal ganglion (SEG) and is much more precise, hence the need for paralysis and is significantly longer. The wasp actively searches for the SEG during this sting. The second sting inhibits the cockroach's ability to walk spontaneously, or of its own will, but cockroaches can right themselves and swim while under the influence, and when startled, will jump but not run. It also causes excessive grooming and alterations in the metabolism of the cockroach. The metabolic change is thought to preserve nutrients for the wasp larva. Researchers have simulated this zombie state by injecting procaine into the SEG. They also determined using extracellular bipolar electrodes that neuronal activity was less in stung cockroaches. The venom may disturb the octopaminergic modulation in structures within the roach's ganglion. Basically, it limits the effectiveness of octopamine, the neurotransmitter that controls muscle contraction in sudden movements. See also Ampulex dementor, a species of cockroach wasp from Thailand with very similar behavior but different appearance Glyptapanteles, a genus of wasps capable of inducing caterpillars to guard its pupae Hymenoepimecis argyraphaga, a species of wasp that affect the web-building behavior of spiders to its own ends Tarantula hawk Behavior-altering parasite or parasitoid References External links Images of Emerald Cockroach Wasps, from MorphBank biological image database A 5 minute video of the wasps interaction with the cockroach. Ampulicidae Parasitic wasps Biological pest control wasps Suicide-inducing parasitism Insects described in 1781 Mind-altering parasites

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《아스달 연대기》는 2019년 6월 1일부터 2019년 9월 22일까지 방영된 tvN 토일 드라마이다. 설명 태고의 땅 아스에서 서로 다른 전설을 써가는 영웅들의 운명적 이야기. 등장 인물 주요 인물 장동건 : 타곤 역 (아역 : 문우진, 정제원) - 새녘족 족장인 산웅의 아들. 아스달의 전쟁 영웅으로, 사람과 뇌안탈의 20년 대 전쟁을 승리로 이끈 ‘아스달의 지배자', 이그트이다. 송중기 : 은섬 / 사야 역 (아역 : 김예준) - 와한족. 사람인 아사혼과 뇌안탈인 라가즈의 혼혈(이그트). 재앙의 별이라 불리는 푸른 객성의 기운을 타고 난 ‘아스달의 이방인’. 김지원 : 탄야 역 (아역 : 허정은) - 와한족의 씨족 어머니 후계자이자 열손의 딸. 재앙의 별이라고 불리는 푸른 혜성의 기운을 안고 태어난 ‘예언의 소녀’. 와한의 수호자이자 당그리(당골, 샤먼) 김옥빈 : 태알하 역 - 해씨 가문의 장녀이자 미홀의 딸. 아스달 최초의 태후 Part.1 예언의 아이들 새녘족 & 대칸 김의성 : 산웅 역 - 젊은 나이에 부족 연맹장 지위에 오른 새녘족의 족장이자 타곤의 아버지 박해준 : 무백 역 - 소수 부족인 물길족 출신의 대칸 부대의 2인자로, 타곤이 연맹장이 된 후에는 군검부의 수장이 되는 인물 박병은 : 단벽 역 - 산웅의 아들이자 타곤의 이복동생으로 새녘족의 어라하(족장)후계자. 아스달 연맹의 치안과 안전을 책임지는 위병단 총관 박형수 : 길선 역 - 흰산족 출신의 대칸 부대 전사, 현재 위병단의 단장 최영준 : 연발 역 - 대칸부대의 전사 이호철 : 기토하 역 - 대칸부대의 전사. 흰산족 출신으로 사람으로선 믿어지지 않는 힘을 지녔고 무술도 뛰어난 편 황희 : 무광 역 - 대칸부대의 전사, 무백의 동생 기도훈 : 양차 역 - 대칸부대의 전사. 침묵의 벌을 받고 있는 중 송유택 : 박량풍 역 - 대칸부대의 전사. 소수 부족 출신으로는 드물게 제관 수련까지 받음 이황의 : 대대 역 - 연맹궁의 필경장. 연맹국에서 일어나는 일들을 기록하는 필경사들의 우두머리이며 행정 관료 황민호 : 소당 역 - 위병단의 1단장으로, 길선과는 어린 시절 친구 김정우 : 편미 역 - 위병단의 2단장으로, 역시 길선, 소당과는 어린 시절 친구 흰산족 이도경 : 아사론 역 - 흰산족의 족장이자 아스달의 제의와 제례를 주관하는 대제관 손숙 : 아사사칸 역 - 아사 가문의 일원이자 흰산의 어머니. 아사론보다 높은 지위에 있는 존재 서은아 : 아사못 역 - 아사 가문의 일원이자 신녀장. 아사론의 오른팔 장률 : 아사욘 역 - 아사 가문의 일원이자 제관 박지원 : 아사무 역 - 아사 가문의 일원이자 무녀 추자현 : 아사혼 역 (특별출연) - 은섬·사야의 어머니 해족 조성하 : 해미홀 역 - 해족 족장이자 태알하의 아버지 윤사봉 : 해투악 역 - 태알하의 최측근 하호, 전사 박성연 : 해여비 역 - 태알하의 최측근 하호 배기범 : 해흘립 역 - 해족의 필경사이자 미홀의 정보수집책 미상 : 해알영 역 - 해족의 필경관장. 불의 성채의 필경관은 5000개 이상의 죽간과 가죽 책을 보유 홍지희 : 해가온 역 - 해족의 농경기술자. 모든 작물의 종자 계보를 꿰고 있을 만큼 뛰어난 두뇌와 해박한 지식을 가짐 임진웅 : 해까닥 역 - 해족의 청동기술자 차성제 : 해때문 역 - 해까닥의 어린 아들 전수연 : 해양우 역 - 매혼제를 만들 수 있는 유일한 기술자 바치두레 조승연 : 하림 역 - 흰산족 출신 아스달 최고의 약바치(의사) 고보결 : 채은 역 (아역 : 진서율) - 하림의 딸. 아스달의 약바치. 제사를 담당하는 흰산족의 일원 안혜원 : 눈별 역 - 채은의 동생 윤여진 : 스천 역 - 소수부족 출신의 약전 하호 류시현 : 모명진 역 - 약전 하호. 흰산족 출신의 염색공방을 운영하는 장터의 바치 미상 : 울백 역 - 새녘족 출신의 아스달 장터에서 가장 영향력이 있는 바치두레 장 정재원 : 트리한 역 - 자신이 흰산족이라는 것에 대한 자부심이 강한 바치두레의 일원 미상 : 라임 역 - 아스대륙 출신은 아니나, 아스달 연맹인으로서 자부심을 갖고 있는 바치두레의 일원 이아르크 정석용 : 열손 역 - 와한족 씨족장이자 탄야의 아버지 김호정 : 초설 역 - 와한족의 씨족어머니. 탄야의 이모 신주환 : 달새 역 - 와한족 최고의 전사이자 와한족 씨족장의 후계자 박진 : 뭉태 역 - 와한족 출신의 전사 양경원 : 터대 역 - 와한족 출신의 전사 김충길 : 북쇠 역 - 와한족 출신의 전사. 불의 성채에서 아스달의 부족들 간 대립이 있었을 당시 달새와 함께 도망친 인물 고나희 : 도티 역 - 와한족 출신의 어린 아이 신문성 : 둔지 역 - 와한족 출신 어른 송재룡 : 검불 역 - 와한족 출신 어른 박옥출 : 아가지 역 - 와한족 출신 어른 김비비 : 우루미 역 - 와한족 출신 어른. 탄야에게 돌매질을 가르침 뇌안탈 유태오 : 라가즈 역 - 위대한 사냥꾼이자 은섬·사야의 아버지. 이름은 뇌안탈식 아나그램으로 '자갈' 문종원 : 라크느루프 역 - 뇌안탈들에게 가장 추앙받는 사냥꾼이자 추장. 이름은 뇌안탈식 아나그램으로 '푸른 칼' 옥고운 : 무트루브 역 - 뇌안탈 당골 송종호 : 이쓰루브 역 - 라크느루프를 잇는 위대한 사냥꾼이자 차세대 추장. 이름은 뇌안탈식 아나그램으로 '불씨' 닉쿤 : 로띱 역 (특별출연) (아역 : 최로운) - 대전쟁과 대사냥의 생존자. 이름은 뇌안탈식 아나그램으로 '빛돌' 장재우 : 노스나호 역 Part.2 뒤집히는 하늘 일어나는 땅 새녘족 & 대칸 지민 : 거매 역 - 대칸부대의 전사. 타곤의 명을 받아 가르간을 죽여 자살로 위장 시키기 위해 목을 매달던 중 뇌안탈인 이쓰루브에게 심장이 꺼내져 죽고 숲에서 발견 고재천 : 홍술 역 - 대칸부대의 전사 김정환 : 초리곤 역 - 대칸부대의 전사 최지원 : 나린 역 - 단벽의 어린 딸. 산웅과 단벽을 대신해 새녘족의 어라하 자리에 오름 어라하 미상 : 초발 역 - 호피족의 어라하. 잇속만 챙기는 아사씨에 대한 불만이 가득 미상 : 다와 역 - 까치놀족의 어라하 미상 : 쿵퉁 역 - 바토족의 어라하 미상 : 흑갈 역 - 가라말족의 어라하 미상 : 보단 역 - 연달족의 어라하 돌담불 김성철 : 잎생 역 - 아고족 출신의 돌담불 깃바닥 노예, 살아남기 위해서라면 의리도 정도 없는 준비된 배신자 태원석 : 바도루 역 - 캐란족 출신의 돌담불 깃바닥 노예. 캐란족 최고의 전사 권범택 : 올마대 역 - 아스달 출신의 돌담불 깃바닥 노예. 아스달에서 금기시되는 ‘흰산의 심장’ 장로로 활동한 전력 탓에 추포되어 돌담불로 유배되고 노예 신세가 됨 조병규 : 사트닉 역 - 모모족 출신의 돌담불 깃바닥 노예 백승익 : 차나라기 역 - 물길족 출신의 돌담불 깃바닥 노예 김도현 : 쇼르자긴 역 - 아스달 하호 출신으로 돌담불 관리인 골두의 수하 류성현 : 골두 역 - 아스달에서 파견된 돌담불 관리인. 돌담불의 우두머리. 잔인한 방법으로 노예들을 관리 손상경 : 거한 역 - 돌담불 소속 골두의 수하 Part.3 아스, 그 모든 전설의 서곡 흰산족 김설진 : 푸른거미 역 송건희 : 검은 혀 역 바치두레 미상 : 감실 역 어라하 엄지만 : 보우 역 모모족 카라타 에리카 : 카리카 역 - 모모족의 샤바라(우두머리) 심은우 : 타피엔 역 - 사트닉의 부인 묘씨 미상 : 파사 역 - 묘씨족의 씨족장 하준 : 타추간 역 - 거칠고 강인한 묘씨족 최고의 전사로 말보다 행동이 먼저 나가는 다혈질. 부족의 몰락을 타개하기 위한 수단으로 은섬을 지도자로 인정한 후 은섬을 도와 첫 전투인 돌담불 탈환 작전에 참가 배다빈 : 미루솔 역 - 유능한 묘씨족의 전사. 은섬이 폭포의 심판에서 살아남아 이나이신기로 추앙받고 부족을 이끌기 시작한 후 은섬을 도와 첫 전투인 돌담불 탈환 작전에 참가 미상 : 묘씨 할머니 역 - 묘씨족의 큰 어른 미상 : 묘씨 장로 역 - 묘씨족의 장로 중 한명. 씨족 내 중대한 문제에 결정적인 판단을 내림 김예슬 : 예스란 역 - 씨족장 파사의 딸. 타추간의 약혼녀 태씨 고창석 : 테압독 역 (특별출연) - 찌질하고 무능하기 그지없는 태씨족의 씨족장 김정영 : 수하나 역 - 장로. 태압독의 곁에서 족장의 권위를 지켜주고, 씨족의 앞길을 헤아리는 믿음직스럽고 충직한 조언자. 뒤로는 아고족의 동태를 아스달에 몰래 보고하는 여마리(밀정)로 "붉은 발톱"이라는 암호명을 가지고 있음 한민 : 태마자 역 - 태씨족의 뛰어난 실력의 전사. 은섬을 이나이신기로 인정하며 아고족 연합에 합류 고상호 : 태다치 역 - 돌담불에 노예로 팔려갔던 태씨족의 전사 정동훈 : 태니마 역 - 돌담불에 노예로 팔려갔던 태씨족의 전사 술씨 미상 : 술씨족장 역 - 태씨족과 사이가 좋지 않은 술씨족의 씨족장 그 외 인물 최석준 이도국 아누팜 윤호림 최동구 : 쇼르자긴 수하 역 마성민 : 쇼르자긴 수하 역 연제혁 김상두 최서준 원웅재 이주영 이화룡 이광세 이규섭 안정호 최시훈 이효비 장현우 : 샤하티소년 역 임지윤 : 샤하티소녀 역 우용희 : 산웅 호위무사 역 이범훈 백승익 : 물길족의 차나라기 역 특별출연 지수 : 새나래 역 - 사야의 옛 첫사랑 촬영지 아스달 연대기 드라마세트장 냇길이소 상족암군립공원 황매산 반곡지 팡자 좋아 길 숲터널 포천 한탄강 현무암 협곡과 비둘기낭 폭포 시청률 수상 및 후보 같이 보기 대한민국의 텔레비전 드라마 목록 (ㅇ) 2019년 대한민국의 텔레비전 드라마 목록 각주 외부 링크 아스달 연대기 공식사이트 2019년 드라마 김영현 시나리오 작품 박상연 시나리오 작품 2019년에 시작한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 2019년에 종료한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 tvN 토일드라마

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthdal%20Chronicles

Arthdal Chronicles

Arthdal Chronicles () is a 2019 South Korean television series written by Kim Young-hyun and Park Sang-yeon and directed by Kim Won-seok, under the production banner of Studio Dragon and KPJ, starring Jang Dong-gun, Kim Ok-vin, alongside Song Joong-ki, Kim Ji-won in first season, Lee Joon-gi, Shin Se-kyung in second season. Regarded as the first Korean ancient fantasy drama, the story takes place during the Bronze Age and is loosely based on the story of Dangun, the founder of the first Korean Kingdom of Gojoseon and Asadal, the capital (which the series is loosely named after).<ref>{{Cite web |title='아스달 연대기' 제목에 담긴 뜻은?… '처음에는 '아사달 연대기 |url=https://www.busan.com/view/busan/view.php?code=2019060122075737650 |access-date=October 6, 2023 |website=Busan Daily |language=ko}}</ref> The first season aired on tvN from June 1 to September 22, 2019, every Saturday and Sunday at 21:00 (KST) time slot. The second season aired on tvN from September 9 to October 22, 2023, every Saturday and Sunday at 21:20 (KST) time slot. It is available for streaming on Netflix for the first season and on Disney+ for the second season in selected regions. In spite of the generally mixed to negative reception from critics, the series was the sixth most preferred Korean drama among viewers in the United States market in 2019 per Consumer Research Report by the Korea Creative Content Agency. Synopsis In a mythical land called Arth, the inhabitants of the ancient city of Arthdal contend with power struggles, while some encounter love along the way. Eun-seom goes through hardships to bring his tribe back to life and learns of his true origins in the process. Cast and characters Jang Dong-gun as Ta-gon Song Joong-ki (season 1) and Lee Joon-gi (season 2) as Eun-seom and Saya Kim Ji-won (season 1) and Shin Se-kyung (season 2) as Tan-ya Kim Ok-vin as Tae Al-ha Production Season 1 The cast and crew attended a workshop in Yangju, Gyeonggi-do, on August 21, 2018. The first script reading was held on August 26, 2018. Filming officially started on December 5, 2018 with the opening ceremony of the set in Osan, whose construction took place for eight months. The drama was also filmed overseas in Brunei, with Song Joong-ki departing first on February 24, 2019. The drama serves as a reunion project for Song Joong-ki and Kim Ji-won who both starred in the 2016 hit drama Descendants of the Sun. Season 2 On February 12, 2020, it was announced that the drama was renewed for a second season. On June 11, 2020, it was announced that the production schedule was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic and has been excluded from the 2021 lineup. In February 2022, it was announced that the second season was expected to be released in early 2023 along with a webtoon and an MMORPG. Writers Kim Young-hyun and Park Sang-yeon would be in charge of the script again, with Kim Kwang-sik as director. Titled Arthdal Chronicles: The Sword of Aramun (), the season is set about eight years later; thus, Lee Joon-gi and Shin Se-kyung replaced Song Joong-ki and Kim Ji-won as the adult versions of Eun-seom and Tan-ya, while Jang Dong-gun and Kim Ok-vin reprised their roles. Filming began on August 23, 2022 and took place in Jeju Island. Shin finished filming her part on April 4, 2023. Filming was completed on May 2, 2023. Reception Critical reception The drama received mixed reviews. It was criticized by Game of Thrones fans for sharing similarities with that series, while critics felt that it employs poor use of CGI, has a formulaic plot, is similar to other foreign fantasy dramas and films centered on ancient times, and has a slow-paced storyline, which can make viewers lose interest. Viewers were also bewildered by the historical setting, as the drama is set in the Bronze Age but cast members are seen wearing armors and weapons that do not belong to that era. Conversely, the drama was praised for its intriguing storyline and unique setting, touching on subjects like the meaning of a tribe, an alliance and a nation, as well as religion. Writer Park Sang-yeon said, "I wouldn't even think of comparing our series to [Game of Thrones] and I don't think our goal is to create something similar... I wouldn't try to claim to do anything similar to the show and I don't think it's an appropriate comparison." He added, "We tried to create a great series by building a fictitious world of our own with our imagination and I hope you see our series as it is." Although John Serba of Decider.com gave the series a "Skip It" rating, he said, "Arthdal occurs in a more primitive time than [Game of Thrones], and appears to be set up to explore different ideas about the human creature and its thirst for power and possessions." He said that the show further differentiates itself from Game of Thrones by its absence of nudity and sex scenes. Forbes contributor Joan MacDonald said, "Stunning camera work makes The Arthdal Chronicles'' a visual pleasure to watch, capturing sweeping panoramas that place fledgeling humans in the context of a wide world waiting to be explored—and possibly conquered." The series received lower-than-expected viewership ratings, in comparison to its massive budget, but the first episode received ratings of 6.7 percent and peaked at 8 percent, placing it first for all dramas in its time slot, including non-cable broadcasting stations. It achieved a ratings high on June 9, with its fourth episode, scoring an average rating of 7.7 percent nationwide, which was an increase of 1.3 percent from the night before. The episode peaked at 8.9 percent nationwide. Staff mistreatment The production team was criticized for mistreatment of its production staff. The production team was accused of violating labor laws from local civic groups, including the Seoul-based Hanbit Media Labor Rights Center and Hope Solidarity Labor Union, as the drama crew had been subject to a "murderous" working environment that made them work up to 150 hours a week. The organizations reported Studio Dragon to the Seoul Employment and Labor Administration. The standards were agreed upon and announced by the studio last September to enhance the labor environment of its staff. Studio Dragon responded to the allegations, saying they abided by its own labor rules, but admitted that they had filmed for 113 hours during the week they went to Brunei in order to make the most out of their time shooting overseas. The studio denied reports that an injured staff member was ignored and told to continue working. Original soundtrack Part 1 Part 2 Special OST Viewership The first episode recorded average ratings of 6.7% and peaked at 8%, taking first place for all dramas in its time slot, including non-cable broadcasting stations. The drama's personal record of 7.7% was on its fourth episode. Its finale scored an average rating of 7.4% nationwide. The series entered the list of highest-rated Korean dramas in cable television. Season 1 Season 2 Awards and nominations Notes References External links (season 1) (season 2) TVN (South Korean TV channel) television dramas 2019 South Korean television series debuts South Korean historical television series South Korean fantasy television series Alternate history television series South Korean pre-produced television series Television series by Studio Dragon Korean-language Netflix exclusive international distribution programming

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B8%8C%EB%A6%AC%EC%9C%A0%EB%8B%88%20%ED%98%91%EC%A0%95

브리유니 협정

브리유니 협정(, , )은 유럽 공동체(EC)의 정치적 중재 하에 슬로베니아, 크로아티아, 유고슬라비아 사회주의 연방공화국 세 대표가 1991년 7월 7일 크로아티아의 브리유니섬에서 회담을 가진 후 서명한 문서이다. 브리오니 협정, 브리유니 선언, 브리오니 선언이라고도 한다. 이 협정에선 유고슬라비아의 미래에 대해 향후 협상을 진행할 수 있는 환경을 만들고자 했다. 유고슬라비아의 총리 안테 마르코비치는 유고슬라비아 연방공화국을 존속시키러 했으나 고립되었고 슬로베니아는 연방의 영향력에서 완전히 벗어났다. 이 협정으로 유고슬라비아 인민군(JNA)은 크로아티아 전쟁에 집중하게 되었으며, 국제 국경을 다시 그리는 선례를 만들었으며 유럽 공동체가 유고슬라비아 위기 사태에 관심을 가지게 된다. 브리유니 협정으로 슬로베니아와 유고슬라비아 인민군 간에 일어나던 열흘 전쟁이 종식되었다. 슬로베니아와 크로아티아는 6월 25일에 한 독립 선언을 3개월간 보류 기간을 가지기로 합의하였다. 이 외에도, 브리유니 협정에서는 슬로베니아 국경의 국경 통제 및 세관 통과 문제, 항공 교통 관제 문제, 전쟁 포로 교환 문제를 합의하였다. 또한 슬로베니아에서 협정 이행을 감시하기 위한 유럽 공동체 감시 임무를 수행, 파견하기로 하였다. 협정 체결 11일 후, 유고슬라비아 연방 정부는 슬로베니아에서 유고슬라비아 인민군 병력을 철수시켰다. 하지만 이와 반대로 크로아티아의 전쟁엔 영향을 주지 못하고 계속 분쟁이 이어졌다. 배경 1991년 6월 23일, 슬로베니아와 크로아티아가 유고슬라비아의 해체 과정 중 독립 선언을 할 준비를 하면서, 유럽 공동체 외무장관은 EC 회원국은 양 국을 국가승인하지 않을 것이라 발표했다. 유럽 공동체는 독립선언을 일방적인 움직임으로 보고 유고슬라비아 연방이 존속할 수 있도록 협상을 중재했다. 이와 동시에 EC는 슬로베니아, 크로아티아와의 직접적인 외교 교류를 중지하였다. 유고슬라비아 정부에선 환영하는 의사를 밝혔다. 슬로베니아와 크로아티아는 6월 25일 독립을 선언하였으며 이 다음날부터 유고슬라비아 인민군이 슬로베니아 내로 배치되기 시작했다. 6월 27일에는 유고슬라비아 인민군과 슬로베니아 국토방위군(TDS)이 슬로베니아 국경 지역 통제권을 가지고 충돌하기 시작하면서 열흘 전쟁이 시작하였다. 6월 말에서 7월 초 사이 EC 협상단 3명이 유고슬라비아 지역을 세 차례 방문하면서 정치 협상을 중재하며 추가 협상이 이어졌다. 대표단엔 룩셈부르크 외무부 장관이자 부총리인 자크퀴스 푸스, 유럽 연합 이사회 의장국 이탈리아 대표인 지아니 데 미첼리스, 네덜란드 대표 한스 판 덴 브로크로 구성되었다. 대표단이 베오그라드로 가기 직전 공항에서 열린 기자회견에서 푸스는 유럽 공동체가 이 위기를 책임질 것이라고 말했다. 대표단과 만난 세르비아 대통령 슬로보단 밀로셰비치는 크로아티아 내엔 세르비아인 60만명이 살고 있으며 이 때문에 유고슬라비아에서 크로아티아가 독립할 가능성을 일축하였다. 6월 29일, 크로아티아와 슬로베니아는 협상 합의를 위해 독립선언을 일시적으로 보류하는 데에 합의했다. 유럽 공동체 대표단은 세르비아가 6월 30일 유고슬라비아 대통령의 크로아티아계 대표인 스체판 메시치를 대통령위원회 의장에 임명하는 것에 반대하지 않기로 중재하면서 협상에 진전을 보였다. 유고슬라비아 인민군이 슬로베니아로 철수하여 막사로 돌아가면서 합의가 진전을 이룬 것처럼 보였다. 7월 1일, 유럽 공동체 의장직에 네덜란드에 이어 포르투갈이 맡으면서 미첼리스 대신 포르투갈 외무부 장관인 조아오 데 데우스 핀헤이로로 대표단이 교체되었다. 브리유니 회담 유럽 공동체의 중재 결과, 크로아티아의 브리유니섬에서 유럽 공동체, 크로아티아, 슬로베니아, 세르비아, 유고슬라비아 정부 사이 중재 협상이 열렸다. 브리유니 회담은 7월 7일 시작하였다. 반 덴 브로크가 이끄는 유럽 공동체 대표단 외에도 유고슬라비아의 대통령 8명 중 5명인 스체판 메시치(크로아티아), 보기치 보기체비치(보스니아), 야네즈 드르노브셰크(슬로베니아), 브란코 코스티치(몬테네그로), 바실 투푸르코브스키(마케도니아)가 참여했다. 이외에도 유고슬라비아의 총리인 안테 마르코비치, 유고슬라비아 연방 외무부 장관 부디미르 론차르, 내무부 장관 페타르 그라차닌, 국방차관이자 부제독인 스타네 브로베트도 참여했다. 크로아티아 대표엔 크로아티아의 대통령 프라뇨 투지만이, 슬로베니아 대표엔 슬로베니아의 대통령 밀란 쿠찬이 참여했다. 세르비아 측에선 참석을 거부한 밀로셰비치 대신 6월 15일 연방 대통령직 세르비아계 대표에 사임한 사람인 보리사브 요비치가 참석했다. 오전 8시부터 유럽 공동체 대표단은 쿠챤 및 슬로베니아 대표단과 별도 협의를, 그 다음엔 투지만 및 크로아티아 대표단과 협의를, 마지막으로 요비치와 각각 회담을 가졌다. 오후에는 슬로베니아, 크로아티아, 유고슬라비아 대표단이 참여한 가운데 본회의가 열렸으나 요비치는 회담에 불만족스러워했다. 협정은 7월 5일 헤이그의 유럽 공동체 이사회에서 준비하였다. 이 협정 문서엔 공동선언 및 유고슬라비아 감시 임무를 위한 정치적 협상 및 지침 협의를 위한 환경 조성을 서술한 부속문서 2개로 이뤄져 있었다. 브리오니 협정 또는 브리오니 선언으로 잘 알려진 이 협정문서에선 유고슬라비아 인민군과 국토방위군은 전부 기지 내로 돌아가며, 슬로베니아 정부는 슬로베니아 국경만 통제하며 슬로베니아 및 크로아티아 양국은 독립선언 이후 3개월간 모든 독립과 관련된 활동을 중지해야 한다고 명시했다. 브리유니 협정으로 수립된 감시 임무에선 슬로베니아의 유고슬라비아 인민군과 국토방위군의 철수를 모니터링하였으며 나중엔 슬로베니아 내에서 모든 유고슬라비아 인민군이 철수하였다. 여파 브리유니 협정은 합의가 거의 이루어지지 못했고 서명국들마다 합의를 서로 다르게 해석했지만, 그래도 유고슬라비아 지역에 대해 유럽 공동체의 관심을 환기시켰고 7월 10일 헤이그에서 유고슬라비아 문제에 대한 첫 유럽 공동체 회담이 열렸다. 이 회담에선 슬로베니아 내 막사에서의 군사적 대립을 약화시켰고 슬로베니아의 유고슬라비아 인민군 철수 협상에 대해서 슬로베니아와 인민군 사이 협상을 중재하는데 큰 진전을 보였다. 크로아티아에서는 협정이 체결된 같은 날 저녁에 유고슬라비아 인민군이 오시예크를 포격하는 등 무장 충돌이 계속되었다. 연방 대통령은 슬로베니아의 브리유니 협정 수행에 반응하여 7월 18일까지 유고슬라비아 인민군을 슬로베니아에서 철수시키도록 명령했다. 유럽 공동체의 감시 임무는 9월 1일 크로아티아로 확대되었다. 9월 중순부턴 크로아티아 국가방위군과 경찰이 유고슬라비아 인민군 막사를 봉쇄하고 이에 유고슬라비아 인민군이 크로아티아 내로 공세를 펼치면서 전쟁이 격화되었다. 브리유니 협정으로 연방을 존속시키러는 마르코비치는 고립되었으나 반 덴 브로크를 위시한 대표단이 이를 무시하고 유럽 공동체 총재는 암묵적으로 사실상 유고슬라비아 해체를 말하면서 연방 존속은 불가능해졌다. 이 협정으로 유고슬라비아 연방 존속을 위해 싸운 유고슬라비아 인민군의 지도부의 일부 권한이 줄어들었다. 또한 크로아티아에서는 유고슬라비아 인민군과 세르비아계 군사가 계속 남아있어서 불리했다. 슬로베니아에서는 연방 정부, 특히 유고 인민군의 영향이 완전히 없어졌으며 세르비아 민족주의자에겐 하나의 목표를 달성하였고 국제 국경을 다시 그릴 수 있게 되었다. 미국의 저널리스트 사브리나 P. 라메트는 1991년 1월 쿠챤과 밀로셰비치 사이 합의를 통해 밀로셰비치는 슬로베니아의 독립에 세르비아가 반대하지 않을 것이라 합의를 보았다고 적었다. 이에 쿠챤은 대신 밀로셰비치의 대세르비아 수립에 대한 이해에 공감을 표했다. 이 시기 유럽 공동체는 브리유니 협정이 위기를 완화시키는 방법이라고 보았으나 협정이 말하는 완전한 분쟁 종식에 해당하는 세르비아의 국가 대전략이 수정되지는 않았다. 각주 참고 문헌 서적 기타 문헌 1991년 슬로베니아 1991년 크로아티아 1991년 유고슬라비아 크로아티아 독립 전쟁 평화 조약 슬로베니아의 정치사 10일 전쟁 1991년 체결된 조약 1991년 발효된 조약 슬로베니아의 조약 크로아티아의 조약 유고슬라비아의 조약 유고슬라비아 전쟁 1991년 7월

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brioni%20Agreement

Brioni Agreement

The Brioni Agreement, also known as the Brioni Declaration (, , , ), is a document signed by representatives of Slovenia, Croatia, and Yugoslavia under the political sponsorship of the European Community (EC) on the Brijuni Islands on 7 July 1991. The agreement sought to create an environment in which further negotiations on the future of Yugoslavia could take place. However, ultimately it isolated the federal prime minister Ante Marković in his efforts to preserve Yugoslavia, and effectively stopped any form of federal influence over Slovenia. This meant the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) would focus on combat in Croatia, creating a precedent of redrawing international borders and staking the EC's interest in resolving the Yugoslav crisis. The agreement put an end to hostilities between the Yugoslav and Slovene forces in the Ten-Day War. Slovenia and Croatia agreed to suspend activities stemming from their 25 June declarations of independence for a period of three months. The document also resolved border control and customs inspection issues regarding Slovenia's borders, resolved air-traffic control responsibility and mandated an exchange of prisoners of war. The Brioni Agreement also formed the basis for an observer mission to monitor implementation of the agreement in Slovenia. Eleven days after the agreement was made, the federal government pulled the JNA out of Slovenia. Conversely, the agreement made no mitigating impact on fighting in Croatia. Background On 23 June 1991, as Slovenia and Croatia prepared to declare their independence during the breakup of Yugoslavia, the European Community (EC) foreign ministers decided the EC member states would not extend diplomatic recognition to the two states. The EC viewed the declarations as unilateral moves and offered assistance in negotiations regarding the future of the SFR Yugoslavia instead. At the same time, the EC decided to suspend direct talks with Slovenia and Croatia. The move was welcomed by the Yugoslav federal government. Slovenia and Croatia declared independence on 25 June, and the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) units began to deploy from its bases in Slovenia the next day. On 27 June, armed conflict broke out as the JNA and the Territorial Defence Force of Slovenia (TDS) began fighting over control of Slovenia's border posts, in what became the Ten-Day War. A three-strong EC delegation made three visits to the region in late June and early July to negotiate a political agreement which would facilitate further negotiations. The delegation consisted of the foreign ministers of Luxembourg, as the incumbent holder of the EC presidency, and Italy and the Netherlands, as the previous and future holders of that office. The delegation members were Jacques Poos (Luxembourg), Gianni de Michelis (Italy), and Hans van den Broek (Netherlands). Prior to the delegation's arrival in Belgrade, Poos told reporters that the EC would take charge of the crisis. There, the delegation was met by Serbian president Slobodan Milošević who dismissed the prospect of Croatia leaving the Yugoslav federation because its population contained 600,000 Serbs. On 29 June, Croatia and Slovenia agreed to suspend their declarations of independence to allow time for a negotiated settlement. The EC delegation appeared to make progress when Serbia responded to the move by ceasing their opposition to the appointment of a Croatian member of the federal presidency, Stjepan Mesić, as President of the Presidency of Yugoslavia on 30 June. The appearance of a success was reinforced when the JNA ordered its troops posted in Slovenia to return to their barracks. On 1 July, de Michelis was replaced by João de Deus Pinheiro, the Portuguese foreign minister, to maintain the formula of current, former and future EC presidencies comprising the EC delegation as the Netherlands took over the presidency from Luxembourg, while Portugal was scheduled to assume the presidency after the Dutch. Conference at Brijuni A further result of the EC delegation's mission were talks attended by representatives of the EC, Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia and the Yugoslav government. The talks were held at Brijuni Islands on 7 July. Besides the EC delegation, headed by van den Broek, five out of eight members of the federal presidency attended the talks—Mesić, Bogić Bogićević, Janez Drnovšek, Branko Kostić and Vasil Tupurkovski. The Yugoslav federal prime minister Ante Marković was also present, as were the Yugoslav federal foreign minister Budimir Lončar, interior minister Petar Gračanin and the deputy defence minister Vice Admiral . Croatia was represented by President Franjo Tuđman while President Milan Kučan attended on behalf of Slovenia. Serbia was represented by Borisav Jović, a former Serbian member of the federal presidency who had resigned from the position on 15 June, instead of Milošević who refused to attend. Starting at 8:00 a.m., the EC delegation held separate talks with Kučan and his assistants, then with Tuđman and his assistants, and finally with Jović. In the afternoon, a plenary meeting was held with the federal, Slovene and Croatian delegations in attendance, while Jović reportedly left dissatisfied with the talks. The agreement was prepared at the EC council of ministers in The Hague on 5 July. It consisted of a Joint Declaration, and two annexes detailing the creation of an environment suitable to further political negotiations and guidelines for an observer mission to Yugoslavia. The agreement, which became known as the Brioni Declaration or the Brioni Agreement, required the JNA and the TDS to return to their bases, and stipulated that Slovene officials were to control Slovenia's borders alone and that both Slovenia and Croatia were to suspend all activities stemming from their declarations of independence for three months. The observer mission set out by the Brioni Agreement materialised as the European Community Monitor Mission (ECMM) tasked with monitoring the disengagement of the JNA and the TDS in Slovenia, and ultimately the withdrawal of the JNA from Slovenia. Aftermath Even though little was agreed upon and the agreement was later interpreted differently by its signatories, the Brioni Agreement established the EC's interest in the region and the first EC Ministerial Conference on Yugoslavia was held in The Hague on 10 July. The ECMM helped calm several standoffs around military barracks in Slovenia and facilitated negotiations between Slovene authorities and the JNA regarding the withdrawal of the JNA from Slovenia. In Croatia, armed combat continued and the JNA shelled the city of Osijek the same evening the agreement was signed. The federal presidency ordered the complete withdrawal of the JNA from Slovenia on 18 July in response to Slovene actions in breach of the Brioni Agreement. The ECMM's scope of work was expanded to include Croatia on 1 September. By mid-September, the war had escalated as the Croatian National Guard and police blockaded the JNA barracks and the JNA embarked on a campaign against Croatian forces. The Brioni Agreement isolated Marković who tried to preserve the federation, but was ignored by van den Broek who appeared not to comprehend issues presented before him, and the EC delegation tacitly encouraged the dissolution of Yugoslavia. The agreement diminished the authority of part of the JNA's leadership who fought for the preservation of the Yugoslav federation. The agreement was also unfavourable for Croatia because it was left to defend against the JNA and Serb forces. By effectively removing Slovenia from influence of the federal authorities, especially the JNA, the agreement fulfilled one of the Serbian nationalists' goals, allowing the redrawing of international borders. Sabrina Ramet noted that Kučan and Milošević reached an agreement in January 1991 in which Milošević gave his assurances that Slovenia's independence bid would not be opposed by Serbia. In return, Kučan expressed his understanding for Milošević's interest to create a Greater Serbia. At the time, the EC viewed the agreement as a method of defusing the crisis and failed to attribute the lull which coincided with the Brioni Agreement to a shift in Serbian strategy instead. The EC delegation's failure to respond to Jović's departure before the plenary meeting and the EC foreign ministers' declaration of 10 July indicating the EC would withdraw from mediation if the Brioni Agreement was not implemented only encouraged Serbia which, unlike Slovenia, Croatia, or the Yugoslav federation, had nothing to lose if the EC pulled out. In the end, the EC took credit for a rapid resolution of the armed conflict in Slovenia without realising that its diplomatic efforts had little to do with the situation on the ground. Footnotes References Books Other sources 1991 in Croatia 1991 in Slovenia 1991 in Yugoslavia Croatian War of Independence Peace treaties Political history of Slovenia Ten-Day War Treaties concluded in 1991 Treaties entered into force in 1991 Treaties of Slovenia Treaties of Croatia Treaties of Yugoslavia Yugoslav Wars July 1991 events in Europe

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BF%A0%EC%96%BC%EB%A6%89%EA%B1%B0%EC%9D%98%20%EC%86%8C%EB%8F%84%EB%91%91

쿠얼릉거의 소도둑

「쿠얼릉거의 소도둑」()는 아일랜드 신화의 얼스터 대계에 속하는 이야기로, 얼스터 대계에서 가장 장대한 이야기다. 탄 보 작품으로서 가장 대표적이고 유명한 탄 보다. 코나크타의 여왕 메브와 그 남편 알릴이 돈 쿠얼릉거라는 마법소를 울라 왕국에서 빼앗으려고 전쟁을 일으키고 이것을 영웅 쿠 훌린이 막아내는 이야기다. 줄거리 내용상 「쿠얼릉거의 소도둑」의 전편이라고 할 수 있는 여러 이야기들이 있는데, 이 이야기들을 렘스켈러(remscéla)라고 한다. 본편의 내용을 제대로 이해하기 위한 여러 가지 배경들이 이 렘스켈러들에서 설명된다. 예컨대 울라 영웅 몇 명이 왜 코나크타 편에서 싸우는지(데르드러 사건), 왜 전쟁 초기에 울라인들이 싸움을 하지 못하고 무력화되었는지(마하 사건), 돈 쿠얼릉거와 핀베나크가 어떻게 태어났는지 등의 사정들은 본편에 나오지 않고 모두 렘스켈러들의 내용이다. 본편 제1판본은 코나크타의 수도 크루어한에서 메브와 알릴이 군대를 모으는 장면에서 시작한다. 제2판본은 알릴과 메브가 서로의 재산을 비교해 보는 장면에서 시작한다. 부부의 다른 재산은 모두 같았으나 마법적으로 정력이 강한 종우 핀베나크가 알릴의 소유라 알릴이 근소하게 더 부자였다. 핀베나크는 원래 메브의 소떼에서 태어났으나 자기 주인이 여자라는 것이 아니꼬워 메브의 소떼를 떠나 알릴의 소떼로 가 버린 것이다. 메브는 남편과 대등해지기 위해 핀베나크에 대적할 수 있는 종우인 쿠얼릉거의 돈 쿠얼릉거를 갖고자 한다. 메브는 돈 쿠얼릉거의 주인 다러 막 피어크너에게 1년간 소를 빌리고 싶다는 전갈을 보낸다. 다러는 처음에 동의했지만, 전령이 술이 취해서 다러가 동의하지 않았더라도 자기 여왕은 힘으로 소를 빼앗아 갔으리라 떠벌리면서 계약이 파토난다. 과연 그 말대로 메브는 힘으로 소를 빼앗아 오기 위해 군대를 일으킨다. 이 때 울라를 떠나 코나크타에 망명해 있던 페르구스 막 로크 등도 따라간다. 울라 남자들은 마하의 저주로 인해 "케스 닌던()"이라는 상태가 되어 전쟁을 할 수 없었다. 케스 닌던이란 "9일간의 장애"라는 뜻이지만 실제로는 몇 달간 계속되었다. 그래서 울라에서 싸울 수 있는 사람은 열일곱 살의 쿠 훌린 뿐이었다. 쿠 훌린은 마차부 라그 막 리엉가바르의 도움을 받아 혼자 코나크타군에게 유격전을 벌인다. 그리고 메브에게 일기토를 신청해 코나크타의 전사들을 한 번에 한 명씩 쓰러뜨리면서 몇 달 동안 시간을 번다. 쿠 훌린이 로크 막 모페미스(Lóch mac Mofemis)와 일기토를 하는 날, 아름다운 젊은 여자가 나타나 쿠 훌린에게 자신의 사랑을 주겠다고 한다. 하지만 쿠 훌린은 퇴짜를 놓는다. 분노한 여자는 자신의 정체(모리안)를 드러내고 그의 싸움을 방해하겠다고 예고한다. 이번 싸움터는 시냇물이었는데, 우선 쿠 훌린이 물에 들어오자 장어로 둔갑해 그의 발을 휘감았고, 그 다음에는 늑대로 둔갑해 시냇물로 소떼를 몰았으며, 마지막으로는 암소로 둔갑해 소떼를 끌고 돌진했다. 하지만 쿠 훌린은 장어, 늑대, 암소를 모두 때려눕히고 로크를 쳐죽인다. 쿠 훌린이 승리하고 나자 모리안은 쿠 훌린이 장어, 늑대, 암소에게 입혔던 부상을 한 몸에 입은 노파의 모습으로 나타나 소 젖을 짠다. 모리안은 쿠 훌린에게 우유를 세 번 주었다. 쿠 훌린이 그것을 모두 받아먹으며 그때마다 감사의 인사를 하자 그것이 축복으로 취급되어 세 개의 상처가 하나씩 나았다. 모리안이 정체를 드러내자 쿠 훌린은 노파가 모리안인 줄 알았으면 그에게 감사를 하지 않았을 것이라고 투덜댄다. 한번은 매우 힘든 싸움을 이긴 쿠 훌린이 지쳐 쓰러져 있는데 또다른 신적 존재, 루 라와더가 나타난다. 루는 쿠 훌린에게 자신이 그의 생부라고 밝히고 쿠 훌린을 3일간 재워 몸의 상처를 모두 치료해 준다. 쿠 훌린이 잠들어 있던 3일 사이 울라의 소년병단이 쿠 훌린을 대신해 싸우려다 모조리 떼죽음을 당한다. 눈을 뜬 쿠 훌린은 그 광경을 목격하고 리스트라드(ríastrad)라는 광란 상태에 빠진다. 적도 아군도 못 알아보는 괴물이 된 쿠 훌린은 코나크타군의 주둔지로 돌격해 죽은 소년병들의 여섯 배가 되는 코나크타군을 죽여 복수했다. 광란이 가라앉은 뒤 다시 전쟁은 평소대로 돌아가 쿠 훌린이 한 명씩 코나크타 전사를 쳐죽이는 일상이 반복되었다. 메브는 여러 번 쿠 훌린과의 약속을 깨고 대결 중에 응원군을 보내 다구리를 놓으려 했지만 쿠 훌린은 모두 이겨냈다. 마침내 쿠 훌린의 양아버지이기도 한 페르구스가 쿠 훌린과 맞설 차례가 되었다. 쿠 훌린과 페르구스는 다음에 페르구스가 한 번 물러날 테니 이번에는 쿠 훌린이 한 번 물러나기로 합의한다. 그 다음 쿠 훌린은 의형제 페르디어드 막 다만과 싸우게 되었다. 3일 밤낮의 혈투 끝에 쿠 훌린이 전설의 무기 게 볼그로 페르디어드를 죽였다. 그리고 드디어 저주가 풀린 울라 남자들이 하나둘 일어났고, 울라 군대가 소집되어 최후의 대회전이 벌어졌다. 쿠 훌린은 그동안 고생하여 앉아 쉬고 있는데, 페르구스가 울라 왕 콘코바르 막 네사를 위기에 몰아넣었다. 페르구스가 콘코바르를 쳐죽여 원수를 갚으려 하는데, 콘코바르의 친아들이자 페르구스의 양아들로 페르구스가 망명할 때 따라갔던 코르막 콘드 롱가스가 나서 두 아버지의 싸움을 말렸다. 페르구스는 검을 휘둘러 산 꼭대기 세 개를 날려 버리는 것으로 분노를 달랬다. 기력을 회복한 쿠 훌린도 싸움에 뛰어들고, 페르구스와 마주한 쿠 훌린은 저번의 합의를 상기시키며 페르구스에게 물러날 것을 요구한다. 그래서 페르구스가 물러나자 코나크타의 동맹들은 공황에 빠져 흩어지고 메브는 후퇴할 수밖에 없었다. 하지만 전쟁의 목적이었던 돈 쿠얼릉거는 그 난장판 가운데 어떻게 확보하는 데 성공해 크루어한으로 끌고 간다. 크루어한에 돌아온 메브는 돈 쿠얼릉거와 핀베나크를 싸움 붙이고, 격렬한 소싸움 끝에 돈 쿠얼릉거가 핀베나크를 죽인다. 하지만 돈 쿠얼릉거도 치명상을 입고 에린 섬 곳곳을 떠돌아다니다 자기 고향 쿠얼릉거에 다다라 쓰러져 죽었다. 출전 「쿠얼릉거의 소도둑」은 세 개 판본이 보존되어 있다. 제1판본은 11세기 말-12세기 초에 쓰여진 『회갈색 암소의 서』, 그리고 14세기에 쓰인 『라칸의 황색서』에 보존되어 있다. 두 책에 보존된 내용은 모두 불완전한데, 둘을 조합하면 전체 이야기가 완성된다. 제2판본은 12세기에 쓰인 『라긴의 서』에서 발견된다. 제3판본은 불완전본이며, 12세기의 필사본 파편들에 실려 있다. 보존된 문헌들의 시기는 이렇지만, 「쿠얼릉거의 소도둑」 이야기는 8세기경에 이미 완성되어 이후 12세기에 채록될 때까지 구전된 것으로 여겨진다. 각주 아일랜드 신화 (얼스터 대계) 중세 문학 아일랜드를 배경으로 한 작품 작자 미상

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1in%20B%C3%B3%20C%C3%BAailnge

Táin Bó Cúailnge

(Modern ; "the driving-off of the cows of Cooley"), commonly known as The Táin or less commonly as The Cattle Raid of Cooley, is an epic from Irish mythology. It is often called "The Irish Iliad", although like most other early Irish literature, the Táin is written in prosimetrum, i.e. prose with periodic additions of verse composed by the characters. The Táin tells of a war against Ulster by Queen Medb of Connacht and her husband King Ailill, who intend to steal the stud bull Donn Cuailnge. Due to a curse upon the king and warriors of Ulster, the invaders are opposed only by the young demigod, Cú Chulainn. The Táin is traditionally set in the 1st century in a pagan heroic age, and is the central text of a group of tales known as the Ulster Cycle. It survives in three written versions or "recensions" in manuscripts of the 12th century and later, the first a compilation largely written in Old Irish, the second a more consistent work in Middle Irish, and the third an Early Modern Irish version. The Táin has been influential on Irish literature and culture. It is often considered Ireland's national epic. Synopsis The Táin is preceded by a number of remscéla, or pre-tales, which provide background on the main characters and explain the presence of certain characters from Ulster in the Connacht camp, the curse that causes the temporary inability of the remaining Ulstermen to fight and the magic origins of the bulls Donn Cuailnge and Finnbhennach. The eight remscéla chosen by Thomas Kinsella for his 1969 translation are sometimes taken to be part of the Táin itself, but come from a variety of manuscripts of different dates. Several other tales exist which are described as remscéla to the Táin, some of which have only a tangential relation to it. The first recension begins with Ailill and Medb assembling their army in Cruachan; the purpose of this military build-up is taken for granted. The second recension adds a prologue in which Ailill and Medb compare their respective wealths and find that the only thing that distinguishes them is Ailill's possession of the phenomenally fertile bull Finnbhennach, who had been born into Medb's herd but scorned being owned by a woman so decided to transfer himself to Ailill's. Medb determines to get the equally potent Donn Cuailnge from Cooley to equal her wealth with her husband. She successfully negotiates with the bull's owner, Dáire mac Fiachna, to rent the animal for a year. However, her messengers, while drunk, reveal that Medb intends to take the bull by force if she is not allowed to borrow him. The deal breaks down, and Medb raises an army, including Ulster exiles led by Fergus mac Róich and other allies, and sets out to capture Donn Cuailnge. The men of Ulster are disabled by an apparent illness, the ces noínden (literally "debility of nine (days)", although it lasts several months). A separate tale explains this as the curse of the goddess Macha, who imposed it after being forced by the king of Ulster to race against a chariot while heavily pregnant. The only person fit to defend Ulster is seventeen-year-old Cú Chulainn, and he lets the army take Ulster by surprise because he is off on a tryst when he should be watching the border. Cú Chulainn, assisted by his charioteer Láeg, wages a guerrilla campaign against the advancing army, then halts it by invoking the right of single combat at fords, defeating champion after champion in a stand-off lasting months. However, he is unable to prevent Medb from capturing the bull. Cú Chulainn is both helped and hindered by supernatural figures from the Tuatha Dé Danann. Before one combat the Morrígan, the goddess of war, visits him in the form of a beautiful young woman and offers him her love, but Cú Chulainn spurns her. She then reveals herself and threatens to interfere in his next fight. She does so, first in the form of an eel who trips him in the ford, then as a wolf who stampedes cattle across the ford, and finally as a heifer at the head of the stampede, but in each form, Cú Chulainn wounds her. After he defeats his opponent, the Morrígan appears to him in the form of an old woman milking a cow, with wounds corresponding to the ones Cú Chulainn gave her in her animal forms. She offers him three drinks of milk. With each drink he blesses her, and the blessings heal her wounds. Cú Chulainn tells the Morrígan that had he known her real identity, he would not have spurned her. After a particularly arduous combat Cú Chulain is visited by another supernatural figure, Lug, who reveals himself to be Cú Chulainn's father. Lug puts Cú Chulainn to sleep for three days while he works his healing arts on him. While Cú Chulainn sleeps the youth corps of Ulster come to his aid but are all slaughtered. When Cú Chulainn awakes he undergoes a spectacular ríastrad or "distortion", in which his body twists in its skin and he becomes an unrecognisable monster who knows neither friend nor foe. Cú Chulainn launches a savage assault on the Connacht camp and avenges the youth corps sixfold. After this extraordinary incident, the sequence of single combats resumes, although on several occasions Medb breaks the agreement by sending several men against Cú Chulainn at once. When Fergus, his foster-father, is sent to fight him, Cú Chulainn agrees to yield to him on the condition that Fergus yields the next time they meet. Finally, Medb incites Cú Chulainn's foster-brother Ferdiad to enter the fray, with poets ready to mock him as a coward, and offering him the hand of her daughter Finnabair, and her own "friendly thighs" as well. Cú Chulainn does not wish to kill his foster-brother and pleads with Ferdiad to withdraw from the fight. There follows a physically and emotionally gruelling three-day duel between the hero and his foster-brother. Cú Chulainn wins, killing Ferdiad with the legendary spear, the Gáe Bolga. Wounded too sorely to continue fighting, Cú Chulainn is carried away by the healers of his clan. The debilitated Ulstermen start to rouse, one by one at first, then en masse. King Conchobar mac Nessa vows, that as the sky is above and the Earth is beneath, he will return every cow back to its stall and every abducted woman back to her home. The climactic battle begins. At first, Cú Chulainn sits it out, recovering from his wounds. Fergus has Conchobar at his mercy, but is prevented from killing him by Cormac Cond Longas, Conchobar's son and Fergus' foster-son, and in his rage cuts the tops off three hills with his sword. Cú Chulainn shrugs off his wounds, enters the fray and confronts Fergus, whom he forces to make good on his promise and yield before him. Fergus withdraws, pulling all his forces off the battlefield. Connacht's other allies panic and Medb is forced to retreat. Cú Chulainn comes upon Medb having her period ( "Then it was that the issue of blood came upon Medb" ). She pleads for her life and he not only spares her, but guards her retreat. Medb brings Donn Cuailnge back to Connacht, where the bull fights Finnbhennach, kills him, but is mortally wounded, and wanders around Ireland dropping pieces of Finnbhennach off his horns and thus creating placenames before finally returning home to die of exhaustion. Text Oral tradition The Táin is believed to have its origin in oral storytelling and to have only been written down during the Middle Ages. Although Romanas Bulatovas believes that the Táin was originally composed at Bangor Abbey between 630 and 670 AD, there is evidence that it had a far older oral history long before anything was written down. For example, the poem Conailla Medb michuru ("Medb enjoined illegal contracts") by Luccreth moccu Chiara, dated to , tells the story of Fergus mac Róich's exile with Ailill and Medb, which the poet describes as having come from sen-eolas ("old knowledge"). Two further 7th-century poems also allude to elements of the story: in Verba Scáthaige ("Words of Scáthach"), the warrior-woman Scáthach prophesies Cú Chulainn's combats at the ford; and Ro-mbáe laithi rordu rind ("We had a great day of plying spear-points"), attributed to Cú Chulainn himself, refers to an incident in the Boyhood Deeds section of the Táin. The high regard in which the written account was held is suggested by a ninth-century triad, that associated the Táin with the following wonders: "that the cuilmen [apparently a name for Isidore of Seville's Etymologiae] came to Ireland in its stead; the dead relating it to the living, viz. Fergus mac Róich reciting it to Ninníne the poet at the time of Cormac mac Faeláin; one year's protection to him to whom it is related." Various versions of the epic have been collected from the oral tradition over the centuries since the earliest accounts were written down. Most recently, a version of the Táin was taken down in Scottish Gaelic by folklore collector Calum Maclean from the dictation of Angus Beag MacLellan, a tenant farmer and seanchaidh from South Uist, in the Outer Hebrides. A transcription was published in 1959. Manuscripts Despite the date of the surviving manuscripts, a version of the Táin may have been put to writing already in the eighth century. Táin Bó Cúailnge has survived in three recensions. The first consists of a partial text in Lebor na hUidre (the "Book of the Dun Cow"), a late 11th-/early 12th-century manuscript compiled in the monastery at Clonmacnoise, and another partial text of the same version in the 14th-century manuscript called the Yellow Book of Lecan. These two sources overlap, and a complete text can be reconstructed by combining them. This recension is a compilation of two or more earlier versions, indicated by the number of duplicated episodes and references to "other versions" in the text. Many of the episodes are superb, written in the characteristic terse prose of the best Old Irish literature, but others are cryptic summaries, and the whole is rather disjointed. Parts of this recension can be dated from linguistic evidence to the 8th century, and some of the verse passages may be even older. The second recension is found in the 12th-century manuscript known as the Book of Leinster. This appears to have been a syncretic exercise by a scribe who brought together the Lebor na hUidre materials and unknown sources for the Yellow Book of Lecan materials to create a coherent version of the epic. While the result is a satisfactory narrative whole, the language has been modernised into a much more florid style, with all of the spareness of expression of the earlier recension lost in the process. The Book of Leinster version ends with a colophon in Latin which says: An incomplete third recension is known from twelfth-century fragments. In translation and adaptation 19th century translations of the work include Bryan O'Looney's translation made in the 1870s, as Tain Bo Cualnge, based on the Book of Leinster in Trinity College Library, Dublin. John O'Daly's also translated the work in 1857, but it is considered a poor translation. No published translation of the work was made until the early 20th century – the first English translation was provided L. Winifred Faraday in 1904, based on the Lebor na hUidre and the Yellow Book of Lecan; a German translation by Ernst Windisch was published at around the same time based on the Book of Leinster. Translated sections of the text had been published in the late 19th century, including one from on the Book of Leinster by Standish Hayes O'Grady in The Cuchullin Saga (ed. Eleanor Hull, 1898), as well as extracts, and introductory text. Lady Gregory's Cuchulain of Muirthemne (1903) also contains a paraphrased version of the tale. There were also several works based on the tale published in the very late 19th and early 20th century often with a focus on the hero Cú Chulainn, such as Cuchulain, the Hound of Ulster (E.Hull, 1911); Dun Dealgan, Cuchulain's Home Fort (H.G. Tempest, 1910); Cuchulain of Muirtheimhne (A.M. Skelly, 1908); The Coming of Cuculain (S. O'Grady, 1894); and several others; additionally a number of prose works from the same period took the tale as basis or inspiration, including works by W.B. Yeats, Aubrey Thomas de Vere, Alice Milligan, George Sigerson, Samuel Ferguson, Charles Leonard Moore, Fiona Macleod, as well as ballad versions from Scotland. Peadar Ua Laoghaire adapted the work as a closet drama, serialized in the Cork Weekly Examiner (1900–1). In 1914 Joseph Dunn authored an English translation The Ancient Irish Epic Tale Táin Bó Cúalnge based primarily on the Book of Leinster. Cecile O'Rahilly published academic editions/translations of both recensions, Táin Bó Cúalnge from the Book of Leinster (1967), and Táin Bó Cúailnge Recension 1 (1976), as well as an edition of the later Stowe Version, The Stowe version of Táin Bó Cuailnge (1961). two translations by Irish poets are available in mass-market editions: Thomas Kinsella's The Táin (1969) and Ciarán Carson's The Táin (2007). Both are based primarily on the first recension with passages added from the second, although they differ slightly in their selection and arrangement of material. Kinsella's translation is illustrated by Louis le Brocquy (see Louis le Brocquy Táin illustrations) and also contains translations of a selection of remscéla. Victorian era adapters omitted some aspects of the tale, either for political reasons relating to Irish Nationalism, or to avoid offending the sensibilities of their readers with bodily functions or sex. , focusing on translations and adaptation of "The Táin", analysed how 19th- and 20th-century writers used the original texts in creating Irish myths as part of the process of decolonization (from the United Kingdom), and so redacted elements that did not show Cuchulain in a suitably heroic light. Not only was sex, and bodily functions removed, but also humor. The version by took on a more 'folkish' aspect, whereas in O'Grady's version (see ) the protagonists more resembled chivalrous medieval knights. Several writers bowdlerized the source: for example the naked women sent to attempt to placate Cú Chulainn were omitted by most adapters of the Victorian period, or their nakedness reduced. Others interpreted the tale to their own ends - One of Peadar Ua Laoghaire's adaptations of the work, the play "Méibh", included a temperance message, blaming the conflict over the bull on the drunkenness of the Connacht messengers. In Ua Laoghaire's serialization Medb retains her role as a powerful woman, but her sexuality, exploitation of her daughter Fionnabhair, and references to menstruation are heavily euphemized. Slightly later works such as Stories from the Táin and the derived Giolla na Tána were more accurate. The version by is considered to be the first (English) translation that accurately included both grotesque and sexual aspects of the tale; however the German translation by is considered to be complete, and lacks alterations and omissions due to conflicts of interests in the mind of contemporary Irish scholars. Remscéla The story of the Táin relies on a range of independently transmitted back-stories, known as remscéla ('fore-tales'). Some may in fact have been composed independently of the Táin and subsequently linked with it later in their transmission. As listed by Ruairí Ó hUiginn, they are: De Faillsigud Tána Bó Cuailnge (How the Táin Bó Cuailnge was found), recounting how the story of the Táin was lost and recovered. Táin Bó Regamna (The cattle raid of Regamain) Táin Bó Regamon (The cattle raid of Regamon) Táin Bó Fraích ('The cattle Raid of Froech'): Froech mac Idaith is a Connacht warrior, killed by Cú Chulainn in the Táin; this tale gives him some back-story. Táin Bó Dartada (The cattle raid of Dartaid) Táin Bó Flidhais ('The cattle raid of Flidais'), a relatively late story drawing on older material Echtrae Nerai ('The Adventure of Nera') Aislinge Oengusa ('The Dream of Oengus'). Oengus Mac ind Óc, son of the Dagda has no part in the Táin Bó Cúailnge as we have it, but this tale relates how the otherworld woman Caer Ibormeith came to him in a vision how Oengus found her through the aid of Medb and Ailill. According to the story, this is why he helped them in their cattle-raid. Compert Con Culainn ('The Conception of Cú Chulainn') De Chophur in Dá Mucado (Of the cophur of the two swineherds) Fochann Loingsi Fergusa meic Róig (The cause of Fergus mac Róich's exile), only the beginning of which survives, apparently explaining how Fergus came to be part of the army of Connacht Longas mac nUislenn ('The Exile of the Sons of Uisliu'), explaining how Fergus and various other Ulster exiles came to be in the army of Connacht Tochmarc Ferbe (The wooing of Ferb). Ces Ulad (The debility of the Ulstermen), not actually considered one of the remscéla, but providing an important account of why Macha curses the Ulaid: they made her race against the king's horses while she was pregnant. The tale's primary purpose, however, is to provide an etiology for the place-name Emain Machae. Cultural influence See Irish mythology in popular culture In 2004, indie rock band The Decemberists released a five-part single named The Tain, which recounts loosely the story of Táin Bó Cúailnge. See also Táin Bó Táin Bó Flidhais References Bibliography , a paraphrase of the tale and others based on an oral translation , in Roman type with English introduction and glossary , in Gaelic type, same text as Texts and Translations , with illustrations by John Patrick Campbell Translation Translation : Further reading Gene C. Haley, Places in the Táin: The Topography of the 'Táin Bó Cúailnge' Mapped and Globally Positioned (2012-). External links Timeless Myths: Ulaid Cycle Táin Bó Cúailnge (Ernst Windisch's Irish transcription & Joseph Dunn's translation) Narratives of the Ulster Cycle Medieval literature Early Irish literature Irish-language literature Texts in Irish Ireland in fiction

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%EB%85%84%20%EB%8F%84%EC%BF%84%EB%8F%84%EC%A7%80%EC%82%AC%20%EC%84%A0%EA%B1%B0

2007년 도쿄도지사 선거

2007년 도쿄도지사 선거()는 제16회 통일지방선거의 일환으로 2007년 4월 8일에 실시되었다. 선거 결과 현직 도지사인 이시하라 신타로가 3선에 성공했다. 선거 정보 고시일 2007년 3월 22일 투표일 2007년 4월 8일 임기 개시일 2007년 4월 23일 함께 실시된 선거 도쿄도의회 의원 재보궐선거 (3월 30일 고시) 아다치구 선거구 (곤도 야요이의 아다치 구청장 선거 출마에 따른 사직) 고토구 선거구 (야마자키 다카아키의 고토 구청장 선거 출마에 따른 사직) 에도가와구 선거구 (오니시 히데오의 제21회 참의원 의원 통상선거 출마에 따른 사직) 오타구 선거구 (마쓰바라 다다요시의 오타 구청장 선거 출마에 따른 사직) 이타바시구 선거구 (사카모토 겐의 이타바시 구청장 선거 출마에 따른 사직) 세타가야구 선거구 (사쿠라이 료노스케의 사망) 마치다시 선거구 (마키 시게루의 마치다 시장 선거 출마에 따른 사직) 캐치프레이즈 도쿄의 미래는 내가 정한다() 선거 홍보 대사 이주인 히카루 (탤런트) 카시이 유우 (여배우) 주요 쟁점 2016년 하계 올림픽의 도쿄 유치 문제 현직 이시하라 도지사는 2006년, 하계 올림픽 유치 계획을 발표하고 도쿄도의회의 결의를 받아 도쿄도청 내에 유치 본부를 설치했다. 이후 일본 올림픽 위원회의 국내 후보지 선정 심사를 거쳐 후쿠오카시가 탈락하고 도쿄가 올림픽 개최지 후보로 선정되었다. 그러나 민주당 등 야권에서 유치 비용이 너무 막대하고 도시 기반 정비에 시간이 부족하다는 이유로 유치를 반대하면서 쟁점 중 하나가 되었다. 이시하라 신타로 도쿄도지사의 도정 운영에 대한 평가 도지사 장기 재임으로 인한 폐혜 : 이시하라는 가족 채용 비리와 고액의 출장비를 사적으로 이용한 혐의를 받고 있었다. 반(反) 이시하라파에서는 이를 도지사 장기 재임으로 인한 폐해인 것으로 보았다. 정보 공개 문제 : 도쿄도는 "전국 시민 옴부즈만 연락 회의"에서 작성한 "전국 정보 공개도 랭킹"에서 하위권을 기록했고 이는 이시하라에 대한 도정 평가의 쟁점으로 이어졌다. 다른 후보들은 당선시 적극적인 정보 공개를 약속했고 이시하라도 공약을 통해 정보 공개 계획을 발표했다. 정치적 발언 : 이시하라의 정치적 발언, 특히 보수적이고 우익적으로 받아들여질 수 있는 발언에 대해서 좌익 성향 시민 단체 및 "특정 아시아(대한민국, 조선민주주의인민공화국, 중화인민공화국)" 나라들의 반발이 커진 상황이었다. 당시 진행 중이었던 국기·국가(國歌) 소송 등을 둘러싸고 아사노 시로는 "일본인이 국기와 국가(國歌)에 경의를 표하는 것은 당연하다"면서도 이시하라의 "근린 국가" 발언 등 과격한 발언에 대해서는 "이웃 나라의 욕을 하는 것은 좋지 않다"며 비판했다. 요시다 만조는 "현재의 국가(國歌)는 침략전쟁과 천황에 대한 개인 숭배의 상징"이라며 기미가요 자체에 대해 부정적인 입장을 밝혔다. 쓰키지 시장을 고토구 도요스 지역으로 이전하는 문제 쓰키지 시장을 주오구 쓰키지에서 고토구 도요스로 이전한다는 "도요스 신시장 기본 계획"이 2004년에 발표되었는데, 이전이 예정된 부지에서 국가 환경 기준을 크게 웃도는 유해 물질이 검출되었다는 조사 결과가 나오자, 시장 이전 반대파들의 반대 명분이 생겨나면서 찬성파와 크게 대립하며 선거 쟁점으로 떠올랐다. 이시하라는 당초 이전 예정 부지의 토양을 모두 교체할 것이기 때문에 큰 문제가 되지 않는다고 밝혔지만, 이후 반대파들의 반발이 거세지자 "전문가의 의견을 참고해 결정하겠다"는 신중한 입장으로 선회했다. 선거 결과 기타 1991년 선거 이후로 도쿄도지사 선거에서 정당의 추천 및 지지를 받은 후보는 모두 낙선했으며, 이시하라 현 도지사 역시 보수적 성향의 정치인임에도 1999년 선거 및 2003년 선거에서도 자민당의 지원을 받지 못했으나(공식 지원은 없었지만 당 지도부 차원의 지지 성명은 있었음), 이번 선거에서는 장남 이시하라 노부테루가 자민당의 도쿄도 지역회장을 맡고 있음에 따라 비로소 자민당의 지원을 받을 수 있게 되었다. 같은 해 7월로 예정된 제21회 참의원 의원 통상선거를 앞두고 자민당과 대립각을 세우던 민주당이 이번 도지사 선거에서 독자 후보 옹립을 모색했지만, 간 나오토를 후보로 옹립하는 것을 두고 당내 혼란을 초래하면서 독자 후보 옹립은 실패로 끝났다. 최종적으로 민주당은 사회민주당과 연합해 아사노 시로를 후보로 옹립했다. 그리고 일본공산당의 지원을 받아 출마한 요시다 만조에게 야권 후보 단일화를 위해 사퇴를 촉구했다. 각주 외부 링크 도쿄도 선거관리위원회 도쿄도 공식 홈페이지 2007년 선거 2007년 4월 2007년 일본 도쿄도지사 선거

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%20Tokyo%20gubernatorial%20election

2007 Tokyo gubernatorial election

The 2007 Tokyo Gubernatorial elections were held on April 8, 2007 as part of the 16th unified local elections. There were fourteen candidates, among them the incumbent governor Shintaro Ishihara. Most candidates, with the exception of Kurokawa and Yamaguchi, ran as independents, but some were supported by various parties. Results See also References Asahi News Editorial Trans-Pacific Radio coverage External links CityMayors coverage Video of candidate Koichi Toyama Discussion of 2007 Gubernatorial campaign Regular updates on 2007 Gubernatorial campaign and Japanese politics 2007 elections in Japan Shintaro Ishihara 2007 April 2007 events in Japan 2007 in Tokyo

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무라카미 무네타카

무라카미 무네타카(, 2000년 2월 2일 ~ )는 일본의 프로 야구 선수이며, 현재 센트럴 리그인 도쿄 야쿠르트 스왈로스의 소속 선수(내야수)이다. 구마모토현 구마모토시 히가시구 출신이다. NPB에서의 아시아인 타자, 좌타자로서의 시즌 최다 홈런 기록 보유자(2022년, 56호, NPB 사상 역대 2위), 레이와 시대 최초이자 역대 최연소 타격 부문 3관왕(NPB 사상 8번째) 달성자다. 통산 100홈런 및 시즌 100타점 NPB 사상 최연소 기록(21세 7개월), 세리그 MVP 수상 최연소 기록(21세), 시즌 40홈런 최연소 기록(22세 6개월), 시즌 50 홈런 최연소 기록(22세 7개월), 세계 최초가 되는 5연타석 연속 홈런 기록과 역대 일본인 단일 시즌 최다 홈런의 소유자이다. 요시모토 흥업과 매니지먼트 계약을 맺고 있다. 인물 프로에 들어가기 전  클럽팀에서 야구를 하던 형의 영향으로 4살 무렵부터 캐치볼을 하게 됐다. 아버지에 따르면 무네타카는 유치원에 다닐 때 형과 함께 야구를 배우다가 곧바로 ‘프로 야구 선수가 되고 싶다’고 말했다고 한다. 구마모토 시립 다쿠마미나미 초등학교(구마모토시 히가시구)에 입학하여 자신도 형과 같은 클럽팀에 입단하면서 본격적으로 야구를 시작하게 됐다. 초등학교 3학년 때 이데 랏쿄가 교장을 맡고, 전직 프로 야구 선수였던 이마이 조지, 미후네 히데유키가 지도하고 있던 ‘PBA 야큐주쿠’에 들어갔는데 야큐주쿠의 코치로서 불리고 있던 전 프로 선수인 마쓰나가 히로미로부터 인코스 치는 법 등을 배웠다. 4학년 때에 연식 야구팀 《다쿠마미나미 소야구 클럽》에 들어가 6학년 때 전직 프로 야구 선수인 요시모토 료의 아버지가 지도하고 있는 경식 야구팀 《구마모토 히가시 리틀 시니어》에 들어갔다. 구마모토 시립 나가미네 중학교에 입학하면서 2학년 겨울에 규슈 선발팀으로 중화민국에 원정갔고 마스다 슈, 니시우라 하야토 등과 팀 동료가 된다. 규슈가큐인 고등학교에서는 1학년 때부터 주전 1루수로 고정됐고 같은 해(2015년) 하계 구마모토 대회에서 우승을 이끌었다. 이 대회에서는 4번 타자로 급거 기용돼 첫 타석에서 만루 홈런을 터뜨리는 등의 데뷔를 이뤄냈다. 그해 하계 고시엔 대회에 4번 타자로서 출전하는 것도 이시카와현의 유각칸 고등학교를 상대로 무안타에 그쳐 첫 경기에서 패했다. 1학년 가을부터 포수를 맡아 2학년 여름과 3학년 여름 모두 구마모토 대회 결승까지 진출하였지만 모두 슈가쿠칸 고등학교에 패해 고시엔에 출전한 것은 1학년 여름의 한 차례뿐이었다. 통산 52홈런을 기록했다. 그 뛰어난 장타력으로부터 일부에선 《히고의 베이브 루스》라고 불리고 있었다. 2학년 선배로는 이세 히로무, 1학년 선배로는 요시노 데루키가 있었는데 특히 요시노와는 배터리도 구성했다. 또한 고등학교 2학년 때인 2016년에는 구마모토 지진을 경험했다. 드래프트 회의 2017년 10월 26일에 열릴 드래프트 회의를 앞두고 무라카미에 입찰한 도쿄 야쿠르트 스왈로스, 요미우리 자이언츠, 도호쿠 라쿠텐 골든이글스 등 3개 구단을 포함한 7개 구단이 1순위 지명으로 경합을 벌인 와세다 실업고등학교의 기요미야 고타로(추첨 결과 홋카이도 닛폰햄 파이터스가 협상권을 획득)와 함께 일각에서는 ‘동쪽의 기요미야, 서쪽의 무라카미’라고 표현할 정도로 주목을 받고 있었다. 그리고 드래프트 회의 당일 추첨을 통해 기요미야를 지명하지 못한 야쿠르트·요미우리·라쿠텐 등 3개 구단이 경합을 벌이면서 추첨 끝에 야쿠르트가 무라카미의 협상권을 획득했다. 구마모토현 출신 선수의 드래프트 1순위 지명은 2013년 드래프트 회의에서 한신 타이거스로부터 1순위에 지명된 이와사다 유타(요코하마 상과대학) 이래이며 고등학생으로서는 2007년에 요미우리로부터 지명된 후지무라 다이스케(현립 구마모토 공업고등학교) 이래였다. 야쿠르트의 지명을 받은 뒤 장래의 목표를 묻는 질문에 “홈런뿐만 아니라 희생 플라이와 진루타 등 상황에 맞는 타격으로 팀에 기여할 수 있는 선수가 되고 싶다. 그리고 언젠가는 일장기를 짊어지고 싶다”라고 말했다. 11월 12일에 계약금 8,000만 엔, 연봉 720만 엔으로 가계약을 맺었고(금액은 추정치) 등번호는 55번으로 결정됐다. 고등학교 시절의 수비 위치는 포수와 1루수였지만, 프로에 들어간 후에는 3루수로 이동되면서 등록도 내야수로의 입단하게 됐다. 12월 22일에는 야마다 데쓰토와 블라디미르 발렌틴에게 제자가 되겠다고 밝혔다. 야쿠르트 시대 2018년 4월말 기준으로 28경기에 출전, 4번 타자 겸 3루수로서 2군 리그에 선발 출전해 타율 0.311, 3홈런, 20타점을 기록했다. 6월에는 타율 0.315, 6홈런, 14타점, 7개의 도루를 기록하여 월간 MVP를 수상했다. 야쿠르트의 고졸 신인이 월간 MVP를 수상하는 것은 2011년의 야마다 데쓰토 이래 처음이다. 7월 12일에 프레쉬 올스타전(하루카 유메 구장)에 4번 타자 겸 1루수로 선발 출전해 1안타 1도루를 기록했다. 9월 16일에 1군 승격, 같은 날 히로시마 도요 카프전에서 6번 타자 겸 3루수로 선발 출전해, 2회에 첫 타석에서 첫 홈런을 기록했다. 이것은 2000년대 출생의 선수가 1군 공식전에서 기록한 일본 프로 야구 사상 최초의 홈런이 되었다. 무라카미는 이날 경기에 관해서 “첫회의 에러를 되찾으려고 타석에 들어갔다. 프로 첫 타석이 홈런이 되어 좋았다”라고 소감을 밝혔다. 첫 타석 이후에는 13타석에서 무안타 2볼넷을 기록하여 그해 1군에서의 안타는 이 홈런에만 머물렀지만 2군에서의 성적은 타율 0.288, 17홈런, 70타점, 16도루와 고졸 신인으로서 남다른 좋은 성적을 냈다. 11월 27일, 2군의 이스턴 리그에서 우수 선수상, 신인상, 노력상에 선정됐다. 다음 시즌을 앞두고는 전년 대비 5%, 80만 엔이 상승한 추정 연봉 800만 엔으로 계약했다. 2019년 시범 경기에서부터 뚜렷한 결과를 남겨 6번 타자 겸 3루수로서 자신의 첫 개막전에 선발 출전했다. 19세 1개월에서의 개막전 선발 출장은 1959년의 니시오카 세이키치(당시 21세 10개월)의 구단 기록을 경신했다. 5월 11일 요미우리전에서 양대 리그제 도입 이후 역대 18번째가 되는 고졸 2년차 이내에서의 두 자릿수 홈런이 되는 10호 홈런을 치고, 팀 38경기째에서의 도달은 고졸 2년차 이내에서는 가장 빨랐다. 5월 12일 요미우리전에서 프로 데뷔 후 처음으로 4번 타자로 출전했다. 6월 이후에는 수비의 어려움과 사카구치 도모타카의 이탈로 인해 거의 1루수로 출전했다. 올스타전에서는 3루수 부문에서 팬 투표 1위로 선출돼 홈런 더비에도 출전했다. 8월 12일의 DeNA전에서는 야마사키 야스아키로부터 25호 역전 끝내기 2점 홈런을 때려내면서 끝내기 홈런의 최연소 기록을 경신했다. 8월 22일, 고졸 2년차의 선수로서는 센트럴 리그 최초가 되는 시즌 30호 홈런을 쳤다. 9월 4일의 히로시마전에서의 적시타로 87타점에 도달해 나카니시 후토시가 기록한 고졸 2년차 이내 시즌 최다 타점 일본 기록을 넘었다. 또한 9월 21일에 시즌 36호 홈런을 치면서 나카니시 이후가 되는 고졸 2년차 이내에 있어서의 시즌 최다 홈런 일본 기록에 넘어섰다. 위에서 말한 바와 같이 무라카미는 홈런이나 타점과 관련한 수많은 고졸 2년차 이내, 미성년에서의 기록을 바꾸어 최종적으로 팀내 유일한 기록이 되는 시즌 전체 143경기에 출전하여 36홈런, 96타점(양대 리그 3위)을 기록한 반면, 타율은 0.231로 규정된 타석에 도달한 선수로서는 리그 최저 기록이다. 삼진수에 따르면 2004년에 이와무라 아키노리가 기록한 173개의 삼진을 뛰어넘는 184개의 삼진을 기록, 센트럴 리그 기록 및 일본인 선수의 최다 기록을 경신했다. 연봉 협상에서는 4,500만 엔(전년 대비로부터 3700만 엔 증가)이라는 조건으로 계약했다. 무라카미도 위에서 언급한 활약상을 인정받아 그해 도루왕을 획득한 한신의 지카모토 고지에게 39표 차이를 앞서 무난하게 센트럴 리그 최우수 신인(신인왕)을 수상했다. 2020년 프로 3년차로 개막전부터 4번 타자 겸 3루수로서 기용됐다. 6·7월은 타율 0.339, 6홈런, 37타점과 개막 이후에 좋은 성적을 남겨 구단 최연소인 20세 나이에 월간 MVP로 선정됐다. 또 7월에 31타점을 기록하여 1991년 6월 히로사와 가쓰미가 기록한 구단의 일본인 월간 타점 기록(29타점)을 경신했다. 11월 5일 한신전에서는 2차례 출루하여 2도루, 3도루, 홈스틸로 한 이닝 세 차례 도루에 성공했다. 최종적으로 전체 120경기에 출전해, 타율 0.307(리그 5위), 28홈런(동 2위 타이), 86타점(동 2위), 130안타(동 5위), 30개의 2루타(동 2위 타이)를 기록했다. 또한 출루율 0.427, 장타율 0.585, 득점권 타율 0.352, OPS 1.012, 87사구는 모두 리그 1위를 기록하여 자신의 첫 타격 타이틀이 되는 최고 출루율을 획득했다. 20세 시즌에 최고 출루율 획득과 전 경기 4번 출전은 모두 역대 최연소 기록이 되면서 2년 연속 전 경기 출전도 기록했다. 한편, 삼진 수는 리그 톱의 115개, 실책 수는 리그 2위의 14개를 기록했다. 연봉 협상에서 1억 엔(전년 대비 5,500만 엔 인상)의 조건으로 계약했다. 한편 4년차 만에 1억 엔에 도달하여 후루타 아쓰야, 아오키 노리치카, 오가와 야스히로를 넘어선 구단 내 가장 빠른 타이 기록이며, 구단 최연소 기록이기도 하다. 더욱이 고졸 4년차에서의 1억 엔 도달은 다나카 마사히로, 다르빗슈 유를 넘어선 일본 프로 야구에서의 역대 가장 빠른 타이 기록이 됐다. 2021년 전년도에 이어 전 경기에서 4번 타자를 맡아 전반기에는 26홈런(리그 2위), 61타점(리그 3위)을 기록했다. 후반기에서는 2할 5푼대였던 타율을 크게 올리면서 나름대로 힘을 쓰는 등 타점을 지속적으로 쌓아가며 팀을 선두 자리로 올리는 역할을 맡았다. 9월 19일에는 역대 최연소가 되는 21세 7개월로 통산 100홈런에 도달해 1989년에 기요하라 가즈히로가 기록한 21세 9개월에서의 달성 기록을 32년 만에 갈아치웠다. 10월에는 부진에 허덕인 영향으로 홈런은 40호에 도달하지 않았고 오카모토 가즈마(요미우리)에게 1타점 차이로 타점왕 타이틀을 놓쳤다. 그래도 본인으로서는 처음으로 홈런왕 타이틀을 오카모토와 함께 획득했다. 볼넷 수는 106개로 2년 연속 리그 1위를 기록했고 출루율도 전년도와 마찬가지로 40%를 돌파했다. OPS는 리그 2위인 0.974를 기록했고, 자신의 첫 리그 우승에 크게 기여했다. 오릭스 버펄로스와 맞붙은 일본 시리즈에서도 전체 6경기를 4번 타자으로 풀이닝 출전했는데 특히 1차전과 5차전에서 홈런을 쳤다. 팀은 4승 2패의 성적으로 일본 시리즈 정상에 오르면서 리그 우승에 더해 일본 시리즈 우승도 동시에 경험했다. 시즌 종료 후의 NPB 시상식에서는 센트럴 리그 MVP를 수상했다. 21세 나이의 센트럴 리그 MVP 수상은 1996년 마쓰이 히데키(요미우리)를 제치고 최연소 MVP를 차지하는 영예를 안게 됐다. 좌타자의 MVP 수상은 야쿠르트 구단 역사상 로베르토 페타지니 이래 20년 만의 일이며 일본인 좌타자로는 와카마쓰 쓰토무 이래 43년 만에 두 번째 수상이다. 또한 타율 2할대에서의 MVP 수상은 투수·포수 이외에서는 센트럴 리그 사상 최초가 됐다. 12월 20일, 연봉 협상에서 1억 2,000만 엔이 상승한 연봉 2억 2,000만 엔으로 재계약을 맺었다. 2022년 4월 2일의 DeNA전에서 끝내기를 쳤다. 5월 6, 7일의 요미우리전(모두 도쿄돔)에서 2경기 연속 만루 홈런을 쳤으며, NPB에서는 2018년 스기모토 유타로 이후 사상 9번째, 세리그에서는 2006년 타이론 우즈 이후 사상 3번째로 쾌거를 달성했다. 교류전에 들어간, 5월 24일의 홋카이도 닛폰햄 파이터스전(진구 야구장)에서는 키타야마 코키로부터 끝내기 홈런, 6월 12일 후쿠오카 소프트뱅크 호크스전에서는 카야마 신야로부터, 결승타가 되는 역전 만루 홈런을 치는 등, 전 18경기에서 타율 0.351, 6홈런, 13타점의 활약에 의해, 교류전 MVP에 빛났다. 또 6월은 타율 0.410, 14홈런, 35타점의 성적으로 월간 MVP로 선정됐다. 7월 13일 주니치전(나고야 돔)에서 두 리그 가장 빠른 30호 홈런을 기록했다. 전반전을 타율 0.312(리그 5위), 33홈런, 89타점 (홈런, 타점은 리그 톱)의 성적으로 끝났다. 후반전은 7월 31일 한신 타이거스 16차전(고시엔)에서 8월 2일 주니치 14차전(진구 야구장)에 걸쳐 NPB 사상 최초로 5연타석 연속 홈런을 기록했다(상세후술). 7월은 8홈런, 17타점, 장타율 0.742, 출루율 0.471의 성적으로 2개월 연속 월간 MVP로 선정됐다. 그 후도 호조는 계속되었고, 8월 5일 대 요미우리 19차전(진구 야구장)을 마친 시점에서 39홈런, 98타점은 모두 리그 선두, 타율 0.320은 리그 3위였지만, 같은 6일에 피로감을 호소하면서 「특례 2022」에 의해 등록 말소됐다. PCR 검사로 음성 판정을 받아 다음 7일에는 재등록했지만, 이에 따라 2020년 6월 19일 동년 개막전부터 계속하고 있던 구단 최다 기록의 연속 4번 출전이 360경기에서, 아울러 2019년 5월 26일부터 계속하고 있던 연속 선발 출전이 454경기로, 같은 해 개막전부터 계속되고 있던 연속 경기 출전이 503경기에서 모두 멈췄다. 8월 11일 대 히로시마전(MAZDA Zoom-Zoom 스타디움 히로시마)에서 개인에 있어서도 처음이자 양리그 가장 빠른 40호 홈런을 기록했고, 22세 시즌 40호 도달은 NPB 사상 최연소 기록이 되었다. 9월 2일의 주니치전(진구 야구장)에서 3회말에 오노 유다이에서 받아친 홈런이, 2013년의 발렌틴 이래 9년 만 10번째(15번째), 일본 국적의 선수로서는 2002년의 마쓰이 히데키(요미우리) 이후 20년 만에 6번째가 되는 시즌 50호가 되었다. 또 22세에서의 50홈런 달성은 1964년 55홈런을 날린 오 사다하루의 24세를 밑도는 사상 최연소 기록 달성이 되었다. 헤이세이 태생으로서는 최초의 50홈런이 되었다. 9월 9일의 히로시마전(진구 야구장)에서 오세라 다이치에 53호를 치고, 1963년의 노무라 카츠야와 1985년의 오치아이 히로미쓰(52개)를 넘어선 일본 국적 선수의 최다 홈런 기록을 갱신. 9월 13일의 요미우리전(진구 야구장)에서 3회말에 스가노 토모유키로부터 1985년의 랜디 바스을 넘어선 54호를 기록했다. 그리고 9회말에 오타 다이세이로부터 이날 2개째가 되는 3점 홈런을 좌익석에 날려, 오 사다하루가 보유한 일본인 등록 선수의 프로 야구 시즌 최다 타이 기록(55호)에 58년만에 늘어섰다. 시즌 55호 홈런은 2013년 발렌틴 이후 9년 만에 다섯 번째이다. 9월 24일 DeNA전에서 시즌 24번째 고의 4구를 받는다. 올 시즌 24번째 고의 4구로 1995년 토마스 오마리를 넘어서는 구단 신기록이 되었다. 55호를 기록한 뒤 13경기에서 5안타·20삼진의 부진에 빠져, 수위 타자 다툼을 벌이고 있던 오오시마 요헤이(주니치)에 일시적 모단위의 근소한 차이까지 줄여졌지만, 무라카미가 타율을 0.317로 시작했던 같은 해 10월 2일, 오오시마는 시즌 최종전이 된 히로시마 25회전(마쓰다 스타디움)에서 무라카미의 타율을 뛰어넘지 못하면서(0.3142), 만일 무라카미가 다음날인 3일의 시즌 최종전을 3타수 무안타로 끝낸 경우에도 타율은 0.3148이 되기 때문에, 이 시점에서 무라카미의 수위 타자는 결정적이 되었다. 무라카미는 다음날 3일에 진구 야구장에서 열린 시즌 최종전이 되는 DeNA 25회전에서, 제1타석에서는 범타로 물러났지만, 제2타석으로 적시타를 쳤기 때문에, 나머지 5타석 범퇴해도(7타수 1안타에서도) 오오시마의 타율을 앞서는 것이 확정되었다. 그리고 시즌 공식전 최종 타석이 된 이 경기의 제4타석(7회말:시즌 612타석째)에서, 이리에 타이세이의 첫구(구속 151 km/h)를 우중간 홈런을 날려, 일본인 등록 선수 및 좌타자에 의한 시즌 최다신기록 56호 홈런을 달성했다. 이 홈런은 앞서 언급한 55호 홈런에서 14경기·61타석만의 홈런이었다. 타격 3개 부문의 최종 성적은 모두 리그 톱의 타율 0.318 (수위 타자), 56홈런(홈런왕), 134타점(타점왕)으로, 1938년의 나카지마 하루야스와 1982년의 오치아이 히로미쓰(모두 당시 28세)를 제치고, NPB 사상 최연소가 되는 22세로, 레이와 최초의 3관왕을 달성했다. NPB에 있어서의 3관왕은, 2004년의 마츠나카 노부히코(당시: 후쿠오카 다이에 호크스) 이래 18년 만에 8번째(통산 12번째)로, 세리그에서는 1986년의 랜디 바스(당시: 한신 타이거스) 이후 달성이다. 종반은 앞서 언급한 대로 부진을 겪었지만 시즌을 통해서는 3번의 월간 MVP를 획득해 구단 사상 29년 만에 두 번째 세리그 연패에 크게 공헌했다. 오픈 하우스 그룹은 56호 홈런과 3관왕을 기념해 당초 예정했던 1억 엔에서 3억 엔으로 대증액하는 형태로 집을 선물하기로 결정했다. 국가대표 경력 2021년 6월 16일, 도쿄 올림픽의 야구 일본 대표로 발탁됐다. 이 대회에서는 총 5경기에 8번 타자 겸 3루수로 선발 출전해 팀은 금메달을 획득했다. 개인으로서는 결승전 상대인 미국전에서 선제 솔로 홈런을 치는 등 타율 0.333(15타수 5안타), 1홈런, 3타점을 기록했다. 선수로서의 특징 타격 스윙 스피드의 속도와 월등함의 비거리가 특징. 역방향으로의 장타력을 갖추고, 주니치의 야나기 유야는, 무라카미의 2019년의 성장만을 “인코스에 떨어뜨려 두면 좋았는데, 시즌 도중부터 팔꿈치를 접어 내각을 치도록 되었다”라고 무라카미를 평가하고 있다. 수비·주루 50미터 주행 6초 1, 포수로서의 2루 송구 타임은 최고 1도 1초 84. 내야수로서 수비력이 과제가 되고 있다. 신체능력 데드 리프트 200kg, 벤치 프레스 110kg, 오른손 악력 72kg, 왼손 악력 71kg이라는 신체 능력의 소유자다.(2017년 11월 시점) 5연타석 연속 홈런 2022년 7월 31일 한신 타이거스전(고시엔 구장)에서는 7회초, 9회초, 연장 11회초와 3타석 연속 홈런을 치고, 0-2의 열세에서 4-2의 역전 승리로 이어졌다. 그 다음날(8월 2일) 주니치 드래건스전(진구 야구장)에서는 1회말의 제1타석에서 우월에 38호 솔로 홈런을 치고, NPB 사상 타이 기록이 되는 4타석 연속 홈런을 기록했다. 이후 3회말의 제2타석에서는 좌중간에 2연타석 연속이 되는 39호 2점 홈런을 기록하고, NPB 사상 최초, MLB에서도 공식 기록이 없는 5연타석 연속 홈런을 달성했다. 6회말의 제3연타석의 결과는 좌익수 앞 2루타였다. 인물·에피소드 애칭은 「무네()」(가족, 동료 등으로부터), 「무라카미님()」(야쿠르트 입단 후에 신적인 활약을 보이는 무라카미에 대해, 인터넷상에서 불리게 된 말. 오리지널 상품으로 판매되는 등, 구단 공인의 애칭이 되고 있다)가 있다. 어머니는 서예 선생님으로, 무네타카 자신도 소년 시절은 서예를 배웠다. 야쿠르트로부터 드래프트 지명을 받은 후 2017년 12월 8일에는 제39회 요미우리 학생 서전에서 입상(특선)한 것이 발표되고 있다. 2021년에는 문예춘추 기획에서 수영 선수 이케에 리나코와 대담했다. 무라카미도, 이케에의 백혈병으로부터 완전 부활을 목표로 싸우는 모습에 대해, 「자신도 지고 있을 수 없네요. 어느 세계에서도 기분이 강하지 않으면 안 된다고 느꼈습니다.」라고 감명을 받았다고 한다. 같은 팀의 선배인 야마다 테츠토와 매우 사이가 좋고, 2021년 도쿄 올림픽에서는 결승에서 미국 대표팀를 격파하고 금메달에 빛나자 마운드 부근에서 야마다를 공주님안기 하면서 기뻐하는 모습이 화제가 됐다. 이것은 사전에 야마다와 「우승하면 추억으로 뭔가 하자」라고 약속하고 있어, 무라카미도 「야마다 씨에게 『공주님 안아줘』라고 말해졌기 때문에 했습니다」라고 말하고 있다. 오릭스 버팔로스의 니시우라 하야토와는 초등학교 시절부터 가장 친한 친구로 라이벌 관계에 있었고, 초·중학교에서는 여러 번 대전하고 있었다. 그때부터 그는 “같이 프로로 가자”고 말했다고 한다. 프로 진입 후인 2021년 시즌 동안 양측 특발성 대퇴골두괴사증의 영향으로 현역 은퇴를 결의한 니시우라로부터 “절대 우승하라”라고 메시지를 받았다. 그 후, 무라카미가 소속한 야쿠르트는 훌륭하게 리그 우승을 거두었다. 무라카미는 “눈이 뜨거워졌습니다. 하야토가 한 차례 힘들어 했기 때문에 응원해 준다. 야구를 계속하고 싶어도 할 수 없는 사람이 있다. 하야토는 한계까지 도전했다. 자신도 후회가 없도록 해가고 싶다고 가슴에 새겼습니다.”라고 산케이 신문에 대한 수기에 쓰고 있다. 형과 동생이 있는 삼형제로, 모두가 야구 경험자이다. 형·토모유키는 TS·TECH에서 투수로서 소속하는 사회인 야구 선수로, 도카이 대학 시절에는 메이지진구 야구 대회에서의 등판 경험도 있다. 남동생·케이타는 무라카미와 마찬가지로 규슈가큐인 고등학교에서 내야수로서 활약 중에 있으며, 3학년이었던 2022년 여름 고시엔에 출전했다. 삼형제 중 신장은 무네타카가 가장 작다. 2021년 시즌 후반, 입단 1년 차에 당시 2군 타격 코치였던 마츠모토 유이치는 앞으로 경기를 해야하는 시간에 쌀이나 면류 등의 탄수화물을 대량으로 섭취하는 점을 우려해 했다. 아침잠에 약하며, 자신의 Twitter에서도 일찍 일어나는 요령을 물어보고 있다. 당시 요미우리 니오카 도모히로가 일본 프로야구 사상 처음으로 2연타석 연속 만루 홈런을 기록한 2006년 4월 30일의 요미우리 대 주니치전(도쿄돔)을 현지에서 관전한 것이 프로야구 선수를 목표로 삼았던 계기였다. 제32회 도쿄 올림픽 야구 일본 대표(사무라이 재팬)로서 금메달을 획득한 영예를 인정받아, 2022년 1월 7일, 구마모토시 주오구에 위치한 모교인 규슈가쿠인 고등학교 근처에는, 기념의 골드 포스트(제45호)가 설치되었다. 상세 정보 출신 학교 규슈가쿠인 고등학교 선수 경력 도쿄 야쿠르트 스왈로스(2018년 ~ ) 국가 대표 경력 2020년 하계 올림픽 일본 국가대표 2023년 월드 베이스볼 클래식 일본 국가대표 수상·타이틀 경력 타이틀 수위 타자 : 1회(2022년) 홈런왕 : 2회(2021년, 2022년) 타점왕 : 1회(2022년) 최고 출루율 : 2회(2020년, 2022년) 21세 시즌에 획득한 홈런왕(2021년), 22세 시즌에 획득한 수위 타자·타점왕(2022년)은 모두 센트럴 리그 역대 최연소 수상 MVP : 2회(2021년, 2022년) ※2022년에는 만장일치로 선정(센트럴 리그 역대 4번째) 신인왕(2019년) 베스트 나인 : 3회(2020년 ~ 2022년) 쇼리키 마쓰타로상 : 1회(2022년) ※특별상 월간 MVP : 4회(야수 부문 : 2020년 6·7월, 2022년 6월, 2022년 7월, 2022년 8월) 커미셔너 특별 수상 : 1회(2022년) ※특별상 센트럴·퍼시픽 교류전 최우수 선수상(MVP) : 1회(2022년) 올스타전 감투 선수상 : 1회(2022년 2차전) 홈런 더비 닛산 리프상 : 1회(2021년) 호치 프로 스포츠 대상 프레시상(2019년) 히가시테쓰 공업 presents 삼기 아래의 권력상(2021년 3 - 5월도) 오픈 하우스 특별 홈런상(2022년) 개인 기록 첫 기록 첫 출장·첫 선발 출장 : 2018년 9월 16일, 대 히로시마 도요 카프 22차전(메이지 진구 야구장), 6번·3루수로 선발 출장 첫 타석·첫 안타·첫 홈런·첫 타점 : 상동, 2회말에 오카다 아키타케로부터 우월 2점 홈런 첫 도루 : 2019년 5월 8일, 대 한신 타이거스 9차전(메이지 진구 야구장), 12회말에 2루 안착(투수: 시마모토 히로야, 포수: 우메노 류타로) 기록 달성 경력 통산 100홈런 : 2021년 9월 19일, 대 히로시마 도요 카프 18차전(메이지 진구 야구장), 1회 말에 다카하시 고야로부터 우월 솔로 홈런 ※역대 303번째, 21세 7개월에서의 달성은 NPB 사상 최연소 기록 통산 150홈런 : 2022년 8월 26일, 대 요코하마 DeNA 베이스타즈 17차전(요코하마 스타디움), 6회초에 오쓰키 신이치로부터 우월 솔로 홈런 ※역대 179번째, 22세 6개월에서의 달성은 사상 최연소, 프로 5년차 달성은 기요하라 가즈히로 이후 사상 2번째 기타 타격 부문 3관왕 : 1회(2022년) ※역대 8번째, 레이와 시대에서는 최초, 헤이세이 시대에 태어난 선수로는 최초. 22세 시즌 달성은 역대 최연소. 타율 0.318은 3관왕 최저 기록, 56홈런은 3관왕 최다 기록 첫 타석 홈런 : 역대 64번째(2018년) 19세 6개월에서의 끝내기 홈런 : 2019년 8월 12일, 대 요코하마 DeNA 베이스타스 19차전(메이지 진구 야구장), 9회말에 야마사키 야스아키로부터 중월 역전 끝내기 2점 홈런 ※사상 최연소 고졸 2년째 이내 시즌 36홈런(2019년) ※NPB 타이 기록(나카니시 후토시와 타이 기록) 고졸 2년째 이내 시즌 96타점(2019년) ※NPB 기록 시즌 184삼진(2019년) ※센트럴 리그 기록 및 일본인 기록 한 이닝 3도루 : 2020년 11월 5일, 대 한신 타이거스 24차전(한신 고시엔 구장), 2회초에 기록(투수: 니시 유키, 포수: 우메노 류타로) ※역대 17번째 첫회 4번 타자로서의 만루 홈런 : 2021년 9월 21일, 대 요코하마 DeNA 베이스타스 18차전(요코하마 스타디움), 1회초에 사카모토 유야로부터 ※센트럴 리그에서는 역대 10번째, 11번째 21세 시즌에서의 MVP : 2021년 ※센트럴 리그 최연소 21세 시즌에서의 시즌 홈런왕 획득 ※21세 이하에서의 획득은 역대 7명째이자 9번째, 마치다 유키히코와 함께 센트럴 리그 최연소 타이 기록 21세 시즌에서의 100타점：2021년 ※사상 최연소 21세 시즌에서의 100사구：2021년 ※사상 최연소 3년 연속 좌측 방향으로 2자리 홈런: 2019년 - 2021년 ※좌타자 사상 4번째 2경기 연속 만루 홈런 : 2022년 5월 6일 - 7일, 대 요미우리 자이언츠 7차전, 3회초에 호리타 겐신으로부터, 대 요미우리 자이언츠 8차전, 3회초에 맷 슈메이커로부터(도쿄 돔) ※역대 9번째 월간 9차례의 승리 타점：2022년 6월 ※양대 리그제 이후 최다 기록 월간 5차례의 한 경기 연타석 홈런 : 상동 ※역대 3번째 5연타석 연속 홈런 : 2022년 7월 31일 - 8월 2일, 대 한신 타이거스 16차전(한신 고시엔 구장), 7회초에 와타나베 유다이, 9회초에 이와자키 스구루, 11회초에 이시이 다이치로부터, 대 주니치 드래건스 14차전(메이지 진구 야구장), 1회말과 3회말에 야나기 유야로부터 ※NPB 기록 14타석 연속 출루(2022년 8월 26일 ~ 28일) ※역대 2위 타이 시즌 50홈런 : 2022년 ※역대 10명째이자 15번째, 일본인 선수로는 2002년 마쓰이 히데키 이후 역대 6번째, 22세 시즌에서의 도달은 세계 최연소, 119경기까지의 도달은 NPB 역대 3번째로 빠른 기록 시즌 56홈런 : 2022년 역대 2위 ※일본인 최다 기록 시즌 4개의 만루 홈런 : 2022년 ※역대 공동 2위 홈런왕으로서 2위와의 개수차 26개 : 2022년 ※NPB 기록 시즌 134타점 : 2022년 ※랜디 바스와 나란히 NPB 좌타자 타이 기록 타점왕으로서 2위와의 점수차 47점 : 2022년 ※NPB 기록 3년 연속 최다 볼넷 : 2020년 ~ 2022년 ※오 사다하루, 오치아이 히로미쓰에 이은 센트럴 리그 역대 공동 3위 올스타전 출장 : 3회(2019년, 2021년, 2022년) 등번호 55(2018년 ~ ) 연도별 타격 성적 2022년 시즌 종료 기준 굵은 글씨는 시즌 최고 성적. 연도별 타격 성적 소속 리그내에서의 순위 ‘-’는 10위 미만(타율, OPS는 규정 타석에 도달하지 않은 경우에도 ‘-’로 표기) NPB에서의 타격 타이틀은 수위 타자, 최다 홈런, 최다 타점, 최다 도루, 최다 안타, 최고 출루율 연도에서 굵은 글씨는 리그 최우수 선수(MVP) 수상 올림픽에서의 타격 성적 연도별 수비 성적 2022년 시즌 종료 기준 굵은 글씨는 시즌 최고 성적 등장곡 〈〉 WANIMA (2018 ~ 2019년) 〈I CAN〉 EXPRESS (2019年) ※짝수 타석 〈〉 GReeeeN (2019년) ※홀수 타석→제2타석 (2019년 도중부터) 〈Happiness〉 아라시 (2019년) ※제1타석 〈〉 AK-69 (2019년) ※제3타석 〈〉 후쿠야마 마사하루 (2020년) ※짝수 타석 〈My Time〉 Fabolous ft.Jeremih (2020년 ~ ) ※홀수 타석→제1타석 (2021년 도중부터) 〈U R not alone〉 GReeeeN (2021년) ※짝수 타석 〈 - Movie edit〉 RADWIMPS (2021년 ~ ) ※제3타석 〈〉 YOASOBI (2021년 ~ ) ※제2타석 〈〉 하루미 (2021년 도중부터) ※제3타석 〈〉 WANIMA (2021년 ~ ) ※제4 타석 〈Battle Scars〉 Lupe Fiasco & Guy Sebastian (2021년 11월 24일) 각주 내용주 참조주 외부 링크 야구 관련 무라카미 무네타카 | 도쿄 야쿠르트 스왈로스 - 공식 홈페이지 2017년 일본 프로 야구 신인 선수 선택 회의 - 도쿄 야쿠르트 스왈로스 드래프트 지명 선수 목록 - 일본 야구 기구 공식 홈페이지 SNS 무라카미 무네타카 공식 블로그 2000년 출생 살아있는 사람 구마모토시 출신 구마모토시의 야구 선수 일본의 야구 선수 일본 프로 야구 내야수 도쿄 야쿠르트 스왈로스 선수 일본 프로 야구 최우수 선수 일본 프로 야구 신인왕 수상자 일본의 올림픽 야구 참가 선수 2020년 하계 올림픽 야구 참가 선수 일본의 올림픽 금메달리스트 올림픽 야구 메달리스트 2020년 하계 올림픽 메달리스트 2023년 월드 베이스볼 클래식 참가 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munetaka%20Murakami

Munetaka Murakami

is a Japanese professional baseball infielder for the Tokyo Yakult Swallows of Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB). Amateur career Munetaka started playing baseball at five years of age. He entered Kyushū Gakuin Integrated High School where he became their team's regular first baseman and cleanup hitter. They made it to the 2015 Koshien national tournaments in his first year, but got defeated in the first round. He then played catcher in his second and third years, but they did not make it to any national tournaments. He hit a total of 52 home runs in high school, and his slugging prowess earned him the nickname "Babe Ruth of Higo", Higo being the former name of Kumamoto Prefecture. Professional career Tokyo Yakult Swallows Despite not getting a lot of media exposure from appearances in national games, he was drafted in the first round of the 2017 NPB Draft by the Tokyo Yakult Swallows, Yomiuri Giants and the Rakuten Golden Eagles, as an alternative pick after they lost Kōtarō Kiyomiya to the Nippon Ham Fighters. The Swallows won the lottery, and signed him for a contract of 80 million yen and a 7.2 million yen annual salary. He was assigned jersey number 55. 2018 He spent most of the season playing in Eastern League (minors) games. He batted at .311 in 28 games until the end of April, with 3 home runs and 20 RBI. In June, he got awarded League MVP of the month for batting .315 and driving in 14 runs, last accomplished by a Swallows rookie in 2011 by Tetsuto Yamada. He also got voted into the Fresh All Star games in July. He continued to play well in the following months, and finally got the chance to play in the main squad on the September 16 game against the Hiroshima Carp. He debuted as the starting third baseman, and hit a home run in his first at-bat. But after failing to record a hit in his next 5 appearances, he was sent back to the farm and ended the season there. He finished with a batting average of .288, 17 home runs, 70 RBIs and 16 stolen bases in the minors. Post-season, he was awarded both the Eastern League MVP and Rookie of the Year awards, and was given a 800,000 yen pay rise, bringing his annual salary to 8 million yen. 2019 2019 was Murakami's break out season. On February 27, he was selected to play for the Japan national baseball team at the 2019 exhibition games against Mexico. His great performance during the preseason exhibition games earned him the third base spot in the season-opener. This made him the youngest Swallows player to start in the season opening game at 19 years old, beating the previous record of 21 year-old Seikichi Nishioka in 1958. He hit his 10th home run by May 10, and managed to secure the cleanup position by May 12. He got voted into his first All-Star Game in July where he got top votes for third base, and was also selected for the Home Run Derby showdown. On August 12, he hit his first walk-off home run against the Baystars and became the youngest NPB player to achieve this feat. He hit his 30th home run by August 22, and became the first Central League player drafted out of high school to notch at least 30 home runs within 2 years from his debut. On September 4, he broke the NPB RBI record of high school-drafted players in their second season by notching his 87th RBI. He was the only Swallows player to appear in all of the team's 143 games, and despite batting only .231, he topped the team in home runs with 36 which tied the NPB home-run record for 2nd-year rookies, and finished second in RBI with 96. He also set a record for most strikeouts for a Japanese player with 184. His performance earned him the 2019 CL Rookie of the Year Award, and a 37 million pay rise which more than quadrupled his previous salary to 45 million yen. 2021 Murakami won the Central League MVP award following the 2021 season by hitting the league-leading 39 home runs, driving in 112 RBIs and drawing 106 walks while slashed .278/.408/.566. In the Japan Series, Murakami hit two home runs to help the Tokyo Yakult Swallows capture their first title after 20 years. 2022 In 2022, Murakami became the first NPB player to hit a home run in five consecutive plate appearances, over the course of two games. On September 13, 2022, Murakami hit his 55th home run of the season, tying Sadaharu Oh for the most home runs by a Japanese player in a season, and for second in NPB overall, alongside Alex Cabrera, Tuffy Rhodes, and Oh. Unfortunately for Murakami, he would go on a slump, going 48 straight at-bats without a home run, but on the final day of the regular season, on October 3, 2022, Murakami would hit his 56th home run of the season, breaking Oh's record for the most home runs by a Japanese-born player. He also became the first person who plays offense to win the NPB Triple Crown since Nobuhiko Matsunaka of the Fukuoka Daiei Hawks in 2004, and the first by a Central League player since Randy Bass of the Hanshin Tigers in 1986, and the youngest player to win the Triple Crown, at 22 years, eight months, and one day old at the conclusion of the 2022 regular season. He then proceeded to win the Central League MVP in a unanimous vote, becoming the first player since Masahiro Tanaka in and the first position player since Sadaharu Oh in to win the MVP ballot unanimously. After the 2022 season, Murakami signed a three-year contract extension worth 600 million yen per year, which stipulates that the Swallows must post Murakami to Major League Baseball after the 2025 season. International career Murakami represented Japan in the 2023 World Baseball Classic. After struggling during most of the tournament and going 0-for-4 with 3 strikeouts in the semifinal against Mexico, Murakami hit a walk-off two-run double to help Japan prevail 6–5. In the final against the defending champion USA, Murakami led off the bottom of the second inning with a first-pitch home run off Merrill Kelly to tie the game. Japan went on to win the championship game 3–2, seizing its third title. References External links Career statistics – NPB.jp 2000 births Living people Nippon Professional Baseball third basemen Baseball people from Kumamoto Prefecture Tokyo Yakult Swallows players Nippon Professional Baseball MVP Award winners Nippon Professional Baseball Rookie of the Year Award winners Baseball players at the 2020 Summer Olympics Olympic baseball players for Japan Olympic medalists in baseball Olympic gold medalists for Japan Medalists at the 2020 Summer Olympics 21st-century Japanese people 2023 World Baseball Classic players

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B8%EB%9D%BC%EB%93%9C%20%EC%B6%94%EC%BB%A4%EB%A7%8C

길라드 추커만

길라드 추커만(, , 1971년 6월 1일 ~ )은 이스라엘에서 태어난 언어학자이자 언어 부흥자이다. 그는 호주 애들레이드 대학교에서 교수이자 위기에 처한 언어들 및 언어학의 학장을 맞고 있다. 그는 옥스포드 대학교로부터 박사학위, 케임브리지 대학교로부터 박사학위 그리고 텔 아비브 대학교에서 인문학 석사학위를 받았다. 그는 유대연구를 위한 호주 협회(AAJS)의 회장이자 호주의 국가 건강 및 의학 조사 위원회(NHMRC)에서 자금을 제공받는 언어 회복 및 정신건강을 평가하는 큰 조사연구의 연구장이다. 생애 추커만 교수는 애보리지널 원주민 및 토레스 스트레이트 섬 원주민 연구 의 호주 협회(AIATSIS) 및 위험에 처한 언어들의 재단(FEL)의 선출된 구성원이다. 그는 AustraLex에서 2013년부터 2015년까지 회장이었으며, 호주 연구 위원회(ARC)에서 2007년부터 2011년까지 발견 특별회원(Discovery Fellow)이었고, 2000년부터 2004년까지 Churchill College Cambridge에서 Gulbenkian 조사 회원이었다. 그는 전 세계적으로 법원 소송에서 사전편집 (전집) 및 언어학 (법의학적) 부분의 고문 및 자문위원을 맡고 있다. 그는 상하이 국제 연구 대학교에서 특출난 방문 교수였으며 캠브리지 대학교, 퀸즐랜드 대학교, 싱가폴 국립 대학교, 상하이 지아오 통 대학교, 동중국 보통 대학교, 상하이 국제 연구 대학교, 히브리 예루살렘 대학교, 네게브의 벤 쿠리온 대학교 및 마이애미 대학교에서 가르쳤다. 그는 웨이즈만 과학 협회, 텔 아비브 대학교, 록펠러 재단의 연구 및 회의 센터, 빌라 설벨로니, 벨라지오 (이탈리아), 해리 랜섬 인문학 연구 센터, 오스틴에 위치한 텍사스 대학교, 히브리 예루살렘 대학교에 있는 고급연구를 위한 이스라엘 협회, 라 트로브 대학교에 있는 고급 연구를 위한 협회, 상하이 국제 연구 대학교에 있는 언하학 협회, 그리고 도쿄에 있는 일본어 및 일본어학을 위한 국가 협회의 코쿠리츠 코쿠고 켄큐죠에서 연구 특별 회원이다. 그는 세인트 휴의 옥스포트 대학의 대니스 스키너 장학생, 옥스포트 대학교의 스캐쳐드 유럽 장학생, 그리고 이탈리아에 있는 아드리아 해의 연합된 세계 대학에서 장학생이다. 언어학에 대한 기여 추커만 교수는 전 세계를 통하여 언어 회생에 관한 새로운 연구이자 초 학문분야인 언어복고학의 설립자이다. 언어복고학은 한편으로는 비교적이며 체계적으로 보편적인 한계들과 세계적인 짜임새를 연구하고 (Zuckermann 2009 참조) 또 다른 한편으로는 배타주의적인 독특성들 그리고 전세계적으로 언어의 재생 및 재활성화에서 두드러지는 문화적이고 상대적인 특질을 연구하며 그 재활성화는 전세계를 걸쳐서 사회학상의 배경에서 시도된다 (Zuckermann and Walsh 2011 참조). 2011년 추커만 교수는 남호주에 있는 에어 반도(Eyre Peninsula)의 방갈라 애보리지널 지역 공동체와 함께 방갈라 언어의 재생사업을 착수하였다. 2018년 기준으로, 그의 MOOC (대량 공개 온라인 과정), 언어 재생: 위험에 처한 언어들의 미래를 지키면서, 는 190개국의 있는 수백개의 독특한 언어 사용자들로 구성된 만 2천명의 수강자를 끌어드렸다. 저서 추커만 교수는 획기적인 베스트셀러 Israelit Safa Yafa (이스라엘어 – 아름다운 언어; Am Oved, 2008), 이스라엘 히브리어의 언어접촉과 어휘적인 풍요(Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 이스라엘어 버젼 Tingo (Keren, 2011)의 세개의 챕터, 매력 -애보리지널 원주민 및 토레스 스트레이트 섬 원주민과의 상호 존중 및 보안 적인 교류 그리고 그들의 예술 작품들 및 지적 재산에 대한 안내서 (2015), 첫번째 방갈라 애보리지널 온라인 언어 사전 (2017)의 저자이다. 그는 아프리카-아시아 언어학 의 중대한 문제들 (2012), 유대 언어 접촉 (2014), 그리고 ‘언어 사회학의 국제 저널의 특별한 문제’ 의 편집자이며 위험에 처한 어휘, 표시의 회복 (2014)의 공동 편집자이다. 서적 Revivalistics: From the Genesis of Israeli to Language Reclamation in Australia and Beyond, 2020, Oxford University Press (ISBN 9780199812790 / ISBN 9780199812776) Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew, 2003, Palgrave Macmillan (ISBN 9781403917232 / ISBN 978140338695) Israelit Safa Yafa, 2008, Am Oved (ISBN 978-965-13-1963-1) Mangiri Yarda (Healthy Country: Barngarla Wellbeing and Nature), Revivalistics Press, 2021. Engaging – A Guide to Interacting Respectfully and Reciprocally with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People, and their Arts Practices and Intellectual Property, 2015 Dictionary of the Barngarla Aboriginal Language of Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, 2018 Barngarlidhi Manoo (Speaking Barngarla Together), Barngarla Language Advisory Committee, 2019. (Barngarlidhi Manoo – Part II) Jewish Language Contact (=International Journal of the Sociology of Language 226), 2014 Burning Issues in Afro-Asiatic Linguistics , 2012 저널 문헌 및 서적의 장 ‘언어복고학, 복지 그리고 토크놀로지(Talknology)-오스트레일리아로부터의 통찰’ (Revivalistics, Wellbeing and Talknology – Insights from Australia), 무형유산학 (Intangible Heritage Studies) 6.1: 7-75. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad; Quer, Giovanni; Shakuto, Shiori (2014). Native Tongue Title: Proposed Compensation for the Loss of Aboriginal Languages, Australian Aboriginal Studies 2014/1: 55-71. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad; Walsh, Michael (2014). “Our Ancestors Are Happy!”: Revivalistics in the Service of Indigenous Wellbeing, Foundation for Endangered Languages XVIII: 113-119. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad; Walsh, Michael (2011). Stop, Revive, Survive: Lessons from the Hebrew Revival Applicable to the Reclamation, Maintenance and Empowerment of Aboriginal Languages and Cultures, Australian Journal of Linguistics 31: 111–127. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2009). Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns, Journal of Language Contact 2: 40–67. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006). A New Vision for "Israeli Hebrew": Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analyzing Israel's Main Language as a Semi-Engineered Semito-European Hybrid Language, Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 5: 57–71. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2004). Cultural Hybridity: Multisourced Neologization in "Reinvented" Languages and in Languages with "Phono-Logographic" Script, Languages in Contrast 4: 281–318. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003). Language Contact and Globalization: The Camouflaged Influence of English on the World’s Languages – with special attention to Israeli (sic) and Mandarin, Cambridge Review of International Affairs 16: 287–307. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2008). 'Realistic Prescriptivism': The Academy of the Hebrew Language, its Campaign of 'Good Grammar' and Lexpionage, and the Native Israeli Speakers, Israel Studies in Language and Society 1: 135–154. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006). "Complement Clause Types in Israeli", Complementation: A Cross-Linguistic Typology, Oxford University Press, pp. 72–92. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006). " 'Etymythological Othering' and the Power of 'Lexical Engineering' in Judaism, Islam and Christianity. A Socio-Philo(sopho)logical Perspective", Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion, John Benjamins, pp. 237–258. Yadin, Azzan; Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2010). "Blorít: Pagans' Mohawk or Sabras' Forelock?: Ideological Secularization of Hebrew Terms in Socialist Zionist Israeli", The Sociology of Language and Religion: Change, Conflict and Accommodation, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 84–125. Sapir, Yair; Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2008). "Icelandic: Phonosemantic Matching", Globally Speaking: Motives for Adopting English Vocabulary in Other Languages, Multilingual Matters, pp. 19–43. 출연 작품 Fry's Planet Word, 스티븐 프라이 SBS: Living Black: S18 Ep9 - Linguicide Babbel: Why Revive A Dead Language? - Interview with Prof. Ghil'ad Zuckermann Language Revival: Securing the Future of Endangered Languages, edX MOOC 외부 링크 Ghil'ad Zuckermann, D.Phil. (Oxon.) University Staff Directory: Professor Ghil'ad Zuckermann Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Academia Jewish Language Research Website: Ghil'ad Zuckermann Professor Ghil'ad Zuckermann's website Australian of the Day: Ghil'ad Zuckermann Voices of the land, Anna Goldsworthy, The Monthly, September 2014. BBC World Service: Reawakening Language 각주 1971년 출생 살아있는 사람 이스라엘의 히브리어학자 오스트레일리아의 문헌학자 이스라엘의 사전 편찬자 오스트레일리아의 사전 편찬자 역사언어학자 사회언어학자 어원학자 이디시어학자 유대인 작가 텔아비브 출신 텔아비브 대학교 동문 옥스퍼드 대학교 세인트휴스 칼리지 동문 케임브리지 대학교 처칠 칼리지 교수 텍사스 대학교 오스틴 교수 유대계 이스라엘인 이스라엘계 오스트레일리아인 이스라엘의 언어학자 오스트레일리아의 언어학자

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghil%27ad%20Zuckermann

Ghil'ad Zuckermann

Ghil'ad Zuckermann (, ; ) is an Israeli-born language revivalist and linguist who works in contact linguistics, lexicology and the study of language, culture and identity. Zuckermann is Professor of Linguistics and Chair of Endangered Languages at the University of Adelaide, Australia. He is the president of the Australian Association for Jewish Studies. Overview Zuckermann was born in Tel Aviv in 1971 and raised in Eilat. He attended the United World College (UWC) of the Adriatic in 1987–1989. In 1997 he received an M.A. in Linguistics from the Adi Lautman Program at Tel Aviv University. In 1997–2000 he was Scatcherd European Scholar of the University of Oxford and Denise Skinner Graduate Scholar at St Hugh's College, receiving a DPhil (Oxon.) in 2000. While at Oxford, he served as president of the Jewish student group L'Chaim Society. As Gulbenkian research fellow at Churchill College (2000–2004), he was affiliated with the Department of Linguistics, Faculty of Modern and Medieval Studies, University of Cambridge. He received a titular Ph.D. (Cantab.) in 2003. Zuckermann is a polyglot, with his past teaching positions ranging across universities in England, China, Australia, Singapore, Slovakia, Israel, and the United States. In 2010-2015 he was China's Ivy League Project 211 "Distinguished Visiting Professor", and "Shanghai Oriental Scholar" professorial fellow, at Shanghai International Studies University. He was Australian Research Council (ARC) Discovery Fellow in 2007-2011 and was awarded research fellowships at various universities in various countries. He was awarded a British Academy Research Grant, Memorial Foundation of Jewish Culture Postdoctoral Fellowship, Harold Hyam Wingate Scholarship and Chevening Scholarship. Currently, Zuckermann is Professor of Linguistics and Chair of Endangered Languages at the University of Adelaide. He is elected member of the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies and the Foundation for Endangered Languages. He serves as Editorial Board member of the Journal of Language Contact (Brill), consultant for the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), and expert witness in (corpus) lexicography, (forensic) linguistics and trademarks (intellectual property). In 2013-2015 he was President of the Australasian Association of Lexicography (AustraLex). Since February 2017 he has been the president of the Australian Association for Jewish Studies (AAJS). In 2017 Zuckermann secured extensive research funding from Australia's National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) to study effects of Indigenous language reclamation on wellbeing. Research Zuckermann applies insights from the Hebrew revival to the revitalization of Aboriginal languages in Australia. According to Yuval Rotem, the Israeli Ambassador to Australia, Zuckermann's "passion for the reclamation, maintenance and empowerment of Aboriginal languages and culture inspired [him] and was indeed the driving motivator of" the establishment of the Allira Aboriginal Knowledge IT Centre in Dubbo, New South Wales, Australia, on 2 September 2010. He proposes Native Tongue Title, compensation for language loss, because "linguicide" results in "loss of cultural autonomy, loss of spiritual and intellectual sovereignty, loss of soul". He uses the term sleeping beauty to refer to a no-longer spoken language and urges Australia "to define the 330 Aboriginal languages, most of them sleeping beauties, as the official languages of their region", and to introduce bilingual signs and thus change the linguistic landscape of the country. "So, for example, Port Lincoln should also be referred to as Galinyala, which is its original Barngarla name." His edX MOOC Language Revival: Securing the Future of Endangered Languages has had 20,000 learners from 190 countries. Zuckermann proposes a controversial hybrid theory of the emergence of Israeli Hebrew according to which Hebrew and Yiddish "acted equally" as the "primary contributors" to Modern Hebrew. Scholars including Yiddish linguist Dovid Katz (who refers to Zuckermann as a "fresh-thinking Israeli scholar"), adopt Zuckermann's term "Israeli" and accept his notion of hybridity. Others, for example author and translator Hillel Halkin, oppose Zuckermann's model. In an article published on 24 December 2004 in The Jewish Daily Forward, pseudonymous column "Philologos", Halkin accused Zuckermann of a political agenda. Zuckermann's response was published on 28 December 2004 in The Mendele Review: Yiddish Literature and Language. As described by Reuters in a 2006 article, "Zuckermann's lectures are packed, with the cream of Israeli academia invariably looking uncertain on whether to endorse his innovative streak or rise to the defense of the mother tongue." According to Omri Herzog (Haaretz), Zuckermann "is considered by his Israeli colleagues either a genius or a provocateur". Reclamation of the Barngarla language In 2012 Zuckermann started working with the Barngarla community to revive and reclaim the Barngarla language, based on the work of a German Lutheran pastor Clamor Wilhelm Schürmann, who worked at a mission in 1844 and created a Barngarla dictionary. This led to ongoing language revival workshops being held in Port Augusta, Whyalla, and Port Lincoln several times each year, with funding from the federal government's Indigenous Languages Support program. Wardlada Mardinidhi / Barngarla Bush Medicines, a 24-page book, was published in July 2023. It is the third book co-written by Zuckermann and members of the Richards family of Port Lincoln, this time represented by Evelyn Walker. It records the names a number of native plants from around Port Lincoln in Barngarla, Latin, and English, and describes their use as bush medicine. Adelaide Language Festival Zuckermann is the founder and convener of the Adelaide Language Festival. Contributions to linguistics Zuckermann's research focuses on contact linguistics, lexicology, revivalistics, Jewish languages, and the study of language, culture and identity. Zuckermann argues that Israeli Hebrew, which he calls "Israeli", is a hybrid language that is genetically both Indo-European (Germanic, Slavic and Romance) and Afro-Asiatic (Semitic). He suggests that "Israeli" is the continuation not only of literary Hebrew(s) but also of Yiddish, as well as Polish, Russian, German, English, Ladino, Arabic and other languages spoken by Hebrew revivalists. Zuckermann's hybridic synthesis is in contrast to both the traditional revival thesis (i.e. that "Israeli" is Hebrew revived) and the relexification antithesis (i.e. that "Israeli" is Yiddish with Hebrew words). While his synthesis is multi-parental, both the thesis and the antithesis are mono-parental. Zuckermann introduces revivalistics as a new transdisciplinary field of enquiry surrounding language reclamation (e.g. Barngarla), revitalization (e.g. Adnyamathanha) and reinvigoration (e.g. Irish). Complementing documentary linguistics, revivalistics aims to provide a systematic analysis especially of attempts to resurrect no-longer spoken languages (reclamation) but also of initiatives to reverse language shift (revitalization and reinvigoration). His analysis of multisourced neologization (the coinage of words deriving from two or more sources at the same time) challenges Einar Haugen's classic typology of lexical borrowing. Whereas Haugen categorizes borrowing into either substitution or importation, Zuckermann explores cases of "simultaneous substitution and importation" in the form of camouflaged borrowing. He proposes a new classification of multisourced neologisms such as phono-semantic matching. Zuckermann's exploration of phono-semantic matching in Standard Mandarin and Meiji period Japanese concludes that the Chinese writing system is multifunctional: pleremic ("full" of meaning, e.g. logographic), cenemic ("empty" of meaning, e.g. phonographic – like a syllabary) and simultaneously cenemic and pleremic (phono-logographic). He argues that Leonard Bloomfield's assertion that "a language is the same no matter what system of writing may be used" is inaccurate. "If Chinese had been written using roman letters, thousands of Chinese words would not have been coined, or would have been coined with completely different forms". Selected publications Zuckermann has published in English, Hebrew, Italian, Yiddish, Spanish, German, Russian, Arabic, Korean and Chinese. Books authored Revivalistics: From the Genesis of Israeli to Language Reclamation in Australia and Beyond. New York: Oxford University Press, 2020. / . (Israelit Safa Yafa) Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. / . Mangiri Yarda (Healthy Country: Barngarla Wellbeing and Nature), Revivalistics Press, 2021. Barngarlidhi Manoo - Part 2 Dictionary of the Barngarla Aboriginal Language, 2018. Engaging – A Guide to Interacting Respectfully and Reciprocally with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People, and their Arts Practices and Intellectual Property, 2015. Books edited Jewish Language Contact (Special Issue of the International Journal of the Sociology of Language, Vol. 226), 2014. Burning Issues in Afro-Asiatic Linguistics, 2012. / . Journal articles and book chapters Filmography Fry's Planet Word, Stephen Fry interviews Zuckermann about the revival of Hebrew The Politics of Language, Stephen Fry interviews Zuckermann about language SBS: Living Black: S18 Ep9 - Linguicide Babbel: Why Revive A Dead Language? - Interview with Ghil'ad Zuckermann edX MOOC: Language Revival: Securing the Future of Endangered Languages References External links University of Adelaide: Researcher Profile: Ghil'ad Zuckermann University Staff Directory: Ghil'ad Zuckermann Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Academia Ghil'ad Zuckermann's website 1971 births Living people Academics from Tel Aviv Linguists from Australia Australian lexicographers Linguists from Israel Israeli philologists Israeli Jews Australian Jews Historical linguists Etymologists Linguists of Yiddish Linguists of Hebrew Linguists of Pama–Nyungan languages Sociolinguists Israeli Hebraists Scholars of nationalism Israeli emigrants to Australia Semiticists Linguists at the University of Cambridge Academic staff of the University of Adelaide Academic staff of the University of Queensland Academic staff of the National University of Singapore University of Texas at Austin faculty Academic staff of Shanghai Jiao Tong University Academic staff of the East China Normal University Academic staff of Shanghai International Studies University Academic staff of La Trobe University Tel Aviv University alumni Alumni of St Hugh's College, Oxford Fellows of Churchill College, Cambridge Israeli translation scholars People educated at a United World College 20th-century linguists 21st-century linguists Adi Lautman Interdisciplinary Program for Outstanding Students alumni Presidents of the Australian Association for Jewish Studies Language revival

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%80%EC%BD%94%EB%B0%94%EB%A5%B4%20%ED%95%99%EC%82%B4

부코바르 학살

부코바르 학살(), 또는 부코바르 병원 학살, 오브차라 학살()은 크로아티아 독립 전쟁 도중인 1991년 11월 20일 부코바르 동남쪽의 오브차라에서 유고슬라비아 인민군(JNA)가 인계한 크로아티아인 포로와 민간인을 세르비아계 준군사가 집단으로 학살한 사건이다. 이 학살은 부코바르 전투가 끝나 유고슬라비아 인민군, 세르비아계 크로아티아인 영토방위군, 인근 세르비아 지역에서 모집한 민병대가 부코바르를 장악한 직후 일어났다. 부코바르 학살은 일어난 시점에서 제2차 세계 대전 이후 유럽에서 일어난 가장 거대한 규모의 학살이자 전쟁범죄이다. 부코바르 전투 마지막 날, 크로아티아 지역 정부, 유고 인민군, 유럽 공동체 감시 임무 세 세력은 국제 적십자 위원회(ICRC)의 협력으로 부코바르 병원에서 대피를 도와주기로 합의하였다. 하지만 유고 인민군은 적십자를 병원으로 들여보내는 것을 막고 병원 안에 있던 사람들 약 300명을 끌어내버렸다. 병원에서 끌어내진 사람들은 크로아티아인을 중심으로 세르비아인, 헝가리인, 보스니아인, 크로아티아 국가방위군에 자원한 외국인 2명이 포함되어 있었으며 처음에는 부코바르에 있는 유고 인민군 막사로 이송되었다. 몇몇 포로는 병원 직원으로 확인되어 무리에서 빠져 병원으로 돌려보냈으며 나머지 사람들은 부코바르 동남쪽에 있는 오브차라 농장으로 끌려갔다. 농장에 도착하자 유고 인민군이 농장에서 철수하기 전 수 시간 동안 포로들은 지속적인 폭행을 당했으며 이후 유고 인민군은 포로를 세르비아계 민병대와 영토방위군 세력에게 인계했다. 포로들은 준비된 장소로 옮겨져 10~20명의 무리로 묶여 총살당한 후 집단무덤에 묻혔다. 집단묘지는 1992년 10월 발견되었으며 연초 부코바르 지역에 배치된 유엔보호군(UNPROFOR)에게 인계되어 보호받았다. 1996년 구유고슬라비아 국제형사재판소(ICTY)의 조사단이 발굴을 한 결과 무덤에서 유골 200명분이 발견되었다. 크로아티아 측은 61명이 더 살해되었으나 다른 무덤에 묻혔다고 주장했으며 ICTY 검찰 측에서는 60명이라고 추정했다. ICTY는 부코바르 학살을 벌인 혐의로 유고 인민군 장교 2명을 기소했으며 전 세르비아의 대통령인 슬로보단 밀로셰비치를 부코바르에서 일어난 학살을 포함한 수많은 전쟁 범죄를 일으킨 혐의로 기소하였다. 밀로셰비치는 재판이 끝나기 전 교도소에서 옥중 사망하였다. 세르비아계 크로아티아인 영토방위군 소속 병사들 및 세르비아계 민병대 대원 수 명도 부코바르 학살에 가담한 혐의로 세르비아 사법부에 재판을 받았고 유죄 판결을 받았다. 2015년 2월, 국제사법재판소는 크로아티아 전역에서 일어난 포위전, 학살, 기타 동시다발적 반인륜적 사건들이 제노사이드 혐의를 구성하지 않는다고 판결했다. 집단무덤 현장에는 기념비 및 오브차라 농장에서 대량 학살이 일어나기 직전 포로들을 수용한 건물이 표시되어 있으며 2006년 이 건물은 기념센터로 개축되었다. 2014년 7월까지 기념센터엔 관광객 50만명이 다녀갔다. 배경 1990년, 크로아티아 사회주의 공화국에서 열린 총선에서 크로아티아 민주연합(HDZ)가 압승하며 크로아티아 내 세르비아인과 크로아티아인 사이 민족분규가 거세지기 시작했다. 유고슬라비아 인민군(JNA)는 저항을 최소화하기 위해 크로아티아 영토방위군의 모든 무기를 압수하였다. 8월 17일에는 세르비아계 크로아티아인이 봉기를 일으키며 민족 긴장이 격화되었다. 반란은 스플리트에서 동북쪽으로 60km 떨어진 크닌 인근의 달마티아 연안 세르비아계 인구 밀집 지역을 중심으로 리카, 코르둔, 바노비나, 슬라보니아 등 지역에서 반란 사태가 확대되었다. 1991년 1월, 몬테네그로 사회주의 공화국 및 세르비아 내의 보이보디나, 코소보 메토히야 자치주의 지원을 받은 세르비아는 유고 인민군의 크로아티아 보안군 무장 해제 작전 승인을 요구했으나 유고슬라비아 대통령직의 승인 반대로 실패하였다. 이 시도가 실패한 후, 3월 초 세르비아계 반군과 크로아티아 특수경찰 사이 무혈 충돌이 일어났다.이 사건으로 유고 인민군은 유고 대통령직의 전시 통수권 부활과 전국의 비상사태 선포를 할 것을 요청했다. 세르비아 및 그 동맹국은 이 요구를 지지했으나 유고슬라비아 대통령직은 이를 거부했다. 세르비아의 대통령 슬로보단 밀로셰비치는 크로아티아를 유고슬라비아 내로 유지하기보다는 세르비아 국가를 확장하는 것을 지지하였으며, 공개적으로 유고슬라비아 인민군을 세르비아군으로 대체하겠다고 위협하고 더 이상 연방 대통령의 권한을 인정하지 않겠다고 선포했다. 유고 인민군이 밀로셰비치의 통제 하에 들면서, 유고 인민군은 세르비아의 확장 계획에 찬성하며 유고 연방을 존속하겠다는 입장을 폐기하였다. 3월 말에는 처음으로 사상자가 나온 유혈 충돌 사건이 일어났다. 4월 초엔 크로아티아 내의 세르비아계 반군이 모여 세르비아 통제 하의 영토를 하나로 통일하겠다고 밝혔다. 이 지역은 크로아티아 정부가 '이탈지역'으로 선언하였다. 1991년 초까지 크로아티아는 정규군이 없었다. 크로아티아는 국방력을 강화하기 위해 경찰요원을 2만명으로 약 두배 가까이 늘렸다. 이중 가장 효과가 좋았던 것은 군대 조직을 따른 12개 대대 3천명의 크로아티아 특수경찰 병력이었다. 또한 크로아티아 지역별로 예비경찰 16개 대대, 10개 중대 9천-1만명을 수립하였으나 무기가 부족했다. 악화되는 상황에 대응하여 크로아티아 정부는 5월 특수경찰 대대를 전문적인 4개 방위연대로 바꾸며 크로아티아 국가방위군(ZNG)를 설립하였다. 크로아티아 국방부 통제 하에 있던 이 부대는 은퇴한 유고 인민군 장군인 마르틴 슈페겔이 지휘하였으며 4개 연대 8천명으로 구성되어 있었다. 이 외에도 예비경찰이 4만명으로 확대되어 국가방위군 소속으로 들어가 19개 여단 14개 독립대대로 재편되었다. 방위여단은 소화기가 완비된 크로아티아 내 유일한 부대였으며 국가방위군 전반적으로 중화기는 없었으며 여단 이상의 지휘부 및 통제 구조는 제대로 있지도 않았다. 중무기 부족이 너무 심하여 국가방위군은 박물관 및 영화 스튜디오의 제2차 세계 대전 시기 무기를 이용해 보충할 정도였다. 당시 크로아티아의 무기 비축량은 해외에서 수입한 소화기 3만정과 경찰이 이전에 소유하고 있던 소화기 15,000정 뿐이었다. 방위여단으로 재편된 특수경찰을 대신하여 새롭게 10,000명의 특수경찰이 다시 소집되었다. 전조 9월 14-15일 크로아티아가 크로아티아 내 유고 인민군 시설을 점령하기 위해 막사 전투를 시작하자 유고슬라비아 인민군은 부코바르 포위를 위한 작은 공세를 펼치기 시작했다. 같은 시기엔 크로아티아를 향한 대규모 공세를 위해 동원령을 선포하여 병력을 모으기 시작했다. 하지만 동원된 병사들이 광범위하게 징병을 거부하고 지정 부대 이탈이나 탈영, 전투에 대한 사기 저하 등이 곳곳에서 보고되기 시작했다. 중앙세르비아에서 이에 대한 반응이 좋지 못했는데, 대략 26%만 징병에 병역을 치르러 갔다고 보고했다. 이런 상황으로 부대 내 병력이 부족해지고 유고슬라비아 인민군은 부대에서 보병부대 배치를 줄이기 시작했다. 크로아티아 동부의 슬라보니아 지역에 대한 유고 인민군 공세는 9월 20일 시작되었다. 유고 인민군이 반복적으로 시도했으나 점령에 실패했던 부코바르 시가지 장악이 전역의 최종 목표였다. 부코바르 및 주변 지역의 전투는 수개월간 계속되었고 결국 서슬라보니아의 세르비아계 장악 지역에서 서쪽으로 진군할 예정이었던 유고 인민군의 주력 기갑부대를 배치하였다. 부코바르의 함락 외에도 유고 인민군은 빈코브치 서쪽으로 진격하기 전에 후방 위협을 일소하도록 크로아티아군을 완전히 소멸시키러 했다. 유고슬라비아 인민군은 병역에 대부분 참여하지 않은 예비군 대신 현지 지역의 세르비아계 영토방위군 병력이나 세르비아계 준군사 조직을 이용하여 병력을 강화했다. 자원군은 민족 증오로 가득 차 가정을 약탈하는 등 민간인에 대한 여러 잔학행위를 저질렀다. 2개월이 넘는 전투 후 11월 18일 부코바르의 크로아티아군이 항복했다. 부코바르 시가지는 유고 인민군의 포병 및 박격포, 로켓 포격으로 심각한 피해를 입었다. 전투가 끝날 때까지 도시 내로 포와 미사일이 최소 70만개가 떨어졌으며 하루 12,000개가 넘는 꼴로 떨어졌다. 전개 이송 준비 11월 17일, 유고슬라비아 인민군 제5(자그레브) 전면군 지휘관인 소장 안드리야 라셰타는 유럽 공동체 감시 임무단에게 유고 인민군은 원칙적으로 부코바르에서 취약한 사람들을 신속하게 대피시키는 데 합의했다고 알렸다. 이 당시 부코바르 병원에는 400명 가량이 갇힌 것으로 알려져 있었으나 실제 그 숫자는 450명이 넘는 것으로 확인되었다. 병원에는 심각한 부상으로 치료를 수일 간 받고 있는 중환자 40명과 경부상으로 치료를 받고 있는 환자 360명을 포함하고 있었다. 이 환자들 외에도 일부 민간인들은 전투 마지막 날 병원으로 피난을 가기도 했다. 이들은 병원이 당시 매일 포격을 받고 있었지만 도시에서 병원으로 대피하였다. 이 외에도 많은 크로아티아군이 병원의 환자나 직원으로 병원 안으로 피난오기도 했다. 11월 18일, 크로아티아, 유고 인민군, 유럽공동체 감시단 셋으로 구성된 삼두위원회는 국제 적십자 위원회, 국경 없는 의사회, 몰타세르 인터네셔널 대표들과 함께 부코바르의 피난 해법에 대해 논의하였다. 11월 18일에서 19일로 넘어가는 밤, 라셰타 지휘관과 크로아티아 보건부 장관 안드리야 헤브란그는 피난에 관한 합의에 서명했다. 이 합의문에서는 피난민들이 루자츠 교외-보그다노브치-마린치-지디네 교차로-누슈타르-빈코브치 도로를 따라 피난하는 것을 보장해준다는 내용이었다. 피난민들은 지디네 교차로에서 국제기구에 인계되고 병원은 국제 적십자 위원회가 담당하게 되며, 여기에 유럽 공동체 감시 임무단이 전체 작전을 감독하기로 하였다. 헤브란그 장관은 부코바르 병원의 병원장인 베스나 보사나츠에게 이 합의를 통보하고 적십자 팀이 곧 도착할 것이라 말했다. 이날 저녁 부코바르 포위전의 전 과정을 체험하며 방송하던 저널리스트 시니샤 글라바셰비치는 병원에서 최종 방송을 진행했다. 글라바셰비치는 세르비아 민병대가 자신을 잡을 경우 무슨 짓을 할 지 몰라, 적십자와 함께 빨리 도시를 떠나고 싶다고 말했다. 병원 장악 11월 19일 아침, 유럽 공동체 임무 감시단(ECMM)은 부코바르 내 조직적인 저항이 모두 끝났다는 것을 알았으나 병원 내의 환자들이 어떻게 되었는지에 대해서는 어떠한 정보도 받지 못했다. 결국 유럽 공동체 감시단 대표 디릭 잔 반 휴턴 대사는 ECMM을 대신하여 라슈타에게 대신 개입해달라고 요구했다. 이날 유고 인민군 부대가 병원에 도착했고 보사나츠는 유고 인민군 장교 밀레 므르크시치를 만난 상태였다. 보사나츠는 므르크시치가 피난 협정을 지킬 의무는 없다고 말했다고 언급했다. 적십자 대원들은 현장의 유고 인민군 장교의 방해로 부코바르 내로 진입할 순 없었지만 11월 19일 초저녁에는 적집자사 대표 니콜라스 보리싱어가 "장군"과의 약속을 주장하며 부코바르 병원에 도착하였다. 여기서 보리싱어는 건물을 장악한 인민군 대위를 만나 적집자사의 시설 방문을 허가하였다. 이후 보리싱어는 적집자사 호송 행렬로 들어가 병원을 탈출하였다. 이날 프랑스 기자 앙네 바라미도 병원을 방문하여 부코바르에서 크로아티아군에 자원해 전투에 참여했던 프랑스인 진미셰 니콜리에를 만나 인터뷰를 하였다. 바라미는 니콜리에에게 기자 신분증을 이용하여 도시를 탈출하자고 제안했으나 니콜리에는 이를 거절했다. 11월 20일 아침, 적십자사 행렬이 부코바르에 도착했으나 병원을 바로 앞에 두고 다리에서 저지당했다. 장갑차가 병원으로 향하는 다리를 막고 있었으며 그곳에 있던 인민군 장교인 소령 베셀린 슈리반차닌는 적십자사 행렬을 막아버렸다. 현장에서 유고 인민군과 적십자사 사이의 협상을 원만하게 하기 위해 BBC 기자 마틴 벨이 통역을 자원하였다. 베셀린 슈리반차닌은 텔레비전 카메라 앞에서 적십자사 요원에게 "여긴 내 나라이고, 우리는 이곳을 점령했다. 여긴 유고슬라비아고, 난 이곳을 지휘한다!"라고 말했다. 되돌아올 호송대를 맞이하기 위해 지디네 교차로에 있던 유럽공동체 감시단은 유고 인민군에게 11월 22일 피난민 호송대는 보스니아 북부의 보산스키샤마츠로 향할 것이라고 통보하였다. 슈리반차닌이 호송대 행렬을 막는 동안 포로들은 다른 방향에서 온 버스를 통해 밖으로 끌려나갔다. 대략 300여명이 병원에서 빠져나간 것으로 확인된다. 오브차라 농장 11월 20일에는 슈리반차닌과 대령 네보이샤 파브코비치는 부코바르에서 부상자를 이송하기 위해 유고 인민군이 버스를 제공해줄 것이라고 발표했다. 하지만 10시 30분 경 버스는 포로를 부코바르 남쪽 끝에 있는 유고 인민군 병영으로 가버렸고 여기서 병원 직원으로 확인된 15명은 다시 병원으로 되돌려보냈다. 병영에 남아있던 남은 사람들은 세르비아계 크로아티아인과 세르비아계 준군사조직 대원이 위협하였다. 세르비아계 지도자들은 세르비아에 대한 전쟁 범죄 혐의로 기소하기를 바라며 세르비아 내의 구금시설로 옮기는 데 반대했다. 2시간 동안 병영에 있은 후 버스는 그라보보 근처에 있는 오브차라 농장으로 이동했다. 끌려온 무리 대부분은 크로아티아인이었지만 이들 중에선 세르비아 민족인, 무슬리마니, 헝가리인 외에도 부코바르에서 크로아티아군에 자원한 프랑스인인 니콜리에와 독일인 1명도 있었다. 또한 무리에는 부코바르 병원 약국에 근무했던 라셰타 조카도 있었다. 오브차라로 끌려온 사람은 261명이었다. 일부 문헌에서는 이 사람들 중 여성이 1-2명 있었으며 5달 된 임산부도 있었다고 추정한다. 포로로 끌려온 사람들의 나이는 최소 16세부터 최대 72세까지 다양했다. 이중 가장 어린 사람은 만 16세인 이고르 카치치이다. 포로들이 부코바르에서 10km 정도 떨어진 오브차라에 도착하자 버스에 있던 포로들은 유고 인민군 병사나 세르비아계 준군사 조직에게 한명씩 끌려가 농장 안의 농작물 저장소 창고로 끌려갔다. 부코바르 전 시장이었던 슬라브코 도크마노비치는 포로를 구타하는 무장 세력 중 한명이었다. 군인들은 끌려온 민간인을 구타하면서 그들이 가진 개인 소지품이나 돈, 보석도 강탈하였다. 하루 넘게 유고 인민군 헌병은 세르비아계 영토방위군 병사나 준군사 병사들을 포로를 구타하는 것을 막지도 못하고 농장 창고 내로 들어가지도 못했다. 병사들은 포로를 막대기, 개머리판, 쇠사슬, 야구방망이 등을 사용하여 폭행했으며 부상을 입었던 민간인은 자신이 지고 있던 목발로도 맞았다. 해질녘이 될 때까지 최소한 2명이 구타당해 죽은 것으로 추정된다. 또한 폭행한 병사 한명이 프랑스인 1명을 포함한 최소한 포로 5명을 쏴죽였는데 이 중 프랑스인은 니콜라에인 것으로 추정된다. 또한 무리에 있던 사람 중 7-8명은 유고 인민군의 명령으로 부코바르로 돌아와 풀러났는데 아마 세르비아계 이웃이 손을 써 탈출한 것으로 추정된다. 마지막으로 므르크시치는 농장에서 포로를 영토방위군 지휘관이자 민병대 "레바 수퍼데리카"의 지휘관인 미로류브 부요비치가 지휘하는 세르비아계 크로아티아인 영토방위군에게 포로 관리를 그냥 넘겨버리고 유고 인민군을 철수하라는 명령을 내렸다. 민병대 "레바 수퍼데리카"는 세르비아 시드에서 수립된 세르비아 급진당의 민병대로 유고 인민군의 제1 기계화경비여단 소속이었다. 오후 6시경 포로들은 여러 무리로 나눠졌다. 10-20명 가량의 무리로 쪼개진 포로들은 건물에 나와 트럭에 싣어져 수백 미터 정도 떨어진 나무가 우거진 계곡으로 옮겨졌다. 미리 준비된 처형장으로 옮겨진 포로들은 총살당했으며 불도저를 이용해 집단무덤 식으로 파묻혔다. 15-20분 후 다음 무리를 데려오기 위해 빈 트럭이 건물로 다시 이동하였다. 마지막 포로 무리는 농장 건물 바로 밖에서 한꺼번에 학살당했다. 밤 10시 경이 되어서 모든 포로가 전부 학살당했다. 거의 대부분의 문헌에서는 약 260명이 학살당한 것으로 추정하고 있다. 이 사망자수는 ICTY 검찰측에서 인용한 숫자기도 하다. 일부 문헌에서는 최대 264명이 학살당했다고 추정한다. 크로아티아 정부는 261명이 학살당한 것으로 추정하고 있다. 부코바르 학살은 제2차 세계 대전 이후 이때까지 유럽에서 일어난 가장 거대한 전쟁범죄 행위였다. 여파 세르비아계 군사는 1991년 10월 초 오브차라를 수용소로 바꾸었다. 집단살해 이외에도 1991년 가을 동안 오브차라 수용소에 대략 3-4천명이 되는 남성 포로가 수용되어 있었으며 이들은 일시적으로 오브차라에 수용되었다가 스렘스카미트로비차 감옥이나 지역 유고 인민군 군부대로 이송되어 다시 스타예체보, 베게이치 등 세르비아 내의 강제수용소로 옮기는 임시수용소 역할을 하였다. 1991년 체결된 일련의 정치적 협정과 1992년 초 크로아티아와 유고 인민군 사이 체결된 휴전 협정으로 부코바르와 인근 지역을 포함한 크로아티아 곳곳에 유엔보호군(UNPROFOR)이 평화유지 임무로 파견되었다. 유엔보호군은 1992년 3월 경부터 배치가 시작되었다. 집단무덤 발견 법의인류학자 클라이드 스노우는 1992년 10월 자그레브를 방문하면서 학살의 존재에 대해 알게 되었다. 스노우 교수는 전쟁범죄 혐의 조사를 위해 유엔팀 대원 중 한명으로 들어가 부코바르를 여행하였다. 거기서 스노우 교수는 자그레브 대학교 의대의 학과장을 만나 학살을 피해 살아남은 전 군인을 소개받았고 그에게서 학살에 관해서 듣게 되었다. 3일 후, 스노우 교수는 부코바르에 도착해 부코바르 지역의 유엔보호군으로 파견된 왕립 캐나다 기마경찰의 중사 레리 무어와 함께 오브차라 지역으로 향했다. 그곳에서 무어는 진흙 속에 파묻힌 인간 두개골을 발견하였다. 며칠 후 유엔은 오브차라 지역을 범죄 현장으로 선포하고 현장 보호를 위해 러시아 유엔보호군을 파견하였다. 스노우 교수는 자신을 포함해 4명으로 이뤄진 팀을 꾸려 겨울 전에 예비 조사를 실시했으며 1992년 12월 학살 현장에 도착하였다. 이 팀은 러시아군이 보호하고 있는 학살 현장에 도착하여 무어가 발견한 뼈조각 외에도 나머지 모든 뼈도 발견하였으며 부분적으로 파묻혀 남아있는 뼈조각들도 발견하였다. 팀은 현장에서 대략 1m 정도의 깊이로 참호를 팠다. 땅을 파면서 더 많은 뼈를 발견하였으며 무덤의 크기도 대략적으로 추측하였다. 지하를 파내려가 조사한 결과 대략 200여명 이상이 집단무덤에 파묻힌 것 같다는 결론을 내렸다. 또한 조사단은 무덤 한켠에서 유고슬라비아군이 사용하는 표준 생산된 AK-47의 탄약통 더미를 발견하고 그와 정 반대편 나무엔 총알 구멍이 뚫린 것도 발견하여 사격수들이 무덤 한쪽에 서서 한가운데를 향해 발사해 총살한 것 같다는 추측을 하였다. 크로아티아 정부는 1993년에서 1994년 사이 오브차라에 묻힌 시신을 발굴하자는 시도를 하였으나 실패하였다. 유엔 사무총장이 임명한 5명의 전문가위원회 위원이 1993년 10월 시신 발굴을 위해 오브차라로 파견되었다. 하지만 이들도 지역 세르비아계 행정부의 방해로 실패하였다. 세르비아계 정부가 러시아 평화유지군의 감시를 받는 오브차라 집단묘지에 대한 추가 조사 시도를 몇 차례 막은 끝에 1994년 1월 미국의 유엔 대사인 매들린 올브라이트가 오브차라로 파견되었다. 올브라이트는 1993년 세워진 구유고슬라비아 국제형사재판소(ICTY)에 대한 미국의 지지를 보여주기 위해 파견되었다. 무덤 발굴 1995년까지 부코바르 지역의 정치적 상황은 변하지 않았다. 하지만 이 해 5월과 8월 크로아티아군은 암호명 플래시 작전과 폭풍 작전을 실시하여 세르비아계 군사들을 차례차례 격파하였다. 동부 슬라보니아가 세르비아계가 마지막까지 점령하고 있던 지역이었다. 11월에는 에르두트 협정을 통해 동부 슬라보니아 지역도 점진적으로 크로아티아의 통치로 돌아가기로 합의하였으며, 이에 따라 협정 이행을 위해 유엔에서 임시로 통치하는 유엔 동슬라보니아, 바라냐 및 서시르미움 잠정통치기구(UNTAES)가 세워졌다. 1996년 9월 1일에는 평화유지군 감시 하에 오브차라에 대한 나머지 지역의 발굴을 시작하였다. 발굴 작업에는 ICTY 요원과 인권을 위한 의사회, 크로아티아 감독관이 와서 현장에 참여하였다. 대략 30 m² 영역을 굴착하면서 시체들이 서로 엉킨 집단무덤이 발견되었다. 거의 대부분의 시신은 여러 발의 총상을 맞은 상태였다. 10월 24일까지 무덤에서 시신 유골 200구가 발굴되었다. 이 유골은 자그레브 대학교 의과대학의 법의학부로 넘겨졌다. 발굴 4년 전부터 크로아티아 정부는 추정 희생자에 대한 사전 정보를 수집하였으며 의학부 건물에 현대적인 시신안치소를 건설하고 전통적 방법을 사용하여 ICTY 조사관들이 신원을 확인할 수 없는 시신에 대하여 유전자 검사를 하기 위해 유전학자들을 훈련시켰다. 2002년 10월까지 184명의 신원이 확인되었는데 대부분은 유전자 조사로 확인했으며 2010년까지 194명의 신원을 확인하였다. 글라바셰비치의 시신 일부도 오브차라에서 발견되었다. 크로아티아 정부는 오브차라에서 학살당한 61명이 그 자리에 묻혔을 것이라고 의심했다. 정부는 발견된 집단무덤 근처에 추가로 하나 이상의 무덤이 더 있거나 원래 다른 곳에 묻혀 있던 시신들이 2차로 옮겨져 묻혔을 것이라고 추정했다. 니콜라에에 대한 책을 지은 작가 네벤카 네비치는 1991년 11월 추가로 집단 학살이 일어나 니콜라에를 비롯한 61명이 다른 얉은 무덤에 묻혔다고 주장했다. 이 작가는 1992년 초 세르비아계 정부에서 무덤이 너무 얉아 시신들이 땅 위로 다 드러나 보인다는 이유로 2차로 다른 곳으로 옮겨져 매장되었다고 주장했다. 전범 재판 1995년, ICTY는 슈리반차닌, 므르크시치, 유고 인민군 대위인 미로슬라브 라디치를 오브차라 학살과 관련된 혐의로 기소하였다. 이들은 이후 언론 등지에서 "부코바르 3인방"(Vukovar three) 등으로 불리게 되었다. 또한 ICTY는 당시 부코바르 시장이었던 도크마노비치도 1996년 3월 기소된 사건과 관련하여 학살과 연관이 있다고 보고 추가로 기소하였다. 도크마노비치는 리틀 플라워 작전에 참여한 유엔보호군에게 체포되었고 1997년 6월 27일 체핀 비행장에서 ICTY에게 넘겨졌다. 이 작전은 유고슬라비아 내의 유엔군이 처음으로 ICTY가 기소한 전범을 체포한 사건이다. 하지만 도크마노비치에 대한 재판 평결은 끝내 이뤄지지 못했다. 그는 평결이 발표되기 며칠 전인 1998년 6월 28일 ICTY 감옥 안에서 목을 매 자살하였다. ICTY는 학살과 관련하여 세르비아계 민병대 지도자인 젤코 라주나토비치(일명 아르칸)도 기소하였으나 재판에 회부되기 전 그는 베오그라드에서 암살당했다. 2002년 5월 므르크시치는 네덜란드의 ICTY에 자수하였다. 라디치와 슈리반차닌은 각각 2003년 5월과 6월에 세르비아에서 체포되었다. 이 체포는 미국 의회에서 ICTY와의 협력과 세르비아에게의 재정 지원을 정한 기간이 끝나기 직전에 극적으로 일어났다. 2007년 ICTY는 므르크시치, 슈리반차닌을 유죄 판결했으나 라디치는 무죄 석방하였다. 므르크시치는 20년형을 선고받았고 슈리반차닌은 5년형을 선고받았다. 2009년 이뤄진 항소심에서 슈리반차닌은 17년형으로 늘어났으며 2010년 판결검토에서 10년형으로 줄어들었다. ICTY는 부코바르에서의 전쟁 범죄 혐의로 밀로셰비치 대통령, 국가보안청 소속의 조비차 스타니시치, 프란코 시마토비치와 세르비아계 크로아티아의 정치지도자인 고란 하지치, 세르비아 급진당 당수 보이슬라브 셰셸 등을 다양한 사람을 기소하였다. 밀로셰비치 재판은 2006년 3월 밀로셰비치의 사망으로 평결 없이 공판이 끝났으며 스타니시치와 시마토비치의 부코바르 전범재판은 2013년 모든 재판이 끝나기 전에 혐의 기소가 누락되었다. 2016년 3월엔 셰셸이 항소심을 앞에 두고 형기가 끝나 석방되었다. 하지치는 2016년 7월 모든 재판이 끝나기도 전에 암으로 사망하였다. 2015년 기준 세르비아 정부는 오브차라 학살과 관련하여 총 15명에게 유죄 판결을 내렸다. 2010년 부코바르의 세르비아계 크로아티아 영토방위군 지휘관인 미로류브 부요비치와 부지휘관인 스탄코 부야노비치는 다른 11명의 대원과 함께 유죄 판결을 받고 20년형을 선고받았는데 이 때 판결받은 전범 모두 세르비아계 크로아티아 영토방위군 병사였거나 민병대 "레바 수퍼데리카" 소속 대원이었다. 프레드라그 밀로예비치, 조르제 쇼시치, 밀로슬라브 자코비치, 사샤 라다크는 20년형을 선고받았으며 밀란 보이노비치, 이반 안토니예비치는 15년형, 요비차 페리치는 13년형, 나다 칼라바는 11년형을 선고받았으며 밀란 란추자닌은 7년형, 프레드라그 드라고비치, 고란 무고샤는 5년형을 선고받았다. 2013년 12월에는 이 판결이 세르비아 헌법재판소에서 무효 판결을 받음에 따라 새 재판을 위해 다시 항소심을 시작하였다. 2015년 2월에는 부요비치, 부야노비치, 밀로예비치, 라다크, 쇼시치, 자코비치는 세르비아 최고대법원에서 항소 법원의 재판이 있을 때까지 석방한다고 판결하였다. 2014년 일어난 별개의 재판에서 세르비아 법원은 레바 수퍼데리카 소속 대원으로 학살에 동참했던 페타르 치리치에게 15년형을 선고하였다. 2015년 2월에는 국제사법재판소(ICJ)가 부코바르에서 일어난 포위공격과 대학살은 심각한 전쟁범죄라는 점은 인정했으나 이것이 제노사이드에 해당하진 않는다고 판결하였다. 추모 1998년부터 부코바르에서는 부코바르 전투의 피해자와 직후 일어난 참상에 대한 추모로 매년 11월 18일 부코바르 시립병원에서 시작하여 도시 내 기념묘지까지 행진하는 "기억의 행진"을 연다. 2014년에는 8만명이 이 행진에 참여했다. 1998년 12월 30일에는 오브차라의 집단무덤 위에 조각가 슬라보미르 드린코비치가 조각한 추모비가 공개되었다. 이후 크로아티아 독립 전쟁 기간 벌어진 학살 등의 집단무덤에는 이와 같은 모양의 추모비가 건설되었다. 이 대학살 자체는 부코바르 학살이라는 말 외에도 오브차라 학살, 부코바르 병원 학살로도 부른다. 이 학살은 크로아티아 독립 전쟁 기간 크로아티아 내에서 일어난 단일 학살 중 가장 규모가 크다. 2006년에는 전 오브차라 농장 부지 위에 밀리옌코 로미치가 디자인한 오브차라 추모 센터가 건립되었다. 이 추모센터는 1991년 11월 20일 포로들이 처형되기 직전 수용되었던 창고 건물을 개조하여 건립하였다. 유리로 둘러싸인 로비에서 들어올 수 있는 이 건물은 오브차라에서 처형당해 집단무덤에서 발견된 200명의 사망자와 발견되지 못한 61명의 실종자의 사진을 조명으로 비춘다. 콘크리트 바닥에는 코딩된 폐 탄약통과 희생자 261명의 이름이 기록된 "악마의 나선"(크로아티아어로 Spirala zla) 조각품이 있다. 천장에는 희생자 261명을 상징하는 작은 조명 261개가 달려 있다. 이 센터 안에는 집단무덤 발굴때 발견한 개인 소지품과 여러 신분증과 같은 문서도 전시되어 있다.이 추모센터는 자그레브시에서 200만 쿠나(약 27만 유로)를 지원하여 세워졌다. 완공 후 2014년 7월까지 50만명이 추모센터를 방문하였다. 같은 해 크로아티아 정부는 8학년 학생들에게 센터를 방문하는 교육 프로그램을 시작했으며 매년 약 5만명의 학생이 이 센터를 방문한다. 2010년에는 세르비아의 대통령 보리스 타디치가 세르비아 국가수반으로는 최초로 기념센터와 오브차라 집단무덤을 방문하였다. 타디치 대통령은 무덤에 화환을 얹었으며 세르비아 국가를 대표하여 사죄 발언을 하였다. 더 보기 베레프로메트 수용소 크로아티아 독립 전쟁 기간 발생한 학살 목록 유고슬라비아 전쟁의 세르비아 각주 참고 문헌 서적 저널 문헌 뉴스 르포 기타 문헌 외부 링크 1991년 크로아티아 크로아티아 독립 전쟁 기간 세르비아의 전쟁 범죄 크로아티아의 학살 세르비아 크라이나 공화국 1991년 살인 사건 1991년 11월 1991년 학살

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vukovar%20massacre

Vukovar massacre

The Vukovar massacre, also known as the Vukovar hospital massacre or the Ovčara massacre, was the killing of Croatian prisoners of war and civilians by Serb paramilitaries, to whom they had been turned over by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), at the Ovčara farm southeast of Vukovar on 20 November 1991, during the Croatian War of Independence. The massacre occurred shortly after Vukovar's capture by the JNA, Territorial Defence (TO), and paramilitaries from neighbouring Serbia. It was the largest massacre of the Croatian War of Independence. In the final days of the battle, the evacuation of the Vukovar hospital was negotiated between Croatian authorities, the JNA and the European Community Monitor Mission in cooperation with the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). The JNA subsequently refused the ICRC access to the hospital despite the agreement and removed approximately 300 people from its premises. The group, largely consisting of Croats but also including Serbs, Hungarians, Muslims and two foreign nationals who fought on the side of the Croatian National Guard, was initially transported to the JNA barracks in Vukovar. Several prisoners were identified as hospital staff and removed from the group to be returned to the hospital while the rest of them were transported to the Ovčara farm south of Vukovar. Once at the farm, the prisoners were beaten for several hours before the JNA pulled its troops from the site, leaving the prisoners in the custody of the Croatian Serb TO and Serbian paramilitaries. The prisoners were then taken to a prepared site, shot in groups of ten to twenty and buried in a mass grave. The mass grave was discovered in October 1992 and guarded by the United Nations Protection Force which had deployed to the area earlier that year. In 1996, 200 sets of remains were exhumed from the grave by International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) investigators. Croatia believes 61 others were buried in a different grave on the site, while ICTY prosecutors believe that figure stands at 60. The ICTY convicted two JNA officers in connection with the massacre, and also tried former Serbian President Slobodan Milošević for a number of war crimes, including those committed at Vukovar. Milošević died in prison before his trial could be completed. Several former members of the Croatian Serb TO and Serbian paramilitary units have been tried by the Serbian judiciary and convicted for their involvement in the massacre. In February 2015, the International Court of Justice ruled that the siege, massacre and simultaneous atrocities committed elsewhere in Croatia did not constitute genocide. The site of the mass grave is marked by a monument and the storage building used at Ovčara farm to hold the prisoners in captivity before their execution was rebuilt as a memorial centre in 2006. By July 2014, the centre had been visited by about 500,000 tourists. Background In 1990, ethnic tensions between Serbs and Croats worsened after the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union ( – HDZ). The Yugoslav People's Army ( – JNA) confiscated Croatia's Territorial Defence ( – TO) weapons to minimize resistance. On 17 August, the tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs. The rebellion was centred on the predominantly Serb-populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin, approximately north-east of Split, as well as parts of Lika, Kordun, Banovina and eastern Slavonia. In January 1991, Serbia, supported by Montenegro and Serbia's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo, unsuccessfully tried to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency's approval for a JNA operation to disarm Croatia's security forces. The request was denied, and a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and the Croatian special police occurred that March. This prompted the JNA itself to ask the Federal Presidency to grant it wartime authority and declare a state of emergency. Even though the request was backed by Serbia and its allies, on 15 March, the Federal Presidency declined. Serbian President Slobodan Milošević, preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than to preserve Yugoslavia with Croatia as a federal unit, publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the Federal Presidency. As the JNA came under Milošević's control, the JNA abandoned its plans to preserve Yugoslavia in favour of expanding Serbia. The first casualties of the conflict occurred by the end of March. In early April, the leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia declared their intention to unite the areas under their control with Serbia. These areas came to be viewed as breakaway regions by the Government of Croatia. At the beginning of 1991, Croatia had no regular army. To bolster its defence, Croatia doubled its police numbers to about 20,000. The most effective part of the Croatian police force was a 3,000-strong special police comprising twelve battalions organised along military lines. There were also 9,000–10,000 regionally organised reserve police in 16 battalions and 10 companies, but they lacked weapons. In response to the deteriorating situation, the Croatian government established the Croatian National Guard ( – ZNG) in May by expanding the special police battalions into four all-professional guards brigades. Under the control of the Croatian Ministry of Defence and commanded by retired JNA General Martin Špegelj, the four guards brigades comprised approximately 8,000 troops. The reserve police, also expanded to 40,000, was attached to the ZNG and reorganised into 19 brigades and 14 independent battalions. The guards brigades were the only units of the ZNG that were fully equipped with small arms; throughout the ZNG there was a lack of heavier weapons and there was poor command and control structure above the brigade level. The shortage of heavy weapons was so severe that the ZNG resorted to using World War II-era arms taken from museums and film studios. At the time, the Croatian weapon stockpile consisted of 30,000 small arms purchased abroad and 15,000 previously owned by the police. To replace the personnel lost to the guards brigades, a new 10,000-strong special police was established. Prelude After Croatia launched the Battle of the Barracks on 14–15 September to capture the JNA's facilities in Croatia, the JNA launched a small-scale operation against Vukovar to relieve the city garrison. At the same time, it began large-scale mobilisation in preparation for its campaign in Croatia. It was met with widespread refusal of mobilised personnel to report to their designated units, desertions and an overall lack of enthusiasm for the campaign. The response rate was particularly poor in Central Serbia, where only 26 percent of those called up reported for service. This resulted in low troop availability, forcing the JNA to deploy fewer infantry units. The JNA's offensive operations, directly associated with the campaign in the east Croatian region of Slavonia, were launched on 20 September. The assault on Vukovar gradually became the main effort of the campaign as the JNA was repeatedly unable to capture the city. The fighting in and around Vukovar lasted months and eventually drew in the JNA's main armoured force, which had previously been slated to advance west towards Serb-held areas in western Slavonia. In addition to relieving its Vukovar garrison, the JNA wished to dissipate the Croatian forces in the city so that they would not pose any threat to its rear in the event that the campaign progressed west of Vinkovci. The JNA was reinforced by local Serb-manned TO units and Serbian paramilitary volunteers who were meant to replace those reservists that had failed to respond to their call-up. The volunteers were often motivated by ethnic hatred, looted countless homes and committed numerous atrocities against civilians. After more than two months of fighting, the Croatian forces surrendered on 18 November. Vukovar sustained significant damage due to the JNA's artillery and rocket barrages. By the end of the battle, over 700,000 shells and other missiles had been fired at the city, at a rate of up to 12,000 per day. Timeline Evacuation arrangements On 17 November, Major General Andrija Rašeta, the commander of the JNA 5th (Zagreb) Military District, notified the European Community Monitor Mission (ECMM) that the JNA accepted in principle the quick evacuation of vulnerable persons from Vukovar. At the time, it was estimated that there were about 400 people trapped in the city's hospital, but the actual number was later discovered to be about 450. This included about 40 patients receiving treatment for severe injuries sustained over the preceding few days and about 360 patients recovering from wounds suffered earlier on. In addition to these individuals, some civilians had taken shelter in the hospital in the final days of the battle. They moved there expecting to be evacuated from the city, even though the hospital itself was subjected to daily artillery attack. Furthermore, a number of Croatian troops took refuge in the hospital posing as patients or staff. On 18 November, the Tripartite Commission, consisting of representatives of Croatia, the JNA and the ECMM, discussed methods of evacuation with representatives of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the Médecins Sans Frontières and the Malteser International. On the night of 18/19 November, Rašeta and Croatian Health Minister Andrija Hebrang signed an agreement on the evacuation. The agreement guaranteed that the evacuees would travel via the route Lužac suburb–Bogdanovci–Marinci–Zidine junction–Nuštar–Vinkovci. They were to be handed over to international authorities at the Zidine junction, the hospital was to be placed under the control of the ICRC and the ECMM was to oversee the entire operation. Hebrang notified the hospital director Vesna Bosanac of the agreement and told her that ICRC teams would arrive. That evening Siniša Glavašević, a radio reporter who had covered the entire course of the siege from within the city, broadcast his final report from the hospital. Glavašević himself hoped to leave the city with the ICRC, fearing for his life should the Serb paramilitaries capture him. Takeover of the hospital On the morning of 19 November, the ECMM became aware that organised resistance had ceased in Vukovar, but it did not receive any information on the fate of the hospital patients. Consequently, the head of the ECMM, ambassador Dirk Jan van Houten, contacted Rašeta asking him to intervene on the ECMM's behalf. That day, a JNA unit arrived at the hospital and Bosanac was taken to meet JNA Colonel Mile Mrkšić. According to Bosanac, Mrkšić told her that he was not obligated by the evacuation agreement. Even though the ICRC was not granted access to Vukovar by JNA officers at the scene, in the early evening of 19 November, ICRC representative Nicolas Borsinger managed to reach the hospital claiming he had an appointment with "a general". Once there, Borsinger found a JNA captain in charge of the facility who agreed to grant the ICRC access. Borsinger then rejoined the ICRC convoy that was moving towards the hospital to evacuate it. The hospital was also toured by French reporter Agnès Vahramian that day, and there she recorded an interview with Jean-Michel Nicolier, a wounded Frenchman who fought alongside Croatian forces in Vukovar. Vahramian offered Nicolier a press pass to try to get him out of the city, but he refused. On the morning of 20 November, the ICRC convoy reached Vukovar, only to be stopped at a bridge near the hospital. An armoured vehicle blocked access to the bridge leading to the hospital, and a JNA officer at the scene, Major Veselin Šljivančanin, refused to let the ICRC pass. In order to facilitate negotiations with the ICRC at the scene, BBC reporter Martin Bell volunteered his interpreter. In a confrontation recorded by television cameras, Šljivančanin told the ICRC personnel: "This is my country, we have conquered this. This is Yugoslavia, and I am in command here!" The ECMM personnel that had arrived at the Zidine junction to meet the returning convoy were informed by the JNA that the evacuees would instead be turned over to them in Bosanski Šamac, in northern Bosnia, on 22 November. While Šljivančanin held back the convoy, the prisoners were smuggled out of the hospital in buses in another direction. In total, approximately 300 people were taken away from the hospital. Ovčara farm Later on 20 November, Šljivančanin and Colonel Nebojša Pavković informed the press that the JNA would provide buses to transport the wounded out of Vukovar. Instead, at about 10:30, the buses took the prisoners to the JNA barracks on the southern edge of Vukovar, where 15 men were separated from the group and returned to the hospital after being identified as hospital staff. During their stay in the barracks, the Croatian Serb TO and Serbian paramilitaries threatened the prisoners. Croatian Serb leaders opposed moving the prisoners to detention facilities in Serbia, claiming they wished to prosecute them for alleged crimes committed against Serbs. After spending two hours at the barracks, the buses took the prisoners to the Ovčara farm near the village of Grabovo. The group largely consisted of Croats, but also included several ethnic Serbs, Muslims, ethnic Hungarians, the French national Nicolier, and one German national who fought in defence of Vukovar. It also included Rašeta's nephew, who worked at the Vukovar hospital pharmacy at the time. The group taken to Ovčara consisted of 261 people. Sources disagree as to whether the group included one, or two women, one of whom was five months pregnant. The age of the prisoners ranged from 16 to 72. The youngest among them was 16-year-old Igor Kačić. Igor Kačić On November 20, 1991, two days after the fall of Vukovar, Kačić, his mother, and sisters came out of the make-shift shelter of the Vukovar hospital basement with other refugees under orders of the Yugoslav People's Army and local Serb forces. Outside, Veselin Šljivančanin, officer of the Yugoslav People's Army, was standing at the door separating the men from women and children. He pointed to Kačić, who was a tall and strong young man, and he put him among the men, saying: "You over there!". Igor Kačić's mother asked Šljivančanin "Why him, he's just a kid?" as she showed him Igor's health card with the date of his birth. Šljivančanin replied: "We'll check everything." That was the last time his mother and sisters saw Kačić. He was killed at Ovčara the same day. Massacre The prisoners were forced onto busses. Once they reached Ovčara, away from Vukovar, the captives were ordered from the buses one-by-one and forced to run the gauntlet past dozens of JNA troops and Serb paramilitaries towards a farm storage building. Slavko Dokmanović, a former mayor of Vukovar, was one of the armed men involved in beating prisoners. As the captives were beaten, they were also stripped of their personal belongings, money and jewelry. Over the course of the day, the JNA military police failed to prevent soldiers of the Croatian Serb TO and Serbian paramilitaries from beating the prisoners in the storage building. They were beaten using sticks, rifle butts, chains, baseball bats, and in one instance a wounded prisoner was beaten with his own crutches. By sundown, at least two men were beaten to death. In addition, one of the captors shot five prisoners, including one Frenchman, who is presumed to be Nicolier. Seven or eight men were returned to Vukovar on orders of the JNA, presumably released at the intervention of their Serb neighbours. Ultimately, Mrkšić ordered the JNA military police to withdraw from the farm, leaving the prisoners in the custody of a Croatian Serb TO unit led by Miroljub Vujović, commander of the Croatian Serb TO in Vukovar, and the Leva Supoderica paramilitary unit. Leva Supoderica was a volunteer unit set up by the Serbian Radical Party (; SRS) in Šid, Serbia, and subordinated to the JNA's 1st Guards Mechanised Brigade. At about 18:00, the prisoners were divided into groups. Each group of 10 to 20 was loaded onto a truck and transported several hundred metres (yards) from the building towards a wooded ravine. When the prisoners reached the previously prepared execution site, they were shot and buried in a mass grave using a bulldozer. After 15–20 minutes, the truck would return empty to pick up the next group. The final group of prisoners was executed just outside the farm building itself. By 22:00 that evening, all of the prisoners had been killed. Most sources place the number of victims at around 260. This figure has been used by ICTY prosecutors. Some estimates of the death toll go as high as 264. The Croatian authorities believe that the total figure stands at 261. Aftermath Croatian Serb forces turned Ovčara into a prison camp in early October 1991. Aside from the massacre, 3,000–4,000 male prisoners were temporarily held in the Ovčara camp at some point during autumn of 1991 before being transported to the prison in Sremska Mitrovica or to the local JNA barracks, which was the transit point for Serbian detention camps such as Stajićevo and Begejci. Following a series of political agreements concluded in 1991 and a ceasefire between the JNA and Croatia in early 1992, the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) was deployed for peacekeeping in certain parts of Croatia, including Vukovar and its surroundings. It began its deployment in March 1992. Discovery of the mass grave Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow learned of the massacre during his visit to Zagreb in October 1992. Snow travelled there as a United Nations (UN) team member sent to investigate reports of war crimes. In a meeting Snow had with the dean of the Zagreb University School of Medicine, he was introduced to a former soldier who claimed to have survived the massacre and told Snow where it took place. Three days later, Snow went to Vukovar and drove to Ovčara accompanied by Royal Canadian Mounted Police Sergeant Larry Moore who was deployed to the region with the UNPROFOR. At the site, Moore spotted a human skull in the mud. A few days later, the UN declared the site a crime scene and deployed Russian UNPROFOR troops to guard it. Snow put together a four-man team including himself to conduct a preliminary investigation of the site before the winter, and the team arrived at the site in December 1992. They examined the site still under guard by the Russian troops, excavated the skull spotted by Moore and the rest of the body, as well as another set of partially covered remains. The team excavated a trench across the site. That allowed them to detect a few more bodies and infer the size of the grave. The information they obtained led Snow to conclude that the grave may contain more than two hundred bodies. The investigators also found spent cartridges consistent with standard Yugoslav-built AK-47s on one side of the grave and bullet holes in trees on the opposite side, leading them to conclude that a firing squad had stood on one side of the pit and fired across or into it. Croatian authorities launched initiatives to exhume the bodies buried at Ovčara in 1993 and 1994, but those were unsuccessful. A five-member Commission of Experts appointed by the UN Secretary General came to Ovčara to exhume the victims in October 1993. However, they were prevented from carrying out their work by the local Croatian Serb administration. After the Croatian Serb authorities blocked several attempts to further investigate the mass grave at Ovčara, still under constant guard by the Russian peacekeepers, the site was visited by then-U.S. Ambassador to the UN Madeleine Albright in January 1994. She used the occasion to stress U.S. support for the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), which had been set up in 1993. Exhumation The political situation in the area did not change until 1995. That year, Croatia militarily defeated the Croatian Serbs in offensives codenamed Flash and Storm, in May and August respectively. That left eastern Slavonia as the last remaining Croatian Serb-held area. Gradual restoration of the area to Croatian rule was agreed upon in November through the Erdut Agreement, and the United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium (UNTAES) peacekeeping mission was deployed to implement the agreement. The exhumation of the remains at Ovčara began on 1 September 1996 while the site was still under the constant guard of peacekeepers. The exhumation was conducted by ICTY personnel and the Physicians for Human Rights, with Croatian observers at the site. The excavation works uncovered a mass grave encompassing approximately and containing a heap of intertwined bodies. Most of the bodies exhibited evidence of multiple gunshot wounds. By 24 October, 200 sets of remains were recovered from the grave. The remains were transported for forensic examination to the Zagreb University School of Medicine. In the four years preceding the exhumation, Croatian authorities collected ante-mortem information on presumed victims, built a modern morgue at the School of Medicine and trained geneticists in DNA analysis to allow for the identification of those who could not be identified by ICTY investigators using traditional methods. By October 2002, 184 victims were identified, largely using DNA analyses, and the figure was increased to 194 by 2010. Glavašević's remains were among those exhumed at Ovčara. Croatian authorities suspect that a further 61 individuals killed at Ovčara were buried there as well. They suspect one or more additional mass graves exist in the general area, or that the bodies originally buried at the site were moved to a secondary grave. Nevenka Nekić, the Croatian author of a book on Nicolier, claims that an additional shallow grave was excavated at Ovčara in November 1991 and that Nicolier and 60 others were buried there. According to her, they were exhumed by Croatian Serb authorities and moved to a secondary location in early 1992 because the grave was so shallow that body parts protruded through the ground surface. War crime trials In November 1995, the ICTY indicted Mrkšić, Šljivančanin and JNA captain Miroslav Radić for war crimes related to the Ovčara massacre. The group was subsequently termed the "Vukovar three" by the media. The ICTY also charged Dokmanović, mayor of Vukovar at the time, with war crimes in connection with the massacre in a sealed indictment in March 1996. He was arrested by UNTAES troops in Operation Little Flower and transferred to the ICTY via Čepin Airfield on 27 June 1997. The operation was the first arrest of a person indicted by the ICTY by any UN force in the former Yugoslavia. Dokmanović's trial never produced a verdict, however. He hanged himself in his ICTY prison cell on 28 June 1998, several days before a verdict was to be announced. The ICTY also linked Serb warlord Željko Ražnatović and his paramilitary formations to the massacre, but he was assassinated in Belgrade before he could be brought to trial. Mrkšić surrendered to the ICTY in the Netherlands in May 2002. Radić and Šljivančanin were arrested in Serbia in May and June 2003 respectively. The arrests were made shortly before the expiration of a deadline set by the U.S. Congress linking financial assistance to Serbia to its cooperation with the ICTY. In 2007, the ICTY convicted Mrkšić and Šljivančanin, but acquitted Radić. Mrkšić received a 20-year prison sentence, while Šljivančanin was sentenced to five years in prison. In 2009, Šljivančanin's sentence was increased to 17 years in prison on appeal and finally reduced to ten years following a review of the judgment in 2010. The ICTY also indicted Milošević, as well as Jovica Stanišić and Franko Simatović of the Serbian State Security Service, Croatian Serb political leader Goran Hadžić and the leader of the Serbian Radical Party Vojislav Šešelj for various war crimes, including those committed in Vukovar. Milošević's trial ended without any verdict upon his death in March 2006, while the Vukovar-related charges against Stanišić and Simatović were dropped from their indictments even before the pair were acquitted on all counts in 2013. In March 2016, Šešelj was acquitted on all counts, pending appeal. In 2018, he was convicted of hate speech for inciting the deportation of Croats from Hrtkovci in 1992, and sentenced to ten years imprisonment, but acquitted on all other counts, including those pertaining to Vukovar. Hadžić died of cancer in July 2016, before his trial could be completed. , Serbian authorities have convicted 15 people in connection with the Ovčara massacre. In 2010, Vujović and Stanko Vujanović (deputy commander of Croatian Serb TO in Vukovar) were convicted and sentenced to 20 years in prison along with eleven others, all of them former members of the Croatian Serb TO or Leva Supoderica. Predrag Milojević, Đorđe Šošić, Miroslav Đanković and Saša Radak were sentenced to 20 years in prison, Milan Vojnović and Ivan Antonijević were sentenced to 15 years in prison, Jovica Perić was sentenced to 13 years, Nada Kalaba was sentenced to 11 years, Milan Lančužanin was sentenced to seven, and Predrag Dragović and Goran Mugoša were given five-year prison sentences. In December 2013, these convictions were set aside by the Constitutional Court of Serbia and the case was returned to the Court of Appeals for a new trial. In February 2015, Vujović, Vujanović, Milojević, Radak, Šošić and Đanković were released from custody based on a decision of the Supreme Court of Cassation pending a retrial by the Court of Appeals. In a separate trial completed in 2014, Serbian authorities convicted and sentenced Petar Ćirić to 15 years in prison for participating in the massacre as a member of Leva Supoderica. In February 2015, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruled that the siege and ensuing massacre did not constitute genocide, though it confirmed that serious crimes had taken place. Commemoration Since 1998, the victims of the Battle of Vukovar and the events that occurred in its immediate aftermath are commemorated annually on 18 November by a procession starting at the Vukovar hospital and reaching the city's memorial cemetery. In 2014, the event drew 80,000 participants. A monument sculpted by Slavomir Drinković that marks the site of the mass grave at Ovčara was unveiled on 30 December 1998. Monuments of the same design have subsequently been used to mark all the other mass graves from the Croatian War of Independence. The massacre itself has come to be referred to as the Vukovar massacre, the Ovčara massacre, or the Vukovar hospital massacre. It was by far the largest massacre committed during the Croatian War of Independence. In 2006, the Ovčara Memorial Centre, designed by Miljenko Romić, opened at the site of the former Ovčara farm. The centre opened in a remodeled storage building where prisoners were held on 20 November 1991 before they were executed. The dim interior of the building, accessed through a glass-encased foyer, features illuminated photographs of 200 victims exhumed from the mass grave and the 61 missing who were executed at Ovčara. The concrete floor contains encased spent cartridges and the Spiral of Evil () sculpture displaying the names of 261 victims. The ceiling contains 261 lighting fixtures symbolising the number of victims. The centre also contains an exhibition of personal belongings and documents found in the mass grave. The completion of the centre was funded by the City of Zagreb at the cost of 2 million kuna ( 270,000 euro). By July 2014, the centre was visited by about 500,000 people. In the same year, Croatia launched an education programme which entails visits to the centre by eighth-grade pupils, and 50,000 pupils are scheduled to visit the centre annually. In 2010, Serbian President Boris Tadić visited the memorial centre and the mass grave site, as the first Serbian head of state to do so. He laid wreaths at the site and apologized on behalf of the Serbian state. Several victims of the massacre are honoured individually in Vukovar. There is a monument honouring Kačić together with his father who was killed on 2 October 1991 during the Battle of Vukovar, a bridge in the city is named after Nicolier, and one of the city's schools is named after Glavašević. See also List of massacres in Croatia Velepromet camp References Sources Books Scientific journal articles News reports Other sources External links 1990s murders in Croatia 1991 in Croatia 1991 crimes in Croatia 1991 murders in Europe Anti-Croat sentiment Attacks on hospitals Ethnic cleansing in the Yugoslav Wars Massacre Massacres in 1991 Massacres in Croatia November 1991 events in Europe Prisoner of war massacres Republic of Serbian Krajina Serbian war crimes in the Croatian War of Independence Massacres of Croats Massacres in the Croatian War of Independence

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%B8%ED%85%94%20%EB%8D%B8%EB%A3%A8%EB%82%98

호텔 델루나

《호텔 델루나》는 2019년 7월 13일부터 2019년 9월 1일까지 방송된 tvN 토일 드라마이다. 줄거리 엘리트 호텔리어가 운명적인 사건으로 호텔 델루나의 지배인을 맡게 되면서 달처럼 고고하고 아름답지만 괴팍한 사장과 함께 델루나를 운영하며 생기는 특별한 이야기. 등장 인물 주요 인물 이지은 : 장만월(1300살 이상) 역 (아역 김규리) 델루나 호텔 사장. 껍데기는 달처럼 고고하고 아름답지만, 천년도 넘게 묵은 노파가 속에 들어앉은 듯 쭈글쭈글하게 못난 성격. 괴팍하고, 심술 맞고, 변덕이 심하고, 의심과 욕심도 많으며, 심지어 사치스럽기까지 하다. 여진구 : 구찬성(20대 후반) 역 (아역 김강훈) 초엘리트 호텔리어. 호텔 델루나의 인간 지배인. 강박, 결벽, 집착 등을 모두 갖춘 자기관리가 철저한 완벽주의자로, 누가 봐도 매우 잘났고 내가 봐도 정말 잘난, 스스로에 대한 자랑스런 마음을 숨기지 못한다. 한마디로 재수 없을 만큼 잘난 척을 하는 타입이지만 꽤나 예의바른 청년이자 사실은 마음이 연약한 쉬운 남자이다. 귀신을 무서워하나, 귀신전용 호텔 델루나의 지배인으로 일하게 된다. 호텔 델루나 신정근 : 김선비(김시익, 30대 후반) 역 스카이바 바텐더. 500년 근무경력의 호텔 델루나 스카이바의 바텐더이며 최장기 근무자로, 과거 장원급제까지 한 선비였다는 자긍심이 강하다. 배해선 : 최서희(40대) 역 객실장. 200년 근무경력의 호텔 델루나의 객실장이며 딱 부러진 성격과 똑 떨어지는 외향을 갖춘 여사님이다. 뼈대 있는 조선 명문가의 종손 맏며느리였다. 표지훈 : 지현중(19세) 역 프론트맨. 한국 전쟁통에 사망하여 70여 년째 근무 중이다. 예의 바르고 착하지만 일하기 싫어하는 영락없는 십대 소년이다. 강미나 : 김유나(정수정 영혼, 18세) 역 인턴. 내면에 기구한 사연이 숨어있는 똑똑하고 당찬 고등학생이다. 구찬성의 지배인 자리를 호시탐탐 노리며 얼른 그만두기를 기다리고 있는 호텔 델루나의 인턴사원이다. 정동환 : 노준석(70대 후반) 역 총지배인. 1980년대부터 시작해 30년째 근무중이다. 모든 것을 잃고 인생을 포기하려던 사업가는 생을 마감하려 들린 호텔에서, 여사장인 만월을 만났다. 그 뒤로 쭉 만월의 호텔에서 일하고 있다. 죽음을 앞두고 마지막 업무를 수행한다. 신과 사신들 서이숙 : 마고신 역 이승과 저승을 오가며, 인간의 생사고락을 관장하는 신이다. 다양한 성격의 열두 자매이다(1인 12역) 강홍석 : 사신 역 델루나에 머물다 나가는 손님들을 택시에 태워 저승으로 인도하는 인솔자다. 본업은 저승으로 영혼을 데려가는 사신이며, 손님에 따라 저승버스, 저승청소차, 저승리무진 등을 운전하기도 한다. 무주국 사람들 이도현 : 고청명/반딧불이 역 영주성 호위 대장, 송화공주의 정혼자. 멸망한 고구려 귀족의 후손이지만 일찌감치 무주국에 투항한 아버지로 인해 현재는 무주국 변방 영주성의 무장으로, 맹수처럼 용맹하고 뼛속까지 무인인 사내이다. 자신이 호위하던 행렬을 습격한 도적단의 일원인 만월을 만나면서 오히려 그녀에게 매혹당한다. 이태선 : 연우/박영수 역 만월의 오른팔, 범천 중부 경찰서 강력계 형사. 만월과 함께 고구려 유민들이 모여 사는 가오리촌의 도적패 일당. 손재주가 좋아 무기도, 악기도 잘 다루며, 불처럼 욱했다가도 바로 식어서 하하 웃는 사람 좋은 성격을 가졌다. 만월과는 친구처럼, 남매처럼, 부하처럼 자라왔고, 그에게 이제 만월은 누나 같고 두목 같은 관계이다. 구찬성 친구들 조현철 : 산체스(20대 후반) 역 구찬성의 친구. 전 세계 체인을 거느린 어마어마한 규모의 피자왕국 프린스, 찬성의 룸메이트. 영적 능력이 전혀 없어서 델루나 호텔이나 장만월의 실체를 알아채지 못한다. 덕분에 유일하게 만월과 해맑게 말 놓고 지내는 인물. 박유나 : 이미라(20대 후반)/송화공주 역 (아역 권예은) 종합병원 소아과 의사. 부잣집에 똑똑하고 예쁜 전형적인 엄친딸로, 찬성이 미국에 있던 시절 대학교 친구다. 전생 청명의 혼인 상대이며 만월의 원수이기도 하다. 그 외 인물 차청화 : 타살 당한 경찰 역 (†) 이우진 신나라 김오복 김강훈 : 구찬성 아역 신현아 이승준 조판수 천황성 김상욱 승보윤 김원해 : 범천시장 역 김시헌 이채경 : 유명 호텔 사장 역 한재이 : 서주희 역 박윤식 이병철 고승보 노동규 오현석 김상수 최길 김현진 엄보영 심고은 이윤서 한다은 김영재 이은주 엄혜수 김소연 정주희 이승훈 천예원 남경읍 : 왕 회장 역 김남진 김미혜 허수빈 정다운 김승일 이규혁 이승연 조성환 김경원 서은주 박숙명 박시환 홍대의 한호선 이경오 박소영 김동규 김권 김학규 김상미 박가람 : 정수정 역 (†) - 김유나에 의해 죽은 학생 조부현 홍서준 : 김유나의 아버지 역 김영선 : 김유나의 어머니 역 박보은 구다송 이지완 : 김유나 반 학생 역 정예빈 김에스더 이민령 : 13호실 귀신 윤가영 역 (†) 김형명 : 동영상 귀신 두 번째 피해자 역 (†) 김미은 : 사혼식 신부 역 (†) 양희원 : 트럭 사고 아들 귀신 역 (†) 여가훤 : 엘리베이터 귀신 역 (†) 이수아 : 캣맘 아이 역 김지성 이성규 이남규 [[이동현] 정수범 장태민 : 방태우 역 - '중전이 된 여자'의 임금 이현 역 배우 장예림 : 편의점 직원 역 김지훈 : 맞선 남 역 이세아 : 해골 귀신 역 (†) 김중돈 : 형사 장운명 역 장남열 : 중년 부부 귀신 남편 역 (†) 최유송 한우열 최문수 한사명 안수호 이원진 윤종원 이선영 이하영 김영호 : 발렛 요원 역 오세은 : 팬 여고생 역 서이수 : 지현미 역 이앨리 : 미라의 동생 역 한예하 김서아 김승한 : 한의원 아들 강현진 역 김이산 : 버스 기사 역 서희 성민준 : 형민 역 이재연 서정후 서현규 임시후 최성희 특별출연 오지호 : 찬성의 아버지 역 - 구찬성이 어릴 때 찬성을 만월에게 팔았다. 이준기 : 구마 신부 역 - 제1순위 지배인 후보 이시언 : 우주 비행사 역 - 제 2순위 지배인 후보 이다윗 : 설지원 역 - 과거 유학 시절 산체스를 자살 직전까지 몰고 간 장본인. 연쇄살인마. 조현식 : 404호 인간 고객 역 민경진 : 강아지 할아버지 역 홍경 : 빵집 남자 역 - 뺑소니 범 이이경 : 배우 유오 역 - 방태우의 후임 배우 김준현 : 본인 역 표예진 : 중전 역 은가은 : 피자집 알바생 역 오태경 : 정은석 역 - 월드 디스크의 대표. 몰카 유포자 설리 : 정지은 역 - 왕 회장의 손녀 남다름 : 대동정 신 역 - 마을의 큰 우물을 지키는 신령 황영희 : 황문숙 역 - 전 지배인 서은수 : 베로니카 역 - 산체스의 연인 박진주 : 경아 역 (†) - 인간의 상상으로 만들어진 상념귀신 이승준 : 강만영 역 - 한의사 소희정 : 이세영 역 - 강만영 부인 김수현 : 호텔 블루문 사장 역 촬영지 반포대교 목포근대역사관1관 파라다이스시티 망상해수욕장 서울대공원 한국보건대학교 커피인뜨락 버틀러스테이블 롯데월드타워 이음 더 플레이스 혜민당 서울책보고 창화당 대학로점 서강대교 보타보타 마리나베이스타점 어기어차 한양대학교 에리카캠퍼스 성흥산성 사랑나무 하남종합운동장앞 보도육교 마포대교 어 로프 슬라이스 피스 뺑오르방 광교점 피자알블로 문래직영점 일산호수공원 아시아드웨딩컨벤션 서울 약령시장 문경새재 오픈세트장 전곡항 망상해변 파라다이스시티 원더박스 우리꽃식물원 호텔 세트장 샛강 문화다리 에이치에비뉴 건대점 국립백두대간수목원 합천영상테마파크 성흥산성 시청률 OST 아래는 싱글앨범에 포함된 곡들이며, 정렬기준은 출시 순이다. Part.1 Part.2 Part.3 Part.4 Part.5 Part.6 Part.7 Part.8 Part.9 Part.10 Part.11 Part.12 Part.13 참고 사항 이 화면은 레터박스로 구성되었다. 호텔 현장직 학력 조건 : 2년제 초대졸 각주 같이 보기 대한민국의 텔레비전 드라마 목록 2019년 대한민국의 텔레비전 드라마 목록 외부 링크 호텔 델루나 홈페이지 2019년 드라마 2010년대 대한민국의 텔레비전 프로그램 홍정은·홍미란 시나리오 작품 호텔을 배경으로 한 텔레비전 드라마 서울특별시를 배경으로 한 텔레비전 프로그램 나무를 소재로 한 작품 유령을 소재로 한 텔레비전 드라마 대한민국의 판타지 드라마 스튜디오 드래곤 텔레비전 프로그램 2019년에 시작한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 2019년에 종료한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 tvN 토일드라마

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel%20del%20Luna

Hotel del Luna

Hotel del Luna () is a 2019 South Korean television series, starring Lee Ji-eun and Yeo Jin-goo as the owner and manager, respectively, of the eponymous hotel that caters only to ghosts. Produced by GTist, written by the Hong sisters and directed by Oh Chung-hwan, it aired on tvN from July 13 to September 1, 2019. It was the most-viewed tvN drama of 2019 and is one of the highest-rated Korean dramas in cable television history. Synopsis "Hotel del Luna" (previously known as "Guest House of the Moon") is not like any other hotel. A supernatural place, the hotel is not visible in its true form during the daytime and humans can only come across the hotel under special circumstances. Its staff and clients are all ghosts coming to terms with unfinished business in their former lives before they pass on to the afterlife and cycle of reincarnation; the staff, in particular, have been there for decades or centuries as they have not settled their grudges. The exception to this is the hotel's general manager, which has been filled by a succession of human "passersby" since they need to interact normally with the real world in certain instances, like paying bills or fulfilling ghosts' requests with still-living relatives/friends. Jang Man-wol (Lee Ji-eun) is the owner of this hotel, which is located in Myeong-dong, Seoul. Due to a huge sin committed more than a millennium ago, the hotel catering to the dead has been bound to her soul. As a result of manipulation by the deity Mago (Seo Yi-sook), Jang Man-wol meets Koo Chan-sung's father (Oh Ji-ho) and makes a deal: in exchange for his life, his son will work for her 20 years later. Desperate to save his son, the father takes Koo Chan-sung (Yeo Jin-goo) abroad. The young man grows up to be a sincere, level-headed perfectionist with a soft heart. He comes back to South Korea after his father's death, 21 years later to be an assistant manager at a multi-national hotel corporation, only to face Jang Man-wol, after which he ends up fulfilling the agreement and becomes the manager of Hotel del Luna. Through Koo Chan-sung, the mysteries and the secrets behind the hotel and its owner are revealed. Cast and characters Main Lee Ji-eun as Jang Man-wol Kim Gyu-ri as young Man-wol The moody owner of Hotel del Luna (Guest House of the Moon). She was condemned to this fate in order to atone for the sins she committed 1,300 years ago. Alternating between being aloof and bad-tempered, she is known for her love of extravagant things, particularly luxurious outfits, fast cars, and expensive champagne. Yeo Jin-goo as Koo Chan-sung Kim Kang-hoon as young Chan-sung The new general manager of Hotel del Luna. He is a Harvard MBA graduate hired as an assistant manager at one of Korea's top hotels. However, due to a deal his father made with Jang Man-wol twenty-one years earlier, Chan-sung is forced to become the general manager of Hotel del Luna. Being stoic and rational puts him at odds with Man-wol, particularly curbing her spendthrift and extortionist tendencies. Supporting At the Hotel del Luna Jung Dong-hwan as Noh Joon-suk The hotel's general manager for 30 years and Chan-sung's predecessor. He considers Man-wol as a sister, daughter and friend. Shin Jung-geun as Kim Seon-bi (formerly Kim Shi-ik) The longest employee of the hotel and the Sky Bar's bartender. Before his death, he was a Joseon Dynasty scholar. Bae Hae-sun as Choi Seo-hee The housekeeper and room service provider with an extrovert personality. She lived during the Joseon era as a nobleman's wife. Pyo Ji-hoon as Ji Hyun-joong The hotel receptionist. He is nice and polite but does not like his job. He was a student who died at the height of the Korean War. Kang Mi-na as spirit of Jung Soo-jung / Kim Yoo-na A rich and arrogant student, whose body ends up being inhabited by the spirit of Jung Soo-jung, a schoolmate whom Yoo-na bullied and accidentally killed. When Yoo-na's spirit is destroyed, Soo-jung decides to remain inside Yoo-na's body and assume her identity. People around Jang Man-wol Lee Do-hyun as Go Chung-myung A Later Silla royal guard captain who becomes a friend of Man-wol and Yeon-woo. Lee Tae-sun as Yeon-woo / Officer Park Young-soo The co-leader of the bandits and Man-wol's foster brother. He is reincarnated as police detective Park Young-soo. People around Gu Chan-sung Cho Hyun-chul as Sanchez Chan-sung's best friend since they were studying at Harvard. He is the son of a wealthy pizza franchise operator, running the restaurant in Seoul. He opens up his house to Chan-sung and Lee Mi-ra. Park Yoo-na as Princess Song-hwa / Lee Mi-ra A Later Silla princess who was evil. After spending several centuries atoning for her sins, she is reincarnated as Lee Mi-ra, a doctor with a good personality and Chan-sung's ex-girlfriend from his university days. Lee David as Seol Ji-won A rich young man and Chan-sung's schoolmate at Harvard. He holds a grudge against both Chan-sung and Sanchez. He is later revealed to be a psychopathic serial killer who murdered at least seven people, in which all of their souls became guests of Hotel Del Luna. Other characters Seo Yi-sook as Mago A goddess who controls the life and death of people passing through the hotel and appears in many forms. Kang Hong-seok as Grim Reaper A spirit who guides the souls staying at the hotel to the afterlife and captures wandering evil spirits. Song Duk-ho as Oh Tae-seok He is a soldier who runs away from war when the war breaks out. Special appearances Oh Ji-ho as Chan-sung's father (Ep. 1 & 16) Kim Won-hae as the mayor (Ep. 1) Lee Chae-kyung as hotel CEO (Ep. 1–2 & 10) Nam Kyoung-eub as Chairman Wang (Ep. 2, 9 & 10) Lee Joon-gi as priest (Ep. 3) Lee Si-eon as astronaut (Ep. 3) Jo Hyun-sik as hotel guest (Ep. 3) Hong Kyung as baker (Ep. 4) Kim Mi-eun as bride Lee Soo-min (Ep. 5) Lee Yi-kyung as actor Yu Oh (Ep. 6) Pyo Ye-jin as actress (Ep. 6) Kim Jun-hyun as himself (Ep. 6) Park Jin-joo as Gyeong-ah (Ep. 8) Nam Da-reum as Spirit of the Well (Ep. 9–10) Sulli as Jung Ji-eun (Ep. 10) Choi Yoo-song as spirit of Chan-sung's mother (Ep. 10) Seo Eun-soo as Veronica (Ep. 11) Hwang Young-hee as Hwang Moon-sook (Ep. 11) Lee Seung-joon as doctor (Ep. 12) So Hee-jung as doctor's wife (Ep. 12) Kim Seung-han as doctor's son (Ep. 12) Lee Min-young as ghost (Ep. 13) Kim Soo-hyun as new owner of the Guest House of the Moon, renaming it Hotel Blue Moon (Ep. 16) Original soundtrack Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 Part 5 Part 6 Part 7 Part 8 Part 9 Part 10 Part 11 Part 12 Part 13 Special soundtrack Chart performance Viewership This series aired on tvN, a cable channel/pay TV which normally has a relatively smaller audience compared to free-to-air TV/public broadcasters (KBS, SBS, MBC and EBS). It was the most viewed tvN drama of 2019, and is currently the sixteenth highest-rated Korean drama in cable television history. Awards and nominations Adaptations US remake On June 24, 2020, Studio Dragon announced that it would co-produce an American remake of Hotel del Luna with Skydance. Alison Schapker will be in charge of developing and producing the series. She will be working with Miky Lee, Jinnie Choi and Hyun Park of Studio Dragon, and David Ellison, Dana Goldberg and Bill Bost of Skydance Television. So far, no channel has picked up the idea of a US remake. Korean musical On January 27, 2021, the theater company Showplay announced that Hotel del Luna was adapted into a stage musical that premiered in 2022. References External links Hotel del Luna at Studio Dragon Hotel del Luna at GTist Korean-language television shows 2019 South Korean television series debuts 2019 South Korean television series endings TVN (South Korean TV channel) television dramas South Korean fantasy television series Television shows written by the Hong sisters Television series by Studio Dragon Television series about ghosts Television series set in 2019 Television series set in hotels Television shows set in Seoul

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%98%EB%94%94%EC%95%84%20%EB%82%98%EB%94%A4

나디아 나딤

나디아 나딤(, 1988년 1월 2일 ~ )은 아프가니스탄 출신 덴마크의 여자 축구 선수로 현재 미국 NWSL 라싱 루이빌에서 공격수로 뛰고 있으며 외과 의사로도 활동 중이다. 초기 경력 아프가니스탄 헤라트 출신으로그의 아버지는 아프가니스탄 육군 장교로 복무했지만 2000년에 탈레반에 의해 처형당하면서신변에 위협을 느꼈고 결국 자신의 어머니와 4명의 자매들과 함께 위조된 여권을 이용하여 파키스탄, 이탈리아, 영국을 거쳐 덴마크 난민 캠프로 피신했다. 그렇게 덴마크에 정착하자마자 올보르에서 축구 선수 생활을 시작했고 2005년부터 2012년까지 B52 올보르, 팀 비보르, VSK 오르후스 등에서 맹활약했으며 특히 VSK 오르후스 소속으로 5연속 덴마크 여자 축구 리그 3위(2007-08 ~ 2011-12), 2008-09 덴마크 여자컵 우승, 2009-10 덴마크 여자컵 준우승, 2010-11 덴마크 여자컵 4강 진출 등의 성과를 거두었다. 클럽 경력 2012년 포르투나 예링으로 이적한 후 같은 해 9월 스코틀랜드 여자 프리미어리그의 글래스고 시티와의 2012-13년 UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 32강 1차전에서 유럽 클럽 대항전 데뷔 무대를 치르자마자 멀티골을 터뜨리며 팀의 2-1 승리와 함께 16강 진출의 교두보를 마련했다. 그 후 2014년까지 포르투나 예링 소속으로 활동하며 2012-13 리그 준우승, 2013-14 리그 우승, 2012-13 덴마크 여자컵 준우승, 2013-14 덴마크 여자컵 4강 진출 등에 이바지했고 2014년 미국 NWSL의 NJ/NY 고섬으로 이적하여 2015 시즌까지 활동했으며 특히 2014년 8월에는 미국 NWSL 이달의 선수로 선정되는 영예를 안았다. 2015 시즌을 마치고 2016 시즌을 앞둔 2016년 1월 같은 리그의 포틀랜드 손스로 트레이드된 후 2016 NWSL 실드 우승, 2016 NWSL 4강 플레이오프, 2017 리그 플레이오프 우승 등에 공헌한 뒤2017년 9월 28일 잉글랜드 FA 여자 슈퍼리그의 맨체스터 시티와 정식 계약을 체결한 후 이듬해인 2018년 1월 팀에 전격 합류했다. 맨시티 합류 이후 같은 해 1월 7일 열린 레딩 FC와의 리그 경기에서 잉글랜드 무대 데뷔전을 치렀고 이 경기에서 2골을 터뜨리며 5-2 완승에 기여했고 이후 팀은 2017-18 시즌 리그 준우승, 여자 FA컵 4강 등의 성과를 남겼다. 그리고 2019년 1월 3일 프랑스 디비지옹 1 페미닌 명문팀인 파리 생제르맹 페미닌과 입단 계약을 체결했고 파리 생제르맹 합류 후 2020-21 시즌까지 활동하며 2019년 트로페 데 샹피오네 준우승, 2019-20 리그 준우승, 2020-21 리그 우승, 2019-20 쿠프 드 프랑스 페미닌 준우승, 2회 연속 UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 4강 진출(2019-20, 2020-21) 등에 기여했다. 2020-21 시즌을 끝으로 파리 생제르맹과 결별한 뒤 라싱 루이빌과 입단 계약을 체결하면서 4년만에 미국 무대로 복귀했다. 국가대표 경력 덴마크 국적법에 따라 2006년까지는 덴마크 시민권을 얻지 못했고 2008년에서야 덴마크 시민권을 얻었지만 2006년 이후 5년간 덴마크에 거주하지 않았기 때문에 축구 선수의 국적과 관련된 국제 축구 연맹의 규정에 의거해 덴마크 여자 대표팀에서 활동할 수 없었음에도덴마크 축구 협회의 요청에 FIFA는 결국 나딤에 대해 예외 규정을 적용함으로서 결국 천신만고 끝에 덴마크 여자 대표팀에 합류할 수 있었고 이를 통해 덴마크 여자 대표팀 역사상 외국에서 귀화한 최초의 선수에 이름을 올렸다. 덴마크 여자 대표팀 합류 후 미국과의 2009년 알가르브컵 B조 조별리그 1차전(0-2 패)에서 국제 A매치 데뷔전을 치렀고 아이슬란드와의 조별리그 최종전에서 A매치 데뷔골을 신고하며 팀의 3·4위전 진출에 기여했으며 팀은 3·4위 결정전에서도 독일을 꺾으며 3위로 대회를 마무리했다. 이후 UEFA 여자 유로 2013과 UEFA 여자 유로 2017 본선에 참가하여 이 가운데 전 대회 챔피언 독일과의 여자 유로 2017 8강전에서 0-1로 뒤져 있던 후반 4분 동점골을 터뜨렸고 오스트리아와의 4강전 승부차기에서는 첫번째 키커로 나서서 침착하게 PK를 성공시키며 덴마크의 사상 첫 여자 유로 대회 결승 진출에 이바지했으며 개최국 네덜란드와의 결승전에서도 득점을 성공시키면서 준우승이라는 덴마크 여자 대표팀 역사상 여자 유로 대회 최고 성적에 공헌했다. 그리고 UEFA 여자 유로 2022 예선 8경기에서 9골을 맹폭하는 활약을 펼치면서 덴마크의 7회 연속이자 통산 9번째 여자 유로 대회 본선 진출에 큰 역할을 수행했다. 사생활 2017 시즌을 마친 후 외과 의사의 꿈을 이루기 위해 오르후스 대학교 의과대학에 입학했고축구 선수로 활동하면서 5년간 의사가 되기 위해 밤낮을 안 가리고 열심히 공부했으며 덴마크어, 영어, 독일어, 페르시아어, 다리어, 우르두어, 힌디어, 프랑스어, 아랍어 등 무려 11개의 언어를 유창하게 구사하며 국제 연합 홍보대사로서 대외 활동도 펼친 뒤 마침내 2022년 1월 그토록 갈망하던 외과 의사의 꿈을 이뤘다. 여담으로 나딤은 아프가니스탄에서 가수로 활동하다가 탈레반 공습을 피해 현재 미국 로스앤젤레스에 거주 중인 아리아나 사예드의 조카이며 무슬림 신자로도 잘 알려져 있다. 수상 VSK 오르후스 덴마크 여자 1부 리그 : 3위 (2007-08, 2008-09, 2009-10, 2010-11, 2011-12) 덴마크 여자컵 : 우승 (2008-09), 준우승 (2009-10), 4강 (2010-11) 포르투나 예링 덴마크 여자 1부 리그 : 우승 (2013-14), 준우승 (2012-13) 덴마크 여자컵 : 준우승 (2012-13), 4강 (2013-14) 포틀랜드 손스 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그 : 우승 (2017), 4강 (2016) NWSL 실드 : 우승 (2016) 맨체스터 시티 FA 여자 슈퍼리그 : 준우승 (2017-18) 잉글랜드 여자 FA컵 : 4강 (2017-18) 파리 생제르맹 페미닌 디비지옹 1 페미닌 : 우승 (2020-21), 준우승 (2019-20) 쿠프 드 프랑스 페미닌 : 준우승 (2019-20) UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 : 4강 (2019-20, 2020-21) 트로페 데 샹피오네 : 준우승 (2019) 국가대표팀 (여자) UEFA 유럽 여자 축구 선수권 대회 : 준우승 (2017) 알가르브컵 : 3위 (2009) 개인 NWSL 이달의 선수상 : 2014년 8월 각주 외부 링크 나디아 나딤 프로필 - 덴마크 축구 협회 1988년 출생 살아있는 사람 덴마크의 여자 축구 선수 덴마크 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 여자 축구 공격수 아프가니스탄계 덴마크인 덴마크의 무슬림 헤라트 출신 미국에 거주한 덴마크인 잉글랜드에 거주한 덴마크인 프랑스에 거주한 덴마크인 맨체스터 시티 WFC의 축구 선수 UEFA 여자 유로 2009 참가 선수 UEFA 여자 유로 2013 참가 선수 UEFA 여자 유로 2017 참가 선수 FA 여자 슈퍼리그의 축구 선수 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그의 축구 선수 UEFA 여자 유로 2022 참가 선수 FIFA 센추리 클럽 여자 선수 NJ/NY 고섬 FC의 축구 선수 파리 생제르맹 FC 페미닌의 축구 선수 프랑스의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 잉글랜드의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 미국의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 디비지옹 1 페미닌의 축구 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadia%20Nadim

Nadia Nadim

Nadia Nadim (; born 2 January 1988) is a professional footballer and physician who plays as a striker for NWSL club Racing Louisville FC. Born in Afghanistan, she represents the Denmark national team at international level. Nadim is considered the most influential and greatest Afghan female footballer of all time, particularly because she won leagues in two countries, the USA league title (NWSL Championship) in 2017 with the Portland Thorns and the French league title in the 2020–21 season with Paris Saint-Germain. Early life and career Nadia was born in Herat and raised for the first part of her childhood in Afghanistan in a wealthy family. When Nadim was 9 years old, her father, an Afghan National Army (ANA) general, was executed by the Taliban. A couple of years later, her family –consisting of Nadim, her mother and her four sisters– fled to Denmark. Shortly after arriving in Denmark, when 12 years old, she tried playing football for the first time and began playing at the small local club GUG in Aalborg. Her senior career began at B52 Aalborg and Team Viborg. Club career Early career Nadim played for B52 Aalborg, Team Viborg from 2005 to 2006 and IK Skovbakken from 2006 to 2012, before moving to Fortuna Hjørring in 2012. She made her Champions League debut in September the same year, scoring both goals in a 2–1 win over Scottish Champions Glasgow City. Sky Blue FC Nadim joined NWSL club Sky Blue FC near the end of the 2014 NWSL season. Playing in six games, she scored seven goals and registered three assists. She was named player of the week on 19 August and player of the month for the NWSL on 14 August. On 16 February 2015, Sky Blue announced that Nadim had been signed to play for Sky Blue in the 2015 season as well. Portland Thorns FC On 14 January 2016, Nadim was traded to Portland Thorns FC. Playing as a striker, she finished the 2016 season as the team's top scorer with nine goals in 20 games as the team won the 2016 NWSL Shield. In the 2017 season, she helped the team to a second-place finish in the league and victory in the NWSL Championship game. Manchester City On 28 September 2017, Nadim signed for FA Women's Super League side Manchester City for the 2018 season. She joined the club in January 2018, and made her debut with Manchester City on 7 January 2018 in a 5–2 win over Reading. After six minutes on the ground she scored her first goal for the team, and 26 minutes later she made an assist when Manchester City scored their second goal in the match. In her second match for the team she scored the winning goal in a 1–0 victory over Chelsea in the semi-final of the Continental Tyres Cup. On 26 July 2018, while on the US tour with Manchester City, the BBC reported that Nadim had requested a transfer out of the club, stating that she had never felt at home there and wanted to leave. On 19 December 2018, Manchester City announced that Nadim would be departing the club and her contract would be terminated on 1 January 2019, allowing her to sign with another club. Paris Saint-Germain On 3 January 2019, Nadim signed for Paris Saint-Germain. On 9 July 2019, Nadim extended her contract for Paris Saint-Germain after a successful first season. She was later rewarded with the captain's armband and named the team's vice captain for the 2019–20 season. She scored 13 goals and made 13 assists in 16 league and cup games. Racing Louisville FC On 9 June 2021, Nadim signed with Racing Louisville FC, returning to the NWSL four years after leaving Portland Thorns FC for Manchester City. In September 2021, with the NWSL reeling from abuse scandals, she accused NJ/NY Gotham FC management of forging her signature on a contract extension so they could trade her rights to Portland in January 2016. She also accused league staffers of pressuring her to have a surgery for her season-ending ACL injury in the United States rather than abroad, threatening that "if something went wrong with the surgery outside of US they could consider taking actions against me." International career Under Danish nationality law Nadim could not apply for citizenship until turning 18 years old in 2006. When citizenship was eventually granted in 2008, FIFA eligibility rules blocked Nadim from playing for Denmark, because she had not yet been resident for the requisite five years after turning 18. A subsequent challenge from the Danish Football Association (DBU) led to FIFA's legal department making an exception to the rules in Nadim's case. Nadim immediately became a member of the Denmark national team, making her debut in the 2009 Algarve Cup in a 2–0 defeat by the United States. In doing so, she became the first naturalised Dane to represent a Denmark senior national football team. She participated in all three of Denmark's games at UEFA European Championship 2009 in Finland. She was named in national coach Kenneth Heiner-Møller's Denmark squad for UEFA European Championship 2013. In Denmark's opening group match against hosts Sweden Nadim featured as a substitute in an eventful 1–1 draw. In the UEFA Women's Euro 2017 tournament, she was instrumental in Denmark's advancement, scoring the tying goal in Denmark's eventual 2–1 win over favorites Germany in the knockout stages, and scoring a go-ahead goal in the final, which Denmark ultimately lost to host Netherlands 4–2. On 27 October 2020, Denmark had to win away against Italy to qualify for the UEFA European Championship 2022, and Nadim was crowned player of the match after scoring two crucial goals in Denmark's 3–1 win over Italy in Florence. The two goals secured Denmark's spot in the upcoming Euros. On 24 June 2022, she played her 100th match for Denmark in a friendly match against Brazil. Style of play Nadim is recognized for her energetic and determined style of play. She is successful from the penalty spot, having converted all but one of her penalties in the NWSL (and with the one miss being a save by the goalkeeper and immediately scored by Nadim on the rebound) and both of her attempts at Euro 2017. Outside football Criticism of sportswashing of Qatar In December 2021, Nadim received criticism in the media for describing Qatar as a nation that helps people in need. Her positive description of the desert state is conflicting with the general consensus in the Danish population and the opinion formulated by the Danish FA on the oppression of human rights and poor conditions for migrant workers in Qatar. Subsequently, Nadim denied having received money for her performance in Qatar, which turned out not to be true when Danish newspaper B.T. found out that she had received payment for attending the education summit in the country. As a consequence of her role as an ambassador for World Cup in Qatar, Danish Refugee Council removed Nadim from her role as a goodwill ambassador. Nadim stated on her Twitter that her collaboration with the Danish Refugee Council had been inactive since the beginning of 2019. However, B.T. proved this statement inaccurate. Personal life and medical career Nadim attended medical school at Aarhus University (remotely during the football season) with the aim of becoming a surgeon when her playing days are over. In 2020, she was assisting in surgery. She qualified as a doctor in January 2022. Nadim is Muslim, and speaks nine languages. Afghan singer Aryana Sayeed is her aunt. In 2018, Forbes ranked her Number 20 in their "Most Powerful Women in International Sports" list. Her mother, Hamida Nadim, was killed in a motor vehicle accident on 23 November 2022, aged 57. When Nadia learned that her mother had died, she departed during her work as a pundit for British broadcaster ITV at the Denmark–Tunisia match in the Men's World Cup. Endorsements Nadia signed a representation contract with Nike in 2017, making her the first ever Danish female football player to be represented by Nike. Nike has used Nadia in many of their branches on top of doing work for the football department. She has also done commercials for Air Jordan as well as Nike's collaborations with Martine Rose. Besides her work with Nike, Nadia is also known for her work with Visa and Hugo Boss. In 2016, Danish TV station DR released a four-episode long documentary about Nadia that followed her from Denmark to the United States, documenting her player development with the Portland Thorns. In 2018, Danish publisher JP/Politiken published Nadia Nadim's autobiography called "Min Historie" which translates to "My Story". The book got nominated for Sports book of the year. The book was released in French on 26 May 2021, through the French publisher Hachette Book Group. Career statistics Honours Portland Thorns FC NWSL Shield: 2016 NWSL Championship: 2017 Manchester City FA WSL runners-up: 2017–18 Paris Saint-Germain Division 1 Féminine: 2020–21 Racing Louisville FC NWSL Challenge Cup runners-up: 2023 Denmark UEFA Women's Euro runners-up: 2017 Individual Portland Thorns 2016 top goalscorer Awards and recognition In July 2019, Nadia Nadim was named UNESCO Champion for Girls and Women's Education. She received this recognition for her role in promoting sport and gender equality, her contribution to the Organization's educational action prioritizing young people and advocacy for girls and women's education at an international scale, among others. References Match reports External links 1988 births Living people Sportspeople from Herat Sportspeople of Afghan descent Afghan Muslims Danish Muslims Afghan emigrants to Denmark Naturalised citizens of Denmark Afghan women's footballers Danish women's footballers Women's association football forwards VSK Aarhus (women) players Fortuna Hjørring players NJ/NY Gotham FC players Portland Thorns FC players Manchester City W.F.C. players Paris Saint-Germain Féminine players Racing Louisville FC players Elitedivisionen players National Women's Soccer League players Women's Super League players Division 1 Féminine players Denmark women's international footballers Danish expatriate women's footballers Danish expatriate sportspeople in England Danish expatriate sportspeople in the United States Danish expatriate sportspeople in France Expatriate women's soccer players in the United States Expatriate women's footballers in England Expatriate women's footballers in France FIFA Women's Century Club UEFA Women's Euro 2022 players UEFA Women's Euro 2017 players Danish association football commentators

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B8%8C%EB%A1%A4%EC%8A%A4%ED%83%80%EC%A6%88

브롤스타즈

브롤스타즈는 핀란드 비디오 게임 회사인 슈퍼셀에서 개발하고 발표한 AOS, 3인칭 슈팅 비디오 게임이다. 2017년 6월 15일 베타 출시 후, 2018년 12월 12일 iOS 및 안드로이드용으로 전 세계에 출시되었다. 게임 플레이 브롤스타즈에서 플레이어들은 다양한 게임 모드에서 다른 플레이어들이나 AI와 전투를 벌인다. 플레이어는 브롤러라는 이름을 가진 캐릭터들 중 하나를 선택할 수 있으며 브롤러들은 스타 드롭, 브롤 패스, 챌린지, 크래딧, 보석을 통해 얻어서 전투에 사용할수 있다. 브롤러들은 일반, 희귀, 초희귀, 영웅, 신화, 전설, 크로마틱 등급으로 나뉜다. 브롤스타즈에서는 다양한 게임 모드를 선택하여 플레이할 수 있으며, 모드마다 다른 규칙과 목표가 있다. 각 게임 모드에서의 최대 플레이어 수까지 플레이어들을 초대하여 함께 플레이할 수 있다. 게임을 플레이하여 승리하면 트로피를 얻는데, 받는 트로피의 개수는 모드와 브롤러의 트로피마다 다르고 솔로 쇼다운, 듀오 쇼다운은 순위마다 받는 트로피의 개수가 다르다. 또, 한 팀의 트로피가 월등하게 낮으면 언더독이라고 무조건 일정양의 트로피를 받는다. (3vs3 모드에만 적용) 일정 트로피에 도달하면 보상을 받을 수 있다. 또한 스킨은 보석 또는 블링으로 구입하거나 브롤 패스나 클럽 코인, 무료 보상, 챌린지, 스타드롭을 통해 해제할 수 있다. 브롤 패스 2020년 5월 게임 업데이트에 "브롤 패스"라는 새로운 보상 시스템이 추가되었다. 플레이어가 전투에서 경쟁할 때 브롤 패스를 따라 진행하기 위해 토큰을 얻는다. 플레이어는 브롤 패스에서 다양한 아이템을 얻을 수 있다. 브롤 패스에는 두 가지가 있다. 모든 플레이어는 기본적으로 무료 패스를 가지고 있고, 보석, 현금(현질)으로 브롤 패스를 구입할 수 있다. 파워 리그 파워 리그는 브롤 패스 시즌 5에서 게임에 추가된 경쟁 순위 시스템이다. 이것이 파워 플레이 시스템을 대체했다. 플레이어는 4500개의 트로피에서 파워리그를 잠금 해제한다. 브론즈 1등급부터 마스터 등급까지 총 19등급이 있다. 첫 번째 시즌을 제외하고 각 시즌은 두 달 동안 지속된다. 파워 시즌이 끝나면 플레이어는 자신의 순위에 따라 블링을 얻는다. 플레이어는 혼자하는 솔로모드와 3명으로 구성된 팀으로 플레이하는 팀모드로 파워 리그를 참가할 수 있다. 승자는 3전 2선승제 형식으로 결정되며 무승부는 계산되지 않는다. 각 경기는 무작위로 선택된 게임 모드와 맵으로 시작한다. 양 팀의 플레이어들이 각각 금지할 브롤러를 선택한다. 경기에 참가하는 6명의 플레이어는 모두 다른 브롤러로 플레이한다. 게임의 진행 상황은 상대 순위를 비롯한 다양한 요인에 따라 달라진다. 클럽 리그 클럽 리그는 브롤 패스 시즌 9에서 클럽 간의 새로운 주간 경쟁 게임 모드로 도입되었으며, 수요일, 금요일, 일요일에 8개의 클럽이 경쟁한다. 이 모드를 플레이 하려면 티켓이 필요하다. 클럽 회원들이 최대한 많은 클럽 트로피를 획득하기 위해 플레이한다. 같은 클럽의 회원과 플레이하면 더 많은 클럽 트로피를 획득한다. 각 게임 일정이 끝난 후 클럽은 클럽 트로피를 기반으로 순위가 매겨진다. 매주 월요일에 리그가 종료되면 클럽의 승격 또는 강등 여부와 보상 수를 결정하기 위해 클럽 트로피를 기준으로 클럽 순위가 결정된다. 클럽 등급은 브론즈 1부터 시작되는 파워 리그 등급 체제와 같다. 각 클럽 회원은 마지막에 클럽 및 회원의 성과에 따라 클럽 코인을 받게 되며, 이는 클럽 상점에서 사용할 수 있다. 시즌 3달(3월, 6월, 9월, 12월)마다 새로운 브롤 패스와 파워 리그가 제공된다. 또한 각 시즌에는 시즌을 테마로 하는 새로운 스킨과 브롤러들이병신제공된다.<ref name="M용|last1=Swan |first1=Eva |title=Everything you need to know about Brawl Stars' Summer of Monsters pass |url=https://dotesports.com/mobile/news/everything-you-need-to-know-about-brawl-stars-summer-of-monsters-pass |website=Dot Esports |access-date=1 February 2021 |date=7 July 2020}}</ref> 개발 및 출시 슈퍼셀은 리그 오브 레전드 및 오버워치와 비슷한 장르의 게임을 개발하기 시작했다. 팀은 먼저 모바일 기기를 염두에 두고 설계된 그런 게임을 만들고 싶었다고 한다. 슈퍼셀의 프랭크 캐인버그는 "우리는 많은 단점을 제거하면서 많은 재미를 유지하는 데 중점을 두었습니다."라고 밝혔다. 브롤스타즈에는 배틀 로얄 장르의 일부 요소가 포함되어 있지만 이 장르의 모든 것이 시작되기 전에 구현되었다. 이 게임은 게임의 거의 모든 측면이 변경된 긴 소프트 런칭 기간으로 유명하다. 슈퍼셀은 2017년 6월 14일 라이브 스트림 비디오를 통해 브롤스타즈를 공식적으로 발표했다. 다음 날 캐나다에서 iOS 대상 제한적으로 출시하였다. 제한적 출시는 522일 동안 지속되었으며 이 기간 동안 게임이 실제로 일반적으로 출시될 수 있을지 내부적으로 의구심이 오갔다. 처음에는 게임이 탭 투 무브 모드로 진행되었고 플레이어가 화면을 탭하게 했으나, 이는 결국 아날로그 컨트롤을 사용하고 가로 모드에서 플레이하는 플레이어로 변경되었다. 기타 변경 사항에는 UI 변경, 메타 게임을 변경하고 게임을 2D에서 3D로 전환하였다. 프랭크 캐인버그는 힘들었던 베타 기간을 "성공을 어떻게 할 수 있을지 확신이 서지 않는" 새로운 장르에서 작업하는 개발자에게 돌렸다. 이 게임은 2018년 1월 19일 핀란드, 스웨덴, 덴마크, 노르웨이, 아일랜드, 싱가포르, 홍콩, 마카오 및 말레이시아에서 iOS용으로 제한적 출시되었으며, 2018년 6월 26일에 안드로이드로 제한적 출시되었다. 브롤스타즈는 2018년 12월 12일에 전 세계적으로 정식 출시되었다. 출시 첫 달 만에 6300만 달러 이상을 벌었다. 2020년 6월 9일에 브롤스타즈가 중국에서 출시되었다. 파트너십 브롤스타즈는 라인프렌즈와 파트너십을 맺고 공식 굿즈, 라인프렌즈 캐릭터를 기반으로 한 새로운 브롤러 스킨, 라인 메신저의 핀 팩 및 새로운 콘텐츠를 제작하였다. 2020년 1월 한국에 팝업스토어를 열어 파트너십 상품을 판매했었다. 상품은 주요 라인프렌즈 소매점과 온라인에서도 구입할 수 있다. 브롤스타즈는 파리 생제르맹 FC와 제휴하였다. (PSG)는 2019년 PSG의 e스포츠 사업부가 주관하는 브롤스타즈 볼 컵을 개최하였다. 3개의 온라인 예선 이벤트와 온라인 플레이오프 이벤트가 있었다. 상위 2개 팀은 결승전을 위해 파리로 향했다. 결승전은 PSG의 홈구장인 Parc des Princes에서 생중계되었다. 모든 경기는 축구와 같은 유사한 게임 모드인 브롤 볼로 진행되었다. 브롤스타즈는 2020년과 2021년에 PSG와 다시 파트너십을 맺었다. 파트너십 기간 동안 게임은 파리 생제르맹 챌린지를 시작했다. 챌린지는 브롤스타즈 챔피언십 챌린지와 유사하지만 모든 경기는 브롤 볼 게임 모드를 플레이하여야 했다. 2020년에 9승 4패 이하의 플레이어를 위한 쉘리의 PSG 스킨을 냈다. PSG의 e스포츠 부서에는 2020년 챔피언십 챌린지에서 경쟁한 팀도 있었다. 2021년에는 다이너마이크를 위한 PSG마이크 스킨을 냈다. 반응 수상 브롤스타즈는 제15회 영국 아카데미 게임 어워드에서 "모바일 게임" 및 "올해의 EE 모바일 게임" 부문을 수상했다. 비평 브롤스타즈는 리뷰 수집기 메타크리틱에서 "보통 또는 평균" 리뷰 또는 100개 중 72개를 받았다. 포켓 게이머의 해리 슬레터는 브롤스타즈에 5점 만점에 3점을 주었다. 글로벌 출시 직후 게임을 리뷰한 그는 게임 진행 상황을 칭찬하였다. 그는 게임의 배틀로얄 모드인 쇼다운이 게임에 있는 모든 게임 모드 중 가장 재미없다고 비판했다. 그는 쇼다운이 "장르의 진정한 광기를 포착하지 못하고 있으며, 맵에 있는 모든 플레이어와 그들이 무엇을 하고 있는지 거의 볼 수 있기 때문에 뚜렷한 긴장감이 부족합니다."라고 말했다. 그는 "브롤스타즈에서 뭔가 빠졌다. 플레이하고, 새로운 캐릭터를 얻고, 새로운 모드를 잠금 해제할 수 있지만, 마땅히 해야 할 것만큼 즐거운 시간을 보낼 수는 없다"고 말하였다. 그는 계속해서 "액션은 비교적 단순합니다. 팀 경기에서 처음 몇 초 안에 게임이 어떤 방향으로 흘러갈지 알 수 있습니다."라고 말했다. 그는 게임이 "많은 사람들이 기대했던 멀티플레이어 모바일 액션을 위한 큰 진전"처럼 보이지 않았기 때문에 실망스럽다는 결론을 내렸다. 148 앱스의 캠프밸 버드는 5점 만점에 3.5점을 주었다. 그녀는 게임이 "아래나 오브 바올과 오버워치를 결합한 것 같다"라고 언급하면서 시작했다. 그녀는 게임의 그래픽과 개발자가 플레이어가 다시 플레이하도록 권장하는 진행 시스템의 구현과 빠른 매치메이킹을 칭찬했다. 그러나 그녀는 게임의 컨트롤이 "이상하게 느슨하고 흐릿한" 느낌, 캐릭터가 "예측 가능한 영웅 슈팅 전형"에 빠지는 느낌, 그리고 "게임의 모든 모드가 이전에 본 것의 일부 변형"이라고 주장했다. 다른 더 나은 멀티플레이어 슈팅 게임이 필요하다고 하였다. 그녀는 또한 빈번한 연결 문제와 불균형한 팀이 게임 플레이 경험을 덜 즐겁게 만든다고 강조했다. 상업적 성공 브롤스타즈는 2억 회 이상 다운로드되었다. 2020년에 브롤스타즈는 유럽에서 모바일 게임 중 두 번째로 높은 매출을 기록했다. 2020년에는 총 5억 2,600만 달러의 수익을 올렸으며 이는 전체 기간 수익의 절반 이상을 차지했다. 또한 슈퍼셀의 네 번째 게임으로 매출이 10억 달러를 넘어섰다. 브롤스타즈 챔피언십 브롤스타즈 챔피언십은 전 세계 플레이어를 위한 공개 토너먼트이다. 이 토너먼트는 월간 게임 내 챔피언십 챌린지로 구성되어 플레이어가 5가지 게임 모드와 맵에서 4번 미만의 패배를 하고 15승을 하기 위해 전투에서 경쟁한다. 15승 후, 플레이어는 다음 단계인 지역 월간 예선전을 진행한다. 여기서 플레이어는 16세 이상이어야 참가할 수 있다. 예선전 승리하면 플레이어는 지역 월간 결승전에 진출할 수 있다. 지역 결승전을 승리하면 세계 결승전까지 갈 수 있었다. 2019년에 이 챔피언십은 브롤스타즈 월드 챔피언십이란 이름으로 알려졌다. 2019년 11월 15일부터 11월 16일까지 벡스코에서 개최되었다. 1등 우승자는 3-0으로 승리한 노바 E스포츠였다. 경쟁하는 다른 참가자로는 애니멀 찬푸루, 트리블 게이밍, 3베어스, 스페이스스테이션 게이밍, PSG E스포츠가 참가하였다. $250,000 상금이 있는 브롤스타즈의 첫 번째 국제 이벤트였으며 북미, 유럽, 라틴 아메리카, 동남아시아, 일본, 한국의 팀이 참가했다. 2020년 월드 파이널은 11월 21일부터 22일까지 기본 상금 $1,000,000로 열렸다. 금액의 절반은 게임 내 챔피언십 패키지 수익금을 통해 모금되었다. 원래 폴란드 카토비체에서 열릴 예정이었으나 코로나19 팬데믹으로 온라인으로 연기된 월드 파이널에는 8개 팀이 참가했습니다. PSG E스포츠는 $200,000의 상금으로 올해 챔피언십의 우승자였다. 다른 상금은 2~8위를 차지한 다른 팀으로 나누어졌다. 2021년에는 브롤스타즈 챔피언십이 2월 20일에 시작되었다. 챔피언십에는 2월부터 9월까지 한 달에 한 번 열리는 8개의 시즌이 있다. 챔피언십 챌린지와 월간 예선은 각각 시즌당 이틀 동안 생중계되었다. 지역 월간 예선에서 상위 8개 팀이 지역 월간 결선에 진출하였다. 11월 26일부터 28일까지 루마니아 부쿠레슈티에서 직접 개최될 예정인 월드 파이널에 7개 지역의 월간 파이널 16개 팀이 한자리에 모였다. 2021년의 상금은 월간 결승전에서 $600,000이었다. 게임 내 제안을 통해 이 금액을 늘릴 수 있었으며 세계 결승전에서는 최소 $500,000이었다. 같이 보기 슈퍼셀 (기업) 클래시 로얄 클래시 오브 클랜 헤이데이 러시 워즈 붐비치 각주 핀란드의 비디오 게임 전략 게임 안드로이드 게임 IOS 게임 모바일 게임 슈팅 게임 액션 게임 부분 유료화 비디오 게임 2010년대 유행 2020년대 유행 2018년 비디오 게임

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brawl%20Stars

Brawl Stars

Brawl Stars is a multiplayer online battle arena and third-person hero shooter video game developed and published by the Finnish video game company Supercell. It was released worldwide on December 12, 2018, on iOS and Android. The game features various game modes, each with a different objective. Players can choose from a selection of Brawlers, which are characters that can be controlled with on-screen joysticks in a game match. Gameplay In Brawl Stars, players battle against other players or AI opponents in multiple game modes. Players can choose between characters called Brawlers that they have unlocked through Boxes, the Brawl Pass, the Trophy Road, or purchased through the Shop to use in battles. In December 2022, Boxes were removed, and all previous methods to get them were replaced with credits and chroma credits, which are used to unlock Brawlers, who are now mostly placed on the "Starr Road". Brawl Stars has a variety of different game modes that players can choose from, each one having a different objective. Players can invite friends to play with them up to the maximum team size of the game mode. In addition, it is possible to purchase skins with Gems, Star Points, and Coins, or unlock them through the Brawl Pass, which will alter the appearance, animations, effects, and/or sounds of Brawlers. Brawlers Brawlers are the characters that you can control in the game of Brawl Stars. You can control their normal attack, their super (special type of attack that charges up when you hit an opponent), their gadgets (special abilities that can be used up to 3 times) and their hypercharge (special attack that temporarily increases damage, speed and improves the brawler’s super attack). Every brawler’s attack can be influenced by Star Powers, with each brawler having their own 2 unique ones can affect their attacks, movement speed, recharge time, etc. Some of the brawlers have traits which might affect the way the brawler interacts with it's environment and opponents. Brawlers come in variety of rarities: Common, Rare, Super Rare, Epic, Mythic, Legendary and Chromatic. Brawl Pass In May 2020, a game update added a new reward system called “Brawl Pass”. The Brawl Pass is the game's version of a battle pass. When players compete in battles, they earn Tokens to progress along the Brawl Pass, which the tokens required would exponentially increase per Brawl Pass level. Players can earn credits, chroma credits, Gems, skins, Pins (emojis that can be used during battles or in a team game room), Coins, Power Points, and Brawlers from the pass. There are two types of Brawl Pass. All players have the free Brawl Pass by default. Players can purchase the premium Brawl Pass with Gems. Power League Power League is a competitive ranking system added to the game in season 5. This replaced the Power Play system. Players unlock this system at 4500 trophies. There are a total of 19 ranks between bronze one and master. Each season lasts two months. At the end of a Power League season, players gain Star Points based on their rank. Players can enter Power League solo or with teams of three. The winner is decided on a best-of-three format and ties do not count. Each match starts the game randomly choosing a game mode and map. All players from both teams choose a Brawler to ban. All six players in the match must play with a different Brawler. Players in the team can switch Brawlers with each other if they have the specific Brawler unlocked. Progression is varied based on various factors including the opponents ranks. Club League Club League was introduced in season 9 as a new weekly competition between Clubs, where eight Clubs compete during the days Wednesday, Friday and Sunday of the week. Tickets are required to play matches. 4 tickets are given on Wednesday and Friday, with 6 tickets given on Sunday. Clubs compete to gain the most Club Trophies possible by players playing in selected matches. Players who play with other Club members are rewarded by earning more Club Trophies for the club. After each competing day, the Clubs are ranked based on the club's Trophies to earn Club Points. When the league ends on Monday, the Clubs are ranked based on the club's Points to determine if the club is promoted or demoted and the number of rewards. Club Ranks are the same as Power League ranks, where progression starts at Bronze I. Each Club member receives Club Coins at the end based on the performance of the club and the member, which can be used in the Club Shop. Seasons Each season brings a new Brawl Pass, which includes a new Chromatic Brawler and their tier 70 skin for the Brawl Pass. The season also brings a Power League Season. Resources The main resources in Brawl Stars are as following: Gems: The premium currency in Brawl Stars. Can buy cosmetics, Brawlers from the Starr Road and the Brawl Pass. Is available for money or tiers in the free portion of the Brawl Pass. Will very rarely be available in certain events, such as the Brawlidays in December. Coins: are used to upgrade Brawlers and buy Gadgets, Starpowers and Gears for Brawlers. They are available for money, the Brawl Pass, the Trophy Road and the Club Shop. Also occasionally available through Challenges and events. Power Points: are used to upgrade brawlers from power 1 through power 11. They are available through all the methods coins are available through with the exception of real life money. Tokens: are used to progress through the Brawl pass. They are available through Quests, Challenges and events. Bling: Bling was introduced in season 18. They are used alongside with gems to get cosmetics. They replaced Star Points which were used to buy the Power League skins and are available with the same methods Star Points were available from. Bling is available by progressing through Power League, Challenges, events and getting a Brawler to rank 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35. Club Coins: Club Coins are used to buy things in the Club shop and are available through Club League and Club Quests. Starr Road The Starr Road, prominently featured on the main game screen just beneath 'Brawlers', serves as the gateway to unlocking Brawlers of varying rarities. Players can select a Brawler from a pool of others of the same rarity to initiate the unlocking process. As credits accrue through the Trophy Road, Daily Freebie or Brawl Pass, they are dedicated to unlocking the chosen Brawler. The flexibility exists for players to switch to a different Brawler they wish to unlock at any time, with the accumulated credits seamlessly transitioning to the new selection. Once a Brawler is successfully unlocked, it becomes a permanent addition to the player's collection. The Starr Road then presents a fresh array of Brawlers from the next rarity tier for unlocking, encompassing Rares, Super Rares, Epics, Mythics, and Legendaries. Alternatively, players have the option to acquire Brawlers from the Starr Road using Gems. The Chromatic Shop, found on the Starr Road screen under 'Chromatics', introduces Chromatic Brawlers to the in-game battlefield. These Brawlers can be unlocked with Chroma Credits, which are obtainable through the Brawl Pass and used exclusively in the Chromatic Shop for purchases. If a specific Chromatic Brawler remains unattainable with Chroma Credits, it indicates the need to unlock more Chromatic Brawlers. The Chromatic Shop provides an alternative option for players to use Gems to obtain Chromatic Brawlers when desired. Player retention In Brawl Stars, both new and returning players are offered incentives to enhance their gaming experience. Newcomers can participate in the "Newcomers Daily Gift Streak" program, which encourages them to log in daily for a continuous 15-day period to earn gifts to support their initial gameplay. For returning players who have been away from the game for some time, the "Welcome Back Rewards" system provides incentives. Players who log in every day for 14 days upon their return receive a range of rewards, the specifics of which are contingent on the length of their absence and their total Trophy count at the time of their return. This approach aims to re-engage and reward players who revisit the game after an extended break. Development and release Supercell set out to develop a team based game similar to League of Legends and Overwatch. The team wanted to create such a game that was designed with mobile devices in mind first. According to Supercell's Frank Keienburg, "Our focus was on retaining a lot of depth while stripping away all the fluff." Although the game contains some elements of the battle royale genre, these were implemented before the genre as a whole took off and the team did not set out to make a game with those elements. The game is notable for its long soft launch period during which virtually every aspect of the game changed. Supercell officially announced the game via a livestream video on June 14, 2017. It received an iOS soft launch in Canada the following day. The soft launch would last a total of 522 days, during which internally it was doubted whether or not the game would ever actually see a general release. Initially the game was played in portrait mode and had players tapping on the screen, this was changed eventually to players using analog controls and playing in landscape mode. Other changes include changing the UI, changing the metagame and transitioning the game from 2D to 3D. Frank Keienburg attributes the difficult beta period to the developers working in a new genre where they "weren't sure how to interpret its success". The game soft-launched in Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Ireland, Singapore, Hong Kong, Macao and Malaysia for iOS on January 19, 2018, and on June 26, 2018, Android received early access to the game as a continuation of the soft launch. Brawl Stars was made globally and officially available on December 12, 2018. It made more than US$63 million in its first month. On June 9, 2020, Brawl Stars was released in Mainland China. Partnerships The game has a partnership with Line Friends to create official merchandise, new skins for Brawlers that are based on Line Friends characters, sticker packs on Line messenger, and new content. A pop-up store was opened in January 2020 in South Korea to sell the merchandise from the partnership. Merchandise is also available at major Line Friends retail stores and online. In September 2022, Brawl Stars also partnered with BT21, featuring new skins and Pins in-game. The game partnered up with Paris Saint-Germain F.C. (PSG), a French professional soccer club, in 2019 to host Brawl Stars Ball Cup organized by PSG's esports division. There were three online qualifier events and an online playoff event. The top two teams travelled to Paris for the finals. The finals were played live at PSG's home stadium, Parc des Princes. All matches took place in Brawl Ball, a football-like game mode. The game partnered up with PSG again in 2020 and 2021. During the partnerships, the game launched the Paris Saint-Germain Challenge. The challenges are similar to the championship challenges, but all matches are based in the Brawl Ball game mode. In 2020, the game offered a PSG skin for Shelly for players who won nine matches and lost four or fewer times. PSG's esports division also has a team that competed in the 2020 championship challenge. In 2021, the game offered a PSG Mike skin for Dynamike. Reception Awards The game was nominated for "Mobile Game" and "EE Mobile Game of the Year" at the 15th British Academy Games Awards. Critical reception Brawl Stars received "mixed or average" reviews or 72 out of 100 on review aggregator Metacritic. Pocket Gamer'''s Harry Slater scored the game 3 out of 5. Reviewing the game immediately after global release, he praised that game's progression. He criticized Showdown, the game's battle royale mode, for being the weakest of all the game modes that were in the game. He said that Showdown "doesn't capture the real madness of the genre, and there's a distinct lack of tension since you can pretty much see everyone on the map and what they're up to." He mentioned that something felt "missing in Brawl Stars. You'll play, you'll get new characters, you'll unlock new modes, but you're never having quite as much fun as you feel you should be doing." He continued on to say that "the action is relatively flat - in the team matches you know within the first few seconds which way the game is going." He concluded in disappointment because the game did not seem like "the huge step forward for multiplayer mobile action that a lot of us were hoping for."148 Apps' Campbell Bird scored the game 3.5 out of 5. She started with mentioning that the game felt "like a combination of Arena of Valor and Overwatch." She praised the game's graphics and the developer's implementation of the progression system to encourage players to play again, as well as the quick matchmaking. However, she criticized the game's controls for feeling "oddly loose and muddy," the characters falling "into pretty predictable hero shooter archetypes," as well as claiming that "every mode in the game is some variation on something you’ve seen before in other, better multiplayer shooters." She also highlighted that the frequent connection issues and unbalanced teams made the experience of playing the game less enjoyable. Commercial receptionBrawl Stars has been downloaded over 200 million times. In 2020, Brawl Stars had the second highest gross of any mobile game in Europe. It grossed US$526 million in total in 2020, which accounted for more than half its life time revenue. It was also the fourth game by Supercell to surpass US$1 billion in lifetime revenue. Brawl Stars Championship The Brawl Stars Championship is an open tournament for players across the globe. This tournament consists of the monthly in-game Championship Challenges where players compete in game to win 15 matches in five different game modes and maps without losing 3 matches. After 15 wins, players proceed to the next stage, the regional Monthly Qualifier events, where players must be 16 years or older to participate. Through the qualifier events, players can secure a spot in the regional Monthly Finals. These events would lead to the World Finals. In 2019, this championship was known as the Brawl Stars World'' Championship. It was held on November 15 to November 16, 2019, at the Busan Exhibition and Convention Center in South Korea. The first-place winner was Nova Esports after a 30 victory. Other participants competing included Animal Chanpuru, Tribe Gaming, 3Bears, Spacestation Gaming, and PSG Esports. With a $250,000 prize pool, it was the first international event for the game and had teams from North America, Europe, Latin America, Southeast Asia, Japan, and South Korea. In 2020, the World Finals were held between November 21 and 22 with a base $1,000,000 prize pool. Half of the amount was raised through proceeds from an in-game championship package. Eight teams participated in the World Finals, which were originally planned to take place in Katowice, Poland, but was moved online due to the COVID-19 pandemic. PSG Esports was the winner of this year's championship with a prize of $200,000. The other monetary prizes were split between the other teams which won second to eighth place. In 2021, the Brawl Stars Championship started on February 20. There are eight seasons for the championship that occur once per month starting from February until September. The Championship Challenges and Monthly Qualifiers are each live for two days per season. The top eight teams from the regional Monthly Qualifiers go to the regional Monthly Finals. 16 teams from the Monthly Finals from all seven regions come together to participate in the World Finals, which took place from November 26 to 28 in-person in Bucharest, Romania. The prizes for 2021 are $600,000 in the Monthly Finals, and a minimum of $500,000 in the World Finals with opportunities to increase this amount through in-game offers. References External links 2017 video games Android (operating system) games Esports games Free-to-play video games IOS games Multiplayer online games Strategy video games Supercell (video game company) games Video games developed in Finland

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아단 막 가브란

아단 막 가브란()은 574년경-609년경의 달 리어타 국왕이다. 달 리어타는 오늘날의 스코틀랜드 아가일 뷰트와 아일랜드 앤트림주, 즉 노스 해협 양안을 영토로 점유한 고대 연맹왕국이었다. 족보들에 따르면 아단 막 가브란은 가브란 막 도망가르트의 아들이다. 콜룸바 히엔시스와 동시대인이었으며, 아단 왕에 관한 기록은 콜룸바의 성인전들(아돔나누스 히엔시스의 「성자 콜룸바의 삶」 등)을 주요 사료로 삼을 수 있다. 아일랜드 편년사서들에는 아단이 에린섬, 브리튼섬 북부, 오크니 제도, 맨섬, 스코틀랜드 동해안 등에 군사원정을 벌인 기록들이 있다. 베다 베네라빌리스의 기록에 따르면, 아단은 베오르니체 왕 애설프리스와 데그사스탄 전투(603년)에서 크게 싸워 대패함으로써 몰락했다. 아단은 패전 이후 폐위되거나 스스로 퇴위한 것 같다. 얼마 지나지 않아 609년 4월 17일 사망했다. 사료 아단의 행적이 기록된 사료로는 베다 베네라빌리스의 『앵글인의 교회사』, 아일랜드 편년사서들 중 『울라 편년사』와 『티게르나크의 편년사』, 아돔나누스 히엔시스의 「성자 콜룸바의 삶」 등이 있다. 달 리어타의 족보서 겸 호구조사서인 『알바인의 역사』에는 아단의 조상들과 직계후손들이 기록되어 있다. 하지만 이 사료들 중 어느 것도 아단이 살던 6세기 당대의 것은 없다. 아돔나누스의 콜룸바 성인전은 7세기 말에 쓰였는데, 아이오나 수도원장 쿰메네우스 알부스가 먼저 쓴 성인전의 내용을 인용하고 있다. 쿰메네우스의 성인전이 쓰여진 시기는 이르게 잡으면 640년경으로 비정할 수 있다. 베다 베네라빌리스의 교회사서는 아돔나누스보다 30여년 뒤에 쓰여진 것이며, 아일랜드 편년사서들에서 이 시기를 다루는 내용 역시 7세기 중반 이후에 쓰여졌다. 1130년경에 작성된 롤린슨 B 502번 필사본에는 「오후의 아들 브란두브와 가브란의 아들 아단의 탄생」()이라는 이야기가 보존되어 있다. 이 이야기에 따르면, 아단 막 가브란은 라긴 국왕 브란둡 막 에하크와 쌍둥이 형제로, 이 켄셀락 씨족에 속한다. 달 리어타의 가브란 왕도 라긴의 쌍둥이 왕자와 같은 날 쌍둥이 왕녀를 보았는데, 이 두 왕실은 아들과 딸을 한 명씩 바꾸기로 했다. 그래서 아단은 가브란의 아들("막 가브란")이 되었다. 「베르칸의 예언시」에서도 아단을 라긴 출신이라고 설명한다. 하지만 스코틀랜드의 역사학자 존 월터 맥도널드 배너먼은 이런 전통적 야사들이 아무 사실적 근거가 없다고 결론내린다. 지금은 실전되어 전하지 않는 아일랜드어 이야기 「가브란의 아들 아단의 모험」()이 여러 사료들에서 언급되지만, 그 내용은 알 수 없다. 프랜시스 존 번은 「아단의 모험」이 11세기 에린의 지고왕 디어르마트 막 밀 너 므보가 스코트인의 왕 말 콜룸 3세 막 돈카다와의 외교를 돈독히 하기 위해 쓰게 한 것이라고 추측했다. 디어르마트 지고왕은 브란두브의 후손이고, 말 콜룸 3세는 아단 막 가브란의 후손을 자처했기 때문이다. 아단은 「카노 막 가르트난의 이야기」에도 등장하지만, 이 이야기에서 묘사되는 사건들은 7세기 중엽에 일어난 것으로 보인다. 또한 「몽간의 수태」에도 아단이 등장한다. 웨일스 쪽 사료에도 아단이 여러 번 등장하는데, 브리튼인이 아닌 사람으로서 웨일스 전통사서에 이렇게 자주 등장하는 것은 매우 드문 일이다. 웨일스어 사료들에서는 그를 아에단 브라다욱()이라고 부른다. "브라다욱"이라는 별명은 "기만자(The Treacherous)" 또는 "간교한 자(The Wily)"라는 뜻이다. 달 리어타와 인접한 브리튼계 왕국 알트클리트 국왕 러데르흐 1세 하엘과의 동맹을 파기한 일 때문에 이런 별명을 얻은 것 같다. 러데르흐 1세와 아단 사이의 원한은 프러데인섬의 삼제시를 비롯해 여러 곳에서 확인된다. 한편 삼제시에서는 아단의 군대가 "프러데인 섬의 3대 군세" 중 하나로서 "주군의 명령에 따라 바다로 나갔다"고 하는데, 이것은 사료가 실전되어 전하지 않는 아단의 해외 원정에 관한 이야기일 수 있으며, 만약 그렇다면 그 원정 대상은 오크니 제도 또는 맨섬이었을 것이다. 또한 웨일스어 사료들에서는 아단이 브리튼계 혈통을 가지고 있다고 주장한다. 「북방인의 가계」에서는 아단이 6세기 초 알트클리트 국왕이었던 더픈왈 1세 헨의 후손이라고 한다. 다만 이 족보는 "가우란()"이 아단의 아버지가 아닌 아들로 기록되어 있는 등 다소 혼란스럽다. 컴브로라틴어 사료 De Situ Brecheniauc와 Cognacio Brychan에서는 아단의 어머니가 웨일스 소왕국 중 하나인 브러헤이니옥 왕 브러한의 딸 루안(Luan)이라고 한다. 이런 족보서들은 서로 내용도 맞지 않고 신뢰성도 의심스럽지만, 하나같이 아단이 브리튼계와 밀접한 관련이 있다고 주장하는 점에서 특기할 만 하다. 당대 상황 달 리어타는 여러 소왕국들로 이루어진 연맹왕국이었다. 아단은 달 리어타의 지고왕으로서 이런 소왕들을 거느렸다. 아단이 왕 노릇을 하던 6세기에 관한 기록은 남은 것이 없으나, 『알바인의 역사』에는 7세기에서 8세기 사이 달 리어타의 행정구역이 전해지고 있다. 이에 따르면 7세기에 달 리어타는 3개의 소왕국으로 나뉘었고, 각 소왕국은 건국자의 이름으로 불렸다. 우선 케넬 느가브란(Cenél nGabráin)은 아단의 아버지 가브란 막 도망가르트의 이름이 붙었으며, 킨타이어반도, 코월반도, 뷰트섬을 다스렸다. 두 번째로 케넬 로아른(Cenél Loairn)은 로아른 막 에르크의 이름이 붙었고 아가일 북부를 다스렸다. 마지막으로 케넬 농구사(Cenél nÓengusa)는 페르구스 모르의 동생 옹구스 모르 막 에르크(Óengus Mór mac Eirc)의 이름이 붙었고 아일레이섬을 다스렸다. 이 세 소왕국 밑에 또 부족 단위의 구역들이 있었으며 그것들이 『알바인의 역사』에 기록되어 있다. 한편 해협 건너 아일랜드섬 쪽의 사정은 이에 비해 기록이 부실하다. 바깥을 보자면 게일인이 사는 달 리어타의 이웃나라는 픽트인이 사는 픽트랜드, 그리고 브리튼인이 사는 헨 오글레드였다. 헨 오글레드는 오늘날의 북잉글랜드와 저지 스코틀랜드의 전신이 되는 지역이다. 헨 오글레드에서 가장 강력한 브리튼계 국가는 알트클리트였다. 아단의 생애 말엽에는 앵글로색슨인 국가인 베오르니체가 브리튼섬 북부에서 가장 강대한 세력이 되었다. 아일랜드섬에서는 달 리어타가 울라의 일부 지역을 다스렸다. 달 리어타의 울라 지역을 다스린 것은 달 피어타크 씨족의 바탄 막 카릴이었다. 또한 울라 지역에는 달 리어타에 복속되지 않은 크루힌 부족이 통일되지 않은 채 살았는데, 이들 부족이 달 나라디 씨족의 전신이 된다. 아단 막 가브란의 시대의 크루힌 왕들 중 가장 중요한 인물로는 피어크네 막 바탄이 있다. 울라 지역을 벗어나면 이 넬 씨족의 여러 왕국들과 그 봉신국들, 동맹국들이 있었고, 이들 남쪽 국가들은 대개 달 리어타의 울라에 적대적이었다. 이 넬 왕들 중 아단의 시대에 가장 중요했던 왕으로는 북 이 넬의 케넬 코날 씨족에 속하는 아드 막 안미레크가 있다. 아드 막 안미레크는 성자 콜룸바와 종형제지간이었다. 치세 상술한 모든 사료들에서 아단 막 가브란은 가브란 막 도망가르트의 아들로 기록된다. 아돔나누스에 따르면 아단에게는 오가난(Eoganán)이라는 형제가 있었고 오가난은 597년경에 죽었다. 『알바인의 역사』에는 가브란의 다른 아들 세 명의 이름이 더 거론되는데, 킬다크(Cuildach), 돔날(Domnall), 도망가르트(Domangart)라고 한다. 킬다크와 도망가르트에 관해서는 아무것도 알려진 바 없다. 아돔나누스가 "돔날의 아들 코날의 아들 이오안(Ioan)"이 "케넬 느가브란의 왕통에 속한다"고 기록한 바 있으나, 현재 이것은 그저 이오안이 케넬 느가브란 씨족에 속한다는 뜻으로만 해석될 뿐, 이오안의 할아버지 돔날이 아단의 남동생 돔날과 동일인이라고 생각되지는 않는다. 574년 숙부 코날 막 콤갈이 죽고 아단이 왕위를 계승했을 때 그의 나이는 40여 세였다. 아단의 왕위계승은 순탄치 않았고 여러 도전자가 있었던 것으로 보인다. 아돔나누스는 성자 콜룸바는 아단의 동생 오가난(Eoganán)을 지지했었다고 기록했다. 아돔나누스는 아단이 콜룸바에게 왕으로 서품받았다고 주장했는데, 이것이 사실이라면 브리튼섬과 아일랜드섬을 통틀어 가장 최초의 대관식 사례로 꼽힐 것이다. 『울라 편년사』와 『티게르나크의 편년사』는 전 왕 코날이 죽은 574년 이후 킨타이어반도에서 전투가 있었다고 기록한다. 이 전투를 텔로크(Teloch) 전투 또는 델구(Delgu) 전투라고 한다. 전투가 벌어진 정확한 장소는 알려져 있지 않다. 아일랜드 편년사서들은 “콤갈의 아들 코날의 아들 둔카드를 비롯한 가브란의 아들들의 여러 동맹자들이 쓰러졌다”고 같은 내용을 전하고 있다. 『울라 편년사』 575년 기사에는 리머배디 근교의 물라(Mullagh)고지에서 "드림케트(Druim Cett) 대회의"가 열렸고, 여기에 아드 막 안미레크와 콜룸바가 참석했다고 기록하고 있다. 아돔나누스는 이 회의에 아단도 참석했다고 기록한다. 회의의 주제는 다 알려져 있지 않지만, 아단의 달 리어타 왕국의 처우에 관한 문제가 거론되어 합의가 이루어졌다. 아단과 아드는 이 넬 왕조가 달 리어타의 함대를 동원하는 대가로 달 리어타는 이 넬에 다른 공물을 바치지 않아도 되며, 병사들의 경우 울라 지역에서만 징병해 제공한다는 것에 동의했다. 이 합의가 이루어진 것은 당시 바탄 막 카릴이 아단과 아드에게 모두 위협이 되었기 때문으로 생각된다. 바탄은 오늘날의 앤트림주 아일랜드매기반도로 달 리어타 국왕을 불러다가 자신에게 경의를 표하라고 치욕을 주었는데, 아단이 바로 그 문제의 달 리어타 국왕으로 생각된다. 또한 울라 쪽 사료에는 바탄이 스코틀랜드에서 공물을 뜯었다는 언급도 있다. 581년 바탄이 죽으면서 울라인들은 바탄의 시대에 점령했던 맨섬을 버리고 떠났다. 어쩌면 아단이 쫓아낸 것일 수도 있다. 아단이 583년경 맨섬에서 싸웠다는 기록이 있다. 그보다 조금 전인 580년경, 아단은 오크니 제도를 공격했다. 당시 오크니는 픽트인의 왕 브리데 1세의 신하국이었다. 아단의 맨섬 원정은 아돔나누스가 언급한 "미어히(Miathi)"와의 전투와 혼동되는 경우가 있다. 미어히는 포스강 유역의 부족연맹체인 마이아타이를 말하는 것으로 보인다. 이 원정은 성공했으나 아단의 아들 아르투르(Artúr)와 오하드 핀드(Eochaid Find)가 작전 중 사망했다고 아돔나누스는 전한다. 이 전투는 590년경에 있었으며 레흐레드(Leithreid) 또는 레흐리그(Leithrig) 전투라고 기록되었다. 「베르칸의 예언시」에서는 아단이 픽트인과 싸우리라는 내용이 있다. 아단과 픽트인 사이의 유일한 기록된 전투는 599년 또는 그 이후에 키르킨(Circinn)에서 벌어졌던 것으로 보이며, 이 전투에서 아단이 패배했다. 편년사서들은 이 전투에서 아단의 아들들도 죽었다고 언급하고 있다. 이 기록이 584년경 키르킨에서 벌어진 아스레흐(Asreth) 전투와 혼동된 것이라는 설이 있다. 아스레흐 전투에서는 픽트인의 왕 브리데 1세가 죽었으며, 픽트인들 사이의 내전이었다고 한다. 웨일스 쪽 전통사서들에서는 아단과 알트클리트 국왕 러데르흐 1세 하엘 사이에 전쟁이 벌어졌다고 기록하고 있다. 잉글랜드 문헌학자 헥터 문로 채드윅은 아단이 원래 러데르흐 1세 및 그 전의 알트클리트 국왕들과 오랫동안 동맹을 맺고 있었다가, 러데르흐 1세의 대에 와서 동맹이 깨지고 전쟁으로 비화되었다는 설을 제안했고 후대 역사학자들도 이 해석을 따르고 있다. 아돔나누스는 러데르흐가 루이그베(Luigbe)라는 수도사를 아이오나섬에 보내 콜룸바에게 “그의 적들과 함께 도륙될 것인지 말 것인지 알기 위한” 대화를 나누었다고 기록했다. 프러데인섬의 삼제시에서는 아단의 알트클리트 약탈이 브리튼섬의 “3대 무분별한 약탈”이었다고 한다. 또한 「젊은이들을 지휘함」(Peiryan Vaban)이라는 시에서도 아단과 러데르흐 사이의 전투를 노래하고 있다. 지금은 실전된 아일랜드어 서사시 Orgain Sratha Cluada는 보통 870년 바이킹이 알트클리트를 공격한 것을 노래한 작품이었을 것으로 생각되고 있지만, 앨런 맥쿼리는 이것이 아단의 러데르흐 공격을 노래한 것이라는 설을 제기한다. 몰락 아단은 603년 데그사스탄 전투에서 베오르니체 왕국에게 패배하여 몰락했다고 하는데, 데그사스탄이 베오르니체와 달 리어타 사이의 첫 분쟁은 아니었던 것으로 보인다. 아돔나누스의 기록에 아단의 아들 도망가르트가 색슨인의 땅에서 죽었다는 언급이 있고, 브란 역시 기록되지 않은 다른 전투에서 죽은 것으로 추측된다. 베다 베네라빌리스는 아단이 애설프리스의 성장을 위험시한 것이 분쟁의 근원이라고 언급했다. 데그사스탄 전투가 벌어진 곳이 정확히 어디인지는 알 수 없지만 베다는 노섬브리아 땅에 전장이 있었을 것이라 보았다. 전투는 애설프리스의 결정적 승리로 끝났고, 베다는 “그 때로부터 오늘날에 이르기까지 브리튼섬의 어떤 아일랜드계 왕도 앵글인에게 감히 싸움을 걸지 못했다”고 조심스럽게 덧붙였다. 전투에는 승리했지만 애설프레드 역시 상당한 손실을 입었는데, 베다의 기록에 따르면 애설프레드의 동생 테오발드(Theodbald)와 그 무리가 전멸했다고 한다. 테오발드는 아일랜드 쪽 문헌들에서는 안프리흐(Eanfrith)라고 불리며, 케넬 노간의 말 우마 막 바탄이 그를 죽였다고 한다. 말 우마 막 바탄은 바탄 막 니네도의 아들이다. 「몽간의 수태」에서는 울라 국왕 피어크너 막 바탄이 군대를 이끌고 아단을 도와 색슨인과 싸웠다고 하는데, 어쩌면 그도 데그사스탄에 참전한 것일 가능성이 있다. 『앵글로색슨 연대기』에서는 베오르니체의 전 국왕 후사의 아들 헤링 왕자가 이 싸움터에서 아단의 편에 서 싸웠다고 한다. 헤링은 왕위계승에서 애설프리스에게 패배하고 달 리어타에 망명한 상태였다. 데그사스탄에서 대패하고 609년 4월 17일 죽을 때까지 그 사이 6년간 아단의 행적은 전혀 기록된 바가 없다. 아단의 사망일자는 800년경 기록인 『탈라그트의 순교록』에 나온다. 『티게르나크의 편년사』에서는 아단이 향년 74세로 죽었다고 한다. 「베르칸의 예언시」에서는 그가 킨타이어반도에서 죽을 것이며 “죽을 때는 왕이 아니리라”고 했다. 12세기에 쓰인 『성 라스렌의 행적』에서는 아단이 왕위에서 쫓겨났다고 하며, 14세기 사람인 존 포르둔은 아단이 킨타이어반도 킬케란에 묻혔다고 썼다. 가계 아단의 왕위는 그 아들 오하드 비더 막 아단이 계승했다. 아돔나누스는 콜룸바가 오하드의 형들이 부왕을 계승할 것이라 예측했었다고 기록했다. 『알바인의 역사』에 기록되어 있는 아단의 다른 아들들의 이름은 오하드 핀드(Eochaid Find), 투어헐(Tuathal), 브란(Bran), 바헤너(Baithéne), 코낭(Conaing), 가르트나트(Gartnait)다. 또 아돔나누스는 아르투르(Artúr)와 도망가르트(Domangart)라는 아들들도 있었다고 기록했는데, 『알바인의 역사』에는 아르투르는 코낭의 아들로 아단의 손자로 올라가 있고 도망가르트는 아예 보이지 않는다. 도망가르트 역시 아르투르와 마찬가지로 아단의 아들이 아닌 손자였을 수도 있으며, 그렇다면 아버지는 코낭일 가능성이 크다. 케넬 느가브란의 왕통은 오하드 비더를 통해 그 아들 돔날 브레크 막 에크다크로 계승되었으나, 코낭의 후손들이 7세기에서 8세기에 이르기까지 계속 왕위에 도전했다. 아단의 아들 가르트나트가 픽트인의 왕 가르트나트 2세(601년경 사망)와 동일인이라는 설이 있다. 하지만 이것은 픽트인이 모계제였으리라는 추측에 의존한 것이기 때문에 비판받는다. 가르트나트 2세의 다음 왕 네크탄 2세가 가르트나트의 손자이며 따라서 아단의 증손자라는 설도 있지만 이것은 더욱 설득력이 떨어진다. 아단의 딸들에 관해서는 아들들에 비해 알려진 것이 적다. 게머(Gemma)라고도 하는 마흐겜(Maithgemm)이 달 피어타크의 카렐(Cairell)과 결혼했다는 기록이 있다. 아단은 아내를 여럿 두었는데 그 중 이름이 기록된 사람은 없다. 다만 한 명은 브리튼인이었고 다른 한 명은 픽트인이었다고 하는데, 위 설에 따라 가르트나트 2세가 아단의 아들이 맞다면 픽트인 왕비의 이름은 도멜크(Domelch)가 된다. 각주 참고 자료 달 리어타 국왕 609년 사망 아일랜드 신화 (열왕 대계) 폐위된 군주 6세기 스코틀랜드의 군주 7세기 스코틀랜드의 군주

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81ed%C3%A1n%20mac%20Gabr%C3%A1in

Áedán mac Gabráin

Áedán mac Gabráin (pronounced in Old Irish; ), also written as Aedan, was a king of Dál Riata from 574 until c. 609 AD. The kingdom of Dál Riata was situated in modern Argyll and Bute, Scotland, and parts of County Antrim, Ireland. Genealogies record that Áedán was a son of Gabrán mac Domangairt. He was a contemporary of Saint Columba, and much that is recorded of his life and career comes from hagiography such as Adomnán of Iona's Life of Saint Columba. Áedán appears as a character in Old Irish and Middle Irish language works of prose and verse, some now lost. The Irish annals record Áedán's campaigns against his neighbours, in Ireland, and in northern Britain, including expeditions to the Orkney Islands, the Isle of Man, and the east coast of Scotland. As recorded by Bede, Áedán was decisively defeated by Æthelfrith of Bernicia at the Battle of Degsastan. Áedán may have been deposed, or have abdicated, following this defeat. His date of death is recorded by one source as 17 April 609, in Kilkerran. Sources The sources for Áedán's life include Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum; Irish annals, principally the Annals of Ulster and the Annals of Tigernach; and Adomnán's Life of Saint Columba. The Senchus fer n-Alban, a census and genealogy of Dál Riata, purports to record his ancestry and that of his immediate descendants. None of these sources are contemporary. Adomnán's work was written in the very late 7th century, probably to mark the centenary of Columba's death. It incorporates elements from a lost earlier life of Columba, De virtutibus sancti Columbae, by Cumméne Find. This may have been written as early as 640; neither the elements incorporated from Cumméne's work nor Adomnán's own writings can be treated as simple history. Bede's history was written 30 years after Adomnán's. The surviving Irish annals contain elements of a chronicle kept at Iona from the middle of the 7th century onwards, so that these too are retrospective when dealing with Áedán's time. The Rawlinson B 502 manuscript, dated to c. 1130, contains the tale Gein Branduib maic Echach ocus Aedáin maic Gabráin (The Birth of Brandub son of Eochu and of Aedán son of Gabrán). In this story, Áedán is the twin brother of Brandub mac Echach, a King of Leinster who belonged to the Uí Cheinnselaig kindred. Áedán is exchanged at birth for one of the twin daughters of Gabrán, born the same night, so that each family might have a son. The Prophecy of Berchán also associates Áedán with Leinster. John Bannerman concluded that "[t]here seems to be no basis of fact behind these traditions." Francis John Byrne suggested that the Echtra was written by a poet at the court of Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó, an 11th-century descendant of Brandub, and was written to cement an alliance between Diarmait and the Scots king Máel Coluim mac Donnchada ("Malcolm III"), who claimed to be a descendant of Áedán. A lost Irish tale, Echtra Áedáin mac Gabráin (The Adventures of Áedán son of Gabrán), appears in a list of works, but its contents are unknown. Áedán is a character in the epic Scéla Cano meic Gartnáin, but the events which inspired the tale appear to have taken place in the middle of the 7th century. He also appears in the tale Compert Mongáin. Áedán additionally appears in a variety of Welsh sources, making him one of the few non-Britons to figure in Welsh tradition. Welsh sources call him Aedan Bradawc, meaning "The Treacherous" or "The Wily". He may have earned this epithet after the collapse of an alliance with Rhydderch Hael, king of the nearby Brittonic kingdom of Alt Clut; enmity between them is remembered in the Welsh Triads and elsewhere. Another Triad records Áedán's host as one of the "Three Faithful War-Bands of the Island of Britain", as they "went to the sea for their lord". This may point to an otherwise lost tradition concerning one of Áedán's sea expeditions, such as to Orkney or the Isle of Man. Additionally, several Welsh works claim a Brittonic pedigree for Áedán. The Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd records him as a descendant of Dyfnwal Hen of Alt Clut, though the genealogy is much confused (Gauran is given as his son, rather than father). The Cambro-Latin De Situ Brecheniauc and Cognacio Brychan claim his mother was Luan, daughter of Brychan of Brycheiniog in Wales. Though these pedigrees are inconsistent and likely dubious, they are notable in highlighting Áedán's close association with the Britons. Neighbours Áedán was the chief king in Dál Riata, ruling over lesser tribal kings. The Senchus fer n-Alban records the sub-divisions of Dál Riata in the 7th and 8th centuries, but no record from Áedán's time survives. According to the Senchus, Dál Riata was divided into three sub-kingdoms in the 7th century, each ruled by a kin group named for their eponymous founder. These were the Cenél nGabráin, named for Áedán's father, who ruled over Kintyre, Cowal and Bute; the Cenél Loairn of northern Argyll; and the Cenél nÓengusa of Islay. Within these there were smaller divisions or tribes which are named by the Senchus. Details of the Irish part of the kingdom are less clear. Looking outward, Dál Riata's neighbours in north Britain were the Picts and the Britons of the Hen Ogledd, the Brittonic-speaking parts of what is now Northern England and southern Lowland Scotland. The most powerful Brittonic kingdom in the area was Alt Clut, later known as Strathclyde and Cumbria. Late in Áedán's life, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Bernicia became the greatest power in north Britain. In Ireland, Dál Riata formed part of Ulster, ruled by Báetán mac Cairill of the Dál Fiatach. The other major grouping in Ulster consisted of the disunited tribes of the Cruithne, later known as the Dál nAraidi. The most important Cruithne king in Áedán's time was Fiachnae mac Báetáin. Beyond the kingdom of Ulster, and generally hostile to it, were the various kingdoms and tribes of the Uí Néill and their subjects and allies. Of the Uí Néill kings, Áed mac Ainmuirech of the Cenél Conaill, Columba's first cousin once removed, was the most important during Áedán's reign. Reign Adomnán, the Senchus fer n-Alban and the Irish annals record Áedán as a son of Gabrán mac Domangairt (died c. 555–560). Áedán's brother Eoganán is known from Adomnán and his death is recorded c. 597. The Senchus names three other sons of Gabrán, namely Cuildach, Domnall, and Domangart. Although nothing is known of Cuildach and Domangart or their descendants, Adomnán mentions a certain Ioan, son of Conall, son of Domnall, "who belonged to the royal lineage of the Cenél nGabráin", but this is generally read as meaning that Ioan was a kinsman of the Cenél nGabráin, and his grandfather named Domnall is not thought to be the same person as Áedán's brother Domnall. Áedán was about forty years old when he became king, following the death of his uncle Conall mac Comgaill in 574. His succession as king may have been contested; Adomnán states that Columba had favoured the candidacy of Áedán's brother Eoganán. Adomnán claims that Áedán was ordained as king by Columba, the first example of an ordination known in Britain and Ireland. In 574, following the account of Conall's death, the Annals of Ulster and the Annals of Tigernach record a battle in Kintyre, called the Battle of Teloch, or Delgu. The precise location of the battle is unidentified. The annals agree that "Dúnchad, son of Conall, son of Comgall, and many others of the allies of the sons of Gabrán, fell." In 575, the Annals of Ulster report "the great convention of Druim Cett", at Mullagh or Daisy Hill near Limavady, with Áed mac Ainmuirech and Columba in attendance. Adomnán reports that Áedán was present at the meeting. The purpose of the meeting is not entirely certain, but one agreement made there concerned the status of Áedán's kingdom. Áedán and Áed agreed that while the fleet of Dál Riata would serve the Uí Néill, no tribute would be paid to them, and warriors would only be provided from the Dál Riata lands in Ireland. The reason for this agreement is thought to have been the threat posed to Áedán, and also to Áed, by Báetán mac Cairill. Báetán is said to have forced the king of Dál Riata to pay homage to him at Rosnaree on Islandmagee. Áedán is thought to be the king in question, and Ulster sources say that Báetán collected tribute from Scotland. Following Báetán's death in 581, the Ulstermen abandoned the Isle of Man, which they had captured in Báetán's time, perhaps driven out by Áedán who is recorded as fighting there c. 583. Earlier, c. 580, Áedán is said to have raided Orkney, which had been subject to Bridei son of Maelchon, King of the Picts, at an earlier date. Áedán's campaigns on the Isle of Man have sometimes been confused with the battle against the Miathi mentioned by Adomnán. The Miathi appear to have been the Maeatae, a tribe in the area of the upper river Forth. This campaign was successful, but Áedán's sons Artúr and Eochaid Find were killed in battle according to Adomnán. This battle may have taken place c. 590 and been recorded as the Battle of Leithreid or Leithrig. The Prophecy of Berchán says of Áedán: "Thirteen years (one after another) [he will fight against] the Pictish host (fair the diadem)." The only recorded battle between Áedán and the Picts appears to have been fought in Circinn, in 599 or after, where Áedán was defeated. The annals mention the deaths of his sons here. It has been suggested that this battle was confused with the "Battle of Asreth" in Circinn, fought c. 584, in which Bridei son of Maelchon was killed. This battle is described as being "fought between the Picts themselves". A number of Welsh traditions point to warfare between Áedán and King Rhydderch Hael of Alt Clut, the northern Brittonic kingdom later known as Strathclyde. Hector Munro Chadwick and subsequent historians suggest Áedán was initially in a long-term alliance with Rhydderch and his predecessors, but that it eventually collapsed into conflict. Adomnán reports that Rhydderch sent a monk named Luigbe to Iona to speak with Columba "for he wanted to learn whether he would be slaughtered by his enemies or not". A Welsh Triad names Áedán's plundering of Alt Clut as one of the "three unrestrained plunderings of Britain", and the poem Peiryan Vaban tells of a battle between Áedán and Rhydderch. The lost Irish epic Orgain Sratha Cluada is usually thought to refer to the attack on Alt Clut in 870 by Vikings, but MacQuarrie suggests that it may refer to an attack by Áedán on Rhydderch. Degsastan and after Degsastan appears not to have been the first battle between Áedán and the Bernicians. The death of his son Domangart in the land of the Saxons is mentioned by Adomnán, and it is presumed that Bran died in the same otherwise unrecorded battle. Of the roots of this conflict, Bede mentions only that Áedán was alarmed by Æthelfrith's advance. Wherever the Battle of Degsastan was fought, Bede saw it as lying within Northumbria. The battle was a decisive victory for Æthelfrith, and Bede says, carefully, that "[f]rom that day until the present, no king of the Irish in Britain has dared to do battle with the English." Although victorious, Æthelfrith suffered losses; Bede tells us his brother Theodbald was killed with all his following. Theodbald appears to be called Eanfrith in Irish sources, which name his killer as Máel Umai mac Báetáin of the Cenél nEógain, son of High-King Báetán mac Ninnedo. The Irish poem Compert Mongáin says that the king of Ulster, Fiachnae mac Báetáin of the Dál nAraidi, aided Áedán against the Saxons, perhaps at Degsastan. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle mentions that Hering, son of King Hussa of Bernicia, was present, apparently fighting with Áedán. After the defeat of Degsastan, the annals report nothing of Áedán until his death around six years later, perhaps on 17 April 609, the date supplied by the Martyrology of Tallaght, composed c. 800. The Annals of Tigernach give his age as 74. The Prophecy of Berchán places his death in Kintyre and says "[h]e will not be king at the time of his death", while the 12th century Acta Sancti Lasriani claims that he was expelled from the kingship. John of Fordun, writing in the 14th century, believed that Áedán had been buried at Kilkerran in Kintyre. Áedán's descendants Áedán was succeeded by his son, Eochaid Buide. Adomnán gives an account of Columba's prophecy that Eochaid's older brothers (listed as Artúr, Eochaid Find and Domangart) would predecease their father. Áedán's other sons are named by the Senchus fer n-Alban as Eochaid Find, Tuathal, Bran, Baithéne, Conaing, and Gartnait. Adomnán also names Artúr, called a son of Conaing in the Senchus, and Domangart, who is not included in the Senchus. Domangart too may have been a grandson rather than a son of Áedán, most likely another son of Conaing. The main line of Cenél nGabráin kings were the descendants of Eochaid Buide through his son Domnall Brecc, but the descendants of Conaing successfully contested for the throne throughout the 7th century and into the 8th. It has been suggested that Gartnait son of Áedán could be the same person as Gartnait son of Domelch, king of the Picts, whose death is reported around 601, but this rests on the idea of Pictish matriliny, which has been criticised. Even less certainly, it has been argued that Gartnait's successor in the Pictish king-lists, Nechtan, was his grandson, and thus Áedán's great-grandson. Less is known of Áedán's daughters. Maithgemm, also recorded as Gemma, married a prince named Cairell of the Dál Fiatach. The names of Áedán's wives are not recorded, but one was said to be Brittonic, and another may have been a Pictish woman named Domelch, if indeed the Gartnait son of Domelch and Gartnait son of Áedán are one and the same. Notes References External links CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts at University College Cork includes: the Gein Branduib maic Echach ocus Aedáin maic Gabráin, the Scéla Cano meic Gartnáin, and Irish annals, some with translations Compert Mongán translated by Mary Jones. Artúr mac Aedan of Dalriada by Michelle Ziegler, The Heroic Age Issue 1, Spring/Summer 1999 Scéla – a catalogue of medieval Irish narratives 6th-century births 600s deaths Year of birth unknown Year of death uncertain Kings of Dál Riata Cycles of the Kings 7th-century Scottish monarchs 7th-century Irish monarchs 6th-century Irish monarchs 6th-century Scottish monarchs

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%EB%85%84%20%EB%A0%88%EC%8A%A4%ED%84%B0%20%ED%97%AC%EB%A6%AC%EC%BD%A5%ED%84%B0%20%EC%B6%94%EB%9D%BD%20%EC%82%AC%EA%B3%A0

2018년 레스터 헬리콥터 추락 사고

2018년 레스터 헬리콥터 추락 사고는 2018년 10월 27일 아구스타웨스틀랜드 AW169 기종의 비차이 소유 헬기가 킹 파워 스타디움 인근에 추락해 레스터 시티의 구단주 위차이 시와타나쁘라파를 포함해 탑승자 5명이 전원 사망한 사고다. 사고 개요 2018년 10월 27일 G-VSKP기에 기장과 승객 1명이 탑승하고 서리 주에 위치한 페어옥스 공항에서 이륙했다. 런던 헬리포트에 승객 3명(위차이, 직원 2명)을 더 태운채 14:43 BST(13:43 UTC)에 이륙해 벨보어 드라이브에 있는 레스터 시티 훈련장으로 이동해 15:58 BST(14:58 UTC)에 착륙했다. 탑승객들은 모두 내려 차량으로 킹 파워 스타디움까지 이동했다. 10라운드 레스터 시티와 웨스트햄 유나이티드와의 홈 경기가 끝난 뒤 기장과 승객 1명은 경기장을 떠나 헬기로 돌아와 평소대로 시와타나쁘라파와 그의 직원 2명을 태우러 헬기로 경기장까지 이동했다. 헬기가 이륙 준비를 하는 장면이 BT 스포츠 방송에 촬영되기도 하였다. 헬기는 루턴 공항으로 이동할 예정이었다. 사고 발생 위차이와 기장, 나머지 3명은 헬기에 탑승하여 경기장 안에서 대략 20:37 BST (19:37 UTC)에 이륙하였다. 헬기가 상승하면서 항로상 방향으로 돌리자 기체가 오른쪽으로 기울어지면서 걷잡을 수 없이 회전했다. 결국, 경기장에서 약 200m 떨어진 E주차장에 추락하고, 헬기는 화염에 뒤싸였다. 현장에 경찰관 두 명이 다가가 그 중 한 명이 헬기에 달려가 구조하기 위해 창문을 깨기 위해 노력했지만 화염 때문에 물러날 수 밖에 없었다. 다음 날, 레스터셔 경찰은 공식적으로 헬기에 타고 있던 5명 전원이 추락과 그 이후에 발생한 화재 때문에 사망했다고 밝힘과 더불어 사망자에 이름을 공개했다. 탑승객 5명 중 3명은 태국인으로 레스터 시티의 구단주인 위차이 시와타나쁘라파, 그의 직원 2명 끄위폰 판프래(Kaveporn Punpare), 누사라 숙나마이(Nusara Suknamai)와 영국 국적의 기장인 에릭 스와퍼(Eric Swaffer)와 폴란드 국적의 부기장이자 스와퍼의 여자친구인 이자벨라 로자 레호비치(Izabela Roza Lechowicz)가 사망했다고 밝혔다. "탑승자 외에 다른 사상자는 없었다"라고 덧붙였다. 헬기 정보 해당 헬기의 기종은 아구스타웨스틀랜드 AW169고 등록기호는 G-VSKP, c/n 69018로 2016년에 만들어졌다. 10인승이며 중량은 약 4,500kg (9,900 lb)다. 프랫트 앤 휘트니 캐나다 PW210A(Pratt & Whitney Canada PW210A) 엔진 2개를 사용한다. 소유자는 폭스버러(Foxborough)고, 아마데우스 항공(Amadeus Aviation)이 운항했다. 조사 영국항공사고조사위원회(AAIB)는 사건에 대해 조사를 착수했다. 사고기 제조사의 나라인 이탈리아의 항공안전위원회(ANSV)와 사고기의 엔진 제조사의 나라인 캐나다의 교통안전위원회(TSB)가 수사를 지원했다. 폴란드항공사고조사위원회(SCAAI)와 태국항공사고조사위원회(AAIC)의 관계자들도 파견됐다. 10월 28일, 화재로 심각하게 손상된 디지털 비행기록장치가 발견됐고, 기록장치에 담겨있는 데이터를 추출하기 위해 햄프셔주 판버러에 위치한 AAIB 본부로 운송되었다. 11월 2일, 헬기의 잔해도 판버러로 운송되었다. 사고 헬기의 승객과 승무원의 사망 원인을 조사하기 위해 검시 법정이 만들어졌다. 11월 7일, 유럽항공안전청(EASA)는 감항성 개선지시(Airworthiness Directive) 2018-0241-E를 공표했고, 모든 아구스타웨스틀랜드 AW169와 아구스타웨스틀랜드 AW189 기종인 헬기의 꼬리에 대해 검사를 통지했다. 11월 14일, 조사 진행 과정을 요약한 보고서를 공개했고, 요잉(Yawing) 제어력 상실이 추락의 원인으로 밝혀졌고, 요잉 제어력 상실의 원인은 아직 밝혀지지 않았고, 꼬리회전날개(tail rotor)에 중점을 맞추고 수사하고 있다. 11월 30일, EASA는 꼬리회전날개 일부에 대해 주기 점검을 통지하기 위한 비상경보정비를 회보했다. 2018년 12월 6일, AAIB는 2차 사고진행 보고서(Special Bulletin)를 공개했다. 조사관은 꼬리회전날개의 제어축이 작동레버장치(actuator lever mechanism)와 분리되어 조종실의 페달이 작동하지 않은 것이 요잉 제어력 상실의 원인이라고 밝혔다. 꼬리회전날개의 잠금너트와 핀 캐리어도 느슨해진 상태로 발견됐다. 반응 및 여파 서포터들은 다음날 아침에 경기장 밖에 꽃과 유니폼을 놓으면서 추모했다. 사고 전 레스터 시티의 상대팀인 웨스트햄 유니폼도 눈에 띄였다. 10월 30일, 레스터 시티는 조문록을 비치했고, 온라인으로도 작성할 수 있게 했다. 11월 10일 토요일, 레스터 시티 팬들은 '5000-1' 추모걷기축제 참여해 헬기 추락 사고의 희생자들을 기렸다. 축구계 2018-19 FA 여자 챔피언십 레스터 시티와 맨체스터 시티 경기는 희생자에 대한 추모를 위해 연기되었다. 사고 이후, 리그 경기 시작 전 희생자들을 기리기 위해 묵념의 시간을 가졌고, 선수들 모두 검은 완장을 찼다. 각주 2018년 잉글랜드 2018년 항공 사고 잉글랜드에서 일어난 항공 사고 스포츠 관련 항공 사고 레스터의 역사 레스터의 교통 레스터 시티 FC OH 뢰번 2018년 10월

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%20Leicester%20helicopter%20crash

2018 Leicester helicopter crash

On 27 October 2018, a Leonardo AW169 helicopter crashed shortly after take-off from Leicester City's King Power Stadium in Leicester, England, while on route to Luton Airport. All people on board—the pilot and four passengers, including club owner Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha—were killed in the crash. The Air Accidents Investigation Branch attributed the crash to a loss of yaw control owing to a failure of the tail rotor control linkage. History of the flight Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha frequently travelled to and from the stadium in the helicopter for Leicester City's matches, with the Leicester Mercury describing it as "a familiar sight for Foxes fans." On 27 October, the helicopter departed Fairoaks Airport in Surrey with the pilot and his girlfriend on board. It stopped at London Heliport to collect three additional passengers—Srivaddhanaprabha and two members of his staff—before departing at 14:43 BST (13:43 UTC). It arrived at the Leicester City Football Club Training Ground on Belvoir Drive, south of the King Power Stadium at 15:58 BST (14:58 UTC). All on board disembarked and travelled by car to the stadium for Leicester's game against West Ham United. The pilot and his girlfriend returned after the football match concluded and then, as was usual, flew the helicopter to the stadium to collect Srivaddhanaprabha and his two staff members. The helicopter was seen preparing to lift off from the pitch live on BT Sport, during a post-match broadcast. By this point, the coach carrying the West Ham team had departed, but some Leicester City staff members and players were still in the stadium, while there remained fans of both clubs in areas outside. The aircraft was due to fly to Luton Airport. Accident With Vichai, the pilot and three other people on board, the helicopter took off from within the stadium at approximately 20:37 BST (19:37 UTC). As the pilot turned the helicopter towards its en-route heading, the tail rotor control linkage broke, sending the helicopter into an uncontrollable spin. One witness described the aircraft falling "like a stone to the floor". It struck the ground in stadium Car Park E, about from the stadium, and burst into flames. Two police officers and two club staff leaving the stadium attempted to rescue those in the helicopter but had to retreat due to the heat and flames. They sustained heat injuries. Investigators ruled out a suggestion of a collision with a police drone as a possible cause. The following day, Leicestershire Police confirmed that everybody on board had been killed in the crash and subsequent fire, and named the five fatalities. They were three Thais: club owner Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha and two members of his staff—Kaveporn Punpare and Nusara Suknamai, British pilot Eric Swaffer, and his Polish girlfriend, Izabela Roza Lechowicz. A small memorial has been erected at East Sheen Cemetery for these two pilots. It was determined that four of the five occupants survived the crash, but with disabling injuries that prevented their escape from the helicopter. They died in the consequent fire. Two police officers, Michael Hooper and Stephen Quartermain, suffered burns and smoke inhalation attempting to rescue the occupants, and subsequently were nominated for a national police bravery award as well as receiving Queen's Gallantry Medals. Aircraft The aircraft involved in the accident was a Leonardo AW169 helicopter, registration G-VSKP, c/n 69018, manufactured in 2016. It seated 10 people and weighed roughly . It was powered by two Pratt & Whitney Canada PW210A engines. The aircraft was owned by Foxborough and operated by Amadeus Aviation. This was the first crash and hull loss involving the AW169. Investigation The Air Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB) opened an investigation into the accident. Italy's Agenzia Nazionale per la Sicurezza del Volo, representing the state of the manufacturer of the helicopter, and Canada's Transportation Safety Board, representing the state of the manufacturer of the helicopter's engines, provided assistance. Accredited representatives from Poland's State Commission on Aircraft Accidents Investigation and Thailand's Aircraft Accident Investigation Committee also provided assistance. America's National Transportation Safety Board, representing the state of the manufacturer of the tail rotor actuator, and the French Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la Sécurité de l'Aviation Civile, representing the state of the manufacturer of the tail rotor bearing, also assisted. The aircraft's Digital Flight Data Recorder was recovered on 28 October, having been severely damaged in the fire. It was transported to the AAIB's base at Farnborough, Hampshire, for downloading of its data. The wreckage of the helicopter was transported to Farnborough on 2 November. A coroner's inquest was convened to investigate the official cause of death for the passengers and crew of the helicopter. The investigation reported in the court revealed that there was minimal opportunity for any individuals who survived the initial crash to escape, or for anyone to help those trapped. On 7 November, the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) issued an Airworthiness Directive, demanding checks of the tails of all AgustaWestland AW169 and AgustaWestland AW189 helicopters, as a precautionary measure. On 14 November, the AAIB released a Special Bulletin, outlining the progress of the investigation. A loss of yaw control was revealed as the cause of the aircraft crashing, with the reasons for the loss of yaw control not yet determined. On 30 November, the EASA issued an Emergency Alert Service Bulletin requiring periodic inspection of part of the tail rotor system. This was made mandatory by an Airworthiness Directive issued the same day. On 6 December 2018, the AAIB published a second Special Bulletin. Investigators revealed that loss of control of the helicopter resulted from the tail rotor actuator control shaft (which controls the pitch of the tail rotor blades) becoming disconnected from the actuator lever mechanism that transmits the pilots' pedal inputs to control the helicopter's yaw. They have also revealed evidence of the normally stationary control shaft being spun by the tail rotor which caused the castellated nut holding the actuator lever in place to friction weld to its carrier, shear off its split pin and rotate off the threaded shaft. The locking nut and pin carrier were found loose in the tail rotor fairing and were bonded together. A duplex bearing that was designed to allow the control shaft to remain stationary (with the rest of the tail rotor assembly rotating around it) was found to only allow a few degrees of rotation, with the races blocked up by a mix of burnt grease and metallic particles. The AAIB published their two volume final report on 6 September 2023. Eight safety recommendations were made. Responses Fans began to lay flowers and football shirts outside the stadium the morning after the crash. Shirts and scarves from other teams including West Ham United, Leicester City's opponent in the match prior to the crash, were also seen. On 30 October, Leicester City opened a book of condolence, with an online version also available. Some buildings were floodlit in blue as a tribute to the victims, including England's national stadium, Wembley. The club's official charity The Foxes Foundation was renamed The Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha Foundation. On 10 November thousands of Leicester City fans took part in a '5,000-1' walk in remembrance of the victims, before Leicester City played Burnley at home. The initial appeal was for 5,000 fans to take part, though reports suggested the number was about 10,000. Leicester City established a memorial garden on the site of the crash. Football The 2018–19 FA Women's Championship match between Leicester City and Manchester United, scheduled for the day after the crash, was postponed. The women's reserve league match against Derby County, Leicester City's EFL Cup fixture against Southampton, which had been scheduled to take place at the King Power Stadium on 30 October, the Premier League International Cup fixture between Leicester City U-23s and Feyenoord Academy and the Belgian First Division B fixture between Oud-Heverlee Leuven, the second club owned by Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha, and Lommel, originally scheduled for 31 October, were all also postponed. At the other Premier League football fixtures on Sunday, players wore black armbands, both for the crash victims and for Remembrance Day, though a few days earlier than Remembrance armbands are usually worn. The NFL London series match between the Philadelphia Eagles and Jacksonville Jaguars taking place at Wembley stadium the day after the crash included a pre-game tribute in memory of victims of both the Leicester crash and the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting which occurred on the same day. Litigation On 26 October 2021, the families of the pilots launched a legal case at the District Court of Massachusetts in the United States, suing Raytheon for damages. The plaintiffs alleged that Raytheon "negligently designed, manufactured, assembled and sold the Tail Rotor Actuator such that the Accident Aircraft's Tail Rotor Actuator control shaft was subject to disconnection from the actuator lever mechanism". See also Matthew Harding – Chelsea F.C. investor killed in a helicopter crash returning from a football match in October 1996. References 2018 disasters in the United Kingdom 2018 in England October 2018 events in the United Kingdom 2010s in Leicester Accidents and incidents involving the AgustaWestland AW169 Aviation accidents and incidents in 2018 Aviation accidents and incidents in England Sports-related aviation accidents and incidents Leicester City F.C. Oud-Heverlee Leuven Transport in Leicester

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%9C%EC%9B%90%ED%86%B5%EB%B3%B4

개원통보

개원통보(開元通寶)는 중국 당나라(唐) 왕조 무덕(武徳) 4년(621년)에 처음 주조되어 당대는 물론 오대십국 시대(五代十国時代)까지 약 3백여 년에 걸쳐 유통되었던 금속 화폐이다. 개원통보는 진나라(秦)의 반냥전(半兩錢), 한나라(漢)의 오수전(五銖錢)의 형태를 이어받아 지름 8푼(약 24mm)이다. 이 화폐 한 장의 질량은 2주(銖) 4류(絫) 즉 한 냥(대냥)의 1/10(약 3.73g)로, 질량의 단위를 뜻하는 「전」(錢)이 여기서 유래하였다. 「1근 = 16냥、1냥 = 24주銖、1주 = 10류」라는 복잡한 체계를 대신해 「1근 = 16량」은 그대로 유지되었으나 그 이하는 「1냥 = 10전、1전 = 10푼、1푼 = 10리厘、1리 = 10호毫」라는 십진법 체계가 사용되게 된다. 무게 단위로써의 전은 일본으로 전해져서 1문(匁)이라 불리게 되었다. 이름 이 화폐의 읽는 방법은 「위・아래・오른쪽・왼쪽」 순으로 「개원통보」(開元通寳)가 되지만 「위・오른쪽・아래・왼쪽」으로 이어 읽어서 「개통원보」(開通元寳)라고 읽기도 하며, 어느 쪽으로 읽든 의미는 통하기에 따라 예로부터 두 가지 설이 병존해 오면서 결론이 나오지 않고 있다. 당 현종 개원(開元) 26년(738년)에 출판된 《당육전》(唐六典)에는 「무덕 중에 모든 오수전을 정지하고 거듭 개원통보를 주조하였다」라고 기술되어 있는데, 한편으로 《구당서》(舊唐書)에 「거듭 천하에 주조하는 곳을 두고 아울러 개원통보전을 주조하게 하였다」(仍令天下置鑪之處並鑄開元通寳錢)라고 기술되어 있다. 당대에는 「개원」(開元)이라는 단어는 당대에 연호로써 존재했지만 그것은 개원통보가 주조된 것보다 백 년이나 늦은 뒤의 일로 개원통보라 불리게 된 것은 개원 이후의 일이 아니냐는 설도 존재하고 있다. 당 고조가 무덕 연호를 사용했음에도 무덕통보(武德通寶)가 아닌 개원통보라는 이름을 붙인 것은 연호를 따서 명명한 화폐를 주조할 당시에는 아직 시장이 활성화되지 않아서 당 고종(高宗)이 주조한 건봉천보(乾封泉宝)는 겨우 8개월밖에 쓰이지 못했고, 당 왕조 이후에 와서야 명대의 영락통보(永樂通寶)처럼 연호가 이름으로 붙은 화폐가 비로소 널리 쓰이게 되었다. 개원 연호 등장 이전 후베이성(湖北省) 안루(安陆)의 오왕 각(吴王恪)의 비(妃) 양씨(楊氏)의 무덤(637년 조성)이나 함양(咸陽)의 장락공주묘(長樂公主墓, 643년 조성), 시안(西安)의 위올묘(伟儿墓, 647년 조성), 산시 성 홍건(弘乾)의 정인태묘(鄭仁泰墓, 664년 조성) 후베이 성 윈현(郧县)의 이휘묘(李徽墓, 684년 조성), 허난성(河南省) 옌스(偃师)의 이수일묘(李守一墓, 693년 조성), 시안 곽고묘(郭暠墓, 695년 조성), 산시 성 첸현(乾县)의 영태공주묘(永泰公主墓, 706년 조성), 시안의 곽환묘(郭桓墓, 708년 조성)에서 모두 개원통보가 출토되었다. 당대의 다른 동전을 보면 사사명(史思明)이 주조하게 했다는 순천원보(順天元寶) ・ 득일원보(得一元寶)나 8세기 후반의 대력원보(大暦元寶)에는 「원보」가, 8세기 후반의 건중통보(建中通寶)에는 「통보」가 사용되고 있다. 두 가지 「원보」 ・ 「통보」 모두 당대 이후에도 계속 화폐의 이름으로 사용되었다. 종류 개원(開元) : 고조 무덕 4년(621년) 처음 주조하였다. 글씨는 구양수(歐陽詢)의 것이었다. 중당 시대에는 '개원'이라는 단어가 빠졌다. 회창개원(会昌開元) : 당 무종(武宗) 회창(會昌) 5년(845년) 주조된 개원통보의 일종. 회창 폐불 당시 징발된 불상이나 불구(佛具)를 녹여서 주조하였다. 뒷면에 주조지를 표시한 문자가 새겨져 있었다. 예를 들어 창(昌)이라고 쓴 것은 양주(揚州)에서 제작된 것, 경(京)은 경조부 즉 장안에서 제작된 것, 낙(洛)은 하남부(河南府) 즉 낙양에서 제작된 것, 익(益)은 익주(益州) 즉 성도(成都)에서 제작된 것, 남(藍)은 남전현(藍田県), 양(襄)은 양주(襄州, 양양襄陽), 형(荊)은 형주(荊州), 월(越)은 월주(越州), 선(宣)은 선주(宣州, 선성宣城), 홍(洪, 홍주洪州), 담(潭)은 담주(潭州), 연(兗)은 연주(兗州), 양(梁)은 양주(梁州), 윤(潤)은 윤주(潤州), 악(鄂)은 악주(鄂州), 평(平)은 평주(平州), 흥(興)은 흥원부(興元府, 한중漢中), 광(廣)은 광주(廣州), 재(梓)는 재주(梓州), 복(福)은 복주(福州), 단(丹)은 단주(丹州), 계(桂)는 계양감(桂陽監)에서 제작된 것 등이었다. 당 이외에도 남당(南唐)、민(閩)、남한(南漢)、오월(呉越)、초(楚) 등지에서도 주조되었다. 남당에서 발행한 개원통보의 경우는 표면의 글씨가 전서체로 새겨져 있다는 것이 특징이다. 직경이 작은 개원통보의 경우 대부분은 민간에서 주조된 사주전(私鑄錢)이다. 또한 금이나 은으로 주조한 개원통보도 있었는데, 당의 시인 장호(張祜)의 《퇴궁인》(退宮人)이라는 시 구절 가운데 「開元皇帝掌中憐, 流落人間二十年, 長說承天門上宴, 百僚樓下拾金錢」이라는 시구가 있다. 당 현종이 늘 승천문(承天門)의 문루에서 연회를 열고 오락을 베풀면서 자리의 분위기가 한창 무르익었을 때 문루 아래를 향해서 금전을 뿌려 주었다는 것이다. 시에서 언급되는 「금전」이란 「금개원통보」(金開元通寶)를 가리키는데, 유통을 위한 화폐로써라기보다는 소장 및 완상을 위한 기념주화 같은 성격이 더 강한 것이었다. 실제로 하가촌(何家村)의 당대 창고 유적에서 금개원통보 30매와 은개원통보(銀開元通寶) 421매가 발굴되었는데, 이는 화폐가 창고 안에서 발굴된 역사상 최초의 발굴이었고, 동시에 「금개원통보」의 존재가 실제로 확인된 사례이다. 영향 일본의 화폐인 화동개진은 개원통보의 영향을 받아 주조되었으며, 한국의 전라남도 화순의 백제 사찰 공림사터나 경주 망덕사지, 경상북도 월성군 견곡면 하구리 옛 절터에서 항아리에 담긴 개원통보가 수습되었으며, 발해의 염주성이 있었던 러시아 연해주 크라스키노 유적이나 충청북도 충주시 단월동 유적, 경상북도 안동시 서삼리 고려벽화고분(11세기 말 12세기 초)에서 개원통보가 발굴되기도 했다. 조선 태종(太宗) 15년(1415년) 사섬서(司贍署)에서는 당의 개원통보 제도를 모방해 조선통보(朝鮮通寶)라는 금속 화폐를 주조하도록 하였다. 참고 자료 원유한 《한국의 전통사회 화폐》 이화여자대학교출판부, 2005년 한국조폐공사 《우리나라 화폐의 변천과 쓰임새》 2017년 각주 외부 링크 국립중앙박물관 소장 개원통보(모조품) 중국의 주화 당나라

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiyuan%20Tongbao

Kaiyuan Tongbao

The Kaiyuan Tongbao (), sometimes romanised as Kai Yuan Tong Bao or using the archaic Wade-Giles spelling K'ai Yuan T'ung Pao, was a Tang dynasty cash coin that was produced from 621 under the reign of Emperor Gaozu and remained in production for most of the Tang dynasty until 907. The Kaiyuan Tongbao was notably the first cash coin to use the inscription tōng bǎo (通寶) and an era title as opposed to have an inscription based on the weight of the coin as was the case with Ban Liang, Wu Zhu and many other earlier types of Chinese cash coins. The Kaiyuan Tongbao's calligraphy and inscription inspired subsequent Central Asian, Japanese, Korean, Ryūkyūan, and Vietnamese cash coins and became the standard until the last cash coin to use the inscription "通寶" was cast until the early 1940s in French Indochina. The Kaiyuan Tongbao also signified a major change in how money circulated in the Chinese Empire, while previously cash coins were valued based on their weights, they would now be valued based on government regulations. After the fall of the Tang dynasty Kaiyuan Tongbao coins would continue to be produced by various states of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. During the Ming dynasty, and later dynasties, the Kaiyuan Tongbao would become the most important cash coin to be used in traditional Chinese medicine. Manufacture Wax mother coins Under the Sui and Tang dynasties mother coins reached their definite form and were produced in moulds engraved by ancestor coins, however during this same period a casting technique called "the lost wax method" was used to cast the Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins, in this method mother coins made from wax rather than metal were used, these mother coins were produced in large quantities because they were very cheap to make, unlike metal mother coins these wax mother coins stayed in the clay moulds and when the mould heated up they would melt away leaving a cavity for the molten metal to pour into forming the coins. This technique was also used for casting other bronze items however it was only used for casting coinage during the Sui and Tang dynasties and its sudden discontinuation pointed out to the fact that it was probably inefficient for mass producing small items such as coins. Clay moulds The world's only known authentic specimen of a Tang dynasty period clay mould () that was used to cast Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins was unearthed in Shutang, Wangcheng District, Changsha, Hunan on August 17, 1992 by Mr. Ceng Jingyi (), a retired teacher and coin collector. The Kaiyuan Tongbao clay mould is classified as a Chinese "national treasure" (). Up until the unearthing of this clay mould in the year 1992, no moulds were known to exist for the casting of Tang dynasty coinage. The discovery of this clay mould has made it unclear as to what process was actually used to cast the Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins. While the Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins could have been cast in the traditional manner from moulds made of clay, stone, or bronze as was the case since the Warring States period, it was believed that cash coins during this period were being cast in sand using "mother coins" (母錢) to make the impressions where the circulation cash coins would later be produced from. With the discovery of this unique clay mould, however, it has now been confirmed that clay moulds were still being used by mints to cast cash coins during the Tang dynasty period. The unique Kaiyuan Tongbao clay mould was placed on display at the "Exhibition of Chinese Ancient Coins" () which was held at the Ouyang Xun Cultural Park () located in Shutang (). History Under the Tang dynasty the earlier Wu Zhu coins of the Sui dynasty would remain the standard currency, but during the fourth year of the Wu De (武德) period (or 621 of the Gregorian calendar) Emperor Gaozu decreed that the Kaiyuan Tongbao coin be cast with a strictly enforced standard weight of Liǎng (兩). The introduction of this new series of cash coins proved to be of epochal significance in the monetary history of China as the new coin started the "Baowen coinage" system (together with the Ban Liang cash coins introduced during the Qin period and Wu Zhu cash coins introduced during the Han period, making them the three major coinage systems in monetary history of China), which influenced the Chinese coinage system for over a millennium. The Kaiyuan Tongbao also changed the way that cash coins were valued, as before they were dependent on their weight but starting from the Kaiyuan Tongbao the value of a cash coin would be determined by government regulation. The government of the Tang dynasty initially set up the Money Casting Bureau, which operated mints in a total of 14 locations. Unlike earlier Chinese cash coins which had their legends based on their weight, the Kaiyuan Tongbao was notably the first Chinese cash coin to use the tōng bǎo (通寶) inscription and simultaneously inspired the yuán bǎo (元寶) inscription. The reason that the Kaiyuan Tongbao also inspired the yuán bǎo legend is because the Chinese people themselves had trouble figuring out the correct character order, as the inscription is read in what was referred to as the "standard order" (top-bottom-right-left) some people accidentally read it in the wrong order as they had assumed that the inscription was read clockwise as Kaitong Yuanbao (開通元寶), this was also because rather than having the first two characters spell out the period title (which was Wu De when the Kaiyuan Tongbao was introduced), they had a different inscription. However this mistake in how the legend was read inspired the Northwest Chinese rebel Shi Siming to cast his own cash coins with the inscription Shuntian Yuanbao (順天元寶, shùn tiān yuán bǎo) cash coins first issued in Luoyang in 759, this coin however does have a clockwise inscription. Another term that was used to denote "the currency type" in Chinese coin inscriptions was zhòng bǎo (重寶) which could be translated as "heavy currency". The first cash coin to have this inscription was the Qianyuan Zhongbao (乾元重寶) which was first produced in the year 759. The terms yuán bǎo (元寶) and zhòng bǎo (重寶) which were both established during a 138 year period of the Tang dynasty would continue to be used on Chinese coins to the very end of the Qing dynasty in 1911. While the term tōng bǎo (通寶) was even used longer with the last Chinese cash coin, the Minguo Tongbao (民國通寶) being produced in Dongchuan, Yunnan during the early Republic of China period. Another important difference with the inscription of the Kaiyuan Tongbao compared to earlier Chinese cash coins was that it was not written in seal script but rather in the more plain calligraphic clerical script. The Emperor asked one of China's most well-known calligraphers, Ouyang Xun to write down the legend of the cash coin. This was also the first time in Chinese history that a famous calligrapher wrote the characters for a Chinese cash coin. Minting and copper extraction were centrally controlled, and private casting was punishable by death. For the first time we find regulations giving the prescribed coinage alloy: 83% copper, 15% lead, and 2% tin. Previously the percentages used seem to have been on an ad hoc basis. Actual analyses show rather less copper than this. The standard weight of the Kaiyuan Tongbao was 1 mace, but a notable thing about the cash coins of the Tang dynasty is, that for the first and only time in the monetary history of China, the coins grew bigger and heavier during the reign of the dynasty. The New Book of Tang states that the imperial government specified the alloy ratio for Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins upon their introduction at 21,200 jin of copper, 3700 jin of pewter, and 500 jin of black tin (equivalent to 83% Cu and 17% Pb + Sn) per mint. At first, mints were set up in Luoyang in Henan, and also in Peking, Chengdu, Bingzhou (Taiyuan in Shanxi), and then Guilin in Guangxi. Minting rights were also granted to some princes and officials. By 660, deterioration of the coinage due to forgery had become a problem. The regulations were reaffirmed in 718, and forgeries suppressed. In 737, the first commissioner with overall responsibility for casting was appointed. 1 furnace that produced 3.3 million Kaiyuan Tongbao coins a year during the Tian Bao period between 713 and 756 would need 21220 jin of copper, 3709 jin of tin, and 540 jin per regulation of lead and had an average waste of 23,5 %. The Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins produced during the Tian Bao period had an officially set copper alloy however some Kaiyuan coins from this period were blue or white it's likely that other alloys were also used. In 739, ten mints were recorded, with a total of 89 furnaces casting some 327,000 strings of cash a year. 123 liang of metal were needed to produce a string of coins weighing 100 liang. In the late 740s, skilled artisans were employed for casting, rather than conscripted peasants. Despite these measures, the coinage continued to deteriorate. In 808, a ban on hoarding coins was proclaimed. This was repeated in 817. Regardless of the rank of a person, they could not hold more than 5,000 strings of cash. Cash balances exceeding this amount had to be expended within two months to purchase goods. This was an attempt to compensate for the lack of cash in circulation. By 834, mint output had fallen to 100,000 strings a year, mainly due to the shortage of copper. Forgeries using lead and tin alloys were produced. Due to the fact that this continued to be produced for two centuries by various mints all over China there are several hundred varieties of the Kaiyuan Tongbao that can be distinguished from each other due to slight differences. The Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins that were first cast until the height of the Tang period, early issues can be very accurately assigned to their time of casting and archeological evidence from Tang era tombs indeed prove that the first stroke of the character "元" are shorter than later versions, for this reason these coins are referred to as "short one yuan" (短一元, duǎn yī yuán) versions. A lesser quantity of these early Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins are made from what the Chinese call "white copper" (白銅, bái tóng) and are subsequently referred to as "White Copper/Baitong Kaiyuan Tongbao coins" (白銅開元通寶, báitóng kāiyuán tōng bǎo) today, however during the Tang dynasty itself they were given the nickname "pure coins" (青錢, qīng qián) which also became the basis for the nickname (外號) of "pure coin scholar" (青錢學士, qīng qián xué shì) which was given to Emperor Gaozong as his writings were said to resemble the coins. There also exist Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins which are differentiated by their second horizontal stroke, other than the first variant these others quite rare. The following versions of the Kaiyuan Tongbao coin can be distinguished by the "元" character's second horizontal stroke (or "shoulder"): Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins also commonly have differentiating features on their reverse, these can include crescents which according to legend happened when either Empress Zhangsun or Empress Taimu or in some versions of the story Yang Guifei pressed her fingernail into a specimen Kaiyuan Tongbao coin made from wax. Other sources claim that the crescents were added due to foreign influence. Today it is widely believed that these crescents were marks of quality used by various mints. Other than crescents, there were several Kaiyuan Tongbao coins with other reverse decorations, these include: Early Kaiyuan Tongbao coins are easily identified due to their deeply cut characters that never touch the rim of the coin, these are called "separate from the rim" Kaiyuan Tongbao coins (), while the reverse of these coins tend to have uniform and clear rims. Later variants of the Kaiyuan Tongbao often have excess metal between the strokes of the Hanzi characters and even later variants have characters with strokes so long that they touch the rim, meanwhile the rims on the reverse side of these Kaiyuan Tongbao coins tend to be irregular and relatively flat. Huichang era Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins Huichang Kaiyuan Tongbao () cash coins are a series of Kaiyuan Tongbao coins produced under Emperor Wuzong who was a devout Taoist and used the reign era name of huìchāng (會昌), during the 5th year of this epoch (845) Emperor Wuzong ordered the casting of new coins with the inscription Kaiyuan Tongbao to be manufactured of bronze acquired by melting confiscated statues, copper bells, gongs, incense burners, and other copper items from Buddhist temples. These local mints were under the control of the provincial governors. The New Tang History states that Li Shen, governor of Huainan province, requested that the empire might cast coins bearing the name of the prefecture in which they were cast, and this was agreed. These Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins differed from earlier variants due to the fact that they had the character chāng (昌) on their reverse side, other mints in China then adopted this and soon 23 mints produced Kaiyuan Tongbao coins with their own mint marks. Huichang Kaiyuan Tongbao coins are also of inferior workmanship compared to earlier coins and are diminutive in size. When Emperor Emperor Xuanzong ascended to the throne in the year 846, the aforementioned policy was reversed, and the new coins were recast to make Buddhist statues. The following mint marks could be found on Huichang Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins: Turtle shell coins 13 Kaiyuan Tongbao turtle shell coins (), made from Hawksbill sea turtle shell, were discovered at the Famen Temple in 1987. In 1987 a large number of treasures dating to the Tang dynasty period were uncovered at the site. Among the over 27,000 cash coins found at the temple there were 13 turtle shell cash coins with the inscription Kaiyuan Tongbao, they have a diameter of 2.75 centimeters, a thickness of 0.06 centimeters, and a weight of 24.8 grams. In Buddhism turtle shells are among the 7 treasures and these cash coins may have been made to commemorate a very special occasion. Likely by the order of a Tang dynasty emperor to honour a sacred relic of Gautama Buddha that was located at the Famen Temple. As no mention of these turtle shell Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins exist in any historical records or text both Chinese archaeologists and numismatists were surprised with the find. Experts do note that the number of the coins (13) is considered auspicious in Buddhism, which may be related to the fact that there are 13 turtle shell coins. This is further reflected in there being 13 sects in Chinese Mahayana Buddhism, 13, floors at the Tibetan Potala Palace and that the Famen Pagoda (where the coins were found) also had 13 floors. As of 2021 these were the oldest known turtle shell coins found anywhere in the world. Other variants Mintage figures The maximum annual output of mints during the Tang dynasty was 327.000 strings (327.000.000 cash coins). Counterfeit coins Counterfeit cash coins () were rampant during the Tang dynasty period, counterfeit Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins were of inferior quality, they were typically lighter or were made with alloys containing larger percentages of cheaper metals, such as iron and lead, reducing the Intrinsic value of the cash coins in circulation. The Old Book of Tang claims that the Jianghuai region, the two capital (Chang'an and Luoyang) regions, the Hebei region, and the Nanling region were most seriously affected by counterfeit cash coins. The introduction and circulation of counterfeit cash coins negatively affected the economy by causing inflation and reducing social stability. The emergence of coin counterfeiting in China is rooted in the development of the commodity economy and the scarcity of money. The counterfeiting of cash coins prevailed due to a number of factors, primarily based on the market demand for money, while the production of official cash coins was being constrained by the prohibitively high costs associated with their manufacture. The cost of casting wasn't just affected by production costs such as the volume of fuel and manpower, but also by acquisition costs relating to the scarcity of copper, as well as the cost of transportation. These factors all created a market incentive to produce counterfeit cash coins to fill the demand for currency. The government of the Tang dynasty explicitly forbade coin counterfeiting and actively took measures to eliminate the bad Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins that were illegally produced. Despite their efforts, the crackdown on counterfeit cash coins proved largely to be unsuccessful. Despite the official regulations requiring government mints to cast cash coins with high copper content, examinations of the chemical composition of official Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins reveal higher tin and lead contents that don't match the official alloy compositions mentioned in the historical records. A 2004 analysis revealed that officially produced Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins were on average 70.21% copper, 17.85% lead, and 8.64% tin, the researchers hypothesised that counterfeit cash coins were probably those with exceptionally high lead content (>36 wt%). Researcher Liu of the Chinese numismatic society believed that the government regulations requiring high copper content in the official alloys were only introduced to curb the cash coin counterfeiting. Influence outside of China Japan Japanese "Fuhonsen" and later the Wadōkaichin were modelled after the Tang dynasty's Kaiyuan Tongbao coin using similar calligraphy. Sogdia During excavations in the historically Sogdian cities of Afrasiab (old Samarkand) and Pendjikent a large number of Sogdian coins were uncovered, the Soviet numismatist Smirnova listed in her catalogue on Sogdian coins from 1573 published in 1981 a large number of coins of which several were based on Kaiyuan Tongbao's. Sogdian coins tend to be produced independently by each city and contain tribal mint marks known as tamgha's, some cities used coins based on Persian coinages (which made up 13.2% of the known variants), while others preferred Chinese cash coins which were influenced by the Tang dynasty's western expanse during the seventh century (cash style coins also made up the majority of Sogdian coins and accounted for 86.7% of all known variants), as well as hybrid coins which feature an image based on a square hole on one side of the coin and a portrait of the King in the other side (these made up 0.7% of the known variants). A number of Sogdian coins even imitate the Kaiyuan Tongbao inscription directly, but on their reverses have added Sogdian tamgha's on the right or left side of the hole as well as the Sogdian word for "lord". The modern era these Sogdian Kaiyuan Tongbao coins are reproduced in large numbers by forgers in Hong Kong, these forgeries have proven to be very difficult to differentiate from the original coins and are abundant in quantity. Vietnam Vietnamese cash coins produced from the Đinh until the late Trần dynasty tend to be heavily based on the Chinese Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins, an example would be the Lý dynasty era Thiên Tư Nguyên Bảo (天資元寶) cash coins cast under Emperor Lý Cao Tông which uses two distinct styles of Chinese calligraphy, one of them is a native Lý dynasty style and the other is based on the Kaiyuan Tongbao, often the Chinese character "Nguyên" (元) on older Vietnamese coins is copied directly from Chinese Kaiyuan Tongbao coins, particularly how the left hook of the character moves upwards, although variants of the characters in "pure Vietnamese styles" were cast simultaneously. Like many Kaiyuan Tongbao coins many of these early Vietnamese cash coins would add reverse crescents or mint marks which were often wholly borrowed from the calligraphic style of the Kaiyuan Tongbao. Every early Vietnamese cash coin that has a reverse inscription is based on the Kaiyuan Tongbao. Modern influence A Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coin appears on the reverse side of a 2010 Hong Kong banknote issued by the Standard Chartered Bank with a face value of $1,000. In 2013 a sculpture of a Kaiyuan Tongbao with a diameter of 24 meters (or 78.7 feet) and a thickness of 3.8 meters (or 12.5 feet) was constructed to be displayed at the Baoshan National Mining Park (宝山国家矿山工园) theme park in the Guiyang Prefecture of Chenzhou, Hunan. The sculpture is notably of a Huichang Kaiyuan Tongbao with the Gui (桂) mint mark. There is a 10 meter tall Kaiyuan Tongbao-shaped door which stands on a bridge in the Jiangxia District of Wuhan, Hubei. Hoards of Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins See also Flying cash Notes References Sources Coins of China Economy of the Tang dynasty Chinese numismatics Cash coins by inscription

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9E%88%EB%82%98%ED%83%80%EC%9E%90%EC%B9%B446

히나타자카46

히나타자카46()는 일본의 여성 아이돌 그룹으로, 2015년 11월 30일에 결성되었다. 2019년 3월 27일에 싱글 데뷔. 결성부터 2019년 2월 11일의 개명까지 히라가나 케야키자카46()의 명의로서 활동했다. 개요 히나타자카46는 〈히라가나 케야키자카46〉가 2019년 2월 11일에 개명한 그룹으로, 같은 날, 동영상 앱 《SHOWROOM》에서 행해진 전달에서 개명이 발표되었다. 활동 중의 그룹이 개명해 〈사카미치 시리즈〉 중 역사상 처음이다. 개명 전의 〈히라가나 케야키자카46〉는 케야키자카46(현 사쿠라자카46)의 2군적 존재로서 결성되어 보는 사람을 행복하게 하는 〈해피 아우라〉를 내걸고 활동하고 있다. 덧붙여 신그룹명으로서 〈히나타자카〉를 채용한 것에 대하여는 아키모토 야스시의 제안으로 도쿄도 미나토구 미타에 실재하는 〈휴우가(日向 : 지금의 미야자키현에 있던 옛 쿠니)자카〉로부터 힌트를 따와 〈히나타(日向 : 일본어로 양지, 양달이라는 뜻)자카로 읽게하자〉라는 것으로 결정되었다. 그룹 컬러는 〈하늘색〉으로 〈하늘을 높게 날 수 있도록〉이라는 의미도 넣어 붙여졌다. 약력 히라가나 케야키자카46 시대 2015년 11월 30일(29일 심야), 《케야키라고 쓸 수 없어?》의 방송 중 신멤버 나가하마 네루의 추가를 발표. 단, 나가하마 네루는 케야키자카46의 언더 그룹에 해당하는 〈히라가나 케야키자카46(けやき坂46)〉로부터 활동 개시. 동시에 〈히라가나 케야키자카46〉의 멤버 추가 모집도 발표. 2016년 5월 8일, 〈히라가나 케야키자카46〉 합격자 11명이 결정. 10월 28일, 첫 단독 이벤트 《히라가나 오모테나시회》(아카사카 BLITZ)를 요금 500엔에 개최. 2017년 6월 2일, 히라가나 케야키자카46 추가 멤버 오디션이 개최가 됐다. 8월 15일, 히라가나 케야키자카46 추가 멤버 합격자 9명이 결정되었다. 9월 24일, 나가하마 네루 히라가나 케야키자카46 겸임해제, 케야키자카46 부임. 2018년 4월 9일(8일 심야), 히라가나 케야키자카46 첫 고정 TV 프로그램 《히라가나 오시》의 방송을 시작. 6월 20일, 히라가나 케야키자카46의 데뷔 앨범 〈달려가는 순간〉을 발매. 여름, 노기자카46, 케야키자카46, 히라가나 케야키자카46의 사카미치 시리즈 3 그룹 합동 오디션을 개최. 11월 29일, 사카미치 시리즈 3 그룹 합동 오디션의 합격자 39명의 배속처가 발표되어, 3기생로서 1명이 가입하게 되었다. 12월 10일, 일본 가수 대표로서 Mnet의 《2018 MAMA PREMIERE IN KOREA》에 참여. 베스트 뉴 아시안 아티스트 일본 대표에 수상. 같은 날, 일본 무도관에서 《오모테나시회》를 개최해, 3기생 1명이 피로했다. 히나타자카46 시대 2019년 2월 11일, 《히라가나부터의 소식》을 SHOWROOM에서 착신해, 〈히나타자카46(日向坂46)〉에 그룹명 개명을 발표. 사카미치 시리즈의 역사상 처음. 3월 5일 · 6일에 요코하마 아레나에서 《히나타자카46 데뷔 카운트 라이브!!》를 개최. 3월 27일, 히나타자카46의 데뷔 싱글 〈큥〉을 발매. 4월 1일, 《히라가나 오시》의 방송을 종료. 4월 8일(7일 심야), 히나타자카46의 그룹명 개명 첫 프로그램 《히나타자카에서 만납시다》의 방송을 시작. 11월 14일, 《제70회 NHK 홍백가합전》 출장(출연)이 결정되었다. 12월 31일, 《제70회 NHK 홍백가합전》 첫 출장. 2020년 2월 15일, 사카미치 연수생 멤버 중 정식으로 그룹 배속되는 것을 발표. 동년 2월 16일에는 《사카미치 연수생 배속발표 SHOWROOM》에서 3기생에 3명이 배속되었다. 12월 31일, 《제71회 NHK 홍백가합전》 두 번째 출장. 2021년 12월 31일, 《제72회 NHK 홍백가합전》 세 번째 출장. 2022년 3월 7일, 신멤버 오디션 개시. 9월 21일, 4기생 멤버 오디션 합격자 12명의 가입을 발표. 12월 31일, 《제73회 NHK 홍백가합전》 네 번째 출장. 2023년 2월 11일 · 12일, 마쿠하리 멧세 이벤트 홀에서 《히나타자카46 4기생 오모테나시회》를 개최. 멤버 현 멤버 전 멤버 선발 ◎ - 센터 ○ - 프론트 ▲ - 2열 ◼︎ - 3열 음반 목록 싱글 히나타자카46 앨범 히라가나 케야키자카46 히나타자카46 참가 작품 싱글 히라가나 케야키자카46 앨범 히라가나 케야키자카46 같이 보기 노기자카46 사쿠라자카46 AKB48 각주 내용주 출처주 외부 링크 히나타자카46 공식 사이트 히나타자카46 - 소니 뮤직 엔터테인먼트 재팬 내 사이트 히라가나 케야키자카46 - 소니 뮤직 엔터테인먼트 재팬 내 사이트 히나타자카46 공식 블로그 (2019년 3월 28일 ~ )  (일본만 해당) (2023년 4월 19일 ~ ) 히나타자카46 × SHOWROOM 멤버 개인 착신 - SHOWROOM 일본의 팝 음악 그룹 일본의 걸 그룹 2015년 결성된 음악 그룹 일본의 아이돌 그룹 10인조 이상 음악 그룹 2010년대 음악 그룹 2020년대 음악 그룹 소니 뮤직 엔터테인먼트 (일본)의 음악가 Mnet 아시안 뮤직 어워드 수상 음악가 NHK 홍백가합전 출연자

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinatazaka46

Hinatazaka46

is a Japanese idol group produced by Yasushi Akimoto. The group was established as a subgroup of Keyakizaka46 named Hiragana Keyakizaka46 on November 30, 2015, and was renamed and spun off into its own group on February 11, 2019. The group's name is adopted from the alternate reading of Hyūgazaka Street in Mita, Minato-ku, Tokyo, following the custom of naming groups after sloping streets in the Sakamichi Series. The captain of the group is Kumi Sasaki and fans of the group have been named , or the sun. As a subgroup of Keyakizaka46, Hiragana Keyakizaka46's works were released as part of the main group's releases, except for the album Hashiridasu Shunkan (2018). As of June 2022, Hinatazaka46 has released seven singles and one album, and their first single, "Kyun", is the best-selling debut single by a female artist in Japan. Members of the group have also appeared in television dramas such as Re:Mind (2017), Dasada (2020), and Koeharu! (2021), the weekly variety show Hinatazaka de Aimashō, as well as two theatrically released documentaries. History 2015–2018: Hiragana Keyakizaka46 The group was established as on November 30, 2015, as a subgroup of Keyakizaka46, with their name written in hiragana as opposed to kanji. Colloquially, Hiragana Keyakizaka46 was also known as Hiragana Keyaki, while the main Keyakizaka46 group was known as Kanji Keyaki. At its founding, Hiragana Keyakizaka46 consisted of only one member, Neru Nagahama, who did not participate in the Keyakizaka46 final audition due to her parents' earlier disapproval and was assigned to the subgroup as a "special case"; she would later be appointed a member of both groups and join the main Keyakizaka46 lineup starting from their second single, "Sekai ni wa Ai Shika Nai" (2016). Auditions were held soon after for Hiragana Keyakizaka46, and the first generation of eleven members joined the group in May 2016. The group was initially announced as the "under" group to Keyakizaka46 with the possibility of its members also being selected for the main group's song lineup, a system already practiced by Nogizaka46. Due to the two groups' increasing activities, Nagahama left Hiragana Keyakizaka46 in September 2017, becoming only a member of the main group. A second generation of nine people was added in August 2017, and a third, again consisting of only Hinano Kamimura, was added in November 2018 through a Sakamichi Series joint audition. As a subgroup, Hiragana Keyakizaka46 released their music as part of the main group's singles and albums. Their first release as a group is the B-side "Hiragana Keyaki" () from "Sekai ni wa Ai Shika Nai", although Nagahama did perform from Keyakizaka46's debut single "Silent Majority" (2016) with several Keyakizaka46 members. In concerts, the two groups often performed together, but Hiragana Keyakizaka46 also held independent concerts, including a nationwide Zepp tour in 2017 and a three-day Nippon Budokan performance in January 2018, after Keyakizaka46 pulled out due to lead singer Yurina Hirate's injury. Hiragana Keyakizaka46 also released an independent album in 2018 titled Hashiridasu Shunkan. In terms of variety shows, Hiragana Keyakizaka46 initially appeared in Keyakizaka46's shows Keyakitte, Kakenai? and KeyaBingo!, and started their own show Hiragana Oshi in 2018. The first generation also appeared in the drama series Re:Mind in 2017. From April to May 2018, Hiragana Keyakizaka46 members performed in the stage play Ayumi written by , where the characters (which consist of people of various ages and genders, as well as animals) was portrayed by different members on every scene change. The play was released on Hulu Japan in February 2021. 2019–present: Reborn as Hinatazaka46 Hiragana Keyakizaka46 became an independent group on February 11, 2019, and was renamed Hinatazaka46. The new name is an alternate reading of street in Minato-ku, Tokyo, following the custom of Sakamichi Series of having its groups named after sloping streets. The group's official Twitter and TikTok accounts were launched shortly, and their variety TV program was renamed to Hinatazaka de Aimashō. They also announced in a Showroom live broadcast that their fandom name would be Ohisama (おひさま), which is a slang for the Sun as "just like a cannot exist without the Sun, [Hinatazaka46] cannot exist without the fans". Their first single, "Kyun", was released on March 27, 2019, and surpassed 476,000 copies sold within the first week. The single became the best-selling debut single by a female artist in Japan, a record previously held by Keyakizaka46's "Silent Majority". "Kyun" also won the Best Choreography award at the 2019 MTV Video Music Awards. On September 24, a rhythm game titled Uni's On Air was released that featured Keyakizaka46 and Hinatazaka46. Hinatazaka46 attended the 70th NHK Kōhaku Uta Gassen for the first time in the group's history, where they performed "Kyun". After that, "Azato Kawaii" was shown at the 71st NHK Kōhaku Uta Gassen, and "Kimi Shika Katan" was performed at the 72nd NHK Kōhaku Uta Gassen, and "Kitsune" was performed at the 73rd NHK Kōhaku Uta Gassen. On January 16, 2020, the members of Hinatazaka46 were featured in a television series titled Dasada, with Nao Kosaka as the main protagonist. On February 16, 2020, three members were added to the third generation from the remaining unassigned members of the 2018 Sakamichi Series joint audition, bringing that generation up to four people. On July 31, 2020, Hinatazaka46 live streamed a concert titled Hinatazaka46 Live Online, Yes! With You!, where they announced that their first studio album will be released on September 23. Their mascot character, a sky blue bird named Poka, was introduced at the live streamed Hinakuri (Hina Christmas) 2020 concert on December 24. On March 7, 2022, the group announced the audition for their fourth generation members with applications starting that day and screening taking place on April 4. Twelve members passed the audition out of 51,038 participants, and they were gradually introduced to the public from September 22 to October 3. They would make their musical debut with the song "Blueberry & Raspberry", included on the group's 8th single, "Tsuki to Hoshi ga Odoru Midnight". It was first shown at the Happy Smile Tour 2022 in Tokyo held on November 12–13, 2022. On March 30–31, 2022, the group held their long-sought first Tokyo Dome concert, , attended by about 100,000 people in two days. The concert was originally scheduled for 2020, but postponed twice due to the COVID-19 pandemic. From March 30, 2023, the Hinatazaka46 official website will start supporting in Japanese, English, Simplified Chinese, Traditional Chinese, and Korean. On April 19, 2023, the group announced the launching of the Hinatazaka Channel on YouTube for content other than music. Members Since its founding, Hinatazaka46 has had a total of 37 members from four generations. 31 of those members are still in the group, though one has announced graduation. If third generation members are marked with an asterisk (*), it means that they joined after the initial third generation members on February 15, 2020. Past members Notable subgroups These are the subgroups of Hinatazaka46 that have appeared in events independent of the group. Hana-chans Members: Suzuka Tomita, Konoka Matsuda is an acoustic guitar duo unit, named after the kanji in both members' names. Their first song as a duo, , was released as part of Hinatazaka46's third single. On June 27, 2021, Hana-chans held their first independent live show on MTV Japan, titled MTV Acoustic Flowers - Until Full Bloom "Bell & Like"-, in which they covered Hinatazaka46 songs and Taylor Swift's "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together". The performance was originally planned as a concert scheduled for March 3, 2020, but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic; "Until Full Bloom" was a reference to the postponed event, while and were references to the duo's given names. On October 5, the duo served as the opening act for MTV Live Match 2021, and also performed as part of Hinatazaka46 for the main event. Saitama Trio/Color Chart Members: Miku Kanemura, Akari Nibu, Miho Watanabe (before graduation) The , or , was the unofficial name for the three Hinatazaka46 members, all from the second generation, who are natives of Saitama Prefecture. In September 2018, they served as one-day traffic chiefs of the Saitama Prefectural Police to promote traffic safety. In November 2020, they joined the , a public relations group consisting of popular artists from the prefecture. In October 2020, the trio started the radio program on Tokyo FM; the supermarket chain Belc, which sponsors the program, subsequently released limited edition food products in collaboration with them. They also became voice actresses for the first animated miniseries based on the character Pickles the Frog, which first became associated with Hiragana Keyakizaka46 in 2017 after Kanemura gave a Pickles doll to each second generation member as Christmas presents. In February 2021, the Saitama Trio were voted the most wanted unit (subgroup with their own songs) by fans on a Twitter campaign to commemorate Hinatazaka46's second debut anniversary. Hinatazaka46's sixth single, released in October 2021, would include their first song as a trio, , performed under the unit name ; the name is a reference to a nickname for Saitama Prefecture, . Discography Studio albums Singles Promotional singles Songs from Keyakizaka46's releases Guest appearances Other charted songs Videography Video albums Tours and concerts Hinatazaka46 holds several regular annual concerts. The concerts, held in March or April, are to celebrate their debut anniversary on March 27, 2019. The W-Keyaki Festival (pronounced "Double Keyaki Festival") concerts in the summer were held jointly with Sakurazaka46 in 2021 and 2022 as the two groups formerly known as Keyakizaka46, and were the continuation of the concerts held annually by that group at the Fuji-Q Highland Conifer Forest until 2019. are held on or around Christmas, and was first held as the concert in 2018. Aside from these, there have also been various non-regular concerts, tours, and other live events. Concerts Hiragana Keyakizaka46 (March 21–22, 2017: Zepp Tokyo) (January 30–February 1, 2018: Nippon Budokan) (December 11–13, 2018: Nippon Budokan) Hinatazaka46 (March 5–6, 2019: Yokohama Arena) (September 26, 2019: Saitama Super Arena) (Christmas Live) (December 17–18, 2019: Makuhari Messe International Exhibition Hall Hall 4–6, second day also livestreamed) (December 24, 2020, only livestreamed) (December 24–25, 2021: Makuhari Messe International Exhibition Hall 9–11 Hall, both days also livestreamed) (December 17–18, 2022: Ariake Arena, second day also livestreamed) (Anniversary Live) (March 31, 2020: livestreaming only on YouTube) (March 27, 2021: livestreamed concert with limited audience seats, 746 seats were available) (March 30–31, 2022: Tokyo Dome, both days also livestreamed) Hinatazaka46 4th Anniversary Memorial Live 〜 4 Kaime no Hinatansai〜 (日向坂46 4周年記念MEMORIAL LIVE ～4回目のひな誕祭～) (April 1–2, 2023: Yokohama Stadium, second day also livestreamed) （only livestreamed） (March 6, 2021: Hikari TV Channel) （December 22, 2022: Makuhari Messe International Exhibition Hall 9 Hall） (Joint event with Sakurazaka46: Fuji-Q Conifer Forest) 2021 (July 10–11, 2021, both days also livestreamed) 2022 (July 21・23, 2022: Live streaming only on the second day) (July 31, 2020, only livestreamed) (June 28, 2022: Tokyo International Forum, Hall A, also livestreamed) (July 19, 2023: Tokyo International Forum, Hall A) Collaboration Hinatazaka46×Dasada Hinatazaka46×Dasada Live & Fashion Show (February 4–5, 2020, Yokohama Arena) Hinatazaka46×Dasada Fall & Winter Collection (October 15, 2020, only livestreamed) Hinatazaka46×Koeharu! Hinatazaka46×Koeharu Liveshow! (November 5, 2021, only livestreamed) Tours Hiragana Keyakizaka46 Hiragana Zenkoku Tour 2017 The took place from May 31 to December 12. Hashiridasu Shunkan Tour 2018 The took place from June 4 to July 10. Hinatazaka46 Zenkoku Ohisama ka Keikaku 2021 The took place from September 15 to October 20. (October 20, 2021: Nippon Gaishi Hall, also livestreamed) Happy Smile Tour 2022 The Happy Smile Tour 2022 took place from September 1. (November 13, 2022: Yoyogi National Gymnasium 1st Gymnasium, also livestreamed) Filmography Television Dramas Variety shows Talk shows Animation Film Documentary Theatre Radio Games Attraction Fashion shows Tokyo Girls Collection GirlsAward Events Bibliography Books Photo book Biography Manga Newspaper Awards Notes References External links Japanese idol groups Japanese girl groups Sakamichi Series Musical groups established in 2015 2015 establishments in Japan

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A6%AC%EC%82%AC%20%EB%94%94%20%EB%B0%B0%EB%82%98

리사 디 배나

리사 마리 디 배나(, 1984년 11월 14일 ~ )는 오스트레일리아의 여자 축구 선수로 포지션은 공격수이다. 현재는 오스트레일리아 W리그의 시드니 FC에서 활동하고 있다. 클럽 경력 리사 디 배나는 웨스턴오스트레일리아주 퍼스에서 태어나서 퍼스에서 남서쪽으로 약 30분 정도 떨어진 곳에 위치한 작은 항구 도시인 프리맨틀에서 성장했다. 리사 디 배나는 어린 시절부터 축구에 대한 사랑을 키워가면서 축구공과 함께 자는 경우가 많았고 젊은 시절에는 거리에서 동생과 함께 축구를 즐기는 경우가 많았다고 한다. 리사 디 배나는 2006년 10월부터 2007년 3월까지 잉글랜드 FA 여자 내셔널리그에 참가하고 있던 동커스터 로버스 벨스 소속으로 활약했으며 2008년에는 스웨덴 다말스벤스칸에 참가하고 있던 AIK로 이적했다. 2008년 11월에는 오스트레일리아의 퍼스 글로리로 이적했고 2008년 11월 8일에 열린 멜버른 빅토리와의 경기에 처음 출전하면서 오스트레일리아 W리그 무대에 데뷔하게 된다. 리사 디 배나는 2008년 9월에 열린 미국 여자 프로 축구 인터내셔널 드래프트를 통해 18위에 지명되면서 워싱턴 프리덤에 지명되었고 2009년 3월에 워싱턴 프리덤과 정식 계약을 체결했다. 2011년까지 워싱턴 프리덤의 후계 구단인 매직잭 소속으로 활약했지만 미국 여자 프로 축구는 2011 시즌을 끝으로 폐지되고 만다. 리사 디 배나는 2012년에 스웨덴의 린셰핑 FC와의 계약을 체결하면서 다말스벤스칸 무대에 복귀했다. 린셰핑 FC는 2012 다말스벤스칸 시즌에서 11승 6무 5패를 기록하면서 3위를 기록했고 리사 디 배나는 전체 22경기 가운데 18경기에 출전하여 7골을 기록했다. 리사 디 배나는 2013년 2월에 미국의 스카이 블루로 이적하면서 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그 무대에 데뷔하게 된다. 스카이 블루는 2013 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그 정규 시즌에서 10승 6무 6패를 기록하면서 4위를 기록했고 리사 디 배나는 17경기 가운데 16경기에 선발 출전하여 5골을 기록했다. 리사 디 배나는 2013년 10월부터 2017년 4월까지 미국의 여자 축구 클럽인 보스턴 브레이커스, 워싱턴 스피릿, 올랜도 프라이드, 오스트레일리아의 여자 축구 클럽인 멜버른 빅토리, 멜버른 시티, 캔버라 유나이티드를 오가면서 활약했다. 2017년 4월에는 사우스 멜버른으로 이적했고 2017년 10월에는 시드니 FC로 이적했다. 국가대표 경력 리사 디 배나는 2004년에 오스트레일리아 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수로 발탁되었으며 2004년 아테네 하계 올림픽 본선에서는 4경기에 출전하여 오스트레일리아의 8강 진출에 기여했다. 리사 디 배나는 중국에서 개최된 2007년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에서 노르웨이와의 조별 예선 경기(오스트레일리아는 노르웨이와 1-1 무승부를 기록함)에서 1골, 가나와의 조별 예선 경기(오스트레일리아는 가나에 4-1 승리를 기록함)에서 2골, 브라질과의 8강전 경기(오스트레일리아는 브라질에 2-3으로 패배함)에서 1골을 기록하여 오스트레일리아의 8강 진출에 기여했다. 리사 디 배나는 해당 대회에서 자신이 기록한 4골이 대회가 열리기 3개월 전에 사망한 아버지에게 바치는 골이었음을 밝혔다. 리사 디 배나는 오스트레일리아로 귀국한 이후에 주유소에서 근무했다. 리사 디 배나는 오스트레일리아에서 개최된 2010년 AFC 여자 아시안컵에서 오스트레일리아의 사상 첫 AFC 여자 아시안컵 우승에 기여했다. 리사 디 배나는 2010년 9월에 자신의 페이스북 계정에 발기한 음경 사진이 게재된 사건을 경험했고 오스트레일리아 축구 연맹에 자신에 대한 모욕적인 사진을 삭제해 줄 것을 요청했다. 리사 디 배나는 2011년 5월에 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵을 준비하고 있던 오스트레일리아 여자 축구 국가대표팀 훈련 캠프에서 일어난 부적절한 행동으로 인해 톰 서머니 감독으로부터 축출당했다. 하지만 얼마 지나지 않아서 대표팀에 복귀했고 독일에서 개최된 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에 참가하게 된다. 리사 디 배나는 적도 기니와의 조별 예선 경기에서 1골을 기록하면서 오스트레일리아의 3-1 승리에 기여했고 오스트레일리아는 해당 대회에서 8강전에 진출하는 성과를 기록하게 된다. 리사 디 배나는 2012-13 시즌에서 스웨덴 다말스벤스칸 무대로 이적했지만 오스트레일리아 여자 축구 국가대표팀에 대한 자신의 의지는 강해졌다는 입장을 표명했다. 리사 디 배나는 2015년 6월 8일에 열린 미국과의 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 조별 예선 경기에서 A매치 100번째 출전 기록을 수립했지만 오스트레일리아는 미국에 1-3으로 패배하고 만다. 하지만 리사 디 배나는 캐나다에서 개최된 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에서 오스트레일리아 여자 축구 국가대표팀의 주장을 맡았고 오스트레일리아는 해당 대회에서 8강전에 진출하는 성과를 기록하게 된다. 리사 디 배나는 2016년 리우데자네이루 하계 올림픽에 참가한 오스트레일리아 여자 축구 국가대표팀의 주장을 맡으면서 오스트레일리아의 8강 진출에 기여했다. 특히 짧은 휴식 시간 동안에 자신의 대표팀 동료였던 엘리스 켈런드나이트와 함께 물병을 가지고 장난을 치는 장면을 연출하여 화제가 되기도 했다. 2019년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에서는 오스트레일리아의 16강 진출에 기여했다. 수상 클럽 브리즈번 로어 W리그 챔피언십 우승 1회 (2010-11) 멜버른 빅토리 W리그 챔피언십 우승 1회 (2013-14) 멜버른 시티 W리그 챔피언십 우승 1회 (2015-16) W리그 프리미어십 우승 1회 (2015-16) 시드니 FC W리그 챔피언십 우승 1회 (2018-19) 국가대표팀 2010년 AFC 여자 아시안컵 우승 2017년 토너먼트 오브 네이션스 우승 2019년 컵 오스 네이션스 우승 개인 2002-03 줄리 돌런 메달 수상 2002-03 위민스 내셔널 사커 리그 골든부트 수상 2013년 오스트레일리아 축구 연맹 올해의 여자 축구 선수 수상 각주 외부 링크 1984년 출생 살아있는 사람 오스트레일리아의 여자 축구 선수 오스트레일리아 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 FIFA 센추리 클럽 여자 선수 여자 축구 공격수 2004년 하계 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 2007년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 2016년 하계 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 2019년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 오스트레일리아의 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 린셰핑 FC의 축구 선수 캔버라 유나이티드 FC의 축구 선수 A리그 위민의 축구 선수 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그의 축구 선수 미국에 거주한 오스트레일리아인 잉글랜드에 거주한 오스트레일리아인 워싱턴 스피릿의 축구 선수 보스턴 브레이커스의 축구 선수 NJ/NY 고섬 FC의 축구 선수 올랜도 프라이드의 축구 선수 오스트레일리아의 해외 진출 여자 축구 선수 스웨덴의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 이탈리아의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 잉글랜드의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 미국의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 세리에 A (여자 축구)의 축구 선수 다말스벤스칸의 축구 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa%20De%20Vanna

Lisa De Vanna

Lisa Marie De Vanna (born 14 November 1984) is an Australian professional soccer player who plays as a forward for Perth Glory. She has previously played for Adelaide Sensation, Western Waves, Doncaster Rovers Belles, AIK, Perth Glory, Washington Freedom, Brisbane Roar, magicJack, Newcastle Jets, Linköping, Sky Blue FC, Melbourne Victory, Boston Breakers, Washington Spirit, Melbourne City, North Shore Mariners, Orlando Pride, Canberra United, South Melbourne, Sydney FC, and Fiorentina as well as representing the Australian national team 150 times. She is noted for her pace and dribbling skills. She has been regularly considered one of the greatest female footballers in the world; football analyst and former Socceroo Craig Foster stated that she "ran on jet-fuel; burning up twice as fast, but with incredible impact." Early life De Vanna was born in Perth, Western Australia to a Portuguese mother and an Italian father. She was born and raised in the small port city of Fremantle, located about 30 minutes southwest of Perth. De Vanna developed her love for the game of football at a young age and has said that she slept with her soccer ball and spent much of her time as a youth playing soccer in the street with her brother. De Vanna is a Portuguese speaker. Club career Doncaster Rovers Belles L.F.C., 2006–07 In October 2006 De Vanna signed for Doncaster Rovers Belles, departing the English Premier League club in March 2007. AIK Fotboll Dam, 2008 De Vanna played for Swedish club AIK for the 2008 Damallsvenskan season. De Vanna had a very successful season, being the 5th highest goalscorer with 15 goals, helping AIK to their most successful season. Perth Glory, 2008–09 In November 2008, De Vanna was signed to Perth Glory in the Australian W-League and made her first appearance for the club on 8 November 2008 against the Melbourne Victory. Washington Freedom / magicJack, 2009–11 In September 2008, De Vanna was selected by Washington Freedom in Women's Professional Soccer. She was the 18th overall selection in the 2008 WPS International Draft. She officially signed for the Freedom in late March 2009. Through the next three years, she played for Washington Freedom and its successor magicJack in the WPS as well as Perth Glory, Brisbane Roar and Newcastle Jets in the W-League in Australia. Linköping FC, 2012 After the WPS suspended operations, De Vanna signed for Damallsvenskan club Linköpings FC. She scored five goals in her first eight games including a hat trick against Piteå IF on 3 June 2012. During a match against Kopparberg/Göteborg FC on 14 October 2012, she scored the game-winning goal in the 82nd minute helping her team win 3–2. Linköping finished third during the regular season with an 11–6–5 record. De Vanna finished the 2012 season having started in 18 of the 22 matches in which she played and scored seven goals. Sky Blue FC, 2013 On 1 February 2013, it was announced that De Vanna signed with Sky Blue FC for the inaugural season of the National Women's Soccer League, the top division in the United States. In June 2013, De Vanna scored a bicycle kick goal and was named the league's Player of the Week. Her goal garnered international attention and went viral on websites like YouTube and soccer-related websites. She was also voted NWSL Fans' Choice MVP for Week 8. During a game against the Western New York Flash on 21 July 2013, De Vanna was sidelined with a hamstring injury. De Vanna started in 16 of the 17 games in which she played and scored five goals. Sky Blue finished in fourth during the regular season with a 10–6–6 record. Melbourne Victory, 2013–14 In October 2013, it was confirmed that De Vanna had signed for Melbourne Victory for the 2013–14 W League season. Boston Breakers, 2014 On 3 March 2014, Sky Blue FC traded De Vanna to the Boston Breakers in exchange for a 2014 international roster spot and the Breakers' first-round 2015 college draft pick, which became Sarah Killion. Washington Spirit, 2014 On 18 June 2014, the Boston Breakers traded De Vanna to Washington Spirit in exchange for defender and Mexican international Bianca Sierra and the Spirit's fourth and fifth round 2015 college draft picks. Melbourne Victory, 2014–15 In September 2014 it was confirmed that De Vanna signed to play with Melbourne Victory again. Melbourne City, 2015–16 Having played a season with the Victory, De Vanna was lured across the city to Victory's A-League rivals, Melbourne City, becoming the brand new W-League side's very first signing. Orlando Pride, 2016 On 29 August 2016, De Vanna joined Orlando Pride. After playing three matches in the 2016 National Women's Soccer League season, she was waived by Orlando Pride before the 2017 National Women's Soccer League season. Canberra United, 2016–17 In December 2016, De Vanna joined Canberra United as a guest player for the remainder of the 2016–17 W-League season. South Melbourne, 2017 On 7 April 2017, De Vanna joined South Melbourne to play in the Women's National Premier League. She finished the season with 18 goals in 16 matches, including a 4-goal haul on 28 August 2017 in a 7–0 rout of Bulleen Lions. Sydney FC, 2017–2019 On 2 October 2017, De Vanna joined Sydney FC. Fiorentina, 2019–2020 In August 2019, De Vanna joined Italian club Fiorentina. Melbourne Victory, 2020–2021 In December 2020, De Vanna returned to the W-League, signing with Melbourne Victory once more. At the end of the season, she was named in the PFA's W-League Team of the Season together with five team-mates. Perth Glory, 2021–present A couple of months after announcing her international retirement, De Vanna decided to return to the game, re-joining her former club Perth Glory. The decision was in part related to the efforts of coach Alex Epakis and chairman Tony Sage to foster a safe, supportive, and respectful environment at the club. International career De Vanna played four games at the 2004 Olympic Football Tournament. She scored four goals for Australia in the 2007 World Cup — one in a 1–1 draw against Norway, two in a 4–1 victory against Ghana, and one against Brazil in her team's 2–3 loss in the quarterfinals. Each goal she scored at the World Cup was dedicated to her father, who died three months before the tournament began. On 1 October 2007 Lisa was named in the FIFA's Women's World Cup All Star Team and she was also nominated for the 2007 FIFA World Player of the Year award. She was named Western Australian Sportswoman of the Year in 2007. After returning home after the World Cup De Vanna returned to a job at a petrol station. In May 2011 De Vanna was sent home from a training camp held to prepare the national team for the World Cup. Australian coach Tom Sermanni stated that the expulsion was for an unacceptable standard of behaviour. The previous September, De Vanna had been subject to a complaint after photographs involving a large inflatable penis were posted to her Facebook page. She was censured by Football Federation Australia and instructed to remove the offending pictures. De Vanna moved to Sweden for the 2012–13 season, but discussed that her desire to play for The Matildas was then stronger than ever. On 8 June 2015 De Vanna captained the Matilda's in her 100th game, scoring their only goal in a 3–1 defeat to the United States in the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup. During a match against Brazil in the 2016 Olympics, a moment of De Vanna and teammate Elise Kellond-Knight went viral when during a short break, De Vanna absentmindedly tried to drink from the wrong end of a water bottle, prompting Kellond-Knight to quickly flip it in her hand. Presently, De Vanna is the second highest goal scorer in Matildas history after Sam Kerr, with 47. Matches and goals scored at World Cup and Olympic tournaments Lisa De Vanna has competed in four FIFA Women's World Cup tournaments: China 2007, Germany 2011,Canada 2015, and France 2019 and two Olympics: Athens 2004 and Rio 2016; altogether played 23 matches and scored 8 goals at those six global tournaments. Managerial De Vanna was appointed as a Technical Assistant for the FFV National Training Centre in September 2018. Career statistics International goals Honours Club Brisbane Roar W-League Championship: 2010–11 Melbourne Victory W-League Championship: 2013–14, 2020–21 Melbourne City W-League Championship: 2015–16 W-League Premiership: 2015–16 Sydney FC W-League Championship: 2018–19 Country Australia OFC U-20 Women's Championship: 2002 AFC Women's Asian Cup: 2010 AFC Olympic Qualifying Tournament: 2016 Individual Julie Dolan Medal: 2002–03 Women's National Soccer League Golden Boot: 2002–03 FIFA Women's World Cup All-Star Team: 2007, 2015 FIFA Puskás Award nominee: 2013 FFA Female Footballer of the Year: 2013 In popular culture Television and film Leading up to the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup, De Vanna was the focus of an ESPN documentary, Unstoppable, directed by award-winning filmmaker, Safina Uberoi. In 2013, she was featured in an hour-long episode of ESPN's Aussies Abroad entitled, The Matildas, which profiled four Australian national team players (De Vanna, Samantha Kerr, Kyah Simon, and Caitlin Foord) and their experience playing internationally. See also List of women's footballers with 100 or more caps List of foreign Damallsvenskan players List of foreign NWSL players References Match reports Further reading External links 1984 births Living people Australian women's soccer players Olympic soccer players for Australia Perth Glory FC (A-League Women) players Brisbane Roar FC (A-League Women) players Newcastle Jets FC (A-League Women) players Melbourne Victory FC (A-League Women) players Melbourne City FC (A-League Women) players Canberra United FC players Sydney FC (A-League Women) players Sportswomen from Western Australia Washington Freedom players MagicJack (WPS) players Doncaster Rovers Belles L.F.C. players Expatriate women's soccer players in the United States FA Women's National League players Expatriate women's footballers in Sweden Australian people of Italian descent Australian people of Portuguese descent Australian expatriate sportspeople in England Expatriate women's footballers in England Footballers at the 2004 Summer Olympics Footballers at the 2016 Summer Olympics 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup players 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup players 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup players Australian Institute of Sport soccer players NJ/NY Gotham FC players A-League Women players National Women's Soccer League players Women's Professional Soccer players Damallsvenskan players Linköpings FC players Soccer players from Perth, Western Australia Australia women's international soccer players Women's association football forwards Washington Spirit players Boston Breakers players Australian expatriate sportspeople in the United States FIFA Women's Century Club Orlando Pride players Australian expatriate sportspeople in Sweden 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup players ACF Fiorentina (women) players Serie A (women's football) players South Australian Sports Institute soccer players Australian expatriate women's soccer players Expatriate women's footballers in Italy Australian expatriate sportspeople in Italy

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%9C%EB%A7%A8%EC%82%AC%20%EC%BB%A4

서맨사 커

서맨사 메이 커(, 1993년 9월 10일~)는 오스트레일리아의 여자 축구 선수로, 포지션은 공격수이다. 샘 커()라는 애칭으로도 알려져 있으며 현재 잉글랜드 FA 여자 슈퍼리그의 첼시 FC 위민에서 활동하고 있다. 어린 시절 서맨사 커는 웨스턴오스트레일리아주 퍼스 교외에 위치한 이스트프리맨틀에서 영국계 인도인 아버지와 오스트레일리아인 어머니 사이에서 태어났다. 서맨사 커의 아버지인 로저 커는 인도 콜카타에서 잉글랜드인 아버지와 인도인 어머니 사이에서 태어났고 7세 시절에 오스트레일리아 퍼스로 이주했다. 로저 커는 오스트레일리아에서 오스트레일리안 풋볼 선수 겸 코치로 활동했고 서맨사 커의 오빠인 대니얼 커 또한 오스트레일리안 풋볼 선수로 활동했다. 서맨사 커도 어린 시절에 오스트레일리안 풋볼 선수로 활동했지만 12세 시절에 축구 선수로 전향하게 된다. 클럽 경력 2006년부터 2008년까지 웨스턴 나이츠 SC에서 축구 선수 생활을 시작했고 15세 시절이던 2009년에 오스트레일리아 W리그 무대에 데뷔하게 된다. 2008년부터 2011년까지 퍼스 글로리 소속으로 뛰었고 2012년부터 2014년까지 시드니 FC 소속으로 활약했다. 특히 2012-13 W리그 시즌에서는 시드니 FC의 W리그 챔피언십 우승에 기여했다. 2013년에 미국 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그의 시카고 레드 스타스로 이적했으며 2013 시즌에서는 시카고 레드 스타스의 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그 실드 우승에 기여했다. 2014년 8월에는 오스트레일리아의 퍼스 글로리로 복귀했다. 2015년부터 2017년까지 미국 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그의 스카이 블루에서 활약했으며 2017 시즌에서는 17골을 기록하여 골든부트를 수상했다. 2018년 1월 18일에는 시카고 레드 스타스로 복귀했고 2018 시즌에서 16골을 기록하면서 2회 연속으로 골든부트를 수상했다. 2019년에는 잉글랜드 FA 여자 슈퍼리그의 첼시 FC 위민으로 이적했다. 첼시에서도 해마다 리그와 FA컵 그리고 리그컵 우승에 공헌하였고, 2020-21 챔스리그 준우승에 공헌하였다. 국가대표 경력 15세 시절이던 2009년 2월에 열린 이탈리아와의 경기에 처음 출전하면서 오스트레일리아 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수로 데뷔했다. 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵, 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵, 2016년 리우데자네이루 하계 올림픽, 2019년 FIFA 여자 월드컵, 2020년 도쿄, 2023년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에 참가했으며 2017년에는 아시아 축구 연맹(AFC) 올해의 여자 선수상을 수상했다. 수상 클럽 시드니 FC 오스트레일리아 W리그 1회 우승 (2012-13) 웨스턴 뉴욕 플래시 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그 실드 1회 수상 (2013) 퍼스 글로리 오스트레일리아 W리그 프리미어십 1회 우승 (2014) 첼시 FC 위민 FA 여자 슈퍼리그 4회 우승 (2019-2020, 2020-2021, 2021-2022, 2022-2023) FA컵 3회 우승 (2020-2021, 2021-2022, 2022-2023) 리그컵 2회 우승 (2019-2020, 2020-2021) 국가대표 2010년 AFC 여자 아시안컵 우승 2014년 AFC 여자 아시안컵 준우승 2018년 AFC 여자 아시안컵 준우승 개인 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그 이 주의 선수 7회 선정 (2013년 9주, 2016년 18주, 2017년 9주, 2017년 12주, 2017년 17주, 2018년 15주, 2018년 22주) 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그 이 달의 선수 2회 선정 (2017년 5월, 2017년 6월) 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그 골든부트 2회 수상 (2017 시즌, 2018 시즌) 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그 MVP 수상 (2017 시즌) 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그 베스트 일레븐 선전 (2017 시즌, 2018 시즌) 2017년 AFC 올해의 여자 선수상 수상 FA 여자 슈퍼 리그 올해의 선수 (2021-2022 시즌) FA 여자 슈퍼 리그 이달의 선수 (2021년 4월, 2022년 4월) FA 여자 슈퍼 리그 득점왕 (2020-2021 시즌, 2021-2022 시즌) 첼시 FC 올해의 여자 선수 (2021-2022 시즌, 2022-2023 시즌) 외부 링크 1993년 출생 살아있는 사람 20세기 오스트레일리아 사람 21세기 오스트레일리아 사람 20세기 성소수자 사람 21세기 성소수자 사람 오스트레일리아의 여자 축구 선수 여자 축구 공격수 웨스턴 뉴욕 플래시의 축구 선수 NJ/NY 고섬 FC의 축구 선수 시카고 레드 스타스의 축구 선수 첼시 FC 위민의 축구 선수 오스트레일리아 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 A리그 위민의 축구 선수 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그의 축구 선수 FA 여자 슈퍼리그의 축구 선수 오스트레일리아의 해외 진출 여자 축구 선수 미국의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 잉글랜드의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 오스트레일리아의 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 2016년 하계 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 2020년 하계 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 2019년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 2023년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 FIFA 센추리 클럽 여자 선수 오스트레일리아의 성소수자 스포츠 선수 웨스턴오스트레일리아주 출신 잉글랜드계 오스트레일리아인 인도계 오스트레일리아인 미국에 거주한 오스트레일리아인 잉글랜드에 거주한 오스트레일리아인

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam%20Kerr

Sam Kerr

Samantha May Kerr (born 10 September 1993) is an Australian professional soccer player who plays as a striker for FA Women's Super League club Chelsea, and the Australia women's national team, which she has captained since 2019. Known for her speed, skill, and tenacity, Kerr is widely considered one of the best strikers in the world, and one of Australia's greatest athletes. Kerr is the all-time leading Australian international scorer, and is the all-time leading scorer in the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) in the United States. She is the only female soccer player to have won the Golden Boot in three different leagues and on three different continents—the W-League (Australia/New Zealand) in 2017–18 and 2018–19, the NWSL (North America) in 2017, 2018, and 2019, and the Women's Super League (Europe) in 2020–21 and 2021–22. Kerr started her career at the age of 15 with Perth Glory where she played from 2008 to 2012, before moving to Sydney FC. In 2013, she joined the Western New York Flash for the inaugural season of the NWSL and helped lead the team to win the NWSL Shield. She later played for Sky Blue FC and the Chicago Red Stars in the same league. In 2019, Kerr indicated her interest to play in Europe, and having fielded multiple offers from clubs such as Olympique Lyonnais, Kerr ultimately signed with Chelsea, so far winning 8 trophies with the club, including back-to-back-to-back Women's Super League titles, as well as helping the team reach the UEFA Women's Champions League final for the first time in 2021. Kerr earned her first senior international cap in 2009 at the age of 15 and has since represented Australia at the 2010, 2014, 2018, and 2022 AFC Women's Asian Cup tournaments, the 2011, 2015, 2019, and 2023 FIFA Women's World Cups, and the 2016 and 2020 Summer Olympics. During the 2019 World Cup, she became the first Australian player to score a hat trick at a World Cup tournament. In 2021, she captained the team to their historic first ever semi-final of a major tournament during the delayed 2020 Summer Olympics, resulting in their best ever 4th-place finish. Kerr was named the 2018 Young Australian of the Year as part of the 2018 Australia Day Honours, and as part of the 2022 Australia Day Honours, was awarded a Medal of the Order of Australia (OAM) for her "services to football", becoming only the second Australian female footballer to receive such an honour after the inaugural Matildas' captain, Julie Dolan. She was awarded the 2017 and 2018 Julie Dolan Medal as the best player in Australia, is a record five-time recipient of the PFA Australian Women's Footballer of the Year, awarded it in 2013, 2017, 2018, 2019, and 2022, and was named International Player of the Year by the Football Media Association in 2013 and 2014. She received the ESPY Award for Best International Women's Soccer Player in 2018, 2019, and 2022, and was nominated for the award in 2021. She also won the ESPY Award for Best NWSL Soccer Player in 2019, and was nominated for the award in 2018. In 2022 and in 2023, Kerr was awarded the FWA Women's Footballer of the Year. She was the first and only Australian women's footballer to be named to the shortlist for the Ballon d'Or Féminin in 2022, and one of only two players (alongside France international Wendie Renard) to have been nominated in all editions of the award since its inception in 2018, ranking 5th, 7th, 3rd, 3rd, and 2nd respectively. Kerr and fellow Australian Hayley Raso have both been nominated on the shortlist for the Ballon d'Or Féminin in 2023. She has also been shortlisted for The Best FIFA Women's Player consistently since 2017, ranking 10th, 9th, 11th, 7th, and 2nd, respectively. Kerr has also been nominated for the BBC Women's Footballer of the Year award from 2018 to 2022 and has been named to the Top 10 of The Guardian's The 100 Best Female Footballers In The World from 2017 to 2022, ranking 3rd, 2nd, 1st, 6th, 3rd, and 3rd, respectively. Early life Kerr was born in East Fremantle, a suburb of Perth, Western Australia. She is the daughter of Roxanne ( Regan) and Roger Kerr. Her father, a professional Australian rules football player, was born in Calcutta to an English father (a featherweight boxer) and an Indian mother who played basketball. Her mother also comes from a sporting family: her father Harry and uncle Con Regan were professional footballers in the West Australian Football League and another uncle J. J. Miller was a champion jockey who won the Melbourne Cup in 1966 with Galilee. Kerr played Australian rules football when she was young. Both her father and older brother, Daniel Kerr, were professional Australian rules footballers. She played the sport until switching to association football at the age of 12, mostly due to gender restrictions. Despite facing some struggles transitioning from Australian rules football to association football, at age 13, she was spotted by Perth Glory striker Bobby Despotovski who described her athleticism and raw talent as "exceptional". At age 15, she made her W-League and international debuts. Club career Western Knights, 2006–2008 Kerr first started playing football as a junior at Western Knights in Mosman Park. After three years at the Western Knights, she trialled for the Western Australian State Team before moving to Perth Glory. Perth Glory, 2008–2011 Kerr made her debut for Perth Glory at the age of 15 during the 2009 W-League season. She was voted Players' Player at the 2009 W-League Awards and awarded Goal of the Year for her long–range goal against Sydney FC in round 8. During the 2010–11 season, Kerr started in all 10 matches and scored three goals. She scored a brace in the first half of a match against Adelaide United on 14 January 2011 lifting Perth to a 2–1 victory. Western New York Flash, 2013–2014 In 2013, Kerr signed with the Western New York Flash. She made 19 starts in her 21 appearances for the club and scored six goals. After defeating Sky Blue FC 2–0 in the semi-finals, the Flash lost 2–0 to Portland in the final. Kerr returned to the Flash for the 2014 season. Head coach Aaran Lines said of Kerr, "With her attributes – her speed, athleticism and instincts – if she continues to develop at the rate she is, Sam can become one of the best strikers in the world." Kerr started in all 20 matches and was the team's leading scorer with 9 goals. She was named NWSL Player of the Week for week 9 after recording a brace and assist against Portland. Following the 2014 season, Kerr was traded to Sky Blue FC in exchange for Elizabeth Eddy and a first-round pick—fourth overall—in the 2015 NWSL College Draft. The Flash used that pick to draft Sam Mewis. Return to Perth Glory, 2014–2015 In August 2014, Kerr returned to Perth Glory on a one-year deal as one of six Matildas to sign for Perth. She would open her account in Perth's second match against Adelaide United to give Perth the lead in the second half which they would win. The following match she scored a double in her team's 10–1 rout of Western Sydney Wanderers. After missing out in the next four games, Kerr would go and score eight goals in the final four games of the regular season which included a hat-trick against her former team in Sydney FC. She continued her regular season form in the following season when she scored the winning goal in a 2–1 victory over Melbourne Victory in the opening round of the competition. That would be the only goal that she would score in the season with her leg giving way in a non-contact ankle injury which forced her out for the rest of the season. This wouldn't stop Perth from giving her a one-year contract extension before the start of that season. In the 2016–17 W-League season she scored ten goals, led the team to the Grand Final, and earned the Julie Dolan Medal and the Penny Tanner Media MVP Award. In October 2018, she became the first marquee player of the W-League when she was reportedly offered $400,000 contract to stay in Perth instead of going overseas where she was offered $100,000 less. The marquee signing delivered in the 2018–19 W-League season, when she finished top of the goal scoring charts with 17 goals at above a goal a game. This included a hat-trick in the semi-final against Melbourne Victory which booked Perth's spot into the grand final. Sky Blue FC, 2015–2017 In 2015, Kerr joined Matildas teammate Caitlin Foord at Sky Blue FC following their participation at the FIFA Women's World Cup in Canada. Kerr's six goals in her nine appearances ranked first on the team. During the 2016 season, Kerr made nine appearances for Sky Blue after being away with the national team in preparation for the 2016 Rio Olympics. She scored five goals during the regular season. Kerr was named NWSL Player of the week for Week 18 after scoring two goals: an 80th-minute equaliser against the Orlando Pride and a game-winning goal against the Pride a few days later. In the 2017 season, Kerr set a new NWSL record when she scored 4 goals in a single game after being down 3–0 to Seattle Reign at halftime. Sky Blue eventually won the match 5–4. At the age of 23, Kerr sat atop the all-time NWSL goalscoring table. Kerr won the NWSL Golden Boot and MVP award after finishing the 2017 season with a record-breaking 17 goals. Chicago Red Stars, 2018–2019 On 18 January 2018, Kerr was traded to the Chicago Red Stars along with Nikki Stanton by the Sky Blue FC in a three-team trade with the Chicago Red Stars and Houston Dash. She got off to a slow start in the 2018 season, not scoring until the eighth match of the season when she contributed to a 1–1 draw against North Carolina Courage. In August, she was named as NWSL Player of the Month for the third time in her career as she scored five goals throughout the month of August which included two goals against Portland Thorns FC and Orlando Pride. At the end of the 2018 season, Kerr scored 16 goals and won the Golden Boot for the second consecutive season, leading to her becoming the first player to win the NWSL Golden Boot more than once, and was elected into the NWSL Best XI as a forward. At the end of the 2019 season, Kerr and the Chicago Red Stars made their first appearance in the NWSL Championship, losing 4–0 to North Carolina Courage. Several days prior to the championship game, Kerr was named the 2019 NWSL MVP, the first, and currently only, NWSL player to ever receive the award twice. Kerr also received, for the third year in a row, the NWSL Golden Boot, leading the league with 18 goals and five assists, despite missing some games over the summer to play with Australia in the World Cup. Kerr was also named Player of the Year by the National Women's Soccer League Players Association, who presented their own awards for the first time. At the end of the 2019 season Kerr announced that she was considering moving to a European team and had multiple offers. Chelsea, 2020–present On 13 November 2019, WSL club Chelsea announced Kerr would be joining the club for the second half of the 2019–20 FA WSL season on a two-and-a-half year contract. Kerr made her Chelsea debut against Reading on 5 January 2020 and scored her first goal two weeks later against Arsenal. She won her first trophy with Chelsea in their 2–1 win over Arsenal in the League Cup Final. Chelsea went on to win the 2019–20 league title despite a curtailed season due to the COVID-19 pandemic, based on points per match. At the 2020 Women's FA Community Shield on 29 August 2020, Kerr created a series of goal scoring opportunities before being substituted in Chelsea's 2–0 win over Manchester City. She scored a hat-trick in the 6–0 win over Bristol City in Chelsea's defence of the League Cup title, and led goalscoring for Chelsea during the season, ultimately helping her win her second Women's Super League title during the 2020–21 FA WSL season. She scored 21 goals in 22 games, winning the Golden Boot, making her the first player to win it in three different leagues. That same season, Kerr helped Chelsea reach the final of the UEFA Women's Champions League for the first time, before being defeated by Barcelona. During the 2021–22 WSL season, Kerr continued exhibiting fine form and was nominated for the Barclays Player of the Month for September. On 16 November 2021, Kerr signed a two-year contract extension, keeping her at the club until the end of the 2023–24 season, saying: "I can't see myself going anywhere else in the world or leaving Europe, having what I have at Chelsea." The following week, Kerr scored the winning goal in Chelsea's Champions League group stage match against Servette, and scored her third league hat-trick, against Birmingham City, within 26 minutes, as well as providing the assist for team-mate Fran Kirby's 100th Chelsea goal, with Kerr celebrating her achievement with her signature back-flip, the first time she performed it at Chelsea's homeground of Kingsmeadow. On 5 December, Kerr scored a brace in the delayed FA Cup final against Arsenal, winning Player of the Match, and helping her team lift the trophy and secure the domestic quadruple of the 2020–21 season, the first English women's club to achieve the feat. Kerr ended the 2021 calendar year as the leading goalscorer in the WSL, with 23 goals, and was second in total assists with 10, behind Kirby. Upon returning to Chelsea after being eliminated in the Asian Cup at the beginning of 2022, Kerr continued with a fine run of goal-scoring, scoring 10 goals in 7 consecutive matches, the first Chelsea player to do so. She scored the lone Chelsea goal in a 3–1 defeat at the hands of Manchester City in the League Cup final and in Chelsea's 0–9 record-breaking win against Leicester City in the WSL on 27 March, Kerr scored a brace, repeating the feat the following week in a match against Reading, the 5th consecutive WSL match she had scored in. On 24 April, in a league game against Tottenham Hotspur, Kerr scored in her 6th consecutive WSL match, and in doing so, broke her own record set the previous season of scoring against the most opposing teams, by scoring against all opponents bar Arsenal. In April 2022, Kerr was awarded the FWA Women's Footballer of the Year, receiving 40% of the vote ahead of Vivianne Miedema and Lauren Hemp, and won the FA WSL April Player of the Month. Kerr ended the season with 32 goals (including 3 goals of the 2020–21 FA Cup held over the course of the 2021–22 season) and 9 assists across all competitions, winning the Women's Super League for the third consecutive time, and the FA Women's Cup for the second consecutive time. After a formidable season in front of goal for the Blues, she was voted Chelsea Women's Player of the Year by Chelsea supporters with over 70 per cent of the vote and was also voted Women's Super League Player of the Season. She also received the PFA Players' Player of the Year, in addition to being named in the PFA WSL Team of the Year for second consecutive year. Kerr finished as top goal scorer, netting 32 times in all competitions. She retained the Golden Boot award for the second consecutive year, having scored 20 times in the 2021–22 season. The striker scored a number of important goals during the season, including a crucial 92nd-minute winner against Aston Villa at Kingsmeadow in March 2022 to keep the Blues' title hopes alive. Kerr also scored twice as Chelsea beat Manchester United on the final day of the season, with her well-taken volley against the Red Devils being voted the Goal of the Season. She also scored the winning goal at Wembley as the Blues secured their second consecutive FA Cup. International career In February 2009, at the age of 15, Kerr made her international debut for Australia's senior national team in Canberra as a 76th minute substitute in a friendly against Italy, which Australia lost 5–1. She scored her first international goal at the age of 16 during the 2010 AFC Women's Asian Cup final against North Korea, helping Australia draw 1–1 in full-time, which led to Kerr's first international trophy. 2010 AFC Women's Asian Cup, China In May 2010, Kerr was named to the Matildas squad to compete at the 2010 AFC Women's Asian Cup, the qualifying tournament for the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup in Germany. After scoring in the second match of the group against South Korea, she scored the opening goal of the final against North Korea before seeing Australia taking out the title via a penalty shoot-out. The same year, she represented Australia at the 2010 Peace Queen Cup. 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup, Germany In 2011 at age 17, Kerr was named to Australia's 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup squad by head coach Tom Sermanni as one of seven players who were under twenty years of age. She made her World Cup debut coming on as a substitute in the 79th minute of Australia's first group stage match against Brazil. She was a starter for the team's second group stage match against Equatorial Guinea helping Australia win 3–2 and the team's final group stage match and 2–1 win against Norway. Australia finished second place in their group and advanced to the knockout stage where they were defeated 3–1 by Sweden. 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, Canada After injuring her knee in December 2014 and undergoing surgery, Kerr worked hard with fitness coach Aaron Holt to recover ahead of the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup in Canada. Kerr was the team's starting striker during Australia's first group stage match against the United States, which Australia lost 3–1. During the team's second group stage match, she helped Australia defeat Nigeria 2–0. During the match, Kerr was elbowed in the face by Ugo Njoku, which ultimately resulted in a three-game suspension for Njoku. Kerr recovered and started during Australia's final group stage match against Sweden, a 1–1 draw. Australia's finished second in their group and advanced to the round of 16 where Kerr played in the team that defeated Brazil 1–0. She also started the quarterfinal match in the first time Australia reached this stage, but they were defeated by 2011 champions Japan 1–0. 2016–2018 In July 2017, Kerr was the top goalscorer at the inaugural Tournament of Nations in the United States. She scored a hat-trick in Australia's 4–2 victory over Japan, and also scored a goal against Brazil, leading Australia to win the tournament. Prior to this tournament, Kerr had scored eight goals in her first 49 games for the national team. Her hat-trick against Japan was the beginning of a run of 11 goals in six games. Kerr was named 2017 AFC Women's Footballer of the Year. 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup, France In February 2019, Kerr was named captain of the Matildas by newly appointed head coach Ante Milicic. Two months later, she was one of five nominees for the BBC Women's Footballer of the Year award. During the team's first group stage match at the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup in France, she opened up an early lead against Italy after scoring a goal off a penalty kick rebound, though Australia ultimately lost 2–1 in stoppage time. Kerr's goal was her first at a World Cup tournament and she celebrated by punching the corner flag to honor Tim Cahill, the all-time leading goalscorer for the Socceroos. During the team's second group stage match against Brazil, though Kerr was in an offside position when Monica Hickmann Alves headed the ball into her own goal, the video assistant referee (VAR) deemed that Kerr wasn't interfering and the goal was counted for Australia. Australia won 3–2. Kerr scored four goals in the team's 4–1 win against Jamaica and was named Player of the Match. She is the first Australian footballer to score a hat-trick at a World Cup tournament and the tenth footballer to score four goals. Australia finished second in their group and advanced to the knockout stage where they were defeated by Norway in a penalty shoot-out. Kerr's five goals at the tournament ranked fourth highest behind Ellen White of England and Americans Alex Morgan and Megan Rapinoe, who all scored six. 2020 Olympic Games, Tokyo At 2020 Tokyo Olympics held in 2021, Australia was grouped with United States, Sweden and New Zealand. Kerr scored in the opening game, in which they beat New Zealand 2–1. In the second game against Sweden, Kerr scored a brace but missed a penalty and ended up losing 4–2. Progressing to the quarter-finals against Great Britain, Kerr scored an 89th-minute equaliser to see the game into extra time, before getting a brace to help Australia secure a 4–3 victory and progress to the semi-finals against Sweden. During this match, Kerr scored a goal that was controversially disallowed, and Australia ultimately lost 1–0. In the bronze medal match against the United States, she scored a goal in a 4–3 defeat, to become the all-time top scorer for the Matildas, surpassing Lisa De Vanna, with 48 goals. Post Olympics On 21 September, in their first match after their Olympics defeat, and in Australia's first ever match against the Republic of Ireland, Kerr won her 100th cap, the 10th Matilda in history to do so. She returned with Australia to play two friendly matches against Brazil on home soil in October, the first time doing so since before the COVID-19 pandemic, and scored her 49th international goal in the second match. 2022 AFC Women's Asian Cup, India At the 2022 AFC Women's Asian Cup, Kerr scored 5 goals in Australia's opening match of the group stage against Indonesia, and in the process, equalled and surpassed the Australian international goal-scoring record, among both male and female Australian internationals, previously set by Tim Cahill (50 international goals). She was also able to achieve the feat within fewer matches, needing 105 matches to equal the 50 goals set by Cahill, who set the record within 108 international appearances. Despite being eliminated in the quarter-finals by South Korea, she won the Golden Boot, scoring 7 goals in only 4 matches. 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, Australia and New Zealand On 3 July, it was announced that Kerr would captain the Matildas' 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup squad in her fourth World Cup appearance, this time on home soil. Kerr missed the opening match against Ireland as a result of a calf injury. The team announced that she would miss the first two pool matches, but subsequently there was speculation that she would miss all of them and possibly the whole tournament. Rumours emerged that the team deliberately understated the severity of the injury. She ultimately missed all three group games but could have taken the pitch against Canada if they needed her. With a comfortable 4–0 win, there was no need for her to play. Kerr made her first appearance in the 2023 World Cup in the 80th minute of the Matildas' win in the round of 16 clash with Denmark. She was again used as a substitute in the Australia's historic quarter-final victory over France, scoring a goal in the concluding penalty shootout. The team reached the World Cup semi-finals for the first time, facing England. Down a goal after the first half, Kerr equalized for Australia with her first goal of the tournament, but two subsequent English goals resulted in a 3–1 loss, thwarting the Matildas' hopes of reaching the final. Kerr's goal was widely praised as one of the best of the tournament thus far. In popular media In 2013, Kerr was featured in an hour-long episode of ESPN's Aussies Abroad entitled, The Matildas, which profiled four Australian national team players (Kerr, Lisa De Vanna, Kyah Simon, and Caitlin Foord) and their experience playing internationally. She was featured along with her national teammates in the EA Sports' FIFA video game series starting in FIFA 16, the first time women players were included in the game. Kerr was featured on the cover of the July 2011 issue of Australian FourFourTwo along with four of her national team teammates: Melissa Barbieri, Kyah Simon, Thea Slatyer, and Sarah Walsh. In March 2018, she was featured in Vogue Australia as a 2018 Game Changer. In 2018, she was featured on the cover of the Australian version of the FIFA 19 video game. In September 2020, she was announced as the second-highest rated female player in FIFA 21 with a 92-rated card, which was only beat by Megan Rapinoe's 93 rating. Kerr has an endorsement deal with Nike. In 2019, she starred in a commercial, Dream Further, that aired during the Champions League Final and 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup and also featured Gerard Piqué, Alex Scott, Neymar Jr., Crystal Dunn, Lieke Martens and Philippe Coutinho. The same year, her trademark backflip was featured in the Nike ad, Dream Crazier along with other women athletes like Serena Williams, Megan Rapinoe, and Diana Taurasi and aired during the 91st Academy Awards. She is a brand ambassador for Powerade. In 2021, she published her first book (The Flip Out) in her autobiographical football themed children's book series, "Kicking Goals". In July 2022, it was announced that Kerr would feature on the cover of the Ultimate edition of FIFA 23 alongside Kylian Mbappé, this is the first time a female player would appear on the global cover of the game franchise. (Alex Morgan and Christine Sinclair had previously appeared on the cover of the US and Canada versions of FIFA 16, respectively.) New artwork featuring Kerr on the cover of FIFA 23 is also scheduled for the 2023 Women's World Cup. Kerr was crowned world's best women's footballer in the FIFA 23 Women's World Cup - alongside Spain's Alexia Putellas. In July 2023, she co-starred in a commercial for Degree deodorant, along with Trinity Rodman and Estefania Banini. Personal life Kerr is currently in a relationship with American soccer player Kristie Mewis. She was previously in a relationship with former Perth Glory and Chicago Red Stars teammate Nikki Stanton. Kerr is a supporter of the West Coast Eagles and was the club's number-one ticket holder in 2019 and 2020. Her brother, Daniel Kerr, is a former player for the West Coast Eagles. On 27 October 2023, the newly finished West Australian State Football Centre was officially named the Sam Kerr Football Centre at its official opening. Career statistics Club International Scores and results list Australia's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Kerr goal. Honours Sydney FC W-League Championship: 2012–13 Western New York Flash NWSL Shield: 2013 NWSL Championship runner-up: 2013 Perth Glory W-League Premiership: 2014 W-League Championship runner-up: 2014, 2016–17, 2018–19 Chicago Red Stars NWSL Championship runner-up: 2019 Chelsea FA Women's Super League: 2019–20, 2020–21, 2021–22, 2022–23 Women's FA Cup: 2020–21, 2021–22, 2022–23 FA Women's League Cup: 2019–20, 2020–21; runner-up: 2021–22 FA Women's Community Shield: 2020 UEFA Women's Champions League runner-up: 2020–21 Australia AFF U-16 Women's Championship: 2009 AFC Women's Asian Cup: 2010; runner-up: 2014, 2018 Centenary Cup: 2013 Individual W-League Player's Player of the Year: 2009, 2014 W-League Goal of the Year: 2009, 2016–17 FFA Female U20 Footballer of the Year: 2010, 2014 PFA Australian Women's Footballer of the Year: 2013, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2022 Julie Dolan Medal: 2016–17, 2017–18 PFA W-League Team of the Season: 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19 W-League Golden Boot: 2017–18, 2018–19 Football Media Association International Player of the Year: 2013, 2014 NWSL Player of the Week: 2013: Week 9; 2016: Week 18; 2017: Week 9 12, 17; 2018: Week 15, 22 NWSL Player of the Month: 2017: May, June, 2018: August 2019: May NWSL Team of the Month: 2017: May, June, July, August; 2018: July, August; 2019: April, May, September NWSL Golden Boot: 2017, 2018, 2019 NWSL Most Valuable Player Award: 2017, 2019 NWSL Best XI: 2017, 2018, 2019 Asian Women's Footballer of the Year: 2017, 2022 ABC Sport Personality of the Year: 2017 IFFHS Women's World Team of the Year: 2017, 2021 Young Australian of the Year: 2018 ESPY Awards Best International Women's Soccer Player: 2018, 2019, 2022 ESPY Awards Best NWSL Player ESPY Award: 2019 The 100 Best Female Footballers In The World Winner: 2019 IFFHS AFC Women's Team of the Decade: 2011–2020 UK Young Achiever Award: 2021 FA Women's Super League Player of the Month: April 2021, April 2022 FA Women's Super League Golden Boot: 2020–21, 2021–22 PFA WSL Fans' Player of the Month: March 2021, April 2022 PFA WSL Team of the Year: 2020–21, 2021–22, 2022–23 UEFA Women's Champions League Squad of the Season: 2020–21 IFFHS AFC Women's Player of the Year: 2021 IFFHS AFC Women's All-time Women's Dream Team: 2021 IFFHS World's Best International Goal Scorer: 2022 Medal of the Order of Australia (OAM): 2022 AFC Women's Asian Cup Golden Boot: 2022 London Football Awards FA Women's Super League Player of the Year: 2022 Football Writer's Association Women's Footballer of the Year: 2021–22, 2022–23 Women's Super League Player of the Season: 2021–22 Women's Super League Goal of the Season: 2021–22 PFA Players' Player of the Year: 2022 PFA WSL Fans’ Player of the Year: 2020–21, 2021–22 Chelsea Women's Player of the Year: 2021–22, 2022–23 The Athletic WSL Player of the Year: 2021–22 The Athletic WSL Team of the Year: 2020–21, 2021–22 GiveMeSportW (GMS) Fans' WSL Player of the Season: 2021–22 Key to the City of Perth: 2022 FIFA FIFPRO Women's World 11: 2022 Australian flag-bearer for the coronation of Charles III and Camilla: 2023 Ballon d'Or Féminin 3rd place: 2021, 2022; runner-up: 2023 Records Australia (2009 to present) All-time leading Australian international female scorer: 63 (from 5 August 2021 to present) All-time leading Australian international scorer: 63 (from 12 Apr 2023 to present) All-time leading Australian international female scorer at the Olympics: 7 (from 2020 Tokyo Olympics to present) Most goals scored in a calendar year: 12 (2022) First Australian football player to score a hat-trick at a World Cup: 2019 Most consecutive games scored in: 7 (from 30 July 2017 to 28 February 2018) W-League (2008–09 to 2018–19) Former all-time leading scorer: 70 (from 24 January 2019 to 20 March 2021: overtaken by Michelle Heyman) Most goals in a season: 17 (2018–19) Most hat-tricks: 4 (tied with Michelle Heyman) Fastest hat-trick: 7 minutes (16 December 2017 vs Newcastle Jets) Most 'Golden Boot' awards: 2 (2017–18, 2018–19) (tied with Michelle Heyman and Kate Gill) National Women's Soccer League (2013 to 2019) All-time leading scorer: 77 (from 8 July 2017 to present) Former all-time assists leader: 24 (overtaken by Lynn Williams, Tobin Heath and Jessica McDonald) First player to score 50 goals (9 June 2018) First teenager to score a goal: (April 2013) Most goals in a season: 18 (2019) Most goals in a match: 4 (tied with Kristen Hamilton and Alex Morgan) Most shots on target in a season: 54 (2017) Most hat-tricks in a season: 2 (2017) Most consecutive seasons to score at least 10 goals: 3 (2017 to 2019) Most consecutive seasons to score at least 15 goals: 3 (2017 to 2019) First Australian international to play 100 regular season games Most 'Most Valuable Player' awards: 2 (2017, 2019) Most 'Golden Boot' awards: 3 (2017, 2018, 2019) FA Women's Super League (2019–20 to present) Most goals in a full-season debut: 21 (2020–21) Most goals in a calendar year: 23 (2021) Most number of teams scored against in a season: 10 (2021 –22) Most hat-tricks against a single club: 2 (vs Birmingham City) (tied with Bethany England, Rachel Williams and Vivianne Miedema) Most first half hat-tricks: 2 (tied with Vivianne Miedema) First player to score against every team played against (2 September 2020 vs Everton) Most goals scored as a headers in one season: 9 (2020–21) First player to score at least 20 goals in consecutive seasons: 2020–21 to 2021–22 Most consecutive seasons to score at least 20 goals: 2 (2020–21 to 2021–22) Most 'Golden Boot' awards: 2 (2020–21 to 2021–22) (tied with Vivianne Miedema) Most goals across all competitions in a season: 32 (2021–22) UEFA Women's Champion League (2020–21 to present) Most goals in a group stage game: 4 Perth Glory (2008 to 2011, 2014 to 2019) All-time leading scorer: 57 (2014 to present) Sky Blue FC (2015–2017) All-time leading scorer: 28 (28 June 2017 to present) Chicago Red Stars (2018 to 2019) All-time leading scorer: 35 (tied with Christen Press) (20 October 2019 to present) Chelsea (2020 to present) Most consecutive games scored in: 7 (26 February 2022 to 3 April 2022) Other Most goals in a FIFA Women's World Cup game: 4, 2019 Only football player to win the Golden Boot in 3 different leagues/continents: W-League (Australia): 2017–18, 2018–19; NWSL (North America): 2017, 2018, 2019; FA WSL (Europe) 2020–21,2021–22 First Australian female football player to be nominated for the Ballon d'Or First Australian football player to place in the top 3 of the Ballon d'Or: 2021 First Australian football player to place in the top 3 of The Best FIFA Player: 2021 First Australian to win PFA Players’ Player of the Year: 2022 First West Australian-born female recipient of the Key to the City of Perth: 2022 First female footballer to be chosen to be on the cover of a FIFA video game: FIFA 23 See also List of A-League Women records and statistics List of NWSL records and statistics List of FA WSL records and statistics List of FIFA Women's World Cup hat-tricks List of women's footballers with 100 or more international caps List of top international women's football goal scorers by country References Further reading External links Australia player profile Chelsea player profile Sky Blue FC player profile (archived) 1993 births Living people Australian women's soccer players Soccer players from Perth, Western Australia Perth Glory FC (A-League Women) players Sydney FC (A-League Women) players Australian people of English descent Australian people of Anglo-Indian descent Australian sportspeople of Indian descent Anglo-Indian people 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup players 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup players 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup players Footballers at the 2016 Summer Olympics Australia women's international soccer players National Women's Soccer League players Expatriate women's soccer players in the United States A-League Women players Women's Super League players Women's association football forwards Western New York Flash players NJ/NY Gotham FC players Chicago Red Stars players Chelsea F.C. Women players Australian expatriate sportspeople in England Australian expatriate sportspeople in the United States Olympic soccer players for Australia Lesbian sportswomen Australian lesbians Australian LGBT soccer players Recipients of the Medal of the Order of Australia Expatriate women's footballers in England Footballers at the 2020 Summer Olympics FIFA Women's Century Club Australian expatriate women's soccer players Sportspeople from Fremantle Sportswomen from Western Australia 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup players

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%93%80%EB%9E%80%20%EB%93%80%EB%9E%80%EC%9D%98%20%EC%88%98%EC%83%81%20%EB%B0%8F%20%ED%9B%84%EB%B3%B4%20%EB%AA%A9%EB%A1%9D

듀란 듀란의 수상 및 후보 목록

듀란 듀란은 그래미상 수상자인 버밍엄 출신 영국의 록 밴드이다. 1980년대 상업적으로 큰 성공을 거둔 밴드 중 하나였으며 MTV가 가져온 "2차 브리티시 인베이전"의 주역이었다. 1980년대 이래로 영국 싱글 차트에서 탑 10위를 14번, 빌보드 핫 100 차트 입성을 21번 달성했으며. 1억 장 이상의 레코드를 판매하였다. 아메리칸 뮤직 어워드 아메리칸 뮤직 어워드는 Dick Clark에 의해 1973년 시작된 연례 행사이다. 듀란 듀란은 후보에 그쳤다. |- | align="center" rowspan="2"| 1985 ||듀란 듀란|| 최고의 그룹 비디오 아티스트(팝, 락, 밴드 혹은 듀오) || |- 브라보 오토 어워드 브라보 오토 어워드는 독일의 가장 유명한 10대 잡지인 브라보 매거진에서 개최한다. 음악, 영화, 스포츠계에서 특출난 사람들에게 주어진다. |- | 1985 | 듀란 듀란 | 최고의 그룹(은상) | 브릿 어워드 브릿 어워드는 영국 축음기 협회에서 진행하는 연례 행사이다. 두 번의 노미네이트 모두 수상하였다. |- |align="center" | 1985 ||"Wild Boys" || 최고의 비디오상(영국) || |- |align="center" | 2004 || 듀란 듀란 || 음악공헌상 || |- 그래미상 그래미상은 국립 레코딩 아카데미에서 수여하는 연례 행사이다. 두 번의 노미네이트 모두 수상하였다. |- | align="center"| 1984 || "Girls on Film" / "Hungry Like the Wolf" || 최고의 뮤직비디오상(단편 부문) || |- | align="center"| 1984 ||Duran Duran(1983 Video) || 최고의 뮤직비디오상(장편 부문) || |- Q 어워드 월간 잡지 Q 매거진에서 진행하는 행사이다. |- |align="center" | 2003 || 듀란 듀란 || Q 평생공로상 || |- |align="center" | 2015 || 듀란 듀란 || Q 아이콘상 || |- 골든 글로브상 골든 글로브 어워드는 할리우드 외신 기자 협회에서 주최하는 시상식이다. 뷰 투 어 킬로 한 번 노미네이트되었으나 영화 <백야>의 주제가와 경합을 벌이다 수상하지 못했다. |- |align="center"| 1986 || "A View to a Kill" from A View to a Kill || 최고의 주제가상 || MTV 비디오 뮤직 어워드 1984년부터 시작된 MTV의 연례 시상식이다. |- | align="center"| 1984 ||"The Reflex"|| Best Editing in a Video || |- | align="center"| 1984 ||"The Reflex"|| Best Stage Performance in a Video || |- | align="center"| 1985 ||"Wild Boys"|| Best Direction in a Video || |- | align="center"| 1993 ||"Ordinary World"|| Best Cinematography || |- | align="center"| 2003 ||듀란 듀란|| Lifetime Achievement Award|| |- | align="center"| 2015 ||듀란 듀란|| Video Visionary Award|| |- 뮤직 비디오 프로덕션 어워드 MVPA 어워드는 로스앤젤레스 중심의 음악 교류 단체들이 최고의 뮤직 비디오를 선정하는 상이다. |- | rowspan="2" | 2008 | rowspan="2" | "Falling Down" | Best Adult Contemporary Video | |- | Best Colorist/Telecine | 할리우드 명예의 거리 할리우드 명예의 거리. |- | align="center"| 1993 ||듀란 듀란 ||할리우드 명예의 거리|| |- 아이버 노벨로 어워드 작곡, 작사에 헌정되는 연례 시상식이다. 매년 런던에서 주최된다. |- | 1985 ||"The Reflex" || rowspan=2 | International Hit of the Year || |- | rowspan =2 | 1986 || rowspan ="2" | "A View to a Kill" || |- | The Best Film Theme or Song || |- | rowspan =3 | 1994 || rowspan=3 | "Ordinary World" || International Hit of the Year || |- | Best Song Musically and Lyrically || |- | Most Performed Work || |- | 2005 ||듀란 듀란 || Outstanding Contribution To Music || |- 루나스 델 어디토리오 멕시코의 National Auditorium이 지원하는 시상식으로, 최고의 베스트 라이브 쇼를 선정한다. |- | 2005 | rowspan=3|듀란 듀란 | rowspan=3|최고의 해외 록 아티스트 | |- | 2011 | |- | 2017 | 폴스타 콘서트 인더스트리 어워드 |- | 1988 | The Strange Behavior Tour | Most Creative Stage Production | |- | 1989 | The Secret Caravan Club Tour | Club Tour of the Year | 실버 클레프 어워드 1976년부터 진행되고 있는 영국의 연년 행사이다. |- | 2015 | 듀란 듀란 | Silver Clef Award | 스매시 히트 폴 위너스 파티 매년 음악잡지 스매시 히트가 주최하고, BBC에서 방송하였다. (1988~2005) |- | rowspan=3|1981 | 듀란듀란 | Best Group | |- | "Girls on Film" | Best Single | |- | rowspan=3|Simon Le Bon | rowspan=2|Most Fanciable Male | |- | rowspan=5|1982 | |- | Best Male Singer | |- | Rio | Best Album | |- | "Save a Prayer" | rowspan=2|Best Single | |- | "Hungry Like the Wolf" | |- | 1983 | rowspan=5|듀란 듀란 | Best Group | |- | rowspan=2|1984 | Worst Group | |- | rowspan=3|Best Group | |- | 1986 | |- | 1987 | UK 뮤직 비디오 어워드 뮤직 비디오의 창작성과 기술적 면모, 혁신을 알리기 위해 2008년부터 진행되는 연례 시상식이다. |- | 2011 ||"Before the Rain" || Best Pop Video - Budget || |- 듀란 듀란 수상

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20awards%20and%20nominations%20received%20by%20Duran%20Duran

List of awards and nominations received by Duran Duran

Duran Duran are a Grammy Award-winning English rock band from Birmingham, United Kingdom. They were one of the most successful of the 1980s bands and a leading band in the MTV-driven "Second British Invasion" of the United States. Since the 1980s they have placed 14 in the Top 10 of the UK Singles Chart and 21 in the US Billboard Hot 100 and have sold more than 100 million records. ASCAP Pop Music Awards The ASCAP Pop Music Awards honors the songwriters and publishers of the most performed pop songs. !Ref. |- | rowspan=2|1994 | "Ordinary World" | rowspan=2|Most Performed Songs | | |- | "Come Undone" | | American Music Awards The American Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony created by Dick Clark in 1973. Duran Duran has been nominated once overall at the American Music Awards. |- | align="center" rowspan="2"| ||Duran Duran|| Favorite Group Video Artist Pop, Rock, Band, or Duo || |- BT Digital Music Awards Launched in 2002, the BT Digital Music Awards were held annually in the United Kingdom. |- | 2004 | Duran Duran's official site | Best Music Website | Billboard Music Awards The Billboard Music Awards are held to honor artists for commercial performance in the U.S., based on record charts published by Billboard. |- | rowspan=6|1983 | rowspan=6|Duran Duran | Top Pop Artist | |- | Top Duo/Group | |- | Top Pop Albums Artist | |- | Top Pop Albums Artist – Duo/Group | |- | Top Pop Singles Artist | |- | Top Pop Singles Artist – Duo/Group | Bravo Otto Awards The Bravo Otto Awards are held by Bravo magazine, the largest teen magazine within the German-language sphere, to honor top performers in film, music, television and sport. |- | 1985 | Duran Duran | Best Group (Silver) | Brit Awards The Brit Awards are the British Phonographic Industry's annual pop music awards. Duran Duran has won two award from two nominations. |- |align="center" | 1985 ||"Wild Boys" || Best British Video || |- |align="center" | 2004 || Duran Duran || Outstanding Contribution To Music || |- Classic Pop Readers' Awards Classic Pop is a monthly British music magazine, which launched in October 2012. It was devised and founded by Ian Peel, who was also editor for the first 19 issues. Rik Flynn stepped in as editor until Issue 23 followed by current editor Steve Harnell. Ian Peel remains involved as Founder & Editor-at-Large. |- |align="center" |2020 | Themselves | Group of the Year | GAFFA Awards (Denmark) !Ref. |- | align="center" rowspan=2|2022 | Duran Duran |International Band | | rowspan=2| |- | Future Past | International Album | Grammy Awards The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. Duran Duran has received two awards from two nominations. |- | align="center"| || "Girls on Film" / "Hungry Like the Wolf" || Best Music Video, Short Form || |- | align="center"| ||Duran Duran || Best Music Video, Long Form || |- Rock and Roll Hall of Fame The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame is a museum located on the shores of Lake Erie in downtown Cleveland, Ohio, United States, dedicated to the recording history of some of the best-known and most influential artists, producers, and other people who have influenced the music industry. |- | 2022 | Performer | Hall of Fame | |- Q Awards Q Magazine was a monthly music magazine from the UK, where Duran Duran won a Lifetime Achievement Award. |- |align="center" | 2003 || Duran Duran || Q Lifetime Achievement Award || |- |align="center" | 2015 || Duran Duran || Q Icon Award || |- Golden Globe Awards The Golden Globe Awards are awarded annually by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association. Duran Duran has received one nomination. |- |align="center"| 1986 || "A View to a Kill" from A View to a Kill || Best Original Song || MTV Video Music Awards The MTV Video Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony established in 1984 by MTV. |- | align="center"| || "The Reflex" || Best Editing in a Video || |- | align="center"| || "The Reflex" || Best Stage Performance in a Video || |- | align="center"| || "Wild Boys" || Best Direction in a Video || |- | align="center"| || "Ordinary World" || Best Cinematography in a Video || |- | align="center"| || Duran Duran || Lifetime Achievement Award || |- MTV Europe Music Awards The MTV Europe Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony established in 1994 by MTV Europe. |- | align="center"| 2015 || Duran Duran || Video Visionary Award || |- Music Video Production Awards The MVPA Awards are annually presented by a Los Angeles-based music trade organization to honor the year's best music videos. |- | rowspan="2" | 2008 | rowspan="2" | "Falling Down" | Best Adult Contemporary Video | |- | Best Colorist/Telecine | Hollywood Walk of Fame Hollywood Walk of Fame |- | align="center"| 1993 ||Duran Duran ||Hollywood Walk of Fame|| |- IM&MC Music Video Awards The IM&MC Music Video Awards is Clip Competition Awards will be presented to winners during the telecast. The Marked the closing of the first International Music&Media Conference (IM&MC). The show was carried live by the BBC and The U.K.-based Music Box network, and was tapped for later presentation on MTV in the U.S. and MuchMusic in Canada. !Ref. |- | 1986 | Arena | Best Story Line – Long-form Video | | Ivor Novello Awards The Ivor Novello Awards is an award ceremony for songwriting and composing, held annually in London, United Kingdom. |- | 1985 ||"The Reflex" || rowspan=2 | International Hit of the Year || |- | rowspan =2 | 1986 || rowspan ="2" | "A View to a Kill" || |- | The Best Film Theme or Song || |- | rowspan =3 | 1994 || rowspan=3 | "Ordinary World" || International Hit of the Year || |- | Best Song Musically and Lyrically || |- | Most Performed Work || |- | 2005 ||Duran Duran || Outstanding Contribution To Music || |- Lunas del Auditorio Lunas del Auditorio are sponsored by The National Auditorium in Mexico to honor the best live shows in the country. |- | 2005 | rowspan=3|Duran Duran | rowspan=3|Best Foreign Rock Artist | |- | 2011 | |- | 2017 | Pollstar Concert Industry Awards The Pollstar Concert Industry Awards is an annual award ceremony to honor artists and professionals in the concert industry. |- | 1988 | The Strange Behavior Tour | Most Creative Stage Production | |- | 1989 | The Secret Caravan Club Tour | Club Tour of the Year | Premios Ondas The Premios Ondas have been given since 1954 by Radio Barcelona, a subsidiary of Cadena SER, in recognition of professionals in the fields of radio and television broadcasting, the cinema, and the music industry. |- | 2004 | Duran Duran | Special Jury Award | Silver Clef Awards The Silver Clef Awards are an annual UK music awards lunch which has been running since 1976. Duran Duran has received one award. |- | 2015 | Themselves | Silver Clef Award | Smash Hits Poll Winners Party The Smash Hits Poll Winners Party (1988–2005) was an awards ceremony held annually by British magazine Smash Hits, and broadcast on BBC One. |- | rowspan=3|1981 | Themselves | Best Group | |- | "Girls on Film" | Best Single | |- | rowspan=3|Simon Le Bon | rowspan=2|Most Fanciable Male | |- | rowspan=5|1982 | |- | Best Male Singer | |- | Rio | Best Album | |- | "Save a Prayer" | rowspan=2|Best Single | |- | "Hungry Like the Wolf" | |- | rowspan=5|1983 | Themselves | Best Group | |- |"Union of the Snake" | Best Video | |- | Simon Le Bon | Best Male Singer | |- | John Taylor | Most Fanciable Male | |- | Villa Park show 1983 | Event of The Year | |- | rowspan=8|1984 | Themselves | Worst Group | |- | Themselves | Best Group | |- | Seven and the Ragged Tiger | Best Album | |- | "The Wild Boys" | Best Single | |- | "The Wild Boys" | Best Video | |- | Simon Le Bon | Best Male Singer | |- | John Taylor | Most Fanciable Male | |- | Roger Taylor Wedding | Event of The Year | |- | rowspan=5|1985 | Themselves | Best Group | |- | "A View to a Kill" | Best Single | |- | Simon Le Bon | Best Male Singer | |- | John Taylor | Most Fanciable Male | |- | John Taylor | Best Dressed Person | |- | rowspan=3| 1986 | Themselves | Worst Group | |- | "Notorious" | Best Single | |- | John Taylor | Most Fanciable Male | |- | 1987 | Themselves | Worst Group | UK Music Video Awards The UK Music Video Awards is an annual award ceremony founded in 2008 to recognise creativity, technical excellence and innovation in music videos and moving images for music. |- | 2011 ||"Before the Rain" || Best Pop Video – Budget || |- | 2012 || "Girl Panic" || Best Styling in a Video || References Awards Lists of awards received by British musician Lists of awards received by musical group

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%99%B8%ED%8A%B8%EB%B5%88%EC%8B%9C%20%EC%8B%A4%ED%97%98

외트뵈시 실험

외트뵈시 실험은 관성 질량과 중력 질량 사이의 상관 관계를 측정 한 유명한 물리학 실험으로 헝가리의 물리학자인 외트뵈시 로란드가 관성 질량과 중력 질량이 동일하다는 것을 입증한 실험이다. 관성 질량과 중력 질량이 동일한지 여부는 오랫동안 의심 받아 왔으나 정확하게 입증 된 적이 없었다. 가장 초기의 실험은 아이작 뉴턴 ( Isaac Newton, 1642-1727)에 의해 수행되었으며 프리드리히 빌헬름 베셀 ( Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, 1784-1846)에 의해 향상되었다. 1882년경부터 외트뵈시 로란드가 1906년부터 1909년까지의 장기간에 걸친 개선을 통해 비틀림 저울을 이용한 훨씬 더 정확한 실험을 수행하였다. 외트뵈시의 연구팀은 비슷한 종류의 보다 정확한 실험과 다양한 유형의 물질 및 지구의 다른 위치에서의 실험을 통하여, 모두 관성 질량과 중력 질량의 동일성을 입증하였다. 그후에 이 실험은 중력과 가속도가 동등하다는 일반 상대성 이론으로 기술된 등가 원리에 대한 현대적 이해에 영향을 미쳤다. 힘의 단위의 정의에 비례상수는 포함될 수 있으므로, 외트뵈시 실험은 관성 질량이 중력 질량에 정확하게 비례함을 실험으로 밝힌 것이다. 외트뵈시의 초기 실험 외트뵈시에 의한 원래의 실험 장치는 가는 실에 매달린 막대의 양쪽 끝에 부착된 2 개의 질량으로 구성되어 있다. 막대 또는 섬유에 부착 된 거울은 작은 망원경으로 빛을 반사한다. 막대가 조금이라도 회전하면 광선이 반사되어 망원경으로 확대 할 때 눈에 띄는 변화를 일으킨다. 지구 기준 프레임 (즉, 관성 프레임이 아닌 "실험실 프레임")에서는, 수평 저울의 질량에 작용하는 힘은 줄의 장력, 중력 및 지구 회전에 의한 원심력이다. 지구의 중력은 중력 질량에 의존하는 뉴턴의 만유인력 법칙에 의해 계산된다. 원심력은 뉴턴의 운동 법칙에 의해 계산되며 관성 질량에 따라 달라진다. 외트뵈시의 실험에서는 두 가지 유형의 질량이 서로 다른 경우 두 가지 힘이 두 물체에서 똑같은 방식으로 작용하지 않아서 시간이 지남에 따라 막대가 회전하도록 구성되어 있다. 회전하는 "실험실 프레임(즉, 지구 표면)"에서는 줄의 장력과 이보다 훨씬 원심력은 벡터 합으로 서로 상쇄된다. 반면에 "관성 프레임(우주에서 정지한 사람)"에서 볼 때는 중력과 장력의 (벡터) 합에 의하여 저울이 지구와 함께 회전하게 된다. 실험실 프레임에서 막대가 정지하기 위해서는 각 물체에 작용하는 힘의 막대상의 성분에서 영의 알짜 토크가 생성되어야 한다(유일한 자유도는 수평면에서의 회전임). 계가 영원히 정지하고 있다면, 기계적 평형을 의미하나(즉, 알짜 힘과 토크가 모두 영), 두 개의 물체가 정지 상태에 매달려 있지만 서로 상이한 원심력이 작용하면 결과적으로 막대에 다른 토크가 가해지게 되므로 결국 계는 저절로 회전하게 될 것이어서, 계는 이 상태에 그대로 머무를 수 없고 두 몸체에 작용하는 원심력의 차이로 인해 막대가 회전하게 된다. 추가 개선 1885년경의 초기 실험은 큰 차이는 없었으나 외트뵈시는 실험을 보다 정확하게 향상시키기 위해 실험을 개선하였다. 1889년에 그는 물질에 의한 중력의 변화가 있는지를 보기 위해 다양한 종류의 샘플 재료로 이 장치를 사용하였다. 이 실험에 의하여 그러한 변화는 측정 될 수 없다는 점을 증명하고 2,000 만분의 1에 이르는 정확성을 주장하였다. 1890년에 그는 부다페스트에서 Gellért Hill 의 질량을 측정 한 것뿐만 아니라 이러한 결과를 발표하였다. 그 다음 해에 그는 장치의 수정 된 버전에 대한 작업을 시작했으며, 이를 "수평 변위계 (horizontal variometer)"라고 불렀다. 여기서는 기본 설계를 약간 수정하여 두개의 물체 중 하나를 막대 끝에 직접 부착되지 않고 막대 끝에 부탁된 실에 매달았다. 이로써 2 차원에서의 비틀림을 측정 할 수 있었으며, 이를 통하여 중력가속도 g 의 국소 수평 성분을 측정 할 수 있었다. 그리고 그것은 훨씬 더 정확했다. 지금은 일반적으로 외트뵈시 밸런스이라고 불리는 이 장치는 오늘날 국부적인 질량 밀도를 검색하여 지구 탐사에 일반적으로 사용된다. 새로운 장치를 사용하여 Dezsö Pekár (1873-1953)와 Jenő Fekete (1880-1943)는 1906년부터 4000 시간의 실험을 수행하여, 1909년 런던에서 개최 된 제16회 국제 측지 회의에서 처음 발표하였는데 정확도가 1 억분의 1로 증가하였다. 외트뵈시는 1919년에 사망했고, 완전한 측정은 Pekár와 Fekete에 의해서 1922년에야 출판되었다. 관련 연구 외트뵈시는 움직이는 선박에서 다른 팀이 수행한 비슷한 실험에 대해서도 연구하여 측정된 미세한 차이를 설명하기 위하여 외트뵈시 효과를 개발하였다. 이것은 1908년 흑해에서 수행된 추가 작업에서 입증 된 효과와 같이 지구에 대한 선박의 움직임에 의하여 발생하는 추가 가속력으로 인한 것이다. 1930년대에는 외트뵈시의 학생이었던 János Renner (1889-1976)가 결과를 1 ~ 2 억에서 50 억 분의 1로 향상 시켰다. P. G. 롤과 R. 크로트코프와 함께 Robert H. Dicke는 장비를 개선하여 실험을 재실행했으며 정확도를 1 천억 분의 1로 향상 시켰다. 그들은 또한 주장된 정확성이 다소 의심스러웠다고 제안된 원래의 실험에 대해 여러 차례 관찰했다. 이러한 우려에 비추어 데이터를 재검토하면 동등성 원리가 정확하지 않고 다른 유형의 재료에 의하여 변경되었다는 것을 나타내는 것으로 보이는 명백한 아주 약간의 효과가 나타났다. 1980년대에 중력과 양자 역학을 결합하려는 여러 새로운 물리 이론에서는 물질과 반물질이 중력에 의해 "약간" 다르게 영향을 받을 것이라고 제안되었다. Dicke의 주장과 결합하면 그러한 차이를 측정 할 수 있는 가능성이 있는 것처럼 보였으며, 결국 새로운 일련의 외트뵈시 유형의 실험(진공 기둥에서의 시간차 낙하 등)이 이루어졌으나 결국 그러한 효과는 존재하지 않는다는 점이 밝혀졌다. 이 실험의 부대효과로는 국소 층서학, 물리학 연구소(외트뵈시가 개인적으로 설계 한)의 물리적 배치, 날씨 및 기타 효과에 대한 세부 연구를 포함하여 원본 외트뵈시 데이터의 재검토였다. 실험은 잘 기록되어 있었다. 참조 다섯 번째 힘 관성 프레임 푸코 진자 일반 상대성 이론 일반 상대성 이론의 테스트 참고 문헌 물리학 실험

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s%20experiment

Eötvös experiment

The Eötvös experiment was a famous physics experiment that measured the correlation between inertial mass and gravitational mass, demonstrating that the two were one and the same, something that had long been suspected but never demonstrated with the same accuracy. The earliest experiments were done by Isaac Newton (1642–1727) and improved upon by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (1784–1846). A much more accurate experiment using a torsion balance was carried out by Loránd Eötvös starting around 1885, with further improvements in a lengthy run between 1906 and 1909. Eötvös's team followed this with a series of similar but more accurate experiments, as well as experiments with different types of materials and in different locations around the Earth, all of which demonstrated the same equivalence in mass. In turn, these experiments led to the modern understanding of the equivalence principle encoded in general relativity, which states that the gravitational and inertial masses are the same. It is sufficient for the inertial mass to be proportional to the gravitational mass. Any multiplicative constant will be absorbed in the definition of the unit of force. Eötvös's original experiment Eötvös's original experimental device consisted of two masses on opposite ends of a rod, hung from a thin fiber. A mirror attached to the rod, or fiber, reflected light into a small telescope. Even tiny changes in the rotation of the rod would cause the light beam to be deflected, which would in turn cause a noticeable change when magnified by the telescope. As seen from the Earth's frame of reference (or "lab frame", which is not an inertial frame of reference), the primary forces acting on the balanced masses are the string tension, gravity, and the centrifugal force due to the rotation of the Earth. Gravity is calculated by Newton's law of universal gravitation, which depends on gravitational mass. The centrifugal force is calculated by Newton's laws of motion and depends on inertial mass. The experiment was arranged so that if the two types of masses were different, the two forces will not act in exactly the same way on the two bodies, and over time the rod will rotate. As seen from the rotating "lab frame", the string tension plus the (much smaller) centrifugal force cancels the weight (as vectors), while as seen from any inertial frame the (vector) sum of the weight and the tension makes the object rotate along with the earth. For the rod to be at rest in the lab frame, the reactions, on the rod, of the tensions acting on each body, must create a zero net torque (the only degree of freedom is rotation on the horizontal plane). Supposing that the system was constantly at rest – this meaning mechanical equilibrium (i.e. net forces and torques zero) – with the two bodies thus hanging also at rest, but having different centrifugal forces upon them and consequently exerting different torques on the rod through the reactions of the tensions, the rod then would spontaneously rotate, in contradiction with our assumption that the system is at rest. So the system cannot exist in this state; any difference between the centrifugal forces on the two bodies will set the rod in rotation. Further improvements Initial experiments around 1885 demonstrated that there was no apparent difference, and Eötvös improved the experiment to demonstrate this with more accuracy. In 1889 he used the device with different types of sample materials to see if there was any change in gravitational force due to materials. This experiment proved that no such change could be measured, to a claimed accuracy of 1 in 20 million. In 1890 he published these results, as well as a measurement of the mass of Gellért Hill in Budapest. The next year he started work on a modified version of the device, which he called the "horizontal variometer". This modified the basic layout slightly to place one of the two rest masses hanging from the end of the rod on a fiber of its own, as opposed to being attached directly to the end. This allowed it to measure torsion in two dimensions, and in turn, the local horizontal component of g. It was also much more accurate. Now generally referred to as the Eötvös balance, this device is commonly used today in prospecting by searching for local mass concentrations. Using the new device a series of experiments taking 4000 hours was carried out with Dezsö Pekár (1873–1953) and Jenő Fekete (1880–1943) starting in 1906. These were first presented at the 16th International Geodesic Conference in London in 1909, raising the accuracy to 1 in 100 million. Eötvös died in 1919, and the complete measurements were only published in 1922 by Pekár and Fekete. Related studies Eötvös also studied similar experiments being carried out by other teams on moving ships, which led to his development of the Eötvös effect to explain the small differences they measured. These were due to the additional accelerative forces due to the motion of the ships in relation to the Earth, an effect that was demonstrated on an additional run carried out on the Black Sea in 1908. In the 1930s a former student of Eötvös, János Renner (1889–1976), further improved the results to between 1 in 2 to 5 billion. Robert H. Dicke with P. G. Roll and R. Krotkov re-ran the experiment much later using improved apparatus and further improved the accuracy to 1 in 100 billion. They also made several observations about the original experiment which suggested that the claimed accuracy was somewhat suspect. Re-examining the data in light of these concerns led to an apparent very slight effect that appeared to suggest that the equivalence principle was not exact, and changed with different types of material. In the 1980s several new physics theories attempting to combine gravitation and quantum mechanics suggested that matter and anti-matter would be affected slightly differently by gravity. Combined with Dicke's claims there appeared to be a possibility that such a difference could be measured, this led to a new series of Eötvös-type experiments (as well as timed falls in evacuated columns) that eventually demonstrated no such effect. A side-effect of these experiments was a re-examination of the original Eötvös data, including detailed studies of the local stratigraphy, the physical layout of the Physics Institute (which Eötvös had personally designed), and even the weather and other effects. The experiment is therefore well recorded. Table of measurements over time Tests on the Equivalence principle See also Fifth force Inertial frame General relativity Foucault pendulum Eddington experiment Tests of general relativity References Physics experiments Gravimetry

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%97%A4%EC%84%BC%EC%B9%B4%EC%85%80%20%EB%B0%A9%EB%B0%B1%EA%B5%AD

헤센카셀 방백국

헤센카셀 방백국(), 또는 간단히 헤센카셀은 신성 로마 제국 아래에 있던 방백국이다. 1567년 헤센 방백국이 필립 1세 헤센 방백의 사망으로 분할되면서, 그의 장자였던 빌헬름 4세가 헤센 방백국의 북쪽 영토와 수도 카셀을 물려받게 되었다. 다른 아들들이 물려받은 영토는 헤센라인펠스 방백국, 헤센다름슈타트 방백국, 헤센마르부르크 방백국으로 분할되었다. 1803년 나폴레옹 전쟁 당시, 신성 로마 제국은 헤센카셀 방백국을 헤센 선제후국으로 승격시켰고, 빌헬름 9세는 헤센 선제후가 된다. 프랑스군이 헤센카셀을 점령하고 이후 헤센카셀은 베스트팔렌 왕국의 일부가 되면서, 헤센카셀 방백국도 멸망하게 되었다. 역사 헤센카셀 방백국은 1567년 헤센 방백국이 필립 1세 헤센 방백의 사망으로 분할되면서, 그의 장자였던 빌헬름 4세가 헤센 방백국의 북쪽 영토와 수도 카셀을 물려받으면서 형성된 국가다. 1604년 헤센카셀은 마우리츠 폰 헤센카셀이 아들이 없던 루이스 4세 폰 헤센마르부르크로부터 헤센마르부르크 방백국을 상속받으면서 영토가 확장되었다. 30년 전쟁 1605년 마우리츠는 칼뱅파 신도가 되었고, 30년 전쟁이 발발하자 개신교 측에서 싸웠다. 헤센다름슈타트 방백국에게 그의 영토를 강제로 할양한 이후, 1627년 마우리츠는 아들 빌헬름 5세에게 왕위를 넘겼다. 빌헬름 5세는 신성 로마 제국군이 침공했을 때 헤센카셀 대부분을 잃자 구스타브 2세 아돌프, 그리고 이후에는 프랑스 왕국과 동맹을 맺었다. 1637년 망명 중 사망한 빌헬름 5세의 뒤를 이어 그의 부인인 아말리에 엘리자베스 폰 하나우뮌젠부르크가 빌헬름 6세의 섭정을 맡았다. 아말리에 엘리자베스는 헤센카셀의 이익을 증진시키기 위해 노력했다. 헤센카셀에서 황제군을 축출한 이후, 그녀는 시아버지가 헤센다름슈타트 친척에게 잃었던 마르부르크를 되찾기 위해 군대를 파견했다 1648년 베스트팔렌 조약이 체결된 이후, 헤센카셀은 샤움부르크 백국과 헤스펠트 주교령까지 획득했다. 이후 그녀는 헤센카셀의 분할을 막기 위해 장자상속제를 도입했지만, 1651년 건강 악화로 사망했다. 17세기와 18세기 1651년 어머니의 죽음 이후 방백 직위에 오른 빌헬름 6세는 1663년까지 통치했고, 그의 아들 빌헬름 7세는 당시 1670년의 이른 나이에 사망했다. 그의 뒤를 이어 빌헬름 6세의 차남인 카를이 방백이 되었다. 카를의 뒤를 이어 왕이 된 프레드리크 1세는 스웨덴의 왕이기도 했기에, 1730년부터 1751년까지 스웨덴과 헤센카셀은 동군연합이 되었다. 1751년 프레드리크 1세의 사망 후, 카를의 다른 아들이었던 빌헬름 8세가 헤센카셀 방백이 되었고, 그는 1760년까지 헤센카셀을 다스렸다. 빌헬름 8세의 사망 이후 프레드리크 2세가 헤센카셀의 방백이 되었다. 그는 1745년 재커바이트 반란 당시 영국을 지원하기 위해 헤센군을 파견했다. 이후 1775년 미국 독립 전쟁이 발발했을 때, 그는 군자금을 모아 헤센군을 미국 본토에 파견했다. 멸망 1803년 독일 중재화를 통해, 헤센카셀 방백국은 헤센 선제후국으로 승격되었고, 헤센카셀 방백이었던 빌헬름 9세도 선제후가 되어 빌헬름 1세 폰 헤센 선제후라는 칭호를 받게 되었다. 그럼에도 헤센카셀이라는 명칭은 여전히 잔존했다. 1806년, 나폴레옹 보나파르트가 프로이센 왕국에 대한 지지를 명분으로 빌헬름 1세를 퇴위시켰다. 이후 카셀은 베스트팔렌 왕국의 수도로 지정되었고, 나폴레옹의 형인 제롬 보나파르트가 베스트팔렌의 초대 국왕으로 즉위했다. 1813년 나폴레옹의 패배 이후 헤센 선제후의 직위는 복원되었고, 비엔나 회의 이후 수많은 선제후국이 왕국으로 승격되었다. 빌헬름 1세 역시 헤센 선제후국을 왕국으로 올리기 위해 노력했으나 이는 실패로 끝났다. 옛 헤센다름슈타트 방백국이었던 헤센 대공국으로부터 영토를 지키기 위해 빌헬름은 선제후라는 명칭을 유지하기로 결정했다. 헤센군 헤센카셀 방백국은 17세기부터 18세기 사이에 그들의 군대를 임대해주는 걸로 유명했다. 이 때 당시 소국들이 군대를 빌려주는 것은 일반적인 관행으로, 이를 통해 더 큰 이익을 얻고자 하는 것이 목표였다. 국제적인 사법가들은 이들을 용병과 보조부대 사이로 규정하고 있다. 용병들은 개개인이 외국군에서 복무하는 것이고, 보조부대는 다른 대공을 지원하기 위해 보내는 부대이기 때문이다. 1730년 경, 헤센카셀은 인구의 5.3%가 군에서 복무하고 있을 정도로 강력한 군을 육성 중이었다. 이는 당시 프로이센 왕국보다도 높은 복무율이었다. 헤센군은 유럽 강대국들의 준비된 예비군으로써 복무하는 경우가 많았다. 헤센군이 활약한 대표적인 전쟁이 미국 독립 전쟁으로 영국군 육군 전체 중 25%가 독일 제후들로부터 임차한 군대였고, 이 중 절반은 헤센하나우 방백국과 헤센카셀 방백국에서 왔다. 이러한 이유로 미국인들은 영국 육군에서 복무하는 모든 독일인 부대를 헤센군"이라고 불렀다. 각주 헤센카셀 변경백국 독일의 근세사 신성 로마 제국의 백국 스웨덴의 왕가

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landgraviate%20of%20Hesse-Kassel

Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel

The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel (), spelled Hesse-Cassel during its entire existence, was a state of the Holy Roman Empire. The state was created in 1567 when the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided upon the death of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse. His eldest son William IV inherited the northern half of the Landgraviate and the capital of Kassel. The other sons received the Landgraviates of Hesse-Marburg, Hesse-Rheinfels and Hesse-Darmstadt. During the Napoleonic reorganisation of the Empire in 1803, the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel was elevated to an Electorate and Landgrave William IX became an Imperial Elector. Many members of the House of Hesse-Kassel served in the Danish military gaining high ranks and power in the realm due to the fact that many Landgraves were married to Danish princesses. Members of the family who are known to have served Denmark-Norway include Prince Frederik of Hesse-Kassel, Prince Frederick of Hesse-Kassel, and Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel. It had two votes to the Reichstag: one for itself and one for Hersfeld Abbey. It was later occupied by French troops and became part of the Kingdom of Westphalia, a French satellite state. The Electorate of Hesse was restored at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, though by that time there was no longer an emperor to elect. History The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel was founded by William IV the Wise, the eldest son of Philip I. On his father's death in 1567, the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided into four parts. William IV received about half of the territory, with Kassel as his capital. Hesse-Kassel expanded in 1604 when Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel inherited the Landgraviate of Hesse-Marburg from his childless uncle, Louis IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Marburg (1537–1604). Thirty Years' War In 1605, Maurice became Calvinist and entered the Thirty Years' War on the Protestant side. After being forced to cede some of his territories to Hesse-Darmstadt, Maurice abdicated in 1627 in favour of his son William V. His younger sons received appanages, which created several cadet lines in yet another partition of Hesse. William V allied himself with Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and then France, losing most of Hesse-Kassel when Imperial troops invaded. He died in exile in 1637, leaving his widow Amalie Elisabeth of Hanau-Münzenberg to act as regent for their eight-year-old son William VI. Amalie Elisabeth vigorously advanced the interests of Hesse-Kassel. After expelling Imperial troops from Hesse-Kassel, she sent troops to take the city of Marburg, which her father-in-law had lost to their Hesse-Darmstadt relatives. At the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, Hesse-Kassel was further rewarded with most of the County of Schaumburg and the newly secularized Hersfeld Abbey. Amalie Elisabeth also introduced the rule of primogeniture to prevent Hesse-Kasse from being divided again in the future. However, her health was ruined by the stresses of the war, and she died in 1651. 17th and 18th centuries William VI, who came of age in 1650, was an enlightened patron of learning and the arts. He was succeeded by his son William VII, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, then an infant, who died in 1670. He was succeeded by his brother Charles I. Charles' chief claim to fame is that he hired out his soldiers to foreign powers as auxiliaries, as a means of improving the finances of his principality. William V was succeeded by Landgraves William VI and William VII. Frederick I of Sweden, the next landgrave, became by marriage King of Sweden. Although the Landgraviate was in personal union with Sweden from 1730 to 1751, the King's younger brother, Prince William, ruled in Kassel as regent until he succeeded his brother as William VIII. On Frederick I's death in 1751, he was succeeded by his brother William VIII, who fought as an ally of Kingdom of Great Britain during the Seven Years' War. His successor, Frederick II, converted to Catholicism after a long line of Protestant Landgraviates. When the American Revolutionary War broke out, Frederick II leased Hessian troops to Great Britain for service in America. End of the landgraviate Following the reorganization of the German states during the German mediatisation of 1803, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel was raised to the Electorate of Hesse and Landgrave William IX was elevated to Imperial Elector, taking the title William I, Elector of Hesse. The principality thus became known as , although still usually referred to as Hesse-Kassel. In 1806, William I was dispossessed by Napoleon Bonaparte for his support of the Kingdom of Prussia in the War of the Fourth Coalition. Kassel was designated as the capital of a new Kingdom of Westphalia, where Napoleon appointed his brother Jérôme Bonaparte as king. Following Napoleon's defeat in 1813, the elector was restored. At the Congress of Vienna, a number of Napoleonic electorates were elevated to kingdoms, and William tried to secure recognition as King of the Chatti. However, he was rebuffed by the Great Powers, who listed him as a "Royal Highness" along with the other grand dukes. To secure his pre-eminence over his cousin, the Grand Duke of Hesse in the former Hesse-Darmstadt, William chose to keep his title of Prince-Elector. The rulers of the Electorate of Hesse became the only Prince-Electors in the German Confederation, even though there was no longer a Holy Roman Emperor for them to elect. Hessian troops in foreign service The Landgraves of Hesse-Kassel were famous for renting out their army to European Great Powers during the 17th and 18th centuries. It was a widespread practice at the time for small countries to rent out troops to larger countries in exchange for subsidies. International jurists drew a distinction between mercenaries and auxiliaries (Hilfstruppen). Mercenaries served in foreign armies as individuals, while auxiliaries were sent by their prince to the aid of another prince. Hesse-Kassel took the practice to an extreme, maintaining 5.3% of its population under arms in 1730. This was a higher proportion than even Prussia, a country that was so heavily militarized that it was described as "not a country with an army, but an army with a country". The Hessian army served as a readily available reserve for the Great Powers. During the American War of Independence, 25% of the British army consisted of troops rented from German princes, half of whom came from Hesse-Kassel and nearby Hesse-Hanau. For this reason, Americans refer to all German troops serving with the British army as "Hessians", a form of synecdoche. Namesakes The village of Hessen Cassel, Indiana, near Fort Wayne, founded by German immigrants, is named for the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel. See also New Netherland New Sweden Pennsylvania Dutch Rulers of Hesse Notes References External links Hoeckmann.de: Map of Hesse (Northern part) — in 1789 Hoeckmann.de: Map of Hesse (Southern part) — in 1789 Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel Early Modern history of Germany Counties of the Holy Roman Empire States and territories established in 1567 States and territories disestablished in 1803 1567 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire 1803 disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire Hesse-Kassel, Landgraviate of North Hesse Former monarchies of Europe

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EB%A5%B4%EC%9B%AC

아르웬

아르웬(Arwen)은 《반지의 제왕》의 등장인물이다. 리븐델의 군주 엘론드의 외동딸이자 곤도르 연합 왕국의 초대 왕비이다. 개요 아르웬은 태양의 제3시대 241년 엘론드와 켈레브리안 사이에서 태어났다. 가운데땅의 요정들 사이에서는 찬란하게 빛나는 저녁별과도 같은 존재였기 때문에 저녁별이라는 의미의 운도미엘(undomíel)이라는 별칭을 가졌다. 3시대의 요정과 인간을 통틀어 가장 아름다운 존재라는 평가를 받았다. 피부는 맑고 흠 하나 없이 깨끗하고 매끄러웠으며, 그림자 같이 검고 긴 머리칼과 맑은 저녁하늘과 같은 회색빛 눈동자를 지닌 매우 아름다운 여성으로 엘론드가 여성으로 나타나기라도 한 것 같은 모습이었다고 묘사된다. 또한 모든 일루바타르의 자손 중 가장 아름다웠다는 루시엔 티누비엘의 후손으로 루시엔의 후손 중 가장 그녀를 많이 닮았으며, 마치 그녀가 살아 돌아오기라도 한 듯 아름다웠다고 한다. 작중행적 어머니 켈레브리안이 오크들의 고문을 받은 뒤 발리노르로 떠나자, 아르웬은 로스로리엔에서 외할머니 갈라드리엘의 보살핌 아래서 지냈다. 제3시대 말 아라고른이 자신의 혈통에 대해 알게 된 후에 베렌과 루시엔의 노래를 부르던 중 숲속에서 춤을 추고 있는 그녀를 보게 된다. 아르웬을 자신이 부르던 노래 속의 루시엔이라고 착각한 아라고른은 그녀를 티누비엘이라고 부른다. 이에 아르웬은 그와 대화를 나누었고, 자신의 이름과 아라고른의 혈통과의 관련성을 말해준다. 이후 아라고른은 두네다인의 족장으로서 30년간 방랑자로 활동한다. 이후에 잠시 로스로리엔을 방문하게 되는데, 이때 우연히 로스로리엔에 머무르고 있던 아르웬과 만나서 약혼한다. 반지전쟁 동안에는 리븐델에 은거하며 아라고른을 위한 깃발을 짰다. 반지전쟁이 끝난 후 아르노르-곤도르 재통합 왕국의 통치자가 된 아라고른와 혼인하여 왕국의 후계자이자 친아들 엘다리온을 낳았다. 그녀는 반요정 에아렌딜의 후손으로 요정의 삶 혹은 인간의 삶 중 하나를 골라 그 여생을 살아야 했고 부친과 쌍둥이 오빠와 달리 인간의 삶을 선택하였다. 행복했던 아르웬의 운명은 불행으로 끝날 수 밖에 없었는데, 아라고른의 수명이 누메노르인의 후손이라서 긴 편이었으나, 불멸의 요정이었던 그녀에게는 한낱 찰나에 불과한 것이었기 때문이다. 제4시대 120년에 아라고른의 수명이 다하자 그녀는 큰 슬픔에 빠졌고, 무덤 밖으로 나온 그녀의 모습은 사람들이 보기에 몹시도 지치고, 별 하나 뜨지 않는 겨울의 저녁 하늘처럼 삭막하며 늙게 느껴졌다고 한다. 이후에는 엘다리온과 가족들에게 작별인사를 한 뒤, 모두가 떠나 황폐해진 로스로리엔의 케린 암로스에서 1년 뒤 사망했다. 실사영화 시리즈에서 피터 잭슨 감독의 반지의 제왕 실사영화 시리즈에서는 원작에 비해 아르웬의 비중이 상당히 상향되었다. 배우는 리브 타일러 프로도가 나즈굴의 독에 당한 뒤 쫓기고 있었을 때 그를 도와 나즈굴의 추격을 받는 것은 원래 글로르핀델의 역할이었으나, 실사영화에서는 글로르핀델이 삭제되고 아르웬이 그 역할을 하게 된다. 영화가 진행되면서 아르웬은 서쪽의 발리노르로 떠나는 여정에 참여하는데, 아라고른은 언젠가 죽을 것이며 그가 죽으면 그녀에게는 더 이상 희망도 삶도 존재하지 않을 것이라는 환영을 엘론드가 보여줬기 때문이었다. 그러나 숲속을 지나던 중 아르웬은 아이가 뛰노는 환영을 보게 되고, 희망이 없을 것이라는 엘론드의 말과는 달리 새로운 희망이 존재하는 미래가 있을 수 있음을 알게 된다. 아르웬은 다시 깊은골로 돌아가 엘론드에게 부러진 나르실을 안두릴로 벼리게 끔 설득한다. 사우론을 비롯한 어둠의 세력들이 강해질수록 저녁별의 빛은 사그라들고, 아르웬은 약해지며 죽어간다는 설정이 추가된다. 이는 엘론드가 하는 엘다르의 생명이 아르웬을 떠나고 있다는 대사로도 표현된다. 복잡한 내력 혈통의 중요성이 부각되는 세계관 안에서도 굉장히 복잡한 계보를 가졌다. 그 혈통 중에서는《반지의 제왕》 이전의 시대적 배경에서 활동한 걸출한 존재가 많이 언급되어 소설만 읽은 독자에게는 크게 와닿지 않을 수 있으나, 무려 세상의 창조를 도운 마이아, 세 요정 대왕 그리고 세 인간 영웅 가문의 피를 모두 가진 여성이다. 계보를 따라 올라가면《실마릴리온》의 초반부에 등장하는 바냐르 대왕 잉궤, 놀도르 대왕 핀웨, 신다르 대왕 엘웨의 피를 모두 가지고 있다. 또한 세 인간 영웅 가문인 할레스, 하도르, 베오르 가문의 피와 영적존재인 마이아 멜리안의 혈통도 가지고 있다. 이러한 혈통은 누메노르 왕족들의 혈통과도 비슷한데, 이는 누메노르 왕조의 시조인 엘로스가 아르웬의 아버지인 엘론드와 형제이기 때문이다. 사실상 작중 등장하는 요정 군주와 인간 왕족은 서로 혈연적으로 굉장히 먼 친척 관계인 것이다. 이러한 고귀한 계보는 단적으로 험한 시련을 겪은 자신의 남편 아라고른 2세가 그녀의 짝으로 알맞은 존재임을 알려주는 역할을 하며, 작품 내적으로는 오랫동안 나뉘어 있던 에아렌딜의 가계를 다시 하나로 합쳤다는 의의가 있다. 기타 아라고른은 210세의 나이로 죽음을 맞이했다. 동시대 인간보다 비교적 장수한 왕이지만, 이전 시대의 누메노르 왕국 그리고 2시대 망명 왕국의 국왕들보다 짧은 수명이었다. 영생의 삶이 주어진 요정에게는 짧은 순간에 지나지 않았으나, 결단을 내린 아르웬은 로스로리엔의 케린 암로스에서 삶을 마쳤다. 그녀가 죽은 후에 사람들은 저녁별 왕비를 망각하였고, 바다 동쪽에서는 더이상 니프레딜과 엘라노르가 피지 않았으며, 옛날의 이야기는 더 이상 전해지지 않았다고 한다. 각주 반지의 제왕의 등장인물 1954년 창조된 가공인물 가운데땅의 반요정

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arwen

Arwen

Arwen Undómiel is a fictional character in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium. She appears in the novel The Lord of the Rings. Arwen is one of the half-elven who lived during the Third Age; her father was Elrond half-elven, lord of the Elvish sanctuary of Rivendell, while her mother was the Elf Celebrian, daughter of the Elf-queen Galadriel, ruler of Lothlórien. She marries the Man Aragorn, who becomes King of Arnor and Gondor. In Peter Jackson's film adaptation, Arwen is played by Liv Tyler. She plays a more active role in the film than in the book, personally rescuing the Hobbit Frodo from the Black Riders at the Fords of Bruinen (a role played by Glorfindel in the book). Fictional biography Narrative Arwen was the youngest child of Elrond, lord of the Elvish sanctuary of Rivendell and leader of the High Elves remaining in Middle-earth at the end of the Third Age, and Celebrían, daughter of Galadriel, ruler of the Elvish forest realm of Lothlórien. Her elder brothers were the twins Elladan and Elrohir. Her name "Ar-wen" means 'noble maiden' in Sindarin. She was given the name "Evenstar" as the most beautiful of the last generation of High Elves in Middle-earth. As told in "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen", in his twentieth year Aragorn met Arwen for the first time in Rivendell, where he lived under Elrond's protection. Arwen, then over 2,700 years old, had recently returned to her father's home after living with her grandmother, Galadriel, in Lothlórien. Aragorn fell in love with Arwen at first sight. Thirty years later, the two were reunited in Lothlórien. Arwen reciprocated Aragorn's love, and on the mound of Cerin Amroth they committed themselves to marrying each other. In making that choice, Arwen gave up the Elvish immortality available to her as a daughter of Elrond, and agreed to remain in Middle-earth instead of travelling to the Undying Lands. Arwen first appears in the text of The Lord of the Rings in Rivendell, shortly after Frodo Baggins wakes in the House of Elrond: she sits beside her father at the celebratory feast. When the Fellowship of the Ring comes to Lothlórien, Aragorn remembers his earlier meeting with Arwen and pauses in reverence. Shortly before Aragorn takes the Paths of the Dead, he is joined by a contingent of his people accompanied by Arwen's brothers, Elladan and Elrohir, who bring him a gift from Arwen: a banner of black cloth. The banner is unfurled at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields to reveal the emblem of Elendil figured in mithril, gems, and gold; this becomes the first triumphant public announcement of the king's return. After the ring is destroyed, Aragorn becomes king of Arnor and Gondor. Arwen arrives at Minas Tirith, and they are married. She gives Frodo the Evenstar: her necklace with a white stone, to aid him when his injuries trouble him. Arwen serves as inspiration and motivation for Aragorn, who must become King of both Arnor and Gondor before Elrond will allow her to marry him. The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen, an appendix to the main story, relates that Aragorn and Arwen had a son, Eldarion, and at least two unnamed daughters. One year after Aragorn's death, Arwen dies at the age of 2,901. Relationships Through her father, Elrond, Arwen was the granddaughter of Eärendil the Mariner (the second of the Half-elven), great-granddaughter of Tuor of Gondolin, and therefore a direct descendant of the ancient House of Hador. Through her great-grandmother, Idril, Arwen was a descendant of King Turgon of the Noldor. Through her mother, she was the granddaughter of the Elf-queen Galadriel of Lothlórien. Through both of her parents, Arwen was a direct descendant of the ancient Elven House of Finwë. Furthermore, Arwen was a descendant of Beren and Lúthien, whose story resembled hers. Indeed, Arwen was held to be the reappearance in likeness of Lúthien, fairest of all the Elves, who was called Nightingale (Tinúviel). Arwen was a distant relative of her husband Aragorn. Aragorn's ancestor, Elros Tar-Minyatur, the first King of Númenor, was her father Elrond's brother, who chose to live as a Man rather than as one of the Eldar. Arwen became Queen of the Reunited Kingdom of Arnor and Gondor when she married Aragorn, who was of the line of the Kings of Arnor. By their marriage, the lines of the Half-elven were reunited. Their union served, too, to unite and preserve the bloodlines of the three kings of the high Elves (Ingwë, Finwë, and the brothers Olwë and Elwë) as well as the only line with Maiarin blood through Arwen's great-great-great grandmother, Melian, Queen of Doriath. Analysis As related in The History of Middle-earth, Tolkien conceived the character of "Elrond's daughter" late in the writing. Prior to this, he had considered having Aragorn marry Éowyn of the royal family of Rohan. Arwen is depicted as extremely beautiful; she is in Melissa Hatcher's view in Mythlore "a symbol of the unattainable, a perfect match for the unattainable Aragorn in Éowyn's eyes." Carol Leibiger wrote in the J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia that Arwen's lack of involvement follows the general Elvish pattern, already established in The Silmarillion and continued in The Lord of the Rings, of retreating to safe havens. The scholar of English literature Nancy Enright wrote that Arwen, like Christ, is an immortal who voluntarily chooses mortality out of love, in her case for Aragorn. She granted that Arwen is not a conspicuous character, and unlike Éowyn does not ride into battle, but stated that her inner power is "subtly conveyed" and present throughout the novel. Adaptations Peter Jackson's film series In Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, Arwen is played by Liv Tyler. The films give her a more prominent role than her literary counterpart. In the first film, Arwen searches for Aragorn and single-handedly rescues Frodo Baggins from the Black Riders at Bruinen, thwarting them with a sudden flood, summoned by an incantation. During this flight, Arwen wields the sword Hadhafang, which according to film merchandise was once wielded by her father and had belonged to his grandmother Idril Celebrindal. In the film adaptation of The Two Towers, the injured Aragorn is revived by a dream or vision of Arwen, who kisses him and asks the Valar to protect him. In the film, Arwen does not send Aragorn the banner she has made; instead, Elrond takes the sword Narsil, reforged as Andúril, to Aragorn at Dunharrow, and tells him that Arwen's fate has become bound to the One Ring, and that she is dying. The Tolkien scholar Janet Brennan Croft comments that Jackson makes Arwen passive, denying her independence of mind; from being a constant support, she is a distraction, even a temptation, to the American Superhero, and their marriage, in the book a sign of his rightful kingship, is in the film something he accepts as if he was condemned to it. In the extended version, Elrond asks Arwen, in Elvish with English subtitles, to accompany him to safety in Valinor, away from Middle-earth. The Tolkien scholar Dimitra Fimi comments that the procession of Elves in the scene "Arwen's vision" in the extended version borrows visually from the "Celtic" imagery of John Duncan's 1911 Pre-Raphaelite painting Riders of the Sidhe. Sauron uses the Palantír to show Aragorn a dying Arwen (a scene from the future) in the hope of weakening his resolve. The films portray Arwen as becoming human through her love for Aragorn; as in the novel, she follows the choice of her ancestor Lúthien to become a mortal woman for the love of a mortal man. The films introduce a jewelled pendant called the Evenstar which Arwen gives to Aragorn as a token of their love. A similar pendant appears in Marion Zimmer Bradley's short story The Jewel of Arwen, although in that story Arwen gives it to "the Ring-Bearer" rather than to Aragorn. In Tolkien's novel, Arwen gives Frodo "a white gem like a star...hanging upon a silver chain" before he leaves Minas Tirith, saying, "When the memory of the fear and the darkness troubles you...this will bring you aid". In earlier versions of the script, Arwen fought in the Battle of Helm's Deep and brought the sword Andúril to Aragorn. Some scenes of Arwen fighting in Helm's Deep were filmed before both the film's writers (with Liv Tyler's approval) reconsidered the change and deleted her from the sequence. The critic John D. Rateliff wrote approvingly of the deletion of what he calls "Arwen, Warrior Princess", even though it came "at the cost of reducing her to a sort of Lady of Shallott languishing for most of the final two films". In the Mythopoeic Society's Tolkien on Film: Essays on Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings, Cathy Akers-Jordan, Victoria Gaydosik, Jane Chance, and Maureen Thum all contend that the portrayal of Arwen and other women in the Jackson films is thematically faithful to or compatible with Tolkien's writings, despite the differences. Other In the 1981 BBC radio serialisation of The Lord of the Rings, Arwen is voiced by Sonia Fraser. In the musical theatre adaptation of Lord of the Rings, Arwen, played in London in 2007 by Rosalie Craig, sings the Prologue, and three musical numbers: "The Song of Hope", "Star of Eärendil" (with the Elven chorus) and "The Song of Hope Duet" (with Aragorn). In the 2009 fan film The Hunt for Gollum, Arwen is played by Rita Ramnani. The Lord of the Rings board game made use of a rendition of Arwen by Jackson's conceptual designer, the illustrator John Howe; the work was inspired by the French actress Isabelle Adjani. Notes References Primary Secondary Sources English given names invented by fiction writers Female characters in film Female characters in literature Fictional female soldiers and warriors Fictional queens Given names inspired by popular culture Literary characters introduced in 1954 The Lord of the Rings characters Middle-earth Half-elven

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD%20%EB%8F%85%EB%A6%BD%20%ED%98%81%EB%AA%85%EC%9D%98%20%EB%8F%85%EC%9D%BC%EC%9D%B8

미국 독립 혁명의 독일인

독일인들은 미국 독립 전쟁의 양측에서 복무했다. 많은 사람들은 왕당파의 대의를 지지했고, 브라운슈바이크뤼네부르크 선제후국의 선제후이자 영국의 왕이었던 조지 3세를 위해 복무했다. 특히 프랑스 왕국과 인접한 라인란트에서 온 독일인들은 프랑스 왕국 육군에서 복무했다. 다른 독일인들은 미국의 독립군을 지원하기 위해 왔지만, 독립군으로 복무한 독일인 대부분은 식민주의자였다. 영국의 동맹국 미국 독립 혁명 기간 동안 신성 로마 제국 하에서 느슨하게 통일된 수많은 독일어권 국가들이 있었다. 이 국가들 중 다수는 공식적으로 루터교 국가였으며, 이들은 전통적으로 영국을 비롯한 다른 개신교 국가들과 동맹을 맺었다. 미국 독립 혁명 당시 영국의 왕 조지 3세는 하노버 선제후를 겸하고 있었다. 조지 3세는 민족적으로는 독일계 출신으로, 영어를 모국어로 사용하는 하노버가의 수장이었다. 영국은 1756년 외교 혁명 기간 동안 독일의 여러 국가들과 동맹을 맺었으며, 7년 전쟁에서는 프로이센의 프리드리히 2세와 동맹을 맺었다. 미국에 있는 영국 식민지들이 몇십 년 후에 반란을 일으켰을 때, 몇몇 독일어권 국가들은 영국 육군과 계약했다. 군대를 외국에 임대하는 것이 몇몇 유럽인들에게 논란이 되었지만 독일어권 국가의 사람들은 일반적으로 전쟁에서 복무하는 것에 대해 큰 자부심을 드러냈다. 어떤 경우에는, 독일인은 심지어 제60연대와 같은 영국 부대에 직접 입대했다. 미국인들은 독일어권 국가의 부대가 미국 땅에 도착하자 이것을 조지 3세의 배신으로 보았다. 몇몇 미국 의원들은 조지 3세가 병사들을 자신들에게 사용한다면 독립을 선언할 것을 선포했고, 이를 미국의 애국자들에게 선전 도구로 사용했다. 독일인 군대는 "외국 용병"이라고 불렸으며, 미국 독립선언에서도 같은 단어로써 언급되었다 : 몇몇 작은 독일어권 국가의 재정적인 기초는 18세기 동안에 다양한 방면에서 더 큰 국가를 세우기 위해 전투에 그들의 연대를 정규적으로 빌려주는 것이었다. 역사 학자 찰스 W. 잉그라오는 (Charles W. Ingrao) 는 헤센 용병 국가: 프리드리히 2세 치하의 생각, 기관 및 개혁, 1760-1785 (2003)에 따라 이를 설명했다. 헤센의 용병들은 잘 훈련되고 장비되었다. 헤센 용병들은 헤센 대공에게 돈을 주는 어느 누구를 위해서라도 잘 싸웠다. 전쟁이 끝나자 미국 의회는 독일인들이 미국에 남을 수 있도록 혜택, 특히 무료 농지를 제공했다. 영국 역시 노바스코샤에 정착하고자 하는 독일인 군대에 토지 및 세금 혜택을 제공했다. 헤센카셀 헤센카셀 방백국의 방백이자 조지 3세의 삼촌인 프리드리히 2세 폰 헤센카셀은 아메리카 대륙에서 싸울 12,000명 이상의 군인을 제공했다. 그들의 영국 동맹군처럼 헤센군은 북아메리카에 적응하는데 약간 어려움을 겪었다. 도착할 첫 번째 군대는 전염병으로 고통받았고, 이로 인해 롱아일랜드 전투의 개시가 지연되었다. 1776년부터 헤센군 병사들은 북아메리카에서 복무하는 영국 육군에 통합되었고, 그들이 참전한 전투에는미국 독립 전쟁의 뉴욕 뉴저지 전역, 저먼타운 전투, 찰스턴 공방전, 그리고 약 1300명의 독일인이 포로로 끌려간 요크타운 전투 등이 있다. 여러 보고서에 따르면 독일인이 영국인보다 더 나은 전투력과 사기를 보유하고 있었다. 헤센카셀은 미국 독립 전쟁 기간 중 16,000명의 군대를 파병했으며, 이 중 6,500명은 돌아가지 않았다. 헤센 장군 아담 루트비히 오크스는 1,800명의 헤센 병사들이 사망했다고 추정했지만, 헤센 군대의 많은 사람들은 미국에 머물기를 원했고, 전쟁 후에도 계속 머물렀다. 독일어를 사용하는 대다수의 군대가 헤센에서 왔기 때문에 현대 미국인들은 이러한 독일인 군대를 총칭하여 헤센군이라고 불렀다. 헤센카셀은 영국과 15개 연대, 4개의 척탄병 대대, 2개의 엽병 연대, 4개의 포병 연대를 제공하기 위한 동맹 조약을 체결했다. 특히 엽병 연대는 까다롭게 모집되었고, 급료가 잘 지불되었고, 의복이 좋았으며 그리고 육체 노동에서 자유로웠다. 미국에서의 "인도식" 전쟁에서 이러한 엽병연대는 필수적이었으며, 1777년 12월에 영국은 헤센카셀과 엽병부대의 수를 260명에서 1,066명으로 늘리는 것에 동의한 새로운 조약에 서명했다. 헤센카셀군은 대서양 반대편에 있는 군인들의 손실을 대체할 수 없었기 때문에 아프리카계 미국인들을 하인과 병사로 모집했다. 115명의 흑인 병사가 헤센 부대에서 근무했으며, 대부분은 북을 연주하거나 파이프를 부는 사람이었다. 헤센카셀에서 가장 잘 알려진 장교는 빌헬름 폰 키니포센 장군으로 여러 전투에서 군대를 지휘했다. 다른 주목할만한 장교에는 1777년 레드뱅크 전투에서 치명적인 부상을 입은 대령 카를 폰 도노프와 1776년 트렌턴 전투에서 부상을 입은 요한 롤 대령이 있다. 롤의 여단은 포로로 잡혀 포로 대부분은 펜실베니아로 보내져 농장에서 일하게 되었다. 헤센하나우 헤센하나우 방백국은 헤센카셀의 준독립 지역으로, 개신교도인 빌헬름 1세가 다스리고 있었다. 1775년 벙커힐 전투 소식을 들은 빌헬름은, 조지3세에게 무조건적으로 연대를 제공했다. 전쟁 기간 동안, 헤센하나우는 2,422명의 병사를 파견했고, 이 중 1,441명만이 1783년 귀환할 수 있었다. 헤센군의 병사들 중 상당수가 하나우에서 왔고, 이들 중 몇몇은 전쟁 이후 미국 대륙에 남기를 원했다. 헤센하나우의 유명한 장교에는 빌헬름 폰 갈 장군이 있다. 그는 존 버고인 장군 휘하에서 하나우로부터 온 여단을 지휘했다. 북아메리카에 파견된 부대 중에는 보병 1개 대대와 엽병 대대, 그리고 자유군단이라 알려진 비정규직 보병대대와 포병 연대가 있었다. 브라운슈바이크볼펜뷔텔 브라운슈바이크뤼네부르크 공국은 3개의 나라로 분할되었는데, 이 중 한 곳이 조지 3세가 선제후로 다스리는 하노버 선제후국이었다. 하노버와 이웃한 브라운슈바이크볼펜뷔텔 공국은 브라운슈바이크 공작 카를 1세와 그 아들인 카를 빌헬름 페르디난트가 다스리고 있었다. 카를 빌헬름 페르디난트는 조지 3세의 누나인 영국 왕녀 아우구스타와 결혼했다. 1775년 카를 빌헬름 페르디난트는 조지 3세에게 미국에서 발생한 반란을 진압하는데 도움이 되는 병사들이 있다고 말했다. 1775년 12월, 프리드리히 아돌프 리데젤 장군은 조약이 확정되기를 기대하며 징병을 시작했다. 브라운슈바이크는 1776년 1월 9일 영국과 조약을 체결하면서 독일어권 국가 중 처음으로 영국을 지지하는 조약을 체결한 국가가 되었다. 영국과 브라운슈바이크는 4,000명의 병사를 파견하기로 합의했는데, 4개의 보병연대, 1개의 척탄병 대대, 그리고 1개의 용기병연대와 1개의 경보병대대가 파견될 예정이었다. 브라운슈바이크 조약에서 브라운슈바이크군의 급료는 2달치 급료를 선불하는 것을 포함하여 신성 로마 제국의 탈러로 지불될 예정이었으며, 조지 3세에게 충성을 맹세하기로 되어 있었다. 합의에서 논란이 되는 조항은 카를 대공이 전사한 브라운슈바이크 병사들을 대체하기 위해 £7 및 4s을 지불하는 것으로 약정되었는데, 3명의 부상자를 1명의 전사자와 동등하게 취급했다. 하지만 카를은 전사자나 "흔치 않은 전염성 질병"에 걸린 사람들 모두를 대체하기 위해 돈을 내고자 했다. 브라운슈바이크 공작 카를 1세는 영국에 4,000명의 보병과 350명의 중용기병을 제공했다. 이 전투는 프리드리히 아돌프 리데젤 장군이 총사령관을 맡고, 프리드리히 바움이 지휘했다. 리데젤 장군은 새로운 조약에 따라 추가적인 징집을 위해 연대들을 재조직하여 군단으로 편성했다. 숙련된 병사들은 리데젤 연대, 레츠 연대, 프린츠 프리드리히 연대, 폰 슈페히트 연대의 새로운 중대와 폰 바르너 대대 및 용기병 부대 곳곳에 포진되었다. 발데크 후국 및 안할트체르프스트와 함께 브라운슈바이크뤼네부르크는 강제 징집을 피한 영국 예비부대였고, 브라운슈바이크 공작은 북아메리카에 란데스킨더를 파병하지 않기로 선언했고, 이에 따라 지주들은 브라운슈바이크에 남아있는 부대를 전환시킬 수 있었다. 장교들과 하사관들은 계급을 채우기 위해 신성 로마 제국 곳곳을 돌아다녔고, 인센티브를 받았다. 이들은 신세계에서 새로운 경제적 기회를 얻기 위해, 자신들의 형량을 줄이기 위해, 또는 모험을 위해 북아메리카로 향했다. 이 병사들은 1777년 새러토가 전역 당시 존 버고인 휘하의 독일어권 정규부대의 대다수를 차지했고, "브라운슈바이커"라고 불렸다. 브라운슈바이크와 헤센하나우의 연합군은 버고인의 군대에 절반 정도를 차지했으며, 브라운슈바이커는 훈련이 잘 된 것으로도 유명했다. 챔플레인호를 건넌 선박들 중 한 척은 육군에서 자신들의 중요도를 인지하고 브라운슈바이크 깃발을 걸었다. 리데젤의 브라운슈바이크 군대는 허바튼 전투에 참전하여 미군의 우익에 맞서 총검돌격을 하였고, 이 공격 덕분에 영국군의 붕괴를 막을 수 있었다. 리데젤의 부인이었던 프레데리카 샤를로테 리데젤은 남편과 함께 다니며 새러토가 전역에 대한 중요한 료가 된 기록들을 남겼다. 버고인의 항복 이후, 2,431명의 브라운슈바이커들은 전쟁이 끝날 때까지 협정군의 일원으로 남아있었다. 브라운슈바이크는 북아메리카에 5,723명의 군대를 파견했으며 1783년 가을까지 3,105명이 귀향하지 못했다. 이러한 손실에는 사망이나 유기가 있었지만, 대부분의 브라운슈바이크 군인들은 협정군 시기에 미국에 익숙해졌고, 전쟁이 끝났을 때 의회에서 상주를 허락받았다. 브라운슈바이크 공작이 미국에서 사망한 모든 병사들에 대해 영국으로부터 보상을 받은 이후, 유기자들을 사망자로 보고하는 것이 그에게 도움이 되었다. 브라운슈바이크 공작은 미국에 남아있거나, 미국에서 돌아온 병사들에게 6달치 급료를 제공했다. 안스바흐 및 바이로이트 브란덴부르크안스바흐 후국과 브란덴부르크바이로이트 후국은 크리스티안 프리드리히 카를 알렉산더 방백의 지휘 하에 영국에 2개 보병대대와 1개 예거 중대, 그리고 포병대 1개를 포함해 총 1,644명의 병력을 보냈고, 이 중 461명이 살아돌아오지 못했다. 안스바흐와 바이로이트에서 총 2,353먕이 파견되었고, 이 중에는 예거 연대 전체가 포함되어 있었다. 이들은 "가장 키가 크고 미국에 온 연대 중 가장 멋있어 보였으며", "헤센인보다 더 잘 싸운다"고 평가받았다. 안스바흐군과 바이로이트군은 뉴욕에 있던 하우의 군대에 편입되어 필라델피아 전역에서 싸웠다. 안스바흐군과 바이로이트군은 요크타운 전투 당시 찰스 콘월리스와 함께 있었다. 초기 동원이 끝난 후, 안스바흐군과 바이로이트군은 새로운 징집령을 내려 부대를 추가로 파견했다. 미국 독립 전쟁이 끝날 무렵, 2,361명의 병사들이 아메리카 대륙에 파견되었지만 절반도 안 되는 1,041명이 1783년 말 귀국했다. 안스바흐와 바이로이트의 후작이었던 카를은 전쟁이 발발하자 빚더미에 앉았으며, 병사들을 사용하는데 £100,000 이상을 받았다. 1791년 카를은 안스바흐와 바이로이트를 프로이센 왕국에 매각했으며, 프로이센 펜션이 있는 영국에서 여생을 보냈다. 브라운슈바이크뤼네부르크 브라운슈바이크뤼네부르크 선제후국의 5개 대대 병력이 미국으로 가려던 영국군을 구출하기 위해 지브롤터와 미노르카에 1775년 초 파견되었다.. 브라운슈바이크뤼네부르크와 영국은 동군연합이었고 각각의 정부가 따로 있었기 때문에, 브라운슈바이크뤼네부르크의 군대는 영국-하노버 조약에 따라 영국이 군대 비용을 대신 지불하고, 브라운슈바이크뤼네부르크 군대가 해외로 파병되는 동안 브란덴부르크뤼네부르크 본토를 보호하기로 했다. 브라운슈바이크뤼네부르크 군대는 미국 독립 전쟁 기간 중 가장 규모가 크고 기간이 가장 길었던 지브롤터 대공방전에서 활약했으며, 미노르카 침공 때도 섬을 방어했다. 이후 이들은 영국령 인도로 파견되어 프랑스-마이소르 연합군을 쿠달도르 전투에서 격퇴했다. 안할트첼프스트 안할트첼프스트 후국의 후작 프리드리히 아우구스투스는 1777년 1,160명의 병사를 파견하기로 영국과 조약을 체결했다. 조약 체결 후 5개월 만에 연대 중 2개 대대가 징집되었으며, 새로 징집된 병사 900명으로 구성되어 있었다. 첫번째 대대가 1778년 5월 퀘벡시를 지키기 위해 캐나다에 파견되었다. 참고 문헌 각주 내용주 추가 자료 Hocker, Edward W. The Fighting Parson of the American Revolution: A Biography of General Peter Muhlenberg, Lutheran Clergyman, Military Chieftain, and Political Leader (1936). Huck, Stephan (2011). Soldaten gegen Nordamerika. München: Oldenbourg Verlag. Jarck, Horst-Rüdiger (ed.)(2000). Brücken in eine neue Welt. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Scales, Jodie K. (2001). Of Kindred Germanic Origins. Writers Club Press. Tappert, Theodore G. "Henry Melchior Muhlenberg and the American Revolution." Church History 11.4 (1942): 284-301. online Tolzmann, Don Heinrich, ed.; German Americans in the Revolution: Henry Melchoir Muhlenberg Richards' History (2013, based on 1908 history), emphasis on Pennsylvania 같이 보기 미국 독립 전쟁의 영국군 부대 미국 독립 전쟁 독일-미국 관계

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germans%20in%20the%20American%20Revolution

Germans in the American Revolution

Ethnic Germans served on both sides of the American Revolutionary War. Large numbers of Germans had emigrated to Pennsylvania, New York, and other American colonies, and they were generally neutral. Some belonged to pacifist sects such as the Amish, but many were drawn into the Revolution and the war. Allies of Great Britain Germans in Europe lived in numerous separate states. Some of these states had been in alliance with Britain during the Seven Years' War, and were eager to assist Great Britain. Britain had used auxiliary forces in every one of its 18th century wars, their use in suppressing rebellion seemed consistent with previous policy. Their use against British subjects was controversial, however. Despite British Whig opposition to using German soldiers to subjugate the "sons of Englishmen," Parliament overwhelmingly approved the measure in order to quickly raise the forces need to suppress the rebellion. The leasing of soldiers to a foreign power was also controversial to some Europeans, but the people of these continental states generally took great pride in their soldiers' service in the war. Prussia notably rejected the request to send soldiers. Germans living in America did not enlist in the auxiliary units but some enlisted in British units. The 60th (Royal American) Regiment recruited both from the Americas and from Germany. The sudden demand to rent thousands of auxiliaries placed a burden on recruiters. Base standards had to be met, including a minimum height and number of teeth required to operate flintlock muskets. Recruiters could be forced to pay losses due to desertion or loss of equipment. As many as 40,000 German auxiliaries were sent to North America, Gibraltar, Minorca and Mysore, and South Africa. In North America, German units accounted for more than a third of British forces. Americans were alarmed at the arrival of hired German fighters. Several American representatives to Continental bodies declared they would be willing to declare independence if King George used such soldiers against them. The hired German troops were referred to as mercenaries by the patriots. Patriot outrage was also reflected in the Declaration of Independence: Colonial-era jurists drawing a distinction between auxiliaries and mercenaries, with auxiliaries serving their prince when sent to the aid of another prince, and mercenaries serving a foreign prince as individuals. By this distinction, the troops which served in the American Revolution were not mercenaries, but auxiliaries. Early Republican historians, however, defended the term "mercenaries" to distinguish the foreign, professional armies from the idealized citizen soldier who altruistically fought for independence. Mercy Otis Warren promoted the idea of German auxiliaries as barbarians, but also as victims of tyranny. Throughout the war, the United States attempted to entice the hired men to stop fighting. In April 1778, Congress issued a letter, addressed "To the officers and soldiers in the service of the king of Great Britain, not subjects of the said king", which offered land and livestock to defecting German units, in addition to increased rank. At the conclusion of the war, Congress offered incentives—especially free farmland—for these ethnic Germans to remain in the United States. Great Britain also offered land and tax incentives to its Loyalist soldiers willing to settle in Nova Scotia in present-day Canada. Hesse-Kassel The financial basis of some smaller continental states was the regular rental of their regiments to fight for various larger nations during the 18th century. The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel, in particular, was economically depressed, and had "rented" out professional armies since the 17th century, with general support from both upper and lower classes. This allowed Hesse-Kassel to maintain a larger standing army, which in turn gave it the ability to play a larger role in European power politics. Hesse-Kassel pressed eligible men into service for up to 20 years, and by mid-18th century, about 7% of the population was in military service. The Hessian army was very well trained and equipped; its troops fought well for whoever was paying their prince. The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel was under Frederick II, a Roman Catholic and an uncle of King George III. He initially provided over 12,000 soldiers to fight in the Americas. Like their British allies, the Hessians had some difficulty acclimatizing to North America; the first troops to arrive suffered from widespread illness, which forced a delay in the attack on Long Island. From 1776 on, Hessian soldiers were incorporated into the British Army serving in North America, and they fought in most of the major battles, including those of New York and New Jersey campaign, the Battle of Germantown, the Siege of Charleston, and the final Siege of Yorktown, where about 1,300 Germans were taken prisoner, although various reports indicate that the Germans were in better spirits than their British counterparts. Because the majority of the German-speaking troops came from Hesse, modern Americans sometimes refer to all such troops of this war generically as "Hessians". It has been estimated that Hesse-Kassel contributed over 16,000 troops during the course of the Revolutionary War, of whom 6,500 did not return. Hessian officer (later General) Adam Ludwig Ochs estimated that 1,800 Hessian soldiers were killed, but many in the Hessian army intended on staying in America, and remained after the war. Captain Frederick Zeng, for example, served out his term with the armies of Hesse-Kassel and remained in the United States, even becoming an associate of Philip Schuyler. Hesse-Kassel signed a treaty of alliance with Great Britain to supply fifteen regiments, four grenadier battalions, two jäger companies, and three companies of artillery. The jägers in particular were carefully recruited and well paid, well clothed, and free from manual labor. These jägers proved essential in the "Indian style" warfare in America, and Great Britain signed a new treaty in December 1777 in which Hesse-Kassel agreed to increase their number from 260 to 1,066. German-speaking armies could not quickly replace men lost on the other side of the Atlantic, so the Hessians recruited African-Americans as soldiers, known as Black Hessians. There were 115 black soldiers serving with Hessian units, most of them as drummers or fifers. It is estimated that 20% of the people serving in Hessian units were not Hessians. Perhaps the best-known officer from Hesse-Kassel is General Wilhelm von Knyphausen, who commanded his troops in several major battles. Other notable officers include Colonel Carl von Donop (mortally wounded at the Battle of Red Bank in 1777) and Colonel Johann Rall, who was fatally wounded at the Battle of Trenton in 1776. Rall's regiment was captured, and many of the soldiers were sent to Pennsylvania to work on farms. The war proved longer and more difficult than either Great Britain or Hesse-Kassel had anticipated, and the mounting casualties and extended supply lines took a political and economic toll. Following the American Revolution, Hesse-Kassel would end the practice of raising and leasing armies. Hesse-Hanau Hesse-Hanau was a semi-independent appendage of Hesse-Kassel, governed by the Protestant Hereditary Landgrave William, eldest son of the Roman Catholic Frederick II of Hesse-Kassel. When William received news of the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775, he unconditionally offered a regiment to King George III. During the course of the war, Hanau provided 2,422 troops; only 1,441 returned in 1783. A significant number of Hessian soldiers were volunteers from Hanau, who had enlisted with the intention of staying in the Americas when the war was over. Colonel Wilhelm von Gall is one well-known officer from Hesse-Hanau; he commanded a regiment from Hanau under General John Burgoyne. Among the units sent to North America were one battalion of infantry, a battalion of jägers, a battalion of irregular infantry known as a Frei-Corps, and a company of artillery. Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Brunswick-Lüneburg was a duchy that had been divided into several territories, one of which was ruled by George III as the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover). The neighboring Duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (Brunswick) was ruled by Duke Charles I of Brunswick-Bevern; his son and heir, Charles William Ferdinand, was married to Princess Augusta of Great Britain, the sister of George III. In 1775, Charles William Ferdinand ("Prince Carl") told King George III that Brunswick had soldiers who could be used to help put down the rebellion in the Americas. In December 1775, General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel began recruiting in anticipation of the finalized treaty. Brunswick was the first German-speaking state to sign a treaty supporting Great Britain, on 9 January 1776. It agreed to send 4,000 soldiers: four infantry regiments, one grenadier battalion, one dragoon regiment and one light infantry battalion. The Brunswick treaty provided that all troops would be paid in Imperial Thalers – including two months' advance pay, but required that all troops take an oath of service to King George III. A controversial clause in the agreement stipulated that Duke Charles I would be paid £7 and 4s to replace each Brunswick soldier killed in battle- with three wounded men equal to one dead man; Charles, however, would pay to replace any deserters or any soldier who fell sick with anything other than an "uncommon contagious malady." Duke Charles I provided Great Britain with 4,000 foot soldiers and 350 heavy dragoons (dismounted) under Lt-Colonel Friedrich Baum, all commanded by General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel. General Riedesel reorganized the existing Braunschweig regiments into Corps to allow for the additional recruits required by the new treaty. Experienced soldiers were spread among the new companies in the Regiment von Riedesel, Regiment von Rhetz, Regiment Prinz Friedrich, and Regiment von Specht, as well as the Battalion von Barner and dragoons. Braunschweig-Luneburg, along with Waldeck and Anhalt-Zerbst, was one of the three British auxiliary that avoided impressment, and Karl I vowed not to send Landeskinder (sons of the land) to North America, so land owners were permitted to transfer to units that would remain in Braunschweig. Officers and non-commissioned officers went throughout the Holy Roman Empire recruiting to fill their ranks, offering financial incentives, travel to North America with the potential for economic opportunities in the New World, reduced sentences, and adventure. These soldiers were the majority of the German-speaking regulars under General John Burgoyne in the Saratoga campaign of 1777, and were generally referred to as "Brunswickers." The combined forces from Brunswick and Hesse-Hanau accounted for nearly half of Burgoyne's army, and the Brunswickers were known for being especially well-trained. One of the ships used to cross Lake Champlain flew a flag of Braunschweig to recognize their significance to the army. Riedesel's Brunswick troops made a notable entry into the Battle of Hubbardton, singing a Lutheran hymn while making a bayonet charge against the American right flank, which may have saved the collapsing British line. Riedesel's wife, Friederike, traveled with her husband and kept a journal which remains an important primary account of the Saratoga campaign. After Burgoyne's surrender, 2,431 Brunswickers were detained as part of the Convention Army until the end of the war. Brunswick sent 5,723 troops to North America, of whom 3,015 did not return home in the autumn of 1783. Some losses were to death or desertion, but many Brunswickers became familiar with America during their time with the Convention Army, and when the war ended, they were granted permission to stay by both Congress and their officers. Many had taken the opportunity to desert as the Convention Army was twice marched through Pennsylvania German settlements in eastern Pennsylvania. As the Duke of Brunswick received compensation from the British for every one of his soldiers killed in America, it was in his best interest to report the deserters as dead, whenever possible. The Duke even offered six months' pay to soldiers who remained or returned to America. Ultimately, Brunswick lost money from their treaty with Great Britain, and the new Prince Karl was nearly brought to financial ruin. Ansbach-Bayreuth The dual Margraviates of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Brandenburg-Bayreuth, under Margrave Charles Alexander, initially supplied 1,644 men to the British in two infantry battalions, one company of jägers and one of artillery, of whom 461 did not return home. A total of 2,353 soldiers were sent from Ansbach-Bayreuth, including an entire regiment of jägers. They were described as "the tallest and best-looking regiments of all those here," and "better even than the Hessians." These troops were incorporated into Howe's army in New York and were part of the Philadelphia campaign. Ansbach-Bayreuth troops were also with General Cornwallis at the Siege of Yorktown, with a force of nearly 1,100 troops. After the initial mobilization of troops, Ansbach-Beyreuth sent several other transports with new recruits. By the end of the war, 2,361 Soldiers had deployed to the Americas, but fewer than half, 1,041, returned had returned by the end of 1783. The Margrave of Ansbach-Bayreuth was deeply in debt when the war broke out, and received more than £100,000 for the use of his soldiers. In 1791 he sold Ansbach and Bayreuth to Prussia and lived the rest of his life in England on a Prussian pension. Waldeck Waldeck made a treaty to rent troops to Britain on 20 April 1776. Prince Friedrich Karl August of Waldeck kept three regiments ready for paid foreign service. The first of these regiments, with 684 officers and men, sailed from Portsmouth in July 1776 and participated in the New York campaign. During the campaign the Waldeck regiment captured wine and spirits belonging to American General Lee and were embittered towards the British General Howe when he made them empty the bottles by the roadside. The Waldeck troops were integrated into the German auxiliaries under Hessian General Wilhelm von Knyphausen. In 1778, the 3rd Waldeck Regiment was sent to defend Pensacola as part of the British force under General John Campbell. The Regiment was dispersed throughout West Florida, including Fort Bute, Mobile and Baton Rouge. The regimental commander, Colonel Johann Ludwig Wilhelm von Hanxleden, complained that his soldiers were sickened and even died due to the climate. The remote locations received few supply ships, and the soldiers' pay was insufficient to buy local goods. Prince August informed Lord Germain that Waldeck could not recruit new soldiers fast enough to replace those dying in West Florida. In addition to slow supplies, the British and Waldeck forces did not receive news in a timely manner. They were unaware that Spain had declared war on Great Britain until they were attacked by forces under Spanish Governor Bernardo de Gálvez. When this campaign was complete at the Siege of Pensacola, Spain recruited many of the poorly fed and supplied Waldeck soldiers. British prisoners of war were later exchanged, but Waldeck prisoners of war were kept by the Spanish in New Orleans, Veracruz, and more than a year in Havana before finally being exchanged in 1782. Waldeck contributed 1,225 men to the war, and lost 720 as casualties or deserters. In the course of the war, 358 Waldeck soldiers died from sickness, and 37 died from combat. Hanover Five battalions of troops of the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover), whose Elector was none other than the British King George III, were sent to Gibraltar and Menorca as early as 1775 to relieve the British soldiers stationed there, who could then be sent to fight in America. Since Hanover was ruled in personal union and had its own government, Hanoverian troops were deployed under a British-Hanoverian Treaty in which Great Britain agreed to pay Hanoverian expenses and defend Hanover against invasion while the troops were away. These Hanoverian soldiers were defenders during the Great Siege of Gibraltar, the largest and longest battle of the war, and in the defense of Menorca. Late in the war, two regiments from Hanover were sent to British India, where they served under British command in the Siege of Cuddalore against a combined French and Mysorean defense. Anhalt-Zerbst The Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, Frederick Augustus signed a treaty to provide Great Britain with 1,160 men in 1777. The Regiment of two battalions were raised in five months, and consisted of 900 new recruits. One battalion of 600–700 men arrived in the Canadas in May 1778 to guard Quebec City. The other, consisting of some 500 "Pandours" (irregular soldiers recruited from Slavic lands within the Austrian Empire) was sent in 1780 to garrison British-occupied New York City. Whether these troops could function as irregular light infantry has been much debated, although they were described by contemporary accounts as Pandours. Congressional Support German Americans German immigration to the British colonies began in the late 17th century. By the mid-18th century, approximately 10% of the colonial American population spoke German. Germans were easily the largest non-British European minority in British North America, but their assimilation and Anglicisation varied greatly. During the French and Indian War in 1756, Great Britain utilized them by forming the Royal American Regiment, whose enlisted men were principally German colonists. Other Germans immigrated then, including Frederick, Baron de Weissenfels, who settled in New York as a British officer. When the Revolutionary War began, Weissenfels deserted the British forces and served with the Patriots from 1775 onward, rising to lieutenant colonel. German-speaking colonists were divided between neutrals and supporters of the Patriot and Loyalist causes. German loyalists fought in their local militias, and some returned to German states in exile following the war. In contrast, following the Battle of Long Island, a Hessian chaplain complained that the British had killed prisoners of war, "many among them were Germans, and that cut me doubly to the heart." Several new states formed German regiments, or filled the ranks of local militias with German Americans. German colonists in Charleston, South Carolina, formed a fusilier company in 1775, and some Germans in Georgia enlisted under General Anthony Wayne. German patriots were most numerous where they stood in contrast to the large, pacifist Quaker population. Brothers Peter and Frederick Muhlenberg, for example, were elected to Congress, and Peter served on Washington's general staff. The German Van Leer Family all enlisted as officers, some under General Anthony Wayne. Pennsylvania Dutch Provost Corps Pennsylvania Dutch were recruited for the American Provost corps under Captain Bartholomew von Heer, a Prussian who had served in a similar unit in Europe before immigrating to Reading, Pennsylvania, prior to the war. During the Revolutionary War, the Marechaussee Corps were utilized in a variety of ways, including intelligence gathering, route security, enemy prisoner of war operations, and even combat during the Battle of Springfield. The Marechausee also provided security for Washington's headquarters during the Battle of Yorktown, acted as his security detail, and was one of the last units deactivated after the Revolutionary War. The Marechaussee Corps was often not well received by the Continental Army, due in part to their defined duties but also due to the fact that some members of the corps spoke little or no English. Six of the provosts had even been Hessian prisoners of war prior to their recruitment. Because the provost corps completed many of the same functions as the modern U.S. Military Police Corps, it is considered a predecessor of the current United States Military Police Regiment. German Regiment On 25 May 1776, the Second Continental Congress authorized the 8th Maryland Regiment, also known as the German Battalion or German Regiment, to be formed of colonial ethnic Germans as part of the Continental Army. Unlike most continental line units, it drew from multiple states, initially comprising eight companies: four from Maryland and four (later five) from Pennsylvania. Nicholas Haussegger, a major under General Anthony Wayne, was commissioned as the colonel. The regiment saw service at the Battle of Trenton and the Battle of Princeton, and took part in campaigns against American Indians. The regiment was disbanded 1 January 1781. European supporters George Washington welcomed European officers in his army. Johann de Kalb was a Bavarian who served in the armies of France before receiving a commission as a general in the Continental Army. Other Germans came to the United States to utilize their military training. Frederick William, Baron de Woedtke, for example, was a Prussian officer who obtained a Congressional commission early in the war; he died in New York in 1776. Gustave Rosenthal was an ethnic German from Estonia who became an officer in the Continental Army. He returned to Estonia after the war, but other German soldiers, such as David Ziegler, chose to stay and become citizens in the nation they had helped found. In addition, France had eight German-speaking regiments with over 2,500 soldiers. The famous Lauzun's Legion included both French and German soldiers, and was commanded in German. There were also German soldiers and officers in the French Royal Deux-Ponts Regiment. The most famous German to support the Patriot cause was Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben from Prussia, who came to America independently, through France, and served as Washington's inspector general. General von Steuben is credited with training the Continental Army at Valley Forge, and he later wrote the first drill manual for the United States Army. In June 1780 he was given command of the advance guard in the defense of Morristown, New Jersey. Von Steuben was granted citizenship and remained in United States until his death in 1794. Von Steuben's native Prussia joined the League of Armed Neutrality, and Frederick II of Prussia was well appreciated in the United States for his support early in the war. Frederick II maintained a grudge against George III since the British monarch had withdrawn military subsidies during the Seven Years' War. He expressed interest in opening trade with the United States and bypassing English ports, and allowed an American agent to buy arms in Prussia. Frederick predicted American success, and promised to recognize the United States and American diplomats once France did the same. Prussia also interfered in the recruiting efforts of Russia and neighboring German states when they raised armies to send to the Americas, and Frederick II forbade enlistment for the American war within Prussia. All Prussian roads were denied to troops from Anhalt-Zerbst, which delayed reinforcements that Howe had hoped to receive during the winter of 1777–1778. When the War of the Bavarian Succession erupted, however, Frederick II became much more cautious with Prussian relations with Britain. U.S. ships were denied access to Prussian ports, and Frederick refused to officially recognize the United States until they had signed the Treaty of Paris. After the war, Frederick II wrongly predicted that the United States was too large to operate as a republic, and that it would soon rejoin the British Empire with representatives in Parliament. Notes and references Notes See also List of British units in the American Revolutionary War References Bibliography Atwood, Rodney. The Hessians: Mercenaries from Hessen-Kassel in the American Revolution (Cambridge University Press, 1980). Baer, Friederike. Hessians: German Soldiers in the American Revolutionary War (Oxford University Press, 2022). Website Crytzer, Brady J. Hessians: Mercenaries, Rebels, and the War for British North America (Westholme Publishing, 2015). Fetter, Frank Whitson. “Who Were the Foreign Mercenaries of the Declaration of Independence?” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 104, no. 4, 1980, pp. 508–513. online Frantz, John B., and William Pencak, eds. Beyond Philadelphia: The American Revolution in the Pennsylvania Hinterland (Penn State Press, 2010). Hocker, Edward W. The Fighting Parson of the American Revolution: A Biography of General Peter Muhlenberg, Lutheran Clergyman, Military Chieftain, and Political Leader (1936). Huck, Stephan (2011). Soldaten gegen Nordamerika. München: Oldenbourg Verlag. Ingrao, Charles. "" Barbarous Strangers": Hessian State and Society during the American Revolution." American Historical Review 87.4 (1982): 954-976 online. Ingrao, Charles W. The Hessian mercenary state: ideas, institutions, and reform under Frederick II, 1760-1785 Cambridge University Press, 2003. Jarck, Horst-Rüdiger (ed.)(2000). Brücken in eine neue Welt. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Neimeyer, Charles Patrick. America Goes to War: A Social History of the Continental Army (1995) complete text online Nolt, Steven, Foreigners in Their Own Land: Pennsylvania Germans in the Early American Republic, Penn State U. Press, 2002 Percy, Sarah. Mercenaries: The history of a norm in international relations (Oxford University Press, 2007). Roeber, A. G. Palatines, Liberty, and Property: German Lutherans in Colonial British America (1998) Scales, Jodie K. (2001). Of Kindred Germanic Origins. Writers Club Press. * Tappert, Theodore G. "Henry Melchior Muhlenberg and the American Revolution." Church History 11.4 (1942): 284-301. online Tolzmann, Don Heinrich, ed.; German Americans in the Revolution: Henry Melchoir Muhlenberg Richards' History (2013, based on 1908 history), emphasis on Pennsylvania Underwood, Matthew. "Jealousies of a standing army: the use of mercenaries in the American revolution and its implications for Congress's role in regulating private military firms." Northwestern University Law Review106 (2012): 317+. online External links The Ansbach-Bayreuth Army in America Bibliography of the German Participation in the American Revolution compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History German Auxiliaries Muster Rolls, 1776-1786 Seventy muster rolls and 15 additional letters and documents of the German regiments employed by the British to fight in the American Revolutionary War digitized by the William L. Clements Library German Auxiliary Units at Yorktown at the U.S. National Park Service Haldimand Collection – Numerous documents and letters concerning the participation of Hessians soldiers to the American Revolutionary War The Marechausee: von Heer’s Provost Corps, corps history Recreated Regiment Von Riedesel with Regiment history "Hessians:" German Soldiers in the American Revolutionary War. Academic blog with original German sources, English translations, and commentary. Treaties American Revolutionary War German-American history

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영구채

영구채(永久債, )는 만기가 없는 채권이다. 역사 2011년 11월 28일, 900여년 전통의, 영어권 최고 오랜 대학인 옥스퍼드 대학교가 사상 최초로 영구채를 발행했다. 2억5천만 파운드(3억3천200만 달러·약 3천598억원) 규모이며, JP모건을 채권발행 주관사로 정했다. 만기는 100년이다. 무디스는 옥스퍼드대에 최고 등급인 '트리플 A(Aaa)' 신용등급을 부여했다. 2012년 3월, 조지 오즈번 영국 재무장관이 100년 만기 영구채인 오즈번 채권을 발행한다고 발표했다. 국가 신용등급이 AAA를 유지하고 있어서, 영국의 10년 만기 국채 이자율은 2% 수준으로 19세기 이후 가장 낮기 때문에, 지금이 영구채 발행의 적기라고 보고 있다. 2014년 4월 28일, 100년 만기로, 2114년 만기가 돌아오는 10억 파운드(약 1조7000억원) 규모의 멕시코 정부 국채 발행에 성공했다. 금리는 5.62%이다. 미국의 기관투자자들이 대거 몰려 예상치의 2배인 10억 달러가 발행됐다. 제1차대전 당시 영국이 영구채인 전쟁 채권(:en:War bond)를 발행한 적은 있지만, 근래 들어 이 같은 초장기 국채 발행은 유례가 없다. 지난 2010년 미 달러화로 표시된 100년 만기 초장기채를 찍은 데 이어, 이번엔 영국 파운드화로 100년 만기 국채를 처음 발행했다. 투자은행 골드만삭스와 바클레이즈가 채권 발행 주관사를 맡았다. 2015년 3월, 영국 정부가 제1차대전 전시비용 국채를 100여년 만에 모두 상환했다. 19억 파운드(약 3조3천억원) 규모이며, 1917년 1차 세계대전 당시 전시비용을 마련하기 위해 발행했다. 영구채로 연 이자율은 3.5%, 투자자가 12만명을 넘는다. 최근 경제사정이 나빠지자, 고금리인 부채를 모두 상환하기로 한 것이다. 2015년 6월 15일, 시장조사업체인 딜로직(Dealogic)에 따르면 올해 영국에서 비금융 기업들이 발행한 영구채는 380억 달러(약 42조5천억원)로 집계됐다. 딜로직이 자료를 집계하기 시작한 1995년 이후 가장 많은 규모다. 초저금리 기조 속에서 이자율이 상대적으로 높은 위험 상품인 영구채에 대한 수요가 몰리고 있음을 보여준다. 영구채는 투자자에게 이자만 지급하는 형태의 채권이다. 원금상환 의무가 없기 때문에 주식과 채권의 중간 성격의 '하이브리드채권'으로도 불린다. 물론 특정 시점 이후에 콜옵션 행사로 원금을 조기 상환할 수 있다. 2017년 2월 15일, 전세계 초장기 국채 발행 규모가 2006년에서 2016년 사이에 세 배로 증가했다고 경제협력개발기구(OECD)가 발표했다. 초저금리 시대에서 점차 고금리 시대로 시장상황이 변하려고 할 때에는, 초장기의 초저금리 국채를 많이 발행해 놓는 게 나중에 고금리 시대에 자금을 빌리는 것보다 훨씬 이득이다. 2017년 2월 23일, 스티븐 므누신 미국 재무장관은 100년 만기 국채 발행을 검토중이라고 말했다. 미국 정부가 발행한 최장기 국채는 30년 만기였다. 미국 재무부 차입 자문 위원회가 지난달 31일 회의를 열고 금리가 오르는 상황에서 장기 국채 발행 전략은 역사적으로 성과가 있었다는 의견을 냈다. 2017년 7월 18일, 교보생명이 5억 달러(약 5600억원) 규모의 영구채 발행에 성공했다. 연 3.95% 금리로 아시아 금융회사가 발행한 영구채 가운데 역대 최저 금리로 3%대 금리로 발행한 첫 사례이다. 다이이치생명과 닛폰생명 등 일본 생명보험사들의 영구채는 4.03~4.06% 금리로 유통되고 있다. 무디스가 평가한 교보생명의 글로벌 신용등급은 'A1'이다. 2018년 6월 8일, 아시아나항공이 영구채 발행에 실패했다. IPG는 9.5%, 발행규모는 최대 3억 달러였다. 발행사에겐 3년 후 조기상환청구권(콜옵션)을 행사할 권한이 부여할 계획이었는데, 투자자가 모이지 않아 발행을 연기했다. 2018년 10월 18일, 두산중공업의 유럽 자회사 두산파워시스템이 3억달러(약 3400억원) 규모 영구채 발행에 성공했다. 최초제안가격(IPG)은 미국 국채 3년물(3T)에 110bp(area) 가산한 수준이었다. 발행사에겐 3년 후 조기상환청구권(콜옵션)을 행사할 권한이 부여됐다. 두산파워시스템은 자체 신용등급 없이 한국수출입은행 지급보증을 받아 발행에 나섰다. 현재 수출입은행의 국제 신용등급은 대한민국 정부와 동일하다. 2019년 1월, 중국은행이 중국 최초의 영구채를 400억 위안(약 6조5천328억원) 규모로 발행했다. 최초제안가격(IPG)으로 4.5~5.2%의 표면금리를 제시했으며 5년 후 이를 재매입하는 콜옵션이 부가됐다. 경기 하방 압력에 직면한 중국 금융당국은 2019년 초 은행권의 영구채 발행을 허용했다. 량둥차이(梁棟材) 교통은행 금융연구센터 선임 연구원은 바젤 III 협약 틀에 기초한 기타 기본자본 확충 도구인 영구채는 영국, 미국, 프랑스 등 선진국에서 빠르게 발전해 성숙한 하이브리드 채권 자본조달 도구로 자리잡았다면서 영구채 발행은 중국 상업은행이 기타 기본자본을 확충하는 중요한 도구 혁신이라고 말했다. 2019년 대우조선해양이 현대중공업에 인수합병되었다. 대우조선이 발행하고 한국수출입은행이 보유한 영구채 2조 3천억원의 처리가 문제되었다. 현대중공업이 그 중에서 1조원 정도를 물어줘야 한다는 소리도 나왔다. 한국수출입은행은 이를 대우조선 주식으로 전환해 주식시장에서 매각할 권리가 있다. 대우조선해양의 지배주주 자본은 4조원으로 이중 60%에 해당하는 2조3000억원이 한국수출입은행이 인수한 영구채다. 같이 보기 각주 채권

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetual%20bond

Perpetual bond

A perpetual bond, also known colloquially as a perpetual or perp, is a bond with no maturity date, therefore allowing it to be treated as equity, not as debt. Issuers pay coupons on perpetual bonds forever, and they do not have to redeem the principal. Perpetual bond cash flows are, therefore, those of a perpetuity. Perpetual bonds vs. equity Although similar to equity, perpetual bonds do not have attached votes and, therefore, provide no means of control over the issuer. Perpetual bonds are still fixed-income securities; therefore, paying coupons is mandatory whereas paying dividends on equity is discretionary. Examples Consols that were issued by the United States and the UK governments. War bonds issued by a number of governments to finance war efforts in the first and second world wars. The oldest example of a perpetual bond was issued on 15 May 1624 by the Dutch water board of Lekdijk Bovendams. Only about five such bonds from the Dutch Golden Age are known to survive today. Another of these bonds, issued in 1648, is currently in the possession of Yale University. Yale bought the document for its history of finance archive at auction in 2003, at which time no interest had been paid on it since 1977. Yale Professor Geert Rouwenhorst travelled in person to the Netherlands to collect the interest due. Interest continues to accumulate on this bond, and was most recently paid in 2015 by the eventual successor of Lekdijk Bovendams (Hoogheemraadschap De Stichtse Rijnlanden). Originally issued with a principal of "1000 silver of 20 Stuivers a piece", as of 2004 the yearly interest payment to the bondholder is set at €11.35. According to its original terms, the bond would pay 5% interest in perpetuity, although the interest rate was reduced to 3.5% and then 2.5% during the 18th century. Some undated gilt-edged securities issued by the Bank of England Most perpetual bonds issued in the present day are deeply subordinated bonds issued by banks. The bonds are counted as Tier 1 capital and help the banks fulfill their capital requirements. Most of these bonds are callable, but the first call date is never less than five years from the date of issue—a call protection period. Pricing Perpetual bonds are valued using the formula: where: is an annual coupon interest on a bond. is an expected yield for maximum term available. See also Bond market Debt securities Fixed income Government bond Perpetual subordinated debt Subordinated debt War bond References External links "Perpetual debt in favour, but yields may fall", LiveMint.com, July 7, 2007 Bonds (finance)

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EB%A5%98%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%84%ED%95%99

인류유전학

인류유전학은 인류의 유전을 다루는 학문으로 그 영역은 고전유전학, 세포유전학, 분자유전학, 생화학유전학, 유전체학, 집단유전학, 발달유전학, 의학유전학, 유전상담과 같은 다양한 학문에 걸쳐 있다. 유전자는 생물의 유전적 특징 대부분을 결정하는 일반적 요인이다. 인간 역시 하나의 생물 종으로서 인간 게놈에 있는 유전자 정보에 따른 특징을 지니게 된다. 고전유전학의 관심 분야인 부모로부터 물려받는 유전 형질이 자식에게 발현되는 것이나, 집단 내에서 대립형질의 발현과 같은 집단유전학적 연구, 인간 유전체의 기능과 역할을 탐구하는 유전체학, 인간의 출생과 성장을 살피는 발달유전학적 연구, 각 종 유전적 질병을 살피고 치료법을 찾는 의학유전학적 연구들은 각 학문들이 연구하는 과제의 해결책을 밝히고자 인간의 유전을 연구하고 있다. 유전자 다양성과 유전의 양상 다른 생물들과 같이 인간 역시 집단 내에서 돌연변이에 의한 다양한 대립형질을 갖는다. 예를 들어 인류는 멜라닌 형성에 관계되는 유전자들이 다양성을 띄기 때문에 집단마다 피부, 머리카락, 홍채 등의 색상이 다르다. 인간 염색체는 상염색체 22쌍과 성염색체 1쌍 그리고 미토콘드리아 DNA로 이루어져 있다. 이들 염색체는 각각의 종류에 따라 유전 방식이 다르다. 상염색체의 유전 상염색체의 동일한 위치에 놓인 유전형질인 대립형질에 우열관계가 있다면 자식 세대의 유전자 발현은 멘델의 유전법칙을 따른다. 서로 대립하는 유전 형질이 유전체에서 동일한 위치를 차지하면 우성 형질만이 발현되며 부모로부터 열성 형질만을 모두 물려받을 경우에만 열성 형질이 발현하는 것이다. 테이-삭스병은 열성 유전에 의한 유전병이고, 헌팅턴병의 경우엔 우성 유전한다. 한편, 피부색의 결정에 관여하는 유전자들은 뚜렷한 우열 관계가 없어 멘델의 유전법칙을 따르지는 않는다. 일반적으로 하나의 유전 형질의 발현에는 다양한 유전자가 관여하며 이 경우엔 보다 복잡한 유전자 발현을 보인다. 또한 유전 형질이 표현형으로 발현되는 데에는 다양한 환경 요인의 영향을 받는다. 인간의 유전자 발현에서 보이는 복잡성은 발생계 의학의 주요 관심사이기도 하다. 성염색체의 유전 인간의 성염색체는 X 염색체와 Y 염색체로 이루어져 있다. 성염색체의 쌍이 XX인 경우는 여성이 되고, XY인 경우는 남성이 된다. 즉 인간의 성별은 Y 염색체에 의해 결정된다. Y 염색체는 인간의 진화 과정에서 상당 부분이 소실되어 X 염색체에 비해 그 크기가 현저히 작고, 따라서 실제 작동하는 유전자의 수도 적다. 이런 유전체 축소 진화는 두 성염색체가 감수분열 과정에서 서로 분명히 구분되도록 한다. Y 염색체는 남성의 성징 발현과 깊은 관계가 있으며 근육, 키 등의 요인에도 작용한다. 반면 X 염색체에는 다양한 기능을 하는 유전자들이 훨씬 많이 담겨져 있다. X 염색체는 남녀 모두 지니고 있기 때문에 자식 세대는 부모 모두로부터 X 염색체를 받을 수 있다. 그러나 Y 염색체는 아버지에서 아들로 밖에 전달되지 않으므로 부계유전 양상을 띄게 된다. Y 염색체의 부계 유전을 추적하면 현생 인류의 남성 공통 조상 집단을 상정할 수 있다. 이를 Y염색체 아담이라고 한다. 미토콘드리아 DNA의 유전 미토콘드리아는 진핵생물이 갖는 세포소기관으로 핵과 독립된 별도의 미토콘드리아 DNA를 가지고 있다. 인간의 경우 세포 하나에는 수백 개의 미토콘드리아가 있으며, 미토콘드리아 DNA에 담긴 유전자는 37개이다. 린 마굴리스는 진화 과정의 어느 시점에서 별개의 생물인 미토콘드리아가 진핵 생물의 조상과 공생을 이루었다는 가설을 제시하였다. 인간과 같이 진핵생물이자 포유류에 속하는 생물들은 모계의 미토콘드리아만이 유전되고 부계의 것은 전달되지 않는다. 수정 과정에서 부계의 미토콘드리아는 사멸하기 때문이다. 미토콘드리아 DNA는 유전 과정에서 유전자 재조합을 겪지 않으며 모계 단일 계통으로 전달되기 때문에 계보의 추적과 비교가 쉽고 핵안의 유전체와 달리 크기가 작아 분석도 쉽다. 또한 미토콘드리아 DNA의 조절 부위 유전자에서 염기 치환이 자주 일어나 다른 부위에 비해 돌연변이 속도가 빠르다. 침팬지와 인간의 핵 염색체 차이는 약 1%에 불과하지만, 미토콘드리아 DNA 차이는 9%에 이른다. 비교적 빠른 시간 내의 변화를 관측할 수 있기 때문에 인류유전학은 미토콘드리아 DNA의 이러한 특성을 살려 다양한 방면의 연구에 활용하고 있다. 미토콘드리아 DNA의 조절 부위 돌연변이는 환경에 따른 진화 압력을 받지 않기 때문에 중립적 진화를 거치게 된다. 1987년 앨런 윌슨과 레베카 칸, 그리고 마크 스톤킹은 아프리카, 아시아, 오스트레일리아, 유럽, 뉴기니의 여성 147명의 태반에서 미토콘드리아 DNA를 추출하여 비교하였다. 그 결과 미토콘드리아 DNA의 다양성, 즉 돌연변이에 의한 차이는 아프리카 내의 집단에서 가장 크고 다른 집단에서는 적다는 것이 확인되었다. 이들은 이 결과를 바탕으로 현생 인류의 여성 공통 조상 집단 즉 미토콘드리아 이브가 아프리카에서 살았을 것이라는 가설을 제시하였다. 이는 고인류학의 아프리카 기원설을 강력하게 뒷받침하는 것이었다. 한편 스반테 페보의 연구팀이 네안데르탈인의 핵 염색체에서 현생 인류와 네안데르탈인 사이의 유전자 교환이 있었다는 증거를 찾아내어 구인류와 현생인류의 혼혈에 대한 연구를 촉발시키면서 현생 인류의 다지역 기원 가설 역시 계속하여 유지되고 있다. 연구 방법 인간 게놈 프로젝트의 완성으로 인류 유전자의 모든 부분이 공개되어 있다. 다양한 방면에서 인류유전학을 연구하는 연구자들은 이 게놈 데이터를 기준으로 목적하는 연구 대상 유전자를 비교할 수 있다. 또한 인간 염색체 상의 유전자 각각의 기능 역시 연구되고 있다. 가계도 분석 가계도 분석은 유전 형질의 분석을 위해 널리 쓰이는 방법이다. 친족 집단은 대부분 동일한 유전자를 공유하기 때문에 어떤 형질이 어떤 염색체와 연관되어 유전되는 지 추적할 수 있다. 예를 들어 혈우병은 X 염색체 위의 유전자와 연관되어 유전되는 성염색체 연관 유전 질환이다. 이러한 유전 형질 추적은 보다 큰 집단으로 확대되어 수형도를 작성할 수 있게 해 준다. 단순히 생각하면 한 명의 자식에게는 부모 둘이 있고, 그 부모도 각각 둘의 부모를 갖기 때문에 자식에겐 4명의 조부모, 8명의 증조부모, 16명의 고조부모를 갖게 된다. 즉 윗대로 올라갈수록 2의 제곱수만큼 조상이 불어나게 된다. 이렇게 되면 한 사람의 10대 위 조상은 모두 1,024 명이 되고 35대 조상은 34,359,738,368 명으로 343억명을 넘게 된다. 한 세대의 재생산 기간을 30년으로 잡을 경우 불과 1,050년 사이에 이런 일이 일어나야 하지만, 현실에서 전세계의 인구가 50억을 넘어선 것은 20세기의 일이다. 즉, 실제로는 어느 정도 규모의 집단 내에서 친연 관계에 있는 사람들끼리 혈연을 맺을 수 밖에 없다. 이 때문에 인류의 각 집단은 다른 집단과 구별되는 집단적 유전적 특징, 즉 유전자 풀을 지니게 된다. 실제 혈연 관계를 비교할 수 없을 때에는 유전체 사이의 차이를 비교한다. 미토콘드리아 DNA의 염기 서열에서 1 개가 서로 다른 집단은 2 개가 서로 다른 집단보다 분명 더 밀접한 관계에 있다고 분석할 수 있다. 이렇게 분석할 때 사람속의 인간은 고릴라속의 고릴라보다 침팬지속의 보노보와 더 높은 친연 관계를 지닌다. 유전자 분석 집단 안에서 인구수가 크게 줄어들면 대립형질 가운데 일부가 소실되어 특정 유전 형질만 고착되는 개체군 병목현상을 겪기도 한다. 현생 인류는 몇 차례의 병목현상을 겪은 것으로 보이며 약 10만년 전의 경우엔 전체 인구수가 1만명 이하일 정도로 심각한 경우도 있었다. 한편 새로운 환경에 놓이면 적응의 결과 집단 안에서 특정 유전자의 발현 비율이 급격히 올라가는 창시자 효과 역시 나타난다. 히말라야 산맥에 살고 있는 고산족 세르파는 저지대 사람들보다 탁월한 폐활량을 지녔으며, 과학자들은 이들만이 갖고 있는 변형된 유전자를 원인으로 지목하고 있다. 유전자 분석은 현재 진행되고 있는 인류의 진화를 포착할 수도 있다. 세르파의 높은 폐활량과 관련된 EPAS1 유전자는 1천년 전 무렵 일어난 돌연변이에 의한 것으로 이후 각지로 빠르게 전파되어 "세계에서 가장 빠르게 진화하는 유전자"라는 별명을 얻었다. 유전체 분석 집단 사이의 유전적 차이는 하나 하나의 유전자나 염색체뿐만 아니라 게놈 전체의 비교를 통해 확인할 수 있다. 인간 게놈 프로젝트 이후 세계 각지에서는 추가적인 유전체 분석을 통해 인류 집단 사이의 차이와 유인원과 같은 가까운 종 사이의 유전적 비교가 이루어지고 있다. 예를 들면 가장 가까운 종인 침팬지나 보노보와 달리 인간만이 다채로운 언어를 구사하는 유전학적 원인으로 인간 고유의 FOXP2 유전자가 지목되고 있다. 이 외에도 오랑우탄, 고릴라 등의 종들과 인류 사이의 유전체 비교가 진행되고 있다. 게놈 분석의 결과 사람과에 속하는 종들은 마지막 공통 조상으로부터 오랑우탄이 가장 먼저 갈라져 나왔고 그 뒤로 고릴라가 갈라져 나왔으며, 침팬지와 보노보의 공통조상과 사람속이 분리된 다음 침팬지와 보노보가 각기 다른 종으로 진화하고 사람 속의 여러 고인류들이 분화되었다는 것을 확인할 수 있다. 관련 주제 하플로그룹 상염색체나 성염색체 또는 미토콘드리아 DNA 모두 돌연변이의 결과가 유전되며 돌연변이가 거듭될 수록 그 결과도 누적된다. 따라서 인류는 서로 다른 독특한 대립형질을 갖는 유전자 풀을 공유하는 집단으로 구분된다. 이를 인류 하플로그룹이라고 한다. 인류 미토콘드리아 DNA 하플로그룹은 미토콘드리아 이브를 기점으로 분기된 모계 유전 계통수를 구성하며 인류의 아프리카 기원설을 지지하고 있다. 한편 인류 Y-염색체 DNA 하플로그룹은 부계 공통 조상인 Y염색체 아담을 기점으로 분기된 부계 유전 계통수를 구성하는데 그 기원과 기점에 대해서는 아직 여러 가설이 경쟁하고 있다. 인류 하플로그룹을 특정하고 이들을 비교하는 작업은 인류유전학의 핵심적 기반을 이룬다. 하플로그룹의 정의와 분류는 관련 연구 성과에 따라 해마다 업데이트되고 있다. 유전성 질환 유전성 질환은 유전자나 염색체에 생긴 돌연변이 때문에 발생하는 질환이다. 돌연변이는 한 번 일어나면 계속하여 자식 세대에 유전되기 때문에 가계도에 동일한 질병을 갖는 친족들이 놓이게 된다. 유전자 돌연변이에 의한 유전성 질환은 대개 유전자가 정상적인 형질 발현을 실현하지 못하기 때문에 발생한다. 적혈구의 모양이 낫처럼 변형되는 겸형 적혈구 빈혈증이나, 피부를 비롯한 신체 기관에서 멜라닌을 생성하지 못하는 백색증, 혈액 응고 인자의 이상으로 출혈이 멈추지 않는 혈우병과 같은 질환들이 있다. 염색체 돌연변이에 의한 유전성 질환은 감수분열 과정에서 염색체가 제대로 분할되지 않아 일어나는 질환이다. 삼염색체성의 경우가 널리 알려져 있다. 인간 염색체의 21번 염색체가 삼염색체성이 되면 다운 증후군을 보이게 되며, 성염색체의 경우도 XXX 증후군, XXY형이나 XXXY형을 띄게 되는 클라인펠터 증후군, X 염색체 하나만이 발현된 터너 증후군과 같은 질환들이 있다. 인류의 진화와 기원 DNA 분석 기법의 발달로 인류유전학적 연구는 인류의 진화와 기원을 밝히는데 큰 기여를 하고 있다. 인류의 기원은 한 때 미토콘드리아 이브의 발견 이후 아프리카 기원설이 거의 정설이 되었으나, 이후 네안데르탈인 게놈의 분석 결과 현생 인류와 네안데르탈인 사이의 혼혈이 확인되었고 알타이산맥에서 발견된 데니소바인의 유전체 분석으로 인류의 진화와 기원에 대한 연구는 이제 더욱 복잡한 양상으로 전개되고 있다. 네안데르탈인 게놈에서 기원한 유전자는 현생 인류의 전체 하플로그룹에서 최소 2% 이상 관찰되고 데니소바인에서 기원한 유전자는 아시아에서는 발견되지 않지만 멜라네시아 집단에서는 4% 정도 확인된다. 결국 현생 인류는 단일한 집단에서 연속하여 분기된 것이 아니라 최소 두 종 이상의 고인류와 혼혈을 거쳐 형성된 것이다. 유전자 감식 인간 유전자는 집단 사이의 차이와 마찬가지로 개인 사이에도 차이가 존재한다. 이를 비교하면 마치 지문을 비교하는 것처럼 특정 개인의 유전자를 감식할 수 있다. 인간 유전체의 특정 부위에 있는 염기서열의 짧은 반복구간은 개인마다 조금씩 다른 특징을 보이며 부모로부터 각기 50%씩 물려받는다. 또한 이러한 짧은 반목구간은 돌연변이 속도도 빨라 세대가 지날수록 달라지기 쉽다. 이렇게 수집된 특정 유전자 부위에 대한 특징을 DNA 프로파일로 구성하고 이를 비교하여 개인을 특정할 수 있다. 인간 게놈은 몹시 크기 때문에 전체를 분석하는데 많은 시간과 비용이 들지만, 충분한 숫자의 특정 구간만을 따로 때내어 분석하면 시간과 비용을 절약할 수 있다. 이렇게 짧은 구간 반복이 일어나는 특정 부위만을 분석하는 것을 STR 분석이라고 한다. 개인을 특정하는 유전자 감식은 대부분 STR 분석으로 이루어지고 있다. 유전자 감식은 각종 사건 사고의 신원확인, 실종자 확인과 같은 수사에 이용되며 전쟁이나 학살과 같은 오래된 역사적 사건의 유해 감식에도 쓰인다. 관련 학문 유전체학 - 인간 게놈을 연구한다. 의학유전학 - 인간의 유전성 질환을 연구한다. 집단유전학 - 집단간의 유전적 친연성과 차이를 연구한다. 유전자인류학 - 유전체 비교를 통해 인류 집단 사이의 친연 관계를 연구하고 인류의 기원과 이주 경로를 추적한다. 인류 진화유전학 - 유전체 연구를 통해 인류의 진화 경로를 추적한다. 발달유전학 - 인간의 발생과 생장에 작용하는 유전체를 연구한다. 같이 보기 유전학 유전체 인간 게놈 네안데르탈인 게놈 멘델의 법칙을 따르는 유전성 질환 목록 각주 참조주 내용주 참고 문헌 K. 메데페셀헤르만, 권세훈 역, 《화학으로 이루어진 세상》, 에코리브르, 2007년, 예병일, 《내 몸안의 과학 - 탄생에서 유전자 조작까지 몸지도를 그리다》, 효형출판, 하인리히 창클, 박승재 역, 《지능적 유전자》, 프로네시스, 2007년, 김용환, 《인류 진화의 오딧세이》, 가람기획, 2003년, 스반테 페보, 김명주 역, 《잃어버린 게놈을 찾아서》, 부키, 2015년, 외부 링크 Human Genome Project How many Genes do humans have? MITOMAP A human mitochondrial genome database

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20genetics

Human genetics

Human genetics is the study of inheritance as it occurs in human beings. Human genetics encompasses a variety of overlapping fields including: classical genetics, cytogenetics, molecular genetics, biochemical genetics, genomics, population genetics, developmental genetics, clinical genetics, and genetic counseling. Genes are the common factor of the qualities of most human-inherited traits. Study of human genetics can answer questions about human nature, can help understand diseases and the development of effective treatment and help us to understand the genetics of human life. This article describes only basic features of human genetics; for the genetics of disorders please see: medical genetics. Genetic differences and inheritance patterns Inheritance of traits for humans are based upon Gregor Mendel's model of inheritance. Mendel deduced that inheritance depends upon discrete units of inheritance, called factors or genes. Autosomal dominant inheritance Autosomal traits are associated with a single gene on an autosome (non-sex chromosome)—they are called "dominant" because a single copy—inherited from either parent—is enough to cause this trait to appear. This often means that one of the parents must also have the same trait, unless it has arisen due to an unlikely new mutation. Examples of autosomal dominant traits and disorders are Huntington's disease and achondroplasia. Autosomal recessive inheritance Autosomal recessive traits is one pattern of inheritance for a trait, disease, or disorder to be passed on through families. For a recessive trait or disease to be displayed two copies of the trait or disorder needs to be presented. The trait or gene will be located on a non-sex chromosome. Because it takes two copies of a trait to display a trait, many people can unknowingly be carriers of a disease. From an evolutionary perspective, a recessive disease or trait can remain hidden for several generations before displaying the phenotype. Examples of autosomal recessive disorders are albinism, cystic fibrosis. X-linked and Y-linked inheritance X-linked genes are found on the sex X chromosome. X-linked genes just like autosomal genes have both dominant and recessive types. Recessive X-linked disorders are rarely seen in females and usually only affect males. This is because males inherit their X chromosome and all X-linked genes will be inherited from the maternal side. Fathers only pass on their Y chromosome to their sons, so no X-linked traits will be inherited from father to son. Men cannot be carriers for recessive X linked traits, as they only have one X chromosome, so any X linked trait inherited from the mother will show up. Females express X-linked disorders when they are homozygous for the disorder and become carriers when they are heterozygous. X-linked dominant inheritance will show the same phenotype as a heterozygote and homozygote. Just like X-linked inheritance, there will be a lack of male-to-male inheritance, which makes it distinguishable from autosomal traits. One example of an X-linked trait is Coffin–Lowry syndrome, which is caused by a mutation in ribosomal protein gene. This mutation results in skeletal, craniofacial abnormalities, mental retardation, and short stature. X chromosomes in females undergo a process known as X inactivation. X inactivation is when one of the two X chromosomes in females is almost completely inactivated. It is important that this process occurs otherwise a woman would produce twice the amount of normal X chromosome proteins. The mechanism for X inactivation will occur during the embryonic stage. For people with disorders like trisomy X, where the genotype has three X chromosomes, X-inactivation will inactivate all X chromosomes until there is only one X chromosome active. Males with Klinefelter syndrome, who have an extra X chromosome, will also undergo X inactivation to have only one completely active X chromosome. Y-linked inheritance occurs when a gene, trait, or disorder is transferred through the Y chromosome. Since Y chromosomes can only be found in males, Y linked traits are only passed on from father to son. The testis determining factor, which is located on the Y chromosome, determines the maleness of individuals. Besides the maleness inherited in the Y-chromosome there are no other found Y-linked characteristics. Pedigrees analysis A pedigree is a diagram showing the ancestral relationships and transmission of genetic traits over several generations in a family. Square symbols are almost always used to represent males, whilst circles are used for females. Pedigrees are used to help detect many different genetic diseases. A pedigree can also be used to help determine the chances for a parent to produce an offspring with a specific trait. Four different traits can be identified by pedigree chart analysis: autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, x-linked, or y-linked. Partial penetrance can be shown and calculated from pedigrees. Penetrance is the percentage expressed frequency with which individuals of a given genotype manifest at least some degree of a specific mutant phenotype associated with a trait. Inbreeding, or mating between closely related organisms, can clearly be seen on pedigree charts. Pedigree charts of royal families often have a high degree of inbreeding, because it was customary and preferable for royalty to marry another member of royalty. Genetic counselors commonly use pedigrees to help couples determine if the parents will be able to produce healthy children. Karyotype A karyotype is a very useful tool in cytogenetics. A karyotype is picture of all the chromosomes in the metaphase stage arranged according to length and centromere position. A karyotype can also be useful in clinical genetics, due to its ability to diagnose genetic disorders. On a normal karyotype, aneuploidy can be detected by clearly being able to observe any missing or extra chromosomes. Giemsa banding, g-banding, of the karyotype can be used to detect deletions, insertions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. G-banding will stain the chromosomes with light and dark bands unique to each chromosome. A FISH, fluorescent in situ hybridization, can be used to observe deletions, insertions, and translocations. FISH uses fluorescent probes to bind to specific sequences of the chromosomes that will cause the chromosomes to fluoresce a unique color. Genomics Genomics is the field of genetics concerned with structural and functional studies of the genome. A genome is all the DNA contained within an organism or a cell including nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. The human genome is the total collection of genes in a human being contained in the human chromosome, composed of over three billion nucleotides. In April 2003, the Human Genome Project was able to sequence all the DNA in the human genome, and to discover that the human genome was composed of around 20,000 protein coding genes. Medical genetics Medical genetics is the branch of medicine that involves the diagnosis and management of hereditary disorders. Medical genetics is the application of genetics to medical care. It overlaps human genetics, for example, research on the causes and inheritance of genetic disorders would be considered within both human genetics and medical genetics, while the diagnosis, management, and counseling of individuals with genetic disorders would be considered part of medical genetics. Population genetics Population genetics is the branch of evolutionary biology responsible for investigating processes that cause changes in allele and genotype frequencies in populations based upon Mendelian inheritance. Four different forces can influence the frequencies: natural selection, mutation, gene flow (migration), and genetic drift. A population can be defined as a group of interbreeding individuals and their offspring. For human genetics the populations will consist only of the human species. The Hardy–Weinberg principle is a widely used principle to determine allelic and genotype frequencies. Mitochondrial DNA In addition to nuclear DNA, humans (like almost all eukaryotes) have mitochondrial DNA. Mitochondria, the "power houses" of a cell, have their own DNA. Mitochondria are inherited from one's mother, and their DNA is frequently used to trace maternal lines of descent (see mitochondrial Eve). Mitochondrial DNA is only 16kb in length and encodes for 62 genes. Genes and sex The XY sex-determination system is the sex-determination system found in humans, most other mammals, some insects (Drosophila), and some plants (Ginkgo). In this system, the sex of an individual is determined by a pair of sex chromosomes (gonosomes). Females have two of the same kind of sex chromosome (XX), and are called the homogametic sex. Males have two distinct sex chromosomes (XY), and are called the heterogametic sex. X-linked traits Sex linkage is the phenotypic expression of an allele related to the chromosomal sex of the individual. This mode of inheritance is in contrast to the inheritance of traits on autosomal chromosomes, where both sexes have the same probability of inheritance. Since humans have many more genes on the X than the Y, there are many more X-linked traits than Y-linked traits. However, females carry two or more copies of the X chromosome, resulting in a potentially toxic dose of X-linked genes. To correct this imbalance, mammalian females have evolved a unique mechanism of dosage compensation. In particular, by way of the process called X-chromosome inactivation (XCI), female mammals transcriptionally silence one of their two Xs in a complex and highly coordinated manner. Human traits with possible monogenic or oligogenic inheritance patterns Disabling conditions Genetic Chromosomal See also Human evolutionary genetics Human genome List of Mendelian traits in humans Johns Hopkins Human Genetics Program References Further reading * External links Human Genome Project How many Genes do humans have? Human Genetics Video (website critique) MITOMAP A human mitochondrial genome database

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%88%ED%99%9C%EC%9A%A9

새활용

새활용(-活用) 또는 업사이클()은 부산물, 폐자재와 같은 쓸모 없거나 버려지는 물건을 새롭게 디자인해 예술적·환경적 가치가 높은 물건으로 재탄생시키는 재활용 방식이다. 새활용(영: Upcyling)이란 리너 필츠(Reiner Pilz)가 처음 언급하여 탄생한 단어로, 영단어 'Upgrade'와 ‘Recycling’을 합친 것이다. 한국어 "새활용"은 이미 있던 것이 아니라, "처음 마련하거나 다시 생겨난"이라는 뜻의 관형사 "새"와 "재활용"의 "활용"을 합친 말로, 2012년 8월 22일 국립국어원 제8차 말다듬기위원회 회의에서 "업사이클"의 순화어로 제시되었다. 특정 용도로서의 수명을 다해 버려지는 제품을 단순히 재활용(recyling)하는 것을 넘어, 기존의 형태나 역할을 가져가되, 새로운 디자인을 더하는 등의 과정을 거쳐 새로운 용도의 제품으로 만드는 것. 즉, 역할을 다한 폐품을 해체하지 않고 잘 활용하여 기존의 제품보다 더 발전한 제품으로 새롭게 탄생시키는 과정이다. 원제품의 재료를 완전히 변형시켜 사용하는 다운사이클링(downcycling)과는 차이가 있다. 폐품을 다시 활용하는 방법은 크게 두 가지로 나뉘는데, 하나는 ‘재사용(re-use)’이며 다른 하나는 ‘재활용(re-cycling)’이다. 재사용과 재활용 도중 제품의 품질이 저하될 경우, 이는 ‘다운사이클링(downcycling)’으로 불리게 된다. 그 중 재활용은 그 과정 중에 이산화탄소 발생을 유발하는 에너지를 필요로 하여 환경오염을 유발해왔다. 그래서 필요한 것이 재활용에서 한 단계 발전된 형태인 업사이클링이다. 역사 업사이클링(upcycling)과 다운사이클링(downcycling)이라는 용어는 손튼 케이(Thornton Kay)가 라이너 필즈(Riner Pilz)를 인용하여, 1994년 살보뉴스의 기사에서 처음 사용되었다. 2009년, 로이터의 Belinda Smith는 부유한 국가에서 업사이클링이 증가했지만 가난한 국가에서는 업사이클링이 필수적이라고 말했다.환경 친화적인 업사이클링 관행을 지지하는 사람들은 오래된 포장재와 의류를 새로운 방법으로 사용하면서 수년간 효과적으로 업사이클링을 해왔다고 말한다. 그러나 업사이클링은 현재 다른 나라들, 특히 저렴한 가격에 생산자들에게 이익이 되는 친환경 제품에 대한 관심이 증가하고 있다는 것을 반영하여 여러 나라에서 시작되고 있다. 폐기된 포장의 새로운 용도를 찾는 것에 전문화된 미국 기업인 테라 사이클의 대변인인 Albe Zakes에 따르면, 업사이클링이 주류가 된다면 기업 세계는 그것이 이익이 될 수 있다는 것을 볼 필요가 있다. 아직 업계 전반의 수치가 나오지 않은 상황에서 아직 초기 단계임에도 업사이클링에 집중하는 기업이 늘고 있다.업사이클링은 미국과 전 세계에 걸쳐 상당한 성장을 보여 왔다. 예를 들어, Etsy, Pinterest 또는 Upcycle Studio에서 "업사이클링"이라는 단어가 표시된 제품 수가 2010년 1월 약 7,900개에서 1년 후 거의 30,000개로 증가했다. 폐기물을 수거해 재활용하는 데 그치는 것으로는 생활쓰레기를 감당하지 못한다는 자각이 일어나면서 새활용이 대안으로 제시되었다. 외국에서는 새로운 소비 트렌드로 자리 잡은 지 오래되었다. 런던디자인페스티벌은 2012년 업사이클링을 '올해의 트렌드'로 꼽았다. 업사이클링을 통해 명품 반열에 오른 경우도 있다. 1993년부터 트럭용 방수 천막이나 에어백, 자동차 안전벨트 등을 재활용해서 가방을 만들고 있는 스위스 브랜드 '프라이탁', 업사이클링을 통해 가구 업계의 명품으로 떠오른 '리바 1920', '박스터' 등이 그런 경우다. 활용 사례 예술 주류 미술에서 발견된 물건(objet trové)을 재사용하는 전통은 민속 예술에서 오랫동안 사용된 방식이기는 했지만, 20세기 성숙기를 겪으며 더욱 발전했다. 예를 들어 아미쉬 퀼트는 인양된 천을 재사용한 것이다. 로스앤젤레스에 있는 사이먼 로디아의 와츠 타워(1921–1954)는 고철, 도자기, 깨진 유리의 거대한 재활용의 대표적 예이며, 이는 와츠 스카이라인에서 30미터가 넘는 가장 높은 17개의 구조물로 구성되어 있다. 음악 파라과이의 카테우라 재활용 오케스트라가 업사이클링이 음악에 적용된 대표적 사례이다. 오케스트라의 악기는 아순콘의 매립지에서 가져온 재료로 만들어졌으며, 아순콘의 이름은 이 지역의 카테우라 라군(Cateura lagoon)에서 유래했다. 이것에 관한 실제 이야기가 영화 Landfill Harmonic에서 표현되었다. 산업 플라스틱 및 전자 제조와 같은 많은 산업 공정은 유한한 자원의 소비에 의존한다. 또한 폐기물은 환경에 악영향을 미칠 수 있으며 인간의 건강에 영향을 미칠 수 있다. 이러한 맥락에서 새활용은 폐기물 또는 부산물에서 더 높은 가치를 지닌 제품을 만들어 폐기물과 자원 소비를 줄이기 위해 사용 가능한 미래 기술의 사용을 설명한다. 소비자 가전에서 중고 제품의 재 제조 또는 리퍼브 프로세스는 새로운 제조에 비해 에너지 및 재료 소비가 감소하기 때문에 업 사이클링으로 볼 수 있다. 재생산된 제품은 폐기하거나 재활용하는 것보다 가치가 더 높다. 양조 공정에서 나오는 폐기물을 바이오가스 공정의 기판으로 사용함으로써 폐기할 필요가 없어지고 전체 양조 공정에 상당한 이익을 창출할 수 있다. 기판 가격에 따라 운영비의 약 20%의 이익이 가능하다. 이 과정에서 바이오가스 공장은 "업사이클러" 역할을 한다. 의류 디자이너들은 산업 섬유 폐기물과 기존 의류를 모두 새로운 패션을 만드는 기본 재료로 사용하기 시작했다. 업사이클링은 소비 이전 또는 소비 이후 폐기물을 사용하거나 둘의 조합을 사용하는 것으로 알려져 있다. 소비 이전 폐기물은 공장에서 패턴을 도려내고 남은 원단 잔해와 같이 만들어진다. 소비 이후 폐기물은 기증받은 옷과 같이 주인에게 더 이상 유용하지 않을 때 완성된 제품을 말한다. 종종, 사람들은 사고, 사용하고, 버리는 것에 만족하는 선형 경제를 실행한다. 이 시스템은 수백만 킬로그램의 섬유 폐기물이 버려지는 데 기여한다. 생산되는 대부분의 섬유는 재활용이 가능하지만, 미국에서만 약 85%가 토지 매각으로 귀결된다. 지속 가능한 삶을 살기 위해서는 패스트패션에 의해 장려되는 "버리는" 태도와는 반대되는 의복 선택이 필요하다. 새활용(upcycling)은 이것을 도와 줄 수 있는데, 그것은 그것이 더 순환적인 경제 모델을 실행에 옮기기 때문이다. 순환 경제(Circular Economy)는 리소스를 최대한 오래 사용하여 사용 중에 최대한 많은 가치를 창출한 다음, 사용이 끝나면 복원하고 용도 변경하는 것을 말한다. 맥도너와 브라웅가트에 의해 대중화된 이것은 요람 대 요람 원리로도 알려져 있다. 이 원리는 제품이 여러 수명 주기를 가지거나 생분해되도록 설계되어야 한다고 말한다. 식품 전세계적으로 매년 수십억 파운드의 음식이 낭비되고 있지만, 사람들이 음식을 재사용하고 업사이클을 할 수 있는 방법이 있다. 한 가지 일반적인 방법은 동물들에게 먹이로 주는 것인데, 돼지와 같은 많은 동물들이 주어진 음식물을 모두 먹을 것이기 때문이다. 음식물 쓰레기는 기부될 수 있고 식당들은 고객들이 먹지 않는 모든 음식을 절약할 수 있다. 지역 농업진흥청에 문의해 음식물쓰레기를 어디서 기부해야 하는지, 얼마나 자주 얼마를 기부할 수 있는지 등을 알아보는 것도 기부를 할 수 있다. 또 다른 형태의 업사이클링 음식은 그것을 분해해서 에너지로 사용하는 것이다. 기술자들은 음식을 압력으로 조리하여 재사용 가능한 바이오 연료로 분해한 다음 전기와 열을 생산하는 데 사용될 수 있는 잔해로 메탄을 만들 수 있는 방법을 발견했다. 음식을 그런 식으로 활용하지 않을 때, 다른 방법은 그냥 분해해서 퇴비로 사용하는 것이다. 그러면 토양이 개선될 것이다. 과일, 야채, 달걀 껍질, 견과류, 그리고 견과류 껍질과 같은 많은 종류의 음식물 쓰레기는 토양을 풍부하게 하기 위해 퇴비로 사용될 수 있다. 공간 공간 또한 새활용이 가능하다. 버려질 컨테이너를 활용해 카페나 편집숍을 만들기도 하고, 공사를 하면서 버려지는 목재나 팔레트를 활용해 인테리어 소품으로 태어나기도 한다. 물류창고를 새활용 하여 호텔로 재탄생 시키기도 하는데, 바로 서울시 중구에 있는 '스몰하우스 빅도어'이다. 이곳은 54년된 물류창고를 허물지 않고 개성을 살려 인테리어를 하여 천장은 창고 본연의 모습이 느껴지는 것이 특징이다. 디자인 과정 도시에서는 매일 수 톤의 폐기물이 생산되고 있으며, 일부 교육자들, 특히 젊은이들이 시민들의 인식을 높이기 위해 노력하고 있다. 이전에 쓰레기로 국한되었던 재활용의 개념을 재정의하기 위해 젊은 디자이너들은 폐비닐 봉지로 만든 배낭과 가죽을 재사용하여 만든 지역 양탄자와 같은 제품처럼 "쓰레기"를 잠재적으로 시장성이 있는 상품으로 바꾸려고 시도했다. 2010년 홍콩의 커뮤니티 뮤지엄 프로젝트가 출판한 관련 서적 중 하나는 업사이클링 시스템 설계에 대한 최초의 실험이었다. 자재 수집, 업사이클링 설계, 지역 생산 및 공공 보급에 걸쳐, 폐기물 처리 및 에너지 절약 전략에 영향을 미칠 지속 가능한 시스템에 대한 제안을 제공한다. 홍콩 현지 발명가 게리 찬은 폐자재를 자전거 부품으로 활용해 '업사이클링' 자전거를 디자인하고 만드는데 적극 참여하고 있다. 그는 폐기물을 대부분의 재료로 사용하여 적어도 8대의 자전거를 발명했다. Wheel Thing Maker의 Gary와 그의 파트너들은 정기적으로 소파에서 가죽 피부, 옷장의 단단한 나무판 또는 거리의 폐기물 수집소에 있는 차량 수리점에서 나오는 고무 타이어와 같은 유용한 폐기물을 수집한다. 방수 기능이 있는 트럭 덮개천과 안전벨트와 같은 산업 폐기물을 이용해 가방으로 새활용하여 가방마다 고유한 디자인을 만들어낸 브랜드 프라이탁 또한 새활용의 대표적 예시로 볼 수 있다. 국내에서의 새활용 국내에선 해외보단 다소 늦게 새활용에 대한 인식이 잡히기 시작하였다. 2000년대 후반 몇몇 디자이너 그룹과 환경 운동가들을 중심으로 시작되었으며 2014년 기준 국내 새활용 시장은 약 25억원 수준으로, 다소 낮은 수치를 보인다. 그러나 한국업사이클디자인협회에 따르면 국내 업사이클 기업 수는 2008년 3개에서 2017년 9월 약 150개로 집계돼 10년 새 50배 이상 증가하는 등 가파른 성장세를 보이고 있으며, 2016년 '업사이클링'이 트렌드 키워드로 뽑히며 새활용 문화가 빠르게 자리를 잡고 있다. 2015년 국내 최초 업사이클센터인 광명업사이클아트센터가 경기 광명시에 문을 열었다. 문화체육관광부의 '폐산업시설 문화재생사업' 공모에 광명시가 선정돼 광명시자원회수시설 홍보동으로 쓰이던 건물을 리모델링하여 2015년 6월 12일 개관했다. 2017년 서울새활용플라자가 건립되었으며, 이외에도 대구 한국업사이클센터, 인천 업사이클에코센터, 경기도업사이클플라자, 순천업사이클센터 더새롬, 청주새활용시민센터 등 전국적으로 10여개의 업사이클 관련 센터가 만들어졌거나 만들어질 예정이다. 법제도적 측면에서는 2021년 4월 개정된 '환경기술 및 환경산업 지원법(약칭: 환경기술산업법)' 제2조 3항에 처음으로 새활용 산업의 법적 개념이 명시되며, 새활용 기업을 지원할 수 있는 법적 근거가 마련되었다. 같이 보기 다운사이클 서울새활용플라자 광명업사이클아트센터 사전 재활용 각주 공예 재사용 재활용 환경과 사회 문화와 환경

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upcycling

Upcycling

Upcycling, also known as creative reuse, is the process of transforming by-products, waste materials, useless, or unwanted products into new materials or products perceived to be of greater quality, such as artistic value or environmental value. Description Upcycling is the opposite of downcycling, which is the other part of the recycling process. Downcycling involves converting materials and products into new materials, sometimes of lesser quality. Most recycling involves converting or extracting useful materials from a product and creating a different product or material. The terms upcycling and downcycling were first used in print in an article in SalvoNEWS by Thornton Kay quoting Reiner Pilz and published in 1994. Upsizing was the title of the German edition of a book about upcycling first published in English in 1998 by Gunter Pauli and given the revised title of Upcycling in 1999. The German edition was adapted to the German language and culture by Johannes F. Hartkemeyer, then Director of the Volkshochschule in Osnabrück. The concept was later incorporated by William McDonough and Michael Braungart in their 2002 book Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things. They state that the goal of upcycling is to prevent wasting potentially useful materials by making use of existing ones. This reduces the consumption of new raw materials when creating new products. Reducing the use of new raw materials can result in a reduction of energy usage, air pollution, water pollution and even greenhouse gas emissions. This is a significant step towards regenerative design culture where the end products are cleaner, healthier, and usually have a better value than the material inputs. For example, during the recycling process of plastics other than those used to create bottles, many different types of plastics are mixed, resulting in a hybrid. This hybrid is used in the manufacturing of plastic lumber applications. However, unlike the engineered polymer ABS which hold properties of several plastics well, recycled plastics suffer phase-separation that causes structural weakness in the final product. In 2009, Belinda Smith from Reuters wrote that upcycling had increased in the rich countries but observed that upcycling was a necessity in poorer ones: Supporters of the environmentally friendly practice of upcycling say people in developing countries have effectively been upcycling for years, using old packaging and clothing in new ways, although more out of need than for the environment. But upcycling is now taking off in other countries, reflecting an increased interest in eco-friendly products, particularly ones that are priced at an affordable level and proving profitable for the manufacturers. "If upcycling is going to become mainstream, then the corporate world needs to see that it can be profitable," said Albe Zakes, spokesman of U.S. company TerraCycle which specializes in finding new uses for discarded packaging. A growing number of companies are focusing on upcycling although the trend is still in its infancy with industry-wide figures yet to be produced. Upcycling has shown significant growth across the United States and the World. For example, the number of products on Etsy, Pinterest or Upcycle Studio tagged with the word "upcycled" increased from about 7,900 in January 2010 to nearly 30,000 a year later . , that number stood at 263,685. Material downcycling occurs when it is either not possible or uneconomic to restore materials to their original quality, for example, when wrought aluminium alloys are melted to produce lower-grade casting alloys. Material upcycling, in the thermodynamic sense, is only possible if even more energy is added to upgrade the material quality. Two guiding questions to ask when assessing recovering for waste materials or products are: How much energy is required to restore the recovered material back to the desired material or product?, and, How does this quantity compare with obtaining the desired material or product from virgin or primary sources? In some cases, little energy is required to reuse a discarded product, for example, secondhand clothing. In other cases, the energy required to recover the materials is more than the energy required to process virgin material. Recyling and Upcycling While recycling usually means the materials are remade into their original form, e.g., recycling plastic bottles into plastic polymers, which then produce plastic bottles through the manufacturing process, upcycling adds more value to the materials, as the name suggested. According to Watson & Wolfe "Upcycling, also known as creative reuse, is the process of transforming by-products, waste materials, useless, or unwanted products into new materials or products perceived to be of greater quality, such as artistic value or environmental value." Similarly, recycle art may refer to art pieces using used materials in their original form while upcycle art may involve a transformation process such as breaking down, reforming, reassembling, and the like. A common concept in Recycling is the 3Rs, which represent Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. According to "The Upcycle Artist's Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Creating Art from Waste" published by Upcycle Art And Craft Society (UAACS). They coined a 3Rs principle for upcycling: Rethink, Reform, and Reborn. "Rethink" involves reevaluating something and looking at an item from a new perspective. It means seeing the potential for repurposing, giving it a new function, or exploring other creative possibilities for that material. "Reform" involves physically altering the item, either by dismantling it, combining it with other materials, or using different techniques to change its form. This transformation of existing materials creates a new structure that better suits the artist's creative vision. "Reborn" is the final outcome when the upcycled item is given new life or purpose. It's like a resurrection of cast-offs that are given a second life" Applications Art Upcycle Art or sometimes known as Recycled Art or Recycl’Art is the transformation of waste or used materials and objects into art pieces. The tradition of reusing found objects (objet trouvé) in mainstream art came of age sporadically through the 20th century, although it has long been a means of production in folk art. The Amish quilt, for example, came about through reapplication of salvaged fabric. Simon Rodia's Watts Towers (1921–1954) in Los Angeles exemplifies upcycling of scrap metal, pottery and broken glass on a grand scale; it consists of 17 structures, the tallest reaching over 30 meters into the Watts skyline. Intellectually, upcycling bears some resemblance to the ready-made art of Marcel Duchamp and the Dadaists. Duchamp's "Bicycle Wheel" (1913), a front wheel and fork attached to a common stool, is among the earliest of these works, while "Fountain" (1917), a common urinal purchased at a hardware store, is arguably his best-known work. Pablo Picasso's "Bull's Head" (1942), a sculpture made from a discarded bicycle saddle and handlebars, is the Spanish painter's sly nod to the Dadaists. Throughout the mid-century, the artist Joseph Cornell fabricated collages and boxed assemblage works from old books, found objects and ephemera. Robert Rauschenberg collected trash and disused objects, first in Morocco and later on the streets of New York, to incorporate into his art works. The idea of consciously raising the inherent value of recycled objects as a political statement, however, rather than presenting recycled objects as a reflection or outcome from the means of production, is largely a late 20th-century concept. Romuald Hazoumé, an artist from the West African Bénin, was heralded in 2007 for his use of discarded plastic gasoline and fuel canisters to resemble traditional African masks at Documenta 12 in Kassel, Germany. Hazoumé has said of these works, "I send back to the West that which belongs to them, that is to say, the refuse of consumer society that invades us every day." Jeff Wassmann, an American artist who has lived in Australia for the past 25 years, uses items found on beaches and junk stores in his travels to create the early Modern works of a fictional German relative, Johann Dieter Wassmann (1841–1898). In Vorwarts (Go Forward) (pictured), Wassmann uses four simple objects to depict a vision of modern man on the precarious eave of the 20th century: an early optometry chart as background, a clock spring as eye, a 19th-century Chinese bone opium spoon from the Australian gold fields as nose and an upper set of dentures found on an Australian beach as mouth. Wassmann is unusual among artists in that he does not sell his work, rather they are presented as gifts; by not allowing these works to re-enter the consumer cycle, he averts the commodification of his end product. Max Zorn is a Dutch tape artist who creates artwork from ordinary brown packaging tape and hangs pieces on street lamps as a new form of street art at night. By adding and subtracting layers of tape on acrylic glass with a surgical scalpel, the artwork can only be visible when light is placed behind it, mimicking the effects similar to stained glass window methods. His technique with pioneering upcycling with street art has been featured at Frei-Cycle 2013, the first design fair for recycling and upcycling in Freiburg, Germany. Music A prominent example is the Recycled Orchestra of Cateura in Paraguay. The instruments of the orchestra are made from materials taken from the landfill of Asunción, whose name comes from the Cateura lagoon in the area. A limited part of its real history is narrated in the film Landfill Harmonic. Industry Many industrial processes, like plastic, paint, and electronic fabrication, rely on the consumption of finite resources. Furthermore, the waste may have an environmental impact and can affect human health. Within this context, upcycling describes the use of available and future technologies to reduce waste and resource consumption by creating a product with a higher value from waste or byproduct streams. In consumer electronics, the process of re-manufacturing or refurbishment of second-hand products can be seen as upcycling because of the reduced energy and material consumption in contrast to new manufacturing. The re-manufactured product has a higher value than disposing or downcycling it. The use of Brewer's spent grain, a waste product of brewing processes, as a substrate in biogas processes eliminates the need for disposal and can generate significant profit to the overall brewing process. Depending on the substrate's price, a profit of approximately 20% of the operational costs is possible. In this process, the biogas plant acts as an "upcycler". Clothes Designers have begun to use both industrial textile waste and existing clothing like as the base material for creating new fashions. Upcycling has been known to use either pre-consumer or post-consumer waste or possibly a combination of the two. Pre-consumer waste is made while in the factory, such as fabric remnants left over from cutting out patterns. Post-consumer waste refers to the finished product when it’s no longer useful to the owner, such as donated clothes. Textile upcycling has an official certification process called UPMADE®. Fashion designers such as Ksenia Schnaider and Reet Aus have applied upcycling philosophy by designing entire collections from scraps. With the rising popularity of upcycling, several lawsuits have been filed by luxury trademark owners against parties that sell upcycled versions of their products featuring logos or other protected trademarks. In February 2021, Chanel filed a lawsuit for trademark infringement and unfair competition against Shiver + Duke, a jewelry company that repurposed authentic Chanel buttons without Chanel's knowledge or consent. The lawsuit alleged that Shiver + Duke's use of the buttons created customer confusion and was a materially different use from the original intended use. Similarly, Louis Vuitton accused Sandra Ling Designs, Inc. (SLD) for creating and selling apparel, handbags, and accessories made from authentic pre-owned Louis Vuitton goods. Louis Vuitton argued that the modified products failed to meet their quality standards and consumers would likely mistakenly believe that the items originated from the luxury brand. SLD argued that disclaimers were present on each upcycled product to prevent confusion. Ultimately, the parties reached a settlement, with SLD agreeing to pay a fine and withdraw all counterclaims. Often, people practice linear economy where they are content to buy, use, then throw away. This system contributes to millions of kilos of textile waste being thrown away. While most textiles produced are recyclable, around 85% end-up in landfills in the USA alone. To live a sustainable life, clothing options opposite to the "throw away" attitude encouraged by fast fashion are needed. Upcycling can help with this, as it puts into practice a more circular economy model. A Circular Economy is where resources are used for as long as possible, getting the most value out of them while in use, then restored and repurposed when their use is over. Popularized by McDonough and Braungart, this has also been known as the cradle-to-cradle principle. This principle states a product should be designed either to have multiple life cycles or be biodegradable. Food Billions of pounds of food are wasted every year around the world, but there are ways that people reuse food and find a way to upcycle. One common method is to feed it to animals because many animals, such as pigs, will eat all the scraps given. Approximately, 30% of the food livestock consumes, in total, comes from food waste in the supply chain, or crops that are grown and processed. Food waste can be donated and restaurants can save all the food customers don't eat. Donations can also be made by contacting local agricultural extension offices to find out where to donate food waste and how often and how much one can donate. Another form of upcycling food is to break it down and use it as energy. Engineers have found a way to break the food down into a reusable bio-fuel by pressure cooking it and then they are able to make methane out of the remains which can be used to produce electricity and heat. When the food isn't used in those ways, another way is to just break it down and use it in compost, which will improve the soil. Many types of food waste, such as fruits, vegetables, egg shells, nuts, and nut shells, can be used in compost to enrich soil. A 2019-founded non-profit, The Upcycled Food Association, established certification standards and a logo that allows consumers to be confident of the upcycled food being consumed. Whole Foods named upcycling one of the ten food trends of 2021. Design processes Tonnes of wastes are produced every day in our cities, and some educators are attempting to raise citizens' awareness, especially the youth. To redefine the concept of recycling previously confined to trash categorization, groups of young designers have attempted to transform "trash" into potentially marketable products such as backpacks made of waste plastic bags and area rugs created by reusing hides. One relevant book published by Community Museum Project in Hong Kong in 2010, was the first experiment on upcycling systems design. Spanning across material collecting, upcycling design, local production and public dissemination, it provides proposals towards a sustainable system that will cast impact on our strategies of waste handling and energy saving. Hong Kong local inventor Gary Chan is actively involved in designing and making 'upcycling' bikes by making use of waste materials as parts for his bikes. He invented at least 8 bikes using wastes as a majority of the materials. Gary and his partners at Wheel Thing Makers regularly collect useful wastes such as leather skin from sofas, hardwood plates of wardrobes, or rubber tires from vehicle repair stores in the waste collection station on streets. Potential technologies The worldwide plastic production was 280 million tons in 2011 and production levels are growing every year. Its haphazard disposal causes severe environmental damage, such as the creation of the Great Pacific garbage patch. In 2018, global annual plastic consumption grew to over 320 million tons. In order to solve this problem, the employment of modern technologies and processes to reuse the waste plastic as a cheap substrate is under research. The goal is to bring this material from the waste stream back into the mainstream by developing processes, which will create an economic demand for them. One approach in the field involves the conversion of waste plastics (like LDPE, PET, and HDPE) into paramagnetic, conducting microspheres or into carbon nano-materials by applying high temperatures and chemical vapor deposition. On a molecular level, the treatment of polymers like polypropylene or thermoplastics with electron beams (doses around 150 kGy) can increase material properties like bending strength and elasticity and provides an eco-friendly and sustainable way to upcycle them. Active research is being carried out for the biotransformation upcycling of plastic waste (e.g., polyethylene terephthalate and polyurethane) into PHA bioplastic using bacteria. PET could be converted into the biodegradable PHA by using a combination of temperature and microbial treatment. First it gets pyrolized at 450 °C and the resulting terephthalic acid is used as a substrate for microorganisms, which convert it finally into PHA. Similar to the aforementioned approach is the combination of nano-materials like carbon nanotubes with powdered orange peel as a composite material. This might be used to remove synthetic dyes from wastewater. Biotechnology companies have recently shifted focus towards the conversion of agricultural waste, or biomass, to different chemicals or commodities. One company in particular, BioTork, has signed an agreement with the State of Hawaii and the USDA to convert the unmarketable papayas in Hawaii into fish feed. As part of this Zero Waste Initiative put forth by the State of Hawaii, BioTork will upcycle the otherwise wasted biomass into fish feed. See also Environmentalism Food rescue Reuse Scrapstore Trashion Waste hierarchy References External links Culture and the environment Handicrafts Recycling Reuse

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A0%88%EB%82%A0%20%ED%8E%98%EB%93%9C%EB%A1%9C%EC%8A%A4

레날 페드로스

레날 페드로스(, 1971년 10월 10일 ~ )는 프랑스의 전직 축구 선수 및 현 축구 지도자로 선수 시절 포지션은 공격형 미드필더였으며 현재 모로코 여자 축구 국가대표팀의 감독직을 맡고 있다. 선수 시절 클럽 1971년 10월 10일 프랑스 오를레앙에서 스페인계 프랑스인 부모 사이에서 태어나 1990년 FC 낭트 입단을 통해 프로에 전격 입문한 뒤 2009년 은퇴할 때까지 19년동안 올랭피크 드 마르세유, 파르마 칼초, SSC 나폴리, 올랭피크 리옹, 몽펠리에 HSC, 툴루즈 FC, SC 바스티아, 알코르 SC, 쉬드 니브르네 임피 드시즈, 부슈멘 라볼에스쿠블라크, FC 볼름 등에서 활동했고 특히 1990년부터 1996년까지 FC 낭트의 주전 미드필더로 맹활약하며 1992-93 쿠프 드 프랑스 준우승, 1993-94 쿠프 드 프랑스 4강, 1994-95 리그앙 우승, 1995-96년 UEFA 챔피언스리그 4강 진출 등의 업적을 남겼다. 국가대표팀 1993년 7월 28일 러시아와의 친선 경기에서 프랑스 A대표팀 소속으로 국제 A매치 데뷔전을 치렀고 1995년 9월 6일 홈에서 열린 아제르바이잔과의 UEFA 유로 1996 예선 1조 8차전에서 A매치 데뷔골을 터뜨리며 10-0 대승과 함께 2회 연속 유로 대회 본선 진출에 일조했다. 그 후 UEFA 유로 1996 본선 엔트리에 합류하여 팀의 4강 진출을 이끌었지만 체코와의 4강전 승부차기에서 5번째 키커로 나섰다가 상대 골키퍼 페트르 코우바의 선방에 가로막혀 결승 문턱에서 눈물을 흘렸고 결국 이로 인해 자국 언론과 축구팬들로부터 쏟아진 엄청난 비난을 감수해야 했다. 그리고 유로 1996 4강전에서의 승부차기 실축의 여파로 1996년 11월 29일 열린 덴마크와의 친선 경기를 끝으로 더 이상 국가대표팀에 발탁되지 못했고 결국 A매치 25경기 4골의 기록을 남긴 채 국가대표팀 유니폼을 벗었다. 지도자 경력 클럽 2008년 생장뤼엘의 감독으로 본격적인 지도자 커리어를 시작한 뒤 2009년부터 2012년까지 생프리베 생일레르의 감독을 역임했고 2015년부터 2017년까지는 고향팀인 US 오를레앙의 기술고문을 맡았다. 그리고 2017년부터 2019년까지 디비지옹 1 페미닌의 명문팀인 올랭피크 리옹 페미닌의 감독을 역임하며 리그 2회 연속 우승(2017-18, 2018-19), 2017-18 쿠프 드 프랑스 페미닌 준우승, 2018-19 쿠프 드 프랑스 페미닌 우승, UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 2회 연속 우승(2017-18, 2018-19)의 금자탑을 쌓았고 2018년에는 FIFA 올해의 여자 축구 감독상까지 수상하는 영예까지 안았다. 국가대표팀 2018-19 시즌을 끝으로 올랭피크 리옹 페미닌의 감독직에서 물러난 뒤 2020년 11월 모로코 여자 축구 국가대표팀의 감독으로 취임하여 1년 8개월 후 2023년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 아프리카 지역 예선격으로 열린 2022년 아프리카 여자 네이션스컵 본선에서 개최국인 모로코의 사상 첫 아프리카 여자 네이션스컵 준우승 및 사상 첫 여자 월드컵 본선 진출의 쾌거를 이끌었고 특히 이 대회 최다 우승국인 나이지리아와의 4강전에서 승부차기까지 가는 접전 끝에 승리를 거두는 기적을 일으키면서 모로코 여자 축구의 새로운 역사를 만들었다. 수상 클럽 (선수) FC 낭트 리그 1 : 우승 (1994-95) 쿠프 드 프랑스 : 준우승 (1992-93), 4강 (1993-94) UEFA 챔피언스리그 : 4강 (1995-96) 국가대표팀 (선수) UEFA 유럽 축구 선수권 대회 : 4강 (1996) 클럽 (지도자) 올랭피크 리옹 페미닌 디비지옹 1 페미닌 : 우승 (2017-18, 2018-19) 쿠프 드 프랑스 페미닌 : 우승 (2018-19), 준우승 (2017-18) UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 : 우승 (2017-18, 2018-19) 국가대표팀 (지도자) (여자) 아프리카 여자 네이션스컵 : 준우승 (2022) 개인 FIFA 올해의 여자 축구 감독상 : 2018 1971년 출생 살아있는 사람 프랑스의 남자 축구 선수 프랑스의 축구 감독 남자 축구 미드필더 스페인계 프랑스인 프랑스 남자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 UEFA 유로 1996 참가 선수 세리에 A의 축구 선수 이탈리아의 외국인 남자 축구 선수 SSC 나폴리의 축구 선수 파르마 칼초 1913의 축구 선수 FC 낭트의 축구 선수 SC 바스티아의 축구 선수 몽펠리에 HSC의 축구 선수 올랭피크 드 마르세유의 축구 선수 올랭피크 리옹의 축구 선수 툴루즈 FC의 축구 선수 리그 1의 축구 선수 카타르 스타스 리그의 축구 선수 프랑스의 해외 진출 남자 축구 선수 카타르에 거주한 프랑스인 카타르의 외국인 남자 축구 선수 프랑스 남자 U-21 축구 국가대표팀 선수 1993년 지중해 게임 참가 선수 올랭피크 리옹 페미닌의 축구 감독 모로코 여자 축구 국가대표팀 감독 2023년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 감독

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reynald%20Pedros

Reynald Pedros

Reynald Michel Sebastian Pedros (born 10 October 1971) is a French professional football manager and former player who played as a midfielder. He recently managed the Morocco women's national team. Early life and club career Reynald Michel Sebastian Pedros was born on 10 October 1971 in Orléans, Loiret, and is of Portuguese and Spanish descent. He played as a left-footed attacking midfielder, formed in Nantes. He was part of the magic trio of FC Nantes with Patrice Loko and Nicolas Ouédec. He won the Ligue 1 title with Nantes in 1995. The following year he reached the semi-finals of the UEFA Champions League. International career Pedros played for the France national team. His career bears some similarity to David Ginola's – a mistake in the last 1994 FIFA World Cup qualifying match leading to French elimination, and subsequently being dropped from the national team. Before UEFA Euro 1996, he was considered one of the best French midfielders, on par with Zinedine Zidane, and was selected for the tournament. France reached the semi-final to face the Czech Republic, and the two teams could not be separated over ninety minutes. The match thus went into extra time and subsequently a penalty shoot-out. After five successful penalties for each team, Pedros was to take the first of the penalties in sudden death. His shot was weak and slow, and was easily saved by the Czech goalkeeper, Petr Kouba. Miroslav Kadlec came to take the next penalty, scored it, and knocked France out of the tournament. Following this elimination, Pedros was made a pariah by the media and was greatly disliked by French fans. He attempted to make a comeback, in Ligue 2, but he was never able to come back to the top of his game. Managerial career Pedros worked as president adviser at Orléans for two years. On 2 June 2017, he took over as head coach of Olympique Lyonnais Féminin. He led them to retain the Division 1 Féminine championship for the 12th and 13th time. He also succeeded in guiding the team to retaining the UEFA Women's Champions League for the 3rd and 4th time. In November 2020, Pedros became the coach of the Moroccan women's national team. This recruitment took place in the context of the effort made by the FRMF and its President Fouzi Lekjaa to develop women's football in Morocco, particularly mass football, with the aim of becoming a stronghold of women's football at continental and world level. His first tournament was the 2022 Women's Africa Cup of Nations, at which he guided Morocco to reach the final of the WAFCON for the first time in its only third appearance. This included a win on penalties win over African powerhouse Nigeria in the semi-finals, which was seen as a redemption for his penalty defeat in Euro 1996. In August 2023, he took Morocco women's team to the knockout stages of the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup on their debut appearance at the tournament. Career statistics International goals Scores and results list France's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Pedros goal. Honours Manager Lyon Division 1 Féminine: 2017–18, 2018–19 Coupe de France Féminine: 2018–19 UEFA Women's Champions League: 2018–19, 2019–20 Morocco Women's Africa Cup of Nations runner-up: 2022 References External links 1971 births Living people Footballers from Orléans French men's footballers Men's association football midfielders FC Nantes players Olympique de Marseille players Parma Calcio 1913 players SSC Napoli players Olympique Lyonnais players Montpellier HSC players Toulouse FC players SC Bastia players Al-Khor SC players Ligue 1 players Serie A players Qatar Stars League players Competitors at the 1993 Mediterranean Games Mediterranean Games medalists in football Mediterranean Games bronze medalists for France France men's under-21 international footballers France men's international footballers UEFA Euro 1996 players French football managers Olympique Lyonnais Féminin managers French expatriate men's footballers Expatriate men's footballers in Italy Expatriate men's footballers in Qatar Expatriate men's footballers in Switzerland French expatriate sportspeople in Italy French expatriate sportspeople in Qatar French expatriate sportspeople in Switzerland French people of Portuguese descent French people of Spanish descent Morocco women's national football team managers 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup managers

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%94%ED%94%BC%EC%8B%A4%EB%A6%B0

암피실린

암피실린()은 기도 감염, 요로감염증, 수막염, 살모넬라증, 심장내막염 등 수많은 병균 감염을 예방하고 치료하기 위해 사용되는 항생물질이다. 신생아의 그룹 B 연쇄구균감염 예방을 위해서도 사용될 수 있다. 구강으로, 근육 주사로, 또는 정맥 주사를 통해 복용할 수 있다. 모든 항생물질처럼 바이러스 감염 치료에는 유용하지 않다. 일반적인 부작용에는 발진, 구역질, 설사가 포함된다. 페니실린에 알레르기 반응이 있는 사람들은 사용하지 않는 것이 좋다. 심각한 부작용으로는 클로스트리디움 디피실 대장염, 과민증이 포함될 수 있다. 신부전 환자에게는 유용하지만 복용량은 낮추어야 한다. 임신 및 모유 수유 기간에 사용하는 일은 일반적으로 안전한 것으로 간주된다. 정의 암피실린은 베타락탐(β-lactam) 항생제(antibiotics)의 페니실린(penicillin) 그룹에 속하며 아미노페니실린(aminopenicillin) 계통의 일부이다. 박테리아의 세포막 합성을 저해하는 메커니즘으로 살균 효과를 나타내며 넓은 항균 영역을 보유하고 있다. Streptococcu pneumoniae, enterococci, nonpenicillinase-producing staphylococci, Listeria 등의 그람 양성균(gram-positive bacteria), Haemophilus influenzae, E. coli, Proteus mirabilis, Salmonella 등의 그람 음성균(gram-negative bacteria), 렙토스피라(Leptospira) 등에 효과적으로 작용한다. 원리 암피실린은 박테리아가 세포벽을 만들기 위해 필요로 하는 효소인 트랜스펩티데이스(transpeptidase)에 비가역적 억제제로 작용하여 효소의 활성을 억제한다. 이 효소에 의한 펩타이드전이(transpeptidation) 반응 억제는 세균의 세포벽을 구성하는 핵심 성분인 펩티도글리칸(peptidoglycan) 형성을 억제하여 결과적으로 세포 용해를 유도한다. 의학 질병 세균성 뇌수막염; 아미노글리코사이드는 그람 음성 뇌수막염 박테리아에 대한 효능을 증가시키기 위해 추가될 수 있다. 장구균 균주에 의한 심내막염(off-label 사용); 종종 아미노글리코사이드와 함께 사용한다. 오염된 물이나 음식(예: 살모넬라균)으로 인한 위장 감염시 사용한다. 비뇨 생식기 감염시 사용한다. 요도 카테터 사용으로 인한 감염과 관련되고 다른 약물에 반응하지 않는 의료 관련 감염시 사용한다. 중이염(중이 감염)에서 사용한다. 이전에 류마티스성 심장 질환이 있거나 치과 치료, 질 자궁 절제술 또는 제왕 절개를 받고 있는 사람들의 예방(즉, 감염 예방). 또한 조기 발병 신생아 감염을 예방하기 위해 그룹 B 연쇄상구균의 보균자인 임산부에게 사용된다. 기관지염, 인두염을 포함한 호흡기 감염시 사용한다. 정맥 두염시 사용한다. 패혈증시 사용한다. 백일해, 2차 감염 예방 및 치료시 사용한다. 암피실린은 임질 치료에도 사용되었지만 지금은 페니실린에 내성이 있는 변종이 너무 많다. 박테리아 암피실린은 많은 그람 양성 및 그람 음성 박테리아에 의한 감염을 치료하는 데 사용된다. 이것은 Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus의 일부 분리주(페니실린 내성 또는 메티실린 내성 균주는 아님), Trueperella 및 일부 Enterococcus를 포함한 그람 양성 박테리아에 대한 활성을 가진 최초의 "광범위한 스펙트럼" 페니실린이었다. 이것은 다제내성 Enterococcus faecalis 및 E. faecium에 대해 작용하는 몇 안 되는 항생제 중 하나이다. 그람 음성 박테리아에 대한 활성은 Neisseria meningitidis, 일부 Haemophilus influenzae 및 일부 Enterobacteriaceae(대부분의 Enterobacteriaceae 및 Pseudomonas는 내성이 있음)를 포함한다. 활성 스펙트럼은 박테리아가 암피실린 및 관련 항생제를 비활성화하기 위해 생성하는 효소인 베타 락타마제를 억제하는 약물인 설박탐의 병용 투여에 의해 향상된다. 때로는 반코마이신, 리네졸리드, 답토마이신 및 티게사이클린과 같이 작용 기전이 다른 다른 항생제와 함께 사용된다. 사용 가능한 양식 암피실린은 경구, 근육 주사(주사) 또는 정맥 주입으로 투여할 수 있다. 캡슐 또는 경구 현탁액으로 제공되는 경구 형태는 심각한 감염에 대한 초기 치료가 아니라 IM 또는 IV 주사에 대한 후속 조치로 제공된다. IV 및 IM 주사의 경우, 암피실린은 재구성되어야 하는 분말로 보관된다. 빠른 IV 주사는 경련 발작을 유발할 수 있으므로 IV 주사는 천천히 해야 한다. 부작용 독성 가장 빈번하게 일어나는 독성으로는 약물의 축적에 의한 신부전이 있다. 구토 증세를 동반하거나 동반하지 않는 오심, 상복부 불쾌감, 경증에서 중증 설사, 구내염 또는 구내 건조, 설통 또는 흑모설 같은 증상을 일으킬 수 있다. 두드러기, 자색피부병변, 국소 부종, 심한 쇠약, 어지럼증, 오심, 구토, 설사, 복부 통증, 심한 천식을 동반한 기관지수축, 흉통, 중증 고혈압, 청색증, 순환 허탈, 폐부종, 경련, 호흡 부전으로 인한 사망 등이 있다. 일부의 경우 입술, 혀, 얼굴, 안와골 조직의 현저한 부기를 동반한 혈관 부종, 천식성 호흡, 큰 두드러기 등이 나타날 수 있다. 내성 암피실린을 포함한 모든 베타락탐(β-lactam) 항생제는 구조상 베타락탐(β-lactam) 고리를 가지고 있다. 베타락탐 항생제의 효과는 분해되지 않고 페니실린 결합 단백질(penicillin binding protein, PBP)에 도달할 수 있는 능력과 그 단백질과 강하게 결합하는 능력에 달려 있다. 따라서, 베타락탐 항생제에 대한 내성은 크게 두 가지 이유로 발생한다. 박테리아가 베타락타메이스(β-lactamase) 효소를 생성하면 항생제의 베타락탐 고리가 가수분해되어 항생제 효과가 사라진다. 박테리아가 베타락타메이스 효소를 생산할 수 있는 유전자를 자체적으로 가지고 있을 수 있으며 또는 베타락타메이스(β-lactamase) 효소를 가지고 있는 플라스미드(plasmid) DNA를 외부로부터 전달받아 내성을 획득할 수 있다. 일부 박테리아는 새로운 구조를 가진 페니실린 결합 단백질을 생산하여 베타락탐 항생제에 대한 내성을 나타낸다. 베타락탐 항생제는 이러한 변화된 페니실린 결합 단백질에 효과적으로 결합할 수 없으며, 결과적으로 베타락탐은 박테리아의 세포벽 합성을 방해하는데 효과를 발휘하지 못한다. 이러한 방식의 항생제 내성의 주목할만한 예로 메티실린 내성 황색 포도상구균 (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA)과 페니실린 내성 페렴구균 (penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae, PRSA)가 있다. 상호작용 암피실린은 프로베네시드 및 메토트렉세이트와 반응하여 신장 배설을 감소시킨다. 다량의 암피실린은 혈소판 응집을 억제함으로써 와파린 및 기타 경구 항응고제를 동시에 사용하는 경우 출혈 위험을 증가시킬 수 있다. 암피실린은 경구 피임약의 효과를 떨어뜨리는 것으로 알려져 있지만 이는 논란의 여지가 있다. 클로람페니콜, 에리트로마이신, 세팔로스포린, 테트라사이클린과 같은 다른 항생제에 의해 효과가 떨어질 수 있다. 예를 들어, 테트라사이클린은 박테리아에서 단백질 합성을 억제하여 암피실린이 작용하는 표적을 감소시킨다. 아미노글리코사이드와 동시에 투여하면 결합하여 비활성화할 수 있다. 별도로 투여하면 아미노글리코사이드와 암피실린이 대신 서로를 강화할 수 있다. 암피실린은 알로푸리놀과 함께 제공될 때 더 자주 피부 발진을 유발한다. 콜레라 생백신과 장티푸스 생백신 모두 암피실린과 함께 투여하면 효과가 없을 수 있다. 암피실린은 일반적으로 콜레라와 장티푸스를 치료하는 데 사용되어 신체가 상승해야 하는 면역 반응을 낮춘다. 사회적 특성 역사 암피실린은 1958년 발견되었으며 1961년 상용화되었다. 의료제도에 필수적인 가장 효과적이고 안전한 의약품 목록인 WHO 필수 의약품 목록에 등재되어 있다. 가격 개발도상국에서의 도매가는 2014년 정맥주사용액 유리병 기준으로 US$0.13에서 1.20 사이이다. 미국에서는 제네릭 의약품으로 구매할 수 있으며 10일치 치료 비용은 대략 13 달러이다. 같이 보기 아목시실린 페니실린 항생제 각주 외부 링크 Ampicillin bound to proteins in the PDB 페니실린 세계 보건 기구 필수 의약품 RTT 페닐 화합물

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampicillin

Ampicillin

Ampicillin is an antibiotic belonging to the aminopenicillin class of the penicillin family. The drug is used to prevent and treat a number of bacterial infections, such as respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, salmonellosis, and endocarditis. It may also be used to prevent group B streptococcal infection in newborns. It is used by mouth, by injection into a muscle, or intravenously. Common side effects include rash, nausea, and diarrhea. It should not be used in people who are allergic to penicillin. Serious side effects may include Clostridium difficile colitis or anaphylaxis. While usable in those with kidney problems, the dose may need to be decreased. Its use during pregnancy and breastfeeding appears to be generally safe. Ampicillin was discovered in 1958 and came into commercial use in 1961. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The World Health Organization classifies ampicillin as critically important for human medicine. It is available as a generic medication. Medical uses Diseases Bacterial meningitis; an aminoglycoside can be added to increase efficacy against gram-negative meningitis bacteria Endocarditis by enterococcal strains (off-label use); often given with an aminoglycoside Gastrointestinal infections caused by contaminated water or food (for example, by Salmonella) Genito-urinary tract infections Healthcare-associated infections that are related to infections from using urinary catheters and that are unresponsive to other medications Otitis media (middle ear infection) Prophylaxis (i.e. to prevent infection) in those who previously had rheumatic heart disease or are undergoing dental procedures, vaginal hysterectomies, or C-sections. It is also used in pregnant woman who are carriers of group B streptococci to prevent early-onset neonatal infections. Respiratory infections, including bronchitis, pharyngitis Sinusitis Sepsis Whooping cough, to prevent and treat secondary infections Ampicillin used to also be used to treat gonorrhea, but there are now too many strains resistant to penicillins. Bacteria Ampicillin is used to treat infections by many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. It was the first "broad spectrum" penicillin with activity against gram-positive bacteria, including Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, some isolates of Staphylococcus aureus (but not penicillin-resistant or methicillin-resistant strains), Trueperella, and some Enterococcus. It is one of the few antibiotics that works against multidrug resistant Enterococcus faecalis and E. faecium. Activity against gram-negative bacteria includes Neisseria meningitidis, some Haemophilus influenzae, and some of the Enterobacteriaceae (though most Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas are resistant). Its spectrum of activity is enhanced by co-administration of sulbactam, a drug that inhibits beta lactamase, an enzyme produced by bacteria to inactivate ampicillin and related antibiotics. It is sometimes used in combination with other antibiotics that have different mechanisms of action, like vancomycin, linezolid, daptomycin, and tigecycline. Available forms Ampicillin can be administered by mouth, an intramuscular injection (shot) or by intravenous infusion. The oral form, available as capsules or oral suspensions, is not given as an initial treatment for severe infections, but rather as a follow-up to an IM or IV injection. For IV and IM injections, ampicillin is kept as a powder that must be reconstituted. IV injections must be given slowly, as rapid IV injections can lead to convulsive seizures. Specific populations Ampicillin is one of the most used drugs in pregnancy, and has been found to be generally harmless both by the Food and Drug Administration in the U.S. (which classified it as category B) and the Therapeutic Goods Administration in Australia (which classified it as category A). It is the drug of choice for treating Listeria monocytogenes in pregnant women, either alone or combined with an aminoglycoside. Pregnancy increases the clearance of ampicillin by up to 50%, and a higher dose is thus needed to reach therapeutic levels. Ampicillin crosses the placenta and remains in the amniotic fluid at 50–100% of the concentration in maternal plasma; this can lead to high concentrations of ampicillin in the newborn. While lactating mothers secrete some ampicillin into their breast milk, the amount is minimal. In newborns, ampicillin has a longer half-life and lower plasma protein binding. The clearance by the kidneys is lower, as kidney function has not fully developed. Contraindications Ampicillin is contraindicated in those with a hypersensitivity to penicillins, as they can cause fatal anaphylactic reactions. Hypersensitivity reactions can include frequent skin rashes and hives, exfoliative dermatitis, erythema multiforme, and a temporary decrease in both red and white blood cells. Ampicillin is not recommended in people with concurrent mononucleosis, as over 40% of patients develop a skin rash. Side effects Ampicillin is comparatively less toxic than other antibiotics, and side effects are more likely in those who are sensitive to penicillins and those with a history of asthma or allergies. In very rare cases, it causes severe side effects such as angioedema, anaphylaxis, and C. difficile infection (that can range from mild diarrhea to serious pseudomembranous colitis). Some develop black "furry" tongue. Serious adverse effects also include seizures and serum sickness. The most common side effects, experienced by about 10% of users are diarrhea and rash. Less common side effects can be nausea, vomiting, itching, and blood dyscrasias. The gastrointestinal effects, such as hairy tongue, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and colitis, are more common with the oral form of penicillin. Other conditions may develop up several weeks after treatment. Overdose Ampicillin overdose can cause behavioral changes, confusion, blackouts, and convulsions, as well as neuromuscular hypersensitivity, electrolyte imbalance, and kidney failure. Interactions Ampicillin reacts with probenecid and methotrexate to decrease renal excretion. Large doses of ampicillin can increase the risk of bleeding with concurrent use of warfarin and other oral anticoagulants, possibly by inhibiting platelet aggregation. Ampicillin has been said to make oral contraceptives less effective, but this has been disputed. It can be made less effective by other antibiotic, such as chloramphenicol, erythromycin, cephalosporins, and tetracyclines. For example, tetracyclines inhibit protein synthesis in bacteria, reducing the target against which ampicillin acts. If given at the same time as aminoglycosides, it can bind to it and inactivate it. When administered separately, aminoglycosides and ampicillin can potentiate each other instead. Ampicillin causes skin rashes more often when given with allopurinol. Both the live cholera vaccine and live typhoid vaccine can be made ineffective if given with ampicillin. Ampicillin is normally used to treat cholera and typhoid fever, lowering the immunological response that the body has to mount. Pharmacology Mechanism of action Ampicillin is in the penicillin group of beta-lactam antibiotics and is part of the aminopenicillin family. It is roughly equivalent to amoxicillin in terms of activity. Ampicillin is able to penetrate gram-positive and some gram-negative bacteria. It differs from penicillin G, or benzylpenicillin, only by the presence of an amino group. This amino group, present on both ampicillin and amoxicillin, helps these antibiotics pass through the pores of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria, such as E. coli, Proteus mirabilis, Salmonella enterica, and Shigella. Ampicillin acts as an irreversible inhibitor of the enzyme transpeptidase, which is needed by bacteria to make the cell wall. It inhibits the third and final stage of bacterial cell wall synthesis in binary fission, which ultimately leads to cell lysis; therefore, ampicillin is usually bacteriolytic. Pharmacokinetics Ampicillin is well-absorbed from the GI tract (though food reduces its absorption), and reaches peak concentrations in one to two hours. The bioavailability is around 62% for parenteral routes. Unlike other penicillins, which usually bind 60–90% to plasma proteins, ampicillin binds to only 15–20%. Ampicillin is distributed through most tissues, though it is concentrated in the liver and kidneys. It can also be found in the cerebrospinal fluid when the meninges become inflamed (such as, for example, meningitis). Some ampicillin is metabolized by hydrolyzing the beta-lactam ring to penicilloic acid, though most of it is excreted unchanged. In the kidneys, it is filtered out mostly by tubular secretion; some also undergoes glomerular filtration, and the rest is excreted in the feces and bile. Hetacillin and pivampicillin are ampicillin esters that have been developed to increase bioavailability. History Ampicillin has been used extensively to treat bacterial infections since 1961. Until the introduction of ampicillin by the British company Beecham, penicillin therapies had only been effective against gram-positive organisms such as staphylococci and streptococci. Ampicillin (originally branded as "Penbritin") also demonstrated activity against gram-negative organisms such as H. influenzae, coliforms, and Proteus spp. Cost Ampicillin is relatively inexpensive. In the United States, it is available as a generic medication. Veterinary use In veterinary medicine, ampicillin is used in cats, dogs, and farm animals to treat: Anal gland infections Cutaneous infections, such as abscesses, cellulitis, and pustular dermatitis E. coli and Salmonella infections in cattle, sheep, and goats (oral form). Ampicillin use for this purpose had declined as bacterial resistance has increased. Mastitis in sows Mixed aerobic–anaerobic infections, such as from cat bites Multidrug-resistant Enterococcus faecalis and E. faecium Prophylactic use in poultry against Salmonella and sepsis from E. coli or Staphylococcus aureus Respiratory tract infections, including tonsilitis, bovine respiratory disease, shipping fever, bronchopneumonia, and calf and bovine pneumonia Urinary tract infections in dogs Horses are generally not treated with oral ampicillin, as they have low bioavailability of beta-lactams. The half-life in animals is around that same of that in humans (just over an hour). Oral absorption is less than 50% in cats and dogs, and less than 4% in horses. See also Amoxycillin (p-hydroxy metabolite of ampicillin) Azlocillin and pirbenicillin (urea and amide made from ampicillin) Pivampicillin (special pro-drug of ampicillin) References External links Enantiopure drugs Penicillins Phenyl compounds World Health Organization essential medicines Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate

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인도의 경제

인도의 경제는 사회주의 경제체제에서 개혁개방으로 변화한 시장경제체재이다. 서기 1년부터 거의 1700년 동안 인도는 영국의 지배를 받기 전까지 세계 GDP의 35% ~ 40%를 차지하던 부국이었다. 영국으로부터 독립한 이후 집권한 자와할랄 네루는 상공업 사회를 지향했다. 하지만 그는 상공업자들을 불신했으며 사적 이윤만을 추구하는 상공업자들이 정부의 엄격한 통제와 관리 아래 있어야 한다고 생각했다. 그래서 중공업을 비롯한 기간산업을 모두 국영화했고 기업설립과 확장 등을 정부의 철저한 검토를 받아야 하는 허가제를 도입하는 등 사회주의형 통제경제 모형을 추구했다. 이에 따라 성장 잠재력이 억제되었다고 생각된다. 인도의 경제는 1960년대 중반에 위기를 맞아 15년간 부진한 성장을 보여왔다. 1970년대 후반에는 제2차 오일쇼크로 위기를 경험했으며 1990년대 초반에 외환위기를 맞았다. 1991년 외환위기를 극복한 이후 1992년부터 2002년까지 연평균 5.8%의 높은 GDP성장률을 기록했으며 2005년부터 2007년까지는 9%의 성장률을 보이기도 했다. 인도는 다른 개발도상국과는 달리 제조업이 아닌 IT와 서비스업 중심으로 성장했으며 이는 국제 시장에서의 영향력 증가와 인도 시장에 대한 관심을 도모할 수 있었다. 역사 현대 1951년 ~ 1979년, 네루식 사회주의 이 시기는 네루의 사회주의를 시험하는 30년 동안의 시기였다. 식민지 지배로 인하여 왜곡된 경제구조와 시장실패를 바로잡기 위해 대부분의 기간산업을 국가가 관장하고 수입대체정책을 통해 기간산업을 육성하고 경제적 자립을 이루고자 했던 시기이다. 이 시기는 낮은 성장률을 보인 저성장 시대였다. 이 시기는 제 1차 경제계획이 시작된 1951년부터 제 3차 경제계획이 완료된 1965년까지의 15년간으로 인도산업 발전의 기반을 형성한 시기라고 할 수 있다. 이 시기는 낮은 성장률을 보인 시대였으나 경제계획과 사회안정을 이루고자 노력한 시기였다. 농업발전을 위한 관개수로의 확장, 중화학공업 육성 등 인프라와 기간 산업 육성은 국가 주도로 이뤄졌다. 정부의 투자는 전기, 가스, 수도 및 운송업 등 인프라에 집중되었다. 그러나 이 시기에 도입된 수입대체정책은 이후 인도의 외환부족과 인도 경제의 발전을 저해하게 되었다. 수입대체정책은 외환부족을 가져왔고 외화의 부족은 외환 관리를 위해 수출입에 대한 규제를 강화했고 이는 다시 외화부족으로 연결되는 악순환을 가져와 외환위기를 겪게되는 악순환을 가져왔다. 1966년부터 1979년까지 수입대체정책과 국유화 정책이 더욱 강력하게 시행되었고 이에 따라 경제 활동과 성장률이 크게 위축되었다. 1965년과 1966년에는 극심한 가뭄을 겪었고 인도와 파키스탄 간의 전쟁이 발발했다. 1969년에는 과점방지법, 1973년에는 외국환관리법이 도입되었으며 많은 은행과 보험사들이 국유화되었고 산업허가제가 강화되어 민간의 투자가 위축되었으며 수출입에 대한 규제의 증가로 대외 거래도 감소하였다. 수입제한 정책으로 제조업을 비롯한 2차 산업이 위축되었는데 수입제한으로 자본재 수입이 부진하게 되어서이다. 1980년 ~ 1990년, 개혁개방과 경제위기 제조업 생산성 저하에 대한 이 시기의 자각은 1980년대 초 규제 완화와 대외개방에로의 경제정책 방향 선회를 가져왔다. 자유주의 시장경제로 전환한 경제정책이 미치는 인도 경제에의 파급력은 컸다. 이 시기의 특징은 자본재 수입관련 규제가 크게 완화되면서 기계장비에 대한 투자와 민간투자가 크게 증가하여 생산성이 향상되었으며 대외적으로 국제 유가가 안정됨에 따라 인도 내 물가가 안정되어 민간 소비가 증대되었다. 또한 풍작으로 농수산물 부문의 높은 성장률이 경제 성장에 기여하기도 하였다. 하지만 이 시기의 과도한 재정 지출 및 부채 누적과 경상수지 적자에 따른 외환보유고 감소 등 내부적인 위기 요인들은 1991년 인도 외환위기라는 결과를 가져왔다. 1991년 ~ 2003년, 외환위기의 극복 인도는 외환위기를 극복하기 위해 경제 전반에 걸쳐 적극적인 개혁과 개방 정책을 추진했다. 인도 경제의 구조적 변화는 일반적인 개발도상국들과 다른 양상을 띄었다. 일반적으로 농수산업에서 광업, 공업으로 이전된 뒤, 서비스업 중심 사회로 이동하는 수순을 따르는 것과 달리 IT관련 부문이 18.4%라는 높은 성장률을 기록하였고 금융산업도 10%의 성장세를 이어감에 따라 서비스업 성장률이 7.1%로 높아져 경제성장을 주도하였으며 제조업도 6%대의 성장세를 보였다. 인도의 경우 농업중심 사회에서 광업, 공업으로 이전하는 단계를 거치지 않고 바로 서비스업 중심 사회로 이전되었다. 자료 분야 농업 섬유인 황마 생산량에서 세계에서 가장 많은 양을 생산하고 있다. 콩과 식물의 생산량 또한 1위이며 쌀, 밀, 땅콩 등은 중국에 이어 2위의 생산량을 보이고 있다. 그러나 인도의 농업 생산량은 농업개혁 이후로 감소했으며 산업화와 도시화로 농지 면적의 축소가 이뤄졌다. 생산요소 수준의 더딘 성장은 인도농업에 걸림돌이 되고 있는데, 예를 들어 운송업과 인프라의 더딘 발달로 상당량의 농산물이 부패하는 등의 문제점을 가지고 있다. 인도 농업에 대한 투자는 1960년대 이후 상승하였고 1970년대 중반에 들어서 한층 더 강화되었다. 이 중에서 높은 공공부문의 투자가 있었으나 1991년 채택된 경제개혁 이후 지속적으로 공공부문의 투자가 감소했다. 이러한 농업 투자의 감소는 농업 성장의 감소로 이어졌다. 게다가 농업의 무역조건은 악화되어 1990년대 말 농부들의 소득이 감소하고 농가 부채가 증가하는 결과를 낳았다. 자본조달은 어려워 자본조달능력이 제한적인 소작농과 빈농이 75% 이상을 차지함에도 제도권 안에서의 대출이 어렵다. 농촌지역에서는 신용금고가 감소하여 농업신용의 분배가 불평등하게 이뤄지고 있다. 제조업 인도 정부는 제조업을 육성하기 위한 투자를 계속하고 있다. 서비스업보다 제조업이 벌어들인 같은 매출이 더 많은 부가가치와 고용을 창출하기 때문인데, 이를 위해선 인프라 투자가 중요하다. 전력공급이 부족하고 원자재와 제품 이동에 필요한 도로와 항만시설이 부족하다면 제조업의 발전을 기대하기 어렵기 때문이다. 하지만 인도의 재정적자는 제조업 기반 형성에 필요한 인프라 투자를 제한시켰다. 제조업의 취약함은 인도 경제의 불안정성을 키운 요인으로 꼽힌다. 열악한 인프라 뿐만 아니라 잦은 정권 교체에 따른 정책 혼선과 지방정부의 지역이기주의, 토지 소유권에 대한 분쟁, 정치적 부패는 외국인들에게 투자 매력을 떨어뜨리는 원인으로 작용했다. 서비스업 인도는 남아시아 국가들과 마찬가지로 서비스업 비중이 높은 편이다. 인도는 다른 개발도상국들과 달리 농업 중심 경제에서 바로 서비스업 중심 사회로 변화했다. 이는 생산성 증대에 대한 결과로 인도 경제에 긍정적인 영향을 주지는 못하나 서비스업 주도 성장은 불가피해 보인다. 이에는 여러 가지 가설이 있는데 이중 하나로 중간재로서의 수요증가가설이 있다. 제조업이 생산의 전문화를 추구하는 과정에서 각종 서비스를 외주화했고 이 과정에서 비즈니스 서비스가 급속도로 발전했다는 가설이다. 마케팅, 광고, 연구 개발, 디자인이 하나의 중간재로 사용되는 현상은 서비스의 생산을 더욱 촉진했다. 이는 인도의 특수성과 제조업 성장의 정체, 경제 정책 및 규제, 식민지 경험이 복합적으로 작용한 결과라고 보는 것이 맞다. 통화 인도의 루피화는 공식 부문에서 그다지 눈에 띄는 역할을 하지 못하는 것으로 보인다. 준비통화로서의 사용은 이뤄지고 있으나 개입통화로서의 역할에서도 해당된다는 것은 아니다. 루피화의 가치는 상당히 불안정한데 이 때문에 국제 무역과 외국인 투자의 유치에서 어려움을 주고 있다. 1947년 인도 독립 후 인도는 1달러는 1루피로 루피화의 환율을 달러화에 대한 고정환율로 사용해오다 1951년 인도 정부는 경제 개발 5개년 계획을 발표했고, 1966년 인도 정부는 수출을 늘리기 위해 루피화의 가치를 평가절하했다. 1973년에는 제 1차 오일쇼크가 발생했고 원유 가격이 폭등하자 불법적인 환율 거래를 막기 위해 외국환관리법을 제정하였다. 1985년 국내 생산이 감소하면서 루피화의 가치가 급락했다. 1991년 인도 경제 위기로 정치 경제적으로 큰 혼란이 있었고 루피화의 가치가 더욱 평가 절하되었는데 이는 인도의 통화 정책이 고정환율제에서 변동환율제로 바뀌는 계기가 되었다. 몇 가지 개혁 조치가 단행되었고 인도는 이 상황을 타계하기 위해 IMF의 권고를 받아들이게 된 것이다. 변동환율제를 도입한 배경에는 두 가지 이유가 있었는데 국제시장에서의 경쟁력 강화, 고정환율제 아래에서 내외자금의 격차를 이용한 투기를 막기 위한 목적이 있었다. 먼저 경쟁력 강화 측면에서의 변동환율제 도입은 고정환율제를 채택한 상황에서 물가가 상승하게 되면 물가가 상승한 국가의 경쟁력은 감소하게 되며 외화 부족으로 어려움을 겪을 수 있다는 우려에서였다. 국제 수지의 균형을 유지하기 위해 국가는 물가 수준을 낮추려는 목적에서 거시적 방식을 활용하게 되는데 이는 변화를 위한 상당한 노력과 희생을 요구한다. 따라서 물가 상승에 대한 보상으로 환율을 감소시키는 것에서 벗어나고 경쟁력을 유지하는 것이 더 낫다는 판단이 작용했던 것이다. 내외자금의 격차를 이용한 투기란 기존의 화폐 평가가 절하될 때 투기자본은 이 이동이 순간적이라는 것을 인지하고 미래에 시세 차익을 얻으려고 이동하게 된다. 따라서 실제 화폐의 평가 절하는 그 효과가 반감될 수밖에 없다. 변동환율제는 이러한 외부 충격으로부터 국가재정을 보호한다. 브레튼 우즈 체제에서 무역 적자는 국내 경기 위축을 가져온다. 하지만 변동환율체제에서 환율은 이러한 충격을 보호하기 위해 조정되어 수요, 경상수지, 경쟁력을 유지하게 된다는 논리이다. 1992년 하샤드 메타의 금융 사기 사건으로 인도의 단속 기구인 인도 주식거래부(Securities and Exchange Board of India)가 설립되었고, 루피화는 수출을 장려하기 위해 다시 한 번 평가절하되었으며 이중환율(dual exchange rate)이 도입되었다. 인도는 인도준비은행을 통해 이중환율을 자유환율제도(liberalised exchange rate system)에 적용했었는데, 1993년 시장고정환율로 개정했다. 이를 통해 시장심리에 의해 루피화는 자유롭게 변동되게 되었으며 중앙은행의 개입을 통해 보호받을 수 있었다. 1993년 수입 허가제가 폐지되고 모든 부문에 걸쳐 관세가 할인되었다. 그 뒤로 아시아 외환위기가 발생한 1997년에는 재무부 장관인 팔라니아판 치담바람이 자신이 주장하던 세금을 낮추는 정책을 실행했다. 1999년엔 기존의 외국환관리법이 개정되었다. 문제점 인도는 개혁개방을 하였으나 여전히 계획경제의 잔재가 존재하고 있다. 연립정부를 구성하는 인도 공산당을 비롯한 좌파 정당, 정부기관의 과도한 규제, 공무원들의 부패와 고압적인 태도가 장애요인이 되고 있다. 인도의 은행은 재무구조가 건실하다고 평가되고 있으나 실제로는 산업의 성장을 뒷받침하는 역할에는 소극적인 채 방어적 경영을 이어가고 있으며 은행의 75%가 정부 소유로 되어있는 은행이다. 금융개혁에 대한 요구가 있으나 기득권층의 반발로 금융개혁이 이뤄지지 못하고 있다. 물부족과 전력부족 문제를 안고 있으며 이로 인한 도시 생활의 어려움으로 농촌에서 도시로 인구의 이동이 이뤄지지 못하고 있다. 열악한 인프라도 성장에 걸림돌이 되고 있는데, 정부의 예산 적자는 인프라 투자를 더욱 어렵게 하고 있다. 40%를 상회하는 문맹률과 취학 연령 아동의 20%가 취학을 하지 않는 교육 문제 또한 문제점으로, 불가촉천민 이하의 하층 카스트에 대한 교육 기회를 주자는 주장과 달리 국민교육에 대한 외면은 취약한 교육의 원인이 되었다. 개혁이 제대로 이뤄지지 못한 상황에서의 높은 성장률은 인플레이션이라는 부담으로 나타났으며 노동시장에서의 경직성 때문에 기업들은 투자확대를 꺼리고 있다. 노동시장에서 계약직 노동은 경제특별지구 이외에는 금지되어 있다. 2억 6천만 명에 달하는 절대빈곤층 문제와 저축률은 증가하지 못한 반면 소비는 늘어남에 따른 문제로 경상수지가 압박을 받고 있으며 대출률이 지나치게 높아진 측면도 없지 않아 있다. IT산업은 성장했으나 전문 인력이 이를 뒷받침하지 못해 형성된 높은 임금 문제는 국제경쟁력 하락이라는 결과를 낳고 있다고 지적된다. 각주 참고자료

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy%20of%20India

Economy of India

The economy of India has transitioned from a mixed planned economy to a mixed middle-income developing social market economy with notable public sector in strategic sectors. It is the world's fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP). According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), on a per capita income basis, India ranked 139th by GDP (nominal) and 127th by GDP (PPP). From independence in 1947 until 1991, successive governments followed Soviet model and promoted protectionist economic policies, with extensive Sovietization, state intervention, demand-side economics, natural resources, bureaucrat driven enterprises and economic regulation. This is characterised as dirigism, in the form of the Licence Raj. The end of the Cold War and an acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 led to the adoption of a broad economic liberalisation in India and indicative planning. Since the start of the 21st century, annual average GDP growth has been 6% to 7%. The economy of the Indian subcontinent was the largest in the world for most of recorded history up until the onset of colonialism in early 19th century. India accounts for 7.2% of the global economy in 2022 in PPP terms, and around 3.4% in nominal terms in 2022. India still has informal domestic economies; COVID-19 reversed both economic growth and poverty reduction; credit access weaknesses contributed to lower private consumption and inflation; and new social and infrastructure equity efforts. Economic growth slowed down in 2017 due to the shocks of "demonetisation" in 2016 and the introduction of the Goods and Services Tax in 2017. Nearly 70% of India's GDP is driven by domestic consumption. The country remains the world's sixth-largest consumer market. Apart from private consumption, India's GDP is also fueled by government spending, investments, and exports. In 2022, India was the world's 6th-largest importer and the 9th-largest exporter. India has been a member of the World Trade Organization since 1 January 1995. It ranks 63rd on the Ease of doing business index and 40th on the Global Competitiveness Index. Due to extreme rupee/dollar rate fluctuations India's nominal GDP fluctuates significantly. With 476 million workers, the Indian labour force is the world's second-largest. India has one of the world's highest number of billionaires and extreme income inequality. The number of income tax returns filed has been increasing year on year reaching a record 6,77,00,000 income tax returns for the 2023-24 financial year filed by 31st July 2023; this was a 16.1% increase on the previous year when 5,83,00,000 tax returns were filed by 31 July 2022. Income-Tax Department said that it was a "fair indication of widening of [the] tax base" that 53,67,000 of the tax returns were by people who had never filed a tax return before. During the 2008 global financial crisis, the economy faced a mild slowdown. India endorsed Keynesian policy and initiated stimulus measures (both fiscal and monetary) to boost growth and generate demand. In subsequent years, economic growth revived. According to the World Bank, to achieve sustainable economic development, India must focus on public sector reform, infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of land and labour regulations, financial inclusion, spur private investment and exports, education, and public health. The period between 2004 and 2014 is referred to as India’s lost decade as India fell behind other BRIC economies. In 2022, India's ten largest trading partners were the United States, China, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Saudi Arabia, Russia, Germany, Hong Kong, Indonesia, South Korea, and Malaysia. In 2021–22, the foreign direct investment (FDI) in India was $82 billion. The leading sectors for FDI inflows were the service sector, the computer industry, and the telecom industry. India has free trade agreements with several nations and blocs, including ASEAN, SAFTA, Mercosur, South Korea, Japan, Australia, UAE, and several others which are in effect or under negotiating stage. The service sector makes up more than 50% of GDP and remains the fastest growing sector, while the industrial sector and the agricultural sector employs a majority of the labor force. The Bombay Stock Exchange and National Stock Exchange are some of the world's largest stock exchanges by market capitalisation. India is the world's sixth-largest manufacturer, representing 2.6% of global manufacturing output. Nearly 65% of India's population is rural, and contributes about 50% of India's GDP. It has the world's fifth-largest foreign-exchange reserves worth $561 billion. India has a high public debt with 83% of GDP, while its fiscal deficit stood at 6.4% of GDP. India faces high unemployment, rising income inequality, and a drop in aggregate demand. India's gross domestic savings rate stood at 29.3% of GDP in 2022. In recent years, independent economists and financial institutions have accused the government of manipulating various economic data, especially GDP growth. India's overall social spending as a share of GDP in 2021–22 will be 8.6%, which is much lower than the average for OECD nations. History For a continuous duration of nearly 1700 years from the year 1 CE, India was the world's largest economy, constituting 35 to 40% of the world GDP. The combination of protectionist, import-substitution, Fabian socialism, and social democratic-inspired policies governed India for sometime after the end of British rule. The economy was then characterised as Dirigism, It had extensive regulation, protectionism, public ownership of large monopolies, pervasive corruption and slow growth. Since 1991, continuing economic liberalisation has moved the country towards a market-based economy. By 2008, India had established itself as one of the world's faster-growing economies. Ancient and medieval eras Indus Valley Civilisation The citizens of the Indus Valley civilisation, a permanent settlement that flourished between 2800 BCE and 1800 BCE, practised agriculture, domesticated animals, used uniform weights and measures, made tools and weapons, and traded with other cities. Evidence of well-planned streets, a drainage system, and water supply reveals their knowledge of urban planning, which included the first-known urban sanitation systems and the existence of a form of municipal government. West Coast Maritime trade was carried out extensively between South India and Southeast and West Asia from early times until around the fourteenth century CE. Both the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts were the sites of important trading centres from as early as the first century BCE, used for import and export as well as transit points between the Mediterranean region and southeast Asia. Over time, traders organised themselves into associations which received state patronage. Historians Tapan Raychaudhuri and Irfan Habib claim this state patronage for overseas trade came to an end by the thirteenth century CE, when it was largely taken over by the local Parsi, Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim communities, initially on the Malabar and subsequently on the Coromandel coast. Silk Route Other scholars suggest trading from India to West Asia and Eastern Europe was active between the 14th and 18th centuries. During this period, Indian traders settled in Surakhani, a suburb of greater Baku, Azerbaijan. These traders built a Hindu temple, which suggests commerce was active and prosperous for Indians by the 17th century. Further north, the Saurashtra and Bengal coasts played an important role in maritime trade, and the Gangetic plains and the Indus valley housed several centres of river-borne commerce. Most overland trade was carried out via the Khyber Pass connecting the Punjab region with Afghanistan and onward to the Middle East and Central Asia. Although many kingdoms and rulers issued coins, barter was prevalent. Villages paid a portion of their agricultural produce as revenue to the rulers, while their craftsmen received a part of the crops at harvest time for their services. Mughal, Rajput, and Maratha eras (1526–1820) The Indian economy was largest and most prosperous throughout the world history and will continue to be under the Mughal Empire, up until the 18th century. Sean Harkin estimates China and India may have accounted for 60 to 70 percent of world GDP in the 17th century. The Mughal economy functioned on an elaborate system of coined currency, land revenue and trade. Gold, silver and copper coins were issued by the royal mints which functioned on the basis of free coinage. The political stability and uniform revenue policy resulting from a centralized administration under the Mughals, coupled with a well-developed internal trade network, ensured that India–before the arrival of the British–was to a large extent economically unified, despite having a traditional agrarian economy characterised by a predominance of subsistence agriculture. Agricultural production increased under Mughal agrarian reforms, with Indian agriculture being advanced compared to Europe at the time, such as the widespread use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in European agriculture, and possibly higher per-capita agricultural output and standards of consumption then 17 century Europe. The Mughal Empire had a thriving industrial manufacturing economy, with India producing about 25% of the world's industrial output up until 1750, making it the most important manufacturing center in international trade. Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. Key industries included textiles, shipbuilding, and steel, and processed exports included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter. Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centres, higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century. In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and saltpeter (for use in munitions). European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia. In contrast, there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India, which was largely self-sufficient. Indian goods, especially those from Bengal, were also exported in large quantities to other Asian markets, such as Indonesia and Japan. At the time, Mughal Bengal was the most important center of cotton textile production. In the early 18th century the Mughal Empire declined, as it lost western, central and parts of south and north India to the Maratha Empire, which integrated and continued to administer those regions. The decline of the Mughal Empire led to decreased agricultural productivity, which in turn negatively affected the textile industry. The subcontinent's dominant economic power in the post-Mughal era was the Bengal Subah in the east., which continued to maintain thriving textile industries and relatively high real wages. However, the former was devastated by the Maratha invasions of Bengal and then British colonization in the mid-18th century. After the loss at the Third Battle of Panipat, the Maratha Empire disintegrated into several confederate states, and the resulting political instability and armed conflict severely affected economic life in several parts of the country – although this was mitigated by localised prosperity in the new provincial kingdoms. By the late eighteenth century, the British East India Company had entered the Indian political theatre and established its dominance over other European powers. This marked a determinative shift in India's trade, and a less-powerful effect on the rest of the economy. British era (1793–1947) From the beginning of the 19th century, the British East India Company's gradual expansion and consolidation of power brought a major change in taxation and agricultural policies, which tended to promote commercialisation of agriculture with a focus on trade, resulting in decreased production of food crops, mass impoverishment and destitution of farmers, and in the short term, led to numerous famines. The economic policies of the British Raj caused a severe decline in the handicrafts and handloom sectors, due to reduced demand and dipping employment. After the removal of international restrictions by the Charter of 1813, Indian trade expanded substantially with steady growth. The result was a significant transfer of capital from India to England, which, due to the colonial policies of the British, led to a massive drain of revenue rather than any systematic effort at modernisation of the domestic economy. Under British rule, India's share of the world economy declined from 24.4% in 1700 down to 4.2% in 1950. India's GDP (PPP) per capita was stagnant during the Mughal Empire and began to decline prior to the onset of British rule. India's share of global industrial output declined from 25% in 1750 down to 2% in 1900. At the same time, United Kingdom's share of the world economy rose from 2.9% in 1700 up to 9% in 1870. The British East India Company, following their conquest of Bengal in 1757, had forced open the large Indian market to British goods, which could be sold in India without tariffs or duties, compared to local Indian producers who were heavily taxed, while in Britain protectionist policies such as bans and high tariffs were implemented to restrict Indian textiles from being sold there, whereas raw cotton was imported from India without tariffs to British factories which manufactured textiles from Indian cotton and sold them back to the Indian market. British economic policies gave them a monopoly over India's large market and cotton resources. India served as both a significant supplier of raw goods to British manufacturers and a large captive market for British manufactured goods. British territorial expansion in India throughout the 19th century created an institutional environment that, on paper, guaranteed property rights among the colonisers, encouraged free trade, and created a single currency with fixed exchange rates, standardised weights and measures and capital markets within the company-held territories. It also established a system of railways and telegraphs, a civil service that aimed to be free from political interference, a common-law, and an adversarial legal system. This coincided with major changes in the world economy – industrialisation, and significant growth in production and trade. However, at the end of colonial rule, India inherited an economy that was one of the poorest in the developing world, with industrial development stalled, agriculture unable to feed a rapidly growing population, a largely illiterate and unskilled labour force, and extremely inadequate infrastructure. The 1872 census revealed that 91.3% of the population of the region constituting present-day India resided in villages. This was a decline from the earlier Mughal era, when 85% of the population resided in villages and 15% in urban centers under Akbar's reign in 1600. Urbanisation generally remained sluggish in British India until the 1920s, due to the lack of industrialisation and absence of adequate transportation. Subsequently, the policy of discriminating protection (where certain important industries were given financial protection by the state), coupled with the Second World War, saw the development and dispersal of industries, encouraging rural-urban migration, and in particular, the large port cities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras grew rapidly. Despite this, only one-sixth of India's population lived in cities by 1951. The effect of British rule on India's economy is a controversial topic. Leaders of the Indian independence movement and economic historians have blamed colonial rule for India's poor economic performance following independence and argued that the wealth required for Britain's industrial development was derived from wealth taken from India. At the same time, right-wing historians have countered that India's poor economic performance was due to various sectors being in a state of growth and decline due to changes brought in by colonialism and a world that was moving towards industrialisation and economic integration. Several economic historians have argued that real wage decline occurred in the early 19th century, or possibly beginning in the very late 18th century, largely as a result of British imperialism. According to Prasannan Parthasarathi and Sashi Sivramkrishna, the grain wages of Indian weavers were likely comparable to that of their British counterparts and their average income was around five times the subsistence level, which was comparable to advanced parts of Europe. However they concluded that due to the scarcity of data, it was hard to draw definitive conclusions and that more research was required. It has also been argued that India went through a period of deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire. Pre-liberalisation period (1947–1991) Indian economic policy after independence was influenced by the colonial experience, which was seen as exploitative by Indian leaders exposed to the planned economy of the Soviet Union. Domestic policy tended towards protectionism, with a strong emphasis on import substitution industrialisation, economic interventionism, a large government-run public sector, business regulation, and central planning, while trade and foreign investment policies were relatively liberal. Five-Year Plans of India resembled central planning in the Soviet Union. Steel, mining, machine tools, telecommunications, insurance, and power plants, among other industries, were effectively nationalised in the mid-1950s. The Indian economy of this period is characterised as Dirigism. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, along with the statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, formulated and oversaw economic policy during the initial years of the country's independence. They expected favourable outcomes from their strategy, involving the rapid development of heavy industry by both public and private sectors, and based on direct and indirect state intervention, rather than the more extreme Soviet-style central command system. The policy of concentrating simultaneously on capital- and technology-intensive heavy industry and subsidising manual, low-skill cottage industries was criticised by economist Milton Friedman, who thought it would waste capital and labour, and retard the development of small manufacturers. Since 1965, the use of high-yielding varieties of seeds, increased fertilisers and improved irrigation facilities collectively contributed to the Green Revolution in India, which improved the condition of agriculture by increasing crop productivity, improving crop patterns and strengthening forward and backward linkages between agriculture and industry. However, it has also been criticised as an unsustainable effort, resulting in the growth of capitalistic farming, ignoring institutional reforms and widening income disparities. In 1984, Rajiv Gandhi promised economic liberalization, he made V. P. Singh the finance minister, who tried to reduce tax evasion and tax receipts rose due to this crackdown although taxes were lowered. This process lost its momentum during the later tenure of Mr. Gandhi as his government was marred by scandals. Post-liberalisation period (since 1991) The collapse of the Soviet Union, which was India's major trading partner, and the Gulf War, which caused a spike in oil prices, resulted in a major balance-of-payments crisis for India, which found itself facing the prospect of defaulting on its loans. India asked for a $1.8 billion bailout loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which in return demanded de-regulation. In response, the Narasimha Rao government, including Finance Minister Manmohan Singh, initiated economic reforms in 1991. The reforms did away with the Licence Raj, reduced tariffs and interest rates and ended many public monopolies, allowing automatic approval of foreign direct investment in many sectors. Since then, the overall thrust of liberalisation has remained the same, although no government has tried to take on powerful lobbies such as trade unions and farmers, on contentious issues such as reforming labour laws and reducing agricultural subsidies. This has been accompanied by increases in life expectancy, literacy rates, and food security, although urban residents have benefited more than rural residents. From 2010, India has risen from ninth-largest to the fifth-largest economies in the world by nominal GDP in 2019 by surpassing UK, France, Italy and Brazil. India started recovery in 2013–14 when the GDP growth rate accelerated to 6.4% from the previous year's 5.5%. The acceleration continued through 2014–15 and 2015–16 with growth rates of 7.5% and 8.0% respectively. For the first time since 1990, India grew faster than China which registered 6.9% growth in 2015. However the growth rate subsequently decelerated, to 7.1% and 6.6% in 2016–17 and 2017–18 respectively, partly because of the disruptive effects of 2016 Indian banknote demonetisation and the Goods and Services Tax (India). India is ranked 63rd out of 190 countries in the World Bank's 2020 ease of doing business index, up 14 points from the last year's 100 and up 37 points in just two years. In terms of dealing with construction permits and enforcing contracts, it is ranked among the 10 worst in the world, while it has a relatively favourable ranking when it comes to protecting minority investors or getting credit. The strong efforts taken by the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP) to boost ease of doing business rankings at the state level is said to affect the overall rankings of India. COVID-19 pandemic and aftermath (2020–present) During the COVID-19 pandemic, numerous rating agencies downgraded India's GDP predictions for FY21 to negative figures, signalling a recession in India, the most severe since 1979. The Indian Economy contracted by 6.6 percent which was lower than the estimated 7.3 percent decline. In 2022, the ratings agency Fitch Ratings upgraded India's outlook to stable similar to S&P Global Ratings and Moody's Investors Service's outlooks. In the first quarter of financial year 2022–2023, the Indian economy grew by 13.5%. Data The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2022 (with IMF staff estimates in 2023–2028). Inflation below 5% is in green. The annual unemployment rate is extracted from the World Bank, although the International Monetary Fund finds them unreliable. Sectors Historically, India has classified and tracked its economy and GDP in three sectors: agriculture, industry, and services. Agriculture includes crops, horticulture, milk and animal husbandry, aquaculture, fishing, sericulture, aviculture, forestry, and related activities. Industry includes various manufacturing sub-sectors. India's definition of services sector includes its construction, retail, software, IT, communications, hospitality, infrastructure operations, education, healthcare, banking and insurance, and many other economic activities. Agriculture Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 17% of the GDP, the sector employed 49% of its total workforce in 2014. Agriculture accounted for 23% of GDP, and employed 59% of the country's total workforce in 2016. India ranks second globally in food and agricultural production, while agricultural exports were $35.09 billion. As the Indian economy has diversified and grown, agriculture's contribution to GDP has steadily declined from 1951 to 2011, yet it is still the country's largest employment source and a significant piece of its overall socio-economic development. Crop-yield-per-unit-area of all crops has grown since 1950, due to the special emphasis placed on agriculture in the five-year plans and steady improvements in irrigation, technology, application of modern agricultural practices and provision of agricultural credit and subsidies since the Green Revolution in India. However, international comparisons reveal the average yield in India is generally 30% to 50% of the highest average yield in the world. The states of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, West Bengal, Gujarat and Maharashtra are key contributors to Indian agriculture. India receives an average annual rainfall of and a total annual precipitation of 4,000 billion cubic metres, with the total utilisable water resources, including surface and groundwater, amounting to 1,123 billion cubic metres. of the land area, or about 39% of the total cultivated area, is irrigated. India's inland water resources and marine resources provide employment to nearly 6 million people in the fisheries sector. In 2010, India had the world's sixth-largest fishing industry. India is the largest producer of milk, jute and pulses, and has the world's second-largest cattle population with 170 million animals in 2011. It is the second-largest producer of rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton and groundnuts, as well as the second-largest fruit and vegetable producer, accounting for 10.9% and 8.6% of the world fruit and vegetable production, respectively. India is also the second-largest producer and the largest consumer of silk, producing in 2005. India is the largest exporter of cashew kernels and cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL). Foreign exchange earned by the country through the export of cashew kernels during 2011–12 reached based on statistics from the Cashew Export Promotion Council of India (CEPCI). of kernels were exported during 2011–12. There are about 600 cashew processing units in Kollam, Kerala. India's foodgrain production remained stagnant at approximately during both the 2015–16 and 2014–15 crop years (July–June). India exports several agriculture products, such as Basmati rice, wheat, cereals, spices, fresh fruits, dry fruits, buffalo beef meat, cotton, tea, coffee and other cash crops particularly to the Middle East, Southeast and East Asian countries. About 10 percent of its export earnings come from this trade. At around , India has the second-largest amount of arable land, after US, with 52% of total land under cultivation. Although the total land area of the country is only slightly more than one-third of China or US, India's arable land is marginally smaller than that of US, and marginally larger than that of China. However, agricultural output lags far behind its potential. The low productivity in India is a result of several factors.Over-regulation of agriculture has increased costs, price risks and uncertainty, and governmental intervention in labour, land, and credit are hurting the market. Infrastructure such as rural roads, electricity, ports, food storage, retail markets and services remain inadequate. The average size of land holdings is very small, with 70% of holdings being less than in size. Irrigation facilities are inadequate, as revealed by the fact that only 46% of the total cultivable land was irrigated resulting in farmers still being dependent on rainfall, specifically the monsoon season, which is often inconsistent and unevenly distributed across the country. In an effort to bring an additional of land under irrigation, various schemes have been attempted, including the Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) which was provided in the Union Budget. Farming incomes are also hampered by lack of food storage and distribution infrastructure; a third of India's agricultural production is lost from spoilage. Manufacturing and industry Industry accounts for 26% of GDP and employs 22% of the total workforce, and Mumbai is generally considered the industrial capital. According to the World Bank, India's industrial manufacturing GDP output in 2015 was 6th largest in the world on current US dollar basis ($559 billion), and 9th largest on inflation-adjusted constant 2005 US dollar basis ($197.1 billion). The industrial sector underwent significant changes due to the 1991 economic reforms, which removed import restrictions, brought in foreign competition, led to the privatisation of certain government-owned public-sector industries, liberalised the foreign direct investment (FDI) regime, improved infrastructure and led to an expansion in the production of fast-moving consumer goods. Post-liberalisation, the Indian private sector was faced with increasing domestic and foreign competition, including the threat of cheaper Chinese imports. It has since handled the change by squeezing costs, revamping management, and relying on cheap labour and new technology. However, this has also reduced employment generation, even among smaller manufacturers who previously relied on labour-intensive processes. Manufacturing and tech industries are geographically located in industrial regions in India, It is also the world's second-largest coal producer, the second-largest agrochemical producer, the second-largest cement producer, the second-largest steel producer, and the third-largest electricity producer. Agrochemicals and Fertilizers At present, 57 large fertilizer units are manufacturing a wide number of nitrogen fertilizers. These include 29 urea-producing units and 9 ammonia sulfate-producing units as a by-product. Besides, there are 64 small-scale producing units of single super phosphate. According to the latest data released by the WTO, India has emerged as the second largest exporter of agrochemicals in the world. The rank was sixth, 10 years ago.The Indian agrochemical industry fetches valuable trade surplus every year. The trade surplus sharply increased from Rs. 8,030 crores in 2017–18 to Rs. 28,908 crores in the last fiscal. India's agrochemicals export has doubled in the last 6 years from $2.6 bn in 2017–18 to $5.4 bn in the last financial year according to the data recently released by Ministry of Commerce. It has grown at an impressive CAGR of 13% which is among the highest in the manufacturing sector. Millions of farmers in over 130 countries trust Indian agrochemicals for their high quality and affordable prices, said an industry observer. With the global agrochemicals market estimated at $78 billion, predominantly comprising post-patent products, India is rapidly becoming a preferred global hub for sourcing such agrochemicals. To bolster domestic production and reduce imports, the Crop Care Federation of India (CCFI) has recommended specific measures to the Government of India. Defence sector With strength of over 1.3 million active personnel, Indian Army is the third-largest military force and the largest volunteer army. Defence expenditure was pegged at US$70.12 billion for fiscal year 2022–23 and, increased 9.8% than previous fiscal year. India is the world's second largest arms importer; between 2016 and 2020, it accounted for 9.5% of the total global arms imports. India exported military hardware worth in the financial year 2022–23, the highest ever and a notable tenfold increase since 2016–17. Energy sector Primary energy consumption of India is the third-largest after China and US with 5.3% global share in the year 2015. Coal and crude oil together account for 85% of the primary energy consumption of India. India's oil reserves meet 25% of the country's domestic oil demand. India's total proven crude oil reserves are , while gas reserves stood at . Oil and natural gas fields are located offshore at Ashoknagar Oil Field, Bombay High, Krishna Godavari Basin, Mangala Area and the Cauvery Delta, and onshore mainly in the states of West Bengal, Assam, Gujarat and Rajasthan. India is the fourth-largest consumer of oil and net oil imports were nearly in 2014–15, which had an adverse effect on the country's current account deficit. The petroleum industry in India mostly consists of public sector companies such as Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL), Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) and Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL). There are some major private Indian companies in the oil sector such as Reliance Industries Limited (RIL) which operates the world's largest oil refining complex. India became the world's third-largest producer of electricity in 2013 with a 4.8% global share in electricity generation, surpassing Japan and Russia. By the end of calendar year 2015, India had an electricity surplus with many power stations idling for want of demand. The utility electricity sector had an installed capacity of 303 GW of which thermal power contributed 69.8%, hydroelectricity 15.2%, other sources of renewable energy 13.0%, and nuclear power 2.1%. India meets most of its domestic electricity demand through its of proven coal reserves. India is also rich in certain alternative sources of energy with significant future potential such as solar, wind and biofuels (jatropha, sugarcane). India's dwindling uranium reserves stagnated the growth of nuclear energy in the country for many years. Recent discoveries in the Tummalapalle belt may be among the top 20 natural uranium reserves worldwide, and an estimated reserve of of thorium – about 25% of world's reserves – are expected to fuel the country's ambitious nuclear energy program in the long-run. The Indo-US nuclear deal has also paved the way for India to import uranium from other countries. Transport sector The Indian Railways contributes to ~3% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) and has social obligations pegged at $5.3 Billion annually. Indian Railways revenue has grown at 5% CAGR in the past 5 years but profitability has reduced drastically in the past 4 years, due to growing infrastructure and modernization expenses. With a workforce of 1.31 million people, the IR is also one of the country's largest employers. The railways is a major contributor to jobs, GDP, and mobility. Indian Railways has decided to revise its 2022–23 rolling stock production plan upwards. The Ministry's new plan targets the production of 8,429 units for the coming financial year. Production for 2022–23 has been raised by 878 units from the earlier planned 7,551, according to the revised targets. Indian Railways has targeted to manufacture 475 new Vande Bharat trainsets for the next four years as a part of its modernization plan.It is about Rs 40,000 crore(5 billion $) business opportunity that would also create 15,000 jobs and several spin -off benefits. Indian Railway's CORE aims to electrify all of its broad gauge network by 31 March 2024. The entire electrified mainline rail network in India uses 25 kV AC; DC is used only for metros.As of July 2023, India currently has 90% of total train tracks fully electrified. Under the eleventh Five Year Plan of India (2007–12), the Ministry of Railways started constructing a new Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) in two long routes, namely the Eastern and Western freight corridors. The two routes cover a total length of , with the Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor stretching from Ludhiana in Punjab to Dankuni in West Bengal and the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor from Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai (Maharashtra) to Dadri in Uttar Pradesh. The DFC will generate around 42,000 jobs and provide long term employment to many people in public sector and private sector. India is developing modern mass rapid transit systems to meet present and future urban requirements. A modern metro rail system is already in place in the cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Kochi, Gurgaon, Jaipur, Noida, Pune, Nagpur, Kanpur, Ahmedabad and Lucknow. Similar mass transit systems are intended for Agra, Bhopal, Indore, Surat, Patna, Bhubaneswar Tri-city , Chandigarh Tri-city, Gwalior, Mysore, Nashik, Prayagraj, Varanasi, Ranchi, Thane, Trivandrum and Navi Mumbai. Former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee has been credited with success of the metro systems in India and every metro has followed Delhi Metro model generating lot of real estate wealth in India specially in smaller cities like Gurgaon and Noida. For Elevated corridor, there is no need for land acquisition as pillars are built above Median strip of a road. Land prices in tier-II cities such as Lucknow, Patna, Jaipur, Ahmedabad, Pune, Kochi, and Coimbatore have gone up by almost 8-10 percent following the introduction of a metro corridor in these cities, an assessment by JLL has said. India is also developing modern RRTS system to replace the old MRTS system which will provide connectivity in Delhi Metropolitan Area and Mumbai Metropolitan Region which will serve the suburbs of these big cities at 80–100 km of distance from city center. Engineering Engineering is the largest sub-sector of India's industrial sector, by GDP, and the third-largest by exports. It includes transport equipment, machine tools, capital goods, transformers, switchgear, furnaces, and cast and forged parts for turbines, automobiles, and railways. The industry employs about 4 million workers. On a value-added basis, India's engineering subsector exported $67 billion worth of engineering goods in the 2013–14 fiscal year, and served part of the domestic demand for engineering goods. As of 2023, India is the 3rd largest automotive market in the world in terms of sales. The Indian automobile industry is the world's fourth-largest by production. The engineering industry of India includes its growing car, trainsets, rail wagons, motorcycle and scooters industry, and productivity machinery such as steel equipment, nuclear equipment, shovel, dump trucks, tractors. India manufactured and assembled about 18 million passenger and utility vehicles in 2011, of which 2.3 million were exported. Indian Railways has made a new record of manufacturing 10,000 coaches for both domestic and export purposes. India is the largest producer and the largest market for tractors, accounting for 29% of global tractor production in 2013. India is the 12th-largest producer and 7th-largest consumer of machine tools. The rolling stock market in India will be worth 4 billion $ approx. in 2023 will reach 5 billion $ in 2025.The automotive manufacturing industry contributed $79 billion (4% of GDP) and employed 6.76 million people (2% of the workforce) in 2016. Iron and steel India surpassed Japan as the second largest steel producer in January 2019. As per worldsteel, India's crude steel production in 2018 was at , 4.9% increase from in 2017, which means that India overtook Japan as the world's second largest steel production country. According to data presented by PIB(FY2021-22), there are more than 900 steel plants in India that produce crude steel. These are owned by PSUs, large-scale companies as well as small and medium enterprises (SMEs). In the year 2021-22, the total capacity of these plants stood at 154.06 million tonnes. India plans to build 12 new steel plants with a capacity of per year. Indian Ministry of Steel instructed public sector integrated steel plants to increase capacity by at least 80%, to per year by 2030. The current capacity is per year. Steel products produced by large and well established companies such as JSW Group, Jindal Steel and Power, Tata Steel, RINL and SAIL have extremely diversified steel product lines such as TMT Bars, steel pipes, railway tracks, rail wheels etc. The total market value of the Indian steel sector stood at US$57.8 billion in 2011 and is predicted to touch US$95.3 billion by 2016.Growth of crude steel production in India has not kept pace with the growth in capacity of production, according to the report. As per this report, steel sector contributes 2 per cent to India's GDP and employs half a million people directly and 2 million people indirectly. The Indian steel sector has been vibrant, growing at a compounded rate of 6% year-on-year. Business-to-Business commerce Business-to-Business (B2B) marketplaces are likely to hit gross merchandise value (GMV) of $125 billion in the next five years, growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 45%, according to a report by Avendus Capital. India's B2B e-commerce startups sees 3-6x growth, India's B2B (business-to-business) market is twice the size of B2C (business-to-consumer) and contributes roughly two-thirds to India $3 trillion economy.India has seen the rise of several B2B unicorns too and, they are going after what's potentially a $2 trillion opportunity.These companies are fuelling the engines of Indian economy — the micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs). The addressable market is big with over 65 million MSMEs all ready to go digital, but only about six to 10 million of them actively buy and sell online. As per Airtel, 5G will make more B2B Revenues than B2C. Government e Marketplace is an online platform for public procurement within Government departments/organizations in India under Government of India also knows as G2G commerce, The initiative was launched on August 9, 2016, by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. GeM's B2B procurement crosses Rs 2 lakh-crore mark($30.76 Billion).The business through GeM has grown from around Rs 35,000 crore two years ago and tripled last year to Rs 1 lakh 6 thousand crores. Gems and jewellery India is one of the largest centres for polishing diamonds and gems and manufacturing jewellery; it is also one of the two largest consumers of gold. After crude oil and petroleum products, the export and import of gold, precious metals, precious stones, gems and jewellery accounts for the largest portion of India's global trade. The industry contributes about 7% of India's GDP, employs hundreds of thousands, and is a major source of its foreign-exchange earnings. The gems and jewellery industry created $80.84 billion in economic output on value-added basis in 2023. The gems and jewellery industry has been economically active in India for several thousand years. Until the 18th century, India was the only major reliable source of diamonds. Now, South Africa and Australia are the major sources of diamonds and precious metals, but along with Antwerp, New York City, and Ramat Gan, Indian cities such as Surat and Mumbai are the hubs of world's jewellery polishing, cutting, precision finishing, supply and trade. Unlike other centres, the gems and jewellery industry in India is primarily artisan-driven; the sector is manual, highly fragmented, and almost entirely served by family-owned operations. The particular strength of this sub-sector is in precision cutting, polishing and processing small diamonds (below one carat). India is also a hub for processing of larger diamonds, pearls, and other precious stones. Statistically, 11 out of 12 diamonds set in any jewellery in the world are cut and polished in India. Infrastructure India's infrastructure and transport sector contributes about 5% of its GDP. India has a road network of over the second-largest road network in the world only behind United States. At 1.66 km of roads per square kilometre of land (2.68 miles per square mile), the quantitative density of India's road network is higher than that of Japan (0.91) and United States (0.67), and far higher than that of China (0.46), Brazil (0.18) or Russia (0.08). Qualitatively, India's roads are a mix of modern highways and narrow, unpaved roads, and are being improved. 87.05% of Indian roads were paved. It is upgrading its infrastructure. India had completed over of 4- or 6-lane highways, connecting most of its major manufacturing, commercial and cultural centres. India's road infrastructure carries 60% of freight and 87% of passenger traffic. India has a coastline of with 13 major ports, 15 big private ports and 60 operational non-major ports, which together handle 95% of the country's external trade by volume and 70% by value (most of the remainder handled by air). Kandla Port, New Kandla is the largest public port established in early 1960's, while Mundra is the largest private sea port. The airport infrastructure of India includes 125 airports, of which 66 airports are licensed to handle both passengers and cargo. Petroleum products and chemicals Petroleum products and chemicals are a major contributor to India's industrial GDP, and together they contribute over 34% of its export earnings. India hosts many oil refinery and petrochemical operations developed with help of Soviet technology such as Barauni Refinery and Gujarat Refinery , it also includes the world's largest refinery complex in Jamnagar that processes 1.24 million barrels of crude per day. By volume, the Indian chemical industry was the third-largest producer in Asia, and contributed 5% of the country's GDP. India is one of the five-largest producers of agrochemicals, polymers and plastics, dyes and various organic and inorganic chemicals. Despite being a large producer and exporter, India is a net importer of chemicals due to domestic demands. India's chemical industry is extremely diversified and estimated at $178 billion. The chemical industry contributed $163 billion to the economy in FY18 and is expected to reach $300–400 billion by 2025. The industry employed 17.33 million people (4% of the workforce) in 2016. Engineers India, a consulting firm which designs refinery and other petrochemical complex is currently executing the construction of Barmer Refinery to be completed by 2024. Pharmaceuticals The Indian pharmaceutical industry has grown in recent years to become a major manufacturer of health care products for the world. India holds a 20% market share in the global supply of generics by volume. The Indian pharmaceutical sector also supplies over 62% of the global demand for various vaccines. India's pharmaceutical exports stood at $17.27 billion in 2017–18 and are expected to reach $20 billion by 2020. The industry grew from $6 billion in 2005 to $36.7 billion in 2016, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 17.46%. It is expected to grow at a CAGR of 15.92% to reach $55 billion in 2020. India is expected to become the sixth-largest pharmaceutical market in the world by 2020. India is the world's largest manufacturer of generic drugs, and its pharmaceutical sector fulfills over 50% of the global demand for vaccines. It is one of the fastest-growing industrial sub-sectors and a significant contributor to India's export earnings. The state of Gujarat has become a hub for the manufacture and export of pharmaceuticals and active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). Textile The textile and apparel market in India was estimated to be $108.5 billion in 2015. It is expected to reach a size of $226 billion by 2023. The industry employees over 35 million people. By value, the textile industry accounts for 7% of India's industrial, 2% of GDP and 15% of the country's export earnings. India exported $39.2 billion worth of textiles in the 2017–18 fiscal year. The Indian textiles industry is estimated at $100 billion and contributes 13% of industrial output and 2.3% of India's GDP while employs over 45 million people directly. India's textile industry has transformed in recent years from a declining sector to a rapidly developing one. After freeing the industry in 2004–2005 from a number of limitations, primarily financial, the government permitted massive investment inflows, both domestic and foreign. From 2004 to 2008, total investment into the textile sector increased by $27 billion. Ludhiana produces 90% of woollens in India and is known as the Manchester of India. Tirupur has gained universal recognition as the leading source of hosiery, knitted garments, casual wear, and sportswear. Expanding textile centres such as Ichalkaranji enjoy one of the highest per-capita incomes in the country. India's cotton farms, fibre and textile industry provides employment to 45 million people in India, including some child labour (1%). The sector is estimated to employ around 400,000 children under the age of 18. Pulp and paper The pulp and paper industry in India is one of the major producers of paper in the world and has adopted new manufacturing technology. The paper market in India was estimated to be worth in 2017–18 recording a CAGR of 6–7%. Domestic demand for paper almost doubled from around in the 2007–08 fiscal to over in 2017–18. The per capita consumption of paper in India is around 13–14 kg annually, lower than the global average of 57 kg. Mining Mining contributed $63 billion (3% of GDP) and employed 20.14 million people (5% of the workforce) in 2016. India's mining industry was the fourth-largest producer of minerals in the world by volume, and eighth-largest producer by value in 2009. In 2013, it mined and processed 89 minerals, of which four were fuel, three were atomic energy minerals, and 80 non-fuel. The public sector accounted for 68% of mineral production by volume in 2011–12. India has the world's fourth-largest natural resources, with the mining sector contributing 11% of the country's industrial GDP and 2.5% of total GDP. Nearly 50% of India's mining industry, by output value, is concentrated in eight states: Odisha, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. Another 25% of the output by value comes from offshore oil and gas resources. India operated about 3,000 mines in 2010, half of which were coal, limestone and iron ore. On output-value basis, India was one of the five largest producers of mica, chromite, coal, lignite, iron ore, bauxite, barite, zinc and manganese; while being one of the ten largest global producers of many other minerals. India was the fourth-largest producer of steel in 2013, and the seventh-largest producer of aluminium. India's mineral resources are vast. However, its mining industry has declined – contributing 2.3% of its GDP in 2010 compared to 3% in 2000, and employed 2.9 million people – a decreasing percentage of its total labour. India is a net importer of many minerals including coal. India's mining sector decline is because of complex permit, regulatory and administrative procedures, inadequate infrastructure, shortage of capital resources, and slow adoption of environmentally sustainable technologies. Construction The construction industry contributed $288 billion (13% of GDP) and employed 60.42 million people (14% of the workforce) in 2016. The construction and real estate sector ranks third among the 14 major sectors in terms of direct, indirect, and induced effects in all sectors of the economy. The real estate sector will provide huge business opportunities, employment and big avenues for startup ecosystem. The 2023 Union budget of India also focused significantly on infrastructure with nearly ₹10 trillion direct investment of central government. Services and Consulting industry The services sector has the largest share of India's GDP, accounting for 57% in 2012, up from 15% in 1950. It is the seventh-largest services sector by nominal GDP, and third largest when purchasing power is taken into account. The services sector provides employment to 27% of the workforce. Information technology and business process outsourcing are among the fastest-growing sectors, having a cumulative growth rate of revenue 33.6% between fiscal years 1997–98 and 2002–03, and contributing to 25% of the country's total exports in . Aviation India is the fourth-largest civil aviation market in the world recording an air traffic of 158 million passengers in 2017. The market is estimated to have 800 aircraft by 2020, which would account for 4.3% of global volumes, and is expected to record annual passenger traffic of 520 million by 2037. IATA estimated that aviation contributed $30 billion to India's GDP in 2017, and supported 7.5 million jobs – 390,000 directly, 570,000 in the value chain, and 6.2 million through tourism. Civil aviation in India traces its beginnings to 18 February 1911, when Henri Pequet, a French aviator, carried 6,500 pieces of mail on a Humber biplane from Allahabad (present-day Prayagraj) to Naini. Later on 15 October 1932, J.R.D. Tata flew a consignment of mail from Karachi to Juhu Airport. His airline later became Air India and was the first Asian airline to cross the Atlantic Ocean as well as first Asian airline to fly jets. Nationalisation In March 1953, the Indian Parliament passed the Air Corporations Act to streamline and nationalise the then existing privately owned eight domestic airlines into Indian Airlines for domestic services and the Tata group-owned Air India for international services. The International Airports Authority of India (IAAI) was constituted in 1972 while the National Airports Authority was constituted in 1986. The Bureau of Civil Aviation Security was established in 1987 following the crash of Air India Flight 182. De-regulation The government de-regularised the civil aviation sector in 1991 when the government allowed private airlines to operate charter and non-scheduled services under the 'Air Taxi' Scheme until 1994, when the Air Corporation Act was repealed and private airlines could now operate scheduled services. Private airlines including Jet Airways, Air Sahara, Modiluft, Damania Airways and NEPC Airlines commenced domestic operations during this period. The aviation industry experienced a rapid transformation following deregulation. Several low-cost carriers entered the Indian market in 2004–05. Major new entrants included Air Deccan, Air Sahara, Kingfisher Airlines, SpiceJet, GoAir, Paramount Airways and IndiGo. Kingfisher Airlines became the first Indian air carrier on 15 June 2005 to order Airbus A380 aircraft worth 3 billion. However, Indian aviation would struggle due to an economic slowdown and rising fuel and operation costs. This led to consolidation, buyouts and discontinuations. In 2007, Air Sahara and Air Deccan were acquired by Jet Airways and Kingfisher Airlines respectively. Paramount Airways ceased operations in 2010 and Kingfisher shut down in 2012. Etihad Airways agreed to acquire a 24% stake in Jet Airways in 2013. AirAsia India, a low-cost carrier operating as a joint venture between Air Asia and Tata Sons launched in 2014. –14, only IndiGo and GoAir were generating profits. The average domestic passenger air fare dropped by 70% between 2005 and 2017, after adjusting for inflation. Banking and financial services The financial services industry contributed $809 billion (37% of GDP) and employed 14.17 million people (3% of the workforce) in 2016, and the banking sector contributed $407 billion (19% of GDP) and employed 5.5 million people (1% of the workforce) in 2016. The Indian money market is classified into the organised sector, comprising private, public and foreign-owned commercial banks and cooperative banks, together known as 'scheduled banks'; and the unorganised sector, which includes individual or family-owned indigenous bankers or money lenders and non-banking financial companies. The unorganised sector and microcredit are preferred over traditional banks in rural and sub-urban areas, especially for non-productive purposes such as short-term loans for ceremonies. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi nationalised 14 banks in 1969, followed by six others in 1980, and made it mandatory for banks to provide 40% of their net credit to priority sectors including agriculture, small-scale industry, retail trade and small business, to ensure that the banks fulfilled their social and developmental goals. Since then, the number of bank branches has increased from 8,260 in 1969 to 72,170 in 2007 and the population covered by a branch decreased from 63,800 to 15,000 during the same period. The total bank deposits increased from in 1970–71 to in 2008–09. Despite an increase of rural branches – from 1,860 or 22% of the total in 1969 to 30,590 or 42% in 2007 – only 32,270 of 500,000 villages are served by a scheduled bank. India's gross domestic savings in 2006–07 as a percentage of GDP stood at a high 32.8%. More than half of personal savings are invested in physical assets such as land, houses, cattle, and gold. The government-owned public-sector banks hold over 75% of total assets of the banking industry, with the private and foreign banks holding 18.2% and 6.5% respectively. Since liberalisation, the government has approved significant banking reforms. While some of these relate to nationalised banks – such as reforms encouraging mergers, reducing government interference and increasing profitability and competitiveness – other reforms have opened the banking and insurance sectors to private and foreign companies. Financial technology According to the report of The National Association of Software and Services Companies (NASSCOM), India has a presence of around 400 companies in the fintech space, with an investment of about $420 million in 2015. The Indian fintech landscape is segmented as follows – 34% in payment processing, followed by 32% in banking and 12% in the trading, public and private markets. The Fintech growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 22 percent during 2022 and 2030. The overall fintech market in estimated to grow to about 2.1 trillion dollars. Information technology The information technology (IT) industry in India consists of two major components: IT Services and business process outsourcing (BPO). The sector has increased its contribution to India's GDP from 1.2% in 1998 to 7.5% in 2012. According to NASSCOM, the sector aggregated revenues of 147 billion in 2015, where export revenue stood at 99 billion and domestic at 48 billion, growing by over 13%. The Indian IT industry is a major exporter of IT services with $227 billion in revenue and employs over 5 million people. The growth in the IT sector is attributed to increased specialisation, and an availability of a large pool of low-cost, highly skilled, fluent English-speaking workers – matched by increased demand from foreign consumers interested in India's service exports, or looking to outsource their operations. The share of the Indian IT industry in the country's GDP increased from 4.8% in 2005–06 to 7% in 2008. In 2009, seven Indian firms were listed among the top 15 technology outsourcing companies in the world. The business process outsourcing services in the outsourcing industry in India caters mainly to Western operations of multinational corporations. around 2.8 million people work in the outsourcing sector. Annual revenues are around $11 billion, around 1% of GDP. Around 2.5 million people graduate in India every year. Wages are rising by 10–15 percent as a result of skill shortages. Insurance India became the tenth-largest insurance market in the world in 2013, rising from 15th in 2011. At a total market size of US$66.4 billion in 2013, it remains small compared to world's major economies, and the Indian insurance market accounted for just 2% of the world's insurance business in 2017. India's life and non-life insurance industry collected in total gross insurance premiums in 2018. Life insurance accounts for 75.41% of the insurance market and the rest is general insurance. Of the 52 insurance companies in India, 24 are active in life-insurance business. Specialised insurers Export Credit Guarantee Corporation and Agriculture Insurance Company (AIC) offer credit guarantee and crop insurance. It has introduced several innovative products such as weather insurance and insurance related to specific crops. The premium underwritten by the non-life insurers during 2010–11 was against in 2009–10. The growth was satisfactory, particularly given across-the-broad cuts in the tariff rates. The private insurers underwrote premiums of against in 2009–10. Life Insurance Corporation, a Government owned Public sector company has an asset of US$570 billion which greater than Apple Inc.'s US$332.16 billion. Retail The retail industry, excluding wholesale, contributed $793 billion (10% of GDP) and employed 35 million people (8% of the workforce) in 2020. The industry is the second largest employer in India, after agriculture. The Indian retail market is estimated to be US$600 billion and one of the top-five retail markets in the world by economic value. India has one of the fastest-growing retail markets in the world, and is projected to reach $1.3 trillion by 2020. India has retail market worth $1.17 trillion, which contributes over 10% of India's GDP. It also has one of the world's fastest growing e-commerce markets. The e-commerce retail market in India was valued at $32.7 billion in 2018, and is expected to reach $71.9 billion by 2022. India's retail industry mostly consists of local mom-and-pop stores, owner-staffed shops and street vendors. Retail supermarkets are expanding, with a market share of 4% in 2008. In 2012, the government permitted 51% FDI in multi-brand retail and 100% FDI in single-brand retail. However, a lack of back-end warehouse infrastructure and state-level permits and red tape continue to limit growth of organised retail. Compliance with over thirty regulations such as "signboard licences" and "anti-hoarding measures" must be made before a store can open for business. There are taxes for moving goods from state to state, and even within states. According to The Wall Street Journal, the lack of infrastructure and efficient retail networks cause a third of India's agriculture produce to be lost from spoilage. Tourism The World Travel & Tourism Council calculated that tourism generated or 9.4% of the nation's GDP in 2017 and supported 41.622 million jobs, 8% of its total employment. The sector is predicted to grow at an annual rate of 6.9% to by 2028 (9.9% of GDP). Over 10 million foreign tourists arrived in India in 2017 compared to 8.89 million in 2016, recording a growth of 15.6%. The tourism industry contributes about 9.2% of India's GDP and employs over 42 million people. India earned $21.07 billion in foreign exchange from tourism receipts in 2015. International tourism to India has seen a steady growth from 2.37 million arrivals in 1997 to 8.03 million arrivals in 2015. Bangladesh is the largest source of international tourists to India, while European Union nations and Japan are other major sources of international tourists. Less than 10% of international tourists visit the Taj Mahal, with the majority visiting other cultural, thematic and holiday circuits. Over 12 million Indian citizens take international trips each year for tourism, while domestic tourism within India adds about 740 million Indian travellers. India has a fast-growing medical tourism sector of its health care economy, offering low-cost health services and long-term care. In October 2015, the medical tourism sector was estimated to be worth US$3 billion. It is projected to grow to $7–8 billion by 2020. In 2014, 184,298 foreign patients traveled to India to seek medical treatment. Healthcare and Travel Healthcare India's healthcare sector is expected to grow at a CAGR of 29% between 2015 and 2020, to reach US$280 billion, buoyed by rising incomes, greater health awareness, increased precedence of lifestyle diseases, and improved access to health insurance. The India hospital market size was valued at USD 93.6 billion in 2022, driven by the rise in the prevalence of chronic and infectious diseases across India. The market size is anticipated to grow at a CAGR of 5.75% during the forecast period of 2023-2031 to achieve a value of USD 154.8 billion by 2031. Travel Healthcare is a growing sector in India. In 2022,According to Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) report, India's travel healthcare sector was estimated to be worth US$9 billion. Approximately 2 million patients visit India each year from 78 countries for medical, wellness and IVF treatments, generating $6 billion for the industry which is expected to reach $13 billion by 2026 backed by the government’s Heal in India initiative. The ayurveda industry in India recorded a market size of $4.4 billion in 2018. The Confederation of Indian Industry estimates that the industry will grow at a CAGR 16% until 2025. Nearly 75% of the market comprises over-the-counter personal care and beauty products, while ayurvedic well-being or ayurvedic tourism services accounted for 15% of the market. Logistics The logistics industry in India was worth over $160 billion in 2016, and grew at a CAGR of 7.8% in the previous five-year period. The industry employs about 22 million people. It is expected to reach of a size of $215 billion by 2020. India was ranked 35th out of 160 countries in the World Bank's 2016 Logistics Performance Index. Media and Press An ASSOCHAM-PwC joint study projected that the Indian media and entertainment industry would grow from a size of $30.364 billion in 2017 to $52.683 billion by 2022, recording a CAGR of 11.7%. The study also predicted that television, satellite dish, over-the-top services would account for nearly half of the overall industry growth during the period. India has very popular newspaper and media outlets such as The Times of India, Hindustan Times and Zee TV. Films, entertainment and music industry The Indian cinema industry is expected to garner a revenue of around Rs 16,198 crore by 2026, of which Rs 15,849 would be Box office revenue and the rest Rs 349 crore from advertising, the report added. India's Recorded Music industry (which is a key sub-segment) is making steady progress at a CAGR of 13.6 percent, thanks to streaming models. India has many popular music recording houses such as T-series. Telecommunications The telecommunication sector generated in revenue in 2014–15, accounting for 1.94% of total GDP. India is the second-largest market in the world by number of telephone users (both fixed and mobile phones) with 1.053 billion subscribers It has one of the lowest call-tariffs in the world, due to fierce competition among telecom operators. India has the world's third-largest Internet user-base. there were 342.65 million Internet subscribers in the country. India's telecommunication industry is the world's second largest by the number of mobile phone, smartphone, and internet users. It is the world's 24th-largest oil producer and the third-largest oil consumer. Industry estimates indicate that there are over 554 million TV consumers in India India is the largest direct-to-home (DTH) television market in the world by number of subscribers. there were 84.80 million DTH subscribers in the country. Security markets The development of Indian security markets began with the launch of the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) in July 1875 and the Ahmedabad Stock Exchange in 1894. Since then, 22 other exchanges have traded in Indian cities. In 2014, India's stock exchange market became the 10th largest in the world by market capitalisation, just above those of South Korea and Australia. India's two major stock exchanges, BSE and the National Stock Exchange of India, had a market capitalisation of US$1.71 trillion and US$1.68 trillion according to the World Federation of Exchanges, which grew to $3.36 trillion and $3.31 trillion respectively by September 2021. The initial public offering (IPO) market in India has been small compared to NYSE and NASDAQ, raising US$300 million in 2013 and US$1.4 billion in 2012. Ernst & Young stated that the low IPO activity reflects market conditions, slow government approval processes, and complex regulations. Before 2013, Indian companies were not allowed to list their securities internationally without first completing an IPO in India. In 2013, these security laws were reformed and Indian companies can now choose where they want to list first: overseas, domestically, or both concurrently. Further, security laws have been revised to ease overseas listings of already-listed companies, to increase liquidity for private equity and international investors in Indian companies. Foreign trade and investment Foreign trade India's foreign trade by year Until the liberalisation of 1991, India was largely and intentionally isolated from world markets, to protect its economy and to achieve self-reliance. Foreign trade was subject to import tariffs, export taxes and quantitative restrictions, while foreign direct investment (FDI) was restricted by upper-limit equity participation, restrictions on technology transfer, export obligations and government approvals; these approvals were needed for nearly 60% of new FDI in the industrial sector. The restrictions ensured that FDI averaged only around $200 million annually between 1985 and 1991; a large percentage of the capital flows consisted of foreign aid, commercial borrowing and deposits of non-resident Indians. India's exports were stagnant for the first 15 years after independence, due to general neglect of trade policy by the government of that period; imports in the same period, with early industrialisation, consisted predominantly of machinery, raw materials and consumer goods. Since liberalisation, the value of India's international trade has increased sharply, with the contribution of total trade in goods and services to the GDP rising from 16% in 1990–91 to 47% in 2009–10. Foreign trade accounted for 48.8% of India's GDP in 2015. Globally, India accounts for 1.44% of exports and 2.12% of imports for merchandise trade and 3.34% of exports and 3.31% of imports for commercial services trade. India's major trading partners are the European Union, China, United States and United Arab Emirates. In 2006–07, major export commodities included engineering goods, petroleum products, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, gems and jewellery, textiles and garments, agricultural products, iron ore and other minerals. Major import commodities included crude oil and related products, machinery, electronic goods, gold and silver. In November 2010, exports increased 22.3% year-on-year to , while imports were up 7.5% at . The trade deficit for the same month dropped from in 2009 to in 2010. India is a founding-member of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and its successor, the WTO. While participating actively in its general council meetings, India has been crucial in voicing the concerns of the developing world. For instance, India has continued its opposition to the inclusion of labour, environmental issues and other non-tariff barriers to trade in WTO policies. India secured 43rd place in competitiveness index. Balance of payments Since independence, India's balance of payments on its current account has been negative. Since economic liberalisation in the 1990s, precipitated by a balance-of-payment crisis, India's exports rose consistently, covering 80.3% of its imports in 2002–03, up from 66.2% in 1990–91. However, the global economic slump followed by a general deceleration in world trade saw the exports as a percentage of imports drop to 61.4% in 2008–09. India's growing oil import bill is seen as the main driver behind the large current account deficit, which rose to $118.7 billion, or 11.11% of GDP, in 2008–09. Between January and October 2010, India imported $82.1 billion worth of crude oil. The Indian economy has run a trade deficit every year from 2002 to 2012, with a merchandise trade deficit of US$189 billion in 2011–12. Its trade with China has the largest deficit, about $31 billion in 2013. India's reliance on external assistance and concessional debt has decreased since liberalisation of the economy, and the debt service ratio decreased from 35.3% in 1990–91 to 4.4% in 2008–09. In India, external commercial borrowings (ECBs), or commercial loans from non-resident lenders, are being permitted by the government for providing an additional source of funds to Indian corporates. The Ministry of Finance monitors and regulates them through ECB policy guidelines issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) under the Foreign Exchange Management Act of 1999. India's foreign exchange reserves have steadily risen from $5.8 billion in March 1991 to ₹38,832.21 billion (US$540 billion) in July 2020. In 2012, United Kingdom announced an end to all financial aid to India, citing the growth and robustness of Indian economy. India's current account deficit reached an all-time high in 2013. India has historically funded its current account deficit through borrowings by companies in the overseas markets or remittances by non-resident Indians and portfolio inflows. From April 2016 to January 2017, RBI data showed that, for the first time since 1991, India was funding its deficit through foreign direct investment inflows. The Economic Times noted that the development was "a sign of rising confidence among long-term investors in Prime Minister Narendra Modi's ability to strengthen the country's economic foundation for sustained growth". Foreign direct investment As the third-largest economy in the world in PPP terms, India has attracted foreign direct investment (FDI). During the year 2011, FDI inflow into India stood at $36.5 billion, 51.1% higher than the 2010 figure of $24.15 billion. India has strengths in telecommunication, information technology and other significant areas such as auto components, chemicals, apparels, pharmaceuticals, and jewellery. Despite a surge in foreign investments, rigid FDI policies were a significant hindrance. Over time, India has adopted a number of FDI reforms. India has a large pool of skilled managerial and technical expertise. The size of the middle-class population stands at 300 million and represents a growing consumer market. India liberalised its FDI policy in 2005, allowing up to a 100% FDI stake in ventures. Industrial policy reforms have substantially reduced industrial licensing requirements, removed restrictions on expansion and facilitated easy access to foreign technology and investment. The upward growth curve of the real-estate sector owes some credit to a booming economy and liberalised FDI regime. In March 2005, the government amended the rules to allow 100% FDI in the construction sector, including built-up infrastructure and construction development projects comprising housing, commercial premises, hospitals, educational institutions, recreational facilities, and city- and regional-level infrastructure. Between 2012 and 2014, India extended these reforms to defence, telecom, oil, retail, aviation, and other sectors. From 2000 to 2010, the country attracted $178 billion as FDI. The inordinately high investment from Mauritius is due to routing of international funds through the country given significant tax advantages – double taxation is avoided due to a tax treaty between India and Mauritius, and Mauritius is a capital gains tax haven, effectively creating a zero-taxation FDI channel. FDI accounted for 2.1% of India's GDP in 2015. As the government has eased 87 foreign investment direct rules across 21 sectors in the last three years, FDI inflows hit $60.1 billion between 2016 and 2017 in India. Outflows Since 2000, Indian companies have expanded overseas, investing FDI and creating jobs outside India. From 2006 to 2010, FDI by Indian companies outside India amounted to 1.34 per cent of its GDP. Indian companies have deployed FDI and started operations in United States, Europe and Africa. The Indian company Tata is United Kingdom's largest manufacturer and private-sector employer. Remittances In 2015, a total of US$68.91 billion was made in remittances to India from other countries, and a total of US$8.476 billion was made in remittances by foreign workers in India to their home countries. UAE, US, and Saudi Arabia were the top sources of remittances to India, while Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Nepal were the top recipients of remittances from India. Remittances to India accounted for 3.32% of the country's GDP in 2015. Mergers and acquisitions Between 1985 and 2018 20,846 deals have been announced in, into (inbound) and out of (outbound) India. This cumulates to a value of US$618 billion. In terms of value, 2010 has been the most active year with deals worth almost 60 bil. USD. Most deals have been conducted in 2007 (1,510). Here is a list of the top 10 deals with Indian companies participating: Currency EXCHANGE RATES The Indian rupee () is the only legal tender in India, and is also accepted as legal tender in neighbouring Nepal and Bhutan, both of which peg their currency to that of the Indian rupee. The rupee previously was divided into 100 paise, which no longer exist. The highest-denomination banknote is the 2,000 note until 30 September 2023 after which it will be scrapped and ₹500 note will become the highest denomination; the lowest-denomination coin in circulation is the ₹1 coin. In 2017, demonetisation was announced in which ₹500 and ₹1000 notes were withdrawn and new ₹500 notes were issued. India's monetary system is managed by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), the country's central bank. Established on 1 April 1935 and nationalised in 1949, the RBI serves as the nation's monetary authority, regulator and supervisor of the monetary system, banker to the government, custodian of foreign exchange reserves, and as an issuer of currency. It is governed by a central board of directors, headed by a governor who is appointed by the Government of India. The benchmark interest rates are set by the Monetary Policy Committee. The rupee was linked to the British pound from 1927 to 1946, and then to US dollar until 1975 through a fixed exchange rate. It was devalued in September 1975 and the system of fixed par rate was replaced with a basket of four major international currencies: the British pound, US dollar, the Japanese yen and the Deutsche Mark. In 1991, after the collapse of its largest trading partner, the Soviet Union, India faced the major foreign exchange crisis and the rupee was devalued by around 19% in two stages on 1 and 2 July. In 1992, a Liberalized Exchange Rate Mechanism (LERMS) was introduced. Under LERMS, exporters had to surrender 40 percent of their foreign exchange earnings to the RBI at the RBI-determined exchange rate; the remaining 60% could be converted at the market-determined exchange rate. In 1994, the rupee was convertible on the current account, with some capital controls. After the sharp devaluation in 1991 and transition to current account convertibility in 1994, the value of the rupee has been largely determined by market forces. The rupee has been fairly stable during the decade 2000–2010. In October 2022, rupee touched an all-time low 83.29 to US dollar. Income and consumption India's gross national income per capita had experienced high growth rates since 2002. It tripled from 19,040 in 2002–03 to 53,331 in 2010–11, averaging 13.7% growth each of these eight years, with peak growth of 15.6% in 2010–11 and, growth in the inflation-adjusted per-capita income of the nation slowed to 5.6% in 2010–11, down from 6.4% in the previous year. These consumption levels are on an individual basis. The average family income in India was $6,671 per household in 2011. According to 2011 census data, India has about 330 million houses and 247 million households. The household size in India has dropped in recent years, the 2011 census reporting 50% of households have four or fewer members, with an average of 4.8 members per household including surviving grandparents. These households produced a GDP of about $1.7 trillion. Consumption patterns note: approximately 67% of households use firewood, crop residue, or cow-dung cakes for cooking purposes; 53% do not have sanitation or drainage facilities on premises; 83% have water supply within their premises or from their house in urban areas and from the house in rural areas; 67% of the households have access to electricity; 63% of households have landline or mobile telephone service; 43% have a television; 26% have either a two- or four-wheel motor vehicle. Compared to 2001, these income and consumption trends represent moderate to significant improvements. One report in 2010 claimed that high-income households outnumber low-income households. New World Wealth publishes reports tracking the total wealth of countries, which is measured as the private wealth held by all residents of a country. According to New World Wealth, India's total wealth increased from $3,165 billion in 2007 to $8,230 billion in 2017, a growth rate of 160%. India's total wealth decreased by 1% from $8.23 trillion in 2017 to $8.148 trillion in 2018, making it the sixth wealthiest nation in the world. There are 20,730 multimillionaires (7th largest in the world) and 118 billionaires in India (3rd largest in the world). With 327,100 high net-worth individuals (HNWI), India is home to the 9th highest number of HNWIs in the world. Mumbai is the wealthiest Indian city and the 12th wealthiest in the world, with a total net worth of $941 billion in 2018. Twenty-eight billionaires reside in the city, ranked ninth worldwide. the next wealthiest cities in India were Delhi ($450 billion), Bengaluru ($320 billion), Hyderabad ($310 billion), Kolkata ($290 billion), Chennai ($200 billion), and Gurugram ($110 billion). The Global Wealth Migration Review 2019 report, published by New World Wealth, found that 5,000 HNWI's emigrated from India in 2018, or about 2% of all HNWIs in the country. Australia, Canada, and United States were among the top destination countries. The report also projected that private wealth in India would grow by around 180% to reach $22,814 billion by 2028. Poverty In May 2014, the World Bank reviewed and proposed revisions to its poverty calculation methodology of 2005 and purchasing-power-parity basis for measuring poverty. According to the revised methodology, the world had 872.3 million people below the new poverty line, of which 179.6 million lived in India. With 17.5% of the total world's population, India had a 20.6% share of the world's poorest in 2013. According to a 2005–2006 survey, India had about 61 million children under the age of 5 who were chronically malnourished. A 2011 UNICEF report stated that between 1990 and 2010, India achieved a 45 percent reduction in mortality rates under the age of 5, and now ranks 46th of 188 countries on this metric. Since the early 1960s, successive governments have implemented various schemes to alleviate poverty, under central planning, that have met with partial success. In 2005, the government enacted the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), guaranteeing 100 days of minimum wage employment to every rural household in all the districts of India. In 2011, it was widely criticised and beset with controversy for corrupt officials, deficit financing as the source of funds, poor quality of infrastructure built under the programme, and unintended destructive effects. Other studies suggest that the programme has helped reduce rural poverty in some cases. Yet other studies report that India's economic growth has been the driver of sustainable employment and poverty reduction, though a sizeable population remains in poverty. India lifted 271 million people out of poverty between 2006 and 2016, recording the fastest reductions in the multidimensional poverty index values during the period with strong improvements in areas such as assets, cooking fuel, sanitation, and nutrition. On the 2019 Global Hunger Index India ranked 102nd (out of 117 countries), being categorized as 'serious' in severity. Employment Agricultural and allied sectors accounted for about 52% of the total workforce in 2009–10. While agriculture employment has fallen over time in percentage of labour employed, services which include construction and infrastructure have seen a steady growth accounting for 20.3% of employment in 2012–13. Of the total workforce, 7% is in the organised sector, two-thirds of which are in the government-controlled public sector. About 51.2% of the workforce in India is self-employed. According to a 2005–06 survey, there is a gender gap in employment and salaries. In rural areas, both men and women are primarily self-employed, mostly in agriculture. In urban areas, salaried work was the largest source of employment for both men and women in 2006. Unemployment Unemployment in India is characterised by chronic (disguised) unemployment. Government schemes that target eradication of both poverty and unemployment – which in recent decades has sent millions of poor and unskilled people into urban areas in search of livelihoods – attempt to solve the problem by providing financial assistance for starting businesses, honing skills, setting up public sector enterprises, reservations in governments, etc. The decline in organised employment, due to the decreased role of the public sector after liberalisation, has further underlined the need for focusing on better education and created political pressure for further reforms. India's labour regulations are heavy, even by developing country standards, and analysts have urged the government to abolish or modify them to make the environment more conducive for employment generation. The 11th five-year plan has also identified the need for a congenial environment to be created for employment generation, by reducing the number of permissions and other bureaucratic clearances required. Inequalities and inadequacies in the education system have been identified as an obstacle, which prevents the benefits of increased employment opportunities from reaching all sectors of society. Child labour Child labour is a complex problem that is rooted in poverty. Since the 1990s, the government has implemented a variety of programs to eliminate child labour. These have included setting up schools, launching free school lunch programs, creating special investigation cells, etc. Author Sonalde Desai stated that recent studies on child labour in India have found some pockets of industries in which children are employed, but overall, relatively few Indian children are employed. Child labour below the age of 10 is now rare. In the 10–14 age group, the latest surveys find only 2% of children working for wage, while another 9% work within their home or rural farms assisting their parents in times of high work demand such as sowing and harvesting of crops. Diaspora employment India has the largest diaspora around the world, an estimated 32 million people according to the Ministry of External Affairs (India), many of whom work overseas and remit funds back to their families. The Middle East region is the largest source of employment for expat Indians. The crude oil production and infrastructure industry of Saudi Arabia employs over 2 million expat Indians. Cities such as Dubai and Abu Dhabi in United Arab Emirates have employed another 2 million Indians during the construction boom in recent decades. In 2009–10, remittances from Indian migrants overseas stood at , the highest in the world, but their share in FDI remained low at around 1%. Trade unions In India, the Trade Union movement is generally divided on political lines. According to provisional statistics from the Ministry of Labour, trade unions had a combined membership of 24,601,589 in 2002. As of 2008, there are 12 Central Trade Union Organisations (CTUO) recognized by the Ministry of Labour. The forming of these unions was a big deal in India. It led to a big push for more regulatory laws which gave workers a lot more power. AITUC is the oldest trade union in India. It is a left supported organization. A trade union with nearly 2,000,000 members is the Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA) which protects the rights of Indian women working in the informal economy. In addition to the protection of rights, SEWA educates, mobilizes, finances, and exalts their members' trades. Multiple other organizations represent workers. These organizations are formed upon different political groups. These different groups allow different groups of people with different political views to join a Union. Economic issues Corruption Corruption has been a pervasive problem in India. A 2005 study by Transparency International (TI) found that more than half of those surveyed had first-hand experience of paying a bribe or peddling influence to get a job done in a public office in the previous year. A follow-up study in 2008 found this rate to be 40 percent. In 2011, TI ranked India at 95th place amongst 183 countries in perceived levels of public sector corruption. By 2016, India saw a reduction in corruption, and its ranking improved to 79th place. In 1996, red tape, bureaucracy, and the Licence Raj were suggested as a cause for the institutionalised corruption and inefficiency. More recent reports suggest the causes of corruption include excessive regulations and approval requirements, mandated spending programs, monopoly of certain goods and service providers by government-controlled institutions, bureaucracy with discretionary powers, and lack of transparent laws and processes. Computerisation of services, various central and state vigilance commissions, and the 2005 Right to Information Act – which requires government officials to furnish information requested by citizens or face punitive action – have considerably reduced corruption and opened avenues to redress grievances. In 2011, the Indian government concluded that most spending fails to reach its intended recipients, as the large and inefficient bureaucracy consumes budgets. India's absence rates are among the worst in the world; one study found that 25% of public sector teachers and 40% of government-owned public-sector medical workers could not be found at the workplace. Similarly, many issues are facing Indian scientists, with demands for transparency, a meritocratic system, and an overhaul of the bureaucratic agencies that oversee science and technology. India has an underground economy, with a 2006 report alleging that India topped the worldwide list for black money with almost $1,456 billion stashed in Swiss banks. This would amount to 13 times the country's total external debt. These allegations have been denied by the Swiss Banking Association. James Nason, the Head of International Communications for the Swiss Banking Association, suggested "The (black money) figures were rapidly picked up in the Indian media and in Indian opposition circles, and circulated as gospel truth. However, this story was a complete fabrication. The Swiss Bankers Association never published such a report. Anyone claiming to have such figures (for India) should be forced to identify their source and explain the methodology used to produce them." A Step was taken by Prime Minister Modi, on 8 November 2016, involved the demonetization of all 500 and 1000 rupee bank notes (replaced by new 500 and 2000 rupee notes) to return black money into the economy followed by criticism that the measure was deemed ineffective by economists and negatively affected the poorest people of India. This demonetisation together with the introduction of The goods and services tax(GST) is believed to be responsible for the slowdown in growth. Education India has made progress in increasing the primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately three-fourths of the population. India's literacy rate had grown from 52.2% in 1991 to 74.04% in 2011. The right to education at the elementary level has been made one of the fundamental rights under the Eighty-Sixth Amendment of 2002, and legislation has been enacted to further the objective of providing free education to all children. However, the literacy rate of 74% is lower than the worldwide average, and the country suffers from a high drop-out rate. Literacy rates and educational opportunities vary by region, gender, urban and rural areas, and among different social groups. Economic disparities A critical problem facing India's economy is the sharp and growing regional variations among India's different states and territories in terms of poverty, availability of infrastructure, and socio-economic development. Six low-income states – Assam, Chhattisgarh, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Uttar Pradesh – are home to more than one-third of India's population. Severe disparities exist among states in terms of income, literacy rates, life expectancy, and living conditions. The four states of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Karnataka alone are projected to account for almost 50% of India's GDP by 2030; the five South Indian states are projected to contribute 35% of India's GDP by 2030 despite currently having 20% of India's population. The five-year plans, especially in the pre-liberalisation era, attempted to reduce regional disparities by encouraging industrial development in the interior regions and distributing industries across states. The results have been discouraging as these measures increased inefficiency and hampered effective industrial growth. The more advanced states have been better placed to benefit from liberalisation, with well-developed infrastructure and an educated and skilled workforce, which attract the manufacturing and service sectors. Governments of less-advanced states have tried to reduce disparities by offering tax holidays and cheap land and focused on sectors like tourism, which can develop faster than other sectors. India's income Gini coefficient is 33.9, according to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), indicating overall income distribution to be more uniform than East Asia, Latin America, and Africa. The Global Wealth Migration Review 2019 report, published by New World Wealth, estimated that 48% of India's total wealth was held by high-net-worth individuals. There is a continuing debate on whether India's economic expansion has been pro-poor or anti-poor. Studies suggest that economic growth has been pro-poor and has reduced poverty in India. Climate change Debt External Debt See also Economic Advisory Council Economic development in India List of megaprojects in India Make in India – a government program to encourage manufacturing in India NITI Aayog Startup India Taxation in medieval India Political funding in India Events: Great Recession World oil market chronology from 2003 Demonetization Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India Lists: List of companies of India List of largest companies in India List of the largest trading partners of India List of megaprojects in India Trade unions in India Natural resources of India Notes References Further reading Books Malone, David M., C. Raja Mohan, and Srinath Raghavan, eds. The Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy (2015) excerpt pp 609–649. Papers and reports Bahl, R., Heredia-Ortiz, E., Martinez-Vazquez, J., & Rider, M. (2005). India: Fiscal Condition of the States, International Experience, and Options for Reform: Volume 1 (No. paper05141). International Center for Public Policy, Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University. Articles News a External links Ministry of Finance Ministry of Commerce and Industry Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation India profile at the CIA World Factbook India profile at The World Bank India – OECD India Economy of Asia-related lists

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계몽주의

계몽주의(啓蒙主義, )란 18세기 하반기에 프랑스를 기점으로 유럽 전역에 유행했던 문화적, 철학적, 문학적, 지적 사조다. 이것이 흥했던 시대를 계몽시대라고 한다. 대표적인 철학자로 바뤼흐 스피노자, 존 로크, 피에르 벨, 아이작 뉴턴 등이 있다. 계몽주의자들은 스스로를 진보적 엘리트라고 생각했고, 종교적 정치적 박해에 맞서 투쟁했다. 계몽주의자들의 저작은 미국 독립전쟁과 프랑스 혁명을 비롯한 18세기 말의 정치적 대격변에 큰 영향을 미쳤다. 개설 17세기 후반에 시작되어 18세기에 장미빛으로 개화(開花)된 계몽 운동은 정치나 경제, 사회, 종교, 사상 등에 있어서의 전근대적인 어둠에 이성의 빛을 비추었다. 전근대적인 어둠이란 전근대적이며 봉건적, 종교적인 권위, 특권, 부정, 압제(壓制), 인습(因習), 전통, 편견, 미신(迷信) 등이다. 계몽(어둠에 빛을 비추어 밝고 현명하게 하는 일)의 사상가는, 이성을 척도로 하여 이 어둠을 비판하고 심판했다. 거기서는 종교도 자연관(自然觀)도, 사회도 국가도, 모든 것이 용서 없이 비판되었다. 이제까지의 사회 형태라든지 전통적인 사고방식이 불리한 것으로서 쓰레기통에 던져졌다. 이성에 의해서 생각해 낸 것이 모든 인간 행위나 사회 형태의 기준으로서 요구되었다. 이성에 입각한 영원한 진리, 영원한 정의가 종래의 암우(暗愚)와 대치되어야 했던 것이다. 그것은 바로 일체가 신의 권위에 입각한 중세(中世)에 대해서, 모든 것을 인간의 두뇌의 사고(理性)에 입각하게 한다는 역전이었다. 이성적 정신의 열광이 세계를 뒤흔들었던 것이다. 먼저 정치에 관해서는 계약론(契約論)이 주장되었다. 인간은 침범되어서는 안 되는 자연권(自然權)을 가지고 있다. 자연에 입각해서 자유이며, 평등이다. 생존과 재산 소유의 권리를 가지고 있다. 그것을 지키기 위해서 사람은 계약에 의해 국가를 만들었다. 따라서 우리는 기본적인 권리가 침해당했을 경우, 비판하고 저항할 권리가 있다는 것이다. 이 견지에서 계몽사상가들은 왕권이나 낡은 제도나 압제나 불평등에 대해서 날카로운 비판과 공격을 가했다. 그리하여 그것에 의해서 근대적인 여러 혁명에 이론적 지주(支柱)를 제공했다. 그들 계몽사상가들은, 사람은 노동에 의해서 비로소 재산을 자기 것으로 할 수 있다고 하는 주장을 전개했다. 이로써 한편에서는 전근대적 착취를 비난하고, 또 한편에서는 흥륭(興隆)하는 자본주의적 사유(私有)를 옹호했다. 종교에 있어서는 이성의 입장에서 이신론(理神論), 자연종교, 이성종교, 나아가 무신론(無神論) 등이 나타나서 신앙의 자유, 종교적 관용(寬容), 교권으로부터의 해방 등이 요구되었다. 도덕에 관해서는 한편으로 순수한 이성에 따르는 것을 선(善)이라고 보는 이성주의가, 또 한편으로는 인간적인 행복을 제1의로 하는 행복론(幸福論)이 주장되었다. 또한 인식론에서는 감각적 소여(所與)를 오성(悟性) 내지 자아가 종합하는 데에서 진리가 성립한다는 감성(感性), 오성론, 감각적 경험을 중시하는 경험주의 내지 감각론, 나아가서 유물론 등이 나타났다. 이와 같은 계몽사상을 급속도로 발전해 온 자본주의 내지 부르주아 시민의식과 과학 내지 기술의 진보를 배경으로 하고 있다. 따라서 계몽 운동은 자본주의가 가장 발전한 영국에서 시작되어(로크, 흄, 스미스 등), 프랑스에 가서(몽테스키외, 볼테르, 루소, 백과전서파 등), 독일로 파급되어 갔다(라이프니츠, 볼프, 칸트 등). 영국이나 프랑스에서의 계몽운동은 하층(下層)으로부터 상층으로의 상승(上昇)의 반영이었다. 따라서 근대혁명의 이론적 지주가 될 수 있었다. 그러나 근대화에서 뒤떨어진 독일에서는 이와 같은 하층에서의 상승이 결여되어 있었다. 이 때문에 계몽사상은 머리 속에서만의 자유나 평등이나 인권 존중에 그쳐야 했다. 독일의 계몽사상을 계몽된 전제군주(專制君主)에 의한 '위에서부터의 개혁'에 독일의 근대화를 기대했던 것이다. 독일 17세기 말부터 독일의 철학은 새로운 시대를 맞았다. 그때까지 지배적이었던 신학(神學)과 그의 종이었던 스콜라의 형이상학에 대신해서 인간의 이성이나 경험을 중시하는 경향이 철학에 나타났다. 이것은 시민계급의 자유롭고 비판적인 사고 활동의 고조(高潮)를 의미하는 것이었다. 독일 철학의 이와 같은 시기는 대략 크리스티안 토마지우스(1655-1728)가 할레 대학에서 활동하기 시작한 1690년부터 칸트의 <순수이성비판(純粹理性批判)>이 간행된 1781년까지로 보고 있다. 이 시대의 주요 철학자들로서는, 신학과 철학의 융화를 꾀한 철학자인 라이프니츠를 과도기(過渡期)의 사람으로 하고 데카르트, 스피노자의 수학적인 방법으로 인식론을 완성시키려고 한 치른하우스(치른하우젠) (1651-1708), 영국 경험론을 독일에 소개하고 법학(法學)의 영역에서 업적을 남긴 토마지우스(1655-1728), 계몽의 대표적 철학자로서 형식 합리성을 기초로 형이상학의 개조(改造)를 시도하고, 칸트 철학을 준비한 볼프, 스피노자주의의 입장에서 정통 루터주의 신학을 비판하고, 유물론적 경향의 범신론(汎神論)을 주장하여 헤르더나 괴테에게 강력한 영향을 남긴 에데르만(1698-1767), 독일 계몽의 최대 사상가 레싱 등이 있다. 당시의 독일은 봉건 제후(諸侯) 지배하의 소방 분립(小邦分立) 상태에 있었고, 봉건권력과 손을 잡은 루터 주의 신학이 자유로운 언론을 탄압하고 있었기 때문에, 독일 계몽사상은 신학과 종교 문제로 오랫동안 고민하지 않으면 안 되었다. 영국 넓은 의미로서의 영국 계몽철학은 17세기 초의 프랜시스 베이컨에서 18세기 말의 애덤 스미스, 벤담에 이르는 경험론의 철학과 거의 같다고 해석되는데, 좁은 뜻으로는 존 로크에서 스미스까지의 18세기 철학을 총칭한다. 그 가운데서 신학적으로는 이성의 우위(優位)를 설명하고 후에 무신론으로 경사(傾斜)를 보인 이신론(理神論)의 흐름(앤서니 콜린즈, 존 톨랜드, 제3대 샤프츠버리 백작)이 있고 도덕철학으로서는 인간에 내재(內在)하는 모랄센스를 강조하는 도덕감학파(道德感學派)(샤프츠버리)와 유물론에의 경향을 가진 공리주의(데이비드 하틀리, 조셉 프리스틀리, 버너드 맨더빌)가 대립되어 있으며, 인식론으로서는 경험과 감각을 중시하는 경향(흄)이 나타났다. 흄은 회의론(懷疑論)에 빠졌는데 이것은 오히려 예외적이며, 대세(大勢)는 도덕감을 강조하든 이기심(利己心)을 강조하든간에 밝은 낙관론(樂觀論)과 인간 중심주의를 가지고 있었다. 그러나 프랑스 계몽사상과 같은 사회 비판은 없고, 온건하고 현상(現狀) 긍정적이며, 이 점에 영국 계몽사의 특징이 있다고 하겠다. 프랑스 프랑스에서는 다만 '철학'이라고 불린다. 18세기 10년대, 가톨릭 신앙의 권위주의, 금욕이나 복종의 윤리에 반대하는 본능과 지성의 저항이 데카르트 철학의 영향 아래 문학가 사이에 일어나서 1715년 이후가 되자 이성적(理性的) 비판으로 발전해 나갔다. 볼테르나 몽테스키외, 디드로는 앙시앵 레짐(舊制度) 사회에 고착(固着)하는 종교적 편견, 사회적 기성관념에 비판을 가했는데, 특히 볼테르는 이신론(理神論), 종교적 관용(寬容)을 가지고 교회에 대한 공격을 실시했으며, 몽테스키외는 신랄한 사회, 문명 비판을 전개했다. 이 기간, 데카르트의 이성(理性)은 정적(靜的)인 진리의 선험적(先驗的)인 보유자라는 성질에서 기능적(機能的)인 진리의 추구자(追求者)라는 성질로 변했으며, 한편에서는 영국에서 뉴턴 물리학의 경험주의, 로크의 감각론(感覺論) 등이 수입되어 이러한 요소는 프랑스 계몽주의 철학 형성에 영향을 주었다.그것은 체계(體系)라기보다 모든 학문 연구를 매개(媒介)하는 것에 가깝다. 1748년 몽테스키외의 <법의 정신>이 발표되는 해는 프랑스 사회의 경제 번영, 경제 자유주의의 성장을 배경으로 계몽주의의 결전(決戰) 개시기라 불린다. 앙시앵 레짐 사회에 대한 자연법(自然法)이나 사상적, 정치적 입장에서의 비판은 차츰 체계화되어, 1752년에는 <백과전서(百科全書)>로서 결실을 보았다. 이 시기의 철학자 가운데는 콩디약, 엘베시우스, 라 메트리 등과 같이 감각론, 이신론의 입장에서 유물론, 무신론(無神論)으로 발전해 나가는 것도 나타났고, 한편 정치 비판은 루소의 <사회계약론>(1762)과 같이 전체 사회질서에서 국가의 기본 원리로 거슬러 올라가는 것도 있었다. 1770년경 이미 계몽주의는 시대의 지배적인 이데올로기가 되어, 미국 혁명이나 프랑스를 방문한 프랭클린(1707-1790)의 정치적 활동의 영향 등에서 자극을 받아 사회, 정치 변혁의 이론적 방향을 잡기 시작했다. 모루레(1727-1819)나 마블리(1709-1785) 등이 이 세대이며, 자연법을 하나의 구체적 목표로 하고 공동 소유의 사회를 상정(想定)하게 되었다. 프랑스 혁명 직전, 철학은 전국의 개명적(開明的) 부르주아를 사로잡아 '생각하는 대중'을 조성(造成)하는 것으로써 실천적인 변혁의 사상이 되었다. 혁명의회에서 전개되는 모든 정치사상은 이미 계몽주의에 원형(原型)으로서 내포된 것이며, 그것이 전쟁이나 경제 위기, 정치적 역관계(力關係)를 계기로 전개된 것이다. 19세기 전반기 계몽주의의 인식론, 과학론, 역사론은 콩트의 실증주의에 계승되었고, 한편 보편적 이성(理性)에의 신뢰는 루아이에 코랄, 주프로와(1796-1842) 등에 계승되었다. 외부 링크

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res

Lumières

The Lumières (literally in English: The Lights) was a cultural, philosophical, literary and intellectual movement beginning in the second half of the 17th century, originating in western Europe and spreading throughout the rest of Europe. It included philosophers such as Baruch Spinoza, David Hume, John Locke, Edward Gibbon, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot, Pierre Bayle and Isaac Newton. This movement is influenced by the scientific revolution in southern Europe arising directly from the Italian renaissance with people like Galileo Galilei. Over time it came to mean the , in English the Age of Enlightenment. Members of the movement saw themselves as a progressive élite, and battled against religious and political persecution, fighting against what they saw as the irrationality, arbitrariness, obscurantism and superstition of the previous centuries. They redefined the study of knowledge to fit the ethics and aesthetics of their time. Their works had great influence at the end of the 18th century, in the American Declaration of Independence and the French Revolution. This intellectual and cultural renewal by the Lumières movement was, in its strictest sense, limited to Europe. These ideas were well understood in Europe, but beyond France the idea of "enlightenment" had generally meant a light from outside, whereas in France it meant a light coming from within oneself. In the most general terms, in science and philosophy, the Enlightenment aimed for the triumph of reason over faith and belief; in politics and economics, the triumph of the bourgeois over nobility and clergy. Philosophical themes Scientific revolution Advances in scientific method The Lumières movement was in large part an extension of the discoveries of Nicolas Copernicus in the 16th century, which were not well known during his lifetime, and more so of the theories of Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642). Inquiries to establish certain axioms and mathematical proofs continued as Cartesianism throughout the 17th century. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646 – 1716) and Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) had independently and almost simultaneously developed the calculus, and René Descartes (1596 – 1650) the idea of monads. British philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes and David Hume adopted an approach, later called empiricism, which preferred the use of the senses and experience over that of pure reason. Baruch Spinoza took Descartes' side, most of all in his Ethics. But he demurred from Descartes in ("On the Improvement of the Understanding"), where he argued that the process of perception is not one of pure reason, but also the senses and intuition. Spinoza's thought was based on a model of the universe where God and Nature are one and the same. This became an anchor in the Age of Enlightenment, held across the ages from Newton's time to that of Thomas Jefferson's (1743–1826). A notable change was the emergence of a naturalist philosophy, spreading across Europe, embodied by Newton. The scientific method – exploring experimental evidence and constructing consistent theories and axiom systems from observed phenomena – was undeniably useful. The predictive ability of its resulting theories set the tone for his masterwork Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687). As an example of scientific progress in the Age of Reason and the Lumières movement, Newton's example remains unsurpassed, in taking observed facts and constructing a theory which explains them a priori, for example taking the motions of the planets observed by Johannes Kepler to confirm his law of universal gravitation. Naturalism saw the unification of pure empiricism as practiced by the likes of Francis Bacon with the axiomatic, "pure reason" approach of Descartes. Belief in an intelligible world ordered by a Christian God became the crux of philosophical investigations of knowledge. On one side, religious philosophy concentrated on piety, and the omniscience and ultimately mysterious nature of God; on the other were ideas such as deism, underpinned by the impression that the world was comprehensible by human reason and that it was governed by universal physical laws. God was imagined as a "Great Watchmaker"; experimental natural philosophers found the world to be more and more ordered, even as machines and measuring instruments became ever more sophisticated and precise. The most famous French natural philosopher of the 18th century, Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon, was critical of this natural theology in his masterwork Histoire Naturelle. Buffon rejected the idea of ascribing to divine intervention and the "supernatural" that which science could now explain. This criticism brought him up against the Sorbonne which, dominated by the Roman Catholic Church, never stopped trying to censor him. In 1751, he was ordered to redact some propositions contrary to the teaching of the Church; having proposed 74,000 years for the age of the Earth, this was contrary to the Bible which, using the scientific method on data found in biblical concordances, dated it to around 6,000 years. The Church was also hostile to his no less illustrious contemporary Carl von Linné, and some have concluded that the Church simply refused to believe that order existed in nature. Individual liberty and the social contract This effort to research and elucidate universal laws, and to determine their component parts, also became an important element in the construction of a philosophy of individualism, where everyone had rights based only on fundamental human rights. There developed the philosophical notion of the thoughtful subject, an individual who could make decisions based on pure reason and no longer in the yoke of custom. In Two Treatises of Government, John Locke argued that property rights are not held in common but are totally personal, and made legitimate by the work required to obtain the property, as well as its protection (recognition) by others. Once the idea of natural law is accepted, it becomes possible to form the modern view of what we would now call political economy. In his famous essay Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment? (, ), Immanuel Kant defined the Lumières thus: The Lumières' philosophy was thus based on the realities of a systematic, ordered and understandable world, which required Man also to think in an ordered and systematic way. As well as physical laws, this included ideas on the laws governing human affairs and the divine right of kings, leading to the idea that the monarch acts with the consent of the people, and not the other way around. This legal concept informed Jean-Jacques Rousseau's theory of the social contract as a reciprocal relationship between men, and more so between families and other groups, which would become increasingly stronger, accompanied by a concept of individual inalienable rights. The powers of God were moot amongst atheist Lumières. The Lumières movement redefined the ideas of liberty, property and rationalism, which took on meanings that we still understand today, and introduced into political philosophy the idea of the free individual, liberty for all guaranteed by the State (and not the whim of the government) backed by a strong rule of law. To understand the interaction between the Age of Reason and the Lumières, one approach is to compare Thomas Hobbes with John Locke. Hobbes, who lived for three quarters of the 17th century, had worked to create an ontology of human emotions, ultimately trying to make order out of an inherently chaotic universe. In the alternate, Locke saw in Nature a source of unity and universal rights, with the State's assurance of protection. This "culture revolution" over the 17th and 18th centuries was a battle between these two viewpoints of the relationship between Man and Nature. This resulted, in France, in the spread of the notion of human rights, finding expression in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which greatly influenced similar declarations of rights in the following centuries, and left in its wake global political upheaval. Especially in France and the United States, freedom of expression, freedom of religion and freedom of thought were held to be fundamental rights. Social values and manifests Representation of the people The core values supported by the Lumières were religious tolerance, liberty and social equality. In England, America and France, the application of these values resulted in a new definition of natural law and a separation of political power. To these values may be added a love of nature and the cult of reason. Philosophical goals The ideal figure of the Lumières was a philosopher, a man of letters with a social function of exercising his reason in all domains to guide his and others' conscience, to advocate a value system and use it in discussing the problems of the time. He is a committed individual, involved in society, an (Encyclopédie; "Honest man who approaches everything with reason"), (Diderot, "Who concerns himself with revealing error"). The rationalism of the Lumières was not to the exclusion of aesthetics. Reason and sentiment went hand-in-hand in their philosophy. The thoughts of the Lumières were equally capable of intellectual rigour and sentimentality. Despite controversy about the limits of their philosophy,<ref>{{cite book|first=Louis|last=Sala-Molins|title=Les misères des Lumières; sous la raison l'outrage|place=Paris|publisher=Flammarion|year=1992}}</ref> especially when they denounced black slavery, many Lumières criticised slavery, or colonialism, or both, including Montesquieu in De l'Esprit des Lois (while keeping a "personal" slave), Denis Diderot in Supplément au voyage de Bougainville, Voltaire in Candide and Guillaume-Thomas Raynal in his encyclopaedic Histoire des deux Indes, the very model of 18th-century anticolonialism to which, among others, Diderot and d’Holbach contributed. It was stated without any proof that one of their number, Voltaire, had shares in the slave trade. Encyclopaedic goals At the time, there was a particular taste for compendia of "all knowledge". This ideal found an instance in Diderot and d'Alembert's ("Encyclopaedia, or Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts"), usually known simply as the Encyclopédie. Published between 1750 and 1770 it aimed to lead people out of ignorance through the widest dissemination of knowledge. Criticism The Lumières movement was, for all its existence, pulled in two directions by opposing social forces: on one side, a strong spiritualism accompanied by a traditional faith in the religion of the Church; on the other, the rise of an anticlerical movement, critical of the differences between religious theory and practice, which was most manifest in France. Anticlericism was not the only source of tension in France: some noblemen contested monarchical power and the upper classes wanted to see greater fruit from their labours. A relaxing of morals fomented opinion against absolutism and the Ancient Order. According to Dale K. Van Kley, Jansenism in France also became a source of division. The French judicial system showed itself to be outdated. Even though commercial law had become codified during the 17th century, there was no uniform, or codified, civil law. Voltaire This social and legal background was criticised in works by the likes of Voltaire. Exiled in England between 1726 and 1729, he studied the works of John Locke and Isaac Newton, and the English monarchy. He became well known for his denunciation of injustices such as those against Jean Calas, Pierre-Paul Sirven, François-Jean de la Barre and Thomas Arthur, comte de Lally. The Lumières philosophy saw its climax in the middle of the 18th century. For Voltaire, it was obvious that if the monarch can get the people to believe unreasonable things, then he can get them to do unreasonable things. This axiom became the basis for his criticism of the Lumières, and led to the basis of romanticism: that constructions from pure reason created as many problems as they solved. According to the Lumières philosophers, the crucial point of intellectual progress consisted of the synthesis of knowledge, enlightened by human reason, with the creation of a sovereign moral authority. A contrary point of view that developed, arguing that such a process would be swayed by social conventions, leading to a "New Truth" based on reason that was but a poor imitation of the ideal and unassailable truth. The Lumières movement thus tried to find a balance between the idea of a "natural" liberty (or autonomy) and the freedom from that liberty, that is to say, the recognition that the autonomy found in nature was at odds with the discipline required for pure reason. At the same time, with various monarchs' reforms, there was a piecemeal attempt to redefine the order of society, and the relationship between monarch and subjects. The idea of a natural order was equally prevalent in scientific thought, for example, in the works of the biologist Carl von Linné. Kant In Germany, Immanuel Kant (like Rousseau, defining himself among the Lumières) heavily criticised the limitations of pure reason in his work Critique of Pure Reason (), but also that of English empiricism in Critique of Practical Reason (). Compared with the rather subjective metaphysics of Descartes, Kant developed a more objective viewpoint in this branch of philosophy. Adam Smith Great thinkers at the end of the Lumières movement (Adam Smith, Thomas Jefferson and even the young Goethe) adopted into their philosophy the ideas of self-organising and evolutionary forces. The Lumières' stance was then presented with reference to what was seen as a universal truth: that Good is fundamental in nature, but it is not self-evident. On the contrary, it is the advance of human reason that reveals this constant structure. Romanticism is the exact opposite of this stance. Aestheticism This resulted in reflections about urbanism. The Lumières' model town would be a joint effort between public provision and sympathetic architects, to create administrative or utilitarian buildings (town halls, hospitals, theatres, commissariats) all provided with views, squares, fountains, promenades, and so on. The French Académie royale d'architecture was of the opinion that ("The beautiful is the pleasant"). For Abbé Laugier, on the contrary, the beautiful was that which was in line with rationality. The natural model for all architecture was the log cabin supported by four tree trunks, with four horizontal parts and a roof, respectively columns, entablature, and pediments. The model of a Greek temple was thus extended into the décor and the structure. This paradigm resulted in a change of style in the middle of the 18th century: Rococo was dismissed, Ancient Greece and Palladian architecture became the principal references for neoclassical architecture. The University of Virginia, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was founded by Thomas Jefferson. He drew up plans for parts of the campus based on the values of the Lumières. The Place Stanislas at Nancy, France is the focus of an array of neoclassical urban buildings, and has been on the UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites in France since 1983, as well as several other sites in the town, such as the Place de la Carrière and the Place d’Alliance, the administrative centre of the time. Claude Nicolas Ledoux (1736 – 1806) was a member of the Académie d'Architecture was without doubt the architect whose projects best represented the utopian, purely rational environment. (That which is rational, and thus based in the understanding of nature, cannot be at the same time utopian.) Starting in 1775 he built the Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans, a very industrial city in Doubs. The bourgeoise had learned nothing from the Lumières, even though they saw Rousseau, Montesquieu and Kant as honest men who approved of the "élite": a vague concept, and one of which the Lumières amongst others disapproved. There was considerable coverage in the English and French Press, but less so in Germany and Italy; in Spain and Russia very few knew about it save a few intellectuals, senior officials and grand families participated in the movement. The mass of the people could not care less: the vast majority of the common people, even in France, had never heard of Voltaire or Rousseau. Nevertheless, the Lumières had disrupted the old certainties. This did not stop at social and political upheaval: the Enlightenment inspired a revolutionary generation, which is not to say they explicitly encouraged the French Revolution of 1789. Key figures Philosophers Origins The philosophers of the Lumières movement came with many different talents: Thomas Jefferson had had a legal education but was equally at home with archaeology and architecture; Benjamin Franklin had been a career diplomat and was a physicist. Condorcet wrote on subjects as wide-ranging as commerce, finance, education and science. The social origins of the philosophers were also diverse: many were from middle-class families (Voltaire, Jefferson), others from more modest beginnings (Emmanuel Kant, Franklin, Diderot) or from the nobility (Montesquieu, Condorcet). Some had had a religious education (Diderot, Louis de Jaucourt) or one in the law (Montesquieu, Jefferson). The philosophers formed networks and communicated in letters; the vitriolic correspondence between Rousseau and Voltaire is well known. The great figures of the 18th century met and debated in the salons, cafés or academies. These thinkers and formed an international community. Franklin, Jefferson, Adam Smith, David Hume and Ferdinando Galiani all spent many years in France. Because they criticised the established order, the philosophers were chased by the authorities and had to resort to subterfuge to escape prison. François-Marie Arouet took on the pseudonym Voltaire. In 1774, Thomas Jefferson wrote a report on behalf of the Virginia delegates to the First Continental Congress, which was convened to discuss the grievances of Great Britain's American colonies. Because its content, he could only publish it anonymously. Diderot's ("Letter on the Blind for the Use of those who can See") landed him in prison at the Château de Vincennes. Voltaire was accused of writing pamphlets criticising Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (1674–1723), and imprisoned in the Bastille. in 1721, Montesquieu published ("Persian Letters") anonymously in Holland. From 1728 to 1734, he went to many European countries. Faced with censorship and in financial difficulty, the philosophers often resorted to the protection of aristocrats and patrons: Chrétien Guillaume de Lamoignon de Malesherbes and Madame de Pompadour, chief mistress of Louis XV, supported Diderot. Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin (1699 – 1777) paid part of the publishing costs of the Encyclopédie. From 1749 to 1777 she held a fortnightly , inviting artists, intellectuals, men of letters and philosophers. The other great salon of the time was that of Claudine Guérin de Tencin. In the 1720s, Voltaire exiled himself in England, where he absorbed Locke's ideas. The philosophers were, in general, less hostile to monarchical rule than they were to that of the clergy and the nobility. In his defence of Jean Calas, Voltaire defended Royal justice against the excesses of fantastical provincial courts. Many European monarchs – Charles III of Spain, Maria Theresa of the House of Habsburg, Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, Catherine II of Russia, Gustave III of Sweden – met with philosophers such as Voltaire, who was presented to the Court of Frederick the Great, and Diderot, who was presented to the Court of Catherine the Great. Philosophers such as d'Holbach were advocates of "enlightened absolutism" in the hope that their ideas would spread more quickly if they had the approval of the Head of State. Subsequent events would show the philosophers the limits of such an approach with sovereigns who were , "more absolutist than enlightened". Only Rousseau stuck rigidly to the revolutionary ideal of political equality. Notable members France Pierre Bayle, Émilie du Châtelet, Étienne Bonnot de Condillac, Nicolas de Condorcet, Denis Diderot, Jean le Rond D'Alembert, Olympe de Gouges, Vincent de Gournay, D'Holbach, Bernard Le Bouyer de Fontenelle, Claude-Adrien Helvétius, Gilbert du Motier de La Fayette, Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier, La Mettrie, Louis de Jaucourt, Jean-François Marmontel, Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, Montesquieu, François Quesnay, Antoine Destutt de Tracy, Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Voltaire, Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon World England: Anthony Collins, John Locke, Edward Gibbon, William Godwin, Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, Samuel Johnson, James Oglethorpe, William Paley, Joseph Priestley, William Wilberforce, Mary Wollstonecraft Ireland: George Berkeley, Richard Cantillon, John Toland Germany (Prussia): Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, Johann Gottfried von Herder, Emmanuel Kant, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Moses Mendelssohn Italy: Cesare Beccaria, Ferdinando Galiani, Mario Pagano, Giambattista Vico, Pietro Verri, Alessandro Verri, Antonio Genovesi, Carlo Goldoni, Giuseppe Parini Poland: Hugo Kołłątaj, Jean Potocki, Ignacy Krasicki Portugal: Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal, Luís António Verney, António Nunes Ribeiro Sanches, Francisco de Oliveira, Duarte Ribeiro de Macedo, Matias Aires Ramos da Silva Eça Russia: Nikolay Ivanovich Novikov, Mikhail Lomonosov Romania: Ion Budai-Deleanu, Ienăchiţă Văcărescu, Anton Pann, Samuil Micu, Gheorghe Șincai Scotland: James Boswell, David Hume, Francis Hutcheson, James Burnett, Lord Monboddo, Adam Smith, James Watt Spain: Antonio José Cavanilles, Pedro Rodríguez de Campomanes, Benito Jerónimo Feijoo, Lorenzo Hervás y Panduro, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, Leandro Fernández de Moratín, José Celestino Mutis Switzerland (Geneva): Jean-Jacques Rousseau United States: John Adams, Samuel Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Thomas Paine, George Washington Dissemination The spread of literacy and reading allowed the development of what may be called an , "public space"; intellectual and political debate was no longer confined to the inner circle of the administrative class and the élite, encompassing larger parts of society. This process of dissemination of new ideas was increased by new methods of communication. Parts of the Encyclopédie, were read by the nobility and the upper class in literary salons, with those present giving their opinions on the writings of philosophers. Newspapers and the postal service allowed a more rapid exchange of ideas throughout Europe, resulting in a new form of cultural unity. Encylopédistes A second important change by the Lumières movement, looking back to the previous century, had its origin in France with the Encyclopédistes. This intellectual movement supported the idea that there was a structural model of both scientific and moral knowledge, that this model was innate and that its expression was a form of human liberation. Starting 1751, Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert published the ("Systematic Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Science, Arts and Crafts"). This raised questions on who should have the liberty to get hold of such information; the Press played an important role in the dissemination of ideas during the French Revolution. Salons and cafés At first, literary cafés such as the Café Procope in Paris, were the favoured night-time haunt of young poets and critics, who could read and debate, and bragg about their latest success in the theatre or bookshops. But these were eclipsed by (Literary cafés), open to all who had some talent, at least for public speaking. Their defining characteristic was their intellectual mix; men would gather to express their views and satisfy their thirst for knowledge and to establish their world-view. But it was necessary to be "introduced" into these salons: received artists, thinkers and philosophers. Each hostess had her day, her speciality and her special guests. The model example is the hotel of Madame de Lambert (Anne-Thérèse de Marguenat de Courcelles) at the turn of the century. Talented men regularly decamped there to expound their ideas and test their latest work on a privileged public. Worldly and cultured, the grandes dames who set up these salons enlivened the soirées, encouraging the timid and cutting short arguments. Having strong, relatively liberated personalities, they were often writers and diarists themselves. This social mixing was particularly prominent in 18th-century France, in the "" ("General States of Human Spirit") where the Lumières philosophy flourished. Some cultured women were treated as equal to the men on questions of religion, politics and science, and could bring a certain stylishness to debate, for example the contributions of Anne Dacier to the Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns, and the works of Émilie du Châtelet. Academies, libraries and clubs The were learned societies which were formed to collate and disseminate works of literature and science. In France, several Royal institutions were set up in the 17th century (the Académie française in 1634; the Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres in 1663; the Académie royale des sciences in 1666; the Académie royale d'architecture in 1671),; other societies were set up in Paris, such as the Académie nationale de médecine in 1731 and the Académie nationale de médecine in 1776. Clergy and, to a lesser extent, nobility formed the majority of the membership. Provincial societies acted to bond together the intellectual élite of French towns. Their social composition shows that privileged men were less prominent than in Paris: 37% from the nobility, 20% from the Church. Commoners represented the other 43%. Merchants and manufacturers were a small minority (4%). Neighbouring academies, public libraries and lecture halls flourished, often involving the same enthusiastic men of learning. They were often supported by individual rich men, or funded by public subscription. They collected scientific works, the great dictionaries, had a lecture hall and, nearby, a discussion room. All learned societies functioned as open salons and formed provincial, national and Europe-wide networks, exchanging books and letters, welcoming visiting members, and launching research and teaching programmes in subjects such as physics, chemistry, mineralogy, agronomy, and demography. In the British Thirteen Colonies of North America, James Bowdoin (1726–1790), John Adams (1735–1826) and John Hancock (1737–1793) founded the American Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston during the American War of Independence. In 1743, Benjamin Franklin founded the American Philosophical Society. At the start of the 19th century, Thomas Jefferson had one of the largest private libraries in the country. Of all the learned societies, the most advanced was that of the Freemasons, although restricted to the upper classes. Having its origin in Great Britain, freemasonry embraced all the characteristics of the Lumières: God-fearing, tolerant, liberal, humanist, aesthetic. It took Europe by storm, where it had thousands of lodged by 1789. In civil, military and even religious walks of life, it did particularly well in becoming part of the State apparatus. Neither anticlerical (which they became in the 19th century) nor revolutionary, masonic lodges helped to expand on philosophical ideas and the spirit of reform in their political strategies. Intellectual discussion took on an esoteric, or sectarian, nature. Masonic lodges, even more than the Academies, emphasised the importance of equality according to ability rather than privilege by birth. Hawkers and printers The spread of ideas of the Lumières relied just as heavily on the actions of travelling traders. As they moved from town to town, they took their ideas and news with them, and could spread it by word of mouth to the illiterate. The Press had helped to spread philosophical tracts (notably Diderot and d'Álembert's Encyclopédie), and encouraged the habit of reflective thought in the populace. In the end, the Press helped form public opinion, in spite of the ever-present censorship. Periodicals included the Journal des savants, also known as the Journal des Sçavans, the Mercure de France, and economic periodicals such as the Éphémérides du citoyen under Nicolas Baudeau of the Économistes party and François Quesnay of the Physiocrates. By cataloguing books and with subscriptions to learned societies, a public far from the centre of political activity could keep up with new ideas, discoveries and debates every month, if not every day. Political influence By the end of the 17th century, John Locke had defined the separation of powers of government as between the executive branch and legislative branch. In De l'esprit des lois (1748) Montesquieu resurrected the idea of the separation of powers and extended it to include a third power, the judicial branch. In the 1750s attempts were made in England, Austria, Prussia and France to "rationalise" their monarchs and their laws. The "enlightened"' () idea of a "rational" (or "systematic"; ) government was cast into the American Declaration of Independence and, to a lesser extent, in the manifesto of Jacobinism during the French Revolution. It propagated to the United States Constitution of 1787. American Revolution Thomas Jefferson, a cultured and learned man and one of the original planters of the State of Virginia, was well known to the English philosopher John Locke, and the Genevan Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He presided over the drafting of the Constitution of Virginia in 1776, from which he took certain parts when drafting the American Declaration of Independence, proclaimed on 4 July 1776 at the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia. In the summer of 1784, he travelled to Europe to take over the duties of Benjamin Franklin as Ambassador of the United States to France, and during this time he met many of the Lumières, becoming a frequent visitor to literary salons and bookshops in Paris. The influence of the Lumières'philosophy is apparent in the Declaration of Independence, with the proclamations that all men are created equal and its opposition to tyranny. The 1787 United States Constitution restates Montesquieu's principle of the separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial branches, which together form the foundations of modern democracy. French Revolution As the philosophy took hold in the salons, the cafés and the clubs, the absolute rule of the monarch disintegrated, in part because of opposition by the French nobility who saw no future for themselves in reform. During the French Revolution, philosophical ideas informed political debate. The majority of deputies to the National Assembly were from the cultured bourgeois class, who aspired to ideas of liberty and equality. For example, Maximilien de Robespierre was an enthusiastic follower of Rousseau. But most of the French philosophers died before seeing their seedlings planted during the Revolution bear fruit, with the exception of Nicolas de Condorcet, Louis Sébastien Mercier and Abbé Raynal. The first two of these three Girondists fell out of favour; only the third came out with honour, even, after his death in 1796, having a bust made in honour of his essays on the abolition of black slavery, on 4 February 1794 (in the Gregorian calendar; 16 pluviôse of year II in the French Republican Calendar). He was also the uncle of a , Simon Camboulas. The French Revolution in particular represents a violent application of the Lumières' philosophy, especially during the Reign of Terror, the interregnum of the Jacobins. Descartes characterised the desire for a "rational" and "spiritual" revolution as one that aimed to eradicate the Church, and Christianity, entirely. The National Convention revoked the French Republican Calendar, the system of measurement of time, and the system of currency, while making the goal of equality, both social and economic, the highest priority of the State. See also Gazette de Leyde Political Spectrum Lettres d'une Péruvienne'' by Françoise de Graffigny Modernity Rationalism Universalism Notes References External links Virtual tour of the French National Library Age of Enlightenment American Revolution French Revolution Posthumanists

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2009년 도쿄도의회 의원 선거

2009년 도쿄도의회 의원 선거()는 도쿄도의회 의원 127명을 선출하기 위해 2009년 7월 12일에 실시되었다. 개요 도쿄도의회 선거는 본래 통일지방선거의 일부로서 실시되었으나, 1965년의 의회 해산으로 선거 시기가 달라졌기 때문에 일본에서 이바라키현의회, 오키나와현의회와 함께 통일지방선거로 실시되지 않는 도도부현 의회 선거이다. 이번 선거에서 유권자 수는 지난 2005년 선거 때보다 33만 명 증가한 약 1060만 명이었다. 선거의 주요 쟁점은, 2016년 하계 올림픽의 도쿄 유치와 도쿄도지사 이시하라 신타로의 쓰키지 시장 이전 계획, 신은행도쿄를 둘러싼 문제였다. 또한 세습 정치인 규제에 대한 국민적 논의도 쟁점이 되었다. 무엇보다도 중의원의 4년 임기 만료에 따른 총선거가 늦어도 2009년 10월까지는 실시되어야 했기에 "총선거의 전초전" 성격을 띄었다. 연립 여당이었던 공명당은 도쿄도를 중요한 거점이라고 생각하여 도의원 선거와 총선거 사이의 간격을 최소 1개월 이상으로 조정해 달라고 중의원 해산권을 가진 아소 다로 총리에게 요청했다. 선거 정보 고시일 2009년 7월 3일 투표일 2009년 7월 12일 의원 정수 총 127명 선거 제도 소선거구제, 2~8명을 선출하는 대선거구제 입후보자 의원 정수 127명에 대하여 221명이 입후보했다. 선거 결과 자유민주당은 선거 전 48석으로 도의회 제1당이었지만, 이번 선거에서는 38석에 그치며 제2당으로 전락했는데, 이는 1963년부터 1965년 사이 줄줄이 밝혀진 도의회 의원들의 부패 스캔들인 "도쿄도의회 검은 안개 사건"이 발생한 뒤 도의회 자진 해산으로 치러진 1965년 선거에서 일본사회당에 제1당을 빼앗긴 이후 처음 있는 일이었다. 특히 1명의 의원을 선출하는 소선거구제로 치러진 7개 선거구에서 1승 6패로 사실상 완패하였는데, 이 7개 선거구 중 1959년 이래 한번도 다른 당에 빼앗기지 않은 지요다구, 주오구, 오메시 선거구에서 모두 민주당 후보가 당선되었다. 구체적으로, 지요다구에서는 자민당 도쿄도 지역 회장을 맡으며 6기 연속 당선됐던 현직 의원이 선거 고시 일주일 전 출마를 선언한 민주당의 신인 후보에게 패하였고, 주오구에서는 7기 연속 당선됐던 현직 의원이 민주당의 신인 여성 후보에게 패했다. 공명당은 입후보한 23명 전원이 당선됐지만 자민당과 의석을 합쳐도 61석으로 과반인 64석에 못 미치게 됐다. 민주당은 선거 고시 전부터 이번 도의원 선거를 "총선거의 전초전"으로 규정했다. 선거 결과 민주당은 선거 전 34석에서 54석으로 크게 약진해 도의회 제1당을 차지했다. 특히 자민당이 수십년간 지켜온 7개의 소선거구에서 6승 1패로 압승을 거두었다. 일본공산당, 도쿄 생활자 네트워크 등 다른 정당들은 선거 전보다 의석이 줄어들었다. 특히 일본공산당은 선거 전 13석에서 8석으로 5석이 줄어드는 참패를 당해 44년만에 도쿄도의회에서 의석이 한 자리수대로 떨어졌다. 그 결과 도의회에 의안을 제출하기 위해 필요한 최소 의석(11석)을 확보하지 못했다. 사회민주당은 지난번 도의원 선거와 마찬가지로 의석을 얻지 못했다. 선거 후 이 선거 결과를 두고 도쿄도지사인 이시하라 신타로는 선거 다음날의 회견에서 "중의원 선거를 앞두고 스모(패배)를 당했다. 대단히 귀찮은 결과" 라고 말했다. 선거 후 자유민주당에서는 당 총재이자 내각총리대신인 아소 다로의 퇴진을 요구하는 목소리가 높아졌고, 이에 아소 다로는 자신에 대한 퇴진 요구를 잠재우기 위해 선거 다음날인 7월 13일 오후에 기자회견을 통해 "7월 21일에 중의원을 해산해 8월 30일에 총선거를 실시한다"라며 중의원 해산을 선언하였고, 당 총재직 사퇴 요구는 일축하였다. 아울러 민주당 등 야당들은 이번 도의원 선거 결과를 기회로 삼아 중의원에는 내각 불신임 결의안을, 참의원에는 총리 문책 결의안을 제출하였으며, 이후 불신임 결의는 중의원(자민당이 제1당)에서 부결, 총리 문책 결의안은 참의원(민주당이 제1당)에서 가결되었다. 한편, 자민당 도쿄도 지역 회장 이시하라 노부테루는 도의원 선거 자민당 참패에 따라 회장직 사퇴 의사를 표명했으나 후임이 결정되지 않아 결국 이시하라를 비롯해 도쿄도 지역당 집행부 전원이 연임됐다. 또한 참패를 당한 일본공산당은 7월 16일에 시이 가즈오 위원장이 기자회견을 통해 민주당에 대한 입장을 "비판 일변도"에서 "서로 일치하는 정책에 대해서는 협력하는 '건설적 야당'으로 전환한다"라는 기본 방침을 발표했다. 각주 외부 링크 도쿄도 선거관리위원회 도쿄도의회 의원 선거 2009년 7월 도쿄도의회 의원 선거

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20Tokyo%20prefectural%20election

2009 Tokyo prefectural election

Prefectural elections for the Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly were held on 12 July 2009. In the runup to the Japanese general election due by October they were seen as an important test for Taro Aso's ruling coalition of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) and the New Komeito. New Komeito considers Tokyo as an important stronghold and had repeatedly asked Prime Minister Aso to avoid holding the two elections within a month of each other. Campaigning officially started on July 3, 2009. The prefecture's 10.6 million registered voters (up 230,000 from 2005) were called upon to elect the 127 Assembly members in 42 electoral districts at 1,868 polling stations across Tokyo. 221 candidates had been formally registered with the Tokyo metropolitan electoral commission. The LDP and the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) each endorsed 58 candidates, the Japan Communist Party (JCP) supports 40 and New Komeito formally fields 23 candidates, though it has also decided to support LDP candidates in several districts. Local campaign issues included Tokyo's bid for the 2016 Olympic Games and governor Shintaro Ishihara's plan to relocate the Tsukiji fish market in 2012. The national debate over a possible ban of "hereditary" (, seshū) politicians has also affected several candidates. Tokyo's legislative election is one of only three elections for prefectural parliaments countrywide that are not held in the "unified regional election" (tōitsu chihō senkyo, last round: 2007), the other two being Ibaraki's and Okinawa's prefectural assembly elections. Results Polls closed at 8:00 pm Japan Standard Time. Turnout was significantly up from 2005 and stood at 54.5 percent. The DPJ picked up 20 seats and saw 54 of their 58 candidates elected. The LDP lost its status as strongest party in the Metropolitan Assembly for the first time since 1965. Despite strong results for coalition partner Kōmeitō, the ruling camp could not defend an absolute majority (64 seats). The only electoral district where an LDP candidate received the most votes (top tōsen) was the single-member [Izu and Ogasawara] islands electoral district of former assembly president Chūichi Kawashima, a native of Ōshima town who had represented the islands since 1985. |- ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:left;" |Parties ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:left;" |Candidates ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Votes ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |% ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Seats |- | style="text-align:left;" |Democratic Party of Japan (民主党, Minshutō) | style="text-align:right;" | 58 | style="text-align:right;" | 2,298,494 | style="text-align:right;" | 40.79 | style="text-align:right;" | 54 |- | style="text-align:left;" |Liberal Democratic Party of Japan (自由民主党, Jiyū Minshutō) | style="text-align:right;" | 58 | style="text-align:right;" | 1,458,108 | style="text-align:right;" | 25.88 | style="text-align:right;" | 38 |- | style="text-align:left;" |New Komeito Party (公明党, Kōmeitō) | style="text-align:right;" | 23 | style="text-align:right;" | 743,427 | style="text-align:right;" | 13.19 | style="text-align:right;" | 23 |- | style="text-align:left;" |Japanese Communist Party (日本共産党, Nihon Kyōsan-tō) | style="text-align:right;" | 40 | style="text-align:right;" | 707,602 | style="text-align:right;" | 12.56 | style="text-align:right;" | 8 |- | style="text-align:left;" |Tokyo Seikatsusha Network (東京・生活者ネットワーク) | style="text-align:right;" | 5 | style="text-align:right;" | 110,407 | style="text-align:right;" | 1.96 | style="text-align:right;" | 2 |- | style="text-align:left;" |Social Democratic Party (社民党 Shamin-tō) | style="text-align:right;" | 2 | style="text-align:right;" | 20,084 | style="text-align:right;" | 0.36 | style="text-align:right;" | 0 |- | style="text-align:left;" | Others | style="text-align:right;" | 13 | style="text-align:right;" | 45,329 | style="text-align:right;" | 0.80 | style="text-align:right;" | 0 |- | style="text-align:left;" | Independents | style="text-align:right;" | 22 | style="text-align:right;" | 250,869 | style="text-align:right;" | 4.45 | style="text-align:right;" | 2 |- |style="text-align:left;background-color:#E9E9E9"|Total (turnout 54.49%) |style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 221 |style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"| 5,705,441 |style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"| 100.00 |style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"| 127 |- | style="text-align:left;" colspan=5 |Source: Tokyo electoral commission |} Aftermath The president of the LDP's Tokyo prefectural federation, one of governor Ishihara's then two sons in the national House of Representatives, Nobuteru, initially hinted to step down as LDP Tokyo chief, but eventually stayed on. Nationally, Tarō Asō came under pressure within his party to resign immediately as party president-prime minister, but could avoid a leadership challenge by calling the general election of the House of Representatives early – the election on August 30 resulted in a landslide loss for the ruling coalition. Democrat Ryō Tanaka from Suginami was elected assembly president, Kantarō Suzuki (Kōmeitō, Arakawa) became vice president. The assembly majority in the new assembly is often involved in disputes with governor Ishihara over the budget, the Tsukiji relocation and other issues. Yet, in the gubernatorial election of 2011 (part of the unified regional election), Ishihara was safely reelected for a fourth term. References External links JANJAN: 東京都議会議員選挙 2009 elections in Japan Tokyo prefectural elections July 2009 events in Japan 2009 in Tokyo

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8C%80%20%EC%9B%A8%EC%9D%B4%ED%81%AC%ED%95%84%EB%93%9C

팀 웨이크필드

티모시 스티븐 ("팀") 웨이크필드(Timothy Stephen ("Tim") Wakefield, 1966년 8월 2일~2023년 10월 1일)는 미국의 프로 야구 투수이다. 웨이크필드는 피츠버그 파이리츠와 함께 자신의 투수 경력을 시작하였으나 팀에서 장기적으로 복무한 선수로서 1995년에 시작하여 2012년 자신의 은퇴와 함께 끝난 보스턴 레드삭스와 자신의 17년간 재직으로 가장 기억되는 편이다. 은퇴 당시 웨이크필드는 메이저 리그 베이스볼에서 연장자 활동 선수였다. 자신의 기호적 너클볼로 알려진 웨이크필드는 2011년 9월 3일 토론토 블루제이스를 상대로 자신의 200번째 경력 경기를 우승하고, 사이 영과 로저 클레멘스 두 선수에 이어 186개의 팀 승리와 함께 레드삭스에서 3위이다. 그는 97개의 이닝과 함께 펜웨이 파크에서 사상 우승에서 2위(클레멘스의 100개의 뒤로)이고, 레드삭스의 투수에 의하여 투구된 이닝에서 3,006개와 함께 사상 1위로 2010년 6월 8일 클레멘스의 총 2,777개를 앞섰다. 웨이크필드는 로베르토 클레멘테 상을 위하여 8번이나 후보에 올랐으며 2010년에 수상하였다. 2023년 10월 1일, 웨이크필드는 향년 57세의 나이에 암으로 세상을 떠났다. 초기 생애 플로리다주 멜번에서 태어난 그는 오 게일리 고등학교에서, 그러고나서 플로리다 공과 대학에서 수학하였다. 플로리다 공과 대학에서 그는 자신의 2학년과 주니어 해에 1루수로서 팬서스 팀의 MVP로 임명되었다. 그는 40에서 경력 홈런 기록은 물론, 22개의 홈런과 함께 싱글 시즌 기록들을 세웠다. 2006년 그의 등번호 3은 대학에 의하여 영구 결번 되었다. 프로 경력 피츠버그 파이리츠 웨이크필드는 1988년 피츠버그 파이리츠에 의하여 2루수로서 드래프트되었다. 스카우트가 그의 실력들과 함께 포지션의 선수로서 그가 전혀 더블 A의 공 위로 얻지 않을 것이라고 그에게 말을 한 후, 웨이크필드는 자신을 잘 알려지게 만든 너클볼을 개발하기 시작하였다. 이어진 시즌에 웨이크필드는 싱글 A 세일럼 뷰캐니어스를 위하여 활약하는 동안 자신의 프로 투수 데뷔를 이루었다. 그의 즉시의 성공은 1990년 투수로 완전한 풍습으로 이끌었고, 그는 투구한 출발과 이닝들에서 캐롤라이나 리그를 이끌었다. 웨이크필드는 1991년 더블 A로 진출하여 지속적으로 향상시켜 우승과 투구한 이닝들에서 파이르츠의 마이너 리그 선수들을 이끌고 자신이 2.90의 방어율과 함께 15 승 8 패로 갈 때 경기들을 완료하였다. 1992년~94년 1992년 웨이크필드는 아메리칸 어소시에이션의 트리플 A 버펄로 바이슨스와 함께 시즌을 시작하였다. 그는 7월 31일 리그 사상 6개의 완료 경기들을 등록하여 3.06의 방어율과 함께 10개의 경기를 우승하고 메이저 리그 베이스볼로 소집되었다. 자신의 메이저 리그 데뷔에서 웨이크필드는 세인트루이스 카디널스를 상대로 146개의 투구를 던지는 동안 10명의 타자들 스트라이크아웃 시켰다. 막바지의 분전으로 내려가서 웨이크필드는 플레이오프를 뛰어오르는 파이리츠를 위하여 후원을 마련하여 13개의 경기들을 시작하고, 스포팅 뉴스로부터 "올해의 내셔널 리그 신인 투수" 상을 그에게 수여한 상연인 2.15의 방어율과 함께 8 승 1 패의 기록을 수집하였다. 내셔널 리그 동부 디비전을 우승한 후, 파이리츠는 내셔널 리그 챔피언십 시리즈에서 애틀랜타 브레이브스를 향하였다. 웨이크필드는 브레이브스의 스타 선수 톰 글래빈을 상대러 자신의 출발들을 둘다 이기고 시리즈의 3번째 경기와 3일간 휴식에 6번째 경기에서 완료 경기를 던졌다. 파이리츠가 7번째 경기에서 브레이브스를 지도하면서 웨이크필드는 브레이브스가 스탠 벨린다에 9번째 말기에서 3개의 득점을 위하여 규합할 때까지 내셔널 리그 챔피언십 시리즈의 MVP로 임명되는 데 균형이 잡혔다. 1993년 시즌의 첫달 동안 웨이크필드는 2번이나 9명의 타자들을, 그리고 다른 출발에서 10명을 1루로 건너가게 하였다. 출발 교체에서 자신의 자리를 잃은 후, 웨이크필드는 더블 A로 보내졌다. 그는 9월에 다시 불러지고 다시 분투하였으나 2개의 연속적 완봉과 함께 시즌을 끝냈다. 웨이크필드는 1994년의 대부분을 트리플 A 버펄로와 보냈다. 그는 허용된 패배와 홈런들에서 리그를 이끌었다. 웨이크필드는 9월 파이리츠에 의하여 다시 불러졌으나 선수들의 파업의 이유로 야구를 하지 않았다. 1995년 4월 20일 파이리츠는 웨이크필드를 내보냈다. 보스턴 레드삭스 파이리츠에 의하여 나오게 된지 6일 후, 웨이크필드는 보스턴 레드삭스와 계약이 맺어졌다. 그는 아웃 투구로서 그에게 너클볼을 사용하는 데 용기를 준 2명의 전 너클볼 선수 필과 조 니크로와 함께 일하였다. 트리플 A 포터킷에서 웨이크필드는 2.53의 방어율과 함께 2 승 1 패로 갔다. 1995년~98년 레드삭스의 교체가 1995년 시즌 초기에 부상들로부터 출발 선수들 로저 클레멘스와 에런 실의 정상으로 분투하면서 웨이크필드는 트리플 A로부터 소집되었고, 곧 그들의 가장 의지적인 출발 선수로 증명하였다. 그는 17개의 경기들(그중에 6개는 완료 경기)을 통하여 1.65의 방어율과 14 승 1 패의 기록과 시즌을 시작하였다. 그는 한해를 2.95의 방어율과 함께 16 승 8 패로 끝내 레드삭스가 아메리칸 리그 동부 디비전 타이틀을 우승하는 도움을 주었고, 스포팅 뉴스 "올해의 아메리칸 리그 복귀 선수" 상을 사로잡았다. 그는 아메리칸 리그 사이 영 상 비밀 투표에서 3위를 하였다. 다음 3개의 시즌(1996년~98년)에 웨이크필드는 45개의 경기를 우승하고, 출발 선수로서 3개의 시즌에 각각 5.14, 4.25와 4.58의 방어율을 가졌다. 1997년 그는 투구와 함께 16명의 타자들을 안타하면서 메이저 리그 베이스볼을 이끌었다. 그는 2001년 18명의 타자들을 넘어뜨리는 이 업적을 되풀이하였다. 1999년~2002년 1999년 레드삭스의 최종회 톰 고든이 부상을 당하고 감독 지미 윌리엄스는 시즌의 중반 동안 웨이크필드를 새로운 최종회로 자리에 앉혔다. 8월 10일 그는 하나의 이닝에서 4명의 타자들을 스트라이크아웃 시킨 투수들의 선발 단체에 가입하였다. 안절부절하지 못한 너클볼이 많은 패스된 공을 생산하기 때문에 몇몇의 너클볼 선수들은 그와 함께 이 명예를 나누었다. 그는 데릭 로가 새로운 최종회로서 나오기 전에 15개의 세이브를 기록하였고, 웨이크필드는 출발 교체로 돌아왔다. 자신의 불펜의 외부로 성공 때문에 웨이크필드는 정규적으로 구원 투수의 포지션으로부터 출발 투수로 옮겨지고 다음 3개의 시즌(2000년~02년)에 다시 돌아왔다. 2002년 7월 후순에 교체로 복귀된 후, 웨이크필드는 영구한 정규적 출발 투수가 되었다. 2003년~08년 2003년 아메리칸 리그 챔피언십 시리즈에서 웨이크필드는 뉴욕 양키스를 상대로 14개의 이닝에 4개의 득점을 허용하였다. 그는 마이크 무시나를 상대로 시리즈의 첫번째와 4번째 경기들을 시작하고, 이 출발 경기들을 둘다 우승하였다. 양키스가 경기를 동점 매긴 후, 그는 또한 7번째 경기의 여분의 이닝에서 투구하는 데 불러들였다. 레드삭스는 8번째 이닝에서 5 대 2로 이끌어져 왔다. 10번째 이닝에서 순서에 물러간 후, 웨이크필드는 11번째 이닝의 자신의 첫 투구에 에런 분에게 홈런을 내주어 양키스를 월드 시리즈로 보냈다. 경기가 끝난 후, 웨이크필드는 팬들에게 사과하였다. 2004년 웨이크필드는 양키스를 상대로 레드삭스가 아메리칸 리그 챔피언십을 우승하는 도움을 주어 월드 시리즈로 진출하는 데 7개 시리즈 중의 최고였다. 레드삭스는 시리즈의 첫 2개의 경기를 패하였고, 웨이크필드가 다음 날을 위하여 다른 투수들을 구하는 데 경기로 들거가기를 의문할 때 3번째 경기에서 나쁘게 패하였다. 그는 시작된 4번째 경기로부터 자신을 방지한 3고 3분의 1 이닝을 투구하였다. 데릭 로는 레드삭스가 최후적으로 우승한 4번째 경기에서 자신의 자리를 시작하였다. 5번째 경기에서 웨이크필드는 다시 불펜의 외부를 투구하고, 14 이닝 경기에서 우승 투수였으며 레드삭스가 5 대 4로 우승하면서 3개의 완봉 이닝을 던졌다. 그는 2004년 월드 시리즈의 첫번째 경기를 투구하였으나 레드삭스가 카디널스를 11 대 9로 꺾으면서 월드 시리즈 역사상 최고의 득점 첫번째 경기였던 결정을 얻지 않았다. 레드삭스는 86년 만에 자신들의 첫 월드 시리즈를 위하여 카디널스를 휩쓸었다. 2005년 4월 19일 웨이크필드는 자신 경력의 나머지를 위하여 자신을 간직하는 데 레드삭스에 능력을 준 4백만 달러의 계약으로 동의하였다. 2005년 시즌에 웨이크필드는 16개의 우승과 4.15의 방어율과 함께 레드삭스의 투수들을 이끌었다. 9월 11일 그는 양키스에게 1 대 0으로 패한 완료 경기에서 경력 사상 스트라이크아웃(12)을 세웠다. 2007년 그는 17 승 12 패의 기록과 시즌을 끝냈으나 9월 후순 이래 그를 괴롭혀 온 어깨 부상의 이유로 월드 시리즈를 위한 레드삭스의 등록부에서 제외되었다. 2008년 그가 투구한 동안 12개의 패스된 공들은 메이저 리그에서 정상에 올랐다. 2009년 2009년 웨이크필드는 레드삭스와 함께 자신의 15번째 시즌에 들어갔다. 4월 15일 웨이크필드는 테리 프랭코나 감독에게 "난 상태들을 이해하고, 당신이 알아야 할 것이 있습니다. 무슨 일이 일어나던지 날 꺼내지 말고 내가 계속 갈수 있게 하시오."라고 말하였다. 그는 8번째 이닝으로 무안타를 들고 가 완료 경기의 우승을 얻었다. 42세의 나이로 이 일은 그를 최연장 레드삭스의 투수가 완료 경기를 투구한 것으로 만들고, 이번에는 7 이닝과 비로 짧아진 경기인 2연속 완료 경기를 그가 투구할 때 그의 다음 출발에서 그가 깰 기록이었다. 웨이크필드는 6월 27일을 통하여 10 승 3 패의 기록과 팀을 이끌었다. 7월 3일 자신의 출발과 함께 웨이크필드는 프랜차이즈 역사상 가장 많은 출발로 로저 클레멘스를 엎섰다. 투수판에 그의 성공은 그해의 올스타 선발 당시 10개의 우승과 함께 메이저 리그에 그를 정상으로 놓았다. 7월 5일 그는 아메리칸 리그의 올스타로서 공고되었고, 42세의 나이에 2번째 연장자 첫 올스타로 만들어졌다. 올스타 브레이크에 의하여 웨이크필드는 메이저 리그 최고 기록 11 승 3 패를 소유하였다. 웨이크 필드는 자신이 조 매든에 의하여 필요하지 않으면서 세인트루이스에서 활동을 보지 않았다. 웨이크필드는 아래 등과 종아리 부상과 함께 다음 6주를 놓쳤다. 그는 시카고 화이트삭스를 상대로 8월 26일 자신의 다음 출발을 이루어 하나의 득점과 함께 7개의 이닝을 투구하였다. 2010년 2010년 웨이크필드는 레드삭스와 함께 자신의 16번째 시즌에 들어갔다. 그는 마쓰자카 다이스케가 장애자 명단에서 나올 때까지 출발 교체에서 한해를 시작하였다. 그는 후에 조시 베켓에게 생긴 부상의 이유로 교체에 재가입하였다. 5월 12일 웨이크필드는 3 대 2의 패배에서 토론토 블루제이스의 버논 웰스를 상대로 자신의 2000번째 경력 스트라이크아웃을 기록하였다. 그는 최소한 2000개의 경력 스트라이크아웃과 함께 활동적인 투수들 만으로서 제이미 모이어, 하비에르 바스케스와 앤디 페티트에 가입하였다. 6월 8일 웨이크필드는 레드삭스 투수에 의하여 투구된 가장 많은 이닝을 위하여 클레멘스를 통과하였다. 그는 클리블랜드 인디언스에 3 대 2로 그 경기를 우승하는 데 갔다. 6월 13일 웨이크필드는 투구된 3000개의 이닝과 함께 활동적인 투수들 만으로서 모이어와 페티트에 가입하였다. 그는 남아있는 데 플라이볼에 필라델피아 필리스의 셰인 빅토리노를 은퇴시키면서 이 업적에 성취를 이루었다. 7월 2일 그는 펜웨이 파크에서 출발들을 위한 다른 기록을 위하여 클레멘스를 통과하였고, 볼티모어 오리올스에 3 대 2로 우승하는 데 8개의 이닝을 갔다. 9월 8일 탬파베이 레이스를 상대로 그는 경기를 우승하는 데 여태까지 레드삭스의 최연장 투수가 되었으며, 그는 또한 펜웨이 파크에서 레드삭스를 위하여 경기에 나오는 데 최연장 선수이기도 하였다. 10월 28일 2010년 월드 시리즈의 2번째 경기가 열리기 전에 웨이크필드는 로베르토 클레멘테 상을 수상하였다. 2011년 웨이크필드의 2011년 시즌은 다큐멘터리 영화 《너클볼!》에서 이어졌다. 웨이크필드는 구원 투수로서 레드삭스 유니폼에 자신의 17번째 시즌을 시작하였다. 존 래키와 마쓰자카에게 생긴 부상들이 그를 출발 교체로 옮겼다. 5월 11일 로저스 센터에서 블루제이스가 레드삭스를 9 대 3으로 꺾으면서 웨이크필드는 구원에서 1과 3분의 1 이닝을 투구하였다. 44세 282일의 나이에 그는 레드삭스를 위하여 나오는 데 여태까지 최연장 선수가 되었다. 올스타 브레이크에서 웨이크필드는 4.74의 방어율과 함께 5 승 3 패의 기록을 가졌다. 7월 24일 시애틀 매리너스를 상대로 투구하는 동안 웨이크필드는 마이크 카프를 상대로 레드삭스 유니폼에 자신의 2,000번째 스트라이크아웃을 기록하였다. 그는 또한 그 경기에서 자신의 199번째 경력 우승을 기록하기도 하였다. 그의 199번째 우승 후, 그의 200번째 경력 우승을 얻는 데 웨이크필드에게 8개의 시도들을 끌으면서 결국 9월 13일 펜웨이 파크에서 블루제이스에 18 대 6의 우승에서 해냈다. 승리는 아메리칸 리그 동부 디비전 신분들에서 레드삭스가 양키스의 뒤로 4개의 경기를 떨어지면서 아메리칸 리그의 와일드 카드를 위한 경주에서 레이스가 실질적 근거를 얻으면서 레드삭스가 우승들의 무시무시한 필요에 있을 당시에 왔다. 레드삭스는 결국적으로 하나의 경기에 의하여 플레이오프들을 놓치고 웨이크필드는 5.12의 방어율과 7 승 8 패에서 시즌을 끝냈다. 2012년 시즌을 위하여 웨이크필드는 레드삭스에 의한 봄 훈련으로 초대와 함께 마이너 리그 계약이 제공되었다. 웨이크필드는 2월 17일 자신의 은퇴를 공고하였다. 웨이크필드는 우승에서 클레멘스와 사이 영에 밀려 3위, 스트라이크아웃에서 클레멘스에 밀려 2위, 투수에 의한 경기 출연에서 구원 투수 밥 스탠리에 밀려 2위, 투수로서 출발한 경기들에서 1위와 투구한 이닝에서 1위와 레드삭스 경력을 끝냈다. 포수 너클볼을 포구하는 데 어려운 이유로 레드삭스는 어쩌다 방어에서 전문적이고, 웨이크필드의 출발의 전부 혹은 대부분을 잡은 백업 포수를 소유하였다. 몇년의 세월 동안 그의 개인적 포수는 웨이크필드를 잡기 위하여 소프트볼 포수의 미트로 비슷한 리그가 찬성한 미트를 이용한 더그 미라벨리였다. 조시 바드는 이전의 오프시즌에 샌디에이고 파드리스로 자신을 이적시킨 후, 5월 1일 레드삭스가 미라벨리를 재획득하기 전에 2006년 시즌의 첫 달 동안 잠시 웨이크필드를 잡았다. 미라벨리는 2008년 봄에 내보내졌고, 그해 동안 웨이크필드의 포수는 케빈 캐시였다. 조지 코타래스가 2009년 그의 개인적 포수가 되었다. 2009년 7월 31일 빅토르 마르티네스가 레드삭스에 의하여 취득되고, 8월 26일 웨이크필드를 위하여 포구하기 시작하였다. 마르티네스는 1루수의 미트에 정착하기 전에 다양한 글로브와 미트와 함께 웨이크필드의 투구를 포구하는 실험을 하였다. 마리티네스와 제이슨 베리텍 둘다에게 생긴 부상들의 이유로 레드삭스는 주요 포수는 물론 웨이크필드의 포수로 지내는 데 2010년 7월 1일 휴스턴 애스트로스로부터 케빈 캐시를 재취득하였다. 마르티네스는 자신이 돌아올 때 한번 더 웨이크필드의 포수가 되었다. 2011년 웨이크필드는 불펜에서 시즌을 시작하고, 재로드 살털러마키아와 제이슨 베리텍이 그가 경기들에 들어올 때 그를 포구하였다. 웨이크필드가 교체로 돌아올 때 샐탈라매치아는 그가 시작한 각 경기에서 포수였다. 투구 스타일 웨이크필드는 느린 옆으로 던지는 동작으로 말해진 것과 함께 투구하였으나 사실 4분의 3의 내리치는 동작이었다. 이 일은 또한 타자들에게 그의 어떤 투구들을 드러냈으며, 그들이 그의 손을 볼 수 있기 때문이다. 웨이크필드의 주요 투구 너클볼은 보통 대략 한 시간에 64~68 마일이다. 그의 너클볼의 잦은 고동은 온도, 습기, 투하, 공기 저항, 바람의 속도, 공의 컨디션 등을 포함한 다양한 요인들에 의지하였다. 웨이크필드는 한 시간에 71~75 마일의 패스트볼, 느린 커브(한 시간에 57~61 마일)과 자신의 너클볼의 느린 연출(한 시간에 59~62 마일)을 나타내기도 하였다. 너클볼 투수들은 전통적으로 더욱 자주 투구할 수 있는 데, 그리고 집합적인 투수들보다 한 경기에 더욱 많은 투수들을 위하여 믿어졌다. 자신 경력의 첫 10년을 통하여 웨이크필드는 비슷한 형식을 따랐는 데 1993년 4월 27일 그는 파이리츠 대 브레이브스를 위한 경기에서 10개 이상의 이닝을 투구하였다. 레드삭스와 함께 웨이크필드는 이틀만의 휴식에 7과 3분의 1 이닝 긴급 출발의 추가에서 2개의 완료 경기를 포함한 총 33과 3분의 1 이닝을 투구하였다. 2003년과 2004년 아메리칸 리그 챔피언십 시리즈 만큼 늦게 웨이크필드는 출발 사이에 구원 출연을 이루고 있었다. 자신 경력의 후기의 세월에 레드삭스는 정통적으로 투구 총수의 기간들에서 집합적인 투수들처럼 더욱 대우하여 드물게 한 경기에 대략 100개의 투구들보다 더많이 투구하는 데 그를 허락하였으며 그에게 4일의 휴식을 주었다. 또한 그들의 투구하는 팔에 비교적으로 낮은 착용 때문에 너클볼의 투수들은 다른 투수들의 대다수보다 더욱 장기적 프로 경력을 가는 경향이 있다. 타구 지정된 타자의 규칙의 이유로 웨이크필드는 내셔널 리그의 파크들에서 활약할 때 레드삭스 만을 위하여 타구하였다. 내셔널 리그 팀 파이리츠와 함께 한 동안 그는 자신의 2년에 .072과 .163의 타구 평균을 가졌다. 그는 1993년 자신 경력의 단 하나의 홈런을 쳤다. 그의 경력 타구 평균은 .117이었다. 야구 외부의 출연들 자선 사업 웨이크필드는 메이저 리그 베이스볼을 통하여 그 가장 자선적인 선수들 중의 하나로서 잘 알려졌다. 그는 공동체에게 돌려주는 영혼을 최고로 반사하는 선수에게 수여된 로베르토 클레멘테 상을 위하여 레드삭스에 의하여 8번이나 후보에 올랐으며 2010년에 수상하였다. 1998년 이래 웨이크필드는 자신과 시간을 나누는 데 환자들을 펜웨이 파크로 데려오는 데 보스턴에서 프란시스칸 어린이 병원과 함께 파트너십을 가졌다. 그는 또한 18년 동안 한해의 명사 골프 토너먼트를 개최하기도 한다. 웨이크필드는 또한 어린이들을 위한 뉴잉글랜드의 피칭 인 포 키즈, 플로리다주 멜번에서 우주 해안 중재 센터와 가스 브룩스에 의하여 창립된 터치 엠 올 파운데이션과 함께 활동적으로 지내오기도 하였다. 2007년 피칭 인 포 키즈를 성원한 수입의 100%와 함께 롱볼 포도원과 함께 교제에서 "케이버너클"이라 불린 포도주를 판매하여 10만 달러 이상을 모금하였다. 2013년 레드삭스는 웨이크필드를 레드삭스 재단의 명예 의장으로 임명하였다. 그 역할에서 웨이크필드는 모금 이벤트, 공동체 서비스의 날과 개인적 방문들을 후원한다. 방송 2012년 6월 웨이크필드는 레드삭스의 방송 범위를 위하여 스튜디오 분석자로서 NESN에 가입하였다. 추천 2015년 8월 웨이크필드는 지점의 대개장과 텔레비전, 라디오와 프린트 광고들에서 출연을 이루어 파밍턴 은행을 위한 대변인으로 서명하였다. 비지니스 이익들 웨이크필드는 매사추세츠주 펨브로크에서 터너즈 야드로 불린 레스토랑의 일부 소유자였다. 그 레스토랑에서 그의 파트너들 중 하나는 내셔널 하키 리그 선수 숀 손턴이었다. 그 레스토랑은 현재 폐업 중이다. 개인 생활 팀은 매사추세츠주에서 자신의 부인 스테이스 스토버를 만났다. 그들은 2002년 11월 9일에 결혼하였다. 그들의 2명의 자식은 트레버(2004년생)와 브리애나(2005년생)이다. 그들은 플로리다주 세이틀라이트비치에서 집을 소유한다. 1966년 출생 2023년 사망 플로리다주 출신 야구 선수 메이저 리그 베이스볼 투수 피츠버그 파이리츠 선수 보스턴 레드삭스 선수 아메리칸 리그 올스타 뇌종양으로 죽은 사람

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim%20Wakefield

Tim Wakefield

Timothy Stephen Wakefield (August 2, 1966 – October 1, 2023) was an American professional baseball knuckleball pitcher. Wakefield began his Major League Baseball (MLB) career with the Pittsburgh Pirates, but is most remembered for his 17-year tenure with the Boston Red Sox, from 1995 until his retirement in 2012 as the longest-serving player on the team, earning a total of $55 million. When he retired at age 45 after 19 seasons in MLB, Wakefield was the oldest active player in the major leagues. Wakefield won his 200th career game on September 13, 2011, and he ranks third in career wins in Red Sox franchise history (186), behind Cy Young and Roger Clemens. He is second in all-time wins at Fenway Park with 97, behind Clemens's 100, and is the all-time leader in innings pitched by a Red Sox pitcher, with 3,006, having surpassed Clemens's total of 2,777 on June 8, 2010. Wakefield was an All-Star in 2009 and he won the Roberto Clemente Award in 2010. Early life Wakefield was born in Melbourne, Florida, on August 2, 1966. He attended Eau Gallie High School and then attended Florida Institute of Technology, where he played college baseball for the Florida Tech Panthers. At Florida Tech, he was named the Panthers' team most valuable player as a first baseman in his sophomore and junior years. He set a single-season Panthers record with 22 home runs, as well as the career home run record at 40. In 2006, his uniform number, No. 3, was retired by the college. Professional career Pittsburgh Pirates Draft and minor leagues The Pittsburgh Pirates selected Wakefield as a first baseman in the eighth round of the 1988 MLB draft. He received a $15,000 signing bonus from the Pirates. After a scout told him that he would never get above Double-A ball as a position player with his skills, Wakefield began developing the knuckleball that made him so well-known. The following season, Wakefield made his professional pitching debut while playing for the Single-A Salem Buccaneers. His immediate success led to a full conversion to pitcher in 1990, and he led the Carolina League in starts and innings pitched. Wakefield advanced to Double-A in 1991, leading all Pirates minor leaguers in wins, innings pitched, and complete games when he went 15–8 with a 2.90 earned run average (ERA). 1992–1994 In 1992, Wakefield began the season with the Triple-A Buffalo Bisons of the American Association. He registered a league-high six complete games by July 31—winning 10 games with a 3.06 ERA—and was called up to the majors. In his major league debut, Wakefield threw a complete game against the St. Louis Cardinals, striking out 10 batters while throwing 146 pitches. Down the stretch, Wakefield provided a boost for the playoff-bound Pirates, starting 13 games and compiling an 8–1 record with a 2.15 ERA, a performance that won him the National League Rookie Pitcher of the Year Award from The Sporting News. After winning the National League East division, the Pirates faced the Atlanta Braves in the National League Championship Series. Wakefield won both of his starts against Braves star Tom Glavine, throwing a complete game five-hitter in Game 3 of the NLCS and another complete game in Game 6 on three days' rest. The Braves rallied for three runs in the bottom of the ninth off Stan Belinda. The Pirates named Wakefield their Opening Day starter for the 1993 season. Wakefield walked nine batters on Opening Day. After losing his spot in the starting rotation, Wakefield was sent down to Double-A in July. He was recalled in September and struggled again, finishing the season with a 6–11 record and a 5.61 ERA. Wakefield spent most of 1994 with Triple-A Buffalo. He led the league in losses, walks, and home runs allowed. Wakefield was recalled to the Pirates in September but he did not play due to the players strike. The Pirates released Wakefield on April 20, 1995. Boston Red Sox Six days after being released from the Pirates, Wakefield was signed by the Boston Red Sox. He worked with Phil and Joe Niekro, two former knuckleballers, who encouraged him to use the knuckleball as an out pitch. With the Triple-A Pawtucket Red Sox, Wakefield went 2–1 with a 2.52 ERA. 1995–1998 With the Boston Red Sox rotation struggling from injuries to top of the rotation starters Roger Clemens and Aaron Sele early in the 1995 season, Wakefield was called up from Triple-A, and soon proved to be their most dependable starter. He began the season with a 1.65 ERA and a 14–1 record through 17 games, six of which were complete games. He ended the year 16–8 with a 2.95 ERA, helping the Red Sox win the American League East division title, and capturing the Sporting News American League Comeback Player of the Year. He finished third in the AL Cy Young Award balloting. Over the next three seasons (1996–1998), Wakefield won 43 games and had ERAs of 5.14, 4.25, and 4.58 over that time as a starter. In 1997, he led Major League Baseball by hitting 16 batters with a pitch. He would repeat this feat in 2001 plunking a career-high 18 batters. 1999–2002 In 1999, Boston's closer Tom Gordon was injured and manager Jimy Williams installed Wakefield as the new closer during the middle part of the season. On August 10, 1999, he joined a select group of pitchers who have struck out four batters in one inning. Because the fluttering knuckleball produces many passed balls, several knuckleballers share this honor with him. He recorded 15 saves before Derek Lowe emerged as the new closer and Wakefield returned to the starting rotation. Because of his success out of the bullpen, Wakefield was regularly moved from the position of relief pitcher to starter and back again over the next three seasons (2000–2002). He made 15 starts in 2002. 2003–2008 Wakefield returned to Boston's starting rotation permanently in 2003. In that season's ALCS, Wakefield allowed four runs over 14 innings against the New York Yankees. He started Games 1 and 4 of the Series against Mike Mussina and won both starts. He was also called in to pitch in extra innings of Game 7, after the Yankees tied the game. The Red Sox had been leading 5–2 in the eighth inning. After retiring the side in order in the 10th, Wakefield gave up a home run to Aaron Boone on his first pitch of the 11th, sending the Yankees to the World Series. Wakefield apologized to fans after the game. In 2004, Wakefield helped the Red Sox win the ALCS against the Yankees, a best-of-seven series to advance to the World Series. The Red Sox lost the first two games of the ALCS and were losing badly in Game 3 when Wakefield asked to be put into the game to save the other pitchers for the next day. He pitched innings which prevented him from starting Game 4. Derek Lowe started Game 4 in his place which the Red Sox ultimately won. In Game 5, Wakefield again pitched out of the bullpen and was the winning pitcher in a 14-inning game, throwing three shutout innings as the Red Sox won 5–4. The Red Sox beat the Yankees and went on to the World Series. He pitched Game 1 of the 2004 World Series, but did not get a decision as Boston defeated the St. Louis Cardinals, 11–9, which was the highest-scoring Game 1 in World Series history. The Red Sox swept the Cardinals for their first World Series title in 86 years. On April 19, 2005, Wakefield agreed to a $4 million, one-year "rolling" contract extension that gave the Red Sox the ability to keep Wakefield for the rest of his career. In the 2005 season, Wakefield led the Red Sox pitching staff with 16 wins and a 4.15 ERA. On September 11, 2005, he set a career high in strikeouts (12) in a 1–0 complete game loss to the New York Yankees. In 2007, Wakefield finished the season with a 17–12 record and started Game 4 of the ALCS, taking the loss, but was left off the Red Sox roster for the World Series due to an injured shoulder that had been bothering him since late September. The 12 passed balls while he was pitching topped the majors in 2008. 2009 Wakefield entered his 15th season with the Boston Red Sox in 2009. On April 15, 2009, a day after the Red Sox bullpen was tasked with pitching over 11 innings of relief, telling manager Terry Francona not to remove him from the game. He pitched a no-hitter into the eighth inning, and earned a complete game win. At 42, this made him the oldest Red Sox pitcher to pitch a complete game, a record he would break himself in his next start when he pitched a second consecutive complete game win, this time in a seven-inning, rain-shortened game. Wakefield led the team with a 10–3 record through June 27. With his start on July 3, 2009, Wakefield surpassed Roger Clemens for the most starts in franchise history. His success on the mound had him atop the major leagues with 10 wins at the time of the 2009 All-Star selection. On July 5, 2009, he was announced as an AL All-Star, making him the second-oldest first-time All-Star at 42, behind only Satchel Paige who was 45. By the All-Star break, Wakefield possessed a major league-best 11–3 record. Wakefield did not see action in St. Louis, as he was not needed by Joe Maddon. On July 21, Wakefield was placed on the disabled list due to a lower back strain. He returned from the disabled list on August 26 against the Chicago White Sox, pitching seven innings while allowing one earned run to earn a no decision. 2010 Wakefield entered his 16th season with the Boston Red Sox in 2010. He began the year in the starting rotation until Daisuke Matsuzaka came off the disabled list. He later rejoined the rotation due to an injury to Josh Beckett. On May 12, Wakefield recorded his 2,000th career strikeout against Vernon Wells of the Toronto Blue Jays in a 3–2 loss. He joined Jamie Moyer, Javier Vázquez, and Andy Pettitte as the only active pitchers with at least 2,000 career strikeouts. On June 8, Wakefield passed Roger Clemens for the most innings pitched by a Red Sox pitcher. He went on to win that game 3–2 over the Cleveland Indians. On June 13, Wakefield joined Moyer and Pettitte as the only active pitchers with 3,000 innings pitched. He accomplished this feat by retiring Shane Victorino of the Philadelphia Phillies on a fly ball to left. On July 2, he surpassed Clemens for another record, this for starts at Fenway Park; he went eight innings to win 3–2 over the Baltimore Orioles. On September 8, against the Tampa Bay Rays, he became the oldest Red Sox pitcher ever to win a game; he is also the oldest player to appear in a game for the Red Sox at Fenway. On October 28, before Game 2 of the 2010 World Series, Wakefield received the Roberto Clemente Award. 2011 Wakefield's 2011 season was followed in the documentary film Knuckleball! Wakefield started his seventeenth season in a Red Sox uniform as a reliever, but injuries to John Lackey and Daisuke Matsuzaka moved him into the starting rotation. On May 11, 2011, Wakefield pitched innings in relief as the Toronto Blue Jays defeated the Red Sox 9–3 at the Rogers Centre. He became, at 44 years, 282 days, the oldest player ever to appear for the Red Sox. At the All-Star break, Wakefield had a 5–3 record with a 4.74 ERA. On July 24, 2011, while pitching against the Seattle Mariners, Wakefield recorded his 2,000th strikeout in a Red Sox uniform against Mike Carp; he also recorded his 199th career win in that game. It took Wakefield eight attempts to earn his 200th career win after his 199th, finally doing so in an 18–6 rout over the Toronto Blue Jays at Fenway Park on September 13, 2011. The victory came at a time when the Red Sox were in dire need of wins, with the Tampa Bay Rays gaining substantial ground in the race for the American League wild card as Boston fell four games behind the New York Yankees in the AL East division standings. Boston eventually missed the playoffs by one game, and Wakefield ended the season at 7–8 with a 5.12 ERA. For the 2012 season, Wakefield was offered a minor league contract, with an invitation to spring training, by the Red Sox. Wakefield announced his retirement on February 17, 2012. Wakefield finished his Red Sox career third in wins (behind Roger Clemens and Cy Young), second in strikeouts (behind Clemens), second in game appearances by a pitcher (behind reliever Bob Stanley), first in games started as a pitcher, and first in innings pitched. Playing style Pitching style Wakefield pitched with what was said to be a slow sidearm motion, but was actually a -overhand motion. This also revealed some of his pitches to hitters, because they could see his hand. Wakefield's primary pitch, the knuckleball, was thrown between and had a great deal of variance in how much it "fluttered". The flutter of his knuckleball depended on a variety of factors including temperature, humidity, precipitation (both type and intensity), air resistance, wind speed, wind direction, the condition of the ball, and very small changes in his grip or the orientation of the seams. Wakefield also featured a fastball and a curveball which averaged between . Knuckleball pitchers are traditionally believed to be able to pitch more frequently and for more pitches per game than conventional pitchers. Throughout the first decade of his career, Wakefield followed a similar pattern: on April 27, 1993, he threw 172 pitches over 10+ innings in a game for the Pittsburgh Pirates against the Atlanta Braves. In his first two weeks with the Red Sox, Wakefield pitched a total of innings, including two complete games in addition to a -inning emergency start on just two days' rest. As late as the 2003 and 2004 ALCS, Wakefield was making relief appearances between starts. In the later years of his career, the Red Sox generally treated Wakefield more like conventional pitchers in terms of pitch count, rarely allowing him to pitch more than about 110 pitches per game, and giving him four days of rest. Also, because of the relatively low wear on their pitching arms, knuckleball pitchers tend to have longer professional careers than most other pitchers. At the time of his retirement, Wakefield was seventh on the all-time hit batters list. Personal catcher Because of the difficulty of catching a knuckleball, the Red Sox sometimes carried a backup catcher who specialized in defense and who caught most or all of Wakefield's starts. For several years, his personal catcher was Doug Mirabelli, who used a league-approved mitt similar to a softball catcher's mitt for catching Wakefield. Josh Bard briefly caught Wakefield during the first month of the 2006 season, before Boston reacquired Mirabelli on May 1 after trading him to San Diego the previous offseason. Mirabelli was released in the spring of 2008 and Wakefield's catcher was Kevin Cash during 2008. George Kottaras became his personal catcher in 2009. Victor Martinez was acquired by the Red Sox on July 31, 2009, and began catching for Wakefield on August 26, 2009. Martinez experimented catching Wakefield's pitches with various gloves and mitts before settling on a first baseman's mitt. Due to injuries to both Martinez and Jason Varitek, Boston reacquired Cash from the Houston Astros on July 1, 2010, to serve as Wakefield's catcher as well as the primary catcher. Martinez became Wakefield's catcher once more when he returned. In 2011, Wakefield began the season in the bullpen and both Jarrod Saltalamacchia and Jason Varitek caught him when he entered games. When Wakefield returned to the rotation, Saltalamacchia was the catcher in each game he started. Post-MLB career In June 2012, Wakefield joined NESN as a studio analyst for Red Sox coverage. He continued to serve as a studio analyst through the 2023 season. In August 2015, Wakefield signed on as a spokesperson for Farmington Bank, making appearances at branch grand openings and in television, radio, and print advertisements. Personal life Wakefield became an evangelical Christian in 1990. Wakefield met his wife, Stacy Stover, in Massachusetts and they were married on November 9, 2002. They had two children, Trevor (born 2004) and Brianna (born 2005). In 2010, Wakefield bought a house in Indian Harbour Beach, Florida, for $1,825,000. Wakefield was part owner of a restaurant in Pembroke, Massachusetts, called Turner's Yard. One of his partners in the restaurant was National Hockey League player Shawn Thornton. Death On October 1, 2023, Wakefield died at his home in Massachusetts of a seizure resulting from brain cancer. He was 57. The cancer diagnosis had been revealed days earlier by Curt Schilling, Wakefield's former Red Sox teammate, stirring controversy because the release was not authorized by Wakefield or his family. Philanthropy Wakefield was nominated eight times by the Red Sox for the Roberto Clemente Award, presented to the player who best reflects the spirit of giving back to the community, winning the award in 2010. Wakefield partnered with the Franciscan Hospital for Children in Boston to bring patients to Fenway Park to share time with him on and off the field. Wakefield hosted an annual celebrity golf tournament, raising over $10 million for the Space Coast Early Intervention Center, a pre-school program for children with special needs. Wakefield was also active with New England's Pitching In for Kids organization, a program dedicated to improving the lives of children across the New England region) and the Touch 'Em All Foundation founded by Garth Brooks. In 2007, Wakefield released a charity wine called CaberKnuckle, in association with Longball Vineyards, with 100% of the proceeds supporting Pitching in for Kids; the wine raised more than $100,000. In 2013, the Red Sox named Wakefield Honorary Chairman of the Red Sox Foundation. In that role, Wakefield supported fundraising events, community service days, and personal visits. See also Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame List of Boston Red Sox team records List of knuckleball pitchers List of Major League Baseball career wins leaders List of Major League Baseball career strikeout leaders List of Major League Baseball career hit batsmen leaders List of oldest Major League Baseball players List of Major League Baseball single-inning strikeout leaders References External links 1966 births 2023 deaths American evangelicals American League All-Stars Augusta Pirates players Baseball players from Florida Boston Red Sox announcers Boston Red Sox players Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players Carolina Mudcats players Converts to evangelical Christianity Deaths from brain cancer in the United States Deaths from cancer in Massachusetts Florida Tech Panthers baseball players Knuckleball pitchers Major League Baseball broadcasters Major League Baseball pitchers Pawtucket Red Sox players People from Indian Harbour Beach, Florida Pittsburgh Pirates players Salem Buccaneers players Sportspeople from Brevard County, Florida Sportspeople from Melbourne, Florida Watertown Pirates players Welland Pirates players

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%84%EB%A0%88%EC%8A%A4%ED%8C%8C%20%ED%98%91%EC%A0%95

프레스파 협정

프레스파 협정(, , )은 2018년 6월 12일에 체결된 그리스와 북마케도니아 간의 협정이다. 이 협정은 북마케도니아는 국호를 마케도니아에서 북마케도니아로 변경하는 대신에 그리스는 북마케도니아의 북대서양 조약 기구(NATO) 가입에 동의한다는 내용을 담고 있다. 배경 북마케도니아는 1991년 유고슬라비아 사회주의 연방공화국이 해체되면서 마케도니아 공화국이라는 이름으로 독립했다. 하지만 그리스는 북마케도니아가 알렉산드로스 3세와 그의 아버지 필리포스 2세의 고대 마케도니아 왕국으로 거슬러 올라가는 역사적인 근원을 내세워 그리스 북부 지역에 대한 영유권을 주장할 것을 심히 우려하면서 마케도니아라는 국호 사용을 반대한다는 입장을 표명했다. 북마케도니아는 그리스와의 마케도니아 국호 분쟁으로 인해 한동안 유엔을 비롯한 여러 국제 기구에서 "구유고슬라비아 마케도니아 공화국"(The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, FYROM)이라는 이름으로 알려지게 되었다. 그리스와의 국호 분쟁은 북마케도니아가 북대서양 조약 기구(NATO), 유럽 연합(EU) 가입을 추진하는 과정에서 커다란 장애물로 여겨졌다. 그리스의 알렉시스 치프라스 총리는 2018년 6월 12일에 열린 북마케도니아의 조란 자에프 총리와의 회담을 통해 북마케도니아의 국호를 마케도니아에서 북마케도니아로 변경하는 대신에 그리스가 북마케도니아의 북대서양 조약 기구(NATO) 가입에 동의한다는 안건에 합의했다. 2018년 6월 17일에는 그리스와 북마케도니아 양국의 총리와 외무장관이 프레스파호 인근에 위치한 그리스의 프사라데스 마을에서 정식 서명했다. 비준 과정 마케도니아 의회는 2018년 6월 20일에 프레스파 협정 비준 동의안을 가결시켰다. 이 과정에서 의원 69명이 찬성했으나 내부 마케도니아 혁명 기구-마케도니아 국민통합민주당은 "법적 상태의 학살이자 국가에 대한 학살"이라며 투표를 거부했다. 그리스 외무부는 2018년 6월 25일에 발표한 공식 성명을 통해 그리스 정부는 마케도니아가 새로운 국호에 따라 유럽 연합(EU)·북대서양 조약 기구(NATO) 가입하는 것에 동의한다고 밝혔다. 하지만 조르게 이바노프 마케도니아 대통령은 2018년 6월 26일에 공개된 공식 성명에서 "마케도니아의 국가 정체성, 마케도니아 국가의 개성, 마케도니아의 언어(마케도니아어) 및 마케도니아의 공존 모델"을 파괴하는 협정의 서명을 거부하겠다는 의사를 밝혔다. 그리스 정부는 2018년 6월 27일에 마케도니아의 유럽 연합(EU) 가입 협상에 대한 거부권 행사를 철회한다고 공식 통보했다. 2018년 7월 5일에는 북마케도니아 의회 소속 의원 69명이 프레스파 협정 비준 동의안을 가결시켰다. 2018년 7월 11일에는 북대서양 조약 기구(NATO)가 마케도니아를 북대서양 조약 기구의 30번째 회원국으로 초청했다. 2018년 7월 30일에는 마케도니아 의회가 그리스와의 마케도니아 국호 변경 합의안에 동의할 것인가의 여부를 묻는 법적 구속력이 없는 국민투표를 실시하는 안건을 가결시켰다. 2018년 9월 30일에는 마케도니아에서 그리스와의 국호 변경 합의안에 대한 동의 여부를 묻는 국민투표가 실시되었다. 이 국민투표는 전체 유권자 666,344명이 참가하여 찬성 609,427표(94.18%), 반대 37,687표(5.82%), 무효 및 기권 19,230표(2.89%)를 기록하였으나 투표율이 36.89%를 기록했기 때문에 정족수 50%에 미달하여 부결되었다. 2018년 10월 15일에는 마케도니아 의회에서 국호 변경을 위한 토론이 시작되었는데 헌법 개정을 위해서는 전체 의석 120석 가운데 2/3에 해당하는 80명 이상의 찬성이 필요했다. 2018년 10월 19일에는 마케도니아 의회 소속 의원 80명이 개헌안에 찬성함에 따라 마케도니아의 국호를 "북마케도니아"로 변경하는 과정이 시작되었다. 2018년 12월 3일에는 마케도니아 의회의 개헌안 초안이 찬성 67표, 반대 23표, 기권 4표로 가결되었다. 2019년 1월 11일에는 마케도니아 의회 소속 81명이 마케도니아의 국호를 북마케도니아로 변경하는 내용이 담긴 헌법 개정안을 가결시켰다. 2019년 1월 13일에는 파노스 카메노스 그리스 국방부 장관이 프레스파 협정과 관련하여 자신의 소속 정당인 독립 그리스인이 알렉시스 치프라스 총리의 소속 정당인 급진좌파연합과의 연정에서 탈퇴하기로 결정했다고 밝혔다. 그리스 의회는 2019년 1월 16일에 알렉시스 치프라스 총리에 대한 불신임 투표를 실시했으나 찬성 151표, 반대 148표, 기권 1표로 부결되었다. 한편 그리스 아테네에서는 60,000명이 넘는 시위대가 그리스 의회의 프레스파 협정 비준에 반대하는 집회를 주최했는데 일부 시위대가 폭력을 행사하면서 경찰이 최루탄을 사용하여 진압하기도 했다. 그리스 의회는 2019년 1월 25일에 프레스파 협정 비준 동의안, 마케도니아 국호 변경 합의안을 찬성 153표, 반대 146표로 가결시켰다. 이에 따라 마케도니아는 2019년 2월 12일을 기해 공식 국명을 북마케도니아로 변경했다. 같이 보기 마케도니아 국호 분쟁 그리스의 대외 관계 외부 링크 프레스파 협정의 영어 원문, 마케도니아어 원문, 그리스어 원문 Igor Janev, Legality of the Prespa Agreement Between Macedonia and Greece, Journal of Political Science and International Relations, Vol. 2, Issue 2, 2019. Igor Janev, Prespa Agreement And Its Effects On Macedonian Right To National Identity: An Act of Ethno– Genocidal Termination of the National Identity, Lambert Academic Publishing 2021. ISBN 978-620-4-71741-8. 그리스-북마케도니아 관계 그리스의 조약 북마케도니아의 조약 2018년 체결된 조약 2019년 발효된 조약 2018년 그리스 2018년 북마케도니아 2018년 6월 2019년 2월

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prespa%20Agreement

Prespa Agreement

The Prespa Agreement, also known as the Treaty of Prespa, the Prespes deal or the Prespa accord, is an agreement reached in 2018 between Greece and the then-Republic of Macedonia, under the auspices of the United Nations, resolving a long-standing dispute between the two. Apart from resolving the terminological differences, the agreement also covers areas of cooperation between the two countries in order to establish a strategic partnership. Signed beside the shared Lake Prespa, from which it took its name, and ratified by the parliaments of both countries, the agreement went into force on 12 February 2019, when the two countries notified the UN of the deal's completion, following the ratification of the NATO accession protocol for North Macedonia on 8 February. It replaces the Interim Accord of 1995 and sees the Republic of Macedonia's constitutional name changed to the Republic of North Macedonia . Name of the agreement The Prespa Agreement is the short, informal name for the agreement, named after the place where it was signed, Lake Prespa. Its full name is Final Agreement for the settlement of the differences as described in the United Nations Security Council resolutions 817 (1993) and 845 (1993), the termination of the Interim Accord of 1995, and the establishment of a strategic partnership between the Parties. Background Following the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991, use of the name "Macedonia" was disputed between the Southeastern European countries of Greece and the then-Republic of Macedonia. The dispute arose from the ambiguity in nomenclature between the former Yugoslav republic, the adjacent Greek region of Macedonia, and the ancient kingdom of Macedon. Citing historical and irredentist concerns, Greece opposed the use of the name "Macedonia" by the Republic of Macedonia without a geographical qualifier like "Northern" or "Upper" for use "by all... and for all purposes". As approximately two million ethnic Greeks identify themselves as Macedonians who typically view themselves as being unrelated to the ethnic Macedonians, Greece further objected to the use of the term "Macedonian" for the neighboring country's largest ethnic group and its language. The Republic of Macedonia was accused of appropriating symbols and figures that are historically considered part of Greek culture, such as the Vergina Sun and Alexander the Great, and of promoting the irredentist concept of a United Macedonia, which involves territorial claims on Greece, Bulgaria, Albania, and Serbia. Prior to the Prespa agreement, international organizations provisionally referenced the Republic of Macedonia as "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" (sometimes abbreviated as "fYROM"). Contents of the agreement The agreement provides that the Republic of Macedonia takes the name of Republic of North Macedonia (; ). This new name is to be used for all purposes (erga omnes), that is, domestically, in all bilateral relations and in all regional and international organizations and institutions. The deal includes recognition of the Macedonian language in the United Nations, noting that it is within the group of South Slavic languages, and that the nationality of the country will be called Macedonian/citizen of the Republic of North Macedonia. Also, there is an explicit clarification that the citizens of the country are not related to ancient Hellenic civilization that previously inhabited the northern regions of Greece. Specifically, Article 7 mentions that both countries acknowledge that their respective understanding of the terms "Macedonia" and "Macedonian" refers to a different historical context and cultural heritage. When reference is made to Greece, these terms denote the area and people of its northern region, as well as the Hellenic civilization, history and culture of that region. When reference is made to the Republic of North Macedonia, these terms denote its territory, language and people, with their own, distinctly different, history and culture. Additionally, the agreement stipulates the removal of the Vergina Sun from public use in the Republic of North Macedonia and the formation of a committee for the review of school textbooks and maps in both countries for the removal of irredentist content and to align them with UNESCO and Council of Europe standards. Reactions The Greek Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras announced on 12 June 2018 that an agreement had been reached with his Macedonian counterpart Zoran Zaev on the dispute, "which covers all the preconditions set by the Greek side". The agreement was signed at Lake Prespa, a body of water which forms a partial common border between the Republic of North Macedonia, Greece and Albania. Political reactions The international community reacted positively to the Prespa agreement, with the media dubbing it as "historic". The European Union welcomed it, with the European Council President Donald Tusk tweeting his "sincere congratulations" to Tsipras and Zaev. "I am keeping my fingers crossed. Thanks to you, the impossible is becoming possible," he said. EU Foreign Affairs chief Federica Mogherini and commissioner Johannes Hahn also issued a joint statement congratulating the two prime ministers "in reaching this historic agreement between their countries, which contributes to the transformation of the entire region of Southeast Europe." NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg welcomed the agreement, stating that it will set the Republic of Macedonia on the path towards NATO membership. Additionally, the British Foreign Minister Boris Johnson welcomed the agreement as being "fantastic news". "The agreement once and for always confirms and strengthens the Macedonian ethnic and cultural identity, the Macedonian language, the Macedonian nationality. It guarantees the security of the country and provides a secure future for the citizens of the Republic of Macedonia", Zaev said. The domestic communities reacted more negatively to the agreement. In Macedonia, the President of the Republic, Gjorge Ivanov, declared that he wouldn't sign the agreement, calling it "disastrous". Additionally, VMRO-DPMNE, the main conservative party at the time, also opposed the agreement, and pledged to organize public protests against it. In Macedonia, protests went violent at Skopje, and Macedonian SDSM MP Hari Lokvenec, who attended the Prespa ceremony, had his parliamentary vehicle set on fire at Bitola by unidentified perpetrators. In Greece, Golden Dawn (GD), a far-right party, and the Communist Party of Greece (CPG), a far-left party, opposed the agreement, with a Golden Dawn MP, Konstantinos Barbarousis, calling for military rule and firing squads to execute politicians responsible for the deal. As a result, Barbarousis was expelled from his party, and a warrant was issued for his arrest for high treason. He fled using his parliamentary vehicle but eventually was found and arrested. Additionally, the conservative New Democracy party filed a motion of no-confidence against Tsipras in parliament because of the name deal, which was rejected two days later with a simple parliamentary majority; 153 against it, 127 for. Kyriakos Mitsotakis, leader of the New Democracy party, had argued in this connection that the Greek foreign minister (and hence the government of Syriza) had no authority to sign the agreement, based on international legal arguments that were responded to by legal scholars. Following his departure as Greek foreign minister, Kotzias stated in October 2018 that key reasons for the Prespa agreement were to bring stability to the Balkans and to stop Turkish influence within the region. Public reactions In Greece, the deeply unpopular agreement had an instant negative impact on Tsipras's chances of staying in power. According to separate polls conducted by Marc and Ekathimerini, between 65% and 68% of Greeks were against the Prespes deal and what was contained within it. There were large public demonstrations in 2018 and 2019 against the Prespes deal in Athens and Thessaloniki that lasted days. There were also vast student sit-ins which affected 210 schools in Greek Central Macedonia alone. Despite the uproar, the protesters were accused of having links with the far-right/fascists. In response, famous composer and leftist Mikis Theodorakis, who was also against the Prespes deal, called the Syriza government 'left-wing fascists'. During the ratification of the Prespes deal (2018-19), fake news promoted a possible territorial loss of Greek Macedonia and a sense of victimization and dehumanization that demanded emergency actions to protect Greece from North Macedonia and its Greek assistants. Furthermore, the Greek news coverage showed that several news stories tried to undermine the country's then-government. In North Macedonia, the majority of public perception was also against the deal but not to the same extent as the Greek public. According to polls conducted by Sitel TV, 45% of the public stated they felt negatively towards the deal while 44% said they felt positively towards it. Around half (50.5 percent) of those surveyed said they thought the government in Skopje did a good job during the negotiations with Greece against 40.7 percent who said it did not. A June 2020 poll in North Macedonia, conducted by the National Democratic Institute, showed that 58% of Macedonians support the Prespa agreement and that there is also strong public support for the country's Euro-Atlantic direction, with 74% positive opinions for NATO (of which North Macedonia has been a member since 27 March 2020) and 79% positive opinions for accession to the European Union. An October 2020 poll conducted in Greece by the Friedrich Naumann Foundation in cooperation with the KAPA Research, shows that the Prespa Agreement is becoming increasingly accepted in Greece, with the majority (58%) of the Greeks viewing it positively; 25% consider it to be a good agreement, while 33% view it as an agreement with several compromises but necessary (up from 18% and 24% respectively in 2018). Signature The Prespa agreement, which replaced the Interim Accord of 1995, was signed on 17 June 2018 in a high-level ceremony at the Greek border village of Psarades on Lake Prespa, by the two foreign ministers Nikola Dimitrov and Nikos Kotzias and in the presence of the respective prime Ministers, Zoran Zaev and Alexis Tsipras. The meeting was attended by the UN's Special Representative Matthew Nimetz, the Under-Secretary-General for Political Affairs Rosemary DiCarlo, the EU's High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy Federica Mogherini, and the European Commissioner for Enlargement and European Neighbourhood Policy Johannes Hahn, among others. After the ceremony, Tsipras, along with his Macedonian counterpart, crossed over the border to the Macedonian side of Lake Prespa for lunch at the village of Oteševo. The symbolic move marked the first visit of a Greek prime minister in the Republic of Macedonia since it declared independence in 1991. Ratification and implementation On 13 June 2018, Zaev said that North Macedonia is changing the license plates of its vehicles from MK to NMK to reflect the country's new name. The Macedonian government announced that the statues of Alexander the Great, Philip II of Macedon and Olympias of Epirus, which were raised as part of the Skopje 2014 program, will be given new inscriptions with clarifications that they symbolize the Ancient Greek period and are "honouring Greek-Macedonian friendship". Ratification by the Macedonian Parliament On 5 July 2018, the Prespa agreement was ratified by the Macedonian parliament with 69 MPs voting in favor of it. However, the Macedonian President Gjorge Ivanov vetoed the bill. Under the Macedonian Constitution, if the Parliament readopts the law with a majority of votes from the total number of MPs, the president is obliged to sign it into law. On 20 June, the Prespa agreement was once again ratified by the Parliament of the Republic of Macedonia with 69 of the total 120 MPs voting in favor of it. Opposition party VMRO-DPMNE boycotted the parliamentary session and declared the Prespa treaty as a "genocide of the legal state" and a "genocide of the entire nation". On 25 June, the Greek Foreign Ministry informed the EU and NATO that Greece is no longer objecting to Macedonia's Euro-Atlantic accession under the new name. The next day, however, President Ivanov refused to sign the agreement and threatened Macedonian Prime Minister Zaev and the ruling coalition's MPs with imprisonment of at least 5 years for voting in favor of an agreement which, according to Ivanov, puts the Republic of Macedonia in a subordinate position to a foreign state. "I do not accept the constitutional change aimed at changing the constitutional name [of the country]. I do not accept ideas or proposals which would endanger Macedonia's national identity, the individuality of the Macedonian nation, the Macedonian language and the Macedonian model of coexistence. In the presidential election, 534,910 citizens voted in favor of this electoral program. The agreement goes beyond the scope of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 817 (1993) and 845 (1993), since it refers to the "difference in the name of the State" and not to the "disputes" to which the agreement refers", Ivanov said, adding that "This agreement brings the Republic of Macedonia to subordination from another country, namely the Republic of Greece. According to Article 308 of the Penal Code, "a citizen who brings the Republic of Macedonia to a state of subservience or dependence on another state is punishable by imprisonment of at least five years". The legalization of this agreement creates legal consequences that are the basis for committing a crime." Because the constitution required the president to sign, the ratified agreement was allowed to be officially published in the country's official gazette with a footnote detailing the constitutional and legal situation in place of the president's signature. The withdrawal of the Greek veto resulted in the European Union approving on 27 June the start of accession talks with the Republic of Macedonia, to begin the next year conditional on the implementation of the Prespa agreement and the change of the nation's constitutional name to Republic of North Macedonia. On 11 July, NATO invited Macedonia to start accession talks in a bid to become the Euro-Atlantic alliance's 30th member. Macedonian referendum and ratification On 30 July, the parliament of Macedonia approved plans to hold a non-binding referendum on changing the country's name that took place on 30 September. 91% of voters voted in favour with a 37% turnout, but the referendum was not carried because of a constitutional requirement for a 50% turnout. Total turnout for the referendum was at 666,344 and of those some 260,000 were ethnic Albanian voters of Macedonia. The government intended to push forward with the name change. On 15 October 2018, the parliament of Macedonia began debating the name change. The proposal for the constitutional reform requires the vote of 80 MPs, i.e. two-thirds of the 120-seat parliament. On 16 October, US Assistant Secretary of State Wess Mitchell sent a letter to VMRO-DPMNE leader Hristijan Mickoski, in which he expresses the disappointment of the United States with the positions of the leadership, including him personally, and asks to "set aside partisan interests" and work to get the name change approved. Mickoski expressed his hope that the Republic of Macedonia will be very soon a part of the NATO and EU families, "but proud and dignified, not humiliated, disfigured and disgraced." On 19 October the parliament voted to start the process of renaming the country "North Macedonia", after a total of 80 MPs voted in favour of the constitutional changes. On 30 October, the Skopje Public Prosecutor's Office opened a case against Macedonian President Gjorge Ivanov for his refusal to fulfill his constitutional obligations in signing the Prespa agreement after it was ratified by the Macedonian Parliament. On 3 December 2018, Macedonia's Parliament approved a draft constitutional amendment, with 67 lawmakers voting in favour, 23 voting against and 4 abstaining. A simple majority was needed at this stage. After some political wrangling over constitutional issues related to the multi-ethnic makeup of the state, all Albanian political parties of Macedonia voted in favour of the name change along with the governing Social-Democrats and some members of the opposition. On 11 January 2019, the Macedonian Parliament completed the legal implementation of the Prespa Agreement by approving the constitutional changes for renaming the country to North Macedonia with a two-thirds parliamentary majority (81 MPs). International reactions to Macedonian ratification The international community, NATO and European Union leaders, including Greek PM Alexis Tsipras and Austrian Chancellor Sebastian Kurz, as well as heads of neighboring states, congratulated the Macedonian Prime Minister Zoran Zaev. The British Prime Minister Theresa May described the vote as a "historic moment", while the Kosovar President Hashim Thaçi expressed his hope that the Prespa Agreement, which resolved the Macedonia naming dispute, can be used as a "model" for resolving Kosovo's dispute with Serbia as well. Albanian President Ilir Meta congratulated the name change and Albanian Foreign Minister Ditmir Bushati hailed the vote by tweeting that Albanian political parties were the "decisive factor". In exile in Hungary, the fugitive former Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski has condemned the Prespa agreement, stating that Zaev "scammed" and "tricked" the Macedonian people over the country's name change, and that the Greek politicians imposed an unfavourable deal upon North Macedonia that outlines exclusive claims over "antique history" by Greece. Post-Macedonian ratification developments On 13 January 2019, Greece Defence Minister Panos Kammenos and his Independent Greeks party quit Greece's ruling coalition over the Prespa agreement, potentially leaving the governing coalition without a workable majority in parliament. Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras then held a confidence vote on 16 January and survived 151–148, with one lawmaker absent. Tsipras survived the vote with 145 of his Radical Left Syriza party and with 6 MPs who were either Independents or Independent Greeks (ANEL). In the days prior to the ratification of the Prespa agreement by the Greek Parliament, over 60,000 protesters (according to police; 600,000, according to organizers) from all over the country arrived in Athens to demand the rejection of the agreement; some of these protests had become violent, with the police required to use tear gas to disperse the groups. During the last week, public opinion poll showed that over 65% of the people were against the ratification of the Prespa agreement, whereas many popular Greek artists (S. Xarhakos, V. Papakonstantinou J. Kotsiras etc.) agreed that a referendum should have been held. On 19 January, Mikis Theodorakis' editorial was published in which he characterized the ratification of the agreement from Greek MPs as a "crime", demanding a referendum in Greece on the agreement as well. On 23 January, just a day prior to the ratification in the Hellenic Parliament, hundreds of scholars, professors, writers and artists from all over Greece signed petitions in support of the Prespa agreement. In a February 2019 survey, a public opinion poll done for Sitel TV channel in North Macedonia showed 44.6 percent of respondents were positive about the Prespa agreement, while 45.6 percent were negative toward the accord. A majority, 59.5 percent expressed that the agreement would positively impact relations between both countries and 57.7 percent felt that the two states would implement the accord. Half of respondents, 50.5 percent stated that the Macedonian government did well in negotiations with Greece and 40.7 percent disagreed that it did. Survey participants (49.2 percent) felt that the agreement would make travel into Greece easier. Ratification by the Greek Parliament On 25 January 2019, Greece's Parliament approved the Prespa agreement with 153 votes in favor and 146 votes against, with 1 abstention. Shortly after the ratification of the deal, Greece's Alternate Foreign Minister Georgios Katrougalos signed, in the Greek Parliament, the enacted law of the Prespa Agreement. The international community, including the Prime Ministers Theresa May of United Kingdom, Justin Trudeau of Canada, Boyko Borisov of Bulgaria and Edi Rama of Albania, Presidents Emmanuel Macron of France, Hashim Thaçi of Kosovo, Donald Tusk of the European Union, and Jean-Claude Juncker of the EU's Commission, USA's and Germany's foreign ministers, Michael Pompeo and Heiko Maas respectively, Romania's EU minister George Ciamba whose country held EU presidency, as well as NATO's chief Jens Stoltenberg, welcomed positively the ratification of the deal. Furthermore, the Republic of Macedonia's Prime Minister Zoran Zaev, in his congratulatory message to his Greek counterpart Alexis Tsipras, whom he called "a friend", described the ratification as a "historic victory" which "ends a long-standing diplomatic conflict between Athens and Skopje". Russia, on the other hand, opposed the Prespa Agreement citing the low turnout in the non-binding 2018 referendum on changing the country's name. Hungary, which gave asylum to fugitive former Macedonian Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski, a staunch critic of the agreement, also lobbied against it. Post-Greek ratification developments On 6 February 2019, NATO's 29 members signed the accession protocol with North Macedonia. On 8 June 2021, the President of the United States, Joseph Biden, signed the Executive Order 14033 for imposing economic sanctions and travel bans to any individuals who may try to undermine the Prespa Agreement. Alexis Tsipras and Zoran Zaev received jointly a number of awards for their roles as the prime ministers of their respective states in reaching the Prespa Agreement and settling the naming dispute between the two nations, including the Peace Prize of Westphalia, the Ewald von Kleist Award and the Hessian Peace Prize. See also Macedonia naming dispute References Notes Further reading Nimetz, M. (2020). The Macedonian "Name" Dispute: The Macedonian Question—Resolved? Nationalities Papers, 48(2), 205–214. External links Agreement text in English, and translations in Macedonian and Greek. Treaties of Greece Treaties of North Macedonia Treaties concluded in 2018 Treaties entered into force in 2019 2018 in Greek politics 2018 in the Republic of Macedonia Greece–North Macedonia relations

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%EB%85%84%20%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD%20%EB%8C%80%ED%86%B5%EB%A0%B9%20%EC%84%A0%EA%B1%B0%20%EB%AF%BC%EC%A3%BC%EB%8B%B9%20%ED%9B%84%EB%B3%B4%20%EA%B2%BD%EC%84%A0

2020년 미국 대통령 선거 민주당 후보 경선

제48차 미국 민주당 전당대회 대의원 선출 경선 및 2020년 미국 대통령 선거 민주당 후보 경선은 2020년 미국 대통령 선거 정·부통령 후보를 선출하기 위해 열릴 민주당 대통령 후보 경선이다. 2020년 경선은 지난 경선 당시 논란이 되었던 당연직 대의원 (superdelegate) 제도를 개편하여 당연직 대의원들은 특수한 경우가 아니고는 대통령 후보 선출 때 투표할 수 없게 하였다. 경과 당내 진영 갈등 2016년 대선 당시, 민주당의 대선 후보 지명전은 중도 성향 당권파의 지지를 받은 힐러리 클린턴과 진보 성향 비당권파의 지지를 받은 버니 샌더스의 양자 구도로 치뤄졌다. 그 결과 샌더스는 클린턴에게 석패했고, 진보파는 당권파가 진보층을 외면한 결과라며 불만을 표했다. 여기에 당 지도부 인사들이 중립을 지키지 않고 클린턴을 지지하고, 심지어 경선 과정에서 여러 가지 도움을 준 사실이 위키리크스에 의해 폭로되며 당내 분위기는 악화됐다. 그 해 대선에서 클린턴은 도널드 트럼프 공화당 후보에게 패배했고, 이는 민주당이 젊은 층과 노동자들 등의 표심을 잃은 결과로 분석되었다. 당권파와 진보파 간의 갈등은 2017년 민주당 지도부 경선에서도 이어졌는데, 당권파의 지원을 받은 톰 페레즈 전 노동부 장관이 진보파의 키스 엘리슨 하원의원을 누르고 전국위원회 대표로 선출되며 진보파는 또 한 번 좌절을 겪었다. 진보 돌풍 강경 보수 노선의 트럼프가 대통령이 되자, 민주당 내에서는 반사 작용으로 강경 대여 투쟁 노선이 대세를 탔다. 버니 샌더스, 키어스틴 질리브랜드, 엘리자베스 워런, 코리 부커, 카멀라 해리스 등 민주당의 대선 주자급 정치인들은 하나 같이 트럼프가 임명하는 거의 모든 인사에 반대하고, 트럼프가 내놓는 정책마다 비판하는 방식으로 인기 및 지지를 얻었다. 이는 미투 운동, 2016년 경선 당시 샌더스 열풍 등의 영향으로 진보적인 정책들이 꾸준히 인기를 얻고 있던 탓도 있었다. 일각에선 민주당이 너무 좌로 치우치는 게 아니냐는 우려도 제기되었다. 2018년 중간 선거에서 진보 돌풍은 확연히 나타나, 샌더스와 같이 민주사회주의를 표방하는 알렉산드리아 오카시오코르테스 후보가 하원의원 당선에 성공한 것을 비롯, 사상 최다의 여성, 유색인종, 성소수자 당선자들이 탄생하게 되었다. 또한 스테이시 에이브럼스 조지아 주지사 후보, 베토 오로크 텍사스 연방 상원의원 후보 등 공화당 텃밭 지역에서 출마한 후보들이 당선에는 실패했지만 기대 이상의 선전을 보여 공화당에 충격을 주었다. 2019년 1월 갤럽 여론조사 결과, 민주당 지지층 중 사상 최다인 51%가 스스로 진보라고 생각한다고 밝혀, 처음 갤럽에서 해당 질문의 여론조사를 실시한 이후 최고치를 기록하기도 했다. 또한 2016년 버니 샌더스가 공약할 때만 해도 급진적이라는 말을 듣던 전국민 의료보험 제도 도입, 대학 등록금 무료화, 부자 증세 등의 정책들이 민주당 지지층 사이에서 7~80%를 웃도는 압도적인 지지를 받는 것으로 드러나, 민주당 지지자들이 진보 성향이 강해진 것으로 분석되었다. 그러나 민주당 당권파의 중진인 낸시 펠로시 하원의장은 당이 대세를 따라 더 진보적으로 바뀌어야 하는 게 아니냐는 질의에 "(나나 오카시오코르테스 의원의) 지역구는 물 컵을 공천해도 민주당이기만 하면 당선되는 곳들"이라고 지적하고 "우리가 이번 총선에서 승리한 것은 중도, 주류 후보 43명의 선전 덕분이었다"고 말해 온건 노선을 고수할 뜻을 분명히 했다. 경선 구도 2019년 초부터 엘리자베스 워런, 키어스틴 질리브랜드, 카멀라 해리스 등 스타 정치인들의 출마 선언이 이어졌으나, 각종 여론조사에서는 출마 선언조차 하지 않은 조 바이든 전 부통령과 버니 샌더스 상원의원이 양강 구도를 형성하는 것으로 나타났다. 바이든은 오바마 정부 8년 동안 부통령을 지낸 경력으로 인해 과거 "흑인 학생 백인 학교 입학 정책 결사 반대 (초선 의원이던 1974년 당시)" 발언 등의 논란에도 불구하고 흑인 유권자들에게 압도적인 지지를 받았으며, 원로 중도 정치인으로서 백인 및 중도 계열에서도 상당한 지지를 받는 것으로 나타났다. 2019년 3월 CNN 여론조사에서는 카멀라 해리스 상원의원과 베토 오로크 전 하원의원이 두 자릿수 지지율을 달성하였다. 당초 군소 후보로 분류되던 피트 부티지지 사우스벤드 시장도 3월 11일 CNN에서 주최한 유권자 간담회 방송에 출연해 진솔한 이미지로 화제를 끌었고, 그 뒤 젊은 층을 중심으로 꾸준히 지지세를 불려나가 시간이 갈 수록 주요 후보로 분류되기에 이르렀다. 엘리자베스 워런 상원의원은 부자세 도입, 학자금 대출 감면 등을 공약하고 공약을 뒷받침할 자세한 계획을 내놓으며 지지율을 회복했으며, 카멀라 해리스 상원의원은 마이애미에서 열린 1차 토론회에서 바이든 전 부통령의 흑인 학생 백인 학교 입학 지원 제도 반대 이력을 저격하며 잠시 인기가 급부상했다. 2019년 중후반에는 바이든 전 부통령과 워런 상원의원, 샌더스 상원의원 등 세 70대 후보가 3강 구도를 형성하였다. 그러나 부티지지 시장도 첫 경선지인 아이오와 지역 당원 여론조사에서 1위를 달리는 등 만만치 않게 그 뒤를 따랐다. 한때 상위권 후보로 분류되었던 해리스나 오로크는 지지율 하락을 반전시키지 못하고 경선 시작도 전에 사퇴하고 마는가 하면, 2019년 11월에 출마를 선언한 마이클 블룸버그 전 뉴욕 시장처럼 뒤늦게 경선에 뛰어드는 경우도 있었다. 후보 최종 후보 경선 시작 이후 사퇴 후보 경선 시작 이전 사퇴 후보 토론회 민주당은 사상 최대의 후보군이 경선에 참여하는 것을 고려, 기존 경선 후보 토론보다 규정을 엄격하게 하기로 하였다. 2019년 2월 14일 민주당은 최대 20명까지만 경선 토론회에 참여할 수 있으며, 최소 3개의 전국 단위 여론조사 혹은 초기 경선 지역 4곳 여론조사에서 1% 이상의 지지율을 받거나 최소 20개 주에서 6만 5천 명의 후원자 및 50개 주에서 200명의 후원자를 확보한 후보만 초청될 것이라고 발표했다. 그 결과 6월 1차 토론회에 참여할 총 20명의 후보자가 확정되었으며, 하루에 10명 씩 이틀에 걸쳐 1차 토론회가 개최되었다. 7월 2차 토론회는 1차 토론회와 같은 기준으로 참여 후보를 결정하였다. 따라서 2차 토론회에 참여하는 후보들의 면면은 1차 토론회와 큰 차이가 없었으나, 1차 토론회 때 참여했던 에릭 스월웰 후보가 하원의원 재선 도전으로 선회하며 대선 후보를 사퇴하여 스티브 불럭 후보가 새로이 토론에 참여하였다. 9월 3차 토론회에서는 여론조사 지지율 2% 이상을 기록하고, 130,000명의 개인 후원자들을 확보하는 등 두 가지의 조건을 모두 충족하는 후보들만이 토론회에 참여할 수 있도록 기준이 상향 조정되었다. 10월 4차 토론회 참여 자격은 3차 토론회와 동일한 기준이 적용되었으나, 적용 여론조사 기간을 늘린 결과 3차 토론회 때보다 2명이 많은 12명의 후보들이 참여하게 되었다. 이틀에 걸쳐 열린 1차 토론회 결과 히스패닉 이민자 가정 출신의 훌리안 카스트로 후보는 이민자 문제 해결을 위한 현실적이고 건설적인 공약을 제시해 매니페스토 후보의 이미지를 얻었으며, 참전 군인 출신의 털시 개버드 후보는 안보 정책에 일가견을 보여 일전의 성소수자 혐오 발언 논란으로 나빠진 이미지를 회복한 것으로 분석되었다. 그러나 토론회의 하이라이트는 둘째날 토론장에서 조 바이든 후보와 카멀라 해리스 후보 간에 벌어진 설전이었는데, 해리스 후보는 "나는 백인과 흑인이 같은 학교를 다니게 된 2년차에 입학했다"며 본인이 학교에 들어갈 당시 국회의원으로써 흑인 학생들을 백인 학교에 입학시켜주는 정책에 반대한 바이든 후보를 비판하였다. 바이든 후보는 자신은 흑인들이 백인 학교에 입학하는 것에 반대한 것이 아니며, 단지 중앙 정부가 아닌 지방 정부에서 처리할 일이라 생각하여 중앙 정부 차원에서 개입하는 것에 반대한 것 뿐이라고 반론하였다. 이 과정에서 바이든 후보가 언성을 높여 분위기가 일순 험악해지기도 하였다. 한동안 여론조사에서 선두권으로 확실하게 치고 나가지 못하던 해리스 후보는 이 토론을 계기로 명실상부한 메이저 후보로 자리잡게 된 반면, 바이든 후보의 지지율은 주춤하는 모습을 보였다. 이같이 초기 토론회에서는 바이든 후보에게 모든 공격이 집중되었으나, 4차 토론회에서는 그 사이 지지율이 무섭게 불어난 워런 후보가 집중 공격을 받기도 하였다. 여론 조사 논란 조 바이든의 부적절 스킨십 논란 2019년 3월 말, 바이든은 스테이시 에이브럼스 전 조지아 주의회 하원의원을 러닝메이트로 고려, 접촉하는 등 활발한 출마 준비를 하고 있었다. 그러던 3월 29일, 루시 플로레스 전 네바다 주의회 하원의원이 바이든이 자신을 부적절하게 만진 적이 있다고 주장해 파문이 불거졌다. 플로렌스는 2014년 바이든이 당시 네바다 주 부지사 후보였던 자신의 선거 유세를 지원하러 왔었으며, 단상 위에 오르기 전에 자신의 두 어깨를 잡더니 머리카락 냄새를 맡고 뒤통수에 입을 맞췄다고 주장하였다. 이어서 4월 1일에는 또 한 명의 여성이 비슷한 내용을 폭로했다. 두번째 여성은 짐 하임스 코네티컷 주 연방 하원의원 의원실에서 보좌관을 지낸 에이미 라포스라는 여성으로, 라포스는 바이든이 2009년 하임스 의원의 후원 행사에 참석했을 때 자신에게 다가오더니 두 손으로 자신의 목을 붙잡고 코를 부벼댔다고 주장했다. 바이든에 대해 비슷한 주장을 하고 나온 여성들은 앞선 두 사람을 포함해 7명이었다. 바이든은 자신은 결단코 성적인 의도를 품은 적이 없다고 강조하면서도, 자신 때문에 불쾌감을 느낀 여성들이 있다면 사과한다고 성명을 발표했다. 낸시 펠로시 하원의장, 다이앤 파인스타인 상원의원 등 바이든과 개인적인 친분이 있는 민주당 주류 계열 인사들은 "그건 (성적인 의미가 아니라) 그저 바이든이 정이 많은 사람이라 하는 특유의 행동"이며, 자신들이 아는 바이든은 "진정 따뜻하고 좋은 사람"이라고 주장하며 바이든을 변호하였다. 그러나 민주당 내 여성 단체, 사회 단체 등에서는 시대가 변한 만큼 제기된 의혹들을 그냥 넘겨서는 안 된다며 철저한 진상 규명을 요구했다. 이 밖에도 바이든 후보는 선거 유세 중 과거 자신이 인종 차별 찬성론자 국회의원들과 함께 일한 경험을 자랑스럽게 얘기하며 "그때는 (정치가) 신사적이었고 뭔가를 이루어냈다. 생각은 달랐어도 함께 일을 해서 뭔가를 해냈다"고 발언해 여론의 뭇매를 맞는 등 여러 번 논란의 중심이 되었다. 버니 샌더스의 재산 공개 논란 미국 대선 출마자들의 관례대로 버니 샌더스는 지난 10년 간의 세금 보고를 공개하였는데, 샌더스의 재산이 2016년 대선 때와 비교해 확연히 늘어, 자산이 200만 불이 넘는 이른바 백만장자가 된 것으로 확인되었다. 2016년 민주당 경선에 참여한 뒤로 미국의 민주사회주의 인사로 떠오른 샌더스는 이후 "우리의 혁명 (Our Revolution)", "앞으로 우리가 나아가야 할 길 (Where We Go From Here)" 등의 저서를 출판하였고, 이들이 모두 베스트셀러가 되어 어마어마한 인세를 받아 이같이 재산이 불어난 것이었다. "억만장자들 몇 명이 전체 중산층, 노동 계층을 등쳐먹고 있는 것" (2015년 애리조나 피닉스 유세) 등 상류층을 공격하는 발언 및 정책 기조로 유명한 샌더스의 이같은 재산 상황에 일각에서는 샌더스가 타인의 재산 증식은 공격해놓고 자신의 재산 증식에는 관대하다는 비판이 제기되었다. 샌더스는 "누구든지 베스트셀러 작가가 되면 백만불을 벌게 되는 것"이라며, 자신은 내야 할 세금을 모두 성실히 냈음으로 자신이 비판해온 노동자 착취, 교묘한 세금 회피 등으로 재산을 불리는 부자들과는 다르다고 반박했다. 그는 또한 백만장자가 아니었던 2016년과 다름없이 부자 및 대기업 과세를 공약하며 변절 논란을 종식시켰다. 폭스 뉴스 출연 문제 2019년 3월, 민주당 전국위는 2020년 대선 경선 후보 토론회 방송사로 폭스 뉴스는 무조건 배제할 것을 선언하였다. 미국의 대표적 보수 케이블 채널인 폭스 뉴스는 그 동안 공화당에 우호적이고 민주당에 비판적인 편향적인 보도와 인종차별 및 성차별, 성소수자 차별 등을 옹호하는 내용의 방송으로 인해 극우 언론이라는 비판을 받아왔다. 이같은 이유로 민주당 전국위는 폭스 뉴스를 전면 보이콧하기로 결정한 것이었다. 그러나 버니 샌더스 후보가 폭스 뉴스에서 주최한 유권자 간담회 방송에 출연한 것을 필두로, 에이미 클로버샤 후보 후보, 피트 부티지지 후보, 키어스틴 질리브랜드 후보 등이 같은 포맷으로 폭스 뉴스에 출연해 화제가 되었다. 부티지지 후보는 "만약 우리 당이 특정한 국민들에게 다가가지 않아서 그들이 우리 당의 메시지를 듣지 않는다면 그건 그들의 잘못이 아니지 않느냐"며 "폭스 뉴스 시정차들은 민주당이 그 동안 만나지 않았던 사람들이다, 그들을 잡기 위해 가치를 버려서는 안 되지만 정말 모든 국민들의 지지를 얻기 위해선 노력을 해야 한다"고 말하며 출연 이유를 밝혔다. 샌더스-워런 간 "여성 폄훼 발언" 진실 공방 2020년 1월, 엘리자베스 워런 후보 측은 버니 샌더스 후보가 2018년 자신과 사적인 자리에서 대화하던 중 "여자는 대선에서 승리할 수 없다"고 발언했다고 주장하였다. 샌더스 후보는 자신이 80년대에 한 방송에서 "여자도 대선에서 승리할 수 있다고 본다"고 발언한 영상을 찾아내는 등 적극적으로 반박하고, 자신은 결코 여성의 대선 당선 가능성을 의심하는 발언을 한 적이 없다고 주장하였다. 경선 아이오와 민주당 아이오와 경선은 2020년 2월 3일 코커스 방식으로 실시되었다. 미국의 코커스 제도는 그 절차가 복잡한 것으로 유명한데, 우선 1차 투표를 한 다음 선거구별로 15% 미만 득표 후보를 컷오프, 그 뒤 남은 후보들 중에서 2차 투표를 실시하는 투표 방식이 특이하다. 그 뿐 아니라 이같은 투표 결과를 선거구별로 집계한 뒤 각 선거구에 할당된 SDE(State Delegate Equivalence; 주 대의원 환산치)를 후보별로 분배하고 후보별 SDE 비율을 사용해 후보별 전당대회 대의원 수를 확정하는 대의원 분배 방식도 매우 특이하다. 이전까지만 해도 민주당 아이오와주당은 SDE 배분 결과만 발표하고 유권자들의 투표 결과는 공개하지 않아왔는데, 이번 경선에서는 1, 2차 투표 결과도 공개하기로 하였다. 개표 결과 집계 어플리케이션이 경선 당일 오작동해 개표 결과 집계 및 발표가 늦어진 끝에 발표된 경선 결과 버니 샌더스 후보가 득표율 1위를 기록했으나, 대의원은 피트 부티지지 후보가 더 많이 가져가게 되었다. 뉴햄프셔 민주당 뉴햄프셔 경선은 2020년 2월 11일 프라이머리 방식으로 실시되었다. 선거 결과 세간의 예상대로 샌더스 후보와 부티지지 후보가 각각 1위와 2위를 차지했으며, 3위는 뜻밖에도 클로버샤 후보가 차지하였다. 워런 후보와 바이든 후보는 각각 4위와 5위로 참패했으며, 둘은 15% 미만을 득표해 대의원 획득 조건도 충족하지 못했다. 네바다 민주당 네바다 경선은 2020년 2월 22일 코커스 방식으로 실시되었다. 1차 투표에서 15% 이상의 득표를 하지 못한 후보가 있을 시 그 후보의 지지자들은 15% 이상 득표 후보들 중에서 2차 투표를 하게 되었으며, 이같은 최종 투표 결과를 토대로 투표구별 후보별 CCD (County Convention Delegates; 카운티당대회 대의원 수)를 계산하게 되었다. 사우스캐롤라이나 민주당 사우스캐롤라이나 경선은 2020년 2월 29일 프라이머리 방식으로 실시되었다. 선거 결과 바이든과 샌더스가 각각 1위와 2위를 기록해 전대 대의원을 배분 받게 되었으며, 그 외 후보들은 모두 주 전체는 물론 모든 하원의원 선거구에서 15% 봉쇄 조항에 미달하여 대의원을 얻지 못하게 되었다. 대의원 확보 현황 전당대회 제48차 미국 민주당 대통령 후보 선출 전당대회는 위스콘신 주 밀워키 시에서 2020년 7월 13일부터 16일까지 나흘 간 치러질 예정이다. 위스콘신주는 1988년부터 2012년까지 총 7번의 대선에서 모두 민주당이 승리했던 지역으로, 지난 대선 때 힐러리는 이 곳에서 당연히 승리할 것으로 생각하고 단 한 번도 유세를 가지 않았을 정도였으나, 2016년 대선 결과 트럼프가 공화당 후보로는 1984년 레이건 이후 처음으로 위스콘신에서 승리해 충격을 주었다. 이후 민주당 내부에서는 미대륙 중서부 유권자들의 지지를 복구하는 것이 차기 선거에서의 승리를 위해 절실하다는 여론이 형성되었고, 민주당 전국위가 그 바로 다음 대선 후보 선출 대회를 위스콘신에서 개최하기로 선정한 것도 이런 배경에서 이뤄진 것으로 분석되었다. 각주 외부 링크 2020년 미국 대통령 선거

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%20Democratic%20Party%20presidential%20primaries

2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries

Presidential primaries and caucuses were organized by the Democratic Party to select the 3,979 pledged delegates to the 2020 Democratic National Convention held on August 17–20 to determine the party's nominee for president in the 2020 United States presidential election. The elections took place in all 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, five U.S. territories, and through Democrats Abroad, and occurred between February 3 and August 11. A total of 29 major candidates declared their candidacies for the primaries, the largest field of presidential primary candidates for any American political party since the modern primaries began in 1972, exceeding the field of 17 major candidates in the 2016 Republican Party presidential primaries. Former Vice President Joe Biden led polls throughout 2019, with the exception of a brief period in October when Senator Elizabeth Warren experienced a surge in support. 18 of the 29 declared candidates withdrew before the formal beginning of the primary due to low polling, fundraising, and media coverage. The first primary was marred by controversy, as technical issues with vote reporting resulted in a three-day delay in vote counting in the Iowa caucus, as well as subsequent recounts. The certified results of the caucus eventually showed Mayor Pete Buttigieg winning the most delegates, while Senator Bernie Sanders won the popular vote in the state. Sanders then went on to win the New Hampshire primary in a narrow victory over Buttigieg before handily winning the Nevada caucus, cementing his status as the front-runner for the nomination. Biden, whose campaign fortunes had suffered from losses in Iowa, New Hampshire and Nevada, made a comeback by overwhelmingly winning the South Carolina primary, motivated by strong support from African American voters, an endorsement from South Carolina U.S. Representative Jim Clyburn, as well as Democratic establishment concerns about nominating Sanders. After Biden won South Carolina, and one day before the Super Tuesday primaries, several moderate candidates dropped out of the race and endorsed Biden in what was viewed as a consolidation of the party's moderate wing. Prior to the announcement, polling saw Sanders leading with a plurality in most Super Tuesday states. Biden then went on to win 10 out of 15 contests on Super Tuesday, beating back challenges from Sanders, Warren, and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg, solidifying his lead. On April 8, Biden became the presumptive nominee after Sanders, the only other candidate remaining, withdrew from the race. In early June, Biden passed the threshold of 1,991 delegates to win the nomination. In total, seven candidates received pledged delegates: Biden, Sanders, Warren, Bloomberg, Buttigieg, Senator Amy Klobuchar and U.S. Representative Tulsi Gabbard. On August 11, Biden announced that former presidential candidate Senator Kamala Harris would be his running mate. Biden and Harris were officially nominated for president and vice president by delegates at the Democratic National Convention on August 18 and 19. Biden and Harris went on to win the presidency and vice presidency in the general election on November 3, defeating the incumbents President Donald Trump and Vice President Mike Pence. Biden became the first Democratic candidate since Bill Clinton, and the third ever Democratic candidate, to win the nomination without carrying either Iowa or New Hampshire, the first two states on the primary/caucus calendar. The primaries were initially scheduled to go through June 6. However, the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States caused a number of states to shift their primaries to later in the year. Background After Hillary Clinton's loss in the previous election, many felt the Democratic Party lacked a clear leading figure. Divisions remained in the party following the 2016 primaries, which pitted Clinton against Bernie Sanders. Between the 2016 election and the 2018 midterm elections, Senate Democrats generally shifted to the political left in relation to college tuition, healthcare, and immigration. The 2018 elections saw the Democratic Party regain the House of Representatives for the first time in eight years, picking up seats in both urban and suburban districts. Reforms since 2016 On August 25, 2018, the Democratic National Committee (DNC) members passed reforms to the Democratic Party's primary process in order to increase participation and ensure transparency. State parties are encouraged to use a government-run primary whenever available and increase the accessibility of their primary through same-day or automatic registration and same-day party switching. Caucuses are required to have absentee voting, or to otherwise allow those who cannot participate in person to be included. Independent of the results of the primaries and caucuses, the Democratic Party, from its group of party leaders and elected officials, also appointed 771 unpledged delegates (superdelegates) to participate in its national convention. In contrast to all previous election cycles since superdelegates were introduced in 1984, superdelegates will no longer have the right to cast decisive votes on the convention's first ballot for the presidential nomination. They will be allowed to cast non-decisive votes if a candidate has clinched the nomination before the first ballot, or decisive votes on subsequent ballots in a contested convention. In that case, the number of votes required shall increase to a majority of pledged and superdelegates combined. Superdelegates are not precluded from publicly endorsing a candidate before the convention. There were also a number of changes to the process of nomination at the state level. A decline in the number of caucuses occurred after 2016, with Democrats in Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Kansas, Maine, Minnesota, Nebraska, North Dakota, and Washington all switching from various forms of caucuses to primaries (with Hawaii, Kansas, and North Dakota switching to party-run "firehouse primaries"). This has resulted in the lowest number of caucuses in the Democratic Party's recent history, with only three states (Iowa, Nevada, and Wyoming) and four territories (American Samoa, Guam, Northern Marianas, and U.S. Virgin Islands) using them. In addition, six states were approved in 2019 by the DNC to use ranked-choice voting in the primaries: Alaska, Hawaii, Kansas, and Wyoming for all voters; Iowa and Nevada for absentee voters. Rather than eliminating candidates until a single winner is chosen, voters' choices would be reallocated until all remaining candidates have at least 15%, the threshold to receive delegates to the convention. Several states which did not use paper ballots widely in 2016 and 2018, adopted them for the 2020 primary and general elections, to minimize potential interference in vote tallies, a concern raised by intelligence officials, election officials and the public. The move to paper ballots enabled audits to start where they had not been possible before, and in 2020 about half the states audit samples of primary ballots to measure accuracy of the reported results. Audits of caucus results depend on party rules, and the Iowa Democratic party investigated inaccuracies in precinct reports, resolved enough to be sure the delegate allocations were correct, and decided it did not have authority or time to correct all errors. Rules for number of delegates Number of pledged delegates per state The number of pledged delegates from each state is proportional to the state's share of the electoral college, and to the state's past Democratic votes for president. Thus less weight is given to swing states and Republican states, while more weight is given to strongly Democratic states, in choosing a nominee. Six pledged delegates are assigned to each territory, 44 to Puerto Rico, and 12 to Democrats Abroad. Each jurisdiction can also earn bonus delegates by holding primaries after March or in clusters of 3 or more neighboring states. Within states, a quarter of pledged delegates are allocated to candidates based on statewide vote totals, and the rest typically based on votes in each congressional district, although some states use divisions other than congressional districts. For example, Texas uses state Senate districts. Districts which have voted Democratic in the past get more delegates, and fewer delegates are allocated for swing districts and Republican districts. For example, House Speaker Pelosi's strongly Democratic district 12 has 7 delegates, or one per 109,000 people, and a swing district, CA-10, which became Democratic in 2018, has 4 delegates, or one per 190,000 people. Candidate threshold Candidates who received under 15% of the votes in a state or district didn't get any delegates from that area. Candidates who got 15% or more of the votes divided delegates in proportion to their votes. These rules apply at the state level to state delegates and within each district for those delegates. The 15% threshold was established in 1992 to limit "fringe" candidates. The threshold now means that any sector of the party (moderate, progressive, etc.) which produces many candidates, thus dividing supporters' votes, may win few delegates, even if it wins a majority of votes. Schedule and results Election day postponements and cancellations Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, a number of presidential primaries were rescheduled. On April 27, New York canceled its primary altogether on the grounds that there was only one candidate left with an active campaign. Andrew Yang responded with a lawsuit, arguing that the decision infringes on voting rights, and in early May, the judge ruled in favor of Yang. In addition, the DNC elected to delay the 2020 Democratic National Convention from July 13–16 to August 17–20. Candidates Major candidates in the 2020 Democratic presidential primaries had held significant elective office or received substantial media coverage. Nearly 300 candidates who did not receive significant media coverage also filed with the Federal Election Commission to run for president in the primary. Nominee Withdrew during the primaries Other notable individuals who were not major candidates terminated their campaigns during the primaries: Henry Hewes, real estate developer; Right to Life nominee for Mayor of New York City in 1989 and U.S. Senate from New York in 1994 Sam Sloan, chess player and publisher (Ran for Congress in NY-14) Robby Wells, former college football coach; Independent candidate for president in 2016 Withdrew before the primaries Other notable individuals who were not major candidates terminated their campaigns before the primaries: Ben Gleib, actor, comedian, satirist, and writer Ami Horowitz, conservative activist and documentary filmmaker (endorsed Donald Trump) Brian Moore, activist; Green nominee for U.S. Senate from Florida in 2006; Socialist and Liberty Union nominee for president in 2008 Ken Nwadike Jr., documentary filmmaker, motivational speaker, and peace activist Political positions Debates and forums Primary election polling Timeline Ballot access Filing for the primaries began in October 2019. indicates that the candidate was on the ballot for the primary contest, indicates that the candidate was a recognized write-in candidate, and indicates that the candidate did not appear on the ballot in that state's contest. indicates that a candidate withdrew before the election but was still listed on the ballot. Candidates listed in italics have suspended their campaigns. National convention The 2020 Democratic National Convention was scheduled to take place in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on July 13–16, 2020, but was postponed and rescheduled to take place on August 17–20 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The event became a virtual "Convention Across America" with voting held online before the opening gavel, and the non-televised events held remotely over ZOOM. Endorsements Campaign finance This is an overview of the money being raised and spent by each campaign for the entire period running from January 1, 2017, to March 31, 2020, as it was reported to the Federal Election Commission (FEC). Total raised is the sum of all individual contributions (large and small), loans from the candidate, and transfers from other campaign committees. The last column, Cash On Hand (COH), has been calculated by subtracting the "spent" amount from the "raised" amount, thereby showing the remaining cash each campaign had available for its future spending As of February 29, 2020, the major candidates have raised $989,234,992.08. Maps See also 2020 United States presidential election National Conventions 2020 Democratic National Convention 2020 Republican National Convention 2020 Libertarian National Convention 2020 Green National Convention 2020 Constitution Party National Convention Presidential primaries 2020 Republican Party presidential primaries 2020 Libertarian Party presidential primaries 2020 Green Party presidential primaries 2020 Constitution Party presidential primaries Notes References 2019 in American politics 2020 elections in the United States Political timelines of the 2020s by year Democratic Party presidential primaries, 2020

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융합 규칙

이론물리학과 추상대수학에서 융합 규칙(融合規則, )은 2차원 등각 장론에 대응되는 특별한 대수 구조이다. 융합 규칙은 1차장 사이의 연산자 곱 전개에 어떤 1차장이 등장하는지를 기록하며, 그 계수는 모듈러 S변환과 페를린더 공식()이라는 공식으로 계산될 수 있다. 융합 규칙에는 항상 자연스럽게 융합환(融合環, ) 또는 페를린더 대수(Verlinde代數, )라는 가환환이 대응된다. 정의 유한 집합 및 대합 이 주어졌다고 하자. 그렇다면, 이로 생성되는 자유 가환 모노이드 를 생각할 수 있다. 그 원소는 의 원소들로 구성된 중복집합으로 생각할 수 있다. 위의 융합 규칙은 다음과 같은 조건을 만족시키는 함수 이다. (규격화) (대합에 대한 대칭) (융합) (부호) (비퇴화성) 성질 항등원과 3점 계수 임의의 융합 규칙 가 주어졌을 때, 어떤 원소 에 대하여 이게 된다. 이를 융합 규칙의 항등원()이라고 하며, 보통 단순히 로 표기한다. (이는 2차원 등각 장론에서 항등 연산자에 해당한다.) 증명: 공리로부터, 이다. 이므로, 이는 어떤 인 경우 이며 다른 나머지 에 대하여 임을 의미한다. 그런데 공리에 의하여 인 가 존재하여야 하므로, 이는 일 수 밖에 없으며, 이다. 이므로 이다. 이는 다음과 같이 항등원을 이룬다. 증명: 공리로부터, 이다. 또한, 항상 다음이 성립한다. 증명: 공리로부터, 이다. 를 만족시키는 정수 는 0 및 1 밖에 없다. 이 경우 이므로 이며, 따라서 이다. 만약 이라면, 임의의 에 대하여 인데, 이는 공리에 의하여 불가능하다. 따라서 항상 이다. 사실, 융합 규칙은 다음과 같은 데이터로만 완전히 결정된다. 항등원 3점 계수 증명: 2점 이하의 계수는 로 완전히 결정된다. 또한, 이므로, 점의 계수는 3점 계수와 점 계수로 결정된다. 물론, 3점 계수 에서 만약 가운데 하나가 에 속한다면 그 값은 자명하다. 보통 3점 계수는 로 표기한다. 대칭에 의하여 가 된다. (는 크로네커 델타이다.) 즉, 융합 규칙은 다음 조건을 만족시킨다. s 만약 를 행렬 로 표기한다면, 이는 다음과 같다. 즉, 이 조건은 융합 행렬들이 서로 교환 법칙을 따르는 것으로 해석할 수 있다. 따라서, 복소수 계수에서 이들을 동시에 대각화하는 기저를 찾을 수 있다. 페를린더 공식에 따라서, 이 기저는 모듈러 변환의 S행렬에 의하여 주어진다. 고차 종수 융합 규칙 융합 규칙 및 자연수 에 대하여, 다음과 같은 함수들을 재귀적으로 정의할 수 있다. 이들은 2차원 등각 장론에서, 종수 의 콤팩트 리만 곡면 위에 정의된 상관 함수에 대응된다. 그렇다면, 이는 다음과 같은 성질을 따른다. 융합환 융합 규칙 이 주어졌을 때, 로 생성되는 자유 아벨 군 위에 다음과 같은 -쌍선형 곱셈 연산을 줄 수 있다. 이는 항등원 을 갖는 가환환을 이루며, 융합환이라고 한다. 특히, 융합환 의 가환환으로서의 항등원은 0개의 원소의 곱이므로, 이다. 즉, 융합환의 항등원은 융합 규칙의 항등원과 같다. 물론 1개의 원소의 곱은 이므로 이 정의는 일관적이다. 이 정의가 결합 법칙을 따르는 이항 연산을 정의하는 것은 융합 규칙의 융합 공리에서 비롯된다. 융합환 위에는 항상 다음 조건을 만족시키는 덧셈 군 준동형 이 존재한다. 따라서 는 -가군의 동형 사상 을 정의한다. 따라서, 모든 융합환은 고런스틴 환이다. 이 가군 동형에서, 대각합 에 대응되는 의 원소는 카시미르 원소 이다. 등각 장론의 융합환 2차원 등각 장론 가운데 최소 모형이 주어졌다고 하자. 이 경우, 를 1차장의 집합으로 놓고, 를 항등 함수로 놓고, 로 놓자. (여기서 는 등각 장론의 3점 상관 함수의 계수이다.) 그렇다면, 이는 융합 규칙을 정의한다. 보다 일반적으로, 비라소로 대수 대신 초대칭 비라소로 대수나 아핀 리 대수(베스-추미노-위튼 모형)에 대한, 유한 개의 1차장을 갖는 2차원 등각 장론에 대해서도 유사하게 융합환을 정의할 수 있다. 이 경우 대합 이 자명하지 않을 수 있다. 페를린더 공식 유한 개의 1차장을 갖는 2차원 등각 장론에서, 최고 무게 표현들의 지표가 라고 하자. 그렇다면, 원환면 위에서의 모듈러 불변성 에 의하여 가 되는 행렬 이 존재한다. (보다 일반적으로, 위에는 의 표현이 존재한다.) 는 항상 유니터리 행렬이며, 대칭 행렬이며 (※에르미트 행렬이 아니다), 이다. 이 경우, 다음과 같은 페를린더 공식()이 성립한다. 여기서 는 성분별 복소켤레이다 (즉, ). 예 이징 모형 임계 2차원 이징 모형에 해당하는 최소 모형 을 생각하자. 이 경우, 세 개의 일차장이 존재하며, 다음과 같다. 이에 대응되는 융합 규칙은 다음과 같다. 이 경우, 페를린더 대수는 3차원이며, 다음과 같다. 즉, 곱셈이 다음과 같다. 베스-추미노-위튼 모형 다음이 주어졌다고 하자. 복소수 단순 리 대수 의 카르탕 부분 대수 따라서, 근계 를 정의할 수 있다. 근계 위의 순서. 이에 따라서 최고(最高) 근 을 고를 수 있다. 양의 정수 이제, 의 우세 무게 가운데 인 것들의 집합을 라고 하자. 이들은 아핀 리 대수 의 준위 의 표현들과 일대일로 대응한다. 에 대응하는 -표현을 라고 표기하자. 이제, 다음 데이터가 주어졌다고 하자. 콤팩트 연결 리만 곡면 의 유한 부분 집합 함수 그렇다면, 의 표현 을 생각하자. 또한, 값 정칙 함수의 복소수 리 대수 는 이 표현 위에 표준적으로 작용한다. 따라서, 다음과 같은 복소수 벡터 공간을 정의할 수 있다. 여기서 는 의, -작용에 대한 쌍대불변량의 공간, 즉 에 불변인, 의 가장 큰 몫 벡터 공간이다. 아핀 리 대수 의 표현을 갖는 2차원 등각 장론인 베스-추미노-위튼 모형을 정의할 수 있다. 이 경우, 복소수 벡터 공간 는 각 점 에 에 해당하는 일차장을 삽입한 경우의 등각 블록이다. 두 유한 집합 , 및 전단사 함수 가 주어졌을 때, 표준적인 벡터 공간 동형 사상 이 주어진다. 즉, 등각 블록의 차원은 선택한 점들의 수 및 대응되는 표현에만 의존하고, 점의 위치에 의존하지 않는다. 이 경우, 다음과 같은 융합 규칙을 생각하자. 즉, 이는 리만 구 위의 등각 블록의 차원이다. 이는 베스-추미노-위튼 모형에 대응되는 융합 규칙이다. 역사 에릭 페를린더(, 1962〜)가 1988년에 2차원 등각 장론을 연구하기 위하여 도입하였다. 참고 문헌 외부 링크 등각 장론

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion%20rules

Fusion rules

In mathematics and theoretical physics, fusion rules are rules that determine the exact decomposition of the tensor product of two representations of a group into a direct sum of irreducible representations. The term is often used in the context of two-dimensional conformal field theory where the relevant group is generated by the Virasoro algebra, the relevant representations are the conformal families associated with a primary field and the tensor product is realized by operator product expansions. The fusion rules contain the information about the kind of families that appear on the right hand side of these OPEs, including the multiplicities. More generally, integrable models in 2 dimensions which aren't conformal field theories are also described by fusion rules for their charges. References Conformal field theory

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%A0%EB%A6%B4%20%EC%9D%B4%EB%82%A0%EC%A6%89

할릴 이날즉

할릴 이날즉(, ~ )은 터키 태생의 역사학자이다. 주요 연구 영역은 오스만 제국의 사회사와 경제사였다. 오스만 제국사 연구에 있어 할릴 이날즉은 메흐메트 푸아트 쾨프륄뤼의 뒤를 이어 프랑스 아날학파의 사회, 경제학적 방법론을 이식했고, 외메르 루트피 바르칸의 뒤를 이어 오스만 제국의 고문서 연구를 대중화시켰다. 생애 할릴 이날즉은 오스만 제국 콘스탄티니예에서 태어났다. (할릴 이날즉 자신도 정확한 생일을 몰랐으나, 터키에서는 5월 26일을, 미국에서는 7월 4일을 생일으로 삼았다). 할릴 이날즉의 가족은 전쟁을 피해 1924년, 앙카라로 이주했다. 아버지인 세이트 오스만 누리()는 가족을 떠나 이집트로 이주했기 때문에, 할릴 이날즉은 편모 가정에서 성장했다. 초등교육은 앙카라 가지 멕테비()에서, 중등교육은 앙카라 가지 무알림 멕테비()에서 받았다. 고등교육은 발르케시르 네자티 베이 무알림 멕테비()에서 받았다. 중학교와 고등학교에서는 선생님이 되기를 희망하였으나, 대학교에 입학할 무렵에는 역사학자로 꿈을 바꾸었다. 1936년, 앙카라대학교 언어, 역사, 지리학부에 입학, 근대사를 전공했다. 1940년에 교육과정을 마치고는 해당 학부에 조교로 취업했고, 1942년에는 《탄지마트와 불가르 문제()》란 논문으로 박사 과정을 마치고, 1952년 교수로 임용되었다. 1972년까지 해당 학부에서 교수로 재직한 할릴 이날즉은 이후 시카고대학교 사학과로 이직했다. 할릴 이날즉의 대표적인 저작 《오스만 제국: 고전기 1300-1600()》이 출간된 것(1973년)도 이 시기였다. 1993년에는 다시 시카고대학교에서 퇴직하여 빌켄트대학교로 적을 옮겨 죽을때까지 자리를 지켰다. 2003년에는 자신이 가지고 있던 오스만 관련 사료와 서적들을 빌켄트대학교에 기부하였고, 빌켄트 대학교는 할릴 이날즉 오스만 연구 센터를 만들어 이 자료들을 공개했다. 학문 할릴 이날즉 학문 세계의 가장 큰 특징은, 오스만 제국의 역사를 외국인이나 타자의 눈이 아니라 오스만인의 눈으로 연구했던 점이며, 이를 위해 평생 노력해왔다. 그의 연구는 항상 원사료에 천착한 것이였다. 이를 위해 할릴 이날즉은 영어, 프랑스어, 독일어와 아랍어, 이란어, 이탈리아어를 공부했다. 이 능력으로 말미암아 그는 오스만 시대의 정치, 사회, 경제 전 영역을 연구하였고, 오스만 법체계, 토지제도, 티마르 제도, 도시사, 개혁기 사회경제 변천사 등에서 특히 성과를 보였다. 앙카라대학교에서 할릴 이날즉은 푸아트 쾨프륄뤼의 지도를 받았다. 이 시기 할릴 이날즉의 사관은 터키 민족주의적이었다. 그러나 외메르 뤼트피 바르칸의 영향으로 차츰 프랑스 아날학파의 영향을 받았고, 1950년, 파리의 컨퍼런스에서 페르낭 브로델과 《펠리페 2세 시대의 지중해와 지중해 세계》를 소개 받은 뒤 이날즉의 사관은 극적으로 변화했다. 이날즉은 이후 오스만사를 지중해, 세계 무역, 경제, 사회, 제도적 변화라는 더 넓은 틀 아래에서 연구하기 시작했다. 뿐만 아니라, 이날즉은 마르크스주의는 거부하였지만 마르크스 학자들과 마찬가지로 농민, 도시 노동자, 물질 문화, 오스만 제국 건설의 경제적 요인 등에 관심을 가졌다. 영국에서 교환교수로 있으면서는 폴 위트텍과 교류하여 사료의 비판적으로 해석하는 묘를 깨달았다. 이후 그는 남겨진 오스만 공문서를 활용하여 토지제도, 인구, 농업 생산성, 공업, 교역, 세금 등의 주제를 다루었다. 할릴 이날즉은 또한 모든 학생들에게 오스만 고문서를 적극 활용하기를 권했고, 그 결과 오스만사 연구의 지평은 정치사를 뛰어넘어 확장하게 되었다. 주요 논저 1943. (터) Tanzimat ve Bulgar Meselesi. TTK. 1954. (터) Hicri 835 Tarihli Suret-i Defter-i Sancak-ı Arvanid. TTK. 1954. (터) Fatih Devri Üzerinde Tetkikler ve Vesikalar. TTK. 1956. (터) Kanûnnâme-i Sultânî ber Mûceb-i Örf-i Osmanî: II. Mehmed ve II. Bayezid Devirlerine Ait Yasaknâme ve Kanûnnâmeler. TTK. (R. Anhegger와 공저) 1960. (영) “Mehmed the Conqueror (1432-1481) and his Time.” Speculum, Vol. 35, No. 3: 408-427. 1969. (영) “Capital Formation in the Ottoman Empire.” The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 29, No. 1: 97-140. 1969. (영) “The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 23/24: 229-249. 1973. (영) The Ottoman Empire: the Classical Age, 1300-1600. Weidenfeld and Nicholson. 2005. (터) Osmanlı imparatorluğu: klasik çağ (1300-1600). Ruşen Sezer 옮김. Yapı Kredi Kültür Sanat Yayıncılık. 1978. (터) Gazavât-ı Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân İzladi ve Varna Savaşları (1443-1444) Üzerinde Anonim Gazavâtnâme. TTK. (M. Oğuz와 공저) 1978. (영) The Ottoman Empire: Conquest, Organization and Economy. Variorum Reprints. 1985. (영) Studies in Ottoman Social and Economic History. Variorum Reprints. 1993. (터) Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Toplum ve Ekonomi Üzerinde Arşiv Çalışmaları, İncelemeler. Eren. 1993. (영) The Middle East and the Balkans under the Ottoman Empire (Indiana University Turkish Studies and Turkish Ministry of Culture Joint Series Volume 9). Indiana University. 1993. (영) The History of the Black Sea Trade: the Register of Customs of Caffa. Cambridge University Press. 1995. (영) From Empire to Republic: Essays on Ottoman and Turkish Social History. Eren. 2000. (터) Osmanlı’da Devlet, Hukuk, Adâlet. Eren. 2003. (터) Şâir ve Patron, Patrimonyal Devlet ve Sanat Üzerinde Bir İnceleme. Doğu Batı Yayınları. 2005. (터) Doğu Batı Makaleler I. Doğu Batı Yayınları.' 2006. (영) Turkey and Europe in History. Eren. 2007. (터) Atatürk ve Demokratik Türkiye. Kırmızı Yayınları. 2010. (터) Kuruluş Dönemi Osmanlı Sultanları. İSAM Yayınları. 2016. (터) Osmanlı Tarihinde İslamiyet ve Devlet. İş Bankası Yayınları. 편저자 O. Okyar와 공동 편저. 1980. Türkiye’nin Sosyal ve Ekonomik Tarihi / Social and Economic History of Turkey (1071-1920). Meteksan. C. Kafadar와 공동 편저. 1994. (영) Süleyman the Second and his Time. Isis Press. D. Quataert와 공동 편저. 1994. (영) An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. Cambridge University Press. N. Göyünç, E. İhsanoğlu, Y. Halaçoğlu와 공동 편저. 1999. (터) Osmanlı, vol. 01-12. Yeni Türkiye Yayınları. Günsel Renda와 공동 편저. 2004. Osmanlı Uygarlığı/ Ottoman Civilization, vol. 01-02. Kültür Bakanlığı. M. Seyitdanlıoğlu와 공동 편저. 2006. (터) Tanzimat / Değişim Sürecinde Osmanlı İmparatorluğu. Phoenix Yayınları. 역주서 Tursun Beg. 1978. The History of Mehmed the Conqueror. American Research Institute. (R. Murphey와 공역) 각주 1916년 출생 2016년 사망 튀르키예의 역사가 튀르키예의 과학자 튀르키예의 저술가 튀르키예의 백세인 세르비아 과학 예술 아카데미 회원 이스탄불 출신 앙카라 대학교 동문 런던 대학교 교수 시카고 대학교 교수 크림 타타르인

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halil%20%C4%B0nalc%C4%B1k

Halil İnalcık

Halil İnalcık (7 September 1916 – 25 July 2016) was a Turkish historian. His highly influential research centered on social and economic approaches to the Ottoman Empire. His academic career started at Ankara University, where he completed his PhD and worked between 1940 and 1972. Between 1972 and 1986 he taught Ottoman history at the University of Chicago. From 1994 on he taught at Bilkent University, where he founded the history department. He was a founding member of Eurasian Academy. Biography He was born in Istanbul on 7 September 1916 to a Crimean Tatar family that left Crimea for the city in 1905. He attended Balıkesir Teacher Training School, and then Ankara University, Faculty of Language, History and Geography, Department of History, from which he graduated in 1940. His work on Timur drew the attention of Mehmet Fuat Köprülü, who facilitated his entry as an assistant to the Modern Age Department of the university. He completed his PhD in 1942 in the same department. His PhD thesis was on the Bulgarian question in the late Ottoman Empire, specifically during tanzimat, and constituted one of the first socioeconomic approaches in Turkish historiography. In December 1943, he became assistant professor and his research interest became focused on the social and economic aspects of the Ottoman Empire. He worked on the Ottoman judicial records of Bursa and in the Ottoman archives in Istanbul. He became a member of the Turkish Historical Society in 1947. In 1949, he was sent by the university to London, where he worked on Ottoman and Turkic inscriptions in the British Museum and attended seminars by Paul Wittek at the School of Oriental and African Studies. Here, he met other influential historians such as Bernard Lewis. He attended a congress in Paris in 1950, where he met Fernand Braudel, whose work greatly influenced him. He returned to Turkey in 1951 and became a professor in the same department in 1952. He lectured as a visiting professor in Columbia University in 1953–54 and worked and studied as a research fellow at Harvard University in 1956–57. Upon his return to Turkey, he lectured on Ottoman, European and American history as well as administrative organization and Atatürk's reforms. In 1967, he lectured as a visiting professor in Princeton University and the University of Pennsylvania. He joined the International Association of Southeastern European Studies () in 1966 and held the presidency of this institution between 1971 and 1974. In 1971, Harvard University offered him a permanent teaching position and the University of Pennsylvania offered him a five-year contract. He refused these, wishing to stay in Turkey. However, in the meantime, the political turmoil in Turkey worsened and students became increasingly involved in conflict, hindering education. In 1972, he accepted an invitation to join the faculty of the University of Chicago, where he taught Ottoman history until 1986. Between 1990 and 1992, he lectured as a visiting professor at Harvard and Princeton. In 1992, he returned to Turkey after an invitation by Bilkent University, where he founded the history department, teaching at the postgraduate level, and taught until his death. In 1993, he donated his collection of books, journals and off-prints on the history of Ottoman Empire to the library of Bilkent University. He had been a member and president of many international organizations, he was a member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Department of Historical Sciences, also a member of the Institute of Turkish Studies. İnalcık died on 25 July 2016 and is buried in the Fatih Mosque in Istanbul. Work and impact İnalcık's work was centered upon a social and economic analysis of the Ottoman Empire. He aimed at both countering what he saw as the hostile, biased narrative presented by western sources at the onset of his work and what he saw as an exaggerated, romanticized and nationalistic historiography in Turkey itself. He exemplified the biased western narrative he tried to dispel as Franz Babinger's depiction of Mehmed the Conqueror as a bloodthirsty, sadistic personality. He criticized generalizing approaches to Ottoman history as such approaches, he argued, lacked social or economic insight due to a lack of research. He was the first historian to study Ottoman judicial records in depth to deduce elements of the socioeconomic factors in the Ottoman society. When he first started his research in the 1940s, such documents were believed to be useless due in part to the recent change of alphabet and were being stored in unfavorable conditions or altogether destroyed. İnalcık corrected a number of wrong convictions about Ottoman and Turkish history. One such instance was his discovery that the proposition that the Ottoman dynasty belonged to the Kayı tribe was fabricated in the 15th century. According to Immanuel Wallerstein, İnalcık shaped the discipline of historical research with his unique methodology and led to many students in his school of thought approaching issues from a number of socioeconomic and cultural perspectives. He was influenced by the works of Fuad Köprülü, Fernand Braudel and Ömer Lütfi Barkan. List of publications His most important work was his first book, Hicrî 835 tarihli Sûret-i defter-i sancak-i Arvanid (Copied of register for A.H. 835 in Sanjak of Albania), which was published at Ankara in 1954 and presented one of the earliest available land register in Ottoman Empire's archives. in English: The Origin of the Ottoman-Russian Rivalry and the Don-Volga Canal (1569) (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurunui Basimevi, 1948). "The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City" (1968) "Capital Formation in the Ottoman Empire" (1969), The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 29, No. 1, The Tasks of Economic History, pp. 97–140 "Ottoman Policy and Administration in Cyprus after the Conquest" (1969) History of the Ottoman Empire Classical Age / 1300–1600 (1973) The Ottoman Empire: Conquest, Organization and Economy (1978) Studies in Ottoman Social and Economic History (1985) The Middle East and the Balkans under the Ottoman Empire: Essays on Economy and Society (1993) An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 (with Donald Quataert, 1994) From Empire to Republic: Essays on Ottoman and Turkish Social History (1995) Sources and Studies on the Ottoman Black Sea: The Customs Register of Caffa 1487–1490 (1996) Essays in Ottoman History (1998) in Turkish: Makaleler 1: Doğu Batı, Doğu Batı Yayınları 2005 Fatih devri üzerinde tetkikler ve vesikalar Ankara, 1954 Osmanlı'da Devlet, Hukuk, Adalet, Eren Yayıncılık 2000 Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun Ekonomik ve Sosyal Tarihi Cilt 1 /1300-1600, Eren Yayıncılık, Prof. Dr. Donald Quataert ile 2001 Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun Ekonomik ve Sosyal Tarihi Cilt 2 / 1600–1914, Eren Yayıncılık 2004 Osmanlı İmparatorluğu – Toplum ve Ekonomi, Eren Yayıncılık Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Klasik Çağ (1300–1600), Yapı Kredi Yayınları 2003 Tanzimat ve Bulgar Meselesi Eren Yayıncılık ABD Tarihi, Allan Nevins/Henry Steele Commager (çeviri) Doğu Batı Yayınları 2005 Şair ve Patron, Doğu Batı Yayınları 2003 Balkanlar (Prof. Dr. Erol Manisalı ile) Atatürk ve Demokratik Türkiye, Kırmızı Yayınınları (1.Baskı: Temmuz 2007 – 2.Baskı: Aralık 2007) Devlet-i Aliyye (1.Baskı: 2009) Kuruluş – Osmanlı Tarihini Yeniden Yazmak Tanzimat, Değişim Sürecinde Osmanlı İmparatorluğu (Mehmet Seyitdanlıoğlu ile birlikte) İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları 2011. OSMANLILAR, Fütühat ve Avrupa İle İlişkiler Has-Bağçede 'Ayş u Tarab – Nedimler Şairler Mutripler, İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları (2011) Kuruluş ve İmparatorluk Sürecinde Osmanlı Osmanlılar (2010) Kuruluş ve İmparatorluk Sürecinde Osmanlı (2011) Rönesans Avrupası Türkiye'nin Batı Medeniyetiyle Özdeşleşme Süreci, İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları (2011) Osmanlı ve Modern Türkiye, Timaş Yayınları (2013) Devlet-i 'Aliyye: Tagayyür ve Fesad, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Üzerine Araştırmalar II, İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları'' (2014) Awards TÜRKSOY Honor Medal. Footnotes References External links Official Web Page – Halil İnalcık Web Page Bilkent University – Halil İnalcık Collection 1916 births 2016 deaths 20th-century Turkish historians 21st-century Turkish historians Turkish people of Crimean Tatar descent Writers from Istanbul Academics of the University of London Ankara University alumni Academic staff of Ankara University Academic staff of Bilkent University Members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts Foreign members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts Scholars of Ottoman history University of Chicago faculty Historians of Turkey METU Mustafa Parlar Foundation Science Award winners

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%88%ED%8B%B8%EB%8B%A4%20%28%EB%AE%A4%EC%A7%80%EC%BB%AC%29

마틸다 (뮤지컬)

《마틸다》(Matilda the Musical)는 1988년에 아동문학가 로알드 달이 집필한 소설을 원작으로, 2010년에 영국 스탠포드에 초연한 웨스트엔드 뮤지컬이다. 개요 2009년 영국에 유명한 "로열 셰익스페어 컴퍼니(이하 RSC)"가 데니스 켈리를 극작가로 하여 팀 민친이 참여하는 뮤지컬 마틸다를 발표하고, 작곡가 크리스토 나이팅게일, 음악 감독 롭 하웰, 세트 디자이너 폴 키에브와 특수효과 제작사인 로얄 셰익스페어 컴퍼니(이하 RSC)는 2010년 겨울에 세계 초연을 앞두고 있다. 그해 11월 9일에 영국 스탠포드에 있는 스트랫퍼드 극장에서 프리뷰 공연을 한뒤, 12월 9일에 정식으로 초연하게 된다. 웨스트엔드 초연 2011년 10월 18일, 뮤지컬 마틸다는 영국 웨스트엔드에 있는 캠브릿지 극장에서 공연을 오르게 된다. 뮤지컬 마틸다는, 2012년 올리버 어워즈에서 10개 부문 모두에 후보로 올랐고, 웨스트엔드에 초연했던 네 명의 마틸다가 시상식에서 "장난 꾸러기"공연을 했다. 이 외에도 7개 부문 올리비에 상을 수상하였다. 수상한 분야는, 최고의 신작 뮤지컬, 최고 감독(Warchus), 뮤지컬(Carvel)의 최우수 배우상, 뮤지컬(4명의 마틸다를 연기한 아역), 최우수 안무가 (달링), 최우수 세트 디자인 (Howell)과 Best Sound Design (베이커)등이다. 기타 이외에도 2012년 11월 19일에 영국의 ITV 방송국에 "Royal Variety Performance"에 초청된 전력이 있다. 브로드웨이 초연 2012년 2월 29일, RSC가 뮤지컬 마틸다는 브로드웨이에 정식으로 초연하기도 했다고 발표했다. 2012년 7월 19일부터 2013년 4월 11일까지 미국 뉴욕 브로드웨이에 있는 슈베르트 극장에서 마틸다 공연을 오르게 되었으며, 미국의 아역배우 4명이 마틸다로써 역할을 소화했다고 하였다. 미국 순회공연 2013년 6월 1일, 팀 민친은 인터뷰에서 "뮤지컬 마틸다가" 미국 국립 투어를 준비 중이라고 발표하였다. 이후 그해 7월 7일 인기에 힘입어 미국 전국을 돌며 순회공연을 하게 되었다고 한다. 호주 및 뉴질랜드 초연 2013년 7월 팀 민친이 호주 및 뉴질랜드 공연 계획이 있다고 발표한뒤, 그해 9월 시드니에서 처음으로 "뮤지컬 마틸다" 공연을 올린뒤, 멜버른, 브리즈번, 퍼스, 애들레이드와 뉴질랜드 오클랜드에서 잇따라 공연되었다. 캐나다 토론토 공연 캐나다 토론토에서 2016년 7월부터 2017년 1월 7일까지 캐나다 토론토 에드미르비쉬 극장에서 공연을 올렸다. 그외 국가 필리핀에서 2018년 1월에 마틸다가 처음으로 초연되어 공연을 올렸고, 이 외에도 전 세계 순회 공연을 하며, 남아프리카 공화국, 싱가포르, 중국에서 잇따라 공연을 오르게 되었다. 마틸다가 선풍적으로 인기를 끌고 있고, 나날히 관람수가 급증하고 있다고 한다. 대한민국 초연 대한민국에서 신시컴퍼니가 2018년 9월 6일에 뮤지컬 마틸다를 초연하여 2019년 2월 10일까지 189회에 걸쳐 역삼동 LG 아트센터에 공연되었다. 대한민국 최초 초연이면서, 아시아 최초 초연에 비영어권 최초로 초연이라는 점에서 선풍적으로 인기를 끌었다. 한국 공연 출연진 마틸다 웜우드 황예영, 안소명,이지나, 설가은 미스 아가사 트런치불 : 김우형, 최재림 미스 제니퍼 허니 : 방진의, 박혜미 미세스 지니아 웜우드 : 최정원, 강웅곤 미스터 해리 웜우드 : 현순철, 문성혁 미세스 펠프스 : 김기정 앨리스 : 송두나, 김단비 라벤더 : 김요나, 김하윤 아만다 : 김연화, 오미선 브루스 : 문서윤, 이태경, 곽이안, 김규동 토미 : 유호열, 에릭 테일러 나이젤 : 성지환, 강희준 에릭 : 이우진, 성주환 호르텐시아 : 박소현 키즈 스윙 : 김나연, 오유림 앙상블 및 스윙 : 서만석, 강인영, 최은주, 강동주, 유철호, 연보라, 이승일, 김시영, 주민우, 박찬양, 김아름, 김아람, 김예지, 한준혁 2번째 한국공연 마틸다 웜우드 역 : 임하윤, 하신비, 최은영, 진연우 뮤지컬 넘버 제1막 "Overture" – Orchestra "Miracle" – Children, Party Entertainer, Doctor, Mrs. Wormwood, Mr. Wormwood, Matilda, Company "Naughty" – Matilda "Story 1: Once Upon A Time" – Matilda, Mrs. Phelps, Acrobat, Escapologist "School Song" – Ensemble "Pathetic" – Miss Honey "The Hammer" – Miss Trunchbull, Miss Honey, Children "The Chokey Chant" – Ensemble "Loud" – Mrs. Wormwood, Rudolpho, Ensemble "This Little Girl" – Miss Honey "Story 2: The Great Day Arrived..." – Matilda, Mrs. Phelps, Escapologist, Acrobat's Sister "Bruce" – Company 제2막 "Telly" – Mr. Wormwood, Michael "When I Grow Up" – Children, Miss Honey, Matilda, Company "Story 3: The Trick Started Well..." – Matilda, Mrs. Phelps, Acrobat, Escapologist "Story 4: I'm Here" – Matilda, Escapologist "The Smell of Rebellion" – Miss Trunchbull, Children "Quiet" – Matilda "My House" – Miss Honey, Escapologist "Revolting Children" – Children, Ensemble "This Little Girl" (reprise)# – Sergei "When I Grow Up" (reprise) – Company 줄거리 태어날 때부터 남달리 깜찍하고 총명한 소녀 마틸다에게는 너무나 안 어울리는 가족이 있었다. 이들은 마틸다의 천재성을 발견하기는커녕 마틸다에게 바보같은 TV를 억지로 보게 하고 읽고 있는 책마저 빼앗아 던져버린다. 6살이 되던 해 마틸다를 성가시다고 느낀 그녀의 아버지는 딸을 이상한 학교에 입학시킨다. 이 학교는 한마디로 공포인 아가타 트런치불이 있다는 것, 하지만 착하고 아이들을 진심으로 사랑하는 마틸다의 담임 선생님 미스 제니퍼 허니와 친구들 덕분에 마틸다는 학교 생활이 즐겁기만 하다. 한편 허니는 불행한 과거가 있는데 그것은 바로 교장인 트런치불이 자신의 이모이고 그녀가 허니 아버지이자 탈출 마술사 매그너스의 모든 재산과 학교마저 다 빼앗아 버렸는데, 이를 본 마틸다는 친구들과 함께 아이들을 귀찮고 쓸모없는 존재로 취급하는 아가타 트런치불 교장선생님을 쫓아내기 위해 작전을 편다. 각주 2010년 뮤지컬 브로드웨이 뮤지컬 웨스트엔드 뮤지컬 2018년 뮤지컬 2019년 뮤지컬

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matilda%20the%20Musical

Matilda the Musical

Roald Dahl's Matilda, also known simply as Matilda and Matilda the Musical, is a musical with music and lyrics by Tim Minchin and a book by Dennis Kelly. It is based on the 1988 novel Matilda by Roald Dahl. The musical's narrative centres on Matilda Wormwood, a precocious five-year-old girl with the gift of telekinesis, who loves reading, overcomes obstacles caused by her family and school, and helps her teacher to reclaim her life. After a twelve-week trial run staged by the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) at Stratford-upon-Avon from November 2010 to January 2011, it received its West End premiere on 24 November 2011 at the Cambridge Theatre and its Broadway premiere on 11 April 2013 at the Shubert Theatre. Matilda the Musical has received widespread critical acclaim and box-office popularity, winning seven 2012 Olivier Awards, including Best New Musicalat the time, the highest number of such awards ever won by a single show. Cleo Demetriou, Kerry Ingram, Eleanor Worthington Cox and Sophia Kiely shared a Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role in a Musical. Ten-year-old Eleanor Worthington became the youngest winner of the award in any category. At the 2013 Tony Awards, the show won five awards, including the Tony Award for Best Book of a Musical for Dennis Kelly. A film adaptation was released on 25 November 2022 in the United Kingdom, followed by the United States on 25 December 2022. Background In 1988, British children's author Roald Dahl wrote the original novel Matilda, illustrated by Quentin Blake, about a young intelligent girl who develops a love of reading despite her abusive parents and headmistress of her school, incorporating rebellion and magical powers. The novel was adapted into a 1996 American film directed by Danny DeVito as well as an audio reading by Kate Winslet and a BBC Radio 4 programme narrated by Lenny Henry. In December 2009, the Royal Shakespeare Company announced its intention to stage a musical adaptation with direction by Matthew Warchus and adaptation by Dennis Kelly. Musician and comedian Tim Minchin was chosen to write music and lyrics after Warchus saw his 2009 tour Ready for This? and persuaded during the encore song "White Wine in the Sun". It was also revealed comedian and musician Bill Bailey had been asked to write the songs, however turned the project down due to other works. Coincidentally Minchin revealed that he had originally attempted to gain permission from the Dahl estate to stage a musical adaptation in the early 2000s when writing for a local youth theatre in Perth, Western Australia. Productions Stratford-upon-Avon (2010–11) In 2009, the Royal Shakespeare Company announced its intent to stage a musical adaptation of the story Matilda, engaging Dennis Kelly as playwright, Tim Minchin as the composer and lyricist, Matthew Warchus as director, Chris Nightingale as orchestrator and music supervision, Rob Howell as set designer and Paul Kieve as illusionist and special effects creator. Originally titled Matilda, A Musical, the show opened at the Courtyard Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon, England on 9 December 2010, following previews from 9 November. The production was choreographed by Peter Darling. Bertie Carvel played the infamous Miss Trunchbull, with Paul Kaye and Josie Walker as Matilda's parents, Mr. and Mrs. Wormwood, and Lauren Ward as Matilda's angelic teacher, Miss Honey. Three young actresses, Adrianna Bertola, Josie Griffiths and Kerry Ingram, alternated in the title role. The show ended its premiere engagement on 30 January 2011. London (2011–present) In 2011, the musical received its West End debut (under the new title of Matilda the Musical) at London's Cambridge Theatre. The show was originally scheduled to begin previews on 18 October 2011, but because of structural and installation work at the theatre, the start of the performances was delayed until 25 October. The opening night was postponed from 22 to 24 November. The musical opened in London to uniformly positive reviews; Kaye and Carvel received high praise for their performances. Many of the principal adult cast from the Stratford run reprised their roles in London. Eleanor Worthington Cox, Cleo Demetriou, Sophia Kiely and Kerry Ingramthe only one to reprise her role from Stratford at this timestarred in the title role. In October 2011, Matilda won Best Musical and Best Actor (Bertie Carvel) in the UK Theatre Awards, and in November 2011 it won the Ned Sherrin Award for Best Musical as part of The Evening Standard Theatre Awards. The production was nominated in all 10 categories for which it was eligible at the 2012 Olivier Awards. The four Matildas performed "Naughty" at the awards show. Matilda won 7 Oliviers: Best New Musical, Best Director (Warchus), Best Actor in a Musical (Carvel), Best Actress in a Musical (accepted by four Matildas), Best Theatre Choreographer (Darling), Best Set Design (Howell) and Best Sound Design (Baker). This was a record number for any show in the event's 36-year history. On March 16, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the show suspended performances, returning to the Cambridge Theatre from 16 September 2021. On 12 November 2021, a 10th anniversary performance celebrated 10 years since the show opened in the West End which featured a pre-show speech by Kelly and Minchin with many of the creatives and previous cast in attendance, including 42 previous Matildas. Broadway (2013–17) On 29 February 2012, the RSC announced the show would transfer to Broadway in spring 2013; it would still be set in England despite initial pressure for the show to be Americanised. On 19 July 2012, it was announced that the show would open on 11 April 2013 at the Shubert Theatre, with previews commencing on 4 March 2013. Bertie Carvel and Lauren Ward reprised their roles as Miss Trunchbull and Miss Honey. Ted Wilson also continued as Eric. A four-girl cast consisting of Sophia Gennusa, Oona Laurence, Bailey Ryon, and Milly Shapiro played the titular role of Matilda. The transfer cost to produce; it opened as planned on 11 April 2013, with Sophia Gennusa playing the leading role. Small changes were made from the London production; some lyrics were changed to suit American audiences, and more scenes used the orchestra pit/front stalls area of the theatre. The Broadway production also introduced an overture and pre-show curtain, as of June 2013. The Broadway production closed on 1 January 2017 after 1,555 performances. US national tour (2015–17) On 1 June 2013, Tim Minchin announced during an interview that the show was preparing for a US national tour. Minchin said, "We just got it up in New York, there's a touring version that is meant to be going on in America...". Once again produced by the Royal Shakespeare Company and The Dodgers, the tour began technical rehearsals and performances in May 2015 at the Shubert Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut, before its official launch on 7 June at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles, California. Announced stops included the SHN Orpheum Theare in San Francisco, California, the 5th Avenue Theatre in Seattle, Washington, the AT&T Performing Arts Center in Dallas, Texas, the Kennedy Center Opera House in Washington, D.C., and the Straz Center for the Performing Arts in Tampa, Florida. The cast was announced on 21 April 2015. Three girls would alternate in the lead role: Mia Sinclair Jenness, Gabby Gutierrez, and Mabel Tyler. Gutierrez and Tyler made their tour debuts; Jenness had appeared in the original Broadway cast and 25th anniversary tour of Les Misérables. Other principal cast members included Jennifer Blood as Miss Honey, Bryce Ryness as Miss Trunchbull, and Quinn Mattfeld and Cassie Silva as Mr. and Mrs. Wormwood. The national tour of Matilda had its first official performance on 7 June 2015 at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles, California. Mia Sinclair Jenness played the title role. The US national tour took its final bow on 25 June 2017 at the Chapman Music Hall in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Australian and New Zealand tour (2015–17) Sydney: In July 2013, Minchin said that an Australian production was planned for 2015. The production, produced by Louise Withers, had preview performances from 28 July before opening at the Sydney Lyric theatre on 20 August 2015. The ticketing release date (October 2014) was announced at Pier 2/3 in Walsh Bay, with Minchin, International Executive Producer André Ptaszynski, NSW Deputy Premier Andrew Stoner and Sydney press in attendance. The cast included Marika Aubrey and Daniel Frederiksen as Mr. and Mrs. Wormwood, Elise McCann as Miss Honey and James Millar as Miss Trunchbull. Sasha Rose (12), Georgia Taplin (11), Molly Barwick (10) and Bella Thomas (13) shared the title role with Thomas playing Matilda on the opening night. The Sydney season ended on Sunday 29 February with Georgia Taplin playing the title role, before transferring to Melbourne. Melbourne: For the Melbourne season, Dusty Bursill, Alannah Parfett, Tiana Mirra and Ingrid Torelli were announced to rotate playing the title role. On 3 January, Sydney Matilda Bella Thomas was injured and Parfett began her run early in Sydney, covering Thomas until she was better and joining the girls in a rotation until the end of the Sydney run. Mirra and Torelli made their debuts in Sydney's final week on 24 and 27 February respectively. The show opened at Melbourne's Princess Theatre on 13 March and was extended to perform until 11 November 2016. Some of the Sydney child cast members reprised their roles for selected performances in Melbourne; for example, certain performances featured Molly Barwick as Matilda. Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide and Auckland: A new season was announced to start in Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide, and Auckland. Izellah Connelly, Annabella Cowley, Venice Harris, Eva Murawski rotated the leading role of Matilda. The Matilda tour continued on to Brisbane from 25 November 2016 to 12 February 2017 at the Queensland Performing Arts Centre (QPAC) before moving on to perform at the Crown Theatre in Perth from 28 February until 7 May 2017 and from 21 May to 16 July 2017 at the Adelaide Festival Theatre in South Australia. The show ran in at the Civic Theatre in Auckland until 22 October 2017. Lucy Maunder was initially scheduled to take on the role of Miss Honey from McCann beginning the Brisbane leg. However, due to Maunder's pregnancy, the transition was postponed until 20 March 2017 midway through the Perth leg. Toronto (2016–17) After the successful launches of Once and the Tony Award-winning Kinky Boots, Mirvish Productions chose to open a Canadian production of Matilda the Musical. The company opened at the Ed Mirvish Theatre beginning in July 2016, closing on 7 January 2017. Hannah Levinson, Jenna Weir, and Jaime MacLean rotated playing the title role. On 8 October 2016, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and family attended a performance. UK and Ireland tour (2018–19) On 11 April 2017, a tour was announced to begin at Curve, Leicester from 5–24 March 2018 before touring to Bord Gáis Energy Theatre, Dublin (4–28 April), Sunderland Empire (8 May - 2 June), Milton Keynes Theatre (5–30 June), Birmingham Hippodrome (3 July – 8 September), Manchester Palace Theatre (18 September – 24 November) and Wales Millennium Centre, Cardiff (4 December - 12 January 2019). Further venues were announced on 13 March 2018. The tour will go to Theatre Royal, Plymouth (15 January - 16 February 2019), the Alhambra Theatre, Bradford (19 February – 23 March), Edinburgh Playhouse (2–27 April), the Bristol Hippodrome (7 May - 8 June), Southampton Mayflower (11 June – 6 July) and Norwich Theatre Royal (16 July – 17 August). On 17 October 2017, the adult cast was announced, to include Craige Els as Miss Trunchbull, Carly Thoms as Miss Honey, Sebastien Torkia as Mr Wormwood and Rebecca Thornhill as Mrs Wormwood. On 16 January 2018, the children's cast was announced, with the role of Matilda being shared between Annalise Bradbury, Lara Cohen, Poppy Jones and Nicola Turner. The tour officially opened as scheduled on 5 March 2018 at the Curve theatre in Leicester, with Poppy Jones in the title role on opening night. Philippines (2017) Matilda had its Asian premiere in the Philippines on 10 November 2017. The production closed on 10 December 2017. This production was the first licensed production; it was not produced by the Royal Shakespeare Company, and has no links to the original production except for the score and script. The show featured Esang de Torres, Uma Martin, and Felicity Kyle Napuli alternating the title role, with Esang playing the role on opening night. The Manila production also had a 16-child strong cast alternating 8 other student roles, namely Gabrielle Aerin Ong and Maria Ericka Peralejo as Lavander; Denise Fidel Arteta and Chi Chi Tan as Amanda; Nicole Chien and Ella Gonzalez as Alice; Alba Berenguer-Testa and Chantel Marie Guinid as Hortensia; Josh Nubla and Miguel Suarez as Bruce; Rhythm Alexander and Ian Albert Magallona as Eric; Gabo Tiongson and Pablo Miguel Palacpac as Nigel; and John Joseph Miraflores and Teddy Velasco as Tommy. Korea (2018–19, 2022–23) In July 2017, Seensee Company announced they would be producing a production of Matilda the Musical in September 2018. The production will be in arrangement with the RSC and be the first non-English version of Matilda produced. The company includes a cast consisting of four girls, named Li Ji Na, An So Myeong, Hwang Ye Yeong, and Seol Ga Eun that will rotate in the title role of Matilda, as well as a 16-member child cast that will play the roles of Matilda's classmates. The production opened their preview show on 8 September 2018, with An So Myeong in the title role. Li Ji Na and Seol Ga Eun played their first performances on 9 September, and Hwang Ye Yeong had first debut as Matilda on 14 September. A 12 September press call included a performance of Naughty by Hwang Ye Young, Quiet by Seol Ga Eun, a performance of Revolting Children, and more. The production officially closed on 10 February 2019, with Hwang Ye Yeong playing the title role. In April 2020, Seensee Company announced they will be running another production of Matilda the Musical from October 2022 to January 2023, in Daesung D Cube Art Center. The cast includes four girls playing Matilda (Lim Ha Yun, Jin Yeon Woo, Choi Eun Yeong, Ha Sin Bi), a 16-member child cast, and a 26-member adult cast. The production opened their preview show on 5 October 2022. International tour (2018–20, 2023) South Africa: An international tour began at the Teatro At Montecasino in Johannesburg from 17 October to 2 December 2018, before running at the Artscape Opera House in Cape Town from 11 December 2018 to 13 January 2019. The tour cast was announced on 28 August 2018 Lilla Fleischmann, Kitty Harris, and Morgan Santo in the role of Matilda. Other cast members include Ryan de Villers as Miss Trunchbull, Bethany Dickson as Miss Honey, Stephen Jubber and Claire Taylor as Mr. and Mrs. Wormwood, and Nonpumelelo Mayiyane as Mrs. Phelps. Matilda's classmates will be played by Jack Fokkens, Keeran Isaacs, Robyn Ivey, Joshua LeClair, Levi Maron, Ipeleng Merafe, Megan Saayman, Taylor Salgado, Cameron Seear and Zac Gabriel Werb. The rest of the adult ensemble includes Jasmin Colangelo, Katrina Dix, Sinead Donnelly, Michael Gardiner, Kent Jeycocke, Weslee Lauder, Carlo McFarlane, Kenneth Meyer, Daniel Parrott, Adrianna Patlaszynska, Jonathan Raath, and Logan Timbr. Singapore: Following the South African runs, the international tour began a run at the Sands Theater at Marina Bay Sands. At this time, Sofia Poston joined the show as Matilda. She will rotate along with Fleischmann, Harris, and Santo. Poston had her debut on the tour's opening night in Singapore. The tour will perform there from 21 February to 17 March 2019. China: Following the Singaporean runs, the international tour ran across 13 cities in China from June 2019 to January 2020. Philippines: The Manila leg of the international tour at The Theater at Solaire at Solaire Resort & Casino, ran from 5 March and ended early on 13 March 2020 due to the fears of coronavirus in the country, it was supposed to end on 25 March 2020. Zara Yazbek Polito, Sofia Poston, and Zoe Modlinne will rotate in the title role. Haley Flaherty and Hayden Tee will reprise their West End roles as Miss Honey and Miss Trunchbull. The cast also includes Stephen Jubber as Mr. Wormwood, Matthew Leck as Bruce Bogtrotter, Claire Taylor as Mrs. Wormwood, and Nompumelelo Mayiyane as Mrs. Phelps. Israel: In August 2023, the tour reopened at the Tel Aviv Opera House. Originally scheduled to run from 7 August to 22 August, it was then extended to 26 August due to demand. The tour cast was announced on 27 July 2023 with Donna Craig, Myla Williams, and Yolani Balfour in the role of Matilda. Other cast members include Ryan de Villers & James Wolstenholme as Miss Trunchbull, Carly Thoms & Gemma Scholes as Miss Honey, Matthew Rowland and Emily Squibb as Mr. and Mrs. Wormwood, and Londiwe Dlamini as Mrs. Phelps. Japan (2023) In June 2022, HoriPro announced that a Japanese version of Matilda would be performed at Tokyu Theatre Orb in Tokyo, Japan starting from Spring 2023. The cast includes Sakura Kamura, Minori Kumano, Miran Terada and Nonoka Mikami sharing the role of Matilda as well as Yusuke Onuki, Ryunosuke Onoda and alternating as Miss Agatha Trunchbull, Miyu Sakihi and Natsumi Kon alternating as Miss Jennifer Honey, Mario Tashiro and Tsukasa Saito (from Trendy Angel) alternating as Mr. Wormwood, Hiromu Kiriya and Chihiro Otsuka alternating as Mrs. Wormwood and Mayumi Oka and Yukiko Ikeda alternating as Mrs. Phelps. US Regional Productions In 2018, a small number of major regional theaters produced Matilda. Walnut Street Theatre's production of Matilda was the first regional production after the show closed down on Broadway. Philadelphia's Walnut Street Theatre produced Matilda with performances beginning on 6 November 2018 for a total run of 4 months through 2019. Matilda was played by Jemma Bleu Greenbaum and Ellie Biron. Synopsis Act I Mrs. Wormwood gives birth to Matilda, but the new mother is only worried about a ballroom dancing contest she has missed. Similarly shallow, Mr. Wormwood—a used-car salesman and television addict—dismisses the child when he realizes she is a girl ("Miracle"). Five years later, Matilda is an avid reader and lives unhappily with her parents. The Wormwoods are oblivious to her genius and frequently mock and verbally abuse her. Matilda adds some of her mother's peroxide to her father's hair oil, leaving Mr. Wormwood with bright green hair ("Naughty"). At the library, Matilda spends time with the kind librarian Mrs. Phelps and makes up a story about a world-famous acrobat couple who cannot have children ("Once Upon a Time"). Matilda has her first day at school ("School Song"). Her teacher Miss Honey instantly sees that Matilda is exceptionally intelligent and decides to request that Matilda be moved to the top class ("Pathetic"). However, the child-hating and tyrannical headmistress Miss Trunchbull dismisses Miss Honey's suggestion ("The Hammer"). Matilda's father takes out his career frustration on Matilda, so she puts superglue around the rim of his hat ("Naughty" reprise). At school, Matilda is told of Miss Trunchbull's cruel punishments, including the Chokey: a tiny cupboard lined with sharp objects in which she locks disobedient children for hours ("The Chokey Chant"). Miss Honey meets Mrs. Wormwood and her dance partner Rudolpho. Mrs. Wormwood mocks Matilda's interest in books and intellect ("Loud"). Miss Honey is desperate to help Matilda but feels powerless to do so ("This Little Girl"). Matilda tells Mrs. Phelps more about the acrobat couple. When the acrobat gets pregnant, her sister becomes furious about refunding the crowd's money and produces a contract binding them to perform the act or go to jail ("The Great Day Arrived"). At school, Bruce Bogtrotter is punished by Miss Trunchbull ("Bruce"). Act II Mr. Wormwood advises the audience against reading in favor of watching television ("Telly"). Matilda's classmates sing about their hopes ("When I Grow Up"). Matilda tells Mrs. Phelps more of the story of the acrobat. Bound by their contract, she performs her act but is fatally injured, living just long enough to give birth to a girl. Her husband invites the acrobat's sister to move in and look after his daughter. The girl's aunt is secretly cruel ("The Trick Started Well"). Mr. Wormwood is pleased because he tricked his Russian customers ("I'm So Clever"). Matilda scolds him, so he locks her in her bedroom. Matilda continues the story of the acrobat's daughter. The aunt locks her in the cellar, where the father finds her. Filled with rage, he chases the aunt but is never seen again ("I'm Here"). The next day, Miss Trunchbull forces Miss Honey's class to undergo a gruelling physical education lesson ("The Smell of Rebellion"). Miss Trunchbull bullies the children, then verbally abuses Matilda, but Matilda discovers she can move objects with her mind ("Quiet"). Matilda demonstrates her powers to Miss Honey who tells of her own cruel and abusive aunt, who looked after her as a child after her parents died. When Miss Honey first became a teacher, her aunt produced a bill detailing everything Miss Honey consumed as a child, along with other expenses, and forced her to sign a contract binding her to pay it all back. Desperate to escape, Miss Honey found refuge in an old farm shed ("My House"). Matilda recognizes Miss Honey's scarf from the story of the acrobat—which she realizes is the true story of Miss Honey's childhood, and that her wicked aunt is Miss Trunchbull. Miss Trunchbull schemes to punish Lavender, but her classmates try to intervene. Matilda uses her powers to write on the blackboard, saying it is the ghost of Miss Honey's father ("Chalk Writing"). Miss Trunchbull runs away and the children celebrate ("Revolting Children"). Miss Honey receives her parents' house and money, and she becomes the new headmistress. Matilda cannot use her powers. The Wormwoods try to escape with Matilda to Spain but the Russian mafia arrive. Sergei is impressed by Matilda's intellect, and he lets them go ("This Little Girl" reprise). Matilda is allowed to live with Miss Honey as the Wormwoods leave for Spain ("When I Grow Up" reprise / "Naughty" reprise II). Musical numbers Act I "Overture" – Orchestra § "Miracle" – Children, Party Entertainer, Doctor, Mrs. Wormwood, Mr. Wormwood, Matilda, Ensemble "Naughty" – Matilda "Story 1: Once Upon a Time" – Matilda, Mrs. Phelps, Acrobat, Escapologist § "School Song" – Ensemble "Pathetic" – Miss Honey "The Hammer" – Miss Trunchbull, Miss Honey, Children, Ensemble "Naughty" (Reprise) – Matilda §‡ "The Chokey Chant" – Ensemble § "Loud" – Mrs. Wormwood, Rudolpho "This Little Girl" – Miss Honey "Story 2: The Great Day Arrived" – Matilda, Mrs. Phelps, Acrobat, Escapologist, Acrobat's Sister § "Bruce" – Company Act II "Telly" – Mr. Wormwood, Michael "Entr'acte" – Orchestra ‡ "When I Grow Up" – Children, Miss Honey, Matilda, Company "Story 3: The Trick Started Well..." – Matilda, Mrs. Phelps, Acrobat, Escapologist § "I'm So Clever" – Mr. Wormwood §‡ "Story 4: I'm Here" – Matilda, Escapologist "The Smell of Rebellion" – Miss Trunchbull, Children "Quiet" – Matilda "My House" – Miss Honey, Escapologist "Chalk Writing" – Miss Trunchbull, Children § "Revolting Children" – Children, Ensemble "This Little Girl" (Reprise) – Sergei §‡ Finale: "When I Grow Up" (Reprise)/"Naughty" (Reprise) - Company § Not present on the original London cast recording ‡ Not present on the original Broadway cast recording The instrumentation uses a ten-to-thirteen-piece orchestra, including keyboards, reeds, brass, strings and percussion. The performances run 2 hours and 40 minutes, including one interval. The "Overture" is included in the Broadway production only while the "Entr'acte" was only used in the London production where it has now been cut apart from the final bars which lead into "When I Grow Up". Recordings The cast album recorded by the original Stratford company was released on CD in September 2011 and a month later as a Digital Download. It features a hidden spoken track which follows "When I Grow Up" (Reprise). This is the full version of the speech that is heard in part, before, during and after "Quiet" in the show. A new Original Broadway cast album was released on 22 September 2013 as a CD. This contains more tracks than the UK recording and includes "The Chokey Chant". The deluxe version features Matilda's stories of the Acrobat and the Escapologist, the song "Perhaps a Child" sung by Sergei, which was cut from the show early on in the Stratford previews due to time constraints, but the final lines were included in the Broadway show as "This Little Girl Reprise". The album also included "Naughty" with all four Broadway Matildas singing. Principal roles and original cast members Notable West End replacements Matilda – Isobelle Molloy, Chloe Hawthorn, Lara Wollington Miss Trunchbull – Alex Gaumond, Hayden Tee Miss Honey – Gina Beck Mr. Wormwood – Steve Furst Mrs. Phelps - Sharlene Whyte, Lisa Davina Phillip Notable Broadway replacements Matilda - Gabriella Pizzolo, Brooklyn Shuck Miss Trunchbull – Craig Bierko, Christopher Sieber Miss Honey – Jill Paice Mr. Wormwood – Matt Harrington Mrs. Wormwood – Amy Spanger Mrs. Phelps – Natalie Venetia Belcon Film adaptation In June 2013, Minchin said a future film adaptation was being planned. He said during an interview, "We just got [the show] up in New York, there's a touring version that is meant to be going on in America, concurrently the English version is up, there's a film that will probably be made in the next 4 or 5 years and all this sort of stuff." Mara Wilson, who played Matilda in the original 1996 film adaptation of Dahl's novel, said, "Maybe if they made it into a movie, I could have a cameo, but that's for them to decide." Kelly, who wrote the book of the musical, is set to write the film's screenplay, with Minchin writing additional songs and music, and Warchus directing the film. In April 2020, Ralph Fiennes was rumoured as cast in the role of Miss Trunchbull. The film was originally expected to shoot from August to December 2020 at Shepperton Studios, however, the shooting schedule for the film was interrupted due to lockdown procedures in place for the COVID-19 pandemic. In January 2021, Lashana Lynch, Emma Thompson and Alisha Weir were confirmed as cast in the roles of Miss Honey, Miss Trunchbull and the titular role respectively, with over 200 children cast as the rest of the student body of Crunchem Hall. Ellen Kane, who worked with choreographer Peter Darling on the stage production, is set to choreograph. The film was expected to begin principal photography on May 3, 2021 in Ireland. The film is intended to be produced by Tim Bevan and Eric Fellner through Working Title Films and distributed by Netflix worldwide and Sony Pictures Releasing through its TriStar Pictures banner in the United Kingdom. In April 2021, it was announced that Stephen Graham, Andrea Riseborough and Sindhu Vee would be joining the cast as Mr. Wormwood, Mrs. Wormwood and Mrs. Phelps respectively. Meesha Garbett as Hortensia, Charlie Hodson-Prior as Bruce, Andrei Shen as Eric, Ashton Robertson as Nigel, Winter Jarrett Glasspool as Amanda and Rei Yamachi Fulker as Lavender make up some of the 200 dancing, singing and acting kids. The film was theatrically released in the United Kingdom on 25 November 2022, while in other countries was available on Netflix on 25 December. Critical reception 2010 RSC Stratford production Michael Billington, writing for The Guardian, gave the musical four stars out of five. He praised the adaptation of the book, the "ebullient music and lyrics", the direction, the stage design and the performancesespecially Bertie Carvel as Miss Trunchbull. The Independent also gave the show four out of five stars and said, "The Royal Shakespeare Company has struck gold with this wildly entertaining musical … Kelly's clever adaptation and the witty, intricate songs by ... Minchin create a new, improved version of Dahl's story ... Warchus's wondrously well-drilled production finds just the right balance between gleeful grotesque humour and heart-warming poignancy." Charles Spencer, writing for The Daily Telegraph awarded the show all five stars and praised the "splendidly witty, instantly hummable songs, dazzling choreography, a cast of impossibly cute and delightful children and a fantastic star turn from Bertie Carvel ... [Kelly's] script has both deepened the emotion of Dahl's story while adding loads of splendid jokes of his own", and concluded, "It is funny, heart-warming, and bang-on target". Matt Wolf of The Arts Desk said: "I was struck by the sight of many a child grinning as openly as their adult companions were wiping away tears". Henry Hitchings of the London Evening Standard also praised the performances, direction and design and commented on Minchin's "witty songs [in which] he switches between styles with remarkable dexterity". He continued, "There's a playfulness throughout [the book] that proves intoxicating ... In this lovingly created show, Matilda'''s magic positively sparkles. There's a cleverness in the writing which ensures that, while it appeals to children, there is plenty for adults to savour ... it's blissfully funny." In September 2019, The Guardian writers listed the RSC performance of Matilda as the seventh best theatre show since 2000. Original London production The reviews of the London performances were also extremely positive. Julie Carpenter of the Daily Express awarded the show all five stars and called the musical "[g]loriously over the top", and said, "it's an irresistible and ingenious mix of fun, fizz, cruelty, incredible choreography and above all warmth which means we root for the kids from the start. Fantastic." Henry Hitchings' review in the Evening Standard ranked the piece five stars, praising the music and lyrics, book, set design, choreography, direction and performances. The review in The Guardian said, "You'd be a nitwit to miss this hit show." The Stage also gave Matilda five stars, as did Spencer, writing again for The Telegraph. Confirming his impression of the 2010 production, he wrote about the West End transfer: The Financial Times, The Times and The Sunday Times each awarded the show four stars out of five, but found little to criticise. Ben Brantley, writing for The New York Times, called the adaptation "a sweet and sharp-witted work of translation, which ... turns dark and sodden anxieties into bright and buoyant fantasies [that address] a raging thirst these days for [such] tonics". A year after the show opened, Time Out gave the production four stars out of five, noting the departure of Carvel and calling the show "a little too long and, dramatically, a tad wayward", but nevertheless "wise, wicked, glorious fun." Original Broadway production Most of the New York critics gave the Broadway transfer their highest marks. Brantley wrote: "Matilda works with astonishing slyness and grace to inculcate us with its radical point of view. [It] is about words and language, books and stories, and their incalculable worth as weapons of defense, attack and survival ... Above all it's an exhilarating tale of empowerment". He also said the child actors "strengthen their diction" so that the "tasty lyrics" could be clearly heard. Richard Zoglin, in Time magazine said that the show is "a fresh start for the Broadway musical" with "a score that seems all but woven into the scenerysimple but distinctive tunes ... intricate lyrics ... Every element of the show seems hand-crafted and right". He said that director Warchus "lets the characters go gloriously over the top (the way children see them), but also brings a hushed intensity". He also said that the second act "runs a bit too long" and that "the combination of shrill child voices, British accents and heavy miking causes many of the lyrics to get muddled". Elisabeth Vincentelli's review in the New York Post said, "Once in a blue moon, a show comes out blazing and restores your faith in Broadway. Matilda The Musical is that show." David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter said the stage show captured "the unique flavor of Roald Dahl's classic 1988 children's novel", and added, "this funhouse fairy tale is by turns riotous and poignant, grotesque and menacing, its campy comic exaggeration equaled only by its transporting emotional power". David Cote, in Time Out New York, wondered whether the show was too English for Broadway tastes; he wrote, "Matilda is a kids' musical, not a musical that happens to be about a kid. As such, its attractions may be limited to younger spectators and die-hard Dahl fans. That would be a pity, since Matilda is wickedly smart and wildly fun". A review in USA Today said the show tries too hard to be clever, but it is affecting and enchanting. Of the British papers reviewing the transfer, The Telegraph gave the show four stars out of five, and said, "There's a harder-edged quality to the New York staging: the general tenor is louder and more exaggerated, and the Gilbertian finesse of [the] astonishing lyrics didn't translate for my companion ... But the tremendous heart and intelligence of the piece remains undimmed." A review by Brendan Lemon in the Financial Times also gave the piece four stars out of five. Awards and nominations London production Broadway production Australian production References Further reading "A Novel Approach," by Keith Loria, "Backstage" column, Make-Up Artist'' magazine, Number 102, June/July 2013, pp 74–75, Key Publishing Group, Vancouver, Washington, US. A two-page article with three color photos discussing the musical's make-up and hair/wig requirements for the New York and London productions, with quotes by key personnel. External links Official website 2010 musicals Broadway musicals Musical Critics' Circle Theatre Award-winning musicals Laurence Olivier Award-winning musicals Musicals based on works by Roald Dahl Musicals set in schools West End musicals Musicals set in England British musicals Musicals based on novels Tony Award-winning musicals

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%EB%85%84%20AFC%20%EC%B1%94%ED%94%BC%EC%96%B8%EC%8A%A4%EB%A6%AC%EA%B7%B8

2020년 AFC 챔피언스리그

2020년 AFC 챔피언스리그는 2020년 1월 14일부터 12월 19일까지 열린 아시아 국가의 최정상 팀이 참가하는 39번째 대회(아시안 클럽 챔피언십 포함)이자 현재의 AFC 챔피언스리그 구성으로는 18회째를 맞는 아시아 국가들의 클럽대항전이다. 이 대회의 우승팀은 2021년 AFC 챔피언스리그에 자동 진출권을 얻게 된다. 이 때 이 대회 우승팀 자국 리그에서 리그 순위상 AFC 챔피언스리그 진출하지 못하면 2021년 AFC 챔피언스리그 예선 플레이오프에 진출하게 된다. 2008년 이후 최초로 AFC 챔피언스리그 우승팀이 자동본선진출하게 된다. 그리고 2020년 AFC 챔피언스리그 우승팀은 카타르에서 개최가 되는 2020년 FIFA 클럽 월드컵 진출권을 얻게 된다. 만약 카타르 스타스 리그 소속 클럽팀이 이번 챔피언스리그를 우승하게 될시 이 대회 준우승팀이 FIFA 클럽 월드컵에 진출한다. 또한 이번 2020년 시즌을 마지막으로 32개팀 본선 체제가 막을 내리게 되며 2021년 시즌부터는 40개팀 본선 체제로 확대된다. 이번대회 디펜딩 챔피언은 사우디 프로리그의 알힐랄 SFC이다. 2020년 4월, 코로나19 범유행을 이유로 2020년 9월 중순까지 대회가 중단되었으며 2020년 9월 14일부터 대회가 재개되었다. 참가권 배정 AFC 대회 위원회는 2014년 1월 25일 본 대회를 개정하였다. 북마리아나 제도를 제외한 46개 AFC 회원국이 참가하게 되었으며, 랭킹 선별 기준은 최근 4년간 각 국가의 대표팀과 구단들의 대륙 대회 성적을 토대로 정해진다. 2019년과 2020년의 AFC 대회는 AFC 클럽 랭킹을 기조로 하였다. 협회들은 두 지역으로 나뉘어 참가하게 된다. 서아시아 지역에서는 서아시아 축구 연맹(WAFF)과 중앙아시아 축구 연맹(CAFA), 남아시아 축구 연맹(SAFF) 소속 협회들이 참여하게 된다. 동아시아 지역에서는 동아시아 축구 연맹(EAFF)과 아세안 축구 연맹(AFF) 소속 협회들이 참여하게 된다. 서아시아와 동아시아 각 지역은 조별 예선에서 4개 조씩 나뉘어 참여하게 된다. 양 지역 모두 12개의 직행 티켓과 4개의 플레이오프 티켓을 배분받게 된다. AFC 랭킹 최상위 12개 협회는, AFC 챔피언스리그 참가 기준에 맞춘다면, AFC 챔피언스리그에 참여할 수 있게 된다. 각 지역의 AFC 랭킹 최상위 6개 협회(서아시아 최상위 6개 협회+동아시아 최상위 6개 협회)는 최소한 1개의 본선 직행 티켓을 보유하게 된다. 각 지역 최상위 1위와 2위 협회는 3장의 본선 직행 티켓과 1장의 플레이오프 티켓을 갖는다. 각 지역 최상위 3위와 4위 협회는 2장의 본선 직행 티켓과 2장의 플레이오프 티켓을 갖는다. 각 지역 최상위 5위 협회는 1장의 본선 직행 티켓과 2장의 플레이오프 티켓을 갖는다. 각 지역 최상위 6위 협회는 1장의 본선 직행 티켓과 1장의 플레이오프 티켓을 갖는다. 각 지역 최상위 7위부터 12위까지의 협회는 1장의 플레이오프 티켓을 갖는다. 하나의 협회가 가질 수 있는 티켓의 최대 개수는, 최상위 리그 참가 팀 수의 1/3 수와 같다. 만약 어느 협회가 직행 티켓을 포기한다면, 그 티켓은 최소한 3장 이상의 직행 티켓을 보유한 협회 중 최상위 협회에게 돌아가게 된다. 만약 어느 협회가 플레이오프 티켓을 포기한다면, 그 티켓은 소멸되며 그 어떤 협회에게도 돌아가게 되지 않는다. 2020년 AFC 챔피언스리그에 참가하는 협회들은 2017년 11월 29일 발행된 AFC 클럽 랭킹과 2014년부터 2017년까지의 FIFA 랭킹에 의해 결정될 것이다. 참가 클럽 일정 AFC 챔피언스리그 일정은 아래와 같다. 모든 대진 추첨은 말레이시아 쿠알라룸푸르에서 진행된다. 예선 플레이오프 각각의 예선 라운드는 단판전으로 이루어져 있다. 규정 9조 2항에 의거하여, 연장전이나 승부차기는 정규 시간 내에 승자가 결정되지 않았을 때 승자를 결정하기 위해 사용된다. 각 지역에서의 예선 라운드 팀 배정은 AFC 클럽 랭킹에 근거하여 결정되고, 둘 중 순위가 높은 협회에 소속된 클럽의 구장에서 경기를 진행한다. 같은 협회의 소속된 팀끼리는 같은 경기에 배정될 수 없다. 1차 예선 |+서아시아 |+동아시아 2차 예선 |+서아시아 |+동아시아 플레이오프 |+서아시아 |+동아시아 조별 리그 A조 B조 C조 D조 E조 F조 G조 H조 결선 토너먼트 대진표 16강전 8강전 준결승전 결승전 우승 최다득점자 순위 같이 보기 2020년 AFC컵 각주 AFC 챔피언스리그 시즌 AFC 챔피언스리그 코로나19 범유행으로 연기된 스포츠 행사

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%20AFC%20Champions%20League

2020 AFC Champions League

The 2020 AFC Champions League was the 39th edition of Asia's premier club football tournament organized by the Asian Football Confederation (AFC), and the 18th under the current AFC Champions League title. Ulsan Hyundai won their second Champions League title by defeating Persepolis 2–1 in the final. Ulsan automatically qualify for the 2021 AFC Champions League (although they had already qualified through their domestic performance), the first time since 2008 that the AFC Champions League holders were guaranteed automatic qualification in the following year. They also earned the right to play in the 2020 FIFA Club World Cup in Qatar. The tournament was the last to involve 32 teams during the group stage, which increased to 40 teams in 2021. The competition was suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Asia after group stage matches on 4 March 2020, and restarted on 14 September 2020. All matches after the restart were played in Qatar, with the final played at the Al Janoub Stadium. Al-Hilal of Saudi Arabia were the defending champions, but the club effectively withdrew from the competition when they could not name the required 13 players for their final group stage match, as all but 11 players had tested positive for COVID-19. For the first time, the video assistant referee (VAR) system was in use from the quarter-finals onwards. Association team allocation The 46 AFC member associations (excluding the associate member Northern Mariana Islands) were ranked based on their national team's and clubs' performance over the last four years in AFC competitions, with the allocation of slots for the 2019 and 2020 editions of the AFC club competitions determined by the 2017 AFC rankings (Entry Manual Article 2.3): The associations were split into two regions: West Region consisted of the associations from the West Asian Football Federation (WAFF), the Central Asian Football Association (CAFA), and the South Asian Football Federation (SAFF). East Region consisted of the associations from the ASEAN Football Federation (AFF) and the East Asian Football Federation (EAFF). In each region, there were four groups in the group stage, including a total of 12 direct slots, with the 4 remaining slots filled through play-offs. The top 12 associations in each region as per the AFC rankings were eligible to enter the AFC Champions League, as long as they fulfilled the AFC Champions League criteria. The top six associations in each region got at least one direct slot in the group stage, while the remaining associations got only play-off slots (as well as AFC Cup group stage slots): The associations ranked 1st and 2nd each got three direct slots and one play-off slot. The associations ranked 3rd and 4th each got two direct slots and two play-off slots. The associations ranked 5th each got one direct slot and two play-off slots. The associations ranked 6th each got one direct slot and one play-off slot. The associations ranked 7th to 12th each got one play-off slot. The maximum number of slots for each association was one-third of the total number of eligible teams in the top division. If any association gave up its direct slots, they were redistributed to the highest eligible association, with each association limited to a maximum of three direct slots. If any association gave up its play-off slots, they were annulled and not redistributed to any other association. Association ranking For the 2020 AFC Champions League, the associations were allocated slots according to their association ranking which was published on 15 December 2017, which took into account their performance in the AFC Champions League and the AFC Cup, as well as their national team's FIFA World Rankings, during the period between 2014 and 2017. Notes Teams The following 52 teams from 23 associations entered the competition. In the following table, the number of appearances and last appearance count only those since the 2002–03 season (including qualifying rounds), when the competition was rebranded as the AFC Champions League. Notes Schedule The schedule of the competition was as follows. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, only some of the group stage matches on matchdays 1–3 in February and March were played as scheduled, and all matches on matchdays 4–6 were postponed until further notice. The round of 16, quarter-finals and semi-finals were also initially moved to 10–12 and 24–26 August, 14–16 and 28–30 September, and 20–21 and 27–28 October. The AFC announced the calendar of the remaining matches on 9 July 2020, with all matches before the final played at centralised venues, and all knockout ties played as a single match. On 10 September 2020, the AFC announced the new dates for the East Region matches and the final. Notes: W: West Region E: East Region Italics: new dates after restart The original schedule of the competition, as planned before the pandemic, was as follows. Qualifying play-offs Preliminary round 1 Preliminary round 2 Play-off round Group stage Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E Group F Group G Group H Knockout stage Bracket Round of 16 Quarter-finals Semi-finals Final Awards Main awards Note: Abderrazak Hamdallah finished ahead of Júnior Negrão to win the Top Scorer award despite scoring the same number of goals, and also having the same number of assists (first tiebreaker), since he played fewer minutes throughout the competition (second tiebreaker). All Star Squad Source: Opta Best XI Source: Fans' awards The AFC took polls of fans in its website after the tournament. Statistics Statistical leaders Top scorers Toyota Player of the Week awards See also 2020 AFC Cup References External links , the-AFC.com AFC Champions League 2020, stats.the-AFC.com 1 2020 Association football events postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic

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고전정통주의

고전정통주의 (古典 正統主義, )또는 고정통주의(古正統主義)는 개신교회 신학 연구이자 신학 학파이다. 일본어권에서는 복고정통주의(復古正統主義)라고도 한다. 주로 미주와 영국 중심의 영어권 지역에서 20세기 말부터 시작되어 21세기 현재에는 영어권을 넘어 독일어권을 포함하는 개신교 전역에서도 연구되는 신학 학파이며 신학 연구로, 11세기 이전 공교회의 신학과 교부의 이해와 신앙을 통합적으로 연구하여 현대적 의미를 제시한다. 정통적 교부들의 신학과 현대의 조화를 강조하여, 신정통주의와 구분하여 고전정통주의로 불린다. 신정통주의가 20세기 중반부터 실존주의와 같은 철학 사회적 방법론을 중점으로 활용하는 것과 달리, 고전정통주의는 교회의 2000년 역사를 더 강조하고, 적용 방법론인 철학적 사회적 방법론보다 교회전통 내부의 방법론을 강조한다. 고전정통주의 개념 고전정통주의는 현대의 기독교 신학이 11세기 교회 대분열 이전인 공교회 시절의 신학과 16세기 서방교회의 종교개혁 찬성파와 반대파, 즉 개신교회와 천주교회의 분열 이전의 전통과 조화를 강조한다. 5세기 교부인 ‘레랭의 빈센트’(Vincent of Lérins)의 신학적 기준인 신앙은 '누구나 어디에서나 언제나 믿는 것’()을 지침으로 삼는다. 고전정통주의 역시 이성주의에 근거한 근대 신학의 성향에 대한 반성으로 시작된 신학 운동이다. 특히 2차 대전 이후 18세기부터 형성된 자유주의 신학의 한계에 직면하여, 근대적 신학 운동의 문제를 극복하고자 형성된 포스트모던 신학운동의 파편성을 넘어서는 고전과 현대를 아우르는 신학운동이 고전정통주의 신학이다. 고전정통주의 신학자 고전정통주의는 미국 연합감리교회 신학자이자 드류대학교 신학대학원 교수였던 토마스 오든의 조직신학 저서, ‘고전 기독교’(Classical Christianity)를 통해 신학적 기준과 방법론이 확립되었다. 21세기에 들어와 고전정통주의는 고전기독교와 포스트모던 기독교를 조화롭게 하는 신학으로 발전하였다. 초기에는 개신교 공교회주의를 따르는 감리교회를 중심으로 신학적 연구가 진행되었다가 공교회주의 범주의 교회에 영향을 끼쳤고 점차 감리교회와 루터교회 등 개신교 공교회주의 교회를 넘어 장로교회와 침례교회 등으로 확장되어 신학적 연구를 진행하고 있다. 미주 지역의 고전정통주의 신학자로는, 감리교회 신학자들을 포함하여 다양한 교단의 신학자들로 구성되었다. 로버트 젠슨(Robert Jenson), 크리스토퍼 홀(Christopher Hall), 로버트 웨버(Robert E. Webber), 제프리 웨인라이트(Geoffrey Wainwright), 칼 브라튼(Carl Braaten), 스탠리 그렌즈(Stanley Grenz), 볼프하르트 판넨베르크(Wolfhart Pannenberg), 리차드 뉴하우스(Richard John Neuhaus) 등이 고전정통주의 중요성을 거론하였다. 유력한 신학자로는 루터교회의 마버 던(Marva Dawn)과 장로교회의 앤드류 퍼브스(Andrew Purves), 침례교회의 티모시 조지(Timothy George), 성공회교회의 알리스터 맥그래스(Alister McGrath), 크리스토퍼 홀(Christopher Hall) 등이 있다. 대표적 신학자 토마스 오든 마버 던 알리스터 맥그래스 앤드류 퍼브스 티모시 조지 크리스토퍼 홀 같이 보기 신정통주의 교부 공교회 현대신학 주요 문헌 주요 문헌으로 토마스 오든의 연구 결과와 다양한 학자들의 연구 결과가 있으며, 아직 한국어로 번역되지 않아 아래서 소개하는 문헌은 영어 저서의 제목을 그대로 사용하였다. 토마스 오든의 저작: Thomas Oden: Agenda for Theology, later re-published as After Modernity...What?, Thomas Oden, General editor: Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture that Oden describes as a multi-volume patristic commentary on Scripture by the “fathers of the church” spanning “the era from Clement of Rome (fl. c. 95) to John of Damascus (c.645-c.749).” Detailed information about the set can be found at the publisher Thomas Oden: John Wesley's Scriptural Christianity: A Plain Exposition of His Teaching on Christian Doctrine, Thomas Oden: Pastoral Theology: Essentials of Ministry, Thomas Oden: The Rebirth of Orthodoxy: Signs of New Life in Christianity, Thomas Oden: Requiem: A Lament in Three Movements, Thomas Oden: Systematic Theology (three volumes... The Living God, The Word of Life and Life in the Spirit, republished in one volume as Classic Christianity) 다른 신학자의 주요 저작: Christopher Hall and Kenneth Tanner (eds.): Ancient & Postmodern Christianity: Paleo-Orthodoxy in the 21st Century (Essays In Honor of Thomas C. Oden), . Christopher A. Hall: Reading Scripture with the Church Fathers Colleen Carroll: The New Faithful: Why Young Adults Are Embracing Christian Orthodoxy () Richard Foster Streams of Living Water: Celebrating the Great Traditions of Christian Faith ) 각주 외부 링크 고전정통주의 영어 누리집 Paleo Orthodoxy resources 토마스 오든의 누리집 Thomas Oden's Paleo-Orthodoxy by Eric Landstrom 기독교 용어 기독교 신학 운동

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleo-orthodoxy

Paleo-orthodoxy

Paleo-orthodoxy (from Ancient Greek παλαιός "ancient" and Koine Greek ὀρθοδοξία "correct belief") is a Protestant Christian theological movement in the United States which emerged in the late 20th and early 21st centuries and which focuses on the consensual understanding of the faith among the ecumenical councils and Church Fathers. While it understands this consensus of the Church Fathers as orthodoxy proper, it calls itself paleo-orthodoxy to distinguish itself from neo-orthodoxy, a movement that was influential among Protestant churches in the mid-20th century. Background Paleo-orthodoxy attempts to see the essentials of Christian theology in the consensus of the Great Church before the schism between the Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church (the East–West Schism of 1054) and before the separation of Protestantism from the Roman Catholic Church (the Protestant Reformation of 1517), described in the canon of Vincent of Lérins as "" ("What [is believed] everywhere, always and by everyone"). Adherents of paleo-orthodoxy often form part of the Convergence Movement, though paleo-orthodoxy is not exclusive to the movement. Paleo-orthodox Protestants have different interpretations of the early Church's teachings. Paleo-orthodox theologians The dominant figure of the movement, United Methodist theologian Thomas C. Oden of Drew University, published a series of books not only calling for a return to "classical Christianity" but also providing the tools to do so. The 2002 collection of essays in honor of Oden, Ancient and Postmodern Christianity: Paleo-Orthodoxy in the 21st Century (Kenneth Tanner, Christopher Alan Hall, eds., ) offers a glimpse into the work of some of the theologians active in this area: Robert Jenson, Christopher Hall, Amy Oden, Bradley Nassif, David Mills, Robert Webber, Geoffrey Wainwright, Carl Braaten, Stanley Grenz, John Franke, Alan Padget, Wolfhart Pannenberg, Richard John Neuhaus, et al. Similar approaches emerge in the theology of Marva Dawn (a Lutheran); Alister McGrath (a Church of England Reformed evangelical); Andrew Purves (a Presbyterian); Timothy George (Baptist); and Christopher Hall (an Episcopalian); J. Davila-Ashcraft (Evangelical Episcopal Communion); and Emilio Alvarez (founding Archbishop of the Union of Charismatic Orthodox Churches). See also Restorationism Old Catholicism References Further reading Among Oden's works, either as writer or editor, in support of paleo-orthodoxy are: Thomas Oden: Agenda for Theology, later re-published as After Modernity...What?, Thomas Oden, General editor: Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture that Oden describes as a multi-volume patristic commentary on Scripture by the fathers of the church spanning the era from Clement of Rome (fl. c. 95) to John of Damascus (c.645-c.749). – Detailed information about the set can be found at the publisher. Thomas Oden: John Wesley's Scriptural Christianity: A Plain Exposition of His Teaching on Christian Doctrine, Thomas Oden: Pastoral Theology: Essentials of Ministry, Thomas Oden: The Rebirth of Orthodoxy: Signs of New Life in Christianity, Thomas Oden: Requiem: A Lament in Three Movements, Thomas Oden: Systematic Theology (three volumes... The Living God, The Word of Life and Life in the Spirit, republished in one volume as Classic Christianity) Works by other authors: Christopher Hall and Kenneth Tanner (eds.): Ancient & Postmodern Christianity: Paleo-Orthodoxy in the 21st Century (Essays In Honor of Thomas C. Oden), . Christopher A. Hall: Reading Scripture with the Church Fathers Colleen Carroll: The New Faithful: Why Young Adults Are Embracing Christian Orthodoxy () Richard Foster Streams of Living Water: Celebrating the Great Traditions of Christian Faith ) External links Thomas Oden's Paleo-Orthodoxy by Eric Landstrom Protestant ecumenism Christian terminology Christian theological movements

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단백질비생성성 아미노산

단백질비생성성 아미노산()은 생화학에서 단백질의 생합성을 위해 생명체의 게놈(유전체)에 자연적으로 암호화되어 있는 22가지의 단백질생성성 아미노산(진핵생물의 경우 21가지)이 아닌 아미노산들을 지칭한다. 그러나 140가지 이상의 단백질비생성성 아미노산이 단백질에서 자연적으로 생성되며, 수천 가지 이상의 단백질비생성성 아미노산이 자연에서 생성되거나 실험실에서 합성될 수 있다. 다음과 같은 역할로 인해 많은 단백질비생성성 아미노산들은 중요하다. 생합성에서의 대사 중간생성물, 단백질의 번역 후 변형에서, 생리학적 역할에서 (예: 세균의 세포벽의 구성 요소, 신경전달물질 및 독소), 천연 또는 인공 약리학적 화합물, 운석에 존재하거나 생물 발생 이전에 대한 실험 (예: 밀러와 유리의 실험)에 사용된다. 존재의 부정에 대한 정의 기술적으로 아미노기(–NH2)와 카복실기(–COOH)를 가지고 있는 모든 유기 화합물은 아미노산이다. 단백질생성성 아미노산은 아미노기, 카복실기, 곁사슬, α-수소의 L-입체형태를 갖는 중심 탄소 원자(α-탄소 또는 2-탄소)를 가지고 있는 부류의 작은 부분 집합이다. 비카이랄성인 글리신과 아미노기가 2차 아민인 프롤린은 결과적으로 이민은 아니지만 전통적인 이유로 인해 종종 이미노산으로 불린다. 번역 중에 단백질에 통합되는 20가지의 표준 아미노산들은 유전 부호로 암호화되어 있다. 그러나 셀레노시스테인과 피롤리신이라는 두 가지 추가적인 단백질생성성 아미노산이 있다. 이러한 비표준 아미노산은 전용 코돈이 없지만 특정 서열이 존재할 때 종결 코돈 대신에 첨가되며, 셀레노시스테인의 경우 UGA 코돈과 SECIS 요소, 피롤리신의 경우 UAG 코돈과 PYLIS 하류 서열을 필요로 한다. 다른 모든 아미노산들은 단백질비생성성 아미노산이다. 다음과 같이 다양한 아미노산의 부류들이 있다. 20가지의 표준 아미노산 22가지의 단백질생성성 아미노산 고농도에서 무생물적으로 생성되는 80가지 이상의 아미노산 약 900가지는 자연적인 경로에 의해 생성된다. 118가지 이상의 인공적인 아미노산이 단백질에 삽입되었다. 이들 부류들은 서로 겹치는 부분이 있을 수 있지만 동일하지는 않다. 22가지의 모든 단백질생성성 아미노산은 생물에 의해 생합성되며 전부는 아니지만 일부는 비생물적(생물 발생 이전에 관한 실험 및 운석에서 발견됨)이기도 하다. 노르류신과 같은 일부 천연 아미노산은 단백질 합성 과정의 오류로 인해 번역시 단백질로 잘못 삽입되기도 한다. 오르니틴과 같은 많은 아미노산들은 생합성으로 생성되는 대사 중간생성물이지만 번역시 단백질에 삽입되지는 않는다. 단백질에서 아미노산 잔기들은 번역 후 변형을 통해 단백질생성성 아미노산에서 단백질비생성성 아미노산으로 변형된다. 다른 아미노산들은 비생물적 혼합물(예: α-메틸노르발린)에서만 발견된다. 30가지 이상의 비천연 아미노산들이 유전공학적 방법에 의해 번역시 단백질로 삽입되지만 생합성되지는 않았다. 명명법 유기 분자의 다양한 탄소를 구별하기 위한 IUPAC 번호 매기기 체계 외에도 카복실기를 구성하는 탄소의 다음 탄소부터 각 탄소에 순차적으로 그리스 문자를 표시하여 구분할 수도 있다. 여기서 α-탄소는 α-아미노산에서 아미노기, 카복실기, 곁사슬, 수소 원자와 결합하고 있는 중심 카이랄 탄소이다. 그리스 문자로 나타낼 시에 카복실기의 탄소는 고려하지 않는다. 따라서 많은 단백질비생성성 아미노산들의 IUPAC 이름은 "2-아미노-"로 시작하여 "-산"으로 끝난다. 천연 비-L-α-아미노산 대부분의 천연 아미노산은 L-입체형태의 α-아미노산이지만 일부 예외가 존재한다. 비-α-아미노산 일부 비-α-아미노산이 생물에 존재한다. 이러한 구조에서 아미노기는 아미노산 분자의 카복실기로부터 더 먼 곳에 위치한다. 따라서 β-아미노산은 카복실기의 탄소로부터 두 번째 탄소에 아미노기가 결합되어 있고, γ-아미노산은 세 번째 탄소에 아미노기가 결합되어 있다. 예로는 β-알라닌, γ-아미노뷰티르산(GABA), δ-아미노레불린산이 있다. α-아미노산이 단백질에 사용되는 이유는 운석 및 생물 발생 이전과 관련된 실험에서의 빈도와 관련이 있다. 2차 구조의 측면에서 β-아미노산의 유해한 특성에 대한 초기 추측은 잘못된 것으로 밝혀졌다. D-아미노산 일부 아미노산에는 정상적인 리보솜에 의한 번역 및 전사에 사용할 수 없는 카이랄성이 반대인 화학 물질이 포함되어 있다. 대부분의 세균의 세포벽은 아미노당으로 구성된 중합체가 서로 짧은 올리고펩타이드로 가교된 펩티도글리칸으로 구성되어 있다. 올리고펩타이드는 비리보솜으로 합성되며 D-아미노산들, 일반적으로 D-알라닌과 D-글루탐산을 포함하는 여러 특성들을 가지고 있다. 추가적인 특징은 전자가 피리독살 인산(PLP) 결합 효소(alr 또는 상동유전자인 dadX에 의해 암호화 됨)에 의해 라세미화되는 반면 후자는 보조 인자에 대해 독립적인 효소(murI에 의해 암호화 됨)에 의해 라세미화된다는 것이다. 일부 변형이 존재하는 데, 테르모토가속(Thermotoga)의 종에는 D-리신이 존재하며, 특정 반코마이신 내성 세균에는 D-세린이 존재(vanT 유전자)한다. α-탄소에 수소가 없는 경우 모든 단백질생성성 아미노산은 α-탄소에 적어도 하나의 수소를 가지고 있다. 글리신은 두 개의 수소를 가지고 있고, 다른 단백질생성성 아미노산은 한 개의 수소와 한 개의 곁사슬을 가지고 있다. 수소를 메틸기와 같은 더 큰 치환기로 치환하면 단백질 골격이 왜곡된다. 일부 균류에서 α-아미노아이소뷰티르산은 펩타이드의 전구체로 생성되며, 그 중 일부는 항생제의 특성을 나타낸다. 이 화합물은 알라닌과 유사하지만 α-탄소에 수소 대신에 메틸기를 가지고 있다. 따라서 α-아미노아이소뷰티르산은 카이랄성이 아니다. α-수소가 없는 알라닌과 유사한 또 다른 화합물로는 메틸렌 곁사슬을 가지고 있는 디하이드로알라닌이 있다. 이것은 자연적으로 생성되는 여러 디하이드로아미노산들 중 하나이다. 트윈 아미노산 입체중심 L-α-아미노산의 하위 집합은 두 말단 중 어느 쪽이 α-탄소인지 모호하다. 단백질에서 시스테인 잔기는 다른 시스테인 잔기와 이황화 결합을 형성하여 단백질을 가교할 수 있다. 두 개의 가교된 시스테인은 시스틴을 형성한다. 시스테인과 메티오닌은 일반적으로 직접적인 황산화에 의해 생성되지만 일부 종에서는 활성화된 호모세린 또는 세린이 시스테인 또는 호모시스테인과 융합하여 시스타티오닌을 형성하는 황전환 경로에 의해 생성될 수 있다. 유사한 화합물로는 싸이오에스터 결합을 통해 연결된 두 개의 알라닌 분자로 볼 수 있는 란티오닌이 있으며, 이것은 다양한 생물들에서 발견된다. 유사하게 젱콜콩의 식물 독소인 젠콜산은 메틸렌기에 의해 연결된 두 개의 시스테인으로 구성된다. 다이아미노피멜산은 펩티도글리칸에서 가교로 사용되며, 리신의 전구체로 (탈카복실화를 통해) 사용된다. 생물 발생 이전의 아미노산 및 대체생화학 운석과 생물 발생 이전의 실험(예: 밀러와 유리의 실험)에서는 20가지의 표준 아미노산보다 더 다양한 아미노산들이 발견되며, 그 중 일부는 표준 아미노산보다 더 높은 농도에서 발견된다. 아미노산에 기반한 생명체가 우주의 다른 곳에서 평행적으로 발생하였다면 아미노산의 75% 이상은 공유되지 않을 것이라고 추측되었다. 가장 주목할만한 이상은 아미노뷰티르산의 부족이다. 직선형 곁사슬 유전 부호는 동결 사건으로 설명되었으며 직선형 사슬이 있는 표준 아미노산(알라닌)이 하나만 있는 이유는 단순히 발린, 류신, 아이소류신이 중복되기 때문일 수 있다. 그러나 직선형 아미노산은 훨씬 더 안정적인 α-나선을 형성하는 것으로 보고되었다. 16족 원소 (칼코젠) 세린, 호모세린, O-메틸호모세린 및 O-에틸호모세린은 하이드록시메틸기, 하이드록시에틸기, O-메틸하이드록시메틸기 및 O-메틸하이드록시에틸기가 있는 곁사슬을 가지고 있으며, 시스테인, 호모시스테인, 메티오닌 및 에티오닌은 싸이올 등가물을 가지고 있다. 셀레놀 등가물은 셀레노시스테인, 셀레노호모시스테인, 셀레노메티오닌, 셀레노에티오닌이다. 다음과 같은 16족 원소를 가지고 있는 아미노산들도 자연에서 발견된다. 아스페르길루스 푸미가투스(Aspergillus fumigatus) 아스페르길루스 테레우스(Aspergillus terreus) 및 페니실리움 크리소게눔(Penicillium chrysogenum)과 같은 여러 생물종들은 황이 없는 상태에서 텔루로시스테인 및 텔루로메티오닌을 생성하고 단백질로 통합될 수 있다. 확장된 유전 부호 역할 세포 특히 독립영양생물에서 여러 단백질비생성성 아미노산들이 대사 중간생성물로 발견된다. 그러나 피리독살 인산(PLP) 결합 효소의 촉매적 유연성에서 불구하고 많은 아미노산들이 케토산(예: 4-메틸-2-옥소펜탄산에서 류신으로)으로 합성되고 마지막 단계에서 아미노화되어 단백질비생성성 아미노산의 대사 중간생성물의 수를 상당히 낮게 유지한다. 오르니틴과 시트룰린은 아미노산 이화작용의 일부인 요소 회로에서 생성된다(아래 참조). 1차 대사에 더하여, 몇몇 단백질비생성성 아미노산은 작은 화합물 또는 비리보솜 펩타이드(일부 독소와 같은)를 만들기 위한 2차 대사의 전구체 또는 최종 생성물이다. 번역 후 단백질로 통합 유전 부호에 의해 단백질생성성 아미노산으로 암호화되지 않음에도 불구하고 일부 비표준 아미노산들이 단백질에서 발견된다. 이들은 표적 단백질에 존재하는 표준 아미노산의 곁사슬의 번역 후 변형에 의해 형성된다. 이러한 변형은 보통 단백질의 기능이나 조절에 필수적이다. 예를 들어 γ-카복시글루탐산에서 글루탐산의 카복실화는 칼슘 양이온과 더 잘 결합하게 하고, 하이드록시프롤린에서 프롤린의 하이드록실화는 결합 조직을 유지하는 데 중요하다. 또 다른 예는 리신 잔기의 변형을 통한 번역 개시인자인 EIF5A에서 하이퓨신의 형성이다. 이러한 변형은 또한 단백질의 국소화를 결정할 수 있으며, 예를 들어 긴 소수성 작용기를 첨가하면 단백질을 인지질 막에 결합시킬 수 있다. 아미노말론산이 단백질에 잘못 통합되어 존재할 수 있다는 예비적인 증거가 있다. 독성 유사체 싸이알리신과 같은 몇몇 단백질비생성성 아미노산은 단백질생성성 아미노산의 특정 특성을 모방하는 능력으로 인해 독성이 있다. 퀴스쿠알산, 카나바닌, 아제티딘-2-카복실산을 비롯한 일부 단백질비생성성 아미노산은 신경전달물질(즉, 단백질 생합성에 사용되지 않음)로 사용되는 아미노산을 모방하여 신경독성을 나타낸다. 세팔로스포린 C는 세팔로스포린 부분으로 아마이드화된 α-아미노아디프산(호모글루탐산) 골격을 가지고 있다. 페니실라민은 작용 방식이 알려지지 않은 치료용 아미노산이다. 자연적으로 생성되는 사이아노톡신에는 단백질비생성성 아미노산들도 포함될 수 있다. 예를 들어 마이크로시스틴과 노둘라린은 둘 다 β-아미노산인 ADDA로부터 유도된다. 아미노산이 아닌 것들 타우린은 아미노설폰산이며 아미노카복실산이 아니지만 때때로 특정 생물체(고양이와 같은)에서 영양요구성을 억제하는 데 필요한 양이 비타민(보조 인자 영양요구성)보다 "필수 아미노산"(아미노산 영양요구성)에 더 가까운 것으로 간주된다. 삼투물질인 사르코신 및 트라이메틸글리신은 아미노산으로부터 유도되지만 각각 2차 아민 및 4차 아민을 가지고 있다. 같이 보기 아미노산 단백질생성성 아미노산 포도당생성성 아미노산 케톤체생성성 아미노산 주해 각주 아미노산

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-proteinogenic%20amino%20acids

Non-proteinogenic amino acids

In biochemistry, non-coded or non-proteinogenic amino acids are distinct from the 22 proteinogenic amino acids (21 in eukaryotes) which are naturally encoded in the genome of organisms for the assembly of proteins. However, over 140 non-proteinogenic amino acids occur naturally in proteins and thousands more may occur in nature or be synthesized in the laboratory. Chemically synthesized amino acids can be called unnatural amino acids. Unnatural amino acids can be synthetically prepared from their native analogs via modifications such as amine alkylation, side chain substitution, structural bond extension cyclization, and isosteric replacements within the amino acid backbone. Many non-proteinogenic amino acids are important: intermediates in biosynthesis, in post-translational formation of proteins, in a physiological role (e.g. components of bacterial cell walls, neurotransmitters and toxins), natural or man-made pharmacological compounds, present in meteorites or used in prebiotic experiments (such as the Miller–Urey experiment). Definition by negation Technically, any organic compound with an amine (–NH2) and a carboxylic acid (–COOH) functional group is an amino acid. The proteinogenic amino acids are small subset of this group that possess central carbon atom (α- or 2-) bearing an amino group, a carboxyl group, a side chain and an α-hydrogen levo conformation, with the exception of glycine, which is achiral, and proline, whose amine group is a secondary amine and is consequently frequently referred to as an imino acid for traditional reasons, albeit not an imino. The genetic code encodes 20 standard amino acids for incorporation into proteins during translation. However, there are two extra proteinogenic amino acids: selenocysteine and pyrrolysine. These non-standard amino acids do not have a dedicated codon, but are added in place of a stop codon when a specific sequence is present, UGA codon and SECIS element for selenocysteine, UAG PYLIS downstream sequence for pyrrolysine. All other amino acids are termed "non-proteinogenic". There are various groups of amino acids: 20 standard amino acids 22 proteinogenic amino acids over 80 amino acids created abiotically in high concentrations about 900 are produced by natural pathways over 118 engineered amino acids have been placed into protein These groups overlap, but are not identical. All 22 proteinogenic amino acids are biosynthesised by organisms and some, but not all, of them also are abiotic (found in prebiotic experiments and meteorites). Some natural amino acids, such as norleucine, are misincorporated translationally into proteins due to infidelity of the protein-synthesis process. Many amino acids, such as ornithine, are metabolic intermediates produced biosynthetically, but not incorporated translationally into proteins. Post-translational modification of amino acid residues in proteins leads to the formation of many proteinaceous, but non-proteinogenic, amino acids. Other amino acids are solely found in abiotic mixes (e.g. α-methylnorvaline). Over 30 unnatural amino acids have been inserted translationally into protein in engineered systems, yet are not biosynthetic. Nomenclature In addition to the IUPAC numbering system to differentiate the various carbons in an organic molecule, by sequentially assigning a number to each carbon, including those forming a carboxylic group, the carbons along the side-chain of amino acids can also be labelled with Greek letters, where the α-carbon is the central chiral carbon possessing a carboxyl group, a side chain and, in α-amino acids, an amino group – the carbon in carboxylic groups is not counted. (Consequently, the IUPAC names of many non-proteinogenic α-amino acids start with 2-amino- and end in -ic acid.) Natural non-L-α-amino acids Most natural amino acids are α-amino acids in the L conformation, but some exceptions exist. Non-alpha Some non-α-amino acids exist in organisms. In these structures, the amine group displaced further from the carboxylic acid end of the amino acid molecule. Thus a β-amino acid has the amine group bonded to the second carbon away, and a γ-amino acid has it on the third. Examples include β-alanine, GABA, and δ-aminolevulinic acid. The reason why α-amino acids are used in proteins has been linked to their frequency in meteorites and prebiotic experiments. An initial speculation on the deleterious properties of β-amino acids in terms of secondary structure turned out to be incorrect. D-amino acids Some amino acids contain the opposite absolute chirality, chemicals that are not available from normal ribosomal translation and transcription machinery. Most bacterial cells walls are formed by peptidoglycan, a polymer composed of amino sugars crosslinked with short oligopeptides bridged between each other. The oligopeptide is non-ribosomally synthesised and contains several peculiarities including D-amino acids, generally D-alanine and D-glutamate. A further peculiarity is that the former is racemised by a PLP-binding enzymes (encoded by alr or the homologue dadX), whereas the latter is racemised by a cofactor independent enzyme (murI). Some variants are present, in Thermotoga spp. D-Lysine is present and in certain vancomycin-resistant bacteria D-serine is present (vanT gene). Without a hydrogen on the α-carbon All proteinogenic amino acids have at least one hydrogen on the α-carbon. Glycine has two hydrogens, and all others have one hydrogen and one side-chain. Replacement of the remaining hydrogen with a larger substituent, such as a methyl group, distorts the protein backbone. In some fungi α-aminoisobutyric acid is produced as a precursor to peptides, some of which exhibit antibiotic properties. This compound is similar to alanine, but possesses an additional methyl group on the α-carbon instead of a hydrogen. It is therefore achiral. Another compound similar to alanine without an α-hydrogen is dehydroalanine, which possess a methylene sidechain. It is one of several naturally occurring dehydroamino acids. Twin amino acid stereocentres A subset of L-α-amino acids are ambiguous as to which of two ends is the α-carbon. In proteins a cysteine residue can form a disulfide bond with another cysteine residue, thus crosslinking the protein. Two crosslinked cysteines form a cystine molecule. Cysteine and methionine are generally produced by direct sulfurylation, but in some species they can be produced by transsulfuration, where the activated homoserine or serine is fused to a cysteine or homocysteine forming cystathionine. A similar compound is lanthionine, which can be seen as two alanine molecules joined via a thioether bond and is found in various organisms. Similarly, djenkolic acid, a plant toxin from jengkol beans, is composed of two cysteines connected by a methylene group. Diaminopimelic acid is both used as a bridge in peptidoglycan and is used a precursor to lysine (via its decarboxylation). Prebiotic amino acids and alternative biochemistries In meteorites and in prebiotic experiments (e.g. Miller–Urey experiment) many more amino acids than the twenty standard amino acids are found, several of which at higher concentrations than the standard ones: it has been conjectured that if amino acid based life were to arise in parallel elsewhere in the universe, no more than 75% of the amino acids would be in common. The most notable anomaly is the lack of aminobutyric acid. Straight side chain The genetic code has been described as a frozen accident and the reasons why there is only one standard amino acid with a straight chain (alanine) could simply be redundancy with valine, leucine and isoleucine. However, straight chained amino acids are reported to form much more stable alpha helices. Chalcogen Serine, homoserine, O-methylhomoserine and O-ethylhomoserine possess a hydroxymethyl, hydroxyethyl, O-methylhydroxymethyl and O-methylhydroxyethyl side chain; whereas cysteine, homocysteine, methionine and ethionine possess the thiol equivalents. The selenol equivalents are selenocysteine, selenohomocysteine, selenomethionine and selenoethionine. Amino acids with the next chalcogen down are also found in nature: several species such as Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus terreus, and Penicillium chrysogenum in the absence of sulfur are able to produce and incorporate into protein tellurocysteine and telluromethionine. Expanded genetic code Roles In cells, especially autotrophs, several non-proteinogenic amino acids are found as metabolic intermediates. However, despite the catalytic flexibility of PLP-binding enzymes, many amino acids are synthesised as keto acids (such as 4-methyl-2-oxopentanoate to leucine) and aminated in the last step, thus keeping the number of non-proteinogenic amino acid intermediates fairly low. Ornithine and citrulline occur in the urea cycle, part of amino acid catabolism (see below). In addition to primary metabolism, several non-proteinogenic amino acids are precursors or the final production in secondary metabolism to make small compounds or non-ribosomal peptides (such as some toxins). Post-translationally incorporated into protein Despite not being encoded by the genetic code as proteinogenic amino acids, some non-standard amino acids are nevertheless found in proteins. These are formed by post-translational modification of the side chains of standard amino acids present in the target protein. These modifications are often essential for the function or regulation of a protein; for example, in γ-carboxyglutamate the carboxylation of glutamate allows for better binding of calcium cations, and in hydroxyproline the hydroxylation of proline is critical for maintaining connective tissues. Another example is the formation of hypusine in the translation initiation factor EIF5A, through modification of a lysine residue. Such modifications can also determine the localization of the protein, for example, the addition of long hydrophobic groups can cause a protein to bind to a phospholipid membrane. There is some preliminary evidence that aminomalonic acid may be present, possibly by misincorporation, in protein. Toxic analogues Several non-proteinogenic amino acids are toxic due to their ability to mimic certain properties of proteinogenic amino acids, such as thialysine. Some non-proteinogenic amino acids are neurotoxic by mimicking amino acids used as neurotransmitters (that is, not for protein biosynthesis), including quisqualic acid, canavanine and azetidine-2-carboxylic acid. Cephalosporin C has an α-aminoadipic acid (homoglutamate) backbone that is amidated with a cephalosporin moiety. Penicillamine is a therapeutic amino acid, whose mode of action is unknown. Naturally-occurring cyanotoxins can also include non-proteinogenic amino acids. Microcystin and nodularin, for example, are both derived from ADDA, a β-amino acid. Not amino acids Taurine is an amino sulfonic acid and not an amino carboxylic acid, however it is occasionally considered as such as the amounts required to suppress the auxotroph in certain organisms (such as cats) are closer to those of "essential amino acids" (amino acid auxotrophy) than of vitamins (cofactor auxotrophy). The osmolytes, sarcosine and glycine betaine are derived from amino acids, but have a secondary and quaternary amine respectively. See also Dicarboxylic acid Notes References Amino acids

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%AD%EC%83%89%20%EC%9E%91%EC%A0%84

청색 작전

청색 작전() 또는 블라우 작전은 1942년 여름에 히틀러가 코카서스 지역의 유전을 손에 넣는 것을 목표로 한 작전이다. 초반에는 독일군이 승승장구했으나 스탈린그라드 전투 등의 패배로 최종적으로는 실패하게 된다. 배경 1941년 6월 22일 시작된 바르바로사 작전이 모스크바 공방전의 패배로 사실상 실패로 끝나자, 히틀러는 1942년 4월 청색 작전(Fall Blau)라는 이름의 계획을 제시하고 소련 남부의 코카서스 지역을 공략하기로 결정했다. 바쿠, 마이코프, 그로즈니 등의 유전이 있는 코카서스 지방은 소련의 석유 생명줄과도 다름없었다. 특히 소련 국내와 연결된 철도가 로스토프와 스탈린그라드 방면 두 곳뿐이라는 것을 알아챈 독일군은 이곳의 철도를 끊어 소련으로 가는 석유 수송을 완전 차단할 속셈이었다. 석유는 독일군에게도 필요했는데 1941년 즈음부터 독일군의 석유 공급처는 사실상 루마니아로 제한되었고 독일군은 새로운 석유 공급처를 확보할 필요성을 느끼고 있었다. 작전계획 독일군은 다음과 같은 작전을 계획했다. Blau I : 헤르만 호트 휘하의 제4기갑군과 제2군이 헝가리 제2군의 지원을 받아 쿠르스크와 보로네시를 공격하고 볼가강 북쪽으로 간다. Blau II : 프리드리히 파울루스 휘하의 제6군이 하르코프을 지나 제4기갑군과 평행하게 진격해 스탈린그라드로 간다. Blau III : 제1기갑군을 주축으로 제17군과 루마니아 제4군과 함께 돈 강 하류 지역을 공격한다. B 집단군 (막시밀리안 폰 바이흐스 지휘) 제2군 제55군단 제4기갑군 제24기갑군단 제48기갑군단 재13군단 제6군 (프리드리히 파울루스 지휘) 제40기갑군단 (XXXX Panzer Corps, 게오르크 시투메 지휘) 제51군단 (LI Army Corps) 제8군단 (VIII Army Corps) 제17군단 (XVII Army Corps) 제29군단 (XXIX Army Corps) 헝가리 제2군 제3군단 제7군단 루마니아 제4군 이탈리아 제8군 A 집단군 (빌헬름 리스트 지휘) 제1기갑군 제17군 루마니아 제3군 제11군 크렘린 작전 히틀러는 블라우 작전을 시작하기에 앞서 일종의 양동작전인 크렘린 작전을 개시했다. 이 작전의 목적은 모스크바에 몰려 있는 소련군 대부대가 블라우 작전에 개입하는 것을 방해하기 위한 것이다. 독일군은 모스크바 공격을 재개하라 같은 가짜 지령을 내리거나 모스크바 지구에 대한 정찰비행을 강화하는 등 소련군이 이 위장 모스크바 공격의 전모를 파악할 수 없을 정도로, 그러면서도 그것을 현실적인 것으로 확신하도록 유도하는 방향으로 위장전술을 꾸몄다. 소련군은 그 가짜 정보를 믿고 모스크바 방어선을 강화하는 데 안간힘을 썼다. 히틀러에게 있어서는 순조롭게 잘 진행되고 있었다. 그런데 1942년 6월 19일에 군사기밀이 누설되어 블라우 작전이 위기에 직면했다. 라이헬 소령의 비행기 사고 독일 제6군 제40기갑군단의 사령관 게오르크 시투메 중장은 6월 17일 휘하 3개 사단의 사단장들을 소집하여 처음으로 블라우 작전 제1단계에서 군단이 맡은 역할에 대한 브리핑을 했다. 시투메는 구두에 의한 지령을 내렸다. 그러나 사단장 한 사람이 정확하게 기억하기 위해 약간의 메모를 요청했고 시투메도 이것을 허락했다. 그는 반 페이지 정도의 개요를 구술하고 각 사단장에게 보내는 복사본을 만들게 하여 믿을 만한 전령에게 주어서 그것을 하르코프 북방의 3개 사단 사령부에 전하도록 했다. 6월 19일, 시투메의 이 규칙 위반 메모를 받은 제23기갑사단의 작전주임참모 요아힘 라이헬 소령이 결정적인 실수를 했다. 그는 비행기로 제17군단 사령부로 가서 자기 사단 배치를 확인하기 위해 문제의 메모와 제40기갑군단 소속 각 사단의 배치도와 제1단계의 군사 목표를 적은 전용지도를 가지고 갔다. 라이헬은 오후 2시에 피젤러 시토르히 관측기를 탑승했는데 관측기가 행로를 잘못 벗어나면서 소련군 고사포의 공격을 받아 연료 탱크에 구멍이 뜷려 적 전선 근처에 불시착했다. 그날 밤 10시에 시투메는 라이헬 소령 탑승기가 예정 시간이 넘어도 돌아오지 않는다는 보고를 받고 모든 부대에 연락을 취해 라이헬 탑승기의 행방을 찾게 했다. 마침내 제336사단으로부터 연락이 들어왔는데 그 관측기는 소련군 전선 바로 뒤 아니면 바로 앞에 떨어졌다는 것이다. 그 관측기는 급파된 수색대에 의해 무인지대의 한 골짜기에서 발견되었고, 기체는 무사했으나 기내에는 서류가 없었다. 수색대는 2개의 새 무덤을 발견하고 소련병이 라이헬과 조종사를 사살하여 매장한 것으로 추측했다. 무덤을 파내어 나온 시체는 손상이 심해 당번병도 라이헬의 것이라고 단정적으로 확인할 수 없었다. 시투메 중장은 라이헬이 소련군에 붙잡혀 청색 작전에 대한 기밀을 누설하고 크렘린 작전으로 모스크바 방면에 있던 소련군 대부대가 블라우 작전을 분쇄하기 위해 스탈린그라드를 향해 남하해 오리라고 우려했다. 이 사건이 발생한 직후 시투메와 그 부하 장교들은 당장 독일군부의 심문을 받아 제23 기갑사단장은 블라우 작전이 시작되기 전에 좌천되었고 시투메와 그 막료는 군법회의에 회부되어 각기 5년 및 2년의 형을 언도받았다. 그러나 군법회의 의장인 헤르만 괴링 원수는 훌륭한 군인인 시투메를 동정하여 히틀러에게 관대한 처분을 진정했다. 히틀러는 시투메의 형을 감하고 그를 북아프리카로 보냈다. 이후 시투메는 1942년 10월 벌어진 엘 알라메인 전투에서 전사하게 된다. 청색 작전 개시일이 다가옴에 따라 히틀러는 딜레마에 빠졌으나 블라우 작전을 감행하기로 결정했다. 그러나 소련의 스탈린은 블라우 작전을 믿으려 하지 않았다. 소련군 부대는 라이헬이 가지고 있던 서류를 손에 넣었고, 이 서류는 세묜 티모셴코 원수를 통해 스탈린에게 전달되었다. 스탈린은 이 서류를 선입관을 가지고 해석했다: 독일군의 의도는 모스크바 남방으로부터 모스크바를 공격하는 데 있으며, 그들은 엉터리 작전계획서를 탄로나게 함으로써 스탈린그라드 공격이라는 있지도 않은 공격에 대항하게 하기 위해 모스크바 방어군을 끌어내려 하고 있다는 해석이었다. 공중 정찰에 의해 독일군 부대 배치가 계획서와 일치하고 있다는 것이 확인되었지만, 문제 삼으려 하지 않았다. 공격 제1차 보로네시 공방전 1942년 6월 28일, 페도르 폰 보크 원수 휘하의 3개군 가운데 2개 군이 하르코프 북방 약 150km의 쿠르스크 지구로부터 진격을 개시했다. 주공격을 맡은 독일 남부집단군은 병력이 130만명에 달했고, 전차 2천대와 1,600여기의 항공기가 동원되었다. 먼저 제4장갑군, 제2군이 동쪽으로 약 160 km지점에 있는 보로네시를 향해 진격을 개시했다. 보로네시는 돈강과 보로네시강이 합류하는 곳에 있는 도시로서 모스크바, 흑해, 카스피해를 잇는 러시아의 남북에 걸친 모든 철도와 도로 그리고 하천 교통의 요충지였다. 2일 후, 보크 장군 휘하의 제3타격군과 프리드리히 파울루스 중장이 지휘하는 제6군이 북동쪽의 보로네시를 향해 하르코프를 출발했다. 제6군은 정예군으로서 11개 사단과 시투메 중장이 사령관을 맡고 있었던 제40장갑군단으로 구성되어 있었다. 그 장갑군단이 선봉에서 길을 내고 제6군은 북쪽 병력과 연계해서 오스콜강과 돈강 사이에서 소련군을 포위할 예정이었다. 이 작전이 끝나면 독일군은 돈강을 남하하고 다시 한번 협공작전을 펴서 스탈린그라드를 봉쇄한 다음 코카서스로 진격할 계획이었다. 그 작전은 이론적으로는 완벽했다. 그리고 처음 수일간은 전장에서도 빈틈 없이 훌륭하게 수행되는 것처럼 보였다. 6월 30일, 북쪽의 장갑부대는 보로네시까지 가는 도로의 반을 주파했다. 소련군 전선 사령관 티모센코는 스탈린의 명령에 따라 스탈린그라드 쪽으로 후퇴하고 있었기 때문에 제6군은 거의 아무런 저항도 받지 않았다. 티모센코군의 황급한 철수는 청색 작전의 제1단계 전체를 위태롭게 만들었다. 소련군의 철수를 깨달은 레오 가이르 폰 슈베펜부르크 중장(줄여서 가이르 장군)은 당시 시투메 중장의 후임으로 제40장갑군단장이 되어 있었다. 이 장군은 즉각 제 40장갑군단을 동쪽의 돈강으로 진행시키기 위해 허가를 요청했다. 그는 여기서 퇴각하는 소련군 퇴로를 끊을 수 있을 것으로 보았던 것이다. 그러나 파울루스 장군은 전장에서 즉흥적으로 작전을 변경하는 것을 싫어했기 때문에 그 요청을 거절했다. 가이르 장군이 제6군 사령부로부터 받은 회답은 그에게 주어진 당초 임무를 되풀이하고 있었다. 즉, "제40장갑군단은 제4장갑군과 합류하기 위해 북으로 진격하라"는 것이였다. 7월 3일경에는 히틀러도 파울루스가 보로네시 근교에서 소련군을 공략하기 위해 시간을 낭비하고 있을지 모른다는 것을 알게 되었다. 그날 히틀러는 폰 보크 원수의 전투사령부로 날아와 보로네시에 관한 새 계획을 명령했다. "보크, 나는 보로네시 점령을 이제는 고집하지 않소. 또 실제로도 그것이 꼭 필요하다고도 생각하지 않소. 만약 당신이 하고 싶다면 즉각 남하해도 좋소." 이 변심으로 일련의 어지러운 명령이 잇달아 하달되었고, 그것이 일단락되었을 때는 블라우 작전은 수습하기 어려운 혼란 상태로 빠졌다. 먼저 7월 3일 오후 늦게 제40장갑군단장 가이르 장군은 제6군으로부터 초기의 지령을 뒤엎고 돈강을 향해 진격하라는 명령을 받았다. 이것은 얼마 전에 그가 요청했다가 허락되지 않은 명령이었다. 그런데 이튿날 정오 그가 진격을 개시하자마자 그 명령은 또다시 취소되었고, 그 대신 보로네시로 진출해 제4장갑군이 이 도시를 공격하는 동안 그 측면을 보호하라는 명령을 받았다. 오랫동안 히틀러로부터 자유 지휘권을 얻지 못했던 보크 장군이 비로소 그것을 얻게 되자, 그는 우선 보로네시를 우회하기로 결정했다. 그런데 그때 그가 지휘하는 북쪽 부대의 일부가 보로네시로 수 km지점까지 육박했다는 것을 알고는 생각을 고쳐서 가는 김에 보로네시를 점령하기로 마음먹게 되었던 것이다. 7월 5일에 제4기갑군의 선봉이 보로네시 근방의 돈 강에 도달했고 이를 본 소련군은 여전히 독일군이 보로네시를 지나 수도 모스크바를 노리려 한다고 예측했다. 보크는 보로네시에 소련군 부대가 충만해 있는 것을 알고 당황했다. 이 소련군 방어군은 9개 보병사단과 4개 보병여단, 7개 전차 여단 그리고 2개 대전차포 여단으로 이루어져 있었으며, 이들은 선전분투해서 스탈린그라드 전투를 승리로 이끌기까지 시간을 벌어주었다. 보크는 7월 13일이 되어서야 겨우 보로네시를 점령했다. 그렇기는 했어도 그가 얻은 포로의 수는 적었으며, 소련군은 돈강 동쪽 기슭의 중요한 보급로와 철도를 사수하고 있었다. 첫 관문인 보로네시 전투로 청색 작전이 흐트러지자 히틀러는 시간의 손실을 메우기 위해, 원래의 작전을 포기하고 남부집단군을 A 집단군과 B 집단군으로 분리해 각각 로스토프와 스탈린그라드를 점령해 코카서스로의 문을 열기로 결정했다. 처음 계획에 의하면, 스탈린그라드 지구 협공작전에서 남으로부터의 공격을 맡게 되어 있던 에발트 폰 클라이스트 장군 휘하의 제1장갑군은 이 목적을 수행하기 위해 새 명령을 받아 스탈린그라드 대신 로스토프로 남하하기로 되었다. 그리고 당초 헤르만 호트 장군의 제4기갑군은 제6군의 스탈린그라드 진격을 강화하는 역할을 맡고 있었는데, 지금부터는 남하해서 클라이스트를 돕게 되었다. 남부집단군 사령관 보크 장군은 자기 병력의 분할에 항의하다 해임되고 말았다. 그 후임으로 막시밀리안 폰 바이크스 장군이 임명되었다. 여기서 로스토프를 공격하고 코카서스 지방까지 가야 할 A집단군에게는 장거리 이동을 해야 한다는 이유로 포탄과 연료가 더 많이 할당되었다. 클라이스트는 스탈린그라드를 7월 말에 한번도 싸우지 않고도 점령할 수 있었다고 후에 회고했다. 그러나 B집단군 소속 파울루스는 히틀러의 결정에 따라 연료를 빼앗김으로서 예정 기간 안에 도달할 수 없었다. 그리고 공격이 늦어진 만큼 소련군 방어선은 한층 더 강화되었다. 로스토프 공방전 칼라치 전투 파울루스가 지휘하는 독일 제6군은 진격을 계속했지만 대항하는 적을 거의 만날 수가 없었다. 독일 육군 총사령부의 할더 참모총장은 돈 강을 남하해서 칼라치로 향하는 제6군이 아무런 저항도 받지 않은 채 진격을 계속하는 것을 조심스레 바라보고 있었다. "총통 각하, 소련군은 아군과의 접촉을 조직적으로 피하고 있습니다."라고 할더는 히틀러에게 말했다. "말도 안 되는 소리다."라고 히틀러는 쏘아붙였다. "소련군은 패주하고 있는 것이다. 그들은 과거 수개월 동안 입은 타격으로부터 되살아나지 못하고 있는 것이다." 소련 제62군 사령관 V Ya. 콜파크치 소장은 공황상태에 빠진 부대를 붙들어 세우기 위해 막료들을 자동소총으로 무장시켜 칼라치(보로네시 남동쪽 약 180km, 스탈린그라드 북서쪽 약 320km) 교량 근처에 배치했다. 이 장교들은 도망치는 소련군을 불러세우는 한편으로, 지평선쪽으로부터 파울루스 휘하의 독일 제6군이 금방이라도 나타날 것 같아 조마조마했다. 그러나 제6군은 끝내 나타나지 않았다. 콜파크치는 얼마 후 티모센코에게 "독일군의 추격 없음"이라고 전보를 쳤다. "이것은 도대체 어떻게 된 영문인가."라고 티모센코는 참모장에게 물었다. "독일군이 계획을 바꾸었는가?" 이때는 그렇지 않았다. 파울루스의 제6군은 연료가 바닥나 칼라치 전방 약 250 km 지점에서 정지하여 거기에 그후 18일간이나 주저앉아 있어야 했다. 소련군의 세묜 티모셴코는 이 기회를 당장 이용했다. 그는 칼라치 주변의 4개군으로부터 끌어모을 수 있는 모든 병력과 아직 편성중에 있던 2개 전차군을 투입했다. 휘하의 대병력을 좁은 전선에 꽉 몰아넣었다는 것은 티모센코의 실수였다. 연료 보급을 받은 독일 제6군의 파울루스는 이중 포위 작전을 취해서 진격해 갔다. 7월 17일 이후 독일 제6군은 소련군 제62군 및 제64군과 조우하고 7월 25일부터 8월 11일까지 진행된 칼라치 전투(Battle of Kalach)에서 제6군의 제14장갑군단과 제8군단이 좌익으로부터 진출하고, 호트의 제4기갑군으로부터 제24기갑군단과 제51군단이 우익으로부터 진출했다. 8월 8일 포위망이 완성되었을 때, 7만의 소련병과 약 1천 대의 전차 및 장갑차 그리고 750문의 대포가 포위망 속에 갇혔다. 그런데 이 공격이 끝나자 파울루스는 칼라치 주변을 소탕하고 남쪽으로부터 지원받기로 되어 있던 호트군을 기다리느라 2주일을 낭비했다. 그것이 문제가 되자 호트는 끝내 히틀러에게 소환된다. 드디어 8월 21일 제6군은 돈강을 건너 스탈린그라드를 향한 진격을 개시했다. 스탈린그라드 전투 독일 A집단군의 후퇴 이후 스탈린그라드 전투에서 예상치 못한 소련군의 반격을 받은 독일 B집단군은 거의 전멸하고 만다. 스탈린그라드 전투 후 소련군은 '토성 작전'을 개시했는데 이 작전의 목적은 로스토프를 점령하여 코카서스 지방에 들어가 있는 독일 A집단군을 가둬버리는 것이었다. 1942년 8월, 에발트 폰 클라이스트가 지휘하는 독일 A집단군은 테레크강 부근까지 도달했다. 그러나 여기서 코카서스 산맥에 가로막히고, 또 테레크강 도하를 앞두고 뜻밖에도 연료 부족 때문에 멈추어서고 말았다. 또한 그곳 주민들이 필사적으로 구축한 방어 시설도 그들의 앞길을 가로막았다. 소련군 코카서스 집단군 사령관 I. V. 튜레네프 장군은 이렇게 쓰고 있다. "주민들은 피묻은 헝겊을 물집이 생긴 손에 감고 쓰러질 때까지 굳세게 일해주었다. 초가을 무렵에는 7만 개의 토치카와 기타 총포좌를 포함한 약 10만을 헤아리는 방어시설이 구축되었다. 800km를 넘는 대전차 구덩이를 파고 320km에 걸친 장벽을 구축했다. 또 1,600km나 되는 참호도 팠다. 줄잡아 동원 인력이 연 900만일분의 노동 시간을 이 작업에 바쳤다." 파울루스가 스탈린그라드에서 포위된 1월경, 소련군은 '토성 작전'을 개시했다. 클라이스트는 자신이 궁지에 몰린 것을 깨달았다. 그는 후에 이렇게 쓰고 있다. "소련군은 로스토프 전방 불과 6.4km되는 지점까지 오고, 아군은 로스토프 동쪽 630km지점에 있을 때, 히틀러는 어떠한 상황에서도 절대로 철수해서는 안된다는 명령을 나에게 보내왔다. 이것은 그야말로 죽음의 선고 같은 것이었다. 그런데 그 이튿날에 나는 새 명령을 받았다. 퇴각하라, 모든 장비를 다 가지고 철수하라." 클라이스트는 지체하지 않고 준비를 하고 당장 출발했다. 그리하여 클라이스트는 간발의 차이로 로스토프를 지나 탈출에 성공한다. 1943년 2월 14일, 소련군은 로스토프를 점령했다. 그러나 벌써 독일 A집단군의 마지막 부대가 철수한 뒤였다. 클라이스트는 이 공적에 의해 원수로 승진했다. 히틀러가 퇴각을 지휘한 전공에 대해 장성을 승진시킨 일은 그전까지는 한 번도 없었던 일이다. 이렇게 해서 코카서스 지역의 유전을 목표로 한 '블라우 작전'은 실패로 끝나게 된다. 참고 서적 '라이프 제2차 세계대전', <소련군의 반격> 각주 1942년 분쟁 제2차 세계 대전의 전투와 작전 독일-소련 전쟁 1942년 러시아 1942년 우크라이나 루마니아가 참가한 제2차 세계 대전의 전투와 작전 헝가리가 참가한 제2차 세계 대전의 전투와 작전

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case%20Blue

Case Blue

Case Blue (German: Fall Blau) was the Wehrmacht's plan for the 1942 strategic summer offensive in southern Russia between 28 June and 24 November 1942, during World War II. The objective was to capture the oil fields of Baku (Azerbaijan SSR), Grozny and Maikop for two purposes: to enable the Germans to re-supply their low fuel stock and also to deny their use to the Soviet Union, thereby bringing about the complete collapse of the Soviet war effort. After Operation Barbarossa failed to destroy the Soviet Union as a political and military threat the previous year, Adolf Hitler, the Führer of Nazi Germany, recognised that Germany was now locked in a war of attrition, and he was also aware that Germany was running low on fuel supply and would not be able to continue attacking deeper into enemy territory without more stock. With this in mind, Hitler ordered for the preparation of offensive plans for summer 1942 to secure the Soviet oil fields in the Caucasus. The operation involved a two-pronged attack: one from the Axis right flank against the oil fields of Baku, known as Operation Edelweiss, and one from the left flank to protect the first attack, moving in the direction of Stalingrad along the Don River, known as Operation Fischreiher. Army Group South (Heeresgruppe Süd) of the German Army was divided into Army Groups A and B (Heeresgruppe A and B). Army Group A was tasked with fulfilling Operation Edelweiss by crossing the Caucasus mountains to reach the Baku oil fields, while Army Group B protected its flanks along the Volga by fulfilling Operation Fischreiher. Supported by 2,035 Luftwaffe aircraft and 1,934 tanks and assault guns, the 1,570,287-man Army Group South began the offensive on 28 June, advancing 48 kilometers on the first day and easily brushing aside the 1,715,000 Red Army troops opposite, who falsely expected a German offensive on Moscow even after Blau commenced. The Soviet collapse in the south allowed the Germans to capture the western part of Voronezh on 6 July and reach and cross the Don river near Stalingrad on 26 July. Army Group B's approach toward Stalingrad slowed in late July and early August owing to constant counterattacks by newly deployed Red Army reserves and overstretched German supply lines. The Germans defeated the Soviets in the Battle of Kalach and the combat shifted to the city itself in late August. Nonstop Luftwaffe airstrikes, artillery fire and street-to-street combat completely destroyed the city and inflicted heavy casualties on the opposing forces. After three months of battle, the Germans controlled 90% of Stalingrad on 19 November. In the south, Army Group A captured Rostov on 23 July and swept south from the Don to the Caucasus, capturing the demolished oilfields at Maikop on 9 August and Elista on 13 August near the Caspian Sea coast. Heavy Soviet resistance and the long distances from Axis sources of supply reduced the Axis offensive to local advances only and prevented the Germans from completing their strategic objective of capturing the main Caucasus oilfield at Baku. Luftwaffe bombers destroyed the oilfields at Grozny but attacks on Baku were prevented by the insufficient range of the German fighters. The Allies were concerned about the possibility of German forces continuing to the south and east and linking up with Japanese forces (then advancing in Burma) in India. However, the Red Army defeated the Germans at Stalingrad, following Operations Uranus and Little Saturn. This defeat forced the Axis to retreat from the Caucasus in order to avoid getting cut off by the Red Army, which was now advancing from Stalingrad towards Rostov in order to achieve the cut-off. Only the Kuban region remained tentatively occupied by Axis troops. Axis strategy Background On 22 June 1941, Germany launched Operation Barbarossa with the intention of defeating the Soviet Union in a quick offensive which was expected to last only 3 months. The Axis offensive had met with initial success and the Red Army had suffered some major defeats before halting the Axis units just short of Moscow (November/December 1941). Although the Germans had captured vast areas of land and important industrial centers, the Soviet Union remained in the war. In the winter of 1941–42, the Soviets struck back in a series of successful counteroffensives, pushing back the German threat to Moscow. Despite these setbacks, Hitler wanted complete destruction of Russia, for which he required the oil resources of the Caucasus. By February 1942 the German Army High Command (OKH) had begun to develop plans for a follow-up campaign to the aborted Barbarossa offensive – with the Caucasus as its principal objective. On 5 April 1942, Hitler laid out the elements of the plan now known as "Case Blue" (Fall Blau) in Führer Directive No. 41. The directive outlined the main goals of the 1942 summer campaign on Germany's Eastern Front: holding attacks for Army Group (AG) Centre, the capture of Leningrad and the link-up with Finland for AG North, and the capture of the Caucasus region for Army Group South. The main focus was to be the capture of the Caucasus region. The oilfields The Caucasus, a large, culturally diverse region traversed by its eponymous mountains, is bounded by the Black Sea to the west and the Caspian Sea to the east. The region north of the mountains was a production center for grain, cotton and heavy farm machinery, while its two main oilfields, at Maykop, near the Black Sea, and Grozny, about halfway between the Black and the Caspian Seas, produced about 10 percent of all Soviet oil. South of the mountains lay Transcaucasia, comprising Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia. This heavily industrialized and densely populated area contained some of the largest oilfields in the world. Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan, was one of the richest, producing 80 percent of the Soviet Union's oil—about 24 million tons in 1942 alone. The Caucasus also possessed plentiful coal and peat, as well as nonferrous and rare metals. Manganese deposits at Chiatura, in Transcaucasia, formed the richest single source in the world, yielding 1.5 million tons of manganese ore annually, half of the Soviet Union's total production. The Kuban region of the Caucasus also produced large amounts of wheat, corn, sunflower seeds, and sugar beets, all essential in the production of food. These resources were of immense importance to Hitler and the German war effort. Of the three million tons of oil Germany consumed per year, 85 percent was imported, mainly from the United States, Venezuela, and Iran. When war broke out in September 1939, the British naval blockade cut Germany off from the Americas and the Middle East, leaving the country reliant on oil-rich European countries such as Romania to supply the resource. An indication of German reliance on Romania is evident from its oil consumption; in 1938, just one-third of the 7,500,000 tons consumed by Germany came from domestic stocks. Oil had always been Germany's Achilles heel, and by the end of 1941, Hitler had nearly exhausted Germany's reserves, which left him with only two significant sources of oil, the country's own synthetic production and the Romanian oilfields, with the latter supplying 75% of Germany's oil imports in 1941. Aware of his declining oil resources, and fearful of enemy air attacks on Romania (Germany's main source of crude oil), Hitler's strategy was increasingly driven by the need to protect Romania and acquire new resources, essential if he wanted to continue waging a prolonged war against a growing list of enemies. In late 1941, the Romanians warned Hitler that their stocks were exhausted and they were unable to meet German demands. For these reasons, the Soviet oilfields were extremely important to Germany's industry and armed forces as the war became global, the power of the Allies grew, and shortages started to occur in Axis resources. Planning Axis forces The German plan involved a three-staged attack: Blau I: Fourth Panzer Army, commanded by Hermann Hoth (transferred from Army Group Centre) and the Second Army, supported by the Second Hungarian Army, would attack from Kursk to Voronezh and continue the advance, anchoring the northern flank of the offensive towards the Volga. Blau II: Sixth Army, commanded by Friedrich Paulus, would attack from Kharkov and move in parallel with Fourth Panzer Army, to reach the Volga at Stalingrad (whose capture was not deemed necessary). Blau III: First Panzer Army would then strike south towards the lower Don River, with Seventeenth Army on the western flank and Fourth Romanian Army on the eastern flank. The strategic objectives of the operation were the oilfields at Maykop, Grozny and Baku. As in Barbarossa, these movements were expected to result in a series of grand encirclements of Soviet troops. The offensive was to be conducted across the southern Russian (Kuban) steppe utilizing the following Army Group units: Northern Sector (Volga campaign) Army Group B Generalfeldmarschall Maximilian von Weichs Second Army (General Hans von Salmuth) LV Army Corps (R. von Roman) Fourth Panzer Army (Generaloberst Hermann Hoth) XXIV Panzer Corps (W. Langermann und Erlenkamp) XXXXVIII Panzer Corps (W. Kempf) XIII Army Corps (E. Straube) Sixth Army (General der Panzertruppe Friedrich Paulus) XXXX Panzer Corps (G. Stumme) LI Army Corps (W. von Seydlitz-Kurzbach) VIII Army Corps (W. Heitz) XVII Army Corps (K. Hollidt) XXIX Army Corps (H. von Obstfelder) Hungarian Second Army (Colonel-General Vitéz Gusztáv Jány) III Corps (G. Rakovsky) VII Army Corps (Wehrmacht) (E.-E. Hell) Arrived 21–25 July: IV Corps (L. Csatay) VII Corps (E. Gyimesi) Romanian Fourth Army Italian Eighth Army (Arrived 11–15 August) (General Italo Gariboldi) II Corps (G. Zanghieri) XXXV Corps (G. Messe) Alpini Corps (G. Nasci) Luftflotte 4 Generaloberst Alexander Löhr (thru 20 July) Generalfeldmarschall Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen (from 20 July) 8th Air Corps 4th Air Corps German air strength in the east numbered 2,644 aircraft on 20 June 1942, over 20% more than a month earlier. Whereas in 1941 most units fought on the central front supporting Army Group Centre, 1,610 aircraft (61%), supported Army Group South. Southern Sector (Caucasus campaign) Army Group A Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm List First Panzer Army Seventeenth Army Third Romanian Army Eleventh Army Soviet forces The Soviet army command (Stavka) failed to discern the direction of the main German strategic offensive anticipated in 1942, even though they were in possession of the German plans. On 19 June, the chief of operations of the 23rd Panzer Division, Major Joachim Reichel, was shot down over Soviet-held territory while flying an observation aircraft over the front near Kharkov. The Soviets recovered maps from his aircraft detailing the exact German plans for Case Blue. The plans were handed over to Stavka, in Moscow. Joseph Stalin, however, believed it to be a German ruse, remaining convinced that the primary German strategic goal in 1942 would be Moscow, in part due to Operation Kremlin (Fall Kreml), a German deception plan aimed at the city. As a result, the majority of Red Army troops were deployed there, although the direction from which the Case Blue offensive would come was still defended by the Bryansk, Southwestern, Southern and North Caucasian Fronts. With about 1 million soldiers at the front line and another 1.7 million in reserve armies, their forces accounted for about one quarter of all Soviet troops. Following the disastrous start of Case Blue for the Soviets, they reorganised their frontlines several times. Over the course of the campaign, the Soviets also fielded the Voronezh Front, Don Front, Stalingrad Front, Transcaucasian Front, and the Caucasian Front, though not all existed at the same time. With the German thrust expected in the north, Stavka planned several local offensives in the south to weaken the Germans. The most important of these was aimed at the city of Kharkov and would be conducted mainly by the Southwestern Front under Semyon Timoshenko, supported by the Southern Front commanded by Rodion Malinovsky. The operation was scheduled for 12 May, just prior to a planned German offensive in the area. The ensuing Second Battle of Kharkov ended in disaster for the Soviets, severely weakening their mobile forces. At the same time, the Axis clearing of the Kerch Peninsula together with the Battle of Sevastopol, which lasted until July, weakened the Soviets further and allowed the Germans to supply Army Group A across the Kerch Peninsula through the Kuban. The Red Army order of battle at the start of the campaign was as follows: Northern Sector (Volga campaign) Armies deployed north to south: Bryansk Front Generalleutnant Filipp I. Golikov 48th Army (G.A. Khaliuzin) 4 rifle divisions (1 Guards), 2 rifle brigades, 2 tank brigades, 1 cavalry division 13th Army (N.P. Pukhov) 5 rifle divisions, 1 rifle brigade, 1 tank brigade 5th Tank Army (A.I. Liziukov) (KIA 23 July) 7 tank brigades 3rd Army (P.P. Korzun) 6 rifle divisions, 2 rifle brigades, 2 tank brigades 40th Army (M.A. Parsegov) 6 rifle divisions, 3 rifle brigades, 2 tank brigades Front forces 2 rifle divisions (1 Guards), 1 rifle brigade, 20 tank brigades (2 Guards), 6 cavalry divisions Second Air Army Generalmajor Stepan Y. Krasovsky Aviation divisions: 3 fighter, 4 ground attack, 2 bomber, 1 night bomber Southwestern Front Marshal Semyon K. Timoshenko 28th Army (D.I. Riabyshev) 7 rifle divisions (1 Guards), 5 tank brigades (1 Guards) 38th Army (K.S. Moskalenko) 8 rifle divisions, 7 tank brigades, 1 independent tank battalion 9th Army (F.A. Parkhomenko) 8 rifle divisions, 1 tank brigade, 3 cavalry divisions 21st Army (A.I. Danilov) 5 rifle divisions, 1 NKVD motorized rifle division, 3 tank brigades Front forces 8 tank brigades, 2 independent tank battalions, 3 cavalry divisions Eighth Air Army Generalmajor Timofei T. Khriukin Aviation divisions: 5 fighter, 2 ground attack, 2 bomber, 2 night bomber The offensive Opening phase The German offensive commenced on 28 June 1942, with Fourth Panzer Army starting its drive towards Voronezh. Due to a chaotic Soviet retreat, the Germans were able to advance rapidly, restoring Wehrmacht confidence for the upcoming major offensive. Close air support from the Luftwaffe also played an important role in this early success. It contained the Red Air Force, through air superiority operations, and provided interdiction through attacks on airfields and Soviet defence lines. At times, the German air arm acted as a spearhead rather than a support force, ranging on ahead of the tanks and infantry to disrupt and destroy defensive positions. As many as 100 German aircraft were concentrated on a single Soviet division in the path of the spearhead during this phase. General Kazakov, the Bryansk Front's chief of staff, noted the strength and effectiveness of the Axis aviation. Within 26 days, the Soviets lost 783 aircraft from the 2nd, 4th, 5th and 8th Air Armies, compared to a German total of 175. By 5 July, forward elements of Fourth Panzer Army had reached the Don River near Voronezh and became embroiled in the battle to capture the city. Stalin and the Soviet command still expected the main German thrust in the north against Moscow, and believed the Germans would turn north after Voronezh to threaten the capital. As a result, the Soviets rushed reinforcements into the town to hold it at all costs and counterattacked the Germans' northern flank in an effort to cut off the German spearheads. 5th Tank Army, commanded by Major General A.I. Liziukov, managed to achieve some minor successes when it began its attack on 6 July, but was forced back to its starting positions by 15 July, losing about half of its tanks in the process. Although the battle was a success, Hitler and von Bock, commander of Army Group South, argued over the next steps in the operation. The heated debate, and continuing Soviet counterattacks, which tied down Fourth Panzer Army until 13 July, caused Hitler to lose his temper and dismiss von Bock on 17 July. As part of the second phase of the operation, on 9 July, Army Group South was split into Army Group A and Army Group B, with Wilhelm List appointed as commander of Army Group A and Army Group B commanded by Maximillian von Weichs. Only two weeks into the operation, on 11 July, the Germans began to suffer logistical difficulties, which slowed the advance. The German Sixth Army was continually delayed by fuel shortages. Eight days later, on 20 July, shortages of fuel were still undermining operations, leaving many units unable to execute their orders. The 23rd Panzer Division and 24th Panzer Division both became stranded during the opening phase. Once again, as it had done during the Norwegian Campaign in April 1940, and Barbarossa in 1941, the Luftwaffe's Junkers Ju 52 transport fleet flew in supplies to keep the army going. The situation remained difficult with German troops forced to recover fuel from damaged or abandoned vehicles, and in some cases, leave behind tanks and vehicles with heavy fuel consumption to continue their advance. This undermined the strength of the units, which were forced to leave fighting vehicles behind. Nevertheless, the Luftwaffe flew in 200 tons of fuel per day to keep the army supplied. Despite this impressive performance in keeping the army mobile, Löhr was replaced by the more impetuous and offensive-minded von Richthofen. Splitting of Army Group South Believing that the main Soviet threat had been eliminated, desperately short of oil and needing to meet all the ambitious objectives of Case Blue, Hitler made a series of changes to the plan in Führer Directive No. 45 on July 23, 1942: reorganized Army Group South into two smaller Army Groups, A and B; directed Army Group A to advance to the Caucasus and capture the oil fields (Operation Edelweiß); directed Army Group B to attack towards the Volga and Stalingrad (Operation Fischreiher). There is no evidence Hitler was opposed by, or received complaints from Franz Halder, Chief of the General Staff, or anyone else, about the directive until August 1942. The new directive created enormous logistical difficulties, with Hitler expecting both Army Groups to advance along different routes. Logistics lines were already at breaking point with ammunition and fuel shortages most apparent and it would be impossible to advance using the conservative supply rates he demanded. The divergence of the Army Groups would also open a dangerous gap between the Armies, which could be exploited by the Soviets. The Italian Alpine Corps, of the Italian Army in the Soviet Union, did not arrive in the Caucasus Mountains with Army Group A, instead remaining with Sixth Army. Army Group A was expected to operate in mountain terrain with only three mountain divisions and two infantry divisions unsuited to the task. The splitting of Army Group South enabled the launching of Operation Edelweiss and Operation Fischreiher, the two main thrusts of the Army Groups. Both groups had to achieve their objectives simultaneously, instead of consecutively. The success of the initial advance was such that Hitler ordered the Fourth Panzer Army south to assist the First Panzer Army to cross the lower Don river. This assistance was not needed and Kleist later complained that Fourth Panzer Army clogged the roads and that if they had carried on toward Stalingrad, they could have taken it in July. When it turned north again two weeks later, the Soviets had gathered enough forces together at Stalingrad to check its advance. Army Group A: Caucasus Breaking into the Caucasus With air support from the Ju 87s of Sturzkampfgeschwader 77, List's Army Group A recaptured Rostov, the "gate to the Caucasus", on 23 July 1942 relatively easily. The Luftwaffe had air superiority in the early phase of the operation, which was of great help to the ground forces. With the Don crossing secured and Sixth Army's advance flagging on the Volga front, Hitler transferred the Fourth Panzer Army to Army Group B and sent it back to the Volga. The redeployment used enormous amounts of fuel to transfer the army by air and road. After crossing the Don on 25 July, Army Group A fanned out on a front from the Sea of Azov to Zymlianskaya (today Zymlyansk). The German Seventeenth Army, along with elements of the Eleventh Army and the Romanian Third Army, manoeuvred west towards the east coast of the Black Sea, while the First Panzer Army attacked to the south-east. The Seventeenth Army made a slow advance but the First Panzer Army had freedom of action. On 29 July the Germans cut the last direct railway between central Russia and the Caucasus, causing considerable panic to Stalin and Stavka, which led to the passing of Order No. 227 "Not a step back!". Salsk was captured on 31 July and Stavropol on 5 August. Although the army group made a quick advance, by 3 August the vanguard comprised only light mobile forces and most of the tanks lagged behind, due to lack of fuel and supply breakdowns, despite the efforts of 4th Air Corps, which flew in supplies around the clock. On 9 August, the First Panzer Army reached Maikop in the foothills of the Caucasus mountains, having advanced more than in fewer than two weeks. The western oil fields near Maikop were seized in a commando operation from 8–9 August, but the oil fields had been sufficiently destroyed by the Red Army to take about a year to be repaired. Shortly afterwards Pyatigorsk was taken. On 12 August, Krasnodar was captured and German mountain troops hoisted the Nazi flag on the highest mountain of the Caucasus, Mount Elbrus. The length of the German advance created chronic supply difficulties, particularly of petrol; the Black Sea was judged too dangerous and fuel was brought by rail through Rostov or delivered by air, but panzer divisions were sometimes at a standstill for weeks. Even petrol trucks ran out of fuel and oil had to be brought up on camels. With the Soviets often retreating instead of fighting, the number of prisoners fell short of expectations and only 83,000 were taken. As Hitler and OKH began to concentrate on Stalingrad, some of Kleist's mobile forces were diverted. Kleist lost his flak corps and most of the Luftwaffe supporting the southern front, only reconnaissance aircraft being left behind. The Voyenno-Vozdushnye Sily (VVS) brought in about 800 bombers, a third of which were operational. With the transfer of air cover and flak units, Soviet bombers were free to harass the German advance. The quality of the Soviet resistance increased, with many of the forces used coming from local levies, who Kleist thought were willing to fight harder for their homeland. German units were especially bogged down by fighting Georgian alpine and mountain troops, who greatly contributed to stalling their advance. The quantity of replacements and supplies the Soviets committed increased, and faced with these difficulties, the Axis advance slowed after 28 August. Battle for the oilfields In the south-east, the Wehrmacht headed in the direction of Grozny and Baku, the other important petroleum centres. More installations and industrial centres fell into German hands, many intact or only slightly damaged during the Russian retreat. From August–September, the Taman Peninsula and a part of the Novorossiysk naval base were captured. The Germans continued towards Tuapse on the Black Sea coast and in the east Elista was taken on 13 August. In the south, the German advance was stopped north of Grozny, after taking Mozdok on 25 August. German paratroopers assisted an insurgency in Chechnya, operating behind Soviet lines. German mountain troops failed to secure the Black Sea ports and the advance fell short of Grozny as supply difficulties arose once more. The Soviets dug in the 9th and 44th armies of the North Transcaucasian Front along the rocky Terek River bank in front (north) of the city. The Luftwaffe was unable to support the German army that far forward and Soviet aviation attacked bridges and supply routes virtually unopposed. The Germans crossed the river on 2 September but made only slow progress. At the beginning of September, Hitler had a major argument with the High Command and specifically List, as he perceived the advance of the German forces as too slow. As a result, Hitler dismissed List on 9 September and took direct command of Army Group A himself. Axis ships transported 30,605 men, 13,254 horses and 6,265 motor vehicles across the Black Sea from Romania, from 1–2 September. With the reinforcements, the Germans captured most of the Black Sea naval bases but were held up at Novorossiysk, where the Soviet 47th Army had prepared for a long siege. The port fell on 10 September, after a four-day battle, the final German victory in the Caucasus. It left the heights south of the port and several coast roads in the hands of 47th Soviet Army. Attempts to push out of Novorossiysk were costly failures and the Axis also failed to break the defences on the coastal plain from Novorossiysk to Tuapse, having only the strength to stabilise the line. Romanian Army losses were particularly high and the Romanian 3rd Mountain Division was nearly wiped out by a Soviet counter-attack from 25–26 September. Further east, the Axis enjoyed greater success and on 1 September, the Germans took (Хулхута́), halfway between Elista and Astrakhan. During August and September, German patrols raided the railway around Kizlyar, north-east of Grozny, marking the farthest advance of the German forces towards the Caspian Sea. In the south, the First Panzer Army advance on Grozny was stopped by the Red Army and the 14th Air Army. By late September, supply failures and the resistance of the Red Army slowed the Axis advance. The Germans took Nakchik on 26 October. On 2 November 1942, Romanian mountain troops (Vânători de munte) under the command of Brigadier General Ioan Dumitrache took Nalchik, the capital of Kabardino-Balkaria and also the farthest point of Axis advance into the Caucasus. This victory earned the Romanian General the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross. Up to 10,000 prisoners were captured in two days, before the advance toward Grozny was stopped again west of the city at Vladikavkaz. On 5 November, Alagir was seized and the Alagir–Beslan–Malgobek line reached became the farthest German advance in the south. By this time, the gap between Army Groups A and B had left them vulnerable to a counter-offensive. Only the German 16th Motorized Infantry Division remained inside the gap, guarding the left flank of the First Panzer Army by securing the road towards Astrakhan. On 22 November, after several Soviet counter-attacks, Hitler appointed Kleist as Group commander with orders to hold his position and prepare to resume the offensive if Stalingrad could be taken. Luftwaffe oil offensive In the first week of October 1942, Hitler came to recognise that the capture of the Caucasus oil fields was unlikely before winter, which forced the Germans to take up defensive positions. Unable to capture them, he was determined to deny them to the enemy and ordered the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL) to inflict as much damage as possible. On 8 October, Hitler called for the air offensive to be carried out no later than 14 October, as he required air assets for a major effort at Stalingrad. As a result, on 10 October 1942, Fliegerkorps 4 of Luftflotte 4 (4th Air Corps of Fourth Air Fleet) was ordered to send every available bomber against the oilfields at Grozny. Fourth Air Fleet was in poor shape by this time – von Richthofen had begun Case Blue with 323 serviceable bombers out of a total of 480. He was now down to 232, of which only 129 were combat ready. Nevertheless, the force could still deliver damaging blows. Attacks on the refineries reminded von Richthofen of the attacks on Sevastopol several months earlier. Thick black smoke rose from the refineries to a height of . On 12 October, further raids caused even more destruction. It had been a strategic mistake not to have made greater efforts to hit the oil refineries at Grozny and Baku sooner, as their destruction would have been a greater blow to the Soviets than the loss of Stalingrad, where most of the air fleet was deployed. On 19 November, the Soviet counter-offensive at Stalingrad compelled von Richthofen to once more withdraw his units north to the Volga and bring an end to the aerial offensive. Much damage was done at Grozny, but the remaining oilfields were beyond the logistical reach of the German Army as well as of the fighter aircraft of the Luftwaffe. Grozny was within range of German bombers from 4th Air Corps, based near the Terek River. But Grozny and the captured oilfields at Maykop produced only ten per cent of Soviet oil. The main fields at Baku were out of German fighter range. German bombers could have reached them, but it meant flying the most direct, thus most predictable route without protection. In August it may have been possible to carry out these operations owing to the weakness of Soviet air power in the region, but by October it had been considerably strengthened. Army Group B: Volga Don bend On 23 July, the main body of Army Group B started its advance toward the Don. The Germans met with increasing Soviet resistance from the new Stalingrad Front, with the 62nd and 64th Soviet Armies. On 26 July, XIV Panzer Corps broke through and reached the Don, where the new First and Fourth Tank Armies conducted several futile counter-attacks by inexperienced troops. In the south, Fourth Panzer Army made better progress against 51st Army. After crossing the Don, the Germans advanced on Kotelnikovo, reaching the town by 2 August. Soviet resistance convinced Paulus that Sixth Army was not strong enough to cross the Don by itself, so he waited for Fourth Panzer Army to fight its way north. On 4 August, the Germans were still from Stalingrad. By 10 August, the Red Army had been cleared from most of the west bank of the Don, but Soviet resistance continued in some areas, further delaying Army Group B. The Wehrmacht advance on Stalingrad was also impeded by supply shortages caused by the poor state of Soviet roads. The Luftwaffe sent an ad-hoc force of 300 Ju 52 transport aircraft, enabling the Germans to advance; some bombers were diverted from operations to supply flights under the Stalingrad Transport Region force. The Soviet defence at the Don forced the Germans to commit more and more troops to an increasingly vulnerable front, leaving few reserves to back up the Axis divisions on either flank. The Soviets made several counter-attacks on the northern flank of Army Group B, between Stalingrad and Voronezh. From 20–28 August, the 63rd Army and the 21st Army counter-attacked near Serafimovich, forcing the Italian Eighth Army to fall back. The 1st Guards Army attacked near Novo-Grigoryevskaja, extending its bridgehead. These and several other bridgeheads across the Don, opposed by the Eighth Italian and Second Hungarian armies, were a constant danger. On 23 August, Sixth Army crossed the Don and Army Group B established a defensive line on one of its bends. Sixth Army reached the northern suburbs of Stalingrad later that day, beginning the Battle of Stalingrad. The Hungarian, Italian and Romanian armies were from Stalingrad, which was in range of forward air bases. Luftflotte 4 attacked the city, turning much of it to rubble. The Soviets reported that civilian casualties from 23–26 August were 955 dead and 1,181 wounded (a preliminary total; later reports of casualties in the tens of thousands were probably exaggerations). Sixth Army advanced from the north via Kalach and Fourth Panzer Army came up from the south through Kotelnikovo. In the first few days, the XIV Panzer Corps opened a corridor between the main body of Sixth Army and the northern Stalingrad suburbs at the Volga. In the south, Soviet resistance repulsed the Fourth Panzer Army. On 29 August another attempt was made with Hoth turning his forces west directly through the center of 64th Army. The attack was unexpectedly successful and Fourth Panzer Army got behind 62nd and 64th Armies with the chance to encircle and cut off 62nd Army. Von Weichs ordered Sixth Army to complete the encirclement; a Soviet counter-attack held up the advance for three days and the Soviets escaped and retreated towards Stalingrad. The rapid German advance caused a slump in morale among the Soviet troops, who retreated in chaos, abandoning the outer defences of the city. After defeating the last Soviet counter-attacks, Sixth Army resumed its offensive on 2 September, linking up with Fourth Panzer Army the following day. On 12 September, the Germans entered Stalingrad. Battle of Stalingrad The advance into Stalingrad against the 62nd Army was carried out by Sixth Army, while Fourth Panzer Army secured the southern flank. The city was a ribbon along the west bank of the Volga, which forced the Germans to conduct a frontal assault, and the ruins of the city gave the defenders an advantage. To counter Luftwaffe air superiority, the commander of the 62nd Army, General Vasily Chuikov, ordered his troops to "hug" the Germans, negating German tactical mobility. The Luftwaffe suppressed Soviet artillery on the east bank of the Volga and caused many casualties during Soviet attempts to reinforce the defenders on the west bank. From mid-September until early November the Germans made three big attacks on the city and ground forward in mutually-costly fighting. By mid-November, the Soviets were penned into four shallow bridgeheads, with the front line only from the river. Anticipating victory, substantial numbers of Luftwaffe aircraft were withdrawn to the Mediterranean in early November to support the Axis operations in Tunisia. Sixth Army had captured about 90 percent of the city. On 19 November, the Soviets launched Operation Uranus, a two-pronged counter-offensive against the flanks of Sixth Army. With the battle for the city and the exhaustion of Fourth Panzer Army, the flanks were mainly guarded by Romanian, Hungarian and Italian soldiers. Third Romanian Army, on the Don River west of Stalingrad, and Fourth Romanian Army, south-east of Stalingrad, had been under constant Soviet attack since September. Third Romanian Army had been transferred from Caucasus on 10 September to take over Italian positions on the Don, opposite the Soviet bridgeheads. The Romanians were understrength and had only around six modern anti-tank guns per division. The bulk of the German tank reserve, the 48th Panzer Corps, consisted of about 180 tanks, half being obsolete Panzer 35(t)s. The two Romanian armies were routed and Sixth Army with parts of Fourth Panzer Army were encircled in Stalingrad. Hitler ordered Sixth Army to remain on the defensive, rather than try to break out. It was intended the army would be supplied by air, but the quantity of supplies necessary was far beyond the ability of the Luftwaffe to carry. Sixth Army's strength diminished and the Soviets gained the upper hand inside the city. To stabilise the situation on the Eastern Front, Army Group Don (Heeresgruppe Don) under Field Marshal Erich von Manstein was created to fill the gap between Army Groups A and B. On 12 December, a relief operation called Operation Winter Storm was launched from the South by fresh reinforcements of the 4th Panzer Army. The offensive surprised the Soviets and the Germans were able to penetrate the Soviet line for towards Stalingrad. Despite these gains, the Sixth Army was not allowed to attempt to break out and link up, so this led to nothing. The failure was followed by a siege that lasted for almost two months, during which the Sixth Army was destroyed. Aftermath Operation Saturn Following the success of Operation Uranus, the Red Army began Operation Saturn to cut off Army Group A and all troops east of Rostov. During the German relief operation at Stalingrad, Soviet forces had been redeployed, lesser objectives substituted, and the operation renamed "Little Saturn". The attack fell on Eighth Italian Army and the remnants of Third Romanian Army, and led to the destruction of most of Eighth Army. On the verge of collapse, Army Groups B and Don were able to prevent a Soviet breakthrough but Army Group A was ordered to withdraw from the Caucasus on 28 December. The Soviets launched several follow-up offensives, later called the Voronezh-Kharkov Strategic Offensive. The Ostrogozhsk–Rossosh Offensive began on 12 January and destroyed large parts of the Second Hungarian Army and the remnants of Eighth Italian Army at the Don south-east of Voronezh. With the southern flank in danger, Second German Army was forced to withdraw from Voronezh and the Don. The operations continued until January and led Stavka to believe that they could deal a fatal blow to the Germans and decide the war in southern Russia. Operation Star, conducted by the Voronezh Front, was aimed at Kharkov, Kursk and Belgorod. Operation Gallop was conducted by the South-western Front against Voroshilovgrad, Donetsk and then towards the Sea of Azov, to cut off the German forces east of Donetsk. The operations began simultaneously at the end of January. The Soviets broke through quickly and in the north, Kursk fell on 18 February and Kharkov on 16 February after a German withdrawal, while in the south the Germans were pushed back to a line west of Voroshilovgrad. Army Groups Don, B and parts of Army Group A were renamed Army Group South, commanded by Manstein, on 12 February. The Kharkov and Donbas operations were started on 25 February by the new Central Front led by Rokossovsky, with the forces freed after the surrender of the Germans in Stalingrad on 2 February. The operations were aimed at Army Group Centre in the north and timed to coincide with the expected successes of the Soviet operations in the south. Army Group South escaped encirclement and prepared a counter-offensive, which led to the Third Battle of Kharkov and the stabilisation of the front. The disaster at Stalingrad was the end of Case Blue and the territorial gains had been reversed by the end of 1943, except for the Kuban bridgehead on the Taman peninsula, retained for a possible second offensive to the Caucasus, which was held until 19 October 1943. Effect on the war The failure of the operation, mainly due to the disastrous defeat at Stalingrad, marked the turning point in the war on the Eastern Front. Germany was forced to withdraw some 800 kilometres back to a new battle about 100 kilometres west of the city of Kursk. This withdrawal set the pace for Operation Citadel in the summer of 1943, which was unsuccessful, and resulted in a permanent swing of fortunes in the Soviets' favour for the remainder of the war. The Soviets permanently secured the initiative with regard to offensives, while Germany was forced to switch to a defensive posture that persisted until its eventual defeat less than 2 years later. Analysis Due to the initial success of the German summer offensive in 1942, Hitler became more ambitious, putting great strain on the German army. Hitler did not expect the Soviets to be able to launch a counter-offensive as big as Operation Uranus and sent troops elsewhere, ordering the Wehrmacht to simultaneously achieve several goals. Opposition and minor setbacks led to Hitler sacking dissenters and interfering more in command, constantly changing plans and orders, which led to confusion, delays and wastage of precious resources like fuel as the German army struggled to keep up with Hitler's indecisiveness. Overextension reduced the capabilities of the German Army and its allies to defend this territory and the Soviets mounted a decisive offensive at Stalingrad, encircling a German army. Soon both sides concentrated on the battle for the city, making the Caucasus a secondary theatre. With Army Group B unable to hold the Volga line, Soviet offensives almost cut off Army Group A in the Caucasus and it was forced to withdraw. The surrender of Sixth Army was a huge blow to German morale and it came as a great shock to Hitler. Despite the destruction of Sixth Army, the Soviets were able to only force the German Army back from the Caucasus, delaying the final decision on the Eastern Front. The Soviet command overestimated its capabilities and pushed its forces forward to the limit of its supply lines, which led to defeat at the Third Battle of Kharkov and left the Germans able to fight the Battle of Kursk. See also Oil campaign of World War II Operation Braunschweig Reichskommissariat Kaukasien Notes Army Group A was under direct command of the OKH from 10 September 1942 until 22 November 1942, when von Kleist took over. Not all of those tanks were serviceable at the beginning of the offensive, as tanks were in repair, already engaged in combat, refitting, or not present at the frontline. Took command upon von Bock being relieved by Hitler 17 July. Took command upon von Weichs being raised to army group command 17 July. KIA 3 October at Storoshewoje on the Middle Don. Surrendered remains of Sixth Army at Stalingrad 31 January 1943. A set of plans for Fall Blau held by an officer of one of Stumme's panzer divisions fell into Soviet hands on 19 June. Furious at this breach, Hitler relieved Stumme 21 July and had him court-martialed. Stumme was reassigned to the Afrika Korps and was killed in action 12 October at El Alamein. Captured at Stalingrad 31 January 1943, died in captivity 9 February 1944. Executed by firing squad for war crimes November 1947. Committed suicide October 1944 following arrest by the Gestapo. Executed by firing squad in Yugoslavia for war crimes February 1947. Died of a brain tumor in American captivity 12 July 1945. The Third Romanian Army was later assigned to Army Group B and was one of the two Romanian armies heavily engaged in Operation Uranus. After the successful completion of the battle for the Kerch Peninsula, 11th Army was split and only parts of it were assigned to Army Group A. Relieved for military incompetence and reassigned March 1943. Relieved for military incompetence and reassigned 22 July. The Seventeenth Army of Army Group A stayed in the Kuban bridgehead. References Bibliography Javrishvili K., Battle of Caucasus: Case for Georgian Alpinists, Translated by Michael P. Willis, 2017. Conflicts in 1942 1942 in Russia 1942 in Ukraine Battles and operations of World War II involving Hungary Military campaigns involving Germany Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War Battles and operations of World War II involving Romania Battles and operations of World War II involving Italy Battles involving the Independent State of Croatia

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아스카르 마민

아스카르 우자크파예비치 마민(, 1965년 10월 23일 ~ )은 2019년부터 2022년까지 카자흐스탄 총리를 지낸 카자흐스탄의 정치인이다. 2016년부터 2019년까지 카자흐스탄 부총리를 지냈으며, 이전에는 카자흐스탄 국영 철도 회사 카자흐스탄 테미르 졸리의 사장을 지냈다. 2008년부터 현재까지 카자흐스탄 아이스하키 연맹 회장을 맡고 있기도 하다. 마민은 2022년 카자흐스탄 시위 여파로 카심조마르트 토카예프 대통령이 내각 총사퇴를 지시하면서 총리직에서 물러났다. 카자흐스탄 여당 누르 오탄(현재의 아마나트)의 당원인 마민은 2005년부터 2006년까지 다니얄 아흐메도프 정부에서 교통통신부 장관으로 재직했으며, 2006년부터 2008년까지는 아스타나 시장으로 재직하였다. 초기 생애와 경력 마민은 첼리노그라드에서 태어나 첼리노그라드 토목대학교와 플레하노프 경제대학교를 토목공학과 경제학 전공으로 졸업했다. 마민은 "첼린탸지스트로이" 트레스타 창설자로서 자신의 경력을 시작했으며, 카자흐스탄 혁신 기업 연합 부국장을 지낸 바 있다. 마민은 1996년부터 2008년까지 아스타나 제1부아킴, 카자흐스탄 공화국 교통통신부 차관, 카자흐스탄 공화국 산업통상부 제1차관으로 재직하였다. 2006년, 마민은 아스타나 아킴 (주지사에 해당)에 임명되었다. 2008년, 카자흐스탄 테미르 졸리 사장이 될 때까지 아스타나 아킴으로 재직하였다. 2016년, 마민은 사긴타예프 정부의 제1부총리에 임명되었다. 2018년, 마민은 국영 기업 카자흐스탄 관광청의 이사회에 합류했다. 카자흐스탄 총리 (2019년 ~ 2022년) 임명 2019년 2월, 바키트잔 사긴타예프 총리는 누르술탄 나자르바예프 대통령의 지시로 해임되었다. 그 결과, 마민이 총리 권한대행이 되었고, 2월 25일에 카자흐스탄 의회에서 만장일치로 차기 총리 임명이 확정되었다. 다음날인 2월 26일, 마민은 내각 회의에서 정부가 국민의 삶의 질을 향상시키는 "구체적인 결과"를 목표로 해야 한다고 말했다. 2021년 1월 10일, 카심조마르트 토카예프 대통령은 카자흐스탄에서 열린 2021년 카자흐스탄 총선 당일 법률에 근거해 정부의 사임을 요구했다. 마민을 대신해 총리가 될 가능성이 있는 경쟁자로 바우이르잔 바이베크, 누를란 니그마툴린, 아세트 이세케셰프, 카나트 보줌바예프, 에르볼라트 도사예프, 바키트 술타노프가 거론되면서 마민의 거취를 추측하고 예측하는 내용이 나돌았다. 전 대통령이자 누르 오탄 대표 누르술탄 나자르바예프는 정부가 다른 나라들과는 정반대로 일을 해왔다고 말하면서 마민의 재선을 지지했다. 1월 15일, 토카예프는 카자흐스탄 제7차 의회 개회식에서 의회 구성원 99명 가운데 78명의 지지로 마민을 총리직에 다시 지명했으며 나머지는 기권했다. 총리 임명이 만장일치 지지를 받지 못한 건은 2007년 이후 처음이다. 마민은 이 세션에서 코로나19 범유행과 관련해 의회 야당의 비판을 받았다. 세션에서 마민은 삶의 질 향상, 소득 및 복지 향상, 투자 유치, 신기술 도입, 노동자의 달 신설 등 효과적인 조치가 취해질 것이라고 설명하며 자신을 지지해 준 의원들에게 감사를 표했다. 임기 2019년 6월 24일, 투르키스탄주 아리스의 마을 근처 탄약고에서 거대한 폭발이 발생하여 3명이 사망하고 89명이 부상당했다. 마민은 토카예프를 대신하여 6월 29일에 마을을 방문했으며, 그곳에서 2019년 8월 1일까지 모든 피해 복원을 완료하도록 명령했다. 피해 복원에는 561억 텡게가 배정되었고, 이 가운데 275억 텡게는 정부가 예비비로 배정했다. 8월 2일, 마민은 마을을 다시 방문하여 복원에 참여한 모든 사람들께 감사 의사를 표명했다. 2022년 1월, 마민은 2022년 카자흐스탄 시위의 여파로 총리직에서 물러났다. 외교 정책 2019년 7월 11-12일, 마민은 키르기스스탄과 타지키스탄을 공식 방문하였으며, 키르기스스탄의 소론바이 젠베코프 대통령을 만나 양자 무역, 경제 및 투자 협력에 관한 문제를 논의했다. 무함멧칼리 아불가지예프 키르기스스탄 총리와 마민은 비슈케크에서 열린 카자흐스탄-키르기즈 정부 간 협의회 제8차 회의에서 양국 간 무역과 경제 협력을 강화하려는 공동 계획의 개요를 논했다. 그 결과 양국 간 많은 계약이 체결되었다. 마민은 두샨베에서 타지키스탄 총리 코히르 라술조다와 새로운 협력 협정 7개에 서명하고 양국에 이익이 될 전략적 파트너십 과정과 관련한 약속을 논의했다. 2020년 7월 17일, 민스크에서 열린 유라시아 정부 간 협의회에서 마민은 미하일 미슈스틴 러시아 총리와 만나 코로나바이러스감염증-19 대응에 도움을 준 러시아 정부에 감사 인사를 전했다. 2020년 11월 6일, 독립국가연합 (CIS) 정부 정상간 화상회의에서 마민은 카자흐스탄의 국가 상품 출납 체계와 독립국가연합 내 무역 공급 체계의 원활한 구축을 제안했다. 국가 간 농산물의 흐름. 방사성 물질의 국경을 넘는 운송, 사회의 디지털 개발 분야에서 독립국가연합 회원국의 정보 협력, 원자력, 농업, 운송 부문, 공학 및 기타 분야에서 협력을 강화하기로 결정했다. 각주 1965년 출생 살아있는 사람 카자흐스탄의 총리 카자흐스탄의 정치인 아스타나 출신

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asqar%20Mamin

Asqar Mamin

Asqar Uzaqbaiuly Mamin (, ; born 23 October 1965) is a Kazakh politician and economist who served as the Prime Minister of Kazakhstan from 2019 to 2022, resigning due to pressure from the 2022 Kazakh unrest. He served as First Deputy Prime Minister from 9 September 2016 to 21 February 2019. Previously, he was the president of the Kazakhstan Temir Zholy, the national railway company of Kazakhstan. He also serves as the president of the Kazakhstan Ice Hockey Federation, a position he assumed in 2008. A member of the ruling Kazakhstan's political party Nur Otan, Mamin previously served as äkim of Astana from 2006 to 2008, and as Minister of Transport and Communication in Daniyal Akhmetov Cabinet from 2005 to 2006, and as First Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan from 2016 to 2019 and Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan from 2019 to 2022. Early life and career Mamin was born in Tselinograd (now Astana). He graduated from the Tselinograd Civil Engineering Institute and the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics with civil engineering and economics specialties. He began his career as an erector of Tselintyazhstroy trust. He served as deputy director general of Innovative Enterprises Union of Kazakhstan. From 1996 to 2008, he served as the first deputy äkim of Astana, Vice Minister of Transport and Communications of the Republic of Kazakhstan, First Vice Minister of Industry and Trade of the Republic of Kazakhstan. On 21 September 2006, Mamin was appointed as the äkim of Astana. He served that position until he became the president of Kazakhstan Temir Zholy on 17 April 2008. On 9 September 2016, he was appointed as the First Deputy Prime Minister in Sagintayev Cabinet. On 8 January 2018, Mamin joined the board of directors of the national company Kazakh Tourism. Prime Minister of Kazakhstan (2019–2022) Appointment On 21 February 2019, Prime Minister Bakhytzhan Sagintayev was dismissed by President Nursultan Nazarbayev. As a result, Mamin became the Acting PM and was confirmed by the Parliament unanimously to be the new PM on 25 February. The following day on 26 February, Mamin at the meeting with the cabinet telling that the government should aim at "concrete results" that would improve of the quality of life of the population. On 10 January 2021, President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev called for the resignation of the government in accordance with the legislation on the day of the 2021 legislative elections which were held in Kazakhstan. Speculations arose regarding Mamin's fate, in which it was widely expected that he would retain it while among other likely contenders to possibly replace Mamin's prime ministerial post were seen as Bauyrjan Baibek, Nurlan Nigmatulin, Aset Isekeşev, Qanat Bozumbaev, Erbolat Dosaev or Baqyt Sultanov. Former president and Nur Otan chairman Nursultan Nazarbayev endorsed for Mamin's re-appointment, stating that the government has done its job contrary in other countries. On 15 January, Tokayev re-nominated Mamin to the post of the PM at the opening session of the 7th Parliament of Kazakhstan with 78 out of 99 deputies support while the rest abstained, marking it the first time since 2007, that the PM had not received unanimous support. From there, Mamin was criticised by the parliamentary opposition over his handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. At the session, Mamin thanked the deputies for support, outlining that effective measures would be taken in improving quality of life, increasing income and welfare, attracting investment, introducing new technologies, and creating workers' months. Term On 24 June 2019, a fire broke out in an ammo storage near the town of Arys in Turkistan Region, resulting in a huge explosion where three people died and 89 of them were injured. Mamin, on the behalf of Tokayev, visited the town on 29 June and from there, he ordered all repairs from the damage to be completed by 1 August 2019. For the restoration, 56.1 billion tenge was allocated, of which 27.5 billion were from the government's reserve. On 2 August, Mamin re-visited the town where he expressed gratitude to everyone who was involved in the repairs, calling it "a tremendous work" as 90% of restoration by then was completed. By 2019, the GDP growth rate in Kazakhstan accounted 4.5%, a higher than expected figure thanks to a driven growth generated by the construction, transport, trade and communications industry, contrary to as the Kazakh Government and World Bank expected the range to be 3.5 to 3.8% rate. On 24 January 2020, at the government meeting, Mamin outlined key goals in ensuring the economic growth of 4.7 to 5% for 2020 with a given task in creating 430,000 new jobs and increasing real incomes for the population. A strategic objective was unveiled which aimed at increasing the volume of fixed investments by an average of 15% annually and to bring its level to 30% of GDP by 2025. Amid the unrest in January 2022, he resigned his post. COVID-19 With the outbreak of COVID-19 in Wuhan, Mamin, at the meeting with officials on 26 January 2020 instructed several preventive measures to be implemented in order to prevent spread of the virus such as strengthening sanitary, epidemiological and migration control at the borders, travel restrictions to China, suspension of the 72 hour visa-free stay for persons arriving from China. In addition, he called for the creation of the Inter-Agency Commission on Coronavirus Non-Proliferation, chaired by Deputy PM Berdibek Saparbayev. After the reported first case of COVID-19 in the country in March 2020, a state of emergency was declared as well as the formation of the State Commission for the State Emergency Regime in which Mamin became the head of. At the first meeting of the commission, Mamin instructed the government to strengthen measures by carrying out sanitary and anti-epidemic measures in all organizations and facilities and to provide pharmacy networks with medicines and personal protective equipment, while noting that äkims would take personal control of implementing measures. On 17 April 2020, Mamin issued a governmental decree "On certain issues of entry (exit) in the Republic of Kazakhstan and the stay of immigrants in the Republic of Kazakhstan", which suspended certain laws that granted a 30-day visa-free stay for citizens from 57 countries. On 21 April 2020, Mamin announced that the nationwide lockdowns would soften only with strict adherence to sanitary and epidemiological safety. As the coronavirus restrictions were lifted on 11 May 2020, an estimated of 4.2 million Kazakhstanis had lost their jobs. To combat the issue, Mamin instructed the Ministry of Labour, National Economy and Agriculture, as well as with the akimats, to take measures in increasing employment in all state programs and ensure the implementation of all planned indicators with the Labour Ministry monitoring the work with the äkims. On 19 June 2020, after an increase of cases shortly after the COVID-19 restrictions were lifted, Mamin addressed the difficulties of the epidemiological situation with the enforcement of new lockdowns by Tokayev. From there, Mamin directed the cabinet ministers and regional administrations to prepare a set of new effective methods to counter the resurgence of coronavirus cases. He also ordered to boost the domestic production of personal protective equipment. At the government conference on 18 July 2020, it was declared that the situation in the country had been stabilized. Mamin ordered the cabinet officials to form in the Stabilization Fund the necessary stocks of medicines and medical products in each region to which he cited examples in Almaty, Nur-Sultan (now Astana) and Aqtöbe Region. On 4 August 2020, with a decrease in COVID-19 cases, Mamin warned the government that the country must take steps to prevent the possible new wave of coronavirus infections that could occur in fall as he stated the increase of cases in 126 countries. He called for the continuation of intensive work in treating sick citizens and reduce the spread of the virus, as well as an awareness campaign on the need for citizens to comply with sanitary standards and quarantine requirements. At the State Commission meeting chaired by Mamin, it was decided on 13 August 2020 to phase out the lockdowns–imposed from 5 July 2020–starting from 17 August towards business but with limited capacity and 80% of employees were encouraged to maintain remote work format while the ban on mass events, entertainment facilities remained and the activities of cultural objects, museums, conferences, exhibitions and forums were prohibited. In September 2020, Mamin extended quarantine measures in fears of 2nd wave of infections by instructing the äkims to keep the epidemiological situation on the ground under special control, strictly comply with all sanitary standards, and respond promptly and accurately to changes in the rate of reproduction of the virus and morbidity with measures to prepare the infrastructure and ensure safety for workers. The Healthcare and Digital Development, Innovation and Aerospace Industry ministries were ordered to step up public awareness. Foreign policy In an official visit to Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan on 11–12 July 2019, Mamin met with Kyrgyz President Sooronbay Jeenbekov where they both discussed issues on bilateral trade, economic and investment cooperation. At the VIII Meeting of the Kazakh-Kyrgyz Intergovernmental Council held in Bishkek, Mamin along with Kyrgyz PM Mukhammedkalyi Abylgaziev outlined joint plans that were aimed at deepening trade and economic cooperation between the two countries. As a result, a number of agreements were signed. In Dushanbe, Mamin with Tajik PM Kokhir Rasulzoda signed seven new cooperation agreements and discussed the commitment to the course of strategic partnership which would benefit both countries. At the Eurasian Intergovernmental Council held on 17 July 2020 in Minsk, Mamin met with Russian PM Mikhail Mishustin where he thanked the Russian government for its assistance in a fight against COVID-19, telling that "we have received the competence of Russian doctors who have come, worked and work in different regions of Kazakhstan." He also expressed interest for Kazakhstan to be among the first countries in purchasing the Sputnik V vaccine. On 6 November 2020, at the video conference between the heads of governments of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), Mamin proposed to create the National Commodity Conducting System in Kazakhstan as well as the formation trade-supply system within the CIS to ensure the smooth flow of agricultural products between the countries. A decision was adopted on the cross-border transportation of radioactive materials, information cooperation of CIS member states in the field of digital development of society, as well as decisions to strengthen cooperation in nuclear energy, agriculture, transport sector, engineering and other spheres. Personal life Askar Mamin is married to Altynai Mamina. The couple has a son and daughter: Daniyar (b. 1986) and Dinara (b. 1991). On 30 October 2020, the Internet Elite published a financial analysis on Mamin's brother, Marat, which showed him owning properties worth millions in Florida and Mamin's nephew, Ernar, operating businesses abroad in Western and Central Europe, as well as renting apartments in London. References 1965 births Living people Nur Otan politicians Prime Ministers of Kazakhstan Mayors of Astana Ministers of Transport and Communications (Kazakhstan) People from Astana Plekhanov Russian University of Economics alumni First Deputy Prime Ministers of Kazakhstan Recipients of Order of Friendship of Uzbekistan

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exile%20on%20Main%20St.

Exile on Main St.

《Exile on Main St.》은 영국의 록 밴드 롤링 스톤스의 스튜디오 음반이다. 이 음반은 1972년 5월 12일 롤링 스톤스 레코드에 의해 더블 음반으로 처음 발매되었고 영국에서 발매된 이 밴드의 열 번째 스튜디오 음반이었다. 이 음반을 위한 새로운 자료는 프랑스 남부에 있는 넬코트라는 이름의 빌라에서 세션에서 주로 녹음되었다. 기타리스트 키스 리처즈는 그 밴드가 세금 탈루자로 해외에 사는 동안 살려고 빌라를 빌렸다. 롤링 스톤스는 이미 주요 스튜디오 밖에서 녹음 연습을 하고 있었는데, 그들의 이전 음반인 《Sticky Fingers》의 많은 원리가, 리드 싱어 믹 재거의 고향인 햄프셔주에 있는 스타그로브스에서, 이동식 녹음 스튜디오를 사용하여 이루어졌기 때문이다. 같은 모바일 스튜디오를 넬코트로 옮겨 별장 지하에 설치했다. 키스 리처즈는 위층에 본가에서 살았고, 종종 밴드의 다른 음악가 친구들은 밴드와 잼 세션을 하고 트랙을 깔기 위해 녹음 스튜디오로 자주 내려왔다. 멤버들(당시 어느 정도의 만취 상태)에 따라 낮마다 크게 달라지는 등 매일 밤마다 녹음작업이 이어졌다. 정규 스튜디오 공간의 경계 없이, 세션은 상당히 느슨하고 조직적이지 않았으며, 이것은 노래 스타일의 황홀한 표와 음반의 엉성하고 느슨한 느낌을 보여준다. 이 녹음은 로스앤젤레스의 선셋 사운드 레코드의 오버덥 세션으로 마무리됐으며 피아니스트 니키 홉킨스, 색소포니스트 바비 키스, 드러머 지미 밀러, 호른 연주자 짐 프라이스 등 뮤지션들이 추가로 참여했다. 그 결과 나온 음악은 블루스, 로큰롤, 스윙, 컨트리, 가스펠 등에 뿌리를 두고 있었고, 가사는 쾌락주의, 섹스, 시간의 주제를 탐구했다. 《Exile on Main St.》은 1970년대 긍정적인 비판적 재검토 이전에 엇갈린 평가를 받았다. 그 이후 비평가들은 롤링 스톤스의 최고 작품으로 평가해 왔으며, 여러 음반 목록에서 높은 순위를 차지하였다. 이 음반은 자주 연주되는 콘서트 스테이플을 포함하고 있으며, 영국, 미국, 캐나다를 포함한 6개국 중 1위를 차지하며, 12개국에서 10위 안에 들었다. 이 음반은 키스 리처즈, 컨트리 음악 발라드 〈Sweet Virginia〉 그리고 전세계적인 톱 10 히트곡인 〈Tumbling Dice〉를 수록한 드문 곡인 〈Happy〉를 탄생시켰다. 2010년 5월 17일 유럽에서는 리마스터드되고 확장된 버전의 음반이 발매되었고 다음날 미국에서는 10개의 새로운 곡이 수록된 보너스 디스크가 나왔다. 발매 당시에도 이례적으로 높은 차트를 기록하며 영국 1위, 미국 2위에 올랐다. 녹음 《Exile on Main St.》은 1969년에서 1972년 사이에 작곡하고 녹음되었다. 믹 재거는 "앨런 클라인과 계약을 끝낸 후, 우리는 그에게 [더 이른 곡들]을 주고 싶지 않았다"라고 말했다. 그들은 《Sticky Fingers》의 〈Brown Sugar〉와 〈Wild Horses〉를 강요했기 때문이다. 1969년에서 1971년 사이에 영국의 올림픽 스튜디오와 재거의 스타그로브스 컨트리 하우스에서 《Sticky Fingers》을 위한 세션 동안 많은 트랙이 녹음되었다. 1971년 봄, 롤링 스톤스는 그들이 빚진 돈을 세금으로 쓰고 정부가 그들의 자산을 몰수하기 전에 영국을 떠났다. 재거는 새 신부 비앙카와 함께 파리에 정착했고 기타리스트 키스 리처즈는 니스 근처의 빌프랑슈쉬르메르에 있는 넬코트라는 별장을 빌렸다. 다른 멤버들은 프랑스 남부에 정착했다. 그들이 음반 작업을 계속할 수 있는 적당한 녹음실을 찾을 수 없었기 때문에 넬코트의 리처즈의 지하실은 밴드의 이동식 녹음 트럭을 이용하는 임시 스튜디오가 되었다. 음악과 가사 올뮤직은 《Exile on Main St.》을 "폭넓고 지친 더블 음반"이라고 부르며, 이 음반은 로큰롤, 블루스, 컨트리, 가스펠 스타일을 아우르는 "어두운, 밀도 높은 잼의 시리즈"라고 묘사했다. 비록 이 음반이 종종 리처즈의 가장 좋은 순간이라고 묘사되지만, 《Exile on Main St.》은 종종 생동감 있고 뿌리가 있는 록 사운드를 위한 비전을 반영한다고 생각되기 때문에, 재거는 이미 음반 발매 당시 몇 번의 인터뷰에서 로큰롤로 지루함을 표현하고 있었다. 곡 목록 모든 곡들은 특별한 언급이 없는 한 믹 재거와 키스 리처즈에 의해 작사/작곡하였다. 인증 각주 외부 링크 Exile on Main St on RollingStones.com 1972년 음반 롤링 스톤스의 음반 애틀랜틱 레코드 음반 버진 레코드 음반 지미 밀러가 프로듀싱한 음반 홈 스튜디오에서 녹음한 음반

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exile%20on%20Main%20St.

Exile on Main St.

Exile on Main St. is the 10th British and 12th American studio album by the English rock band the Rolling Stones, released on 12 May 1972 by Rolling Stones Records. It is viewed as a culmination of a string of the band's most critically successful albums, following the releases of Beggars Banquet (1968), Let It Bleed (1969) and Sticky Fingers (1971). The album is known for its murky, inconsistent sound due to more disjointed musicianship and production, along with a party-like atmosphere heard in several tracks. Recording began in 1969 at Olympic Studios in London during sessions for Sticky Fingers, with the main sessions beginning in mid-1971 at a rented villa in the South of France named Nellcôte after the band became tax exiles. Due to the lack of a professional studio nearby, they worked with a mobile recording studio and recorded in-house. The loose and unorganised Nellcôte sessions went on for hours into the night, with personnel varying greatly from day to day. Recording was completed with overdub sessions at Sunset Sound in Los Angeles and included additional musicians such as pianist Nicky Hopkins, saxophonist Bobby Keys, drummer and producer Jimmy Miller, and horn player Jim Price. The results produced enough songs for the Stones' first double album. The band continued a back-to-basics direction heard in Sticky Fingers after the experimental instrumentation of previous albums, yet Exile exhibited a wider range of influences in blues, rock and roll, swing, country and gospel, while the lyrics explored themes related to hedonism, sex and time. The album contains frequently-performed concert staples and topped the charts in six countries, including the UK, US and Canada. It included the singles "Happy", which featured lead vocals from Keith Richards, country music ballad "Sweet Virginia", and worldwide top-ten hit "Tumbling Dice". The album's artwork, a collage of various images, reflects the Rolling Stones' prideful rebellion. After its release, the Stones embarked on an American tour, gaining infamy for the riotous audience and performances. Exile on Main St. was originally met with mixed reviews before receiving strong reassessments by the end of the 1970s. It has since been recognized as a pivotal hard rock album, viewed by many critics as the Rolling Stones' best work and as one of the greatest albums of all time. Rolling Stone magazine has ranked the album number 7 on its list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time" in 2003 and 2012, and dropping to number 14 in the 2020 edition, consistently as the highest-rated Rolling Stones album on the list. In 2012, the album was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, the band's fourth album to be inducted. A remastered and expanded version of the album was released in 2010 featuring a bonus disc with 10 new tracks. Unusual for a re-release, it also charted highly at the time of its release, reaching number one in the UK and number two in the US. Recording Early sessions Exile on Main St. was written and recorded between 1969 and 1972. Mick Jagger said "After we got out of our contract with Allen Klein, we didn't want to give him [those earlier tracks]," as they were forced to do with "Brown Sugar" and "Wild Horses" from Sticky Fingers (1971). Many tracks were recorded between 1969 and 1971 at Olympic Studios and Jagger's Stargroves country house in East Woodhay during sessions for Sticky Fingers. By the spring of 1971 the Rolling Stones had spent the money they owed in taxes and left Britain before the government could seize their assets. Jagger settled in Paris with his new bride Bianca, and guitarist Keith Richards rented a villa, Nellcôte, in Villefranche-sur-Mer, near Nice. The other members settled in the south of France. As a suitable recording studio could not be found where they could continue work on the album, Richards' basement at Nellcôte became a makeshift studio using the band's mobile recording truck. Nellcôte Recording began in earnest sometime near the middle of June. Bassist Bill Wyman recalls the band working all night, every night, from eight in the evening until three the following morning for the rest of the month. Wyman said of that period, "Not everyone turned up every night. This was, for me, one of the major frustrations of this whole period. For our previous two albums we had worked well and listened to producer Jimmy Miller. At Nellcôte things were very different and it took me a while to understand why." By this time Richards had begun a daily habit of using heroin. Thousands of pounds' worth of heroin flowed through the mansion each week, along with visitors such as William S. Burroughs, Terry Southern, Gram Parsons, John Lennon, and Marshall Chess, the son of famous blues impresario Leonard Chess, who had been recently recruited to serve as president of the Rolling Stones' new eponymous record label. Parsons was asked to leave Nellcôte in early July 1971, the result of his obnoxious behavior and an attempt by Richards to clean the house of drug users as the result of pressure from the French police. Richards' substance abuse frequently prevented him from attending the sessions that continued in his basement, while Jagger and Wyman were often unable to attend sessions for other reasons. This often left the band in the position of having to record in altered forms. A notable instance was the recording of one of Richards' most famous songs, "Happy". Recorded in the basement, Richards said in 1982, Happy' was something I did because I was for one time early for a session. There was Bobby Keys and Jimmy Miller. We had nothing to do and had suddenly picked up the guitar and played this riff. So we cut it and it's the record, it's the same. We cut the original track with a baritone sax, a guitar and Jimmy Miller on drums. And the rest of it is built up over that track. It was just an afternoon jam that everybody said, 'Wow, yeah, work on it. The basic band for the Nellcôte sessions consisted of Richards, Keys, Mick Taylor, Charlie Watts, Nicky Hopkins, Miller (who covered for the absent Watts on the aforementioned "Happy" and "Shine a Light"), and Jagger when he was available. Wyman did not like the ambiance of Richards' villa and sat out many of the French sessions. Although Wyman is credited on only eight songs of the released album, he told Bass Player magazine that the credits are incorrect and that he actually played on more tracks than that. The other bass parts were credited to Taylor, Richards and session bassist Bill Plummer. Wyman noted in his memoir Stone Alone that there was a division between the band members and associates who freely indulged in drugs (Richards, Miller, Keys, Taylor and engineer Andy Johns) and those who abstained to varying degrees (Wyman, Watts and Jagger). Los Angeles Work on basic tracks (including "Rocks Off", "Rip This Joint", "Casino Boogie", "Tumbling Dice", "Torn and Frayed", "Happy", "Turd on the Run", "Ventilator Blues" and "Soul Survivor") began in the basement of Nellcôte and was taken to Sunset Sound Recorders in Los Angeles, where overdubs (all lead and backing vocals, all guitar and bass overdubs) were added during sessions that meandered from December 1971 until March 1972. Although Jagger was frequently missing from Nellcôte, he took charge during the second stage of recording in Los Angeles, arranging for the keyboardists Billy Preston and Dr. John and the cream of the city's session backup vocalists to record layers of overdubs. The final gospel-inflected arrangements of "Tumbling Dice", "Loving Cup", "Let It Loose" and "Shine a Light" were inspired by Jagger, Preston, and Watts' visit to a local evangelical church where Aretha Franklin was recording what would become the live album/movie Amazing Grace. The extended recording sessions and differing methods on the part of Jagger and Richards reflected the growing disparity in their personal lives. During the making of the album, Jagger had married Bianca, followed closely by the birth of their only child, Jade, in October 1971. Richards was firmly attached to his girlfriend Anita Pallenberg, yet both were in the throes of heroin addiction, which Richards would not overcome until the turn of the decade. Music and lyrics According to Bill Janovitz, in his account of the album for the 33⅓ book series, Exile on Main St. features "a seemingly infinite amount of subtle (and not so subtle) variations on rock & roll – a form that had seemed to be severely limited to basic, guitar-driven music." Music biographer John Perry writes that the Rolling Stones had developed a style of hard rock for the album that is "entirely modern yet rooted in 1950s rock & roll and 1930s–1940s swing". Stephen Thomas Erlewine, writing for AllMusic, described Exile on Main St. as "a sprawling, weary double album" featuring "a series of dark, dense jams" that encompass rock and roll, blues, country, and gospel styles. Rolling Stone writer Richard Gehr compares the album to outlaw music and observes a strong influence of music from the American South in its "loose-limbed" explorations of 1950s rock, African-American soul, and gospel country. Although Exile is often thought to reflect Richards' vision for a raw, rootsy rock sound, Jagger was already expressing his boredom with rock and roll in several interviews at the time of the album's release. Jagger's stance on Exiles rock and roll sound at the time is interpreted by the music academic Barry J. Faulk to seemingly "signal the end of the Stones' conscious attempt to revive American-style roots rock". With Richards' effectiveness seriously undermined by his dependence on heroin, the group's subsequent 1970s releases – directed largely by Jagger – would experiment to varying degrees with other musical genres, moving away from the rootsy influences of Exile on Main St. According to Robert Christgau, Exile on Main St. expands on the hedonistic themes the band had explored on previous albums such as Sticky Fingers. As he writes, "It piled all the old themes – sex as power, sex as love, sex as pleasure, distance, craziness, release – on top of an obsession with time that was more than appropriate in men pushing 30 who were still committed to what was once considered youth music." Packaging For Exile on Main St., Mick Jagger wanted an album cover that reflected the band as "runaway outlaws using the blues as its weapon against the world", showcasing "feeling of joyful isolation, grinning in the face of a scary and unknown future". As the band finished the album in Los Angeles, they approached designer John Van Hamersveld and his photographer partner Norman Seeff, and also invited documentary photographer Robert Frank. The same day Seeff photographed the Stones at their Bel Air mansion, Frank took Jagger for photographs at Los Angeles' Main Street. The location was the 500 block near the Leonide Hotel. At the time there was a pawnshop, a shoeshine business and a pornographic theatre (The Galway Theatre) at the location. Still, Van Hamersveld and Jagger chose the cover image from an already existing Frank photograph, an outtake from his seminal 1958 book The Americans. Named "Tattoo Parlor" but possibly taken from Hubert's Dime museum in New York City, the image is a collage of circus performers and freaks, such as "Three Ball Charlie", a 1930s sideshow performer from Humboldt, Nebraska, who holds three balls (a tennis ball, a golf ball, and a "5" billiard ball) in his mouth; Joe "The Human Corkscrew" Allen, pictured in a postcard-style advertisement, a contortionist with the ability to wiggle and twist through a hoop; and Hezekiah Trambles, "The Congo Jungle Freak", a man who dressed as an African savage, in a picture taken by the then recently deceased Diane Arbus. The Seeff pictures were repurposed as 12 perforated postcards inside the sleeve, while Frank's Main Street photographs were used in the gatefold and back cover collage made by Van Hamersveld, which features other pictures Frank took of the band and their crew—including their assistant Chris O'Dell, a former acquaintance of Van Hamersveld who brought him to the Stones—and other The Americans outtakes. Release and reception Exile on Main St. was first released on 12 May 1972 as a double album by Rolling Stones Records. It was the band's tenth studio album released in the United Kingdom. Preceded by the UK (number 5) and US (number 7) Top 10 hit "Tumbling Dice", Exile on Main St was an immediate commercial success, reaching number 1 worldwide just as the band embarked on their celebrated 1972 American Tour. Their first American tour in three years, it featured many songs from the new album. The Richards-sung "Happy" was released as a second single to capitalize on the tour; it would peak at number 22 in the United States in August. After the release of Exile on Main St., Allen Klein sued the Rolling Stones for breach of settlement because five songs on the album were composed while Jagger and Richards were under contract with his company, ABKCO: "Sweet Virginia", "Loving Cup", "All Down the Line", "Shine a Light" and "Stop Breaking Down" (written by Robert Johnson but re-interpreted by Jagger and Richards). ABKCO acquired publishing rights to the songs, giving it a share of the royalties from Exile on Main St., and was able to release another album of Rolling Stones songs, More Hot Rocks (Big Hits & Fazed Cookies). Exile on Main St. was not well received by some contemporary critics, who found the quality of the songs inconsistent. Reviewing in July 1972 for Rolling Stone, Lenny Kaye said the record has "a tight focus on basic components of the Stones' sound as we've always known it," including blues-based rock music with a "pervading feeling of blackness". However, he added that the uneven quality of songs means "the great Stones album of their mature period is yet to come". Richard Williams of Melody Maker was more enthusiastic and deemed it the band's best album, writing that it will "take its place in history" as the music "utterly repulses the sneers and arrows of outraged put down artists. Once and for all, it answers any questions about their ability as rock 'n' rollers." Geoffrey Cannon of The Guardian agreed, stating: "Exile On Main Street will go down as [the Stones'] classic album, made at the height of their musical powers and self-confidence." The NMEs Roy Carr gave additional praise to the tracks, praising the styles present, the performances of the band and the lyrical content. In a year-end list for Newsday, Christgau named it the best album of 1972, stating the "fagged-out masterpiece" marks the peak of rock music for the year as it "explored new depths of record-studio murk, burying Mick's voice under layers of cynicism, angst and ennui". Legacy and reappraisal Critics later reassessed Exile on Main St. favourably, and by the late 1970s it had become viewed as the Rolling Stones' greatest album. In retrospect, Janovitz called it "the greatest, most soulful, rock & roll record ever made" because it seamlessly distills "perhaps all the essential elements of rock & roll up to 1971, if not beyond". He added that it is "the single greatest rock & roll record of all time", distinguished from other contending albums by the Beatles or Pet Sounds, which are more so "brilliant pop records". On the response to the album, Richards said, "When [Exile] came out it didn't sell particularly well at the beginning, and it was also pretty much universally panned. But within a few years the people who had written the reviews saying it was a piece of crap were extolling it as the best frigging album in the world." In 2003, Jagger said, "Exile is not one of my favourite albums, although I think the record does have a particular feeling. I'm not too sure how great the songs are, but put together it's a nice piece. However, when I listen to Exile it has some of the worst mixes I've ever heard. I'd love to remix the record, not just because of the vocals, but because generally I think it sounds lousy. At the time Jimmy Miller was not functioning properly. I had to finish the whole record myself, because otherwise there were just these drunks and junkies. Of course I'm ultimately responsible for it, but it's really not good and there's no concerted effort or intention." Jagger also stated he did not understand the praise among Rolling Stones fans because the album did not yield many hits. Richards also said, "Exile was a double album. And because it's a double album you're going to be hitting different areas, including 'D for Down', and the Stones really felt like exiles. We didn't start off intending to make a double album; we just went down to the south of France to make an album and by the time we'd finished we said, 'We want to put it all out.' The point is that the Stones had reached a point where we no longer had to do what we were told to do. Around the time Andrew Oldham left us, we'd done our time, things were changing and I was no longer interested in hitting Number One in the charts every time. What I want to do is good shit—if it's good they'll get it some time down the road." Accolades Exile on Main St. has been ranked on various lists as one of the greatest albums of all time. In 1998, Q magazine readers voted Exile on Main St the 42nd-greatest album of all time, while in 2000 the same magazine placed it at number 3 in its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever. In 1987 it was ranked third on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the best 100 albums of the period 1967–1987. In 1993, Entertainment Weekly named it number 1 on their list of "100 Greatest CDs". In 2003, Pitchfork ranked it number 11 on their Top 100 Albums of the 1970s. In 2001, the TV network VH1 placed it at number 12 on their greatest albums list. In 2003, the album was ranked 7th on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, maintaining the rating in a 2012 revised list, but dropping to number 14 on the 2020 revised edition of the list, the highest Rolling Stones album ranked on the list. In 2005, Exile on Main St. was ranked number 286 in Rock Hards book The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time. The album was ranked number 19 on the October 2006 issue of Guitar World magazine's list of the greatest 100 guitar albums of all time. In 2007, the National Association of Recording Merchandisers (NARM) and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame placed the album number 6 on the "Definitive 200" list of albums that "every music lover should own." Its re-release has a highest normalised rating of 100 on Metacritic based on seven professional reviews, a distinction it shares with other re-releases such as London Calling by The Clash. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. In 2012, the album was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. It was voted number 35 in the 3rd edition of English writer Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums (2000). In popular culture The album and its title have been referenced several times in popular culture. The garage-trash noise-rock band Pussy Galore released a complete cover of the album, titled Exile on Main St., that reflected their own personal and musical interpretations of the songs, as opposed to paying tribute to the original sound. John Duffy of AllMusic rated the album three and a half out of five stars, and NME ranked it number 253 in "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". The British acid house group Alabama 3 titled its debut album Exile on Coldharbour Lane. Perhaps the most notable reference comes from indie singer/songwriter Liz Phair's debut album Exile in Guyville. Phair herself claimed the album to be a direct song-by-song "response" of sorts to Exile on Main St. Post-grunge band Matchbox Twenty paid homage to this album by titling their 2007 retrospective Exile on Mainstream. Industrial rock band Chemlab named the leading track from their album East Side Militia, "Exile on Mainline", in reference to the Rolling Stones album. The Departed, a 2006 film by Martin Scorsese, features a scene in which Bill Costigan mails Madolyn Madden an Exile on Main St jewel case containing an incriminating recording of Colin Sullivan conspiring with crime boss Frank Costello. The same film also uses the song "Let It Loose" from the album. On 31 October 2009, American rock band Phish covered Exile on Main St in its entirety as the "musical costume" for their Halloween show in Indio, California. The first episode of the fourth season of the Showtime program Californication is called "Exile on Main St". A later episode in the sixth season featured a guest character waking up next to her musician boyfriend who had died from an overdose in the night in room "1009," a reference to the lyrics of "Shine a Light". The same song was also played by Tim Minchin's character in the following episode. The first episode of the sixth season of the hit CW show Supernatural is titled "Exile on Main Street". Reissues In 1994, Exile on Main St was remastered and reissued by Virgin Records, along with the rest of the post-Get Yer Ya-Ya's Out catalogue, after the company acquired the masters to the band's output on its own label. This remaster was initially released in a Collector's Edition CD, which replicated in miniature many elements of the original vinyl album packaging, including the postcards insert. Universal Music, which remastered and re-released the rest of the post-1970 Rolling Stones catalogue in 2009, issued a new remastering of Exile on Main St. in Europe on 17 May 2010 and in the United States the next day, featuring a bonus disc with ten new tracks. Of the ten bonus tracks, only two are undoctored outtakes from the original sessions: an early version of "Tumbling Dice" entitled "Good Time Women", and "Soul Survivor", the latter featuring a Richards lead vocal (with dummy/placeholder lyrics). The other tracks received overdubs just prior to release on this package, with new lead vocals by Jagger on all except "I'm Not Signifying", backing vocals in places by past and current Stones tour singers Cindy Mizelle and Lisa Fischer, and several new guitar parts by Keith Richards, and Mick Taylor on "Plundered My Soul." On the selection of tracks, Richards said, "Well, basically it's the record and a few tracks we found when we were plundering the vaults. Listening back to everything we said, 'Well, this would be an interesting addition.. All harmonica heard was added during 2010 sessions by Jagger, and Richards added a new guitar lead on "So Divine". "Title 5" is not an actual outtake from the sessions for Exile, it is an outtake from early 1967 sessions. It features the MRB effect (mid-range boost) from a Vox Conqueror or Supreme amp, as used by Richards in 1967 and 1968. "Loving Cup" is an outtake from early June 1969, but is actually an edit from two outtakes. The first 2 minutes and 12 seconds is the well-known 'drunk' version, as has been available on bootlegs since the early 1990s, but the second part is spliced from a second, previously unknown take. "Following the River" features Jagger overdubs on a previously uncirculated track featuring Nicky Hopkins on piano. The re-released album entered at number one in the UK charts, almost 38 years to the week after it first occupied that position. The album also re-entered at number two in the US charts selling 76,000 during the first week. The bonus disc, available separately as Exile on Main St Rarities Edition exclusively in the US at Target also charted, debuting at number 27 with 15,000 copies sold. It was released once again in 2011 by Universal Music Enterprises in a Japanese-only SHM-SACD version. Track listing Personnel Sources: The Rolling Stones Mick Jagger – lead vocals, backing vocals; harmonica ; electric guitar ; tambourine Keith Richards – guitars, backing vocals; bass guitar ; electric piano ; lead vocals Mick Taylor – guitars ; bass guitar ; backing vocals Bill Wyman – bass guitar Charlie Watts – drums Additional personnel Nicky Hopkins – keyboards Bobby Keys – tenor saxophone; baritone saxophone Jim Price – trumpet, trombone; organ Ian Stewart – piano Jimmy Miller – percussion , drums Bill Plummer – double bass Billy Preston – piano, organ Al Perkins – pedal steel guitar Richard "Didymus" Washington – marimba Venetta Fields, Clydie King – backing vocals Joe Greene – backing vocals Jerry Kirkland – backing vocals Shirley Goodman, Tami Lynn, Mac Rebennack — backing vocals Kathi McDonald – backing vocals Technical Glyn Johns – engineer Andy Johns – engineer Joe Zagarino – engineer Jeremy Gee – engineer Doug Sax – mastering Robert Frank – cover photography and concept John Van Hamersveld – layout design Norman Seeff – layout design 2010 bonus disc Keith Richards – lead vocals Lisa Fischer, Cindy Mizelle – backing vocals David Campbell – string arrangement Don Was and The Glimmer Twins – production Bob Clearmountain – mixing Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications See also Album era References Bibliography External links Exile on Main St on RollingStones.com 1972 albums The Rolling Stones albums Rolling Stones Records albums Albums produced by Jimmy Miller Albums recorded at Olympic Sound Studios Albums recorded at Sunset Sound Recorders Albums with cover art by John Van Hamersveld Atlantic Records albums Virgin Records albums Country rock albums by British artists Soul albums by British artists Gospel albums by British artists Rock-and-roll albums Albums recorded in a home studio Country blues albums

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%ED%83%9C%EA%B3%B5

유태공

유태공(劉太公, ? ~ 기원전 197년)은 전한을 건국한 고제(高帝) 유방(劉邦)의 아버지이다. 《사기》에서는 그의 이름을 따로 전하지 않으며, 후대의 주석에는 집가(執嘉) 혹은 단(煓)이라고도 한다. 패현(沛縣) 풍읍(豐邑) 출신으로, 아버지의 이름은 인(仁), 조부의 이름은 청(淸)이라고 한다. 아들인 유방이 서초의 항우와 싸우던 초한전쟁 당시에 항우의 포로가 되기도 하였으나 후에 풀려나 유방의 보살핌을 받았다. 이후 장안으로 옮겨와 살면서 태상황(太上皇)의 칭호를 받았으며 기원전 197년에 사망하였다. 생애 가족 유태공은 유온(劉媼)이라는 여인과 결혼하였다. 이후 맏아들인 유백, 둘째 아들인 유중을 낳았다. 이후 어느날은 유온이 연못가에서 쉬다가 꿈속에서 신을 만났다. 이때 천둥이 울리고 벼락이 치더니 하늘이 깜깜해졌는데, 유태공이 가서 보니 교룡(蛟龍)이 유온의 몸 위에 올라타 있었다. 이후 유온이 임신하게 되어서 아들을 낳았는데, 그 이름이 유계(劉季)라 하였다. 그 유계가 바로 훗날의 유방이었다. 포로생활 기원전 205년 4월, 유방이 팽성(彭城)에서 항우에게 크게 패하였을 때에 항우는 유방의 고향인 패현에 사람을 보내 그곳에 머물던 유방의 가족들을 잡으려 하였다. 이때 유방의 수레를 몰던 하후영이 유태공과 여후를 찾으려 하였으나 이미 유방의 가족들이 모두 달아난 후였기 때문에 실패하였다. 한편 이때에 심이기가 유태공과 여후 등을 모시고 샛길을 따라 유방을 따라나셔려다가 항우의 군사들에게 붙잡혔다. 항우는 이들을 포로로 삼아서 군영에 두고 다녔다. 이후 유방은 8월에 설구·왕흡 등을 보내 유태공과 여후를 구출하려 하였으나 초나라 측에서 군사를 보내서 막았기 때문에 실패하였다. 기원전 203년, 유방과 항우가 광무산(廣武山)에서 대치하였는데, 항우가 유방에게 항복하지 않으면 유태공을 삶아서 죽여버리겠다고 협박하였다. 그러나 유방이 이에 응하지 않고 오히려 항우를 도발하면서 "내가 항우 너와 북면하여 회왕의 명을 받들 때 형제가 되기로 약속했으니 내 아버지가 곧 네 아버지다. 꼭 네 아버지를 삶아 죽여야겠다면 나한테도 국물이라도 한 그릇 나눠주기 바란다."라 말하였다. 이에 분노한 항우가 유태공을 죽이려 하였으나 항백이 만류하자 그만두었다. 이때에 항우는 식량이 고갈되어 불리해졌는데, 유방이 육가를 보내 태공을 풀어줄 것을 청하였으나 듣지 않았다. 그러자 유방이 다시 후공(侯公)을 보내 항우를 설득하자 항우는 그 조건으로 한나라와 초나라가 홍구(鴻溝)를 기점으로 그 서쪽과 동쪽으로 땅을 나누어 가질 것을 요구하여 맹약이 성립되었다. 그해 9월에 유태공과 여후는 한나라로 돌아올 수 있었다. 태상황 기원전 202년 정월, 유방은 마침내 항우를 제거하고 천하를 평정하여 황제의 자리에 올랐다. 유방은 황제가 된 후에 5일에 한번씩 유태공에게 인사를 드리려 왔는데, 유방과 유태공이 서로를 평민 시절처럼 대하였다. 그러자 유태공의 집안일을 돌보던 가령(家令)이 태공에게 비록 유방이 태공의 아들이더라도 이제는 인민의 주인이고, 태공은 그의 신하이므로 위계를 확실히 나누어야 한다고 말하였다. 유태공이 그 말을 받아들여 이후부터 유방이 인사를 하러 올때마다 빗자루를 들고 문 앞에 서있다가 뒷걸음질을 치며 천자를 대하는 예로 맞이하였다. 유방이 놀라서 어가에서 내려 유태공을 부축하자, 유태공이 "황제는 인민의 주인이거늘 내가 어찌 천하의 법을 어지럽힐 수 있겠소이까."라 하였다. 이에 유방이 유태공을 태상황(太上皇)으로 높였으며, 태공에게 충고한 가령에게는 금 500근을 상으로 주었다. 신풍 태상황은 장안의 깊은 궁궐로 옮겨와 살았으나 늘 우울해하며 즐거운 기색이 없었다. 고조가 그 이유를 알아보니, 태상황은 평생 동안 백정이나 소년들, 그리고 술장수나 떡장수와 어울리며 닭싸움이나 공놀이를 즐겼는데 지금은 그런 것이 없었기 때문에 즐거움을 느끼지 못하던 것이었다. 그러나 유방이 신풍(新豐)이라는 마을을 만들고는 고향 사람들을 그곳으로 이주시켜서 태상황을 기쁘게 해주었다. 미앙궁의 연회 기원전 198년, 미앙궁이 완공되자 유방이 제후와 군신들을 불러 모아 연회를 베풀었다. 이때 태상황도 연회에 초대되었는데, 유방이 옥잔을 들고 일어나 태상황에게 축수하며 말하기를, "옛날에 대인(大人)께선 늘 신(臣)이 무뢰하고 생업도 꾸리지 못하며 둘째 형만큼 노력도 하지 않는다고 하셨습니다. 지금 제가 이룬 것과 둘째 형이 이룬 것 중 무엇이 더 많습니까?"라 하였다. 이에 대전의 신하들이 모두 만세를 부르고 웃으며 즐거워했다. 죽음 기원전 197년 10월, 태상황이 약양궁(櫟陽宮)에서 세상을 떠났다. 이에 유방의 아우인 초왕 유교와 공신인 양왕 팽월 등이 와서 장사를 지냈다. 각주 기원전 3세기 출생 기원전 197년 사망 전한 고제

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu%20Taigong

Liu Taigong

Liu Taigong (), personal name Liu Tuan (), was the father of Liu Bang (Emperor Gaozu of Han). Biography Not much is recorded about Taigong historically. He was born and likely lived his early life in present-day Feng County, Jiangsu. His personal name is not known. Some historical sources says his name is Liu Zhijia (Chinese:劉執嘉), although this name is likely chosen after Liu Bang became Emperor. He likely came from a humble, rural background. After Taigong's son Liu Bang became emperor, Liu Bang continued to visit his father once a week. However, upon hearing from an advisor that it was no longer appropriate for Taigong to "receive" his son, as Taigong was technically one of his subjects, Taigong began to greet his son in deprecatory fashion, honoring the latter's status as emperor. Upon learning the reason behind his father's actions, Liu Bang honored Taigong with the title Taishang Huang on 4 July 201 BCE, a year after Liu Bang declared himself emperor in February 202 BCE. The title nominally elevated Liu's status in court protocol as to remain consistent with Confucian norms of filial piety. Taigong died at a palace in the city of Yueyang in June 197 BC. On 9 August 197 BC, he was entombed in present-day Lintong District, Xi'an. Family Consorts and Issue: Wang Hanshi (), also known as Liu Ao (, "Old woman Liu"), posthumously honored as Empress Zhaoling () Liu Bo, Prince Wu'ai (; b. 262 BC), first son Liu Xi, Prince Qing of Wu (; 260–193 BC), second son Empress Zhao'ai () Liu Bang, Emperor Gao (; 256–195 BC), third son Retired Empress, of the Li clan (), formerly a concubine Liu Jiao, Prince Yuan of Chu (; d. 179 BC), fourth son Ancestry References Zizhi Tongjian, volumes 9 to 12 Records of the Grand Historian, volume 8 Book of Han, volume 36 3rd-century BC births 197 BC deaths Emperor Gaozu of Han

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A9%94%ED%86%A0%ED%8A%B8%EB%A0%89%EC%84%B8%EC%9D%B4%ED%8A%B8

메토트렉세이트

메토트렉세이트(, MTX, 이전 명칭: 아메톱테린/amethopterin)는 화학작용제이자 면역계 억제제이다. 암, 자가면역질환, 자궁외임신의 치료, 그리고 의학적 낙태를 위해 사용된다. 메토트렉세이트를 사용하는 암의 종류로는 유방암, 백혈병, 폐암, 림프종, 임신영약막병, 골육종이 있다. 적응증이 되는 자가면역 질환의 유형으로는 건선, 류머티스 관절염, 크론병이 포함된다. 경구나 주사로 투여할 수 있다. 흔한 부작용으로는 구역질, 피곤, 발열, 감염 위험의 증가, 백혈구 감소, 구내염이 나타날 수 있다. 다른 부작용으로는 간질환, 폐질환, 림프종, 그리고 심각한 피부 발진이 발생한 수 있다. 장기적인 치료를 받는 사람은 부작용에 대해 주기적으로 검사하는 것이 좋다. 모유 수유 중에 복용하는 것은 안전하지 않다. 신부전 환자의 경우 적은 양을 복용하는 것이 필요할 수 있다. 신체의 엽산 사용을 차단함으로써 동작한다. 메토트렉세이트는 1947년 개발되어 처음에는 암 치료를 위해 의학용으로 사용되기 시작했으며 현재의 치료방식보다 독성이 덜했다. 1956년, 전이암의 최초 치료에 사용되었다. 의료제도에 필수적인 가장 효과적이고 안전한 의약품 목록인 WHO 필수 의약품 목록에 등재되어 있다. 메토트렉세이트는 제네릭 의약품으로 구매가 가능하다. 개발도상국의 도매가는 2014년 구강 섭취 기준으로 하루에 US$0.06 ~ US$0.36 사이이다. 미국의 경우, 경구 투여를 통한 치료에는 보통 $25 ~ $50의 비용이 든다. 2016년 기준, 미국에서는 400만 건 이상의 처방과 더불어 152번째로 처방을 많이 받은 약물이었다. 의학적 사용 항암화학요법 메토트렉세이트는 본래 화학요법에 사용하기 위해 개발되어, 단독 또는 다른 약제와 함께 사용되어 왔다. 유방의 고형 종양, 두경부암, 폐암, 방광암, 급성 림프구성 백혈병, 비호지킨 림프종, 골육종, 담관암, 그 외 영양막 신생물 등 각종 암 치료에 효과적이다. 자가면역질환 본래 메토트렉세이트는 항암제 용도로 개발되었으나, 저용량 투여할 때는 특정 자가면역질환의 치료에 대부분 안전하며 효과적인 약제로 쓰일 수 있다. 메토트렉세이트는 성인의 여러 가지 자가면역질환 치료에 항류마티스제로 쓰인다. 그 예로는 류마티스 관절염, 건선, 건선성 관절염, 반응성 관절염, 장병성 관절염, 근육염, 전신경화증, 루푸스, 유육종증, 크론병, 습진, 여러 종류의 혈관염 등이 있다. 어린이에서는 청소년성 피부근육염, 청소년성 특발성 관절염, 포도막염, 국소피부경화증 등의 치료에 사용된다. 메토트렉세이트는 류마티스 관절염의 일차 치료제 중 하나이다. 코크란 리뷰에서 1주일에 5~25mg 용량 투여 시 12~52주 치료 기간 동안 치료에 이득이 있었다고 보고하였다. 그러나 치료 중단율은 부작용으로 인해 16% 정도로 높았다. 저용량의 메토트렉세이트를 아스피린과 같은 비스테로이드성 항염증제(NSAIDs)나, 파라세타몰과 같은 진통제와 병용하는 것은 적절한 모니터링 하에서 실시할 시 류마티스 관절염 치료를 받고 있는 환자에서도 비교적 안전한 치료법이다. 한편 메토트렉세이트는 설파살라진이나 하이드록시클로로퀸과 같은 고전적인 항류마티스제와 병용하기도 한다. 초기 류마티스 관절염 치료의 효과에 대해 연구한 체계적 문헌고찰에서는, 메토트렉세이트 단독 치료보다 TNF 억제제나 다른 생물학적 제제와 병용 투여했을 때 치료 효과를 개선할 수 있다고 밝혔다. 유사하게, 2016년의 연구에서는 메토트렉세이트를 TNF 억제제와 병용 투여했을 때 궤양성 대장염 치료에 효과적이라고 밝혔다. 메토트렉세이트는 다발경화증 치료에도 쓰이며, 간혹 전신 홍반 루푸스 치료에 사용된다. 이를 뒷받침하는 잠정적인 근거 연구가 존재한다. 임신 중 사용 메토트렉세이트는 낙태제로, 나팔관이 파열되지 않은 경우 자궁외임신의 치료에 쓰기도 한다. 메토트렉세이트 투여와 확장소파술을 동시에 실시해 포상기태 치료에 이용하기도 한다. 드물게는 미페프리스톤과 병용하여 정상 임신을 낙태하는 데에 쓰이기도 한다. 투여 메토트렉세이트는 경구 투여, 근육 주사, 정맥 주사, 피하 주사, 수막내공간 투여 등의 방식으로 투여할 수 있다. 독성을 제한하기 위해 대개 하루가 아닌 1주일에 한 번 투여한다. 루틴으로 일반 혈액 검사, 간 기능 검사, 크레아티닌을 감시하도록 권고된다. 크레아티닌 측정인 최소 2달에 한 번 실시하도록 권고된다. 부작용을 최소화하기 위해, 메토트렉세이트를 투여할 때 엽산을 흔히 같이 처방한다. 부작용 흔한 부작용에는 간독성, 구내염, 혈액의 이상(백혈구감소증, 빈혈, 혈소판감소증, 감염 위험 증가, 탈모, 식욕부진, 구역질, 복통, 설사, 피로감, 발열, 어지럼증, 졸림, 두통, 급성 폐렴, 콩팥 기능 손상 등이 있다. 또한 메토트렉세이트는 점막염을 일으키기도 한다. 메토트렉세이트로 인한 폐렴은 치료의 드문 합병증으로, 류마티스 관절염 치료 임상시험을 봤을 때 점차 감소하고 있는 것으로 보인다. 메토트렉세이트는 기형을 유발하며, 임신 전 최소 4주 동안은 복용을 중단하고 임신과 수유 중에는 복용하지 않아야 한다. 한편 여성 쪽이 임신을 시도하는 중, 남성 파트너가 메토트렉세이트를 복용하는 것은 안전하다고 지침이 개정되었다. 골수염, 백질뇌병증 등의 중추신경계 반응이 보고되기도 하였는데, 특히 직접 뇌척수액으로 들어가도록 수막내공간으로 메토트렉세이트를 투여한 경우에 그러하였다. 한편 피부 부작용도 여럿 나타났는데, 특히 고용량으로 투여하였을 경우 부작용이 잘 나타났다. 잘 알려지지는 않았으나 또 다른 발생 가능한 심각한 부작용은 신경 손상과 기억 상실이다. 신경독성은 메토트렉세이트가 뇌혈관장벽을 가로질러 대뇌피질의 신경세포를 손상시켜 발생할 수 있다. 메토트렉세이트 치료를 받고 있는 환자들에서 발생할 수 있는 이런 신경 손상을 "chemo brain"이나 "chemo fog"라고 부르기도 한다. 약물 상호작용 페니실린은 메토트렉세이트의 배출을 줄여 독성 위험을 높일 수 있다. 두 약물을 같이 투여하는 것은 가능하지만, 모니터링을 더욱 철저히 하는 것이 권고된다. 아미노글리코사이드 계열 약물은 네오마이신과 파로모마이신은 메토트렉세이트의 위장관 흡수를 감소시키는 것으로 알려져 있다. 프로베네시드는 메토트렉세이트의 배설을 억제하여 메토트렉세이트의 독성 발생 위험을 증가시킨다. 유사하게, 레티노이드와 트리메토프림은 메토트렉세이트와 상호작용하여 각각 추가적인 간독성과 혈액독성을 유발할 수 있다고 밝혀져 있다. 시클로스포린 같은 다른 면역억제제는 메토트렉세이트의 혈액학적 효과를 강화하여 잠재적인 독성의 원인이 될 수 있다. 비스테로이드 항염증제(NSAIDs) 역시 메토트렉세이트와 치명적인 상호작용을 일으키는 것이 여러 증례 보고를 통해 알려져 있다. 아산화 질소가 메토트렉세이트의 혈액독성을 강화하는 것 역시 밝혀져 있다. 오메프라졸과 같은 양성자 펌프 억제제(PPIs)나 발프로산 같은 항경련제, 시스플라틴과 같은 신독성을 가지는 약제, 위장관약인 콜레스트라민과 단트롤렌 등은 메토트렉세이트의 혈장 내 농도를 높인다. 작용 기전 메토트렉세이트는 항대사물질, 그중에서도 항엽산제에 속한다. 메토트렉세이트가 암과 류마티스 관절염을 치료하는 방법은 두 가지 서로 다른 경로를 통해서라고 추정된다. 암의 경우, 메토트렉세이트는 사수소엽산 합성에 관여하는 효소인 이수소엽산 환원효소(DHFR)를 경쟁적으로 저해한다. 메토트렉세이트가 DHFR에 대해 보이는 친화성은 이수소엽산이 가지는 친화력의 1000배 정도에 이른다. DHFR은 이수소엽산이 활성을 가지는 물질인 사수소엽산으로 변환되는 과정을 촉매한다. 사수소엽산은 뉴클레오사이드 티미딘의 신생합성(데노보합성)에 필요하며, 티미딘은 DNA 복제 과정에서 새로운 DNA를 합성하는 데에 필수적이다. 또한, 엽산은 퓨린과 피리미딘 염기를 합성하는 데에도 반드시 필요하다. 따라서 메토트렉세이트는 DNA, RNA, 티미딜레이트, 단백질 합성을 억제하는 효과를 나타낸다. 류마티스 관절염의 치료에 있어서 DHFR 억제는 주된 작용 기전이 아닌 것으로 생각되며, 그보다는 다른 여러 기전이 작동하는 것으로 여겨진다. 그 예로는 1. 퓨린 대사에 관여하는 효소를 억제하여 아데노신을 축적시키거나, 2. T세포의 활성화를 억제하며 T세포가 발현하는 세포내 부착 분자를 억제하는 방식, 3. B세포의 선택적 하향조절, 4. 활성화된 T세포의 CD95에 대한 감수성을 증가시키는 기전, 5. 메틸기전이효소 활성을 억제하여 면역계 기능에 관여하는 효소 활성을 비활성화시키는 기전 등이 있다. 메토트렉세이트의 또 다른 작용 기전은 인터루킨 1β가 세포 표면의 수용체에 결합하는 과정을 억제하는 것이다. 따라서 메토트렉세이트는 항사이토카인제로도 작용한다. 역사 1947년, 시드니 파버(Sidney Farber)가 이끄는 연구팀은 엽산의 유사체이며, 어린이 급성 림프모구성 백혈병의 관해를 유도할 수 있는 아미놉테린을 처음으로 선보였다. 엽산의 투여가 백혈병을 악화시킬 수 있고, 반대로 엽산이 부족한 식단은 백혈병을 호전시킬 수 있다는 발견이 이루어지면서 엽산 유사체의 개발에 박차가 가해졌다. 그러나 이런 효과가 왜 나타나는지, 그 기전은 여전히 알려져 있지 않다. 다른 엽산 유사체도 개발되는 중이었으며, 1950년에 들어서는 메토트렉세이트가 백혈병 치료제로 제안되었다. 1956년 발표된 동물 연구에서는 메토트렉세이트의 치료지수가 아미놉테린보다 우수하며, 메토트렉세이트가 치료 약제로 보다 선호되며 아미놉테린은 임상적으로 사용되지 않게 되었다. 1951년, 제인 C. 라이트(Jane C. Wright)는 메토트렉세이트를 고형 종양 치료에 사용하는 연구를 발표하였는데, 유방암에서 관해가 일어난다는 것을 밝혔다. 라이트의 연구팀은 백혈병이 아닌, 고형 종양에서 메토트렉세이트를 사용하는 연구를 처음 발표하였다. 민추리(李敏求)와 그 동료들은 1956년에 메토트렉세이트로 치료했을 때 여성의 담관암과 융모막샘종에서 완전 관해가 일어난다는 것을 보고하였고, 라이트 등은 1960년에 균상식육종에서 관해를 유도하는 데에 성공하였다. 각주 외부 링크 National Rheumatoid Arthritis Society (NRAS) article on Methotrexate Chembank entry on methotrexate Methotrexate—general article from NIH Methotrexate Injection MedlinePlus article from NIH Patient Education – Methotrexate from American College of Rheumatology U.S. National Library of Medicine: Drug Information Portal – Methotrexate 항류머티즘제 벤즈아마이드 간독소 면역 억제제 세계 보건 기구 필수 의약품 RTT 암 치료 콩팥 독소

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methotrexate

Methotrexate

Methotrexate (MTX), formerly known as amethopterin, is a chemotherapy agent and immune-system suppressant. It is used to treat cancer, autoimmune diseases, and ectopic pregnancies. Types of cancers it is used for include breast cancer, leukemia, lung cancer, lymphoma, gestational trophoblastic disease, and osteosarcoma. Types of autoimmune diseases it is used for include psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, and Crohn's disease. It can be given by mouth or by injection. Common side effects include nausea, feeling tired, fever, increased risk of infection, low white blood cell counts, and breakdown of the skin inside the mouth. Other side effects may include liver disease, lung disease, lymphoma, and severe skin rashes. People on long-term treatment should be regularly checked for side effects. It is not safe during breastfeeding. In those with kidney problems, lower doses may be needed. It acts by blocking the body's use of folic acid. Methotrexate was first made in 1947 and initially was used to treat cancer, as it was less toxic than the then-current treatments. In 1956 it provided the first cures of a metastatic cancer. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Methotrexate is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 113th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 5million prescriptions. Medical uses Chemotherapy Methotrexate was originally developed and continues to be used for chemotherapy, either alone or in combination with other agents. It is effective for the treatment of a number of cancers, including solid tumours of breast, head and neck, lung, bladder, as well as acute lymphocytic leukemias, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, osteosarcoma, and choriocarcinoma and other trophoblastic neoplasms. Autoimmune disorders Although originally designed as a chemotherapy drug, in lower doses methotrexate is a generally safe and well-tolerated drug in the treatment of certain autoimmune diseases. Methotrexate is used as a disease-modifying treatment for a number of autoimmune diseases in adults, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis, reactive arthritis, enteropathic arthritis, myositis, systemic sclerosis, lupus, sarcoidosis, Crohn's disease, eczema and many forms of vasculitis. In children, it can be used for juvenile dermatomyositis, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, uveitis and localised scleroderma. Methotrexate is one of the first-line therapies for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Weekly doses of 5 to 25mg were found by a Cochrane review to be beneficial for 12-52 weeks duration of therapy, though it is used longer-term in clinical practice. Discontinuation rates are as high as 16% due to adverse effects. Use of low doses of methotrexate together with NSAIDs such as aspirin or analgesics such as paracetamol is relatively safe in people being treated for rheumatoid arthritis, with appropriate monitoring. Methotrexate is also sometimes used in combination with other conventional DMARDs, such as sulfasalazine and hydroxychloroquine. Studies and reviews have found that most rheumatoid arthritis patients treated with methotrexate for up to one year had less pain, functioned better, had fewer swollen and tender joints, and had less disease activity overall as reported by themselves and their doctors. X-rays also showed that the progress of the disease slowed or stopped in many people receiving methotrexate, with the progression being completely halted in about 30% of those receiving the drug. Those individuals with rheumatoid arthritis treated with methotrexate have been found to have a lower risk of cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarctions and strokes. Results of a systematic review exploring the comparative effectiveness of treatments of early rheumatoid arthritis show that treatment efficacy can be improved with combination therapy with anti-TNF or other biologic medications, compared with methotrexate monotherapy. Likewise, a 2016 study found the use of methotrexate, in combination with anti-TNF agents, has been shown to be effective for the treatment of ulcerative colitis. Methotrexate has also been used for multiple sclerosis and is used occasionally in systemic lupus erythematosus, with tentative evidence to support such use. During pregnancy Methotrexate is an abortifacient and is used to treat ectopic pregnancies, provided the fallopian tube has not ruptured. Methotrexate with dilation and curettage is used to treat molar pregnancy. Rarely, it is used in combination with mifepristone to abort uterine pregnancies. Administration Methotrexate can be given by mouth or by injection (intramuscular, intravenous, subcutaneous, or intrathecal). Doses are usually taken weekly, not daily, to limit toxicity. Routine monitoring of the complete blood count, liver function tests, and creatinine are recommended. Measurements of creatinine are recommended at least every two months. Folic acid is commonly co-prescribed with methotrexate to minimise the risk of adverse effects. Adverse effects The most common adverse effects include hepatotoxicity, stomatitis, blood abnormalities (leukopenia, anaemia and thromboycytopenia), increased risk of infection, hair loss, nausea, reduced appetite, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, fatigue, fever, dizziness, drowsiness, headache, acute pneumonitis and renal impairment. Methotrexate can also cause mucositis. Methotrexate pneumonitis is a rare complication of therapy, and appears to be reducing in frequency in most recent rheumatoid arthritis treatment trials. In the context of rheumatoid arthritis interstitial lung disease, methotrexate treatment may be associated with a lower incidence of ILD over time. Methotrexate is teratogenic and it is advised stop taking it at least 4 weeks before becoming pregnant and it should be avoided during pregnancy (pregnancy category X) and while breastfeeding. Guidelines have been updated to state that it is safe for a male partner to take at any point while trying to conceive. Central nervous system reactions to methotrexate have been reported, especially when given via the intrathecal route (directly into the cerebrospinal fluid), which include myelopathies and leukoencephalopathies. It has a variety of cutaneous side effects, particularly when administered in high doses. Another little understood but serious possible adverse effect of methotrexate is neurological damage and memory loss. Neurotoxicity may result from the drug crossing the blood–brain barrier and damaging neurons in the cerebral cortex. People with cancer who receive the medication often nickname these effects "chemo brain" or "chemo fog". Drug interactions Penicillins may decrease the elimination of methotrexate, so increase the risk of toxicity. While they may be used together, increased monitoring is recommended. The aminoglycosides neomycin and paromomycin have been found to reduce gastrointestinal (GI) absorption of methotrexate. Probenecid inhibits methotrexate excretion, which increases the risk of methotrexate toxicity. Likewise, retinoids and trimethoprim have been known to interact with methotrexate to produce additive hepatotoxicity and haematotoxicity, respectively. Other immunosuppressants like cyclosporins may potentiate methotrexate's haematologic effects, hence potentially leading to toxicity. NSAIDs have also been found to fatally interact with methotrexate in numerous case reports. Nitrous oxide potentiating the haematological toxicity of methotrexate has also been documented. Proton-pump inhibitors such as omeprazole and the anticonvulsant valproate have been found to increase the plasma concentrations of methotrexate, as have nephrotoxic agents such as cisplatin, the GI drug colestyramine, and dantrolene. Mechanism of action Methotrexate is an antimetabolite of the antifolate type. It is thought to affect cancer and rheumatoid arthritis by two different pathways. For cancer, methotrexate competitively inhibits dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), an enzyme that participates in the tetrahydrofolate synthesis. The affinity of methotrexate for DHFR is about 1000-fold that of dihydrofolate. DHFR catalyses the conversion of dihydrofolate to the active tetrahydrofolate. Tetrahydrofolate is needed for the de novo synthesis of the nucleoside thymidine, required for DNA synthesis. Also, folate is essential for purine and pyrimidine base biosynthesis, so synthesis will be inhibited. Methotrexate, therefore, inhibits the synthesis of DNA, RNA, thymidylates, and proteins. For the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, inhibition of DHFR is not thought to be the main mechanism, but rather multiple mechanisms appear to be involved, including the inhibition of enzymes involved in purine metabolism, leading to accumulation of adenosine; inhibition of T cell activation and suppression of intercellular adhesion molecule expression by T cells; selective down-regulation of B cells; increasing CD95 sensitivity of activated T cells; and inhibition of methyltransferase activity, leading to deactivation of enzyme activity relevant to immune system function. Another mechanism of MTX is the inhibition of the binding of interleukin 1-beta to its cell surface receptor. Thereby, it acts as anticytokine. History In 1947, a team of researchers led by Sidney Farber showed aminopterin, a chemical analogue of folic acid developed by Yellapragada Subbarao of Lederle, could induce remission in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. The development of folic acid analogues had been prompted by the discovery that the administration of folic acid worsened leukemia, and that a diet deficient in folic acid could, conversely, produce improvement; the mechanism of action behind these effects was still unknown at the time. Other analogues of folic acid were in development, and by 1950, methotrexate (then known as amethopterin) was being proposed as a treatment for leukemia. Animal studies published in 1956 showed the therapeutic index of methotrexate was better than that of aminopterin, and clinical use of aminopterin was thus abandoned in favor of methotrexate. In 1951, Jane C. Wright demonstrated the use of methotrexate in solid tumors, showing remission in breast cancer. Wright's group was the first to demonstrate use of the drug in solid tumors, as opposed to leukemias, which are a cancer of the marrow. Min Chiu Li and his collaborators then demonstrated complete remission in women with choriocarcinoma and chorioadenoma in 1956, and in 1960 Wright et al. produced remissions in mycosis fungoides. References External links National Rheumatoid Arthritis Society (NRAS) article on Methotrexate Methotrexate Injection MedlinePlus article from NIH Antifolates Antineoplastic and immunomodulating drugs Benzamides Chemotherapy Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs Folates Hepatotoxins IARC Group 3 carcinogens Immunosuppressants Mammalian dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors Abortifacients Nephrotoxins Orphan drugs Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate World Health Organization essential medicines

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EB%8F%84%EB%B6%80%EB%94%98

지도부딘

지도부딘(, ZDV), 아지도티미딘(azidothymidine, AZT)은 HIV/AIDS 예방 및 치료에 사용되는 항레트로바이러스 약제이다. 일반적으로 다른 항레트로바이러스 약제들과 함께 사용하는 것이 권고된다. 주사침 찔림 후 또는 분만 중 모자감염 또는 기타 잠재적 노출을 예방하기 위해 사용할 수 있다. 지도부딘 자체로 판매되거나 라미부딘/지도부딘 및 아바카비르/라미부딘/지도부딘으로서 함께 판매된다. 구강이나 저속의 정맥 주사를 통해 사용할 수 있다. 일반적인 부작용으로는 두통, 발열, 메스꺼움이 있다. 심각한 부작용으로는 간 질환, 근육병, 유산산증이 포함된다. 임신 중에도 흔히 사용되며 태아에게 안전한 것으로 간주된다. ZDV는 뉴클레오시드 유사체 역전사효소(NRTI)계에 속한다. DNA를 만들기 위해 HIV가 사용하는 역전사를 억제함으로써 동작하며 그러므로 바이러스의 복제가 감소된다. 지도부딘은 1964년 처음 기술되었다. 1987년 미국에서 사용이 승인되었으며 HIV의 최초의 치료제였다. 의료제도에 필수적인 가장 효과적이고 안전한 의약품 목록인 WHO 필수 의약품 목록에 등재되어 있다. 제네릭 의약품으로 구매가 가능하다. 개발도상국의 도매가는 1개월에 US$5.10 ~ $25.60 사이이다. 2015년 기준으로, 미국의 월간 처방 비용은 $200 이상이었다. 의학적 사용 HIV 치료 AZT는 보통 다른 항레트로바이러스 요법과 함께 하루에 두 번 복용된다. 이 접근법은 고활성 항레트로바이러스 치료(HAART) 라고 하며 HIV 저항 가능성을 방지하는 데 사용된다. HIV 예방 AZT는 라미부딘이라 불리는 또 다른 항레트로바이러스 약물과 함께 노출 후 방지제(post-exposure prophylaxis, PEP)에 사용되어 왔다. 그들은 바이러스에 처음 한 번 노출된 후 HIV 감염의 위험을 상당히 줄이기 위해 함께 일한다. 최근에 AZT는 PEP를 제공하기 위해 테노포비르와 같은 다른 항레트로바이러스로 대체되었다. AZT는 이제 임신, 분만 및 출산 중 HIV 모자감염의 사전 노출 방지 및 사후 노출 치료를 위한 임상 경로의 주요 부분이며, 감염되지 않은 형제자매의 출산 및 신생아 발달에 필수적인 것으로 입증되었다. AZT가 없다면, HIV에 감염된 산모를 가진 태아들 중 많게는 10-15%가 그들 스스로 감염될 것이다. AZT는 수정 후, 분만, 그리고 출산 6주 후에서 이러한 위험을 최소 8%까지 감소시키는 것으로 나타났다. 항레트로바이러스제, 제왕절개, 안면 마스크, 튼튼한 고무 장갑, 임상적으로 일회용 기저귀 분리, 입 접촉 방지처럼 일관되고 사전 예방적인 조치들은 HIV의 아동 보호자 전염을 1-2% 정도 더 줄일 것이다. 1994년부터 1999년까지, AZT는 HIV 모자감염의 주요 예방법이었다. AZT는 미국에서 1000명 이상의 부모 및 유아 사망을 예방했다. 그 당시 미국에서 HIV 양성 산모에게 허용되는 관리 표준은 076 양성으로 알려져 있었고, 2차 접종 3개월 이후 일일 5회 AZT를 투여하고 출산 중에는 정맥 내에 AZT를 투여했다. 이 치료법은 시간이 오래 걸리고 비용이 많이 들었기 때문에, 모자감염이 심각했던 글로벌 남부에서는 불가능하다고 여겨졌다. 1990년대 말에는 '자원 빈곤' 국가에서 사용하기 위한 짧고 간단한 체계의 유효성을 테스트하기 위해 많은 연구가 시작되었다. 이 AZT 단기 코스는 관리 표준이 열악했으며 미국에서 시험해 보았다면 의료사고로 간주되었을 것이다. 그러나 그럼에도 불구하고 빈곤한 피험자의 치료와 생존을 개선하는 치료였다. 부작용 가장 흔한 부작용으로는 메스꺼움, 구토, 위산 역류, 두통, 복부 지방 감소, 가벼운 수면, 식욕 감퇴 등이 있다. 비교적 흔하지 않은 부작용으로는 손톱과 발톱의 희미한 변색, 기분 상승, 가끔 따끔거리거나 일시적인 손이나 발의 무감각, 가벼운 피부 변색 등이 있다. 알러지 반응은 드물다. AZT를 사용한 초기 장기 고선량 치료는 빈혈, 호중구감소증, 간독성, 심근증, 근병증 등 치료를 제한하는 부작용과 관련이 있었다. 이러한 모든 조건은 일반적으로 AZT 선량 감소 시 가역성이 있는 것으로 확인되었다. 이들은 다음과 같은 몇 가지 가능한 원인에 기인한다. 예를 들면 미토콘드리아 DNA의 일시적인 고갈, 일부 세포 미토콘드리아에서 γ-DNA 중합효소의 민감도, 티미딘 삼인산염의 고갈, 산화 스트레스, 세포 내 L-카르니틴의 감소, 또는 근육 세포의 세포자멸 등이 있다. AZT로 인한 빈혈은 적혈구 생성을 촉진하기 위해 에리트로페틴을 사용하여 성공적으로 치료할 수 있다. 인도메타신, 노르다제팜, 아세틸살리실산 (아스피린), 그리고 트리메토프림과 같은 간 글루크론산화를 억제하는 약물은 제거율을 떨어뜨리고 약물 치료 강도를 높였다. 오늘날 부작용은 AZT의 저용량 사용에 있어 훨씬 덜 보편적이다. IARC에 따르면 실험동물에는 지도부딘의 발암성에 대한 충분한 증거가 있다. 그것은 사람에게 발암성이 있을 수 있다. 바이러스 저항성 환자에게 용인될 수 있는 가장 높은 용량에서도, AZT는 모든 HIV 복제를 예방할 만큼 충분히 강력하지 않고 바이러스의 복제와 질병의 진행만을 늦출 수 있다. AZT 치료가 길어지면 HIV는 AZT 역전사효소의 돌연변이에 의해 AZT에 대한 내성을 발달시킬 수 있다. 저항성 발달을 늦추기 위해 의사들은 일반적으로 AZT를 단백질 분해효소 억제제, 비핵산 역전사효소 억제제, 또는 통합효소 억제제와 같은 다른 종류의 역전사효소 억제제 및 항 레트로 바이러스 억제제와 함께 투여할 것을 권고한다. 이러한 치료방법은 HAART (Highly Active Anti Retroviral Therapy)라고 알려져 있다 기전 AZT는 티미딘 유사체이다. AZT는 바이러스가 RNA를 바탕으로 DNA 복사본을 만들기 위해 사용하는 효소인 HIV의 역전사효소를 선택적으로 억제함으로써 작용한다. 역전사는 HIV의 이중 가닥 DNA 생산을 위해 필요하며, 이것은 이후 프로바이러스라고 부르는 감염된 세포의 유전 물질에 통합된다. 세포 효소는 AZT를 효과적인 5'-삼인산 형태로 변환한다. HIV의 형성 DNA 사슬의 종식이 억제 효과의 특정 요소라는 것이 연구에서 증명되었다. 매우 높은 용량에서, AZT의 삼인산 형태는 세포 분열을 위해 인간 세포에서 사용되는 DNA 중합효소도 억제할 수 있지만, AZT의 용량과는 상관없이 HIV의 역전사효소에 대한 친화력이 약 100배 더 높다. AZT에 의해 DNA 수선이 방해될 경우 세포가 빠르게 수선할 수 있는 능력 때문에 선택성이 일어난다. 반면 HIV 바이러스는 이러한 능력이 부족하다. 따라서 AZT는 감염되지 않은 세포 기능에 영향을 미치지 않고 HIV 복제를 방해한다. 충분히 높은 용량에서, AZT는 미토콘드리아가 복제를 위해 사용하는 DNA 중합효소를 억제하기 시작하며, 잠재적으로 독성이지만 심근과 골격근에 대하여 가역적으로 작용하며 근염을 유발한다. 화학 AZT는 비대칭 핵의 단사정계의 소금 구조를 가지며, 염기쌍 이합체의 균등화된 H-N-O 결합 네트워크를 이룬다. 이 다중스케일 결정체의 격자 상부 구조물과 계면 활성제의 머리 부분 사이의 정전기적 결합 극성은 1987년과 1988년에 보도되었다. 역사 초기 암 연구 1960년대, 대부분의 암이 환경 내 레트로바이러스에 의해 유발된다는 이론은 임상적인 지지와 지원을 얻었다. 그러나 최근 이 이론은 노벨상 수상자인 하워드 테민과 데이비드 볼티모어의 업적으로 인해, 거의 대부분의 조류 암은 새의 레트로바이러스에 의해 유발된다고 알려졌지만, 인간의 레트로바이러스에서도 해당하는지는 아직 발견되지 않은 것으로 밝혀졌다. 노벨상 수상자인 조지 히칭스와 거트루드 엘리언의 실험실에서 행해진 유사한 연구에서 핵산의 합성을 성곡적으로 억제하는 다른 화합물이 항균, 항바이러스 그리고 항암 물질로 증명되었고, 이는 항암물질인 6-mercaptopurine의 개발로 이어졌다. 바바라 앤 카르마노스 암 연구소와 웨인 주립 의과대학의 제롬 호비츠는 미국 국립 보건원(NIH)의 지원 하에 1964년에 처음으로 AZT를 합성했다. 그러나 생쥐에서 생물학적으로 불활성인 것으로 판명된 후 개발은 보류되었다. 1974년 독일 괴팅겐에 있는 막스플랑크 연구소의 울프람 오스테르타그는 AZT가 트기적으로 프렌드 바이러스(마우스 백혈병 바이러스의 일종)를 표적으로 삼았다고 보고했다. 그러나 프렌드 백혈병 바이러스는 레트로바이러스이고, 레트로바이러스로 인해 유발되는 알려진 인체 질환이 없어 다른 연구자들의 관심을 거의 끌지 못했다. HIV/AIDS 연구 1983년 파리 파스퇴르 연구소의 연구원들은 인간 면역 결핍 바이러스로 알려진 레트로바이러스를 인간 면역 결핍 증후군의 원인으로 밝혀냈다. 얼마 후, 미국 국립 암 연구소(NCI)의 사무엘 브로더, 히로아키 미쓰야, 로버트 야르코안은 에이즈 치료법을 개발하기 위한 프로그램을 시작했다. 그들은 직접 만든 CD4+ T 세포들을 이용하여, HIV에 의해 CD4+ T 세포들이 죽는 것을 보호하는 약물들의 능력을 검사하기 위한 분석법을 개발했다. 약물 발견 과정을 촉진하기 위해 NCI 연구진은 항바이러스 활동이 가능한 화합물 라이브러리에 접근할 수 있는 제약사와의 협업을 적극 모색했다. 이 분석법은 화합물의 항 HIV 효과와 감염된 T 세포에 대한 독성을 동시에 테스트할 수 있다. 1984년 6월, Burroughs-Welcome의 바이러스학자 마티 세인트 클레어는 HIV 복제를 억제할 가능성이 있는 약물을 발견하기 위한 프로그램을 세웠다. Burroughs-Welcome은 조지 히칭스, 거트루드 엘리언, 데이비드 배리, 폴 맥거트 주니어, 필립 퍼먼, 마사 세인트, 재닛 라이드아웃, 산드라 레르만 등 등 뉴클레오사이드 아날로그와 바이러스 질환에 대한 전문 지식을 가지고 있는 연구원들에 의해 이끌어지고 있었다. 그들의 연구는 바이러스 효소인 역전사효소에 초점을 맞췄다. 역전사효소는 HIV를 포함한 레트로바이러스가 그들 자신을 복제하기 위해 사용하는 효소이다. 당시 웰컴 그룹은 실행 가능한 사내 HIV 항바이러스 검사가 없었기 때문에 2차 테스트는 레트로바이러스의 프렌즈 바이러스 또는 하비 육종 바이러스에 감염된 쥐 세포를 대상으로 수행되었으며, 이러한 레트로바이러스는 합당한 대리표지자(surrogate marker)에 해당하는 것으로 믿어졌다. AZT는 프렌드 바이러스와 하비 육종 바이러스의 주목할 만한 억제제임이 입증되었으며, AZT의 기록을 살펴본 결과 수년 전 쥐에서 항균 활성을 검사했을 때 독성이 낮았다. 이러한 결과에 기초하여, 뉴클레오사이드 화학자인 재닛 라이드아웃이 AZT를 해당 조직의 HIV 항바이러스 분석 검사를 위해 NCI로 보낼 11가지 화합물 중 하나로 선정했다. 1985년 2월, NCI 과학자들은 AZT가 in vitro 연구에서 효능이 있다는 것을 발견했다. 몇 달 후, NCI와 듀크 대학에서 AZT의 임상 1상 시험이 시작되었다. 임상 1상 시험을 진행하며, 그들은 실험실에서 효과적인 항 HIV 활성을 보였던 또 다른 약물인 수라민을 사용한 초기 실험 경험을 바탕으로 하였다. AZT의 이 초기 실험은 이 약이 HIV 환자에게 안전하게 투여될 수 있고, 환자들의 CD4 수치를 증가시키고, 피부 테스트를 통해 측정된 T 세포 면역력이 회복되었음을 증명했으며, AIDS 환자의 체중 증가를 유도하는 것과 같은 임상 효과의 강력한 증거를 보여 주었다. 또 in vitro에서 작용한 AZT 수치를 혈청 및 진정제 형태로 환자에게 주입할 수 있고, 감염된 뇌에만 깊숙이 침투하는 것으로 나타났다. 특허 출원 및 FDA 승인 이후 Burroughs-Welcome에 의해 AZT의 엄격한 이중 맹검 위약 통제 무작위 시험이 수행되었고, AZT가 HIV를 가진 사람들의 수명을 안전하게 연장한다는 것을 증명했다. Burroughs-Welcome은 1985년에 AZT 특허를 출원했다. 미국 식품의약국(FDA) 감염방지 자문 위원회는 AZT의 승인을 권고하기 위해 10대 1로 투표를 했다. FDA는 1987년 3월 20일, HIV, 에이즈, 그리고 에이즈 관련 복합체에 대한 사용을 위해 그 약을 승인했다. 실험실에서 AZT가 HIV에 대항했다는 최초 입증과 승인 사이의 기간은 25개월로, 최근 역사상 가장 짧은 약물 개발 기간이었다. 그 후 AZT는 1990년에 만장일치로 유아와 아동에 대한 사용이 승인되었다. AZT는 처음에 현재보다 다소 높은 용량(일반적으로 4시간마다 400mg)으로 투여되었다. 그 당시 HIV/AIDS 치료를 위한 대안들의 부족은 HIV로 인한 불가피하게 느리고 흉하며 고통스러운 사망이 일시적인 빈혈과 악성 질환과 같은 약물의 부작용을 능가하면서 건강 위험/유익 비율을 명확하게 확인시켜 주었다. 사회와 문화 1991년, 옹호 단체인 퍼블릭 시티즌은 특허가 무효라며 소송을 제기했다. 그 후, Bar Laboratories와 Novopharm Ltd. 또한 NCI 과학자 사무엘 브로더, 히로아키 미쓰야, 로버트 야르코안이 발명가로 지명되었어야 한다는 주장에 기초하여 특허에 이의를 제기했고, 이 두 회사는 AZT를 일반 의약품으로 판매하기 위해 FDA에 출원했다. 이에 대해 Burroughs-Welcome은 두 회사를 상대로 소송을 제기했다. 미국 연방 순회 항소법원은 1992년에 버로스 웰컴의 손을 들어주면서, 비록 그들이 HIV를 상대로 실험을 한 적은 없지만, NCI 과학자들에게 보내기 전에 HIV에 작동하는 것을 구상했다고 판결했다. 이 소송은 미국 대법원에 상고되었지만 1996년에 그들은 공식적으로 검토하기를 거부했다. Burroughs Welcome Co. v. Bar Laboratories 소송은 미국 발명법에서 획기적인 사건이었다. 2002년, 에이즈 건강관리 재단(AHF)에 의해 또 다른 소송이 제기되었는데, 이 소송 역시 GSK를 상대로 반독점 소송을 제기하였다. 이 특허 소송은 2003년에 기각되었고 AHF는 그 특허에 이의를 제기하는 새로운 소송을 제기했다. GSK의 AZT 특허는 2005년에 만료되었으며, 2005년 9월에 FDA는 세 가지 제네릭 버전을 승인했다. 각주 외부 링크 U.S. National Library of Medicine: Drug Information Portal – Zidovudine 세계 보건 기구 필수 의약품 IARC 2B군 발암 물질 RTT 테트라하이드로퓨란 피리미딘다이온 간독소 아자이드 하이드록시메틸 화합물

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zidovudine

Zidovudine

Zidovudine (ZDV), also known as azidothymidine (AZT), is an antiretroviral medication used to prevent and treat HIV/AIDS. It is generally recommended for use in combination with other antiretrovirals. It may be used to prevent mother-to-child spread during birth or after a needlestick injury or other potential exposure. It is sold both by itself and together as lamivudine/zidovudine and abacavir/lamivudine/zidovudine. It can be used by mouth or by slow injection into a vein. Common side effects include headaches, fever, and nausea. Serious side effects include liver problems, muscle damage, and high blood lactate levels. It is commonly used in pregnancy and appears to be safe for the fetus. ZDV is of the nucleoside analog reverse-transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) class. It works by inhibiting the enzyme reverse transcriptase that HIV uses to make DNA and therefore decreases replication of the virus. Zidovudine was first described in 1964. It was approved in the United States in 1987 and was the first treatment for HIV. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. Medical uses HIV treatment AZT was usually dosed twice a day in combination with other antiretroviral therapies. This approach is referred to as Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART) and is used to prevent the likelihood of HIV resistance. As of 2019, the standard is a three-drug once-daily oral treatment that can include AZT. HIV prevention AZT has been used for post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) in combination with another antiretroviral drug called lamivudine. Together they work to substantially reduce the risk of HIV infection following the first single exposure to the virus. More recently, AZT has been replaced by other antiretrovirals such as tenofovir to provide PEP. Before tenofovir, a principal part of the clinical pathway for both pre-exposure prophylaxis and post-exposure treatment of mother-to-child transmission of HIV during pregnancy, labor, and delivery and has been proven to be integral to uninfected siblings' perinatal and neonatal development. Without AZT, 10–15% of fetuses with HIV-infected mothers will themselves become infected. AZT has been shown to reduce this risk to 8% when given in a three-part regimen post-conception, delivery, and six weeks post-delivery. Consistent and proactive precautionary measures, such as the rigorous use of antiretroviral medications, cesarean section, face masks, heavy-duty rubber gloves, clinically segregated disposable diapers, and avoidance of mouth contact will further reduce child-attendant transmission of HIV to as little as 1–2%. During 1994 to 1999, AZT was the primary form of prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission. AZT prophylaxis prevented more than 1000 parental and infant deaths from AIDS in the United States. In the U.S. at that time, the accepted standard of care for HIV-positive mothers was known as the 076 regimen and involved five daily doses of AZT from the second trimester onwards, as well as AZT intravenously administered during labour. As this treatment was lengthy and expensive, it was deemed unfeasible in the Global South, where mother-to-child transmission was a significant problem. A number of studies were initiated in the late 1990s that sought to test the efficacy of a shorter, simpler regimen for use in 'resource-poor' countries. This AZT short course was an inferior standard of care and would have been considered malpractice if trialed in the US; however, it was nonetheless a treatment that would improve the care and survival of impoverished subjects. Antibacterial properties Zidovudine also has antibacterial properties, though not routinely used in clinical settings. It acts on bacteria with a mechanism of action still not fully explained. Promising results from in vitro and in vivo studies showed the efficacy of AZT also against multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacteria (including mcr-1 carrying and metallo-β-lactamase producing isolates), especially in combination with other active agents (e.g. fosfomycin, colistin, tigecycline). Side effects Most common side-effects include nausea, vomiting, acid reflux (heartburn), headache, cosmetic reduction in abdominal body fat, trouble sleeping, and loss of appetite. Less common side effects include faint discoloration of fingernails and toenails, mood elevation, occasional tingling or transient numbness of the hands or feet, and minor skin discoloration. Allergic reactions are rare. Early long-term higher-dose therapy with AZT was initially associated with side effects that sometimes limited therapy, including anemia, neutropenia, hepatotoxicity, cardiomyopathy, and myopathy. All of these conditions were generally found to be reversible upon reduction of AZT dosages. They have been attributed to several possible causes, including transient depletion of mitochondrial DNA, sensitivity of the γ-DNA polymerase in some cell mitochondria, the depletion of thymidine triphosphate, oxidative stress, reduction of intracellular L-carnitine or apoptosis of the muscle cells. Anemia due to AZT was successfully treated using erythropoetin to stimulate red blood cell production. Drugs that inhibit hepatic glucuronidation, such as indomethacin, nordazepam, acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) and trimethoprim decreased the elimination rate and increased the therapeutic strength of the medication. Today, side-effects are much less common with the use of lower doses of AZT. According to IARC, there is sufficient evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of zidovudine; it is possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B). In 2009, the State of California added zidovudine to its list of chemicals "known to the state of California to cause cancer and other reproductive harm." Viral resistance Even at the highest doses that can be tolerated in patients, AZT is not potent enough to prevent all HIV replication and may only slow the replication of the virus and progression of the disease. Prolonged AZT treatment can lead to HIV developing resistance to AZT by mutation of its reverse transcriptase. To slow the development of resistance, physicians generally recommend that AZT be given in combination with another reverse-transcriptase inhibitor and an antiretroviral from another group, such as a protease inhibitor, non-nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor, or integrase inhibitor; this type of therapy is known as HAART (Highly Active Anti Retroviral Therapy). Mechanism of action AZT is a thymidine analogue. AZT works by selectively inhibiting HIV's reverse transcriptase, the enzyme that the virus uses to make a DNA copy of its RNA. Reverse transcription is necessary for production of HIV's double-stranded DNA, which would be subsequently integrated into the genetic material of the infected cell (where it is called a provirus). Cellular enzymes convert AZT into the effective 5'-triphosphate form. Studies have shown that the termination of HIV's forming DNA chains is the specific factor in the inhibitory effect. At very high doses, AZT's triphosphate form may also inhibit DNA polymerase used by human cells to undergo cell division, but regardless of dosage AZT has an approximately 100-fold greater affinity for HIV's reverse transcriptase. The selectivity has been suggested to be due to the cell's ability to quickly repair its own DNA chain if it is disrupted by AZT during its formation, whereas the HIV virus lacks that ability. Thus AZT inhibits HIV replication without affecting the function of uninfected cells. At sufficiently high dosages, AZT begins to inhibit the cellular DNA polymerase used by mitochondria to replicate, accounting for its potentially toxic but reversible effects on cardiac and skeletal muscles, causing myositis. Chemistry Enantiopure AZT crystallizes in the monoclinic space group P21. The primary intermolecular bonding motif is a hydrogen bonded dimeric ring formed from two N-H...O interactions. History Initial cancer research In the 1960s, the theory that most cancers were caused by environmental retroviruses gained clinical support and funding. It had recently become known, due to the work of Nobel laureates Howard Temin and David Baltimore, that nearly all avian cancers were caused by bird retroviruses, but corresponding human retroviruses had not yet been found. In parallel work, other compounds that successfully blocked the synthesis of nucleic acids had been proven to be both antibacterial, antiviral, and anticancer agents, the leading work being done at the laboratory of Nobel laureates George H. Hitchings and Gertrude Elion, leading to the development of the antitumor agent 6-mercaptopurine. Richard E. Beltz first synthesized AZT in 1961, but did not publish his research.Jerome Horwitz of the Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute and Wayne State University School of Medicine synthesized AZT in 1964 under a US National Institutes of Health (NIH) grant. Development was shelved after it proved biologically inert in mice. In 1974, Wolfram Ostertag of the Max Planck Institute for Experimental Medicine in Göttingen, Germany, reported that AZT specifically targeted Friend virus (strain of murine leukemia virus). This report attracted little interest from other researchers as the Friend leukemia virus is a retrovirus, and at the time, there were no known human diseases caused by retroviruses. HIV/AIDS research In 1983, researchers at the Institut Pasteur in Paris identified the retrovirus now known as the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) as the cause of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in humans. Shortly thereafter, Samuel Broder, Hiroaki Mitsuya, and Robert Yarchoan of the United States National Cancer Institute (NCI) initiated a program to develop therapies for HIV/AIDS. Using a line of CD4+ T cells that they had made, they developed an assay to screen drugs for their ability to protect CD4+ T cells from being killed by HIV. In order to expedite the process of discovering a drug, the NCI researchers actively sought collaborations with pharmaceutical companies having access to libraries of compounds with potential antiviral activity. This assay could simultaneously test both the anti-HIV effect of the compounds and their toxicity against infected T cells. In June 1984, Burroughs-Wellcome virologist Marty St. Clair set up a program to discover drugs with the potential to inhibit HIV replication. Burroughs-Wellcome had expertise in nucleoside analogs and viral diseases, led by researchers including George Hitchings, Gertrude Elion, David Barry, Paul (Chip) McGuirt Jr., Philip Furman, Martha St. Clair, Janet Rideout, Sandra Lehrman and others. Their research efforts were focused in part on the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase. Reverse transcriptase is an enzyme that retroviruses, including HIV, utilize to replicate themselves. Secondary testing was performed in mouse cells infected with the retroviruses Friend virus or Harvey sarcoma virus, as the Wellcome group did not have a viable in-house HIV antiviral assay in place at that time, and these other retroviruses were believed to represent reasonable surrogates. AZT proved to be a remarkably potent inhibitor of both Friend virus and Harvey sarcoma virus, and a search of the company's records showed that it had demonstrated low toxicity when tested for its antibacterial activity in rats many years earlier. Based in part on these results, AZT was selected by nucleoside chemist Janet Rideout as one of 11 compounds to send to the NCI for testing in that organization's HIV antiviral assay. In February 1985, the NCI scientists found that AZT had potent efficacy in vitro. Several months later, a phase 1 clinical trial of AZT at the NCI was initiated at the NCI and Duke University. In doing this Phase I trial, they built on their experience in doing an earlier trial, with suramin, another drug that had shown effective anti-HIV activity in the laboratory. This initial trial of AZT proved that the drug could be safely administered to patients with HIV, that it increased their CD4 counts, restored T cell immunity as measured by skin testing, and that it showed strong evidence of clinical effectiveness, such as inducing weight gain in AIDS patients. It also showed that levels of AZT that worked in vitro could be injected into patients in serum and suppository form, and that the drug penetrated deeply only into infected brains. Patent filed and FDA approval A rigorous double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized trial of AZT was subsequently conducted by Burroughs-Wellcome and proved that AZT safely prolongs the lives of people with HIV. Burroughs-Wellcome filed for a patent for AZT in 1985. The Anti-Infective Advisory Committee to United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) voted ten to one to recommend the approval of AZT. The FDA approved the drug (via the then-new FDA accelerated approval system) for use against HIV, AIDS, and AIDS Related Complex (ARC, a now-obsolete medical term for pre-AIDS illness) on March 20, 1987. The time between the first demonstration that AZT was active against HIV in the laboratory and its approval was 25 months. AZT was subsequently approved unanimously for infants and children in 1990. AZT was initially administered in significantly higher dosages than today, typically 400 mg every four hours, day and night, compared to modern dosage of 300 mg twice daily. The paucity of alternatives for treating HIV/AIDS at that time unambiguously affirmed the health risk/benefit ratio, with inevitable slow, disfiguring, and painful death from HIV outweighing the drug's side-effect of transient anemia and malaise. Society and culture In 1991, the advocacy group Public Citizen filed a lawsuit claiming that the patents were invalid. Subsequently, Barr Laboratories and Novopharm Ltd. also challenged the patent, in part based on the assertion that NCI scientists Samuel Broder, Hiroaki Mitsuya, and Robert Yarchoan should have been named as inventors, and those two companies applied to the FDA to sell AZT as a generic drug. In response, Burroughs Wellcome Co. filed a lawsuit against the two companies. The United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruled in 1992 in favor of Burroughs Wellcome, ruling that even though they had never tested it against HIV, they had conceived of it working before they sent it to the NCI scientists. This suit was appealed up to the Supreme Court of the US, but in 1996 they declined to formally review it. The case, Burroughs Wellcome Co. v. Barr Laboratories, was a landmark in US law of inventorship. In 2002, another lawsuit was filed challenging the patent by the AIDS Healthcare Foundation, which also filed an antitrust case against GSK as well. The patent case was dismissed in 2003 and AHF filed a new case challenging the patent. GSK's patents on AZT expired in 2005, and in September 2005, the FDA approved three generic versions. References External links Organoazides Hepatotoxins IARC Group 2B carcinogens Nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors Pyrimidinediones Tetrahydrofurans GSK plc brands World Health Organization essential medicines Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Hydroxymethyl compounds

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%BC%EB%A7%88%EB%AA%A8%ED%86%A0%20%EB%8D%B0%EC%93%B0%EC%95%BC%20%281985%EB%85%84%29

야마모토 데쓰야 (1985년)

야마모토 데쓰야(, 1985년 9월 4일 ~ )는 일본의 전 프로 야구 선수이며 야구 지도자이다. 현재 일본프로야구 센트럴리그에 도쿄 야쿠르트 스왈로스의 2군 육성 투수 코치이다.와카야마현 히다카군 유라정 출신이며 현역 시절 포지션은 투수였다. 인물 프로 입단 전 초등학교 1학년 때부터 야구를 시작했고 중학교 시절에는 소년 야구팀 ‘와카야마 라이온스’에서 활약했다. 미나베 고등학교에서는 오카모토 요스케의 대기 투수였다. 긴키 대학에서는 3학년 봄부터 등판했는데 3학년 가을에 열린 교토 대학과의 경기에서 첫 선발 등판하여 5피안타 무볼넷으로 완봉승을 거둬 첫 승리 투수가 됐다. 이후 오토나리 겐지에 이은 2선발로서 활약했다. 4학년 가을에는 구원, 마무리로 활약하여 팀 우승에 큰 기여를 했다. 리그 통산 20경기에 등판하여 5승 1패, 평균 자책점 1.25를 남겼고 팀 동기로는 오제 히로유키가 있다. 그 후 미쓰비시 중공업 고베에 입사하여 사회인 야구팀에 소속됐는데 1년째부터 팀의 에이스가 되면서 2년 연속(제79회, 제80회) 팀을 도시 대항 야구 대회의 출전을 이끌었다. 특히 제80회 대회에서는 최고 구속 148km를 기록했다. 2009년 10월 29일에 열린 프로 야구 드래프트 회의에서 도쿄 야쿠르트 스왈로스로부터 2순위 지명을 받았고 그해 11월 27일에 계약금 7,500만 엔, 연봉 1,200만 엔으로 가계약을 맺었다(금액은 추정치). 프로 입단 후 2010년에는 시범 경기에 첫 등판하여 호투했지만 경기 종료 후 팔꿈치 통증을 호소했고, 정밀검사 결과 인대가 끊어진 것으로 판명됐다. 토미 존 수술을 받았기 때문에 1군과 2군에서의 단 한 번도 출전하지 못한 채로 시즌을 마쳤다. 2011년에는 팔꿈치 부상의 영향으로 이렇다 할 만한 활약을 보여주지 못했고 1군에서의 성적은 9경기에 등판하여 승리없이 1패만 기록했다. 2012년에는 시즌 중반에 토니 바넷이 전력에서 이탈한 이후 셋업맨으로 자리잡았고 그해 50경기에 등판하여 2승 2패, 17홀드, 1.21의 평균 자책점으로 좋은 성적을 남겼다. 2013년에도 셋업맨으로서 시즌 개막을 맞이했지만 바넷의 부진으로 시즌 초반부터는 마무리 투수로 보직이 변경되면서 시즌 11세이브를 기록했다. 시즌 중반부터는 신인이던 이시야마 다이치와의 배치 전환에 의해 다시 셋업맨이 되면서 개인 최다인 64경기에 등판, 25홀드를 기록했다. 2014년에는 투수진이 전체적으로 저조한 모습을 보여 개막 후 7경기 중 6경기에 등판하는 등 시즌 초반부터 등판을 거듭했다. 7월에는 3경기 연속으로 실점을 내주면서 한 번은 1군 등록이 말소됐지만 3년 연속 50경기 등판을 넘겼다. 그런 한편으로 홀드수, 평균 자책점에서는 전년도에 비해 성적이 떨어졌다. 2015년에는 1군에서의 17경기 등판에만 그쳤고 같은 해 9월에는 두 번째의 오른쪽 팔꿈치 인대 재건 수술(토미 존 수술)을 받았다. 이듬해 2016년에는 전년도 팔꿈치 수술의 영향으로 1군 등판은 없었다. 2018년 9월 30일에 현역에서 은퇴하겠다는 입장을 밝혔고 같은 해 10월 8일 메이지 진구 야구장에서 열린 한신 타이거스전의 7회초에 은퇴 등판하여 상대 타자 요카와 나오마사를 중견수 뜬공으로 처리했고 마찬가지로 이 해를 끝으로 은퇴하는 마쓰오카 겐이치와 교체됐다. 상세 정보 출신 학교 와카야마 현립 미나베 고등학교 긴키 대학 선수 경력 사회인 시대 미쓰비시 중공업 고베 프로팀 경력 도쿄 야쿠르트 스왈로스(2010년 ~ 2018년) 지도자 경력 도쿄 야쿠르트 스왈로스 2군 육성 투수 코치(2022년 ~ ) 개인 기록 첫 기록 첫 등판 : 2011년 8월 20일, 대 요미우리 자이언츠 19차전(도쿄 돔), 6회말에 2번째 투수로서 구원 등판, 1이닝 무실점 첫 탈삼진 : 상동, 6회말에 사카모토 하야토로부터 루킹 삼진 첫 홀드 : 2012년 6월 27일, 대 요코하마 DeNA 베이스타스 7차전(셀룰러 스타디움 나하), 7회말 2사에 2번째 투수로서 구원 등판, 1/3이닝 무실점 첫 승리 : 2012년 6월 29일, 대 한신 타이거스 6차전(메이지 진구 야구장), 8회초 1사에 6번째 투수로서 구원 등판, 2/3이닝 무실점 첫 세이브 : 2013년 4월 23일, 대 히로시마 도요 카프 4차전(메이지 진구 야구장), 9회초에 4번째 투수로서 구원 등판·마무리, 1이닝 무실점 기타 올스타전 출장 : 1회(2013년) 등번호 20(2010년 ~ 2018년) 92(2021년 ~ ) 연도별 투수 성적 각주 외부 링크 1985년 출생 살아있는 사람 일본의 야구 선수 일본 프로 야구 투수 도쿄 야쿠르트 스왈로스 선수 긴키 대학 동문 와카야마현 출신 와카야마현의 야구 선수 20세기 대한민국 사람 21세기 대한민국 사람

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetsuya%20Yamamoto

Tetsuya Yamamoto

is a professional Japanese baseball player. He plays pitcher for the Tokyo Yakult Swallows. External links NPB.com 1985 births Living people Baseball people from Wakayama Prefecture Japanese baseball players Nippon Professional Baseball pitchers Tokyo Yakult Swallows players Japanese baseball coaches Nippon Professional Baseball coaches

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8B%AC%EA%B6%A4%EB%8F%84%20%EB%9E%91%EB%8D%B0%EB%B6%80

달궤도 랑데부

달궤도 랑데부( LOR )는 인간을 달표면에 효율적으로 착륙시킨 후 지구로 귀환시키는데 필요한 핵심 개념이다. 1960년대와 1970년대에 아폴로 계획 임무에 활용되었다. LOR 임무에서는 주 우주선과 이보다 작은 달 착륙선이 달의 궤도까지 운항한 후, 주 우주선은 달 궤도에 머물러 있는 상태에서 달 착륙선만 달의 표면까지 독자적으로 내려 간다. 임무를 마친 후, 달 착륙선은 달 궤도로 복귀하여 주 우주선과 랑데부 및 재 도킹하고 승무원과 화물이 주 우주선으로 이동되면 달착륙선을 분리하여 폐기하고, 주 우주선만 지구로 귀환한다. 달궤도 랑데부는 달 표면에 인간을 보내어 왕복 여행시키는 가장 경제적인 방법으로 1919년 구 소련 우크라이나의 공학자인 유리 콘드라튜크(Yuri Kondratyuk)에 의하여 제안된 것으로 처음 알려졌다. 가장 유명한 사례는 하나의 로켓단으로 지구달 횡단 항로에 보내진 아폴로 사령서비스선(CSM)과 아폴로 달착륙선(LM)이다. 그런데 셔틀유도 고중량 발사체(Shuttle-Derived Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle)와 골든 스파이크(Golden Spike)와 같이 착륙선과 주우주선이 따로 운항하는 변종도 달궤도 랑데부로 분류된다. 장점과 단점 장점 LOR의 가장 큰 장점은 달의 궤도에서 지구로 되돌아 올 때 사용하는 추진체를 불필요한 "사중 (dead weight)"으로 달궤도에서 달 표면까지 왕복시킬 필요가 없기 때문에 우주선의 화물 중량을 감소시킬 수 있다는 점이다. 사후에 사용되는 사중(dead weight) 추진체는 그 킬로그램당 더 많은 킬로그램의 추진체에 의해 사전에 추진되어야 하는데, 추진체의 증가는 탱크 중량의 증가를 필요로 하므로 승수효과가 발생한다. 그 결과 중량의 증가는 달 착륙시 더 많은 추력을 필요로하며, 이는 크고 무거운 엔진을 의미하게 된다. 또 다른 장점으로는 달 착륜선 이외의 주 우주선도 달 착륙에 적합하도록 설계할 필요가 없고 달 착륙선만을 그 목적을 위하여 설계되도록 할 수 있다는 점이다. 마지막으로, 달 착륙선에 필요한 생명 유지 시스템의 두 번째 세트는 주 우주선 시스템을 위한 백업 역할을 할 수 있어, 주 우주선의 생명 유지 시스템을 사용할 수 없을 때에 달 착륙선의 생명 유지 시스템을 활용할 수 있다는 장점이 있다. 단점 1962년 당시에는 지구 궤도에서도 우주 랑데부가 수행된 적이 없었기 때문에 달궤도 랑데부는 위험한 것으로 생각되었다. 만일 달 착륙선(LM)이 사령서비스 모듈(CSM)에 도달 할 수 없게 되면, 두 명의 우주 비행사는 대기로 재진입하여 지구로 귀환하는 것이 불가능하게 된다. 그런데 1965년과 1966년의 6회의 제미니 계획 미션에서 레이더와 기내 탑재 컴퓨터의 도움으로 랑데부가 성공적으로 시연되어 이러한 우려는 근거없는 것으로 판명되었다. 아폴로 계획에서도 8번의 달궤도 랑데부 시도가 성공적으로 수행되었다. 아폴로 미션 모드의 선택 1961년 아폴로 달 착륙 프로그램이 시작되었을 때, 3인의 사령선/서비스모듈(CSM)의 조합이 달 표면에서 이륙하여 지구로 돌아올 때 사용되는 것으로 예정하였다. 따라서 착륙 장치용 다리가 달린 대형 로켓 단으로 달에 착륙하여야 하므로 무게가 가 되는 매우 큰 우주선을 달에 보내야 한다. 이것이 (단일 발사체에서) 직접 상승으로 수행되었다면, 요구되는 로켓은 노바 클래스와 같이 매우 커야 한다. 이것에 대한 대안은 지구궤도 랑데부였을 것인데, 새턴 급의 로켓으로 완전한 우주선의 일부를 나누어 발사하여 지구 궤도상에서 달을 향해 출발하기 전에 랑데부할 것이다. 여기에서는 지구 출발 단계를 별도로 발사하거나 출발 단계에 대한 궤도상의 연료 재공급이 필요할 수도 있다. 톰 돌란(Tom Dolan)은 달 궤도 랑데부의 대안을 제시하였는데, 이는 1960년대 초기의 아폴로 프로그램의 타당상 연구에서 우주 태스크 그룹(Space Task Group)의 짐 챔벌린(Jim Chamberlin) 과 오웬 메이나드(Owen Maynard)에 의하여 연구 및 추진되었다. 이 모드에서는 하나의 새턴 V을 이용하여 더 작은 LUM( Lunar Excursion Module )과 함께 CSM을 달에 발사할 수 있다. 결합 된 우주선이 달의 궤도에 도달하면 세 우주 비행사 중 한 우주 비행사가 CSM을 유지하고 다른 두 우주인은 LEM에 들어가서 달 표면으로 내려간다. 그런 다음 LEM의 상승 단계를 사용하여 달 궤도의 CSM에 다시 합류 한 다음 LEM을 버리고 CSM을 사용하여 지구로 돌아온다. 이 방법은 개발팀을 이끈 랭글리 연구센터(Langley Research Center)의 엔지니어 존 휴볼트(John C. Houbolt)에 의하여 NASA의 부국장(Associate Administrator)인 로버트 시먼스(Robert Seamans)의 관심을 끌게 되었다. 탑재량이 적게 든다는 것 외에도, LOR 방식의 또 다른 이점은 바로 착륙 전용으로 설계된 달 착륙선을 사용할 수 있다는 것이다. LEM의 설계로 인해 우주 비행사는 관측창을 통해 대략 상공에서 착륙 지점을 명확하게 볼 수 있게 되는데, 이는 사령선(Command Module) 착륙선 방식에서는 적어도 높이에서 착륙지점이 등뒷쪽에 있게 되어 텔레비전 스크린을 통해서만 착륙지점을 보게 되는 것과 대비된다. LEM을 제2의 유인 차량으로 개발하면 여분의 중요 시스템(전력, 생명 유지 및 추진)의 이점이 제공되어 CSM 시스템의 중요한 오류가 발생한 경우, 우주 비행사의 생존을 가능하게 하고 우주 비행사를 안전하게 구할 수 있는 "구명정"으로 사용할 수 있게 된다. 이는 비상 사태로 계획되었지만 LEM 사양에 포함되지는 않았다. 결과적으로, 이 기능은 산소 탱크 장애로 인해 서비스 모듈의 기능이 정지되는 심각한 장애가 발생한 1970년의 아폴로 13호 임무에서 매우 중요했다. 옹호론 존 휴볼트 박사(Dr. John Houbolt)는 LOR의 장점이 그냥 지나쳐 버리도록 하지 않았다. 월면임무 운영그룹(Lunar Mission Steering Group)의 일원으로서 휴볼트는 1959년부터 우주 랑데부의 다양한 기술적 측면을 연구 해 왔는데, 우주 랑데부 기술이야말로 1960년대 내에 달나라로 인간을 보낼 수 있는 가장 타당성 있고 유일한 방법이라는 것을 랭글리 연구 센터(Langley Research Center)의 일부 연구원과 마찬가지로 확신했다. 그는 여러번 NASA에 자신의 연구 결과를 보고했으나, 그가 제안을 발표한 내부 태스크 포스가 임의로 설정된 "기본 원칙"을 따르고 있는 것으로 강하게 느꼈다. 휴볼트에 따르면 이 기본 규칙은 NASA의 달 착륙에 대한 방안을 제한하여 LOR이 공정하게 고려되기도 전에 배제되도록 하였다. 1961년 11월, 휴볼트는 정식 통로를 건너 뛰어서 9 페이지 길이의 개인 서신을 로버트 시먼스(부국장)에게 직접 작성하는 대담한 조치를 취했습니다. 휴볼트는 달궤도 랑데부의 배제에 항의하면서 "달나라에 가고 싶은건지 아닌지?"라고 "광기의 목소리와도 같이" 물었다고 랭글리 엔지니어인 휴볼트가 말했다. "왜 노바는 엄청난 크기에도 불구하고 그냥 받아들여지는데, 달궤도 랑데부를 포함하는 훨씬 작은 크기의 계획은 왜 고려 대상에서 배제되는가? 나는 이런 방식으로 연락하는 것이 다소 비공식적이라는 것을 충분히 알고 있지만, 예외적인 절차가 필요할 정도로 중요한 문제이다."라고 휴볼트는 인정했다. 시먼스가 휴볼트의 특별한 편지에 답장하는 데 2 주가 걸렸다. 홍보 관리자는 "자격을 갖춘 직원이 제한된 지침에 의해 부당하게 제한되면 우리 조직과 국가에 극히 해로울 것"이라고 동의했습니다. 그는 NASA가 앞으로도 달궤도 랑데부에 더욱 많은 관심을 기울일 것이라고 휴볼트에게 확신 시켰습니다. 그 다음 달에 NASA는 바로 그 일을 하고, 미 우주항공국 내외의 많은 사람들이 깜짝 놀랍게도 다크호스였던 달궤도 랑데부가 곧바로 선두 주자가 되었다. 몇 가지 요인들이 문제를 호의적으로 결정되게 하였는데, 첫째로, 지름의 새턴 V형의 로켓에 비하여 지름의 노바 로켓의 개발에 필요한 시간과 돈 때문에 직접 상승(direct ascend) 아이디어에 대한 비호감이 증가하였다. 둘째, 지구 궤도 랑데뷰에서 요구되는 상대적으로 큰 우주선을 달에서의 연착륙으로 기동하는 방법에 대한 기술적인 우려가 커진 점 때문이다. 마음을 바꾼 NASA 기술자 한 명이 다음과 같이 설명했다 : 달에 이르기까지 눈을 뗄 수없는 사업은 만족스러운 답을 얻지 못했습니다. LOR의 가장 좋은 점은 착륙을 위한 별도의 차량을 만들 수 있다는 것입니다. 달궤도 랑데부에 찬성하여 반대 그룹을 탈퇴한 첫번째 주요 그룹으로는, 당시 랭글리에 있었지만 곧 휴스턴으로 이사 할 로버드 길루스(Robert Gilruth)의 우주 작업 그룹(Space Task Group)이었다. 두 번째는 앨라바마 주 헌츠빌(Huntsville)에 있는 마샬 우주 비행 센터 (Marshall Space Flight Center)의 폰 브라운 (Von Braun) 팀이었다. 그 후에 이 두 강력한 개종자 집단과 랭글리의 진정한 신자들과 함께 NASA 본부의 주요 관리들, 특히 직접 상승을 기다리고 있었던 관리자 제임스 웹을 설득하여 달궤도 랑데부가 달에 인간을 착륙시킬 수 있는 유일한 방법이라는 것을 설득하였다. NASA 내부의 핵심 인사들이 이 개념을 지지하면서, 제임스 웹은 1962년 7월 달궤도 랑데부를 승인하고, 1962년 7월 11일 기자 회견에서 공식 발표되었다. 그러나 케네디 대통령의 과학 고문인 제롬 위즈너는 달궤도 랑데부에 끝까지 강하게 반대하였다. LOR을 사용하는 다른 계획들 소련에서 제안된 N1 로켓, LK Lander 와 Soyuz 7K-LOK를 사용하는 달 착륙 계획은 이와 유사한 LOR 임무 프로필을 사용할 예정이었다. 취소 된 컨스텔레이션 계획에서 달 착륙은 지구 궤도 랑데부 와 달 궤도 랑데부의 조합을 사용했을 것이다. 2019년에 예정된 중국의 창어 5호의 월석 표본 반환 계획에서는 로봇에 의한 달 랑데부가 사용될 예정이다. 대중 문화에서 텔레비전 미니 시리즈인 지구에서 달까지 의 제5편인 "스파이더"에서는 1961년 아폴로 프로그램에 미 항공 우주국 (NASA)이 LOR을 채택하도록 설득하는 존 휴볼트의 첫 번째 시도를 극화하고, 최초의 유인 시험 비행인 1969년 아폴로 9 호까지의 달착륙선(LM)의 발전 과정을 추적하였다. 이 편의 이름인 스파이더는 Apollo 9호의 LM의 이름을 따서 지은 것이다. 각주 주해 출전 참고 문헌 아폴로 계획

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar%20orbit%20rendezvous

Lunar orbit rendezvous

Lunar orbit rendezvous (LOR) is a process for landing humans on the Moon and returning them to Earth. It was utilized for the Apollo program missions in the 1960s and 1970s. In a LOR mission, a main spacecraft and a smaller lunar lander travel to lunar orbit. The lunar lander then independently descends to the surface of the Moon, while the main spacecraft remains in lunar orbit. After completion of the mission there, the lander returns to lunar orbit to rendezvous and re-dock with the main spacecraft, then is discarded after transfer of crew and payload. Only the main spacecraft returns to Earth. Lunar orbit rendezvous was first proposed in 1919 by Ukrainian engineer Yuri Kondratyuk, as the most economical way of sending a human on a round-trip journey to the Moon. The most famous example involved Project Apollo's command and service module (CSM) and lunar module (LM), where they were both sent to a translunar flight in a single rocket stack. However, variants where the landers and main spacecraft travel separately, such as the lunar landing plans proposed for Shuttle-Derived Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle, Golden Spike and the 2029/2030 Chinese crewed effort, are also considered to be lunar orbit rendezvous. Advantages and disadvantages Advantages The main advantage of LOR is the spacecraft payload saving, due to the fact that the propellant necessary to return from lunar orbit back to Earth need not be carried as dead weight down to the Moon and back into lunar orbit. This has a multiplicative effect, because each pound of "dead weight" propellant used later has to be propelled by more propellant sooner, and also because increased propellant requires increased tankage weight. The resultant weight increase would also require more thrust for lunar landing, which means larger and heavier engines. Another advantage is that the lunar lander can be designed for just that purpose, rather than requiring the main spacecraft to also be made suitable for a lunar landing. Finally, the second set of life support systems that the lunar lander requires can serve as a backup for the systems in the main spacecraft. Disadvantage Lunar-orbit rendezvous was considered risky as of 1962, because space rendezvous had not been achieved, even in Earth orbit. If the LM could not reach the CSM, two astronauts would be stranded with no way to get back to Earth or survive re-entry into the atmosphere. The fear proved to be unfounded, as rendezvous was successfully demonstrated in 1965 and 1966 on six Project Gemini missions with the aid of radar and on-board computers. It was also successfully done each of the eight times it was tried on Apollo missions. Apollo Mission mode selection When the Apollo Moon landing program was started in 1961, it was assumed that the three-man command and service module combination (CSM) would be used for takeoff from the lunar surface, and return to Earth. It would therefore have to be landed on the Moon by a larger rocket stage with landing gear legs, resulting in a very large spacecraft (in excess of ) to be sent to the Moon. If this were done by direct ascent (on a single launch vehicle), the rocket required would have to be extremely large, in the Nova class. The alternative to this would have been Earth orbit rendezvous, in which two or more rockets in the Saturn class would launch parts of the complete spacecraft, which would rendezvous in Earth orbit before departing for the Moon. This would possibly include a separately launched Earth departure stage, or require on-orbit refueling of the empty departure stage. Wernher von Braun and Heinz-Hermann Koelle of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency presented lunar orbit rendezvous, as an option for reaching the Moon efficiently, to the heads of NASA, including Abe Silverstein, in December 1958. During 1959 Conrad Lau of the Chance-Vought Astronautics Division supervised a complete mission plan using lunar orbit rendezvous which was then sent to Silverstein at NASA in January 1960. Tom Dolan, who worked for Lau, was sent to explain the company's proposal to NASA engineers and management in February 1960. This alternative was then studied and promoted by Jim Chamberlin and Owen Maynard at the Space Task Group in the 1960 early Apollo feasibility studies. This mode allowed a single Saturn V to launch the CSM to the Moon with a smaller Lunar Excursion Modul (LEM). When the combined spacecraft reaches lunar orbit, one of the three astronauts remains with the CSM, while the other two enter the LEM, undock and descend to the surface of the Moon. They then use the ascent stage of the LEM to rejoin the CSM in lunar orbit, then discard the LEM and use the CSM for the return to Earth. This method was brought to the attention of NASA Associate Administrator Robert Seamans by Langley Research Center engineer John C. Houbolt, who led a team to develop it. Besides requiring less payload, the ability to use a lunar lander designed just for that purpose was another advantage of the LOR approach. The LEM's design gave the astronauts a clear view of their landing site through observation windows approximately above the surface, as opposed to being on their backs in a Command Module lander, at least above the surface, able to see it only through a television screen. Developing the LEM as a second crewed vehicle provided the further advantage of redundant critical systems (electrical power, life support, and propulsion), which enabled it to be used as a "lifeboat" to keep the astronauts alive and get them home safely in the event of a critical CSM system failure. This was envisioned as a contingency, but not made a part of the LEM specifications. As it turned out, this capability proved invaluable in 1970, saving the lives of the Apollo 13 astronauts when an oxygen tank explosion disabled the Service Module. Advocacy Dr. John Houbolt would not let the advantages of LOR be ignored. As a member of Lunar Mission Steering Group, Houbolt had been studying various technical aspects of space rendezvous since 1959 and was convinced, like several others at Langley Research Center, that LOR was not only the most feasible way to make it to the Moon before the decade was out, it was the only way. He had reported his findings to NASA on various occasions but felt strongly that the internal task forces (to which he made presentations) were following arbitrarily established "ground rules." According to Houbolt, these ground rules were constraining NASA's thinking about the lunar mission—and causing LOR to be ruled out before it was fairly considered. In November 1961, Houbolt took the bold step of skipping proper channels and writing a nine-page private letter directly to associate administrator Robert C. Seamans. "Somewhat as a voice in the wilderness," Houbolt protested LOR's exclusion. "Do we want to go to the Moon or not?" the Langley engineer asked. "Why is Nova, with its ponderous size simply just accepted, and why is a much less grandiose scheme involving rendezvous ostracized or put on the defensive? I fully realize that contacting you in this manner is somewhat unorthodox," Houbolt admitted, "but the issues at stake are crucial enough to us all that an unusual course is warranted." It took two weeks for Seamans to reply to Houbolt's letter. The associate administrator agreed that "it would be extremely harmful to our organization and to the country if our qualified staff were unduly limited by restrictive guidelines." He assured Houbolt that NASA would in the future be paying more attention to LOR than it had up to this time. In the following months, NASA did just that, and to the surprise of many both inside and outside the agency, LOR quickly became the front runner. Several factors decided the issue in its favor. First, there was growing disenchantment with the idea of direct ascent due to the time and money it was going to take to develop a diameter Nova rocket, compared to the diameter Saturn V. Second, there was increasing technical apprehension over how the relatively large spacecraft demanded by Earth-orbit rendezvous would be able to maneuver to a soft landing on the Moon. As one NASA engineer who changed his mind explained: The business of eyeballing that thing down to the Moon really didn't have a satisfactory answer. The best thing about LOR was that it allowed us to build a separate vehicle for landing. The first major group to change its opinion in favor of LOR was Robert Gilruth's Space Task Group, which was still located at Langley but was soon to move to Houston as the Manned Spacecraft Center. The second to come over was Wernher von Braun's team at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. These two powerful groups, along with the engineers who had originally developed the plan at Langley, persuaded key officials at NASA Headquarters, notably Administrator James Webb, who had been holding out for direct ascent, that LOR was the only way to land on the Moon by 1969. Webb approved LOR in July 1962. The decision was officially announced at a press conference on July 11, 1962. President Kennedy's science adviser, Jerome Wiesner, remained firmly opposed to LOR. Other plans using LOR The proposed Soviet lunar landing plan, using the N1 rocket, LK Lander and Soyuz 7K-LOK, would have used a similar LOR mission profile. The Constellation program would have used a combination of EOR and LOR for Moon landing. The Artemis program plans to use LOR to land humans on the lunar south pole region. In popular culture Episode 5 of the 1998 television miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, "Spider", dramatizes John Houbolt's first attempt to convince NASA to adopt LOR for the Apollo Program in 1961, and traces the development of the LM up to its first crewed test flight, Apollo 9, in 1969. The episode is named after the Apollo 9 Lunar Module. See also Lunar orbit insertion Trans-lunar injection Trans-Earth injection Notes References Citations Bibliography External links Spaceflight concepts Apollo program Space rendezvous

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BA%90%EB%9F%B0%20%EC%B9%B4%EB%8B%88

캐런 카니

캐런 줄리아 카니(, 1987년 8월 1일 ~ )는 잉글랜드의 전직 여자 축구 선수로 선수 시절 포지션은 윙어였다. 클럽 경력 캐런 카니는 11세 시절이던 1998년에 버밍엄 시티에 입단하면서 선수 생활을 시작했다. 14세 시절이던 2001년에 열린 풀럼과의 경기에 출전하면서 FA 여자 프리미어리그 내셔널 디비전 무대에 데뷔했다. 2006년 7월 13일에 아스널로 이적했고 2006-07 시즌에서는 아스널의 FA 여자 프리미어리그 우승, FA 여자컵 우승, FA 위민스 프리미어리그컵, UEFA 여자컵(현재의 UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그) 우승에 기여했다. 2006년부터 2009년까지 아스널 소속으로 활약하던 동안에는 리그 54경기(2006-07 시즌 21경기, 2007-08 시즌 20경기, 2008-09 시즌 13경기)에 출전하여 28골(2006-07 시즌 10골, 2007-08 시즌 10골, 2008-09 시즌 8골)을 기록했고 리그, 컵 대회, 리그컵, UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그에서는 전체 91경기(2006-07 시즌 36경기, 2007-08 시즌 34경기, 2008-09 시즌 21경기)에 출전하여 42골(2006-07 시즌 13골, 2007-08 시즌 17골, 2008-09 시즌 12골)을 기록했다. 2008년 9월 24일에는 미국 여자 프로 축구(WPS) 인터내셔널 드래프트 3라운드에서 19번째로 시카고 레드 스타스에 지명되었다. 2009년 1월 27일을 기해 시카고 레드 스타스로 이적했는데 아스널에서 코치를 역임했던 에마 헤이스가 시카고 레드 스타스의 감독으로 임명되어 주목을 받기도 했다. 2011년에 버밍엄 시티로 복귀했고 2012년에는 버밍엄 시티의 FA 여자컵 우승에 기여했다. 2014년 10월에는 2014년 7월에 열린 브리스틀 아카데미(현재의 브리스틀 시티)와의 경기에서 브리스틀 아카데미 소속으로 뛰고 있던 스페인의 여자 축구 선수인 나탈리아 파블로스에게 욕설을 한 사실이 문제가 되어 잉글랜드 축구 협회로부터 1경기 출전 정지 처분을 받기도 했다. 2015년 3월에는 여자 축구 선수로는 처음으로 버밍엄 시티 명예의 전당에 이름을 올렸다. 2015년 12월에는 첼시와 2년 계약을 체결했는데 첼시의 에마 헤이스 감독은 캐런 카니를 "세계 정상급 여자 축구 선수"라고 평가하기도 했다. 2017-18 시즌에서는 첼시의 FA 여자 슈퍼리그 우승, FA 여자컵 우승에 기여했다. 2018년 10월에는 피오렌티나와의 UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 경기에서 페널티킥을 성공시키면서 첼시의 1-0 승리에 기여했는데 인터넷에서 성 차별적인 공격을 받기도 했다. 국가대표 경력 캐런 카니는 2005년 2월 17일에 열린 이탈리아와의 친선 경기에 교체 출전하면서 잉글랜드 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수로 데뷔했다. 잉글랜드는 해당 경기에서 4-1 승리를 기록했고 캐런 카니는 해당 경기에서 자신의 국가대표팀 첫 골을 기록했다. 캐런 카니는 잉글랜드 여자 축구 국가대표팀 감독을 역임하고 있던 호프 파월로부터 국가대표팀 선수로 발탁된 가장 젊은 선수였다. 잉글랜드에서 개최된 UEFA 여자 유로 2005에서는 핀란드와의 조별 예선 경기에서 후반전 추가 시간에 결승골을 기록하여 잉글랜드의 3-2 승리를 안겨주면서 언론의 주목을 받았다. 2005년과 2006년에는 잉글랜드 축구 협회로부터 올해의 여자 청소년 축구 선수로 선정되었고 중국에서 개최된 2007년 FIFA 여자 월드컵, 핀란드에서 개최된 UEFA 여자 유로 2009, 독일에서 개최된 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵, 스웨덴에서 개최된 UEFA 여자 유로 2013에 참가했다. 호프 파월 감독은 네덜란드와의 UEFA 여자 유로 2009 준결승전 경기에서 제시카 클라크의 페이스와 에너지를 활용하여 네덜란드의 풀백을 지치도록 만들었고 교체 출전한 캐런 카니에게 결정적인 효과를 안겨주면서 잉글랜드의 2-1 승리에 기여했다. 잉글랜드는 UEFA 여자 유로 2009 결승전 경기에서 독일에 2-6으로 패배하면서 준우승을 차지하게 된다. 캐런 카니는 2012년 런던 하계 올림픽에서 영국 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수로 참가했는데 영국은 캐나다와의 8강전 경기에서 0-2로 패배하면서 탈락하고 만다. 캐런 카니는 2014년 11월 23일에 열린 독일과의 친선 경기에서 A매치 100경기 출전 기록을 수립했는데 잉글랜드는 해당 경기에서 독일에 0-3으로 패배하고 만다. 이 기록은 잉글랜드 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수로는 통산 4번째에 해당하는 A매치 100경기 출전 기록이다. 2015년에는 마크 샘프슨 잉글랜드 여자 축구 국가대표팀 감독으로부터 캐나다에서 개최된 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에 참가한 잉글랜드 여자 축구 국가대표팀 명단에 포함되었다. 캐런 카니는 멕시코와의 조별 예선 경기(잉글랜드는 멕시코에 2-1 승리를 기록함)에서 1골, 콜롬비아와의 조별 예선 경기(잉글랜드는 콜롬비아에 2-1 승리를 기록함)에서 1골을 기록했고 잉글랜드는 해당 대회에서 3위를 차지하여 역대 최고 성적을 수립했다. 2017년에는 잉글랜드의 여자 축구에 헌신한 공로를 인정받아 영국 왕실로부터 새해를 맞이하기 위한 차원에서 대영 제국 훈장을 받았고 네덜란드에서 개최된 UEFA 여자 유로 2017에 참가했다. 캐런 카니는 프랑스에서 개최된 2019년 FIFA 여자 월드컵을 끝으로 국가대표팀에서 은퇴했는데 잉글랜드는 스웨덴과의 2019년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 3·4위전 경기에서 1-2로 패배하면서 4위를 차지하게 된다. 수상 클럽 버밍엄 시티 FA 여자컵 1회 우승 (2012) 아스널 FA 여자 프리미어리그 내셔널 디비전 3회 우승 (2005-06, 2006-07, 2007-08) FA 여자컵 3회 우승 (2005-06, 2006-07, 2007-08) FA 여자 프리미어리그컵 1회 우승 (2006-07) FA 여자 커뮤니티 실드 1회 우승 (2005-06) UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 1회 우승 (2006-07) 첼시 FA 여자 슈퍼리그 1회 우승 (2017-18) FA 여자컵 1회 우승 (2017-18) 국가대표 2009년 키프로스컵 우승 UEFA 여자 유로 2009 준우승 2013년 키프로스컵 우승 2015년 키프로스컵 우승 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 3위 2019년 시빌리브스컵 우승 개인 버밍엄 시티 명예의 전당 등록 각주 외부 링크 캐런 카니 프로필 - 잉글랜드 축구 협회 1987년 출생 살아있는 사람 잉글랜드의 여자 축구 선수 잉글랜드 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 여자 축구 공격수 FIFA 센추리 클럽 여자 선수 첼시 FC 위민의 축구 선수 아스널 WFC의 축구 선수 버밍엄 시티 WFC의 축구 선수 UEFA 여자 유로 2005 참가 선수 2007년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 UEFA 여자 유로 2009 참가 선수 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 UEFA 여자 유로 2013 참가 선수 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 UEFA 여자 유로 2017 참가 선수 2019년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 영국의 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 2012년 하계 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 러프버러 대학교 동문 FA 여자 슈퍼리그의 축구 선수 미국에 거주한 잉글랜드인 시카고 레드 스타스의 축구 선수 잉글랜드의 해외 진출 여자 축구 선수 미국의 외국인 여자 축구 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen%20Carney

Karen Carney

Karen Julia Carney (born 1 August 1987) is an English sports journalist and former professional footballer who played as a winger and midfielder. Carney has been a regular broadcaster for live football on Sky Sports, ITV and Amazon Prime, including Women's Super League and men's Premier League matches since 2019. She is also a sports columnist for BBC Sport, BBC Radio 5 Live, BBC Television, and The Guardian. Carney began her career at Birmingham City and was twice named FA Young Player of the Year in 2005 and 2006. After signing with Arsenal, she experienced great success in 2006–07 winning the UEFA Women's Cup and all three domestic trophies: the FA Women's Premier League, FA Women's Cup, and the FA Women's Premier League Cup. Following two seasons with Chicago Red Stars in the American Women's Professional Soccer (WPS), Carney re-joined Birmingham City from 2011 to 2015. Carney finished her career with Chelsea where she was named Player of the Year in 2016 and captained the club to an FA Women's Cup title in 2017–18. She retired in July 2019. Carney made her senior international debut for England in 2005. She represented England at four FIFA Women's World Cups (2007, 2011, 2015 and 2019) and at four UEFA Women's Championships (2005, 2009, 2013 and 2017). At the time of her retirement, she was the second most capped England player with 144 appearances, although this has since been surpassed by Jill Scott. She also represented Great Britain at the 2012 Summer Olympics. In 2015, Carney was inducted into Birmingham City's Hall of Fame, and 2021, she was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame. In 2017, she was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) for services to football. Club career Birmingham City, 2005–06 Carney joined Birmingham City Ladies at the age of 11 and played at various age levels for the club alongside the likes of Eniola Aluko and Laura Bassett. She made her first-team debut for Birmingham City in the FA Women's Premier League National Division against Fulham Ladies at the age of 14. She earned FA National Young Player of the Year honors in 2005 and 2006. Move to Arsenal, 2006–09 Carney joined Arsenal Ladies on 13 July 2006, and played a major part in the team that won four major honours in the 2006/07 season: the FA Women's Premier League, FA Women's Cup, FA Women's Premier League Cup, and the UEFA Women's Cup. She made 21 appearances in the Premier League in her first season and scored 10 goals. In all competitions, she made 36 appearances and scored 13 goals. The following season saw Carney take on a greater role at Arsenal. She made 20 Premier League appearances and scored 10 goals. In all competitions, she made 34 appearances and scored 17 goals. 2008–09 marked Carney's final season with Arsenal. She made 13 Premier League appearances and scored eight goals. In all competitions, she made 21 appearances and scored 12 goals. Chicago Red Stars, 2009–10 After a new professional league was announced in the United States, Carney was selected by Chicago Red Stars in the third round (19th overall) of the 2008 WPS International Draft. The Red Stars made Carney their first signing on 27 January 2009. It was confirmed the following day by Arsenal. She joined Head Coach Emma Hayes, who had served as Arsenal's first team assistant coach. In the inaugural 2009 Women's Professional Soccer season, Carney appeared in and started 17 games (1471 minutes) and scored two goals while assisting on another. She scored her first goal for the club during a 4–0 win against the Boston Breakers. The Red Stars finished in sixth place with a record. During the 2010 season, Carney competed in 21 matches. She scored the game-winning goal against Sky Blue FC on 2 August lifting Chicago to a 2–1 win on her birthday. The Red Stars finished the regular season in sixth place with a record. Return to Birmingham City, 2011–15 After Chicago Red Stars folded ahead of the 2011 season, Carney re-signed for Birmingham City. During the 2011 FA WSL, she started in all 13 matches and scored 3 goals helping lift the club to a second-place finish. During a 4–0 win against Bristol City, Carney scored a brace. She scored the game-winning goal in a 2–1 win against Arsenal on 28 April. During the 2012 season, Carney started in all 14 matches and scored 3 goals. Birmingham City finished in second place with a record. She scored the winning goal and was Player of the Match in the 2012 FA Women's Cup Final. Due to national team obligations, Carney competed in six matches for Birmingham City during the 2013 season. The club finished in fourth place with a record. Carney was a starting player during the 2014 season in all 14 matches. Her 6 goals ranked first on the team and tied for top in the league. During a match against Manchester City on October 5, her brace led Birmingham City to a 2–1 win. In October 2014 Carney was fined and received a one-match suspension for an incident in July when she told opposition player Natalia Pablos to "fuck off back to Spain". In the last game of the 2014 FA WSL season, she missed a penalty in Birmingham City's 2–2 draw with Notts County that might have led to a league title. Birmingham City finished in third place during the regular season with a record. Carney was the first woman inducted into Birmingham City's Hall of Fame in March 2015. She scored two penalties in Birmingham's 3–0 win at relegation-bound Bristol Academy in September 2015, to help secure the club's WSL 1 status. Despite national team duty at the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup in Canada, Carney finished the 2015 season with three goals in 11 matches. Birmingham City finished in sixth place with a record. Chelsea, 2016–19 In December 2015, Carney left Birmingham for the second time in her career, transferring to FA WSL champions Chelsea on a two-year contract. She was described as "world-class" by Chelsea manager Emma Hayes, who previously worked with Carney at Arsenal and Chicago Red Stars. During the 2016 FA WSL, Carney scored 3 goals in 16 matches. Chelsea finished in second place with a record. She scored the game-opening goal in the club's 4–1 against Doncaster on 24 March off a penalty. After the match, Hayes noted, "Karen Carney was at the heart and the core of everything, especially in the first half, and she looks like she's been playing at Chelsea for years. I thought she was instrumental in everything we did, whether she was on the left side, down the middle, or on the right." She scored Chelsea's second goal in the 4th minute of a 4–0 against her former club, Birmingham City on 28 August, in her hometown of Solihull. She was named the club's Player of the Year and was short-listed for England Women's Player of the Year. After extending her contract with Chelsea through 2020, Carney's four goals in the seven matches she competed in during the 2017 FA WSL ranked third in the league. Chelsea finished in first place during the regular season with a record. During the 2017–18 FA WSL season, she scored three goals in eight matches, including a brace against Yeovil on 29 October. Chelsea won the league title as well as the 2017–18 FA Women's Cup. In October 2018, Carney's ninth-minute penalty goal captained Chelsea's 1–0 Women's Champions League win over Fiorentina. Carney was named to the 2018–19 Women's Champions League Squad of the Season . Following the match, Carney experienced sexist, death and abuse threats by an Instagram user after the match. The user was banned from the social media platform for threatening and abusive behaviour. Although Carney declined to press charges, England's Football Association called for police involvement. During her final season with the club, Carney scored one goal in 14 matches in the 2018–19 FA WSL. International career England Carney made her senior international debut in England's 4–1 victory over Italy in 2005, coming off the bench to score England's fourth goal. She was the youngest player to earn a senior debut during Hope Powell's tenure as England coach. The same year, she was an integral part of the team at the UEFA Women's Euro 2005 and scored a last-minute, game-winning goal in the 3–2 win over Finland, which earned her significant media attention. In her late teens, Carney won FA Young Player of the Year in 2005 and 2006. In August 2009, she was named to Powell's national team squad for Euro 2009. In the semi-final win over the Netherlands, Powell utilised 20-year-old Jessica Clarke's pace and energy to tire the Dutch full-backs, before introducing substitute Carney to decisive effect. On 23 November 2014, Carney competed in her 100th senior international match in a 3–0 loss to Germany at Wembley Stadium in front of a record 45,619 fans. Carney was the youngest and the eighth player to earn 100 caps for England. The match marked the first time a women's national team game had been played at Wembley. Carney stated the game was her favourite moment in her career: "Getting my 100th cap for England was a real honour... It's every boy's dream to play at Wembley so for me being a girl and leading the national team out at one of the most iconic stadiums in the world is a moment I will never forget." In May 2015, England manager Mark Sampson named Carney in his final squad for the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, hosted in Canada. Carney scored in England's 2–1 group stage wins over Mexico and Colombia. England eventually finished third. Carney was named to the 2019 England World Cup squad, and earned her 141st cap in England's first match against Scotland. On 5 July 2019, Carney announced that she would retire after the World Cup third-place final match against Sweden. England lost the match 2–1, and the match saw an Ellen White goal disallowed due to handball. Carney was allotted 160 when the FA announced their legacy numbers scheme to honour the 50th anniversary of England’s inaugural international. Great Britain In June 2012, Carney was named in the 18-player Great Britain squad for the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. She played in all four games as Great Britain were beaten 2–0 by Canada in the last eight. Post-playing career Carney and Liesel Jolly co-created "the Second Half"; a programme supporting women footballers in their careers post-football. In August 2022, Carney was appointed Chair of the Future of Women's Football Review for the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, looking into ways the Government can nurture and expand the game in the UK.The review was published in July 2023 and called for a massive changes across the women's game in England. Media career In 2020, Carney joined ITV's coverage of England's women's team, the FA Cup, the 2022 FIFA World Cup and the Euro 2024 finals. In September 2021, Carney joined Sky Sports as lead Women's Super League pundit. Carney has commentated on Champions League matches for CBS Sports. Personal life Carney is from Birmingham. She was born in Hall Green and attended St. Ambrose Barlow Catholic Primary School and St. Peter's RC Secondary School, Solihull. Asked about her origins and outlook in June 2019, she said, "I'm from Birmingham: my mum works at Sainsbury's, my dad is a fire-fighter. We keep it real. We know who we are. I don't need a Bentley; I don't need a Rolex”. Carney graduated with a Bachelor of Science Degree from Loughborough University in Sports and Exercise Science with a specialization in Physiology and Sports Psychology. Her dissertation was on "The impact of caffeine on repeated sprint performance in elite female football". In 2013, she graduated from the University of Gloucestershire with a Master of Science in Sports Psychology with a specialization in Performance Psychology. Her dissertation was on "video analysis and coach reflection of team talks within football". As of 2021 she was studying towards a Master of Business Administration at the James Lind Institute, and graduated in October 2022. Carney was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to football. Carney is a vegan and credits the diet for improving both her physical and mental health. Carney was nicknamed the Wizard. Career statistics International goals Scores and results list England's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Carney goal. Honours Birmingham City Women's FA Cup: 2012 Arsenal FA Women's Premier League National Division: 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08 FA Women's Cup: 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08 FA Women's Premier League Cup: 2006–07 FA Women's Community Shield: 2005–06 UEFA Women's Cup: 2006–07 Chelsea FA Women's Cup: 2017–18 England Cyprus Cup: 2009, 2013, 2015 UEFA Women's Championship runner-up: 2009 FIFA Women's World Cup third place: 2015 SheBelieves Cup: 2019 Individual FA International Young Player of the Year: 2005, 2006 FA WSL Top Goalscorer: 2014 Birmingham City F.C. Hall of Fame: 2015 English Football Hall of Fame: 2021 Women's Super League Hall of Fame: 2022 See also List of women's footballers with 100 or more international caps List of UEFA Women's Championship goalscorers List of players who have appeared in multiple UEFA Women's Championships List of players who have appeared in multiple FIFA Women's World Cups List of England women's international footballers List of football personalities with British honours List of Chicago Red Stars players References Further reading Aluko, Eniola (2019), They Don't Teach This, Random House, Caudwell, Jayne (2013), Women's Football in the UK: Continuing with Gender Analyses, Taylor & Francis, Clarke, Gemma (2019), Soccerwomen: The Icons, Rebels, Stars, and Trailblazers Who Transformed the Beautiful Game, Dunn, Carrie (2019), Pride of the Lionesses: The Changing Face of Women's Football in England, Pitch Publishing (Brighton) Limited, Dunn, Carrie (2016), The Roar of the Lionesses: Women's Football in England, Pitch Publishing Limited, Grainey, Timothy (2012), Beyond Bend It Like Beckham: The Global Phenomenon of Women's Soccer, University of Nebraska Press, External links Karen Carney – The Football Association profile Karen Carney – Chicago Red Stars profile 1987 births Living people English women's footballers Alumni of Loughborough University Birmingham City W.F.C. players Arsenal W.F.C. players Chelsea F.C. Women players Chicago Red Stars players England women's international footballers FA Women's National League players Expatriate women's soccer players in the United States Women's Super League players 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup players 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup players 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup players Footballers at the 2012 Summer Olympics Olympic footballers for Great Britain Footballers from Solihull Women's association football forwards English people of Irish descent FIFA Women's Century Club Members of the Order of the British Empire English expatriate women's footballers English expatriate sportspeople in the United States 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup players BT Sport presenters and reporters Women sports commentators BBC sports presenters and reporters Women association football commentators Association football commentators English association football commentators Women's Professional Soccer players UEFA Women's Euro 2017 players WSL Hall of Fame inductees

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%80%EC%9B%8C%EB%A7%81

타워링

타워링()은 1974년 미국에서 개봉한 영화다. 대한민국에서는 1977년 9월 27일에 개봉했다. 대형 호텔에서 일어난 화재 사고에 관한 영화이다. 줄거리 캐스팅 폴 뉴먼 - 더그 로버츠 역, 글라스 타워 건축가 스티브 매퀸 - 마이클 오핼러한 역, SFFD 제 5대대 대장 윌리엄 홀든 - 제임스 던칸 역, 건축업자 페이 더너웨이 - 수잔 프랭클린 역, 더그 로버트의 약혼녀 프레드 아스테어 - 하리 클레이본 역, 뮬러 부인과 단련하는 사기꾼 수전 브레이클리 - 패티 던캔 시몬스 역, 제임스 던칸의 딸 리처드 체임벌린 - 로저 시몬스 역, 전기 기술자와 던칸의 사위 제니퍼 존스 - 라이솔렛 뮬러 역 O. J. 심슨 - 해리 저니건 역, 최고 보안 책임자 로버트 본 - 게리 파커 미국 상원의원 역 로버트 와그너 - 댄 비겔로 역, 홍보 담당관 수전 플래너리 - 로리 역 셀라 매튜스 앨런 - 폴라 램지 역 노먼 버턴 - 윌 기딩 역, 전기 엔지니어 잭 콜린스 - 시장 로버트 "밥" 램지 역 돈 고돈 - 캐피 역, SFFD 트럭 Co. 12 소방 대위 펠톤 페리 - 스콧 역, SFFD 엔진 Co. 4 소방관 그레고리 시에라 - 카를로스 역, 더 바텐더 어니 올서티 - 마크 파워스 역, SFFD 엔진 Co. 4 소방관 대브니 콜먼 - SFFD 부국장 1 역 엘리자베스 로저스 - 레이디 인 부이 역 안 레스터 - 손님 역 노먼 그라보스키 - 플레이커(무리야) 역, 해군 항공 구조 대장 로스 엘리엇 - SFFD 부국장 2 역 올란 소울 - 존슨 역 칼레나 가워 - 안젤라 올브라이트 역 마이크 루킨랜드 - 필립 올브라이트 역 캐롤 맥보이 - 미세스 올브라이트 역 스콧 뉴맨 - 영 소방관 역 폴 코미 - 팀 역 조지 월리스 - 최고 관리자 역 패트릭 컬리턴 - 기술자 역 윌리엄 바셋 - 임대 에이전트 역 존 크로포드 - 칼라한 역 에릭 넬슨 - 웨스 역 아트 발린저 - 아나운서 역 Lcdr. 노먼 힉스 - 조종사 역 Ltjg. 토마스 카르나한 - 부조종사 역 모린 맥거번 - 파티 가수 역 (공인되지 않음) 윌리엄 트레일러 - 빌 하튼 역, 경비원 (공인되지 않음) 한국판 성우진 KBS 첫 더빙 (1983년 1월 1일) 최응찬 - 마이크 (스티브 맥퀸) 양지운 - 더그 (폴 뉴먼) 최흘 - 던컨 (윌리엄 홀든) 이선영 - 수잔 (페이 더너웨이) 김종성 - 비글로 (로버트 와그너) 이경자 임수아 나수란 문영래 노민 이윤선 MBC (1991년 11월 23일) 김용식 - 더그 (폴 뉴먼) 이윤연 - 마이크 (스티브 맥퀸) 임종국 - 던컨 (윌리엄 홀든) 강미 - 수잔 (페이 더너웨이) 박기량 - 로저 (리처드 체임벌린) 최방란 - 리졸렛 (제니퍼 존스) 최병학 - 할리 (프레드 아스테어) 성유진 - 패티 (수전 브레이클리) 신성호 - 파커 (로버트 본) 김관철 - 비글로 (로버트 와그너) 홍승옥 김윤정 이인성 최상기 박영화 이우신 이종혁 황윤걸 김강산 김영훈 KBS 재더빙 (1996년 4월 11일) 김종성 - 더그 (폴 뉴먼) 양지운 - 마이크 (스티브 맥퀸) 최흘 - 던컨 (윌리엄 홀든) 이선영 - 수잔 (페이 더너웨이) 김정희 이경자 노민 엄주환 이윤선 성선녀 홍영란 글래스 타워 글래스 타워()는 미국 샌프란시스코에 위치한 빌딩이며 영화 타워링에 나온다. 지상 138층으로 구성되어 있으며 샌프란시스코에서 가장 높은 마천루다. 외부 링크 영어 영화 작품 1974년 영화 미국의 재난 영화 미국의 영화 작품 존 윌리엄스 영화 음악 소방 영화 존 길러먼 감독 영화 샌프란시스코를 배경으로 한 영화 샌프란시스코에서 촬영한 영화 아카데미 촬영상 수상작 아카데미 편집상 수상작

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Towering%20Inferno

The Towering Inferno

The Towering Inferno is a 1974 American disaster film directed by John Guillermin and produced by Irwin Allen, featuring an ensemble cast led by Paul Newman and Steve McQueen. It was adapted by Stirling Silliphant from the novels The Tower (1973) by Richard Martin Stern and The Glass Inferno (1974) by Thomas N. Scortia and Frank M. Robinson. In addition to McQueen and Newman, the cast includes William Holden, Faye Dunaway, Fred Astaire, Susan Blakely, Richard Chamberlain, O.J. Simpson, Robert Vaughn, Robert Wagner, Susan Flannery, Gregory Sierra, Dabney Coleman and Jennifer Jones in her final role. The Towering Inferno was released theatrically on December 16, 1974. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, and earned around $203.3 million, making it the highest-grossing film of 1974. It was nominated for eight Academy Awards, including Best Picture, winning three: Best Song, Best Cinematography and Best Editing. Plot Architect Doug Roberts returns to San Francisco for the dedication of the Glass Tower, a mixed-use skyscraper which he designed for developer James Duncan. The tower, tall and 138 stories, is the world's tallest building. During testing, an electrical short-circuit starts a fire on the 81st floor just after another short occurs in the main utility room. While examining the latter short, Roberts sees the wiring is inadequate and suspects that Roger Simmons, the electrical subcontractor and Duncan's son-in-law, cut corners. Simmons, however, feigns innocence. During the dedication ceremony, chief of public relations Dan Bigelow turns on all the tower's lights, but Roberts orders them shut off to reduce the load on the electrical system. Smoke is seen on the 81st floor, and the San Francisco Fire Department is summoned. Roberts and engineer Will Giddings go to that floor, where Giddings is fatally burned pushing a guard away from the fire. Roberts reports the fire to Duncan, who is courting Senator Gary Parker for an urban renewal contract and refuses to order an evacuation. SFFD Chief Michael O'Halloran arrives and forces Duncan to evacuate the guests from the Promenade Room on the 135th floor. Simmons admits to Duncan that he cut corners to bring the project back under budget and suggests other subcontractors did likewise. Fire overtakes the express elevators, killing a group whose elevator stops on the engulfed 81st floor. Bigelow and his girlfriend Lorrie are killed when a separate fire traps them in the Duncan Enterprises offices on the 65th floor. Lisolette Mueller, a guest and resident of the tower being wooed by con man Harlee Claiborne, rushes to the 87th floor to check on a deaf mother and her two children. Security Chief Jernigan rescues the mother, but a ruptured gas line explodes, destroying the stairwell and preventing Roberts and the rest from following. They traverse the wreckage of the stairwell to reach a service elevator which takes them to the 134th floor, but the door to the Promenade Room is blocked with hardened cement. Roberts uses a ventilation shaft to reach the Promenade Room, while Lisolette and the children stay behind. As firemen begin to bring the fire under control on floor 65, the electrical system fails, deactivating the passenger elevators; O'Halloran abseils down the elevator shaft to safety. As firemen ascend to free the blocked door at the Promenade Room, another explosion destroys part of the remaining stairwell, blocking the last means of escape from the upper floors. After the stuck door is freed, reuniting Lisolette and the children with Roberts and the others, Simmons makes a futile attempt to escape down the stairwell, but is blocked by flames and retreats. Meanwhile, Claiborne reveals his true identity and intentions to Lisolette, who says she doesn't care and still wants to be with him. An attempt at a helicopter rescue fails when two women run up to the aircraft: the pilot tries to evade them and crashes, setting the roof ablaze. A Navy rescue team attach a breeches buoy between the Promenade Room and the roof of the adjacent 102-story Peerless Building, and rescue many guests, including Patty Simmons, Duncan's daughter. Roberts rigs a gravity brake on the scenic elevator, allowing one trip down for 12 people, including Roberts' fiancée Susan Franklin, Lisolette, and the children. An explosion near the 110th floor throws Lisolette from the elevator to her death and leaves the elevator hanging by a single cable. O'Halloran rescues the elevator with a Navy helicopter. As fire reaches the Promenade Room, a group of men led by Simmons attempts to commandeer the breeches buoy, which is destroyed in an explosion, killing Simmons, Senator Parker and several others. In a last-ditch strategy, O'Halloran and Roberts blow up water tanks atop the Tower with plastic explosives. Most of the remaining party-goers survive as water rushes through the building, extinguishing the flames. Claiborne, in shock upon hearing of Lisolette's death, is given her cat by Jernigan. Duncan consoles his grieving daughter and promises such a disaster will never happen again. Roberts accepts O'Halloran's offer of guidance on how to build a fire-safe skyscraper. O'Halloran drives away, exhausted. Cast Production Development In April 1973, it was announced that Warner Bros., whose then production chief was John Calley, paid $350,000 for the rights to Richard Martin Stern's The Tower, prior to that book's publication. This amount was larger than originally reported – the book had been the subject of a bidding war between Warner Bros., 20th Century Fox and Columbia Pictures: Columbia dropped out when the price reached $200,000 and Warner Bros. offered $390,000. Irwin Allen, who just had a big success with a disaster movie, The Poseidon Adventure (1972), was at Fox and persuaded that studio to make a higher offer when the book was sold to Warner Bros. Eight weeks later Fox was submitted a novel, Thomas N. Scortia and Frank M. Robinson's The Glass Inferno that was published the following year, which Allen says had "the same sort of characters, the same locale, the same story, the same conclusion." They bought the novel for a reported fee of $400,000. Allen was concerned that two films about a tall building on fire might cannibalize each other, remembering what happened in the 1960s when rival biopics about Oscar Wilde, with Oscar Wilde and The Trials of Oscar Wilde in 1960 and Jean Harlow, with Magna Media Distribution's Harlow and Paramount Pictures's Harlow in 1965, were released. He convinced executives at both studios to join forces to make a single film on the subject. The studios issued a joint press release announcing the single film collaboration in October 1973. Stirling Silliphant, who had written The Poseidon Adventure, would write the script and Allen would produce. It was decided to split costs equally between the studios, but the film would be made at Fox, where Allen was based. Fox would distribute in the United States and Canada, and Warner Bros. outside those territories. Warner Bros. also handled the worldwide television distribution rights. Incidents and character names were taken from both novels. The total cost for the film was US$14,300,000. Casting Several actors who appeared in small roles, including John Crawford, Erik Nelson, Elizabeth Rogers, Ernie Orsatti, and Sheila Matthews, had previously appeared in The Poseidon Adventure which Allen also produced (Allen and Matthews were husband and wife). Additionally, Paul Newman's son, Scott, played the acrophobic fireman afraid to rappel down the elevator shaft. Lead actors Steve McQueen and Paul Newman were each paid $1million. Although famed for his dancing and singing in musical movies, Fred Astaire received his only Oscar nomination for this film. He also won both a BAFTA Award and Golden Globe Award for his performance. Filming Principal photography took place over 14 weeks. Guillermin says that Newman and McQueen were very good to work with and added considerably to their roles. Music The score was composed and conducted by John Williams, orchestrated by Herbert W. Spencer and Al Woodbury, and recorded at the 20th Century Fox scoring stage on October 31 and November 4, 7 and 11, 1974. The original recording engineer was Ted Keep. Source music in portions of the film includes instrumental versions of "Again" by Lionel Newman and Dorcas Cochran, "You Make Me Feel So Young" by Josef Myrow and Mack Gordon, and "The More I See You" by Harry Warren and Mack Gordon. A snippet of a cue from Williams’ score to Cinderella Liberty (1973) titled 'Maggie Shoots Pool' is heard in a scene when William Holden's character converses on the phone with Paul Newman's character. It is not the recording on the soundtrack album but a newer arrangement recorded for The Towering Inferno. An extended version is heard, ostensibly as source music in a deleted theatrical scene sometimes shown as part of a longer scene from the TV broadcast version. One of the most sought-after unreleased music cues from the film is the one where Williams provides low-key lounge music during a party prior to the announcement of a fire. O'Hallorhan orders Duncan to evacuate the party; the music becomes louder as Lisolette and Harlee are seen dancing and Duncan lectures son-in-law Roger. Titled "The Promenade Room" on the conductor's cue sheet, the track features a ragged ending as Duncan asks the house band to stop playing. Because of this, Film Score Monthly did not add this cue to the expanded soundtrack album. The Academy Award-winning song "We May Never Love Like This Again" was composed by Al Kasha and Joel Hirschhorn and performed by Maureen McGovern, who appears in a cameo as a lounge singer and on the score's soundtrack album, which features the film recording plus the commercially released single version. Additionally, the theme tune is interpolated into the film's underscore by Williams. The song's writers collaborated on "The Morning After" from The Poseidon Adventure, an Oscar-winning song which was also recorded by McGovern, although hers was not the vocal used in that film. The first release of portions of the score from The Towering Inferno was on Warner Bros. Records early in 1975 (Catalog No. BS-2840) "Main Title" (5:00) "An Architect's Dream" (3:28) "Lisolette And Harlee" (2:34) "Something For Susan" (2:42) "Trapped Lovers" (4:28) "We May Never Love Like This Again" – Kasha/Hirschhorn, performed by Maureen McGovern (2:11) "Susan And Doug" (2:30) "The Helicopter Explosion" (2:50) "Planting The Charges – And Finale" (10:17) A near-complete release came on the Film Score Monthly label (FSM) on April 1, 2001 and was produced by Lukas Kendall and Nick Redman. FSM's was an almost completely expanded version remixed from album masters at Warner Bros. archives and the multi-track 35mm magnetic film stems at 20th Century Fox. Placed into chronological order and restoring action cues, it became one of the company's biggest sellers; only 4000 copies were pressed and it is now out of print. Reports that this soundtrack and that of the film Earthquake (1974), also composed by Williams, borrowed cues from each other are inaccurate. The version of "Main Title" on the FSM disc is the film version. It differs from the original soundtrack album version. There is a different balance of instruments in two spots, and in particular the snare drum is more prominent than the album version which also features additional cymbal work. Although the album was not a re-recording, the original LP tracks were recorded during the same sessions and several cues were combined. The film version sound was reportedly better than the quarter-inch WB two-track album master. Although some minor incidental cues were lost, some sonically 'damaged' cues – so called due to a deterioration of the surviving audio elements – are placed at the end of the disc's program time following the track "An Architect's Dream" which is used over the end credits sequence. "Main Title" (5:01) "Something For Susan" (2:42) "Lisolette and Harlee" (2:35) "The Flame Ignites" (1:01) "More For Susan" (1:55) "Harlee Dressing" (1:37) "Let There Be Light" (:37) "Alone At Last" (:51) "We May Never Love Like This Again (Film Version)" – Maureen McGovern (2:04) "The First Victims" (3:24) "Not A Cigarette" (1:18) "Trapped Lovers" (4:44) "Doug's Fall/Piggy Back Ride" (2:18) "Lisolette's Descent" (3:07) "Down The Pipes/The Door Opens" (2:59) "Couples" (3:38) "Short Goodbyes" (2:26) "Helicopter Rescue" (3:07) "Passing The Word" (1:12) "Planting The Charges" (9:04) "Finale" (3:57) "An Architect's Dream" (3:28) "We May Never Love Like This Again (Album Version)" – Maureen McGovern (2:13) "The Morning After (Instrumental)" (2:07) "Susan And Doug (Album Track)" (2:33) "Departmental Pride and The Cat (Damaged)" (2:34) "Helicopter Explosion (Damaged)" (2:34) "Waking Up (Damaged)" (2:39) Release The Towering Inferno was released in theatres on December 14, 1974, in United States and Canada by 20th Century Fox, and internationally by Warner Bros. Top billing McQueen, Paul Newman, and William Holden all wanted top billing. Holden was refused, his long-term standing as a box office draw having been eclipsed by both McQueen and Newman. To provide dual top billing, the credits were arranged diagonally, with McQueen lower left and Newman upper right. Thus, each appeared to have "first" billing depending on whether the credit was read left-to-right or top-to-bottom. This was the first time this "staggered but equal" billing was used in a movie, although it had been considered earlier for the same two actors regarding Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969) until McQueen turned down the Sundance Kid role. McQueen is mentioned first in the film's trailers. In the cast list rolling from top to bottom at the film's end, however, McQueen and Newman's names were arranged diagonally as at the beginning; as a consequence, Newman's name is fully visible first there. Reception Critical response The Towering Inferno received generally positive reviews from critics and audiences alike upon its release. The film has an approval rating of 68% based on 37 reviews with an average rating of 6.50/10 on Rotten Tomatoes. The site's consensus states: "Although it is not consistently engaging enough to fully justify its towering runtime, The Towering Inferno is a blustery spectacle that executes its disaster premise with flair." Metacritic gave the film a score of 69 based on 11 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three out of four stars and praised it as "the best of the mid-1970s wave of disaster films." Variety praised the film as "one of the greatest disaster pictures made, a personal and professional triumph for producer Irwin Allen. The $14 million cost has yielded a truly magnificent production which complements but does not at all overwhelm a thoughtful personal drama." Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote that the film is "overwrought and silly in its personal drama, but the visual spectacle is first rate. You may not come out of the theater with any important ideas about American architecture or enterprise, but you will have had a vivid, completely safe nightmare." Pauline Kael, writing for The New Yorker, panned the writing and characters as retreads from The Poseidon Adventure, and further wrote, "What was left out this time was the hokey fun. When a picture has any kind of entertainment in it, viewers don't much care about credibility, but when it isn't entertaining we do. And when a turkey bores us and insults our intelligence for close to three hours, it shouldn't preen itself on its own morality." Gene Siskel of The Chicago Tribune gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, calling it "a stunt and not a story. It's a technical achievement more concerned with special effects than with people. That's why our attitude toward the film's cardboard characters is: let 'em burn." Filmink called it "brilliant fun." Box office The film was one of the biggest grossing films of 1975 with theatrical rentals of $48,838,000 in the United States and Canada. In January 1976, it was claimed that the film had attained the highest foreign film rental for any film in its initial release with $43 million and went on to earn $56 million. When combined with the rentals from the United States and Canada, the worldwide rental is $104,838,000. The film grossed $116 million in the United States and Canada and $203 million worldwide. Awards and nominations See also List of American films of 1974 Skyscrapers in film List of firefighting films "Disco Inferno", a song inspired by a scene in the film in which a discothèque catches fire 555 California Street References Sources Further reading </ref> External links 1974 films 1970s action drama films 1970s disaster films 1970s American films 20th Century Fox films Warner Bros. films American disaster films Films scored by John Williams Films about firefighting Films based on American thriller novels Films based on multiple works Films directed by John Guillermin Films produced by Irwin Allen Films set in San Francisco Films shot in San Francisco Films that won the Best Original Song Academy Award Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award Films whose editor won the Best Film Editing Academy Award Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe winning performance Films with screenplays by Stirling Silliphant 1974 drama films Films about high-rise fires 1970s English-language films

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줄기세포 치료

줄기세포 치료(Stem-cell therapy)는 줄기세포를 이용해 질병을 치료하는 것을 말한다. 현재까지 널리 알려진 치료법은 조혈모세포이식(HSCT)이다. 줄기세포 치료는 보통 골수이식의 형태로 이행된다. 신경퇴행성 질환과 당뇨병, 심장병 등 각종 질환에 대한 줄기세포 치료법을 찾아내기 위한 연구가 활발히 진행 중이며, 배아 줄기세포를 분리 및 배양하고, 체세포 핵이전을 이용해 줄기세포를 만들고, 유도 만능줄기세포를 만드는 등의 기술이 발전함에 따라 윤리적인 논란이 커지고 있다. 설 줄기세포 치료 개념 30년 동안 조혈모세포이식은 백혈병이나 림프종과 같은 질환을 가진 사람들을 치료하는데에 사용되어왔다. 줄기세포 이식 관점에서 보면. 기증자의 건강한 골수는 숙주의 몸에 부족한 세포를 만들어 내기 위해 관련 줄기세포들을 다시 만들어낸다. 또한 이식된 줄기세포는 암세포를 죽이는 데 도움을 주는 면역 반응을 만들어낸다. 하지만 이 과정이 과하게 진행될 수도 있고, 이것이 이 치료의 가장 심각한 부작용인 이식 vs 숙주 질병으로 이어질 수 있다. 줄기세포 치료 발전과 예시 대표적인 줄기세포 치료법으로는 2012년 캐나다에서 조건부로 승인된 스테로이드에 반응하지 않는 어린이의 급성 이식 vs 숙주 질환을 관리하는 프로치말이라는 치료법이 존재한다. FDA에서는 제대혈에서 추출한 5개의 조혈모세포 제품을 혈액 및 면역학적 질병 치료에 사용하는 것을 승인했다. 그 이후 아시아에서의 줄기세포 치료 변천사를 살펴보자면, 2013년 일본은 기존 약사법을 개정해 허가받지 않은 줄기세포 치료를 의사 책임하에 시술할 수 있도록 했다. 과거 일본은 기존 약사법상 줄기세포치료제를 의약품으로 분류하고 있으나, 조건부 승인제도를 통해 병원에서 허가받지 않은 줄기세포치료제라도 의사 책임 하에 시술을 허용했다. 2018년 9월 6일, 대만 정부가 6개 항목의 인체 세포 치료를 허가했다. 6개 항목의 인체 세포 치료는 자가말초혈액 조혈모세포 이식, 자가면역세포 치료, 자가지방줄기세포 이식, 자가섬유아세포 이식, 자가골수중간엽줄기세포 이식, 자가연골세포 이식을 말한다. 말기암 환자, 1~3기의 암 환자, 중증화상 환자, 퇴행성 관절염 환자 등 수만명이 신약 임상실험이나 해외 원정 치료 없이 대만에서 세포 치료를 할 수 있게 되었다. 2018년 12월, 일본 정부는 세계 최초로 척수손상 치료를 위한 줄기세포치료제의 상용화를 허용했다. 2019년 3월 5일, 네이처지에 줄기세포 치료로 에이즈 환자를 치료한 2번째 사례가 발표되었다. 2007년 첫 사례인 베를린 환자가 나온 이후 12년 만이다. CCR5 유전자를 생성하지 않게 돌연변이가 된 조혈모세포를 에이즈 환자에 이식하자, HIV가 완전히 사라졌다. 18개월 후에 다시 검사해도 HIV가 검출되지 않았다. HIV에는 CCR5 외에 다른 유전자를 이용하는 종류도 있다. 현재의 두 임상 사례는 모두 CCR5를 감염 수단으로 쓰는 HIV에만 작동한다. 줄기세포 치료 연구 상황 줄기세포는 여러 가지 이유로 연구되고 있는데, 줄기세포에서 분비되는 분자와 엑소좀도 약물을 만들기 위해 연구되고 있다. 세포 자체의 기능 외에, 줄기세포에서 생산되는 측분비 수용성 인자가 퇴행성, 자가면역, 염증성 질환에서 줄기세포를 기반으로 한 메커니즘이 밝혀져 치료법이 연구되고 있다. 연구 줄기세포 배양 줄기세포가 연구나 치료에 이용되기 위해서는 양질의 줄기세포가 대량으로 필요하다. 줄기세포의 잠재력을 잃지 않고 체외에서 각 순수 조직의 줄기세포를 생산하기 위한 배양 시스템을 개발하는 것이 필요하다. 현재는 2차원 및 3차원 세포 배양 시스템이 존재한다. 2차원 세포 배양 시스템은 지난 40년간 전 세계 수천 개의 실험실에서 일상적으로 수행되었다. 2차원 세포 배양에서, 세포는 바닥 측의 단단하고 평평한 표면, 그리고 정 단면의 액체에 노출된다. 2차 세포 배양의 경우, 세포에 대해 각 세포 유형에 고유한 세포 외 기질이 결여되어 세포 대사를 변화시키고 그 기능성을 감소시킬 수 있기 때문에 생존 세포에 대한 극적인 적응이 필요하다. 3차원 세포 배양 시스템은 줄기 세포에 대한 생체 모방 미세 환경을 생성 할 수 있으며, 생체 내에서의 고유한 세포 외 기질(ECM)과 유사하다. 최근 수십 년 동안 첨단 생체 재료는 3 차원 세포 배양 시스템에 크게 기여 했으며 줄기세포 증식과 분화를 개선하기 위해 더욱 독특하고 복잡한 생체 재료가 제안되었다. 그 중에서도 나노구조화된 생체 재료는 표면적 대 부피비가 유리한 특징을 가지며 나노 규모에서 천연 ECM의 물리적 및 생물학적 특징을 모방하기 때문에 특히 관심의 대상이 된다. 재생 치료 모델 줄기세포는 1)항염증 효과 제공 2)손상된 조직에 대한 원점 복귀 및 조직 성장에 필요한 내피 전구 세포와 같은 세포 모집, 3)흉터 형성을 통한 조직 재형성 도움 4)세포사멸 억제 5)뼈, 연골, 힘줄 및 인대 조직으로의 분화.의 5가지 주요 메커니즘을 통해 회복을 중재하는 것으로 생각된다. 손상된 부위로의 혈액 공급을 더욱 증가시키고, 결과적으로 조직 재생을 촉진하기 위해, 혈소판이 풍부한 혈장을 줄기세포 이식시 함께 이식될 수 있다. 줄기세포는 또한 표면에서 발현되는 비교적 적은 수의 MHC 분자로 인해 낮은 면역 원성을 갖는 것으로 알려져 있다. 또한 면역 반응을 회피시키고, 새로운 조직의 내성을 촉진하는 케모카인을 분비하는 것으로 밝혀졌다. 이것은 큰 면역 거부반응의 위험없이 동종 이계 치료를 수행할 수 있게한다. 일부 줄기세포의 효능이 전달 방법에 의해 영향을 받을 수 있다. 예를 들어, 뼈를 재생시키기 위해 줄기세포는 기능성 뼈의 생성을 위해 필요한 미네랄을 생산하는 스케폴드에 종종 도입된다. 약물 발견 및 생의학 연구 줄기세포의 직접 분화를 통해 생체 외에서 기능을 나타내는 성인 조직을 계속하여 배양시키는 능력은 약물 연구를 위한 새로운 기회를 만든다. 연구자들은 분화된 세포를 성장시킨 다음 각 세포 유형에 대해 새로운 약물을 시험하여 생체 내 연구를 수행하기 전에 생체 왜에서의 상호 작용을 검사 할 수 있다. 이 약물 시험은 종-특이적 상호 작용의 가능성 때문에 수의학 연구에 사용하기 위한 약물 개발에 중요하다. 생체 외에서 인간 조직에 대한 영향이 동물 시험 단계 이전에 대략적인 메커니즘 및 결과를 제공 할 것이기 때문에, 동물 실험의 필요성이 감소 될 것이라는 희망이있다. 유도된 다능성 줄기세포(iPSC)의 출현으로, 멸종 위기종의 동물에 사용하기 위한 치료법이 탐구되고 만들어졌다. 배아나 난소를 확보할 필요없이, 연구자들은 비 침습적 기법으로 인해 중간엽 줄기세포를 더 쉽게 제거하고 동물에 대한 위험을 크게 줄일 수 있다. 줄기세포 공급원 재생 요법을 목적으로하는 대부분의 줄기세포는 일반적으로 환자의 골수 또는 지방 조직에서 분리된다. 중간엽 줄기세포(MSC)는 뼈, 연골, 힘줄 및 인대뿐만 아니라 근육, 신경 및 다른 조직을 구성하는 세포로 분화 될 수 있다. 손상된 조직으로 이식 된 줄기세포의 수는 치료 효능을 변화시킬 수 있다. 이를 위해 하나의 예시로 골수로부터 유래된 줄기세포는 수백만개의 세포로 증식하기 위해 실험실에서 배양된다. 지방 유래 조직은 또한 사용전에 가공을 필요로 하지만, 지방 유래 줄기세포에 대한 배양 방법은 골수 유래 세포에 대한 것만큼 광범위하지는 않다. 골수 유래 줄기세포가 뼈, 연골, 인대 및 힘줄 복구에 바람직하다고 생각되는 반면, 다른 연구자들은 지방 유래 줄기세포 분획에 이미 존재하는 비교적 수월한 수집 기술 및 다세포 미세 환경이 자가 이식을 위한 바람직한 공급원이라고 생각한다. 동물에 대한 최소한의 위험으로 확보할 수 있는 용이성 때문에 진피와 피부 줄기세포 공급이 연구되고있다. 조혈모 세포는 또한 혈류를 통해 이동하는 것으로 밝혀졌으며, 다른 중간엽 줄기세포와 동일한 분화 능력을 갖고 있으며, 비 침습적인 방법을 통해 확보할 수 있는 장점이 있다. 최근 여분의 배아 중간엽 줄기세포의 사용에 대한 관심이 많아졌다. 다른 동물들의 제대, 노른자 및 태반에서 발견되는 줄기세포의 분화 능력을 조사하는 연구가 진행 중이다. 이들 줄기세포는 내배엽 및 외배엽 기원의 조직을 보다 쉽게 형성하는 능력을 포함하여, 그들의 성체가 만들 수 있는 능력보다 더 차별화 된 능력을 갖는 것으로 생각된다 배아 줄기세포 인간 배아 줄기세포의 사용에 대한 논란이 확산되고 있다. 이 논쟁은 주로 배아 줄기세포의 파괴를 필요로 하는 새로운 배아 줄기세포를 수확하는 데 사용되는 기술을 대상으로 한다. 인간 배아 줄기세포를 연구에 사용하는 것에 대한 반대는 종종 철학적, 도덕적, 종교적 반대에 근거한다. 인간 배아의 파괴를 수반하지 않는 다른 줄기세포 연구도 있는데, 그러한 연구에는 성인 줄기세포, 양수 줄기세포, 유도 만능 줄기세포가 포함된다. 2009년 1월 23일, 미국 식품의약국은 인간에 대한 배아 줄기세포 기반 치료의 첫 임상시험 개시를 위해 게론사(Geron)에 허가를 내주었다. 이 시도는 급성 척수손상자에게 배아 줄기 세포에서 유래된 희소돌기신경교 전구 세포의 약물(GRNOPC1)을 평가하는 것을 목표로 했다. 2013년 생명공학 및 재생의학 기업 바이오타임(AMEX: BTX)은 임상시험 재개를 목적으로 주식거래로 게론의 줄기세포 자산을 취득하였다. 중간엽 줄기세포 과학자들은 해동 후 몇 시간 이내에 수혈된 중간엽 줄기세포(MSC)는 세포 성장 로그 단계에 있는 중간엽 줄기세포에 비해 기능이 떨어지거나 질병 치료에 효과가 떨어질 수 있으므로 냉동 보관된 중간엽 줄기세포를 관리하기 전에 세포 성장 로그 단계로 되돌려야 한다고 보고했다. 이 상태의 중간엽 줄기세포를 수확하는 것은 세포가 얼고 해동하는 동안 받는 충격으로부터 회복하는 데 도움이 될 것이다. 해동 직후의 중간엽 줄기세포를 사용한 다양한 임상시험은 신선한 중간엽 줄기세포를 사용한 임상시험에 비해 효과가 좋지 못한 것을 보고하였다. 줄기세포 활용 신경 퇴화 파킨슨병, 근위축성 측삭 경화증 및 알츠하이머 병과 같은 뇌 퇴행성 동물 모델에 대한 줄기세포의 영향에 대한 연구가 수행되었다. 다발성 경화증과 관련된 사전 연구들이 있다. 건강한 성인 뇌에는 신경 줄기세포가 존재하며, 이 줄기세포는 일반적인 줄기세포 수를 유지하기 위해 분열하거나 전구 세포가 된다. 전구 세포는 뇌 내에서 이동하여 주로 후각을 위한 뉴런 집단을 유지하는 기능을 한다. 내인성 신경 줄기세포의 약리학적 활성화는 신경계 장애의 쥐 모델에서 신경 보호 및 행동 회복을 유도하는 것으로 보고되었다. 시각 장애 2003년부터 연구원들은 시력을 회복시키기 위해 각막 줄기 세포를 손상된 눈에 성공적으로 이식했다. 이 팀이 사용하는 망막 세포 시트는 낙태 된 태아로부터 확보되며 일부 사람들은 불쾌감을 느낀다." 이 줄기세포 시트가 손상된 각막에 이식되면 줄기세포는 회복을 자극하여 결국 시력이 회복된다. 2005년까지 영국 서섹스 퀸 빅토리아 병원 (Queen Victoria Hospital of Sussex)의 연구자들이 동일한 기술을 사용하여 대략 40여명의 시력을 회복시켰다. 상처 회복 줄기세포는 인간 조직의 성장을 자극하는데 사용될 수 있다. 성인이 된 후, 상처 입은 조직은 피부에서 조직화 된 콜라겐 구조, 모낭의 손실 및 불규칙한 혈관 구조로 특징 지어지는 흉터 조직으로 가장 자주 대체된다. 그러나 태아 조직의 경우, 상처를 입은 조직은 줄기세포의 활동을 통해 정상 조직으로 대체된다. 성인에서 조직 재생을 위해 사용 가능한 방법은 성인 줄기세포를 상처 층의 조직 층 내에 위치시키고 줄기세포가 조직 층 세포로의 분화를 자극하게 하는 것이다. 이 방법은 성인 흉터 조직 형성보다 태아 상처 치유와 더 유사한 재생 반응을 이끌낸다. 뇌와 척수손상 뇌졸중과 외상성 뇌 손상은 뇌에서 뉴런과 희소돌기신경교의 손실을 특징으로하는 세포 사멸을 초래한다. 척수 손상의 경우 줄기세포의 사용에 대한 임상 및 동물 연구가 여럿 수행되었다. 혈액 세포 형성 인간 면역 세포 레퍼토리의 특이성은 항원으로부터 인체가 빠르게 적응하여 스스로를 방어 할 수 있게 하는 것이다. 조혈 세포 질병은 혈액 병리학으로 알려진 병리학의 하위 전문성을 통해 진단되고 분류된다. 면역 세포의 특이성은 외래 항원의 인식을 허용하여 면역 질환 치료 연구를 가능하게 한다. 하지만 성공적인 이식 치료를 위해 기증자와 수령자 사이의 동일한 일치가 이루어져야하지만 1 차 친척 사이에서도 일치가 드물다. 조혈 성체 줄기세포 및 배아 줄기세포 둘 다를 사용한 연구는 이러한 많은 질병에 대한 가능한 메커니즘 및 치료 방법에 대한 통찰력을 제공했다. 심장 심장에서의 성인 줄기세포 치료법이 여러 임상 시험 중 몇가지 연구만 봐도 실제로 안전하고 효과적이라는 증거가 보고되고 있다. 일부 임상 시험에서 골수 줄기세포 요법을 사용한 후 심장기능이 완만하게 개선된 사례가 있다. 또한 심근 경색의 치료를 위한 줄기세포 요법은 일반적으로 자가 골수 줄기세포를 사용하지만, 지방-유래 줄기세포와 같은 다른 유형의 성체 줄기세포가 사용될 수 있다. 가능한 회복 메커니즘은 다음과 같다. 심장 근육 세포의 생성 새로운 혈관 성장 촉진 성장 인자 분비 치아 재생 2004년 런던 킹스 대학(King's College London)의 과학자들은 쥐에서 완전한 치아를 재생하는 방법을 발견했으며, 실험실에서 생체 공학적으로 만들어진 치아를 만들었다. 연구자들은 치아 재생 기술을 사용하여 사람의 치아를 키울 수 있다고 확신한다. 이론적으로, 환자로부터 확보한 줄기세포는 잇몸에 이식되면 새로운 치아가 생겨 3 주에 걸쳐 성장할 것으로 예상 된다. 이식된 줄기세포는 턱뼈와 융합하고 신경과 혈관이 연결되도록하는 화학 물질을 방출한다. 이 과정은 원래의 치아가 자랄 때 일어나는 현상과 유사하다. 그러나 줄기세포가 미래에 빠진 치아를 대체 하기 위한 선택이 되기 전에 많은 한계가 남아 있다. 정형외과학 성체 줄기세포로부터 유래된 중간엽 줄기세포(MSC)의 사용은 특히 뼈 및 근육 외상, 연골 복구, 골관절염, 추간판 수술, 회전근개 수술 및 근골격계 장애에서 외과적 적용에 대한 연구가 되고 있다. 후천성면역결핍증 HIV에 의한 면역계의 파괴는 말초 혈액 및 림프 조직에서 CD4 + T 세포의 손실에 의해 유발된다. CD4 + 세포로의 바이러스 진입은 케모카인 수용체와의 상호 작용에 의해 매개되며, 가장 흔한 것은 CCR5 및 CXCR4이다. 바이러스 복제는 세포 유전자 발현 과정을 필요로 하기 때문에, 활성화된 CD4 + 세포는 HIV 감염의 주요 표적이다. 최근에 과학자들은 자가 유전자 변형(HIV-1- 내성)조혈 줄기 및 전구 세포의 이식을 통한 질병 내성 면역 시스템의 생성을 기반으로 HIV-1 / AIDS 치료에 대한 접근 방법을 연구하고 있다. 항암 치료 1994년 캐나다 토론토 대학교 연구팀이 혈액암 환자에게서 암 조직을 형성할 수 있는 '암 줄기세포'를 세계 최초로 발견했다. 이후 뇌종양과 대장암, 유방암과 간암, 위암, 췌장암, 피부암 등 여러 암 조직에서 '암 줄기세포'의 존재가 보고되었다. '암 줄기세포'는 암 조직 내에서 1~3%만 있을 정도로 극소수로 존재한다. 외과수술이나 항암제 치료로 암세포를 거의 다 죽였다가 암이 되살아 나는 것은 암 줄기세포 때문이다. 각주 줄기 세포 신기술 수명 연장 의료 논쟁 의학적 치료

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem-cell%20therapy

Stem-cell therapy

Stem-cell therapy is the use of stem cells to treat or prevent a disease or condition. , the only established therapy using stem cells is hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. This usually takes the form of a bone-marrow transplantation, but the cells can also be derived from umbilical cord blood. Research is underway to develop various sources for stem cells as well as to apply stem-cell treatments for neurodegenerative diseases and conditions such as diabetes and heart disease. Stem-cell therapy has become controversial following developments such as the ability of scientists to isolate and culture embryonic stem cells, to create stem cells using somatic cell nuclear transfer and their use of techniques to create induced pluripotent stem cells. This controversy is often related to abortion politics and to human cloning. Additionally, efforts to market treatments based on transplant of stored umbilical cord blood have been controversial. Medical uses For over 90 years, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) has been used to treat people with conditions such as leukaemia and lymphoma; this is the only widely practiced form of stem-cell therapy. During chemotherapy, most growing cells are killed by the cytotoxic agents. These agents, however, cannot discriminate between the leukaemia or neoplastic cells, and the hematopoietic stem cells within the bone marrow. This is the side effect of conventional chemotherapy strategies that the stem-cell transplant attempts to reverse; a donor's healthy bone marrow reintroduces functional stem cells to replace the cells lost in the host's body during treatment. The transplanted cells also generate an immune response that helps to kill off the cancer cells; this process can go too far, however, leading to graft vs host disease, the most serious side effect of this treatment. Another stem-cell therapy, called Prococvhymal, was conditionally approved in Canada in 2012 for the management of acute graft-vs-host disease in children who are unresponsive to steroids. It is an allogenic stem therapy based on mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) derived from the bone marrow of adult donors. MSCs are purified from the marrow, cultured and packaged, with up to 10,000 doses derived from a single donor. The doses are stored frozen until needed. The FDA has approved five hematopoietic stem-cell products derived from umbilical-cord blood, for the treatment of blood and immunological diseases. In 2014, the European Medicines Agency recommended approval of limbal stem cells for people with severe limbal stem cell deficiency due to burns in the eye. Research Stem cells are being studied for a number of reasons. The molecules and exosomes released from stem cells are also being studied in an effort to make medications. In addition to the functions of the cells themselves, paracrine soluble factors produced by stem cells, known as the stem cell secretome, have been found to be another mechanism by which stem cell-based therapies mediate their effects in degenerative, autoimmune, and inflammatory diseases. Stem cell expansion To be used for research or treatment applications, large numbers of high-quality stem cells are needed. Thus, it is necessary to develop culture systems which produce pure populations of tissue-specific stem-cells in vitro without the loss of stem-cell potential. Two main approaches are taken for this purpose: two-dimensional and three-dimensional cell culture. Cell culture in two dimensions has been routinely performed in thousands of laboratories worldwide for the past four decades. In two-dimensional platforms, cells are typically exposed to a solid, rigid flat surface on the basal side and to liquid at the apical surface. Inhabiting such a two-dimensional rigid substrate requires a dramatic adaption for the surviving cells because they lack the extracellular matrix that is unique to each cell type and which may alter cell metabolism and reduce its functionality. Three-dimensional cell culture systems may create a biomimicking microenvironment for stem cells, resembling their native three-dimensional extracellular matrix (ECM). Advanced biomaterials have significantly contributed to three-dimensional cell culture systems in recent decades, and more unique and complex biomaterials have been proposed for improving stem-cell proliferation and controlled differentiation. Among them, nanostructured biomaterials are of particular interest because they have the advantage of a high surface-to-volume ratio, and they mimic the physical and biological features of natural ECM at the nanoscale. Applications Neurodegeneration Research has been conducted on the effects of stem cells on animal models of brain degeneration, such as in Parkinson's disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Alzheimer's disease. Preliminary studies related to multiple sclerosis have been conducted, and a 2020 phase 2 trial found significantly improved outcomes for mesenchymal stem cell treated patients compared to those receiving a sham treatment. In January 2021 the FDA approved the first clinical trial for an investigational stem cell therapy to restore lost brain cells in people with advanced Parkinson's disease. Healthy adult brains contain neural stem cells, which divide to maintain general stem-cell numbers, or become progenitor cells. In healthy adult laboratory animals, progenitor cells migrate within the brain and function primarily to maintain neuron populations for olfaction (the sense of smell). Pharmacological activation of endogenous neural stem cells has been reported to induce neuroprotection and behavioral recovery in adult rat models of neurological disorder. Brain and spinal cord injury Stroke and traumatic brain injury lead to cell death, characterized by a loss of neurons and oligodendrocytes within the brain. Clinical and animal studies have been conducted into the use of stem cells in cases of spinal cord injury. Frailty syndrome A small-scale study on individuals 60 year or older with aging frailty showed, after intravenous treatment with Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) from healthy young donors, showed significant improvements in physical performance measures. MSC helps with the blockade of inflammation by decreasing it, causing the effects of frailty to reverse. Heart Stem cells are studied in people with severe heart disease. The work by Bodo-Eckehard Strauer was discredited by identifying hundreds of factual contradictions. Among several clinical trials reporting that adult stem cell therapy is safe and effective, actual evidence of benefit has been reported from only a few studies. Some preliminary clinical trials achieved only modest improvements in heart function following use of bone marrow stem cell therapy. Stem-cell therapy for treatment of myocardial infarction usually makes use of autologous bone-marrow stem cells, but other types of adult stem cells may be used, such as adipose-derived stem cells. Possible mechanisms of recovery include: Generation of heart muscle cells Stimulating growth of new blood vessels to repopulate damaged heart tissue Secretion of growth factors Criticisms In 2013, studies of autologous bone-marrow stem cells on ventricular function were found to contain "hundreds" of discrepancies. Critics report that of 48 reports, just five underlying trials seemed to be used, and that in many cases whether they were randomized or merely observational accepter-versus-rejecter, was contradictory between reports of the same trial. One pair of reports of identical baseline characteristics and final results, was presented in two publications as, respectively, a 578-patient randomized trial and as a 391-subject observational study. Other reports required (impossible) negative standard deviations in subsets of people, or contained fractional subjects, negative NYHA classes. Overall, many more people were reported as having receiving stem cells in trials, than the number of stem cells processed in the hospital's laboratory during that time. A university investigation, closed in 2012 without reporting, was reopened in July 2013. In 2014, a meta-analysis on stem cell therapy using bone-marrow stem cells for heart disease revealed discrepancies in published clinical trial reports, whereby studies with a higher number of discrepancies showed an increase in effect sizes. Another meta-analysis based on the intra-subject data of 12 randomized trials was unable to find any significant benefits of stem cell therapy on primary endpoints, such as major adverse events or increase in heart function measures, concluding there was no benefit. The TIME trial, which used a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial design, concluded that "bone marrow mononuclear cells administration did not improve recovery of LV function over 2 years" in people who had a myocardial infarction. Accordingly, the BOOST-2 trial conducted in 10 medical centers in Germany and Norway reported that the trial result "does not support the use of nucleated BMCs in patients with STEMI and moderately reduced LVEF". Furthermore, the trial also did not meet any other secondary MRI endpoints, leading to a conclusion that intracoronary bone marrow stem cell therapy does not offer a functional or clinical benefit. Blood-cell formation The specificity of the human immune-cell repertoire is what allows the human body to defend itself from rapidly adapting antigens. However, the immune system is vulnerable to degradation upon the pathogenesis of disease, and because of the critical role that it plays in overall defense, its degradation is often fatal to the organism as a whole. Diseases of hematopoietic cells are diagnosed and classified via a subspecialty of pathology known as hematopathology. The specificity of the immune cells is what allows recognition of foreign antigens, causing further challenges in the treatment of immune disease. Identical matches between donor and recipient must be made for successful transplantation treatments, but matches are uncommon, even between first-degree relatives. Research using both hematopoietic adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells has provided insight into the possible mechanisms and methods of treatment for many of these ailments. Fully mature human red blood cells may be generated ex vivo by hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), which are precursors of red blood cells. In this process, HSCs are grown together with stromal cells, creating an environment that mimics the conditions of bone marrow, the natural site of red-blood-cell growth. Erythropoietin, a growth factor, is added, coaxing the stem cells to complete terminal differentiation into red blood cells. Further research into this technique should have potential benefits to gene therapy, blood transfusion, and topical medicine. Regrowing teeth In 2004, scientists at King's College London discovered a way to cultivate a complete tooth in mice and were able to grow bioengineered teeth stand-alone in the laboratory. Researchers are confident that the tooth regeneration technology can be used to grow live teeth in people. In theory, stem cells taken from the patient could be coaxed in the lab turning into a tooth bud which, when implanted in the gums, will give rise to a new tooth, and would be expected to be grown in a time over three weeks. It will fuse with the jawbone and release chemicals that encourage nerves and blood vessels to connect with it. The process is similar to what happens when humans grow their original adult teeth. Many challenges remain, however, before stem cells could be a choice for the replacement of missing teeth in the future. Cochlear hair cell regrowth Heller has reported success in re-growing cochlea hair cells with the use of embryonic stem cells. In a 2019 review that looked at hearing regeneration and regenerative medicine, stem cell-derived otic progenitors have the potential to greatly improve hearing. Blindness and vision impairment Since 2003, researchers have successfully transplanted corneal stem cells into damaged eyes to restore vision. "Sheets of retinal cells used by the team are harvested from aborted fetuses, which some people find objectionable." When these sheets are transplanted over the damaged cornea, the stem cells stimulate renewed repair, eventually restore vision. The latest such development was in June 2005, when researchers at the Queen Victoria Hospital of Sussex, England were able to restore the sight of forty people using the same technique. The group, led by Sheraz Daya, was able to successfully use adult stem cells obtained from the patient, a relative, or even a cadaver. Further rounds of trials are ongoing. Pancreatic beta cells People with Type 1 diabetes lose the function of insulin-producing beta cells within the pancreas. In recent experiments, scientists have been able to coax embryonic stem cell to turn into beta cells in the lab. In theory if the beta cell is transplanted successfully, they will be able to replace malfunctioning ones in a diabetic patient. Orthopedics Use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) derived from adult stem cells is under preliminary research for potential orthopedic applications in bone and muscle trauma, cartilage repair, osteoarthritis, intervertebral disc surgery, rotator cuff surgery, and musculoskeletal disorders, among others. Other areas of orthopedic research for uses of MSCs include tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Wound healing Stem cells can also be used to stimulate the growth of human tissues. In an adult, wounded tissue is most often replaced by scar tissue, which is characterized in the skin by disorganized collagen structure, loss of hair follicles and irregular vascular structure. In the case of wounded fetal tissue, however, wounded tissue is replaced with normal tissue through the activity of stem cells. A possible method for tissue regeneration in adults is to place adult stem cell "seeds" inside a tissue bed "soil" in a wound bed and allow the stem cells to stimulate differentiation in the tissue bed cells. This method elicits a regenerative response more similar to fetal wound-healing than adult scar tissue formation. Researchers are still investigating different aspects of the "soil" tissue that are conducive to regeneration. Because of the general healing capabilities of stem cells, they have gained interest for the treatment of cutaneous wounds, such as in skin cancer. HIV/AIDS Destruction of the immune system by the HIV is driven by the loss of CD4+ T cells in the peripheral blood and lymphoid tissues. Viral entry into CD4+ cells is mediated by the interaction with a cellular chemokine receptor, the most common of which are CCR5 and CXCR4. Because subsequent viral replication requires cellular gene expression processes, activated CD4+ cells are the primary targets of productive HIV infection. Recently scientists have been investigating an alternative approach to treating HIV-1/AIDS, based on the creation of a disease-resistant immune system through transplantation of autologous, gene-modified (HIV-1-resistant) hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (GM-HSPC). Clinical trials Regenerative treatment models Stem cells are thought to mediate repair via five primary mechanisms: 1) providing an anti-inflammatory effect, 2) homing to damaged tissues and recruiting other cells, such as endothelial progenitor cells, that are necessary for tissue growth, 3) supporting tissue remodeling over scar formation, 4) inhibiting apoptosis, and 5) differentiating into bone, cartilage, tendon, and ligament tissue. To further enrich blood supply to the damaged areas, and consequently promote tissue regeneration, platelet-rich plasma could be used in conjunction with stem cell transplantation. The efficacy of some stem cell populations may also be affected by the method of delivery; for instance, to regenerate bone, stem cells are often introduced in a scaffold where they produce the minerals necessary for generation of functional bone. Stem cells have also been shown to have a low immunogenicity due to the relatively low number of MHC molecules found on their surface. In addition, they have been found to secrete chemokines that alter the immune response and promote tolerance of the new tissue. This allows for allogeneic treatments to be performed without a high rejection risk. Drug discovery and biomedical research The ability to grow up functional adult tissues indefinitely in culture through Directed differentiation creates new opportunities for drug research. Researchers are able to grow up differentiated cell lines and then test new drugs on each cell type to examine possible interactions in vitro before performing in vivo studies. This is critical in the development of drugs for use in veterinary research because of the possibilities of species-specific interactions. The hope is that having these cell lines available for research use will reduce the need for research animals used because effects on human tissue in vitro will provide insight not normally known before the animal testing phase. With the advent of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), treatments being explored and created for the used in endangered low production animals possible. Rather than needing to harvest embryos or eggs, which are limited, the researchers can remove mesenchymal stem cells with greater ease and greatly reducing the danger to the animal due to noninvasive techniques. This allows the limited eggs to be put to use for reproductive purposes only. Conservation Stem cells are being explored for use in conservation efforts. Spermatogonial stem cells have been harvested from a rat and placed into a mouse host and fully mature sperm were produced with the ability to produce viable offspring. Currently research is underway to find suitable hosts for the introduction of donor spermatogonial stem cells. If this becomes a viable option for conservationists, sperm can be produced from high genetic quality individuals who die before reaching sexual maturity, preserving a line that would otherwise be lost. Sources for stem cells Most stem cells intended for regenerative therapy are generally isolated either from the patient's bone marrow or from adipose tissue. Mesenchymal stem cells can differentiate into the cells that make up bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments, as well as muscle, neural and other progenitor tissues. They have been the main type of stem cells studied in the treatment of diseases affecting these tissues. The number of stem cells transplanted into damaged tissue may alter the efficacy of treatment. Accordingly, stem cells derived from bone marrow aspirates, for instance, are cultured in specialized laboratories for expansion to millions of cells. Although adipose-derived tissue also requires processing prior to use, the culturing methodology for adipose-derived stem cells is not as extensive as that for bone marrow-derived cells. While it is thought that bone-marrow-derived stem cells are preferred for bone, cartilage, ligament, and tendon repair, others believe that the less challenging collection techniques and the multi-cellular microenvironment already present in adipose-derived stem cell fractions make the latter the preferred source for autologous transplantation. New sources of mesenchymal stem cells are being researched, including stem cells present in the skin and dermis which are of interest because of the ease at which they can be harvested with minimal risk to the animal. Hematopoietic stem cells have also been discovered to be travelling in the blood stream and possess equal differentiating ability as other mesenchymal stem cells, again with a very non-invasive harvesting technique. There has been more recent interest in the use of extra embryonic mesenchymal stem cells. Research is underway to examine the differentiating capabilities of stem cells found in the umbilical cord, yolk sac and placenta of different animals. These stem cells are thought to have more differentiating ability than their adult counterparts, including the ability to more readily form tissues of endodermal and ectodermal origin. Embryonic stem cell lines There is widespread controversy over the use of human embryonic stem cells. This controversy primarily targets the techniques used to derive new embryonic stem cell lines, which often requires the destruction of the blastocyst. Opposition to the use of human embryonic stem cells in research is often based on philosophical, moral, or religious objections. There is other stem cell research that does not involve the destruction of a human embryo, and such research involves adult stem cells, amniotic stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells. On 23 January 2009, the US Food and Drug Administration gave clearance to Geron Corporation for the initiation of the first clinical trial of an embryonic stem-cell-based therapy on humans. The trial aimed to evaluate the drug GRNOPC1, embryonic stem cell-derived oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, on people with acute spinal cord injury. The trial was discontinued in November 2011 so that the company could focus on therapies in the "current environment of capital scarcity and uncertain economic conditions". In 2013 biotechnology and regenerative medicine company BioTime () acquired Geron's stem cell assets in a stock transaction, with the aim of restarting the clinical trial. Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) Scientists have reported that MSCs when transfused immediately within few hours post thawing may show reduced function or show decreased efficacy in treating diseases as compared to those MSCs which are in log phase of cell growth (fresh), so cryopreserved MSCs should be brought back into log phase of cell growth in invitro culture before administration. Re-culturing of MSCs will help in recovering from the shock the cells get during freezing and thawing. Various MSC clinical trials which used cryopreserved product immediately post thaw have failed as compared to those clinical trials which used fresh MSCs. Veterinary medicine Research conducted on horses, dogs, and cats has led to the development of stem cell treatments in veterinary medicine which can target a wide range of injuries and diseases, such as myocardial infarction, stroke, tendon and ligament damage, osteoarthritis, osteochondrosis and muscular dystrophy, both in large animals as well as in humans. While investigation of cell-based therapeutics generally reflects human medical needs, the high degree of frequency and severity of certain injuries in racehorses has put veterinary medicine at the forefront of this novel regenerative approach. Companion animals can serve as clinically relevant models that closely mimic human disease. Sources of stem cells Veterinary applications of stem cell therapy as a means of tissue regeneration have been largely shaped by research that began with the use of adult-derived mesenchymal stem cells to treat animals with injuries or defects affecting bone, cartilage, ligaments and/or tendons. There are two main categories of stem cells used for treatments: allogeneic stem cells derived from a genetically different donor within the same species and autologous mesenchymal stem cells, derived from the patient prior to use in various treatments. A third category, xenogenic stem cells, or stem cells derived from different species, are used primarily for research purposes, especially for human treatments. Bone repair Bone has a unique and well-documented natural healing process that normally is sufficient to repair fractures and other common injuries. Misaligned breaks due to severe trauma, as well as treatments like tumor resections of bone cancer, are prone to improper healing if left to the natural process alone. Scaffolds composed of natural and artificial components are seeded with mesenchymal stem cells and placed in the defect. Within four weeks of placing the scaffold, newly formed bone begins to integrate with the old bone and within 32 weeks, full union is achieved. Further studies are necessary to fully characterize the use of cell-based therapeutics for treatment of bone fractures. Stem cells have been used to treat degenerative bone diseases. The normally recommended treatment for dogs that have Legg–Calve–Perthes disease is to remove the head of the femur after the degeneration has progressed. Recently, mesenchymal stem cells have been injected directly in to the head of the femur, with success not only in bone regeneration, but also in pain reduction. Ligament and tendon repair Autologous stem cell-based treatments for ligament injury, tendon injury, osteoarthritis, osteochondrosis, and sub-chondral bone cysts have been commercially available to practicing veterinarians to treat horses since 2003 in the United States and since 2006 in the United Kingdom. Autologous stem cell based treatments for tendon injury, ligament injury, and osteoarthritis in dogs have been available to veterinarians in the United States since 2005. Over 3000 privately owned horses and dogs have been treated with autologous adipose-derived stem cells. The efficacy of these treatments has been shown in double-blind clinical trials for dogs with osteoarthritis of the hip and elbow and horses with tendon damage. Race horses are especially prone to injuries of the tendon and ligaments. Conventional therapies are very unsuccessful in returning the horse to full functioning potential. Natural healing, guided by the conventional treatments, leads to the formation of fibrous scar tissue that reduces flexibility and full joint movement. Traditional treatments prevented a large number of horses from returning to full activity and also have a high incidence of re-injury due to the stiff nature of the scarred tendon. Introduction of both bone marrow and adipose derived stem cells, along with natural mechanical stimulus promoted the regeneration of tendon tissue. The natural movement promoted the alignment of the new fibers and tendocytes with the natural alignment found in uninjured tendons. Stem cell treatment not only allowed more horses to return to full duty and also greatly reduced the re-injury rate over a three-year period. The use of embryonic stem cells has also been applied to tendon repair. The embryonic stem cells were shown to have a better survival rate in the tendon as well as better migrating capabilities to reach all areas of damaged tendon. The overall repair quality was also higher, with better tendon architecture and collagen formed. There was also no tumor formation seen during the three-month experimental period. Long-term studies need to be carried out to examine the long-term efficacy and risks associated with the use of embryonic stem cells. Similar results have been found in small animals. Joint repair Osteoarthritis is the main cause of joint pain both in animals and humans. Horses and dogs are most frequently affected by arthritis. Natural cartilage regeneration is very limited. Different types of mesenchymal stem cells and other additives are still being researched to find the best type of cell and method for long-term treatment. Adipose-derived mesenchymal cells are currently the most often used for stem cell treatment of osteoarthritis because of the non-invasive harvesting. This is a recently developed, non-invasive technique developed for easier clinical use. Dogs receiving this treatment showed greater flexibility in their joints and less pain. Muscle repair Stem cells have successfully been used to ameliorate healing in the heart after myocardial infarction in dogs. Adipose and bone marrow derived stem cells were removed and induced to a cardiac cell fate before being injected into the heart. The heart was found to have improved contractility and a reduction in the damaged area four weeks after the stem cells were applied. A different trial is underway for a patch made of a porous substance onto which the stem cells are "seeded" in order to induce tissue regeneration in heart defects. Tissue was regenerated and the patch was well incorporated into the heart tissue. This is thought to be due, in part, to improved angiogenesis and reduction of inflammation. Although cardiomyocytes were produced from the mesenchymal stem cells, they did not appear to be contractile. Other treatments that induced a cardiac fate in the cells before transplanting had greater success at creating contractile heart tissue. Recent research, such as the European nTRACK research project, aims to demonstrate that multimodal nanoparticles can structurally and functionally track stem cell in muscle regeneration therapy. The idea is to label stem cells with gold nano-particles that are fully characterised for uptake, functionality, and safety. The labelled stem cells will be injected into an injured muscle and tracked using imaging systems. However, the system still needs to be demonstrated at lab scale. Nervous system repair Spinal cord injuries are one of the most common traumas brought into veterinary hospitals. Spinal injuries occur in two ways after the trauma: the primary mechanical damage, and in secondary processes, like inflammation and scar formation, in the days following the trauma. These cells involved in the secondary damage response secrete factors that promote scar formation and inhibit cellular regeneration. Mesenchymal stem cells that are induced to a neural cell fate are loaded onto a porous scaffold and are then implanted at the site of injury. The cells and scaffold secrete factors that counteract those secreted by scar forming cells and promote neural regeneration. Eight weeks later, dogs treated with stem cells showed immense improvement over those treated with conventional therapies. Dogs treated with stem cells were able to occasionally support their own weight, which has not been seen in dogs undergoing conventional therapies. In a study to evaluate the treatment of experimentally induced MS in dogs using laser activated non-expanded adipose derived stem cells. The results showed amelioration of the clinical signs over time confirmed by the resolution of the previous lesions on MRI. Positive migration of the injected cells to the site of lesion, increased remyelination detected by Myelin Basic Proteins, positive differentiation into Olig2 positive oligodendrocytes, prevented the glial scar formation and restored axonal architecture. Treatments are also in clinical trials to repair and regenerate peripheral nerves. Peripheral nerves are more likely to be damaged, but the effects of the damage are not as widespread as seen in injuries to the spinal cord. Treatments are currently in clinical trials to repair severed nerves, with early success. Stem cells induced to a neural fate injected in to a severed nerve. Within four weeks, regeneration of previously damaged stem cells and completely formed nerve bundles were observed. Stem cells are also in clinical phases for treatment in ophthalmology. Hematopoietic stem cells have been used to treat corneal ulcers of different origin of several horses. These ulcers were resistant to conventional treatments available, but quickly responded positively to the stem cell treatment. Stem cells were also able to restore sight in one eye of a horse with retinal detachment, allowing the horse to return to daily activities. Society and culture Marketing and costs In the late 1990s and early 2000s, there was an initial wave of companies and clinics offering stem cell therapy, while not substantiating health claims or having regulatory approval. By 2012, a second wave of companies and clinics had emerged, usually located in developing countries where medicine is less regulated and offering stem cell therapies on a medical tourism model. Like the first wave companies and clinics, they made similar strong, but unsubstantiated, claims, mainly by clinics in the United States, Mexico, Thailand, India, and South Africa. By 2016, research indicated that there were more than 550 stem cell clinics in the US alone selling generally unproven therapies for a wide array of medical conditions in almost every state in the country, altering the dynamic of stem cell tourism. In 2018, the FDA sent a warning letter to StemGenex Biologic Laboratories in San Diego, which marketed a service in which it took body fat from people, processed it into mixtures it said contained various forms of stem cells, and administered it back to the person by inhalation, intravenously, or infusion into their spinal cords; the company said the treatment was useful for many chronic and life-threatening conditions. Costs of stem cell therapies range widely by clinic, condition, and cell type, but most commonly range between $10,000-$20,000. Insurance does not cover stem cell injections at clinics so patients often use on-line fundraising. In 2018, the US Federal Trade Commission found health centers and an individual physician making unsubstantiated claims for stem cell therapies, and forced refunds of some $500,000. The FDA filed suit against two stem cell clinic firms around the same time, seeking permanent injunctions against their marketing and use of unapproved adipose stem cell products. COVID-19-related marketing and government agency responses Although according to the NIH no stem cell treatments have been approved for COVID-19, and the agency recommends against the use of MSCs for the disease, some stem cell clinics began marketing both unproven and non-FDA-approved stem cells and exosomes for COVID-19 in 2020. The FDA took prompt action by sending letters to the firms in question. The FTC also warned a stem cell firm for misleading COVID-19-related marketing. See also Autologous stem-cell transplantation Cardiovascular Cell Therapy Research Network (CCTRN) Fetal tissue implant Induced pluripotent stem cell Induced stem cells Stem cell chip Stem cell therapy for macular degeneration References External links EuroStemCell: types of stem cells and their uses Stem cells Emerging technologies Life extension Medical treatments Medical controversies

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%90%EC%96%B4%ED%94%84%EB%A0%88%EB%AF%B8%EC%95%84

에어프레미아

에어프레미아()은 대한민국의 중장거리 항공사이다. 취항지는 일본, 베트남, 싱가포르, 로스앤젤레스, 산호세 등으로 예정으로 운항을 시작하였으며 현재 로스엔젤레스, 싱가포르,나리타,호치민 등 노선을 운항하고 있다. 국내최초 하이브리드 항공사이다. 처음에는 에어버스 A330neo와 보잉 787 드림라이너를 후보로 두었고, 2019년 1월 보잉 787-9를 도입하는 것으로 최종 확정되었다. 총 10기를 도입할 예정이라고 알려져 있으며, 309석 규모이다. 처음으로 도입하게 된 기종이 드림라이너 라고 불리우는 보잉 787-9 기종이다. 이 기종으로만 운항할 계획이다. 로고는 항공기의 창문 모양은 본떠 제작했다고 한다. 승무원 유니폼에도 이 창문 모양이 그려져있다. 회사 에어프레미아는 인천국제공항을 허브로 하는 국내최초 하이브리드 항공사(Hybrid Service Carrier, HSC)항공사이다. 2021년 12월 첫 국제선으로 싱가포르 취항를 시작으로 해외 여행이 풀리면서 국제선 운행를 하고 있다. 코로나 바이러스로 인해 국내선, 무기착비행 등을 비정기적으로 실시하고 있었으며 2022년 7월15일 싱가포르를 시작으로 여객편 운항을 시작하였다. 역사 2010년대 2017년 7월: 에이피에어 설립 2018년 5월: 에어프레미아로 사명 변경 10월: 국제항공운송사업자 면허 신청서 제출 및 LA 한인상공회의소와 마케팅 협력을 위한 MOU 체결 11월: 국제항공운송사업자 면허 신청서 재제출 2019년 1월: 국토교통부에 항공운송사업 신청 1월: 보잉 787-9 항공기 도입 확정 3월 5일: 국제항공운송사업 면허 취득 11월 2일: 보잉 787-9 항공기 5대 구매 2020년대 2020년 2월 12일: 운항증명(AOC) 신청 2021년 4월 2일: 1호기 (보잉 787-9) 도입(HL8387) 8월 11일: 서울(김포) - 제주 취항 10월 30일: 국내선 운항 종료 12월 24일: 서울(인천) - 싱가포르 화물편 정기취항 2022년 1월 15일: 서울(인천) - 호찌민 화물편 정기취항 7월 15일: 서울(인천) - 싱가포르 여객편 정기취항 9월 23일: 2호기 (보잉 787-9) 도입(HL8517) 10월 6일: 서울(인천) - 호찌민 여객편 정기취항 10월 8일: 3호기 (보잉 787-9) 도입(HL8388) 10월 29일 : 서울(인천) - 로스앤젤레스 여객편 정기취항 12월 23일 : 서울(인천) - 도쿄(나리타) 여객편 정기취항 2023년 4월 1일 : 4호기 (보잉 B787-9) 도입 (HL8516) 5월 22일 : 서울(인천) - 뉴어크 여객편 정기취항 5월 27일 : 서울(인천) - 방콕(수완나품) 여객편 정기취항 5월 28일 : 5호기 (보잉 B787-9) 도입 (HL8389) 6월 23일 : 서울(인천) - 프랑크푸르트 여객편 정기취항 기내 서비스 기내식 기내식으로는 한식과 양식이 주를 이룬다. 비빔밥이 일반석 기내식의 대표적인 음식이며 이외에도 크림파스타, 따뜻한 죽, 메쉬드포테이토 등이 있다. 특별 기내식으로는 당뇨식, 순수 채식, 유아식, 어린이식, 해산물식, 과일식이 있다. 어린이 기내식도 있으며 모두 항공기 출발 48시간 전인터넷으로 예약이 가능하다. 프레미아 42 일반 메뉴로 비빔밥, 따듯한 죽, 메쉬드포테이토, 핫케익, 오물렛 등이 제공된다. 와인과 제주산 녹차 커피를 제공한다 기내식에 과일 또는 디저트가 포함되어 있다. 이코노미 35 마찬가지로 일반 메뉴로 비빔밥, 따듯한 죽, 메쉬드포테이토, 핫케익, 오물렛 등이 제공된다. 프레미아 42와 다르게 커피만 제공하고 기내식에 과일 또는 디저트가 포함되어 있지 않다. 특별 기내식 건강(각종 질병 및 특정 식품에 대한 알레르기 등), 연령 등의 이유로 정규 기내식을 못먹는 승객을 위해 제공되며, 항공기 출발 48시간 전까지 예약센터로 전화 요청 또는 홈페이지를 통해 신청한 사람에 한하여 탑승후 제공된다. 특별 기내식에는 유아식 및 아동식(Baby Meal), 야채식(순수 채식), 식사조절식(당뇨식), 기타 특별식(해산물, 과일)이 있다. 엔터테인먼트 기내 엔터테인먼트 프로그램 개인용 모니터로 제공되는 주문형 프로그램. 터치 스크린을 이용해 원하는 영화와 영상물, 음악을 이용할 수 있다. 기내 와이파이 기내에 와이파이가 있어 유료로 사용이 가능하다. 좌석 구분 프리미엄 이코노미는 56석, 이코노미는 총 253, 282석으로 배치되어 있다. 에어프레미아의 이코노미석 석은 타항공사들이 추가 운임을 받는 이코노미플러스석보다 넓거나 맞먹는 수준이다. 운항 노선 보유 기종 2023년 1월 기준으로 에어 프레미아는 다음과 같이 보유하고 있다. 사건사고 2022년 12월 19일 : 인천공항 제1터미널 계류장에서 라오스 비엔티안으로 떠날 예정이던 라오항공(QV924)여객기가 견인중이던 에어프레미아(HL8517) 항공기와 충돌하였다. 같이 보기 하이브리드 항공사 각주 대한민국의 항공사

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20Premia

Air Premia

Air Premia () is a budget (HSC) hybrid service carrier based in Seoul, South Korea. The airline was founded in 2017 by the former president of Jeju Air, Kim Jong-Chul. Operations The company was established on July 27, 2017, by the ex-president of Jeju Air , Kim Jong-Chul. In April 2019, the airline intended to launch in 2020 and lease three Boeing 787-9 from Aircraft Lease Corporation (ALC), but announced and agreed to buy five. Air Premia was initially expected to launch its flight to a regional routes within Asia, but already had U.S. destinations on their radar. They are initially planning routes to the US and Australia from its base in 2021. In April 2021, they received their first Boeing 787-9 and are planning to operate 10 aircraft by the end of 2024. On 11 August 2021, the airline started flights between Seoul and Jeju. The domestic flight ended on 30 October 2021 for preparation of international routes. Destinations , Air Premia operates or has operated to the following destinations: Fleet , Air Premia operates the following aircraft: References Airlines of South Korea Low-cost carriers Companies based in Seoul South Korean companies established in 2017 Airlines established in 2017

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EB%93%9C%EC%86%8C%EB%A7%88

미드소마

《미드소마》(Midsommar)는 2019년 개봉한 공포 영화이다. 《유전》으로 명성을 얻은 아리 애스터 감독의 차기작으로, 문화인류학과 학생들이 스웨덴 어느 마을의 하지 축제에 참석해서 겪는 사건을 그린다. 플로렌스 퓨가 주인공 '대니' 역을 맡고, 잭 레이너, 윌 폴터, 윌리엄 잭슨 하퍼, 빌헬름 블롬그렌이 출연한다. 시놉시스 여름, 낮이 가장 긴 날의 하지. 가족을 모두 잃은 대니는 펠레의 초대로 남자친구 크리스티안 및 친구들과 호르가 마을로 떠난다. 겉으로 보기엔 평화롭고 따스한 마을이나 점점 기이한 비밀이 드러나기 시작하는데... 줄거리 "고통과 두려움과 수치 속에 죽는게 아니라 생명을 주는거예요" 주인공 대니는 평소 가족 문제 때문에 남자친구인 크리스티안에게 의존하고 얽매여 있는 상태였다. 결국 동생이 부모님과 함께 가스 자살을 해버린 뒤로 더더욱 정신적으로 힘들어 하게 되었고, 크리스티안은 대니에게 질리게 되었다. 문화인류학과를 졸업한 크리스티안은 스웨덴 출신 펠레의 제안으로 과 친구들인 마크, 조시와 함께 펠레네 마을 하지 축제를 탐방하기로 하는데, 여기에 대니를 함께 데려가기로 한다. 스웨덴으로 간 일행은 펠레의 형 잉마르와, 마찬가지로 견학을 온 영국인 커플 코니와 사이먼과 만난다. 백야가 지속되는 평원에 누워 환각제(실로시빈)를 즐기기로 하는데, 심약한 대니는 가족 얘기를 듣자 트라우마에 휩싸여 환상을 보고, 몇 시간 동안 정신을 잃고 만다. 호르가 마을에 도착했을 때는 축제 준비가 한창이었다. 일행은 숙소에서 하룻밤을 묵고 다음날 축제가 벌어진다. 절벽에서 치러진다는 의식은 놀랍게도 남녀 노인 둘이 높은 절벽 위로 올라 몸을 던져 돌바닥에 추락해 자살하는 것이었다. 두 번째로 떨어진 노인이 다리만 부러지고 즉사하지 않자, 사람들은 미리 들고 있던 망치로 머리를 깨 죽인다. 크게 충격을 받은 외부인들에게 펠레와 마을 사람들은 전통과 종교적 의미를 들며 이해시키려고 한다. 코니는 다음날 마을을 떠나려고 하나, 사이먼이 의문스럽게 사라져 버리고 코니도 뒤이어 모습이 보이지 않게 된다. 조시는 축제와 의식을 주제로 논문을 쓰려고 하는데 다만 의식 때 읊는 경전을 찍는 것은 허락받지 못한다. 식사 때 크리스티안의 식사에서 여자의 음모가 나오는 일이 벌어지고, 마크는 어느 마을 여자가 보여줄 것이 있다면서 데려가 버린다. 그날 밤 조시가 경전을 훔치려고 신전에 몰래 숨어 들어갔다가 마을 사람의 망치를 맞고 쓰러진다. 세 번째 날 크리스티안은 동네 처녀인 마야와 성관계를 할 것을 종용받는다. 대니는 정체불명의 차를 마신 뒤 축제의 상징인 '5월의 여왕'을 뽑는 춤에 참여해서 우승하고, 5월의 여왕으로 뽑힌다. 크리스티안은 알몸의 여자들로 둘러싸인 공간에서 마야와 성관계한다. 대니가 여왕의 의식을 수행하던 도중 크리스티안의 성관계를 목격하고 오열한다. 크리스티안이 성관계를 마친 뒤 마야는 아기를 느꼈다며 소리치고, 두려워진 크리스티안은 알몸으로 뛰쳐나가 돌아다니다가, 흙더미에 꽂힌 조시의 다리와 피의 독수리가 된 사이먼을 본다. 이윽고 마을 사람이 뿌린 가루를 들이마시고 기절한다. 호르가 마을 축제는 사실 9명의 제물을 선별하는 과정으로, 외부인 네 명과 마을 사람 네 명, 그리고 '5월의 여왕'이 택한 한 사람이 제물로 바쳐지는 것이었다. 대니는 크리스티안을 택하고, 크리스티안은 막 해체된 곰 가죽을 뒤집어 쓰고 신전에서 다른 제물들과 함께 불태워진다. 대니는 이 광경을 보고 처음에는 두려워하다가 조금씩 미소를 짓는다. 출연 플로렌스 퓨 - 대니 아더 잭 레이너 - 크리스티안 휴스 윌리엄 잭슨 하퍼 - 조시 빌헬름 블롬그렌 - 펠레 윌 폴터 - 마크 엘로라 토키아 - 코니 아치 매덱 - 사이먼 헨리크 놀렌 - 울프 군넬 프레드 - 시브 이저벨 그릴 - 마야 앙네스 라세 - 당뉘 율리아 랑나르손 - 잉가 마츠 블롬그렌 - 오드 라르스 베링에르 - 스텐 안나 오스트룀 - 카린 함푸스 할베리 - 잉마르 리브 미에네스 - 울라 루이즈 페테르호프 - 한나 카타리나 베이트하겐 - 일바 비에른 안드레센 - 단 차니 클러우디어 - 테리 아더 폰 거브리엘러, 보야리 졸트 - 대니의 엄마, 아빠 헝가리에서 촬영했기 때문에, 대사가 없는 등장인물들은 대체로 헝가리인들이다. 외부 링크 2019년 영화 영어 영화 작품 스웨덴어 영화 작품 미국의 공포 영화 스웨덴의 공포 영화 종교 공포 영화 자살을 소재로 한 영화 근친상간을 소재로 한 영화 인신공희를 소재로 한 작품 스웨덴을 배경으로 한 영화 부다페스트에서 촬영한 영화 A24 영화 포크 호러 영화 컬트를 소재로 한 영화

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midsommar

Midsommar

Midsommar is a 2019 folk horror film written and directed by Ari Aster. The film stars Florence Pugh and Jack Reynor as a dysfunctional American couple who travel to rural Sweden with a group of friends for a midsummer festival, but find themselves in the clutches of a sinister cult claiming to practice Scandinavian paganism. Supporting actors include William Jackson Harper, Vilhelm Blomgren, Ellora Torchia, Archie Madekwe, and Will Poulter. A co-production between the United States and Sweden, the film was initially pitched to Aster as a straightforward slasher film set among Swedish cultists. While elements of the original concept remain in the final product, the finished film focuses on a deteriorating relationship inspired by a difficult breakup experienced by Aster himself. The film's soundtrack, composed by British electronic musician Bobby Krlic (better known as The Haxan Cloak), takes inspiration from Nordic folk music. The film was shot on location in Budapest in the summer and autumn of 2018. Midsommar was theatrically released in the United States by A24 on July 3, 2019, and in Sweden by Nordisk Film on July 10, 2019. The film grossed $48 million and received positive reviews, with praise for Aster's direction and Pugh's performance in particular, although it polarized general audiences. Plot American student Dani is left deeply traumatized after her bipolar sister Terri kills their parents and herself. The incident further strains Dani's relationship with her increasingly distant boyfriend, a fellow student named Christian, who, with his friends Mark and Josh, has been invited by their Swedish friend Pelle to attend a midsummer festival at his ancestral commune, the Hårga, in the rural Hälsingland region of Sweden. The festival occurs only once every 90 years; Josh, who is writing his thesis on European midsummer festivities, regards it as a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. Christian had not discussed the trip with Dani, as he intended to break up with her before her family tragedy happened, but he reluctantly invites her along after an argument. Upon arrival at the commune, they meet Simon and Connie, a British couple who were invited by Pelle's commune-brother Ingemar, who offers the group psychedelic mushrooms, causing Dani to have a bad trip and hallucinate about her dead family. The day after their arrival, the group witnesses an ättestupa ceremony, where two elders commit suicide by jumping off a cliff onto the rocks below. When one of the elders survives the fall, the commune members mimic his wails of pain before crushing his head with a mallet. Commune elder Siv attempts to calm Connie and Simon by explaining that every member of their community does this at the age of 72, and that it is believed to be a great honor. Christian also decides to write his thesis on the Hårga commune, irritating Josh by plagiarizing his idea. Disturbed by the ceremonies, Dani attempts to leave, but Pelle convinces her to stay. He explains that he too was orphaned after his parents perished in a fire, and the commune became his new family. Connie and Simon demand to leave and are supposedly driven to a nearby train station individually. During his thesis research, Christian is told that outsiders are sometimes brought into the commune for "mating" purposes to avoid incest. He is encouraged to participate, but refuses. After unwittingly urinating on a sacred tree, Mark is lured away from the group by one of the female commune members and murdered in the woods. That night, Josh sneaks out of bed to take illicit photographs of the commune's sacred texts. He is caught and distracted by a man wearing Mark's skinned face, and is then bludgeoned to death with a mallet and dragged away. The following day, both Dani and Christian are separately pressured into drinking a hallucinogenic tea. Dani wins a maypole dancing competition and is crowned May Queen. Christian is drugged and participates in a sex ritual designed to impregnate Maja, a young member of the Hårga, while older nude female members watch and mimic Maja's moans. Dani witnesses the ritual and has a panic attack while the commune's women surround her, mimicking her cries of sorrow. After the ritual, a naked Christian attempts to flee. He discovers Josh's severed leg planted in a flowerbed and Simon's corpse on display in a barn, the latter having been made into a blood eagle. An elder then paralyzes Christian with a drug. For the final ceremony, the commune leaders explain that the commune must offer nine human sacrifices to purge it of evil. The first four victims (Mark, Josh, Simon, and Connie) were outsiders lured to them by Pelle and Ingemar, while the next four victims (the two ättestupa elders, plus volunteers Ingemar and Ulf) are from the commune. As the May Queen, Dani must choose either Christian or a randomly chosen commune member as the final sacrifice. She chooses Christian, who is stuffed into a disemboweled brown bear's body and placed in a triangular wooden temple alongside the other sacrifices. The commune members to be sacrificed are given drugs and told they will feel no fear or pain, but Christian is not and remains paralyzed. The structure is set alight, and the commune members mimic the screams of those being burned alive. Dani initially sobs in horror and grief, but eventually begins to smile. Cast Production Development In May 2018, it was announced that Ari Aster would write and direct the film, with Lars Knudsen serving as producer. B-Reel Films, a Swedish company, produced the film alongside Square Peg, with A24 distributing. Aster's previous horror film, Hereditary, had been a huge critical success, making over $80 million to become A24's highest-grossing film worldwide. According to Aster, he had been approached by B-Reel executives Martin Karlqvist and Patrik Andersson to helm a slasher film set in Sweden, an idea which he initially rejected as he felt he "had no way into the story." Aster ultimately devised a plot in which the two central characters are experiencing relationship tensions verging on a breakup, and wrote the surrounding screenplay around this theme. He described the result as "a breakup movie dressed in the clothes of a folk horror film." Aster has mentioned 1981 Albert Brooks film Modern Romance as an inspiration for Midsommar, and also called it "The Wizard of Oz for perverts". Aster worked with the film's production designer Henrik Svensson to develop the film's folklore elements and the traditions of the Hårga, while visiting Hälsingland together. He researched Hälsingegårds, "centuries-old farms that typically had painting on the walls", to develop a stylized version for the set, as well as May Day and midsummer celebrations in Swedish, German and English folklore. Aster also researched spiritual movements and communities, saying he particularly drew inspiration from Rudolf Steiner's anthroposophy and the theosophy movement. Florence Pugh, Jack Reynor, Will Poulter, Vilhem Blomgren, William Jackson Harper, Ellora Torchia, and Archie Madekwe joined the cast in July 2018. Filming Some early scenes set in the United States were also filmed there; Dani's apartment was filmed in Brooklyn, New York City, while other scenes where Christian's friends interact were filmed in Utah. The majority of the film was shot in Hungary rather than Sweden, primarily due to financial constraints, but also as Sweden limits daily film shoots to no longer than eight hours. Principal photography began on July 30, 2018, in Budapest, and wrapped that October. Harper said the shoot was "arduous" due to the heat. Wasps were highly abundant and a major issue on set. Pugh reflected "the shoot was totally nuts" and commended Aster's direction: "he was dealing with possibly 100, 120 people, additional extras and actors there, all speaking in three different languages and he was the captain of the ship". Ahead of filming the drug use scenes, Reynor said that the cast discussed their own experiences with psychedelic mushrooms. On her breakdown scene with the Hårga, Pugh commended the other women involved, saying they "made this scene possible" as she typically struggles to cry on camera. She reflected: "I knew I would never be so open and so raw and so exhausted like I was that day ever again". The sex scene between Christian and Maja was filmed on the final day. Reynor said he spent time attempting to boost morale among the other cast members involved, none of whom spoke English, including Isabelle Grill (who plays Maja) who was appearing in her first feature film role. He reflected he felt male nudity was unusual for a horror film, where female nudity is more typical. He said that he "advocated for as much full-frontal nudity as possible, I really wanted to embrace the feeling of being exposed and the humiliation of this character. And I felt really, really vulnerable, more than I had actually even anticipated.” Props and costume design Svensson said the mallet prop used for the senicide scene was a replica of one at a museum in Stockholm, and that the cliff-jumping was based on historic practices in Sweden. Costume designer Andrea Flesch developed the Hårga's costumes with antique linen from Hungary and Romania, and buttons from Sweden. Aster asked for the clothing to appear handmade, and for the Hårga to dress in white. Many of their costumes were hand-embroidered with rune designs unique to individual community members, signifying their families and occupations. Murals and tapestries in the background of some scenes indicate events in the film. In April 2020, A24 announced it would be auctioning off props from its films and television series, including the 10,000-silk-flower May Queen dress worn by Pugh, which was reportedly purchased by the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures for $65,000, after both Ariana Grande and Halsey had expressed interest on social media. The proceeds were donated to provide COVID-19 pandemic relief for firefighters and their families. Other items from the film that sold at auction were the bear costume worn by Reynor for $4,760, the mallet used to crush a cult member's skull for $10,000, and other villager costumes that sold in the $4,500 range. All the proceeds from the Midsommar collection raised over $100,000 for the FDNY Foundation. Post-production Aster said the visual effects for the psychedelic scenes involved considerable trial and error: "I'm sure for some of those shots we got to the point where we had 60 versions. In one iteration the tripping was way too distracting and you're not paying attention to the characters, and then you brought it down to the point where if you are paying attention to the characters, you'll never notice the tripping effects." The more minimal visual effects were settled on a week before the first screening. There was around a six-week debate as to whether the film would be given an NC-17 rating or R rating by the MPAA for its US release due to its graphic nudity, with it eventually being given an R rating after cuts. An NC-17 rating is considered harmful to films' box-office performance. Music Aster wrote the film while listening to British electronic musician The Haxan Cloak's 2013 album Excavation. Aster later recruited him to compose the film's score, credited under his real name Bobby Krlic. Krlic began composing the music before filming began, taking inspiration from Nordic folk music, and collaborating closely with Aster. The film makes use of diegetic music, where events on screen meld with the score. The soundtrack album was released on July 5, 2019 via Milan Records. Release Midsommar had a pre-release screening at the Alamo Drafthouse Cinema in New York City, on June 18, 2019. The film was theatrically released in the United States on July 3, 2019. Director's cut Aster's original 171-minute cut of the film, which A24 asked Aster to trim down for a wide theatrical release, had its world premiere at the Film Society of Lincoln Center in New York City on August 20, 2019. It was shown in theaters across the United States for a weekend starting on August 29, 2019. The director's cut was released as an Apple TV exclusive on September 24, 2019. On physical media, it saw a British release on Blu-ray and DVD on October 28, 2019, an Australian Blu-ray release on November 6, 2019 and a US release on Blu-ray in July 2020. Home media Midsommar was released on Digital HD on September 24, 2019, and on DVD and Blu-ray on October 8, 2019. The director's cut of the film was then released on Blu-ray and 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray as an A24 shop exclusive on July 20, 2020, in limited copies. Reception Box office Midsommar grossed $27.5million in the United States and Canada, and $20.5million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $48million. In the United States and Canada, the film was projected to gross $8–10 million from 2,707 theaters over its first five days. It made $3 million on its first day, including $1.1 million from Tuesday night previews, which Deadline Hollywood called a "smashing start". It went on to debut to $10.9 million, finishing sixth at the box office; IndieWire said it was "just decent" given its estimated $8 million budget, but the film would likely find success in home media. In its second weekend, the film dropped 44% to $3.7 million, finishing in eighth, and then made $1.6 million in its third weekend, finishing in ninth. Audience reception Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale, while those at PostTrak gave it an average 3 out of 5 stars, with 50% saying they would definitely recommend it. According to Screen Rant writer Mark Birrell, Midsommar was "one of the most polarizing horror movies of 2019" among general audiences, while Ankur Pathak of The Huffington Post says it "divided audiences (and some critics)". Critical response On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 83% based on 404 reviews, and an average rating of 7.6/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Ambitious, impressively crafted, and above all unsettling, Midsommar further proves writer-director Ari Aster is a horror auteur to be reckoned with." On Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the film has a score of 72 out of 100, based on 54 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". John DeFore of The Hollywood Reporter described the film as the "horror equivalent of a destination wedding", and "more unsettling than frightening, [but] still a trip worth taking." Writing for Variety, Andrew Barker noted that it is "neither the masterpiece nor the disaster that the film's most vocal viewers are bound to claim. Rather, it's an admirably strange, thematically muddled curiosity from a talented filmmaker who allows his ambitions to outpace his execution." David Edelstein of Vulture praised Pugh's performance as "amazingly vivid" and noted that Aster "paces Midsommar more like an opera (Wagner, not Puccini) than a scare picture," but concluded that the film "doesn't jell because its impulses are so bifurcated. It's a parable of a woman's religious awakening—that's also a woman's fantasy of revenge against a man who didn't meet her emotional needs—that's also a male director's masochistic fantasy of emasculation at the hands of a matriarchal cult." In The New York Times, Manohla Dargis was critical of the character depth behind Dani and Christian, finding them "instructively uninteresting" and stereotypically gendered as a couple. Eric Kohn of IndieWire summarized the film as a "perverse breakup movie," adding that "Aster doesn't always sink the biggest surprises, but he excels at twisting the knife. After a deflowering that makes Ken Russell's The Devils look tame, Aster finds his way to a startling reality check." Time Outs Joshua Rothkopf awarded the film a 5/5 star-rating, writing, "A savage yet evolved slice of Swedish folk-horror, Ari Aster's hallucinatory follow-up to Hereditary proves him a horror director with no peer." For The A.V. Club, A. A. Dowd stated that the film "rivals Hereditary in the cruel shock department", and labelled it a "B+ effort". Writing for Inverse, Eric Francisco commented that the film feels "like a victory lap after Hereditary", and that Aster "takes his sweet time to lull viewers into his clutches ... But like how the characters experience time, its passage is a vague notion." He described the film as "a sharp portrayal of gaslighting". Richard Brody of The New Yorker said that the film "is built on such a void of insight and experience, such a void of character and relationships, that even the first level of the house of narrative cards can't stand." He added, "In the end, the subject of Midsommar is as simple as it is regressive: lucky Americans, stay home." Emma Madden in The Guardian criticised the film for its depiction of disabled characters as "monstrous", and argued it resurrects harmful horror film tropes of ableism and eugenics. Tomris Laffly of RogerEbert.com rated the film 4 out of 4 stars, describing it as a "terrifically juicy, apocalyptic cinematic sacrament that dances around a fruitless relationship in dizzying circles". A Vanity Fair article from December 2019 reflecting on the 2010s in horror films argued that Midsommar was part of a trend of "elevated horror" along with Aster's previous Hereditary and Robert Eggers directed The Witch, and that it was an example of "horror at its best". Accolades Themes and analysis Writing in The Guardian, Steve Rose describes Midsommar as "a powerful study of grief, betrayal, breakups, and more". Rose suggests that Dani's three male companions may be seen as representing "toxic masculinity", or analogues of the three male companions in The Wizard of Oz (namely the Tin Man, Cowardly Lion and Scarecrow). Rose proposes that the film may be read as a "parable of snarky, city-smart, modern rationalism undone by primal rural values". Alternatively, he proposes that the villagers' traditions could be read as far-right, white nationalist or eugenicist. In Vox, Alissa Wilkinson described Midsommar's story as following Dani's emotional journey and following fairy tale conventions, where Dani loses her family at the beginning and goes on to become a Queen, as with Cinderella and Snow White. The article also notes the use of imagery foreshadowing later events throughout the film. Aster himself said "We begin as Dani loses a family, and we end as Dani gains one. And so, for better or worse, [the Hårga] are there to provide exactly what she is lacking, and exactly what she needs, in true fairy tale fashion." Monica Wolfe discussed Midsommar as reflecting themes of globalization and American imperialism in a 2022 article in the Journal of Popular Film and Television. Wolfe outlines the film's competing ideologies of femininity versus masculinity, academic knowledge versus folk knowledge, and capitalism versus communism, writing that "the horror of the film is driven by the objectified Other’s resistance to the imperial power’s desire to dominate physical place and own ideological space, but is complicated by a suggestion that, in this unique case, the Other is also a nationalist, right-wing power, and the tension between home and foreign reflects that of a new Cold War." The film's central sex scene, between Christian and Maja, has been the subject of debate as to whether it depicts rape. An article in Sexuality & Culture asserts that "the ambiguous nature of this scene may be viewed as problematic because it blurs the line between consent and sexual assault" and that the film has implications for contemporary understandings of rape, particularly of males. Yusuke Narita, a Japanese professor at Yale University, positively cited a scene in the film where an elderly person is forced to jump off a cliff. Narita used this as an example of "mass suicide" or "mass seppuku", which he claimed was the only way to solve the aging crisis in Japan. The comments resulted in a major controversy but also resulted in Narita becoming a popular figure among some young Japanese people. See also The Wicker Man, a 1973 British folk horror film revolving around a pagan cult. References External links 2019 films 2019 horror films 2019 independent films 2010s American films 2010s English-language films 2010s Swedish films A24 (company) films American horror films American independent films English-language Swedish films Fiction about familicide Films about couples Films about cults Films about disability Patricide in fiction Matricide in fiction Films about festivals Films about hallucinogens Films about human sacrifice Films about grieving Films about neopaganism Films about rape Films about suicide Films about vacationing Films based on European myths and legends Films directed by Ari Aster Films scored by The Haxan Cloak Films set in Sweden Films set in the United States Films shot in Budapest Films shot in New York City Films shot in Utah Folk horror films Holiday horror films Incest in film Murder–suicide in films Psychedelic films Swedish horror films

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kdenlive

Kdenlive

Kdenlive (KDE 비선형 동영상 편집기 ) 는 MLT 프레임워크, KDE 및 Qt에 기초한 자유 오픈 소스 비디오 편집 소프트웨어이다. 이 프로젝트는 2002년 제이슨 우드(Jason Wood)에 의해 시작되었으며, 이제는 작은 팀의 개발자들에 의해 유지 관리되고 있다. Kdenlive 15.04.0의 출시로 공식 KDE 프로젝트의 일부가 되었다. Kdenlive 패키지는 Linux, FreeBSD 및 Microsoft Windows에서 무료로 사용할 수 있으며, 소스 코드는 GNU General Public License 버전 2 또는 그 이후 버전의 조항에 따라 사용할 수 있다. 특징 KDE의 Kdenlive는 MLT, Frei0r 효과, SoX 및 LADSPA 라이브러리를 사용한다. Kdenlive는 FFmpeg 또는 libav (QuickTime, AVI, WMV, MPEG 및 Flash Video 등)에서 지원하는 모든 형식을 지원하며, PAL, NTSC 및 다양한 HD 표준(HDV와 AVCHD를 포함)을 위한 4 : 3 및 16 : 9 종횡비도 지원한다. 비디오는 DV 장치로 내보내거나, 챕터와 간단한 메뉴를 사용하여 DVD에 기록할 수도 있다. Kdenlive는 타임 라인 기반의 멀티 트랙 편집기를 내장하고 있으며 무제한의 비디오 및 오디오 트랙을 지원한다. 내장된 타이틀 에디터 및 비디오 클립, 오디오 클립, 텍스트 클립 및 이미지 클립을 생성, 이동, 자르기, 삭제할 수 있는 도구. 사용자 지정 효과 및 장면전환을 추가할 수 있다. 다양한 효과와 장면전환. 오디오 효과에는 정규화(노멀라이저), 위상 및 피치 이동, 리미터, 볼륨 조정, 리버브 및 이퀄라이저 필터 등이 포함된다. 시각적 효과에는 마스킹, 블루스크린, 왜곡, 회전, 색상 도구, 블러, 흐림 효과 및 기타 옵션이 포함된다. 재구성 가능한 키보드 단축키 및 인터페이스 레이아웃. 렌더링은 별도의 넌블로킹 프로세스를 사용하여 수행되므로 중지, 일시 중지 및 재시작할 수 있다. 또한 Kdenlive는 소프트웨어의 최신 개발자 버전과 소스의 주요 종속성을 컴파일 하는 Kdenlive Builder Wizard (KBL)라는 스크립트를 제공하여, 사용자가 새로운 기능을 테스트하고 버그 추적기에서 문제를보고 할 수 있도록 한다. 역사 이 프로젝트는 2002년 제이슨 우드(Jason Wood)가 처음 시작했다. Kdenlive의 개발은 K Desktop Platform 3 버전 (원래 MLT 용으로 제작되지 않은 버전)에서 KDE 플랫폼 4 로 옮겨 거의 모든 내용이 다시 작성되었다. 이것은 2008년 11월 12일에 발표 된 Kdenlive 0.7으로 완성되었다. 2014년 10월 1일에 발표된 Kdenlive 0.9.10이 마지막 KDE 4 릴리스다. Kdenlive는 2014년에 KDE 프로젝트와 인프라로의 전환을 계획하기 시작했다. KDE 프레임워크 5에 대한 전환은 KDE 응용 프로그램 5의 일부로 2015.04.0의 릴리스로 완료되었다. KDE로의 이동은 진행 중이다. 2017년 초 개발 팀은 프로그램 리팩터링 작업을 시작했으며 2017년 6월까지 첫 번째 미리보기를 사용할 수 있었다. 사용가능한 첫 번째 미리보기가 출시됨과 함께 2017년 12월까지 리팩토링이 개발 팀의 주안점이 되었다. 리팩토링 버전의 출시는 KDE 18.08 응용 프로그램 릴리스에서 2018년 8월로 예정되어 있다. 윈도우 환경에서의 문제와 대처법 Kdenlive는 다양한 운영 체제에서 사용할 수 있지만, 특히 리눅스 환경에서 매끄럽게 잘 작동하는 것으로 알려져 있으며, 윈도우 환경에서 사용 시 다소 불편을 겪을 수 있다. 최근 버전 별로 발생할 수 있는 문제와 대처법은 다음과 같다. 17.12.0 버전 프로그램 종료 후에도 kdenlive.exe 프로세스와 dbus-daemon.exe 프로세스가 죽지 않고 남아 있게 된다. 해결 방법은, 작업 관리자에서 kdenlive.exe 프로세스를 찾아 강제로 프로세스 트리를 종료시키는 것이다. 편집 중 타임라인을 재생하려 할 때 재생 버튼을 눌렀음에도 불구하고 재생이 시작되지 않는 경우가 자주 있다. 해결 방법은, 재생 버튼을 누른 후 재생이 시작되지 않는 현상 발생 시 키보드에서 좌우 화살표 키를 한번 누르거나, 타임라인에서 플레이 헤드 또는 빈 곳을 마우스로 한번 클릭하는 것이다. 18.12.1 버전 클립 모니터에서 표시 중인 미디어를 드래그하여 타임라인에 드롭하면 마우스 포인터가 상하좌우 십자 화살표 모양으로 고정되어 버리며, 이후 타임라인에 배치된 클립의 가장자리를 조작하는 트림, 페이드, 트랜지션 작업을 하기가 매우 불편해진다. 해결 방법은, 메인 창 최하단의 상태 바 영역을 클릭하면 마우스 포인터가 정상으로 돌아온다. .jpg 파일을 미디어 소스로 사용 시 클립 모니터나 프로젝트 모니터에서는 정상적으로 표시되나, 렌더링 시 해당 소스를 사용한 부분은 비어 있게 된다. 해결 방법은, 모든 .jpg 파일을 사전에 .png 파일로 변환하여 편집에 사용하는 것이다. 참고 문헌 외부 링크 영상 편집 소프트웨어

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kdenlive

Kdenlive

Kdenlive (; acronym for KDE Non-Linear Video Editor) is a free and open-source video editing software based on the MLT Framework, KDE and Qt. The project was started by Jason Wood in 2002, and is now maintained by a small team of developers. With the release of Kdenlive 15.04.0 in 2015 it became part of the official KDE Projects suite. Kdenlive packages are freely available for Linux, FreeBSD, and Microsoft Windows. As a whole it is distributed under the GPL-3.0-or-later license, while parts of the source code are available under different licenses such as GPL-2.0-or-later and GPL-3.0-or-later. History The project was initially started by Jason Wood in 2002. The development of Kdenlive moved on from the K Desktop Environment 3 version (which wasn't originally made for MLT) to KDE Platform 4, with an almost complete rewrite. This was completed with Kdenlive 0.7, released on 12 November 2008. Kdenlive 0.9.10 released on 1 October 2014 was the last KDE 4 release. Kdenlive started to plan a move into the KDE Projects and its infrastructure in 2014. Port to KDE Frameworks 5 was finished with the release of 2015.04.0 as part of KDE Applications 5. The move to KDE is ongoing. In early 2017 the development team started working on a refactoring of the program, and by June 2017 a first preview was available. By December 2017 the refactoring became the main focus of the development team with the release of the first usable preview. Release of the refactoring version was originally planned for August 2018 in the KDE 18.08 Applications release. The refactored version of Kdenlive was released on 22 April 2019 in the KDE 19.04 Applications release. On 20 September 2022, KDE began the first fundraising drive for Kdenlive, with the funds to be used to implement major features and bring Kdenlive up to the standards of more professional video editors. By 18 October 2022, the initial goal of €15,000 had been met. Features KDE's Kdenlive makes use of MLT, Frei0r effects, SoX and LADSPA libraries. Kdenlive supports all of the formats supported by FFmpeg or libav (such as QuickTime, AVI, WMV, MPEG, and Flash Video, among others), and also supports 4:3 and 16:9 aspect ratios for both PAL, NTSC and various HD standards, including HDV and AVCHD. Video can also be exported to DV devices, or written to a DVD with chapters and a simple menu. Multi-track editing with a timeline and supports an unlimited number of video and audio tracks. A built-in title editor and tools to create, move, crop and delete video clips, audio clips, text clips and image clips. Ability to add custom effects and transitions. A wide range of effects and transitions. Audio signal processing capabilities include normalization, phase and pitch shifting, limiting, volume adjustment, reverb and equalization filters as well as others. Visual effects include options for masking, blue-screen, distortions, rotations, colour tools, blurring, obscuring and others. Configurable keyboard shortcuts and interface layouts. Rendering is done using a separate non-blocking process so it can be stopped, paused and restarted. Kdenlive also provides a script called the Kdenlive Builder Wizard (KBW) that compiles the latest developer version of the software and its main dependencies from source, to allow users to try to test new features and report problems on the bug tracker. Project files are stored in XML format. An archiving feature allows exporting a project among all assets into a single folder or compressed archive. Built-in audio mixer See also List of video editing software Comparison of video editing software References External links Free and open-source video-editing software KDE Applications Software that uses FFmpeg Video editing software for Linux Video editing software for Windows Video software that uses Qt

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%94%EB%93%9C%EB%9D%BC%20%EB%A1%9C%EC%A6%88

잔드라 로즈

잔드라 로즈(Dame Zandra Lindsey Rhodes, 1940년 9월 19일~)는 영국인 패션 디자이너이다. 가족 배경과 어린 시절 잔드라 로즈는 영국 켄트주 채텀에서 태어났고, 당시 파리의 패션 업계에서 일하며 메드웨이 예술 대학에서 교사로 재직 중이던 어머니를 통해 패션을 접했다. 후에 메드웨이 예술 대학을 거쳐 런던 로열 칼리지 오브 아트에서 재학했다. 재학 중 전공 분야는 옷감 프린트 디자인이었다. 경력 1966-69년에 로즈는 당시 함께 재학중이던 실비아 에이튼(Sylvia Ayton)과 풀럼 로드 클로즈 샵(Fulham Road Clothes Shop)이라는 이름의 부티크 가게를 열었고, 여기서 에이튼이 의류 디자인을, 로즈는 의류 제작에 쓰일 옷감 디자인을 담당했다. 첫 콜렉션은 헐겁고 로맨틱한 의상으로 꾸렸다. 1969년에 로즈와 에이튼은 각자의 길을 걷기로 결정, 로즈는 런던 서부 패딩턴 근처에 스튜디오를 차렸다. 그의 생활 방식도 디자인 만큼이나 극적이고 화려하며 외향적이었다. 머리는 형광 연두색으로 염색하고(후에 핑크색으로 바꾸고, 가끔 빨간색이나 다른 색으로 바꾸기도 했다) 얼굴에는 극적인 화장을, 목, 귀와 팔에는 대담한 예술 장신구를 건 그는 국제 패션계에 강한 인상을 남겼다. 그는 1970년대에 런던이 세계 패션계의 중심지로 자리매김하는 데 큰 역할을 한 영국계 디자이너들 중 하나였다. 로즈의 디자인은 분명하고 창의적이며, 극적이지만 우아하고, 대담하지만 여성적이라는 평을 받는다. 로즈는 유기적인 재료와 자연에서 영감을 받는다고 한다. 그의 혁신적이고 다채로운 프린트는 여행에서 인상을 받기도 했는데, 예를 들어 우크라이나에서는 셰브런 스트라이프(chevron stripe)를, 북미에서는 인디언 공예품의 무늬를, 일본에서는 꽃, 서예나 조개를 받아들였다. 의류 제작에 있어서의 특징은 바깥으로 드러나게 뒤집어진 솔기라든지, 보석으로 장식된 안전핀이나, 펑크 풍의 찢김 등을 들 수 있겠다. 로즈는 1977년에 '개념적 시크(Conceptual Chic)', 즉 주류에 반하는 펑크 해석을 통해 가장 이름을 알렸다. 베르사체보다 10년 앞서 그는 구멍이 뚫리거나 구슬 장식이 들어간 안전핀을 사용해 드레스를 만들었고, 이는 일종의 자수처럼, 느슨한 모양이 그려진 실크 저지, 혹은 새로 개발된 울트라스웨이드 옷감과 함께 구성되었다. 그는 웨일즈 공작 부인 다이애나를 포함, 왕족 및 유명인을 위해 디자인을 계속 하고 있다. 잘 알려진 코스츔 디자인 중에는 더 스트러츠의 루크 스필러(Luke Spiller), 퀸의 프레디 머큐리와 브라이언 메이 등이 있다. 미국, 영국, 호주에서 잘 알려졌다. 1995년에는 캘리포니아에 실내 디자인 사업을 위한 스튜디오를 새로 열었다. 2001년에는 샌디에고 오페라에서 첫 오페라 공연이었던 "마술피리"를 위한 코스츔 디자인을 의뢰했고, 후에도 그는 샌디에고 오페라와의 관계를 지속하여 조르주 비제의 "진주조개잡이"를 위한 무대와 코스츔을 디자인하기도 했다. 또한 그는 휴스턴 그랜드 오페라 및 잉글리시 내셔널 오페라가 공연한 주세페 베르디의 "아이다"의 디자인도 맡았다. 로즈는 런던의 패션 직물 박물관(Fashion and Textile Museum)을 2003년 5월에 설립했고, 개관식에는 켄트 공자 마이클이 참석했다. 2006년 9월 22일에 그는 본인 역할로 BBC 라디오 4 채널에서 방송한 드라마 더 아처스(The Archers)에 등장했다. 2007년에는 헤리엇 와트 대학교에서 명예 박사 학위를 수여받았다. BBC 텔레비전에서 방영한 프로그램 앱솔루틀리 패뷸러스(Absolutely Fabulous) 2기에서 본인 역할로 한 회에 등장하기도 했다. 또한 프로젝트 캣워크(Project Catwalk) 프로그램에서 3기 1화 방영분에 초대 심사위원으로 참가했다. 2009년 11월에 그는 영국 신설 대학이고 미술 및 디자인 관련 대학으로는 두번째인 유니버시티 포 더 크리에이티브 아츠(University of the Creative Arts)의 총장 임명을 받았다. 공식 임명식은 2010년 6월에 화이트홀 뱅킷 하우스에서 열렸으며 행사 중 로즈가 재학했던 켄트, 메드웨이의 로체스터 캠퍼스에서 패션 디자인 및 패션 혁신 경영 학과 졸업생, 그리고 서리 엡솜 캠퍼스의 패션학과 졸업생 작품들 중 우수한 디자인을 선별한 패션쇼를 열었다. 2009년에 영국 의류 소매 체인인 막스 앤 스펜서스에서 로즈가 제작한 "잔드라 로즈 콜렉션"을 대형 점포에 한해 선보였다. 로즈의 장신구 콜렉션에는 오리엔탈 위스퍼 콜렉션, 펑크 시크 콜렉션, 러블리 릴리즈 콜렉션, 시그너쳐 콜렉션, 맨하탄 레이디 콜렉션 등 5개가 있다. 2011년 8월에는 아델 마리 런던(Adele Marie London)과 합작하여 "잔드라 로즈 로 아델 마리"라는 장신구 콜렉션을 내 놓았다. 이 콜렉션은 이제 유명해진 로즈의 초창기 옷감을 장신구의 형식으로 재해석하여 구성되었다. 2010년에는 블루프린트(Bluprint)와 라이센스 계약 하에 핸드백 콜렉션을 출시했고, 침구 및 야외활동용 의류 방면으로도 합작했다. 2013년 3월 26일에는 개인 소장중이던 유명 의상 500개를 디지털 스터디 콜렉션으로 제작했고, 여기에 스케치 및 미공개 인터뷰나 스튜디오 내 활동 등도 포함되었다. 잔드라 로즈 디지털 스터디 콜렉션은 유니버시티 포 더 크리에이티브 아츠 주관, 지스크(Jisc) 협찬으로 이루어져 전 세계의 디자인 학생들이 참고할 수 있게끔 만들었다. 작위 로즈는 영국 패션 및 옷감에 기여한 공헌을 바탕으로 1997년과 2014년에 대영제국훈장(CBE, DBE)을 수여받았다. 기타 잔드라 로즈는 1975년 이래로 워너 브라더스 전 회장 살라 하나넨(Salah Hassanein)과 관계가 있다. 2009년 6월 30일에 그는 샌디에고의 라 졸라 부근의 에이스 하드웨어 가게를 차량으로 들이받았고 결과 한 42세 여성이 부상을 입었다. 2010년에 그는 당시 새로 출범한 데이비드 캐머런 정부에 대해 우호적인 의견을 표출했다. 1940년 출생 영국의 디자이너 살아있는 사람

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zandra%20Rhodes

Zandra Rhodes

Dame Zandra Lindsey Rhodes, (born 19 September 1940), is an English fashion and textile designer. Her early education in fashion set the foundation for a career in the industry creating textile prints. Rhodes has designed garments for Diana, Princess of Wales and numerous celebrities such as rock stars Freddie Mercury and Marc Bolan. She has also designed textiles for interiors, featuring her prints on furniture and homewares. In 2003 Rhodes founded the Fashion and Textile Museum in London. Over her fifty year career Rhodes has won numerous awards recognizing contribution within the fashion industry, including Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in the Performing Arts – Costume Design 1979, Designer of The Year in 1972 and the Walpole British Luxury Legend Award 2019. A Rhodes dress featured on a commemorative UK postage stamp issued by Royal Mail in 2012 celebrating Great British Fashion. Early life and education Rhodes was born 19 September 1940, in Chatham, Kent, England. Her mother was a fitter at the House of Worth in Paris and later became a professor at Medway College of Art, now the University for the Creative Arts. Her father was in the air force in Egypt and later became a lorry driver. Three years after Rhodes was born, her mother gave birth to her sister Beverley Rhodes. Rhodes' mother having an occupational background in fashion, the industry was instilled in her as an adolescent; she has described her mother as one of her greatest influences, to whom she owes her career. Rhodes first studied at Medway College of Art; her major area of study was printed textile design in England. Pop artist Roy Lichtenstein, Andy Warhol, and textile designer Emilio Pucci were a few of Zandra Rhodes' early influences. Textile design instructor Barbara Brown inspired her interest in textile designs during the course of her studies. Rhodes later furthered her education under a scholarship at Royal College of Art. She strayed away from the traditional patterns many designers were producing to create furniture. Rhodes utilised her skill towards designing patterns to create garments. In 1964, Zandra Rhodes graduated with a degree in home furnishing textile design. Career Rhodes' early textile fashion designs were considered outrageous by the traditional British manufacturers, which made it hard to find work. In 1968 Rhodes started a business with fashion designer Sylvia Ayton. The two designers opened a boutique called Fulham Road Clothes Shop. The business allowed Rhodes to create her textile designs onto garments designed by Sylvia Ayton. She produced her first collection showing loose, romantic garments. In 1969, Rhodes and Ayton went their separate ways, with Rhodes establishing her own studio in Paddington in West London. As a freelancer she released her first solo collection. The collection of garments received recognition from both the British and American market. Marit Allen, editor of American Vogue at the time featured pieces of Rhodes’s collection in an issue. Receiving recognition by Marit Allen persuaded high end retailers like Henri Bendel, Fortnum and Mason, Neiman Marcus, and Saks to purchase her collection. Rhodes' own lifestyle proved to be as dramatic, glamorous and extrovert as her designs. With her hair a vivid shade of bright green (later changed to pink, and sometimes red or other colours), her face painted with theatrical makeup and audacious art jewellery swinging from her neck, ears and arms, she stamped her identity on the international world of fashion. Rhodes was one of the new wave of British designers who put London at the forefront of the international fashion scene in the 1970s. Her designs are considered clear, creative statements; dramatic but graceful; audacious but feminine. Rhodes' inspiration has been from organic material and nature. Her unconventional and colourful prints were often inspired by travel; chevron stripes from Ukraine and the symbols of the North American Indian, Japanese flowers, calligraphy and shells. Her approach to the construction of garments can be seen in her use of reversed exposed seams and in her use of jewelled safety pins and tears during the punk era. Rhodes created handmade evening wear using her unique feminine textiles. Each garment created incorporates different types of feminine style into place. She made her biggest splash in 1977 with the establishment take on punk, which she called Conceptual Chic. She created dresses with holes and beaded safety pins – 10 years before Versace – to form a sort of embroidery, mixed with loosely drawn figures screen-printed on silk jersey, or on the newly developed Ultra suede fabric. When she creates her garments a lot of thought goes into the construction. Simplistic shapes help mould the foundation of Rhodes's garments. The foundation of the shapes, functions as an enhancer that maximizes the effects of her prints. She achieves this look by using techniques including layering, smocking, and shirring. All of Zandra Rhodes's garments are constructed around the design of her distinct prints, despite being structured around the formation of the dress. Rhodes designed for Diana, Princess of Wales, and continues to design for royalty and celebrities. She has notably designed costumes for rock musicians, glam rock pioneer Marc Bolan of T. Rex, and Freddie Mercury and Brian May of Queen. Multidisciplinary design Rhodes has branched out from fashion, bringing her textiles into other design disciplines. In 1976 Rhodes designed her first interior home décor collection, licensed under Wamsutta. The collection featured household linens, glassware, cushions, throws, and rugs. Zandra Rhodes also used her signature prints to create, ties, lingerie, and a fragrance. In 1995 she established a studio in California to develop an interior design business. The San Diego Opera commissioned her to design the costumes for their production of Mozart's The Magic Flute in 2001. In 2004 she designed the set and costumes for the San Diego Opera performance of Bizet's Les pêcheurs de perles. She designed for Verdi's Aida at the Houston Grand Opera and English National Opera. In 2002 Rhodes designed a poster for Transport for London showing the River Thames as a woman wearing London landmarks as jewelry. Rhodes is the founder of the Fashion and Textile Museum in London, which opened in May 2003. The four-million-dollar project took approximately seven years for architect Ricardo Legorreta to build. The museum provides exhibitions and educational programs for fashion students. Contained in the museum is a library and lecture room that will help immerse people into the ways fashion has impacted society throughout the years. In the first exhibit titled "My Favourite Dress" there are dresses from over seventy fashion designers including Oscar de la Renta, Donna Karan, Valentino, and Giorgio Armani. Zandra Rhodes personally asked each designer to choose one of their favourite dresses for the exhibit. It was important for Rhodes to incorporate other designers into the exhibit so the museum provided a nuance of design besides from her own, although the museum withholds a variety of designers' garments. Rhodes included three thousand of her own original garments, and her sketch books and silk screens. The Fashion and Textile Museum produces shows a year, with changing exhibits. On 22 September 2006 she appeared as herself on the long-running BBC Radio 4 soap opera The Archers. Rhodes received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 2007. She appeared, as herself, in an episode of Absolutely Fabulous during the BBC show's second season. Rhodes was a Guest Judge for the first episode of the third season of Project Catwalk. In November 2010, Rhodes was appointed Chancellor of the University for the Creative Arts, one of the UK's newest universities, and only the second to focus specifically on art and design. An official installation ceremony was held in June 2010 in the Banquet House, Whitehall, accompanied by a fashion show. Marks and Spencers introduced the upmarket Zandra Rhodes collection, modelled and made by Rhodes, into the bigger stores by late 2009. She has her own collection of jewelry. The Zandra Rhodes jewelry includes five separate collections, which are Oriental Whisper collection, Punk Chic Collection, Lovely Lilies collection, Signature collection and Manhattan Lady Collection. A more recent jewellery collection created in collaboration with Adele Marie London, called Zandra Rhodes for Adele Marie, launched in August 2011. This collection features iconic pieces of Rhodes' early textiles work remade as jewellery. Rhodes launched a handbag range made under licence by Blueprint in 2010 and has also collaborated to produce a bed linen range and a new improved outdoor clothing range. On 26 March 2013, Rhodes launched a Digital Study Collection of 500 of her iconic garments from her private archive, as well as drawings and behind-the-scenes interviews and tutorials in her studio. The Zandra Rhodes Digital Study Collection was developed through a project led by the University for the Creative Arts and funded by Jisc. Making key garments she designed available for student study worldwide. In September 2021, Rhodes launched a 26-piece homeware collection with IKEA of Sweden, available globally in-stores and online. Honours and awards Rhodes was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1997 and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2014 Birthday Honours for services to British fashion and textiles, having been invested at Buckingham Palace by Princess Anne. 1972 Designer of the Year, English Trade Fashion, Royal Designer Industry, Royal Society of Arts 1978 Fellow of the Society of Industrial Arts, Moore College of Art Award, Philadelphia 1979 Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in the Performing Arts Costume Design 1983 British Designer, Clothing and Export Council and National Economic Development Committee 1985 Alpha award for Best Show of the Year, Saks Fifth Avenue, New Orleans 1986-Women of Distinction Award, Northwood Institute, Dallas 1990 Number One Textile Designer, Observer Magazine 1995 Hall of Fame Award, British Fashion Council 1997 Golden Hanger award for lifetime achievement, Fashion Careers of California College, San Diego 1998 Leading Woman Entrepreneur of the World by the Star Group U.S.A., Honor award from the National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association Honor for Del Mar Terrace 2006 Montblanc de la Culture Arts Patronage Award 2019 Walpole British Luxury Legend Award Personal life Rhodes describes former president of Warner Brothers Salah Hassanein (1921-2019) as having been her long-standing partner, and the greatest love of her life, until his death in 2019. She was arrested for growing cannabis in 1986. On 30 June 2009, Rhodes crashed her car into a hardware store in La Jolla, California, injuring a woman. Notes Morgan, Ann Lee (ed.) (1984) "Rhodes, Zandra (1940–)" Contemporary Designers First edition, Gale Research, Detroit; O'Hara, Georgina (1986) "Rhodes, Zandra (1940–)" The Encyclopaedia of Fashion Harry N. Abrams, New York; Parry, Melanie (ed.) (1997) "Rhodes, Zandra (1940–)" Chambers Biographical Dictionary Sixth edition, Larousse Kingfisher Chambers, New York; Crystal, David (ed.) (1998) "Rhodes, Zandra (1940–)" The Cambridge Biographical Encyclopedia Second edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England; San Diego Opera News Release: The Art of Zandra Rhodes Zandra Rhodes: A Lifelong Love Affair with Textiles See also List of Marks & Spencer brands fashion houses Per Una punk era References Sources Zandra Rhodes profile, make-me-beautiful.co.uk Interview, vogue.co.uk Profile , University for the Creative Arts website Profile, bbc.co.uk External links 1940 births British Jews Living people English fashion designers English designers Alumni of the University for the Creative Arts Alumni of the Royal College of Art People from Chatham, Kent Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire People associated with the University for the Creative Arts Conservative Party (UK) people British women fashion designers

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%84%EB%8B%9D%EC%8D%AC%20%EA%B2%8C%EC%9D%B4%ED%8A%B8

버닝썬 게이트

버닝썬 게이트는 대한민국 서울특별시 강남구 봉은사로 120에 위치해 있었던 르 메르디앙 서울 호텔의 나이트클럽 "버닝썬"에서 벌어진 폭행 및 경찰 유착·마약·성범죄·조세 회피·불법 촬영물 공유 혐의 등을 아우르는 대형 범죄 사건이다. 르 메르디앙 서울에 입주해 있던 클럽 "버닝썬"에서 김상교가 폭행을 당했지만 경찰은 오히려 김상교를 가해자로 체포하고 폭행까지 하였다. 김상교는 경찰이 클럽 측을 옹호하였다고 폭로하고, 이를 계기로 클럽 버닝썬과 관련된 여러 의혹에 대해 언론 등에 제보가 이뤄지면서 드러나게 되었다. 버닝썬의 지분 42%는 르 메르디앙 서울을 소유한 전원산업의 대표 최 모가 가지고 있으며 그는 서울강남경찰서 경찰발전위원으로 활동해 왔다. 전개 폭행 사건 버닝썬에서 김상교가 버닝썬 직원에게 폭행을 당했지만 경찰은 오히려 김상교를 가해자로 체포하고 폭행까지 하면서 인권 및 건강권을 유린하였다. 김상교는 경찰이 클럽 측을 옹호하였다고 폭로하고, 이를 계기로 클럽 버닝썬과 관련된 여러 의혹에 대해 언론 등에 제보가 이뤄지면서 드러나게 되었다. 김상교를 폭행한 최초 폭행자는 정확히 누군지 밝혀지지 않았었다. 그런데 오영훈 의원은 버닝썬 게이트, YG 엔터테인먼트, 그리고 박근혜정부가 연결되어 있다고 대정부질문에서 관계도를 제시했고, 최초 폭행자는 최순실의 조카 서현덕이라고 주장했다. 그러나 실제로는 클럽VIP 나사팸의 최모씨와 시비가 있었고 클럽종업원 장모씨가 최초폭행자로 밝혀졌다. 이 사건은 경찰유착, 청와대 비호, 성접대, 몰카공유, 사모펀드 등 복잡하게 얽히며 세간의 주목을 받았다. 클럽내에 마약판매책이 활동하는 등 밝혀야할 사안들이 많았음에도 석연치않게 종결되었다. 마약이 활개치기 시작하는 시점에 검찰의 마약수사가 위축되는 과정은 조직축소와 권한축소로 나뉜다. 박상기 법무부 장관 시절인 2018년 7월 대검 강력부는 대검 반부패부와 합쳐졌다. 추미애 장관 시절인 2020년 9월 대검 마약과가 대검 조직범죄과와 통합됐다. 박범계 장관 시절인 2021년 7월 전국 8개 지방검찰청 중 대구·인천을 제외한 6곳에서 강력부가 반부패부 등에 통폐합됐다. 서현덕은 김무성 의원의 사위 이상균과 노성일 미즈메디 이사장의 아들 노영호와 SNS 친교를 맺고 있으며, 평소에도 호화로운 삶을 즐기는 인물로 알려져 있다. 그러나 경찰은 버닝썬의 손님 최 모를 최초 폭행자로 추정하고 조사 중이다. 경찰 유착 강남의 클럽 버닝썬과 경찰 간 유착 의혹을 수사 중인 경찰이 이 클럽에 들락거린 강남경찰서 소속 한 현직 경찰관 김모를 내사 중인 것으로 확인되었다. ‘유착 고리’로 지목된 전직 경찰관에 대해서는 구속영장이 청구되었다. 혐의를 부인해 왔던 버닝썬 공동대표가 지난해 미성년자 출입 사건을 무마하기 위해 전직 경찰관에게 2천만 원을 건넸다고 인정하였다. 서울지방경찰청 광역수사대는 전직 경찰관 강 모에 대한 구속 전 피의자 심문(영장실질심사)이 3월 15일 오전 10시30분 서울중앙지법에서 열릴 예정이다. 정준영의 단체카톡방에서 경찰과 유착이 의심되는 대화 내용이 공개되었다. 2019년 10월 7일 검찰은 윤 총경에 대해 알선 수재와 자본시장법 위반 등의 혐의로 구속영장을 청구했다 사건 피의자 가수 승리의 단체카톡방에서 윤규근 총경이 '경찰총장'으로 언급되면서 청와대와의 관련성이 주목을 받던 중에 경찰이 특별수사팀을 구성하고 윤규근과 관련된 부분을 수사하면서 김영란법 위반으로 축소 수사하자 2019년 9월 검찰은 재차 윤규근을 수사하여 조국 전 법무장관이 관계된 사모펀드와 관계된 회사의 미공개 정보를 이용해 주식 투자한 혐의로 윤규근을 구속하였다. 2020년 4월 8일 김상교는 여권 실세를 자처한 박모 신부가 처음에 김상교에게 접근하여 사건 해결을 도와주겠다고 하다가 청와대 민정수석실이 관여 되어 있다는 사실을 알고 "3천 만원이면 조선족을 시켜서 너를 죽여버릴 수 있다"며 김상교를 협박한 사실을 폭로했다. 또 김상교는 정의당에도 도움을 요청했으나 그들마저도 이 사건을 외면했다고 폭로했다. 마약 2019년 3월 12일 버닝썬 클럽 직원으로 일하면서 마약에 손을 댄 혐의를 받는 조 모(28)가 마약류관리법상 마약·향정·대마, 화학물질관리법상 환각물질흡입 혐의로 구속 상태로 재판에 넘겨졌다. 성범죄 승리를 비롯한 버닝썬 대표들과 그 직원 및 MD는 성범죄 알선에 대거 연루되어 있었다. 그 내용은 크게 성매매 알선 및 성접대, 물뽕을 통한 강간 알선 두 가지로 나뉠 수 있다. 약물 성폭행 알선 버닝썬에서 이른바 "물뽕"이라 불리는 감마 하이드록시뷰티르산(GHB)을 사용한 성폭행이 이루어졌다고 보도되었다. 하지만 정확한 성폭행 피해자 수가 나타난 것은 없으며 실제 GHB에 의해 성폭행으로 신고된 건 수는 태국 남성이 해외에서 반입한 GHB에 의한 성폭행 1건이다. VIP 룸에서는 성매매 여성들을 소수 GBH를 이용하거나 물뽕에 취한 것처럼 연기를 시켜 성매매를 알선한 것이 적발되었다. 버닝썬 직원에게 폭행당한 김씨가 인스타와 SNS 등을 통해 버닝썬의 GHB 피해자들의 제보를 받았고 카톡 등이 여러 뉴스에도 공개되었지만 익명이기 때문에 실제 피해자들인지는 불확실하다. 불법 촬영물 공유 버닝썬 조사 도중 한 제보자의 카카오톡 제보로 연예인 다수가 카카오톡을 통해 음란물, 강간 및 부적절한 내용을 주고받고 불법 촬영했으며 유포한 정황이 드러났다. 이로 인해 정준영을 시작으로 용준형을 비롯해 연예계 다수가 이 사건에 연루되며 큰 파장을 일으켰다. 가수 정준영은 불법촬영물을 다수 유포했다. 가수 승리는 앞서 언론 인터뷰에서 정준영이 불법촬영물을 유포하는 행위를 보고 오프라인에서 적극 말려왔다고 발언했으나, 본인 또한 불법촬영물을 유포했다는 것이 밝혀졌다. 성매매 알선 한국,일본 및 해외 투자자 성매매 알선 2015년 12월 6일 밤 승리가 버닝썬 직원 김 모에게 대만에서 온 외국인 투자자 일행을 성접대하라고 지시한 사실이 2월 26일 보도를 통해 밝혀졌다. 유 모 유리홀딩스 대표, 버닝썬 직원 김 모 등이 나눈 카카오톡 대화 내역을 2019년 2월 26일, SBS funE가 입수해 보도했다. 승리는 "응 여자는? 잘 주는 애들로"라고 물었고 김 모는 "부르고 있는데 주겠나 싶다. 니들이 아닌데 주겠냐. 일단 싼마이 부르는 중. 여자 해줄 사이즈가 나보다 돼지 3명ㅋ 대만 깡패라고 한다"고 답했다. 조세 회피 반응 연예계 승리는 이 사건으로 빅뱅에서 탈퇴하고 연예계에서 은퇴했으며 현재 이 사건과 관련해 성매매 알선 혐의로 수사를 받고 있다. 이 과정에서 모든 지상파(KBS, EBS, MBC, SBS), 종편 출연 정지 연예인 명단에 올랐다. 정준영은 모든 방송국 출연 정지 연예인 명단에 올랐다. 정치권 2019년 3월 13일 바른미래당은 승리-정준영 단톡방 파동과 관련 "마약 투약·유통, 약물을 이용한 성범죄, 경찰, 소방 등 권력과의 유착 의혹에 대해서도 철저한 조사가 이뤄져야 한다"고 재촉하였다. 2020년 2월 10일 김상교는 청와대 특별감찰반 비위 논란을 폭로한 김태우 전 수사관과 함께 미래통합당 합류와 지지 선언을 했다. 버닝썬 주 이용 고객 다수가 경제적 여유를 갖춘 계층으로 대체적으로 국민의 힘 지지 기반인 걸 감안하면 상당히 이례적인 일이 아닐 수 없다. 클럽 업계 같이 보기 유리홀딩스 유인석 박한별 조 로우 , (1MDB scandal, 말레이시아판 버닝썬 사건) 나집 라작 승리 최종훈 이종현 YG엔터테인먼트 정준영 삼합회 죽련방 야쿠자 각주 외부 링크 2018년 대한민국 2019년 대한민국 대한민국의 스캔들 섹스 스캔들 승리 (가수) 연예계 사건

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning%20Sun%20scandal

Burning Sun scandal

The Burning Sun scandal, also known as Burning Sun gate, was a 2019 entertainment and sex scandal in Seoul, South Korea, which involved several celebrities, including Korean idols of popular K-pop groups, and police officials. It was the largest scandal to hit the K-pop industry. The allegations of sex crimes added to the country's "epidemic" of what is called molka, a Korean word for the online distribution of unconsented sex videos taken of women, and the scandal became fodder for political parties, who argued over how to handle it. It began on January 28, 2019, when MBC Newsdesk reported a November 2018 alleged assault of a male clubgoer at the Burning Sun, a prominent nightclub in Gangnam, by a staff member. The Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency investigation soon turned to one concerning the club's alleged involvement in prostitution, drug trafficking and police corruption. Seungri of the band Big Bang, one of the club's directors, subsequently resigned from the entertainment industry on March 11, 2019, after being charged with sexual bribery. The scandal quickly encompassed allegations of rape and spy cams when singer and entertainer Jung Joon-young confessed to secretly filming himself having sex with women and sharing the videos, without their knowledge or consent, in the Jung Joon-young KakaoTalk chatrooms, and he resigned from the entertainment industry on March 12, 2019. While looking into the Burning Sun scandal, SBS funE had discovered videos dated from 2015 to 2016, as well as conversations Jung shared in chat groups on the social media app KakaoTalk with Seungri and acquaintances. The chatroom exposé immediately affected a few celebrities, and more as the case developed. On March 14, Yong Jun-hyung of Highlight and Choi Jong-hoon of F.T. Island resigned from their positions, after allegations they were participants in the chatrooms, and the agency for Lee Jong-hyun of CNBLUE admitted his involvement on March 15. Legal proceedings for criminal investigations generated by the scandal continued into 2021. Although several police officers were disciplined for their actions involving the Burning Sun club, the two highest profile cases resulted in trial acquittals. Burning Sun's co-CEO, Lee Sung-hyun, testified that he had paid a former police officer named Kang to cover for an underage clubgoer incident, but Kang's one-year prison sentence was overturned for lack of evidence. Also, a well publicized case involved a senior police official, Yoon Gyu-geun, who was arrested for allegations of bribery and mediating favors for the Burning Sun club and others, which ended with an innocent verdict at his first trial. Among other verdicts, Burning Sun's co-CEO, Lee Moon-ho, was sentenced to a year in prison for habitual drug use, including ecstasy and ketamine in Gangnam clubs, and one of the club's promoters, MD Cho, was sentenced to four years and six months for drug use and smuggling. Due to public interest in the scandal, police conducted drug sweeps at entertainment venues that yielded hundreds of drug-related arrests, a large percentage involving ecstasy and GHB, a common date rape drug; along with cases of sexual assault and rape, and the filming of illegal videos during drug use. Seungri's business associate, Yoo In-seok, admitted to providing potential Japanese investors with prostitutes and received a suspended sentence of three years probation and an embezzlement charge. Seungri's entertainment agency head, Yang Hyun-suk, admitted to gambling and illegal money transactions in Las Vegas casinos and was sentenced to paying a fine, along with three YG and YGX associates. Seungri's case concluded in January 2022 in a military appeals court, with a reduced prison sentence of one year and a half and a fine. The nine charges included habitual gambling overseas and illegal money transactions, prostitution mediation and purchase, violence instigation, violation of the Specific Economic Crimes Act, embezzlement, sharing illicit photos, and a business operations violation. Background Burning Sun nightclub The Burning Sun nightclub, (Hangul: 클럽 버닝썬, Club Burning Sun), opened at the Le Méridien Seoul hotel in Yeoksam-dong, Gangnam-gu, on February 23, 2018, and closed during the investigation of the scandal on February 17, 2019. The upscale hotel had just replaced the Ritz Carlton Hotel and opened in September 2017, months before the Burning Sun's opening. The nightclub was often called "Seungri's Club", due to its affiliation with K-pop idol Seungri of Big Bang. The Burning Sun advertised itself as "the most elegant and finest club in South Korea". It included a basement level for EDM, a second level for hip hop, VIP admittance, 60 VIP tables near the DJ box and stage, spacious dance floors and accommodation for 1000 guests. The drink menu listed Armand de Brignac champagne and Louis XIII cognac sets, priced in the thousands of dollars. The sound system was set up by Funktion-One, a specialized overseas company, whose sound expert, Tony Andrews, was invited to the club for sound tuning. Seungri served as one of the DJs, along with other local and visiting guest artists like R3hab. The club's CEOs were Lee Moon-ho and Lee Sung-hyun, a former board member of the company that operated the Le Méridien Seoul hotel. Seungri was one of seven in-house directors, and resigned from his position in January 2019. Seungri was the co-founder of Yuri Holdings, a shareholder of Burning Sun Entertainment that operated the club. which owned as much as 20 percent in shares, and which was established in March 2016, with Yoo In-seok, to manage his restaurant and entertainment businesses. Seungri resigned from his position in mid February and Yoo resigned on March 13. Seungri described his relationship to the club in an interview with The Chosun Ilbo, published on March 22, 2019, saying that CEO Lee Moon-ho, a friend of his, was the operator of the club and in charge, while Seungri's name was used for marketing, after his initial investment of 10 million won (around US$8,800). In the interview, Seungri said the breakdown of Burning Sun's shares were as follows: owners of Le Méridien Seoul, 42 percent; Lee Sung-hyun (CEO of Le Méridien Seoul), 8 percent; Yuri Holdings, 20 percent, Madam Lin (Taiwanese investor), 20 percent; and Lee Moon-ho, 10 percent. Other clubs Monkey Museum was the first Gangnam club to associate Seungri's name, and opened on July 27, 2016, in the upscale neighborhood of Cheongdam-dong, Gangnam-gu. It was a trendy hip hop lounge-style bar, co-owned by Seungri, Yoo and a group of K-pop singers. During the scandal's investigation, it became one of the first non-relevant charges against Seungri, of illegal operation as a bar, while it was registered as a restaurant; and later involved allegations of embezzlement of funds by Seungri and Yoo. Arena (or Club Arena) was a dance club that opened in 2014 in Nonhyeon-dong, Gangnam-gu. It was known as a TV and sports celebrity hang-out, had a reputation for a very strict dress code, and could accommodate 700 guests with separate EDM and hip hop dance floors. It was another club Seungri was affiliated with, and where he was alleged to have made arrangements for investors to receive sexual favors. The owner, last name Kang, and another of the club's operators, were arrested on tax evasion charges during the scandal's investigation. Seungri's background as a businessman The club's scandal was heightened in the media, exacerbated by Seungri's wide popularity and his possible business connections to it. He had developed a second career in business, and the nightclub business was not his first business venture, having been preceded by several others: a Japanese ramen restaurant chain, cosmetics, a Belgian waffle cafe, and a record company co-founded with his agency YG Entertainment. He invested in biotechnology and nanotechnology and the development of masks for yellow dust protection, and failed at real estate and electronic businesses. He closed his successful vocal and dance academy, the Joy Dance – Plug In Music Academy, which he first opened in 2011, in his home town of Gwangju, with branches around South Korea, after some parents complained about an "overly friendly" teacher-student relationship at one location. In November 2018, he entered the IT sector when he became the Creative Director and model for HeadRock VR, a franchise brand of the AR product company SocialNetwork and affiliate Mediafront; and assisted in the opening of the Headrock VR theme park in Singapore. Seungri who used a stage name that means "victory" in Korean, his real name is Lee Seung-hyun, at the age of 28, was the youngest member of BigBang; having debuted at age 15. Just before the scandal broke, he released his first solo Korean language studio album in July 2018, and was conducting his first solo tour, The Great Seungri, after 13 years as a group member. He was filling the void for the band's hiatus while all remaining four members were in military service, and waiting for his own enlistment in March. Jessica Oak at Billboard wrote, "Seungri has forged and built an empire all his own during his 13 years in the industry. The superstar has become known as a thriving entrepreneur with business ventures in food, nightlife and music labels". He had been the subject of a popular TV show on SBS, about his life and businesses, filmed "speaking four languages and throwing lavish parties in luxury resorts." In August 2018, Baik Su-jin, a journalist at The Chosun Ilbo, described his story, among other rich celebrities, as a "rags-to-riches" story, adding that Seungri was a late bloomer in the spotlight, only coming into his own after the other BigBang members were absent. Seungri said, "I had a tough time outshining other members of the group, so I studied foreign languages." He said he had tried to succeed at business, in part, because he felt "overlooked and underappreciated" by fans, being the youngest of the famous group, and business was a place where he would not have to compete with the other band members. Seungri said his popularity had been a business asset and he had looked for partners that would benefit from it." His last studio album The Great Seungri was a play on his nickname, from the novel The Great Gatsby. After his involvement in the scandal, a popular culture critic in Seoul, Lee Moon-won, said "the multilingual Seungri", with "has multiple business interests" had been seen as an “ideal cultural export”, deemed to be a hard-worker by his fans. Lee pointed out the irony of Seungri's having been found to be thoroughly comparable to The Great Gatsby protagonist, not only for his good looks, business acumen, and lavish parties, but because both had sought "illicit and corrupt activities to gain fame and wealth." Seungri's friends and scandal participants Seungri was close to celebrity friends Jung Joon-young, age 30, and Choi Jong-hoon, age 29, who joined him when his agency YG Entertainment launched their newest YG Republique restaurant in August 2017, in Kuala Lumpur. Jung, a singer-songwriter and television celebrity, and the key person in the illicit sex video portion of the scandal, had been a friend of Seungri for several years. In 2015, he showed off their relationship by telephoning Seungri for a chat during a live radio broadcast. In August 2018, Seungri joined him on the travel show Salty Tour, where Jung was a main cast member, and made comments that generated disciplinary actions by the Korea Communications Standards Commission due to their gender insensitivity or potential "sexual harassment". During a broadcast episode on a trip to Xiamen, China, Seungri asked a female guest to pick a favorite amongst the five male cast members and pour them a drink; which viewers complained about. Development 2019: Scandal begins and cases develop January 28, Kim Sang-kyo assault at Burning Sun reported The first public awareness of the Burning Sun scandal was on January 28, 2019, when MBC Newsdesk reported on an alleged assault of a 29-year-old clubgoer, Kim Sang-kyo, at the Burning Sun nightclub. Kim said he was attempting to help a woman who was being sexually harassed, but staff had assaulted him. When the Yeoksam police arrived, he was arrested as the assailant and booked on seven charges, including criminal battery, an indecent act, defamation and the obstruction of the performance of official duties. He said the police assaulted him after he was placed under arrest. The incident occurred on November 24, 2018, but came to media attention in January 2019, after Kim posted a petition on the Cheong Wa Dae website detailing his assault by Burning Sun staffers and mistreatment by police; and further stating that female customers were drugged by staffers and the club had a corrupt relationship with district police. Another current petition on the website called for the investigation of the club scene, in general, and druggings occurring there. Cheong Wa Dae is a petition website based on former President Obama's We the People, and which was launched in August 2017, on President Moon's 100th day in office. Kim's petition had received the benchmark 200,000 signatures prompting an official response. Initial allegations at Burning Sun During the early stages, the scandal evolved around Kim's complaint against the Burning Sun nightclub, including any possible crimes that may have occurred there, and the identities of responsible parties. The initial January 28 report of the Kim incident, by MBC Newsdesk, included two CCTV videos of the club's security footage purportedly showing Kim's assault inside the club, and a second one showing a woman being dragged down a hallway, and alleged to have been drugged. A KBS report soon added that an alleged former employee had talked about illegal drug use in the club's VIP rooms. An additional report by MBC, on February 14, included allegations of a purported VIP client of the club, who said staff solicited him in text messages, offering women who were available for sex, after readying them with date rape drugs. He claimed to have received a video clip from staff, showing "an intoxicated woman being raped". By January 31, 2019, the Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency (SMPA) had taken charge of the investigation, which included allegations of local Gangnam police corruption and collusion with the club's owners, and had assigned a team to look into the club's allegations of sexual violence, drug use, Kim's arrest and any connection with the local police station. The SMPA said their quick response and follow-up investigation was due to media attention garnered by the BigBang K-pop group member Seungri's affiliation with the club. They also said they had expanded their probe of drug-related allegations to all Gangnam clubs, due to club marketing by independent "merchandisers" or "MDs" for many different clubs. Seungri's involvement and his relationship to the nightclub immediately became a hot media issue. Yang Hyun-suk the chief of his agency, YG Entertainment, released a statement on January 31, that Seungri had been at the club on November 28, but left before Kim's incident occurred. He also said Seungri's recent resignation as a senior director of the club was due to his upcoming military enlistment. Seungri's delayed response to the controversy was in an Instagram statement on February 2, stating that he was not present at the club during Kim's alleged assault, had belatedly heard about it, and served as an executive director for the club and had no part in the club's operation or management; but he, however, apologized that he had not taken responsibility from the beginning. February 26, first KakaoTalk messages revealed On February 26, 2019, SBS FunE released the first portions of the KakaoTalk recordings that would become crucial in the investigation, saying their origin was an anonymous source which had turned them over to the Anti-Corruption and Civil Rights Commission on February 22. The recordings dated back to 2015, and seemed to implicate Seungri with allegations that he had directed Burning Sun staff to arrange prostitutes for foreign investors who were coming to Seoul, at another Gangnam nightclub. The source had cited possible police collusion as the reason for not turning them over directly to police. The police held a press conference on March 4, saying they had not seen the original, unedited KakaoTalk messages and doubted their veracity, just prior to an SBS report detailing how they had obtained them. On February 27, Seungri was questioned by the SMPA, a lengthy interview that lasted overnight and included a drug test. Seungri denied allegations of attempts to buy sex for potential foreign investors (or sex for business favors) and any knowledge of the KakaoTalk messages, which had been disclosed by media, conversations he allegedly had with a Burning Sun co-founder and another of its employees about such arrangements; and he denied drug use. Media reports said that various nightclubs were used for the lobbying, including one named Arena, where Seungri allegedly arranged sexual favors for investors. In one alleged chat conversation between Seungri and his business partners in December 2015, Seungri says, "Give B (the anonymous investor) everything she wants. Get a hold of the main [rooms] 3 and 4 at the [club] Arena. We have guests from Taiwan". After confirming arrangements with a man surnamed Kim, Seungri asked, "And what about the girls? [Give them] the easy girls." Yoo answered, "I'm getting the prostitutes ready, so if you get two prostitutes, then lead them to the hotel rooms. Two is good?" On International Women's Day, March 8, the scandal led to a street protest in Gangnam against the Burning Sun and other nightclubs, calling for an end to what the protesters called a culture that treats women as sexual objects. Although thousands of women had rallied in 2018 against illicit filming and sharing, the allegations against the idealized image of pop idols still surprised the public. The serious nature of the scandal prompted a response from President Moon Jae-in, who ordered a thorough investigation. Seungri booked On March 10, Seungri was booked on sex bribery charges. The following day, he resigned from entertainment on his Instagram account, stating that he had caused a "societal disturbance" and said he would cooperate with the investigation. March 11, Jung Joon-young KakaoTalk chatrooms and source revealed The source of the KakaoTalk messages was revealed to be a lawyer, Bang Jung-hyun, on March 11, when he was interviewed on SBS Eight O'Clock News. He had obtained the messages from a whistleblower or "anonymous source", possibly a technician at a phone repair shop, where singer and entertainer Jung Joon-young had dropped his phone off for repairs. The whistleblower had sent an email to Bang, of thousands of chats taken from Jung's phone, which took place over eight months between 2015 and 2016. When the Burning Sun scandal started, the phone messages were forwarded to the Anti-Corruption and Civil Rights Commission and to SBS FunE; and the secretly filmed sex tapes and other chat messages on Jung's phone became public. During the SBS interview, the integrity of the chat room file was discussed, and was said to have a tamper-proof device, technically a hash-code verification, showing that the file had not been manipulated; and could stand as circumstantial evidence to seek more evidence. Bang, an economics graduate of Seoul National University, and a practicing lawyer, said of the chats, "Their conversations showed that there were not only sex crimes by celebrities, but also a cozy relationship between them and top police officers," and "It is someone higher up than [the Gangnam Police Precinct chief]." Also, on Monday, March 11, due to possible police involvement, the Commission, a watchdog agency, turned the records over to the Supreme Prosecutors' Office of the Republic of Korea, asking them to investigate the scandal instead of the police. Within a week, the case was transferred to the Seoul Central District Prosecutors’ Office who said they would assign a team to direct the SMPA's investigation. Also, due to the new allegations of possible police misconduct, on March 14, Commissioner Min Gap-ryong of the Korean National Police Agency (KNPA) reported to the Ministry of Public Safety and Security at the National Assembly, that "A total of 126 agents will be assigned to investigate the nightclub Burning Sun, the assault at Club Arena, drug use, ties with the police, and allegations of brokering prostitution, filming and distributing illegal videos, among other things". President Moon ordered an investigation of the scandal on March 18, to include two past sex scandal cases; the first one involved a former vice justice minister, Kim Hak-ui, who was cleared of a scandal in 2013, but had new allegations of raping women and appearing in sex videos with them, and the second one was the 2009 suicide of rookie actress Jang Ja-yeon, whose purported suicide note included a list of men who she was forced to have sex with, by her entertainment agency. The handling of those cases had been criticized for nonimpartiality due to the involvement of high-profile figures. He said, "The current leadership of the prosecution and police should stake the fate of their organizations with responsibility on uncovering the truth and becoming a law enforcement agency that can reveal its own shameful acts so as to regain trust," and "I am stressing that if we cannot fix it, we cannot call this society a just one." Ha Hyun-ock, a deputy financial news editor of the JoongAng Ilbo likened the burgeoning events to the Korean Mafia, with allegations of "drug dealing, prostitution, violence, tax evasion and collusion with police". He referred to the assessment Bang brought up on the SBS news program, of its being the beginning of a Korean Mafia, with K-pop's popularity creating celebrities of new money and status, who hobnob with business and government connections. Seungri's and Jung's inter-locking scandals were combined in public televised view when both were called into the SMPA station on March 14, with more than 100 journalists gathered for Jung's 10 a.m. appearance. It consisted of his arrival, and apology, before entering the station for questioning and a drug test; followed similarly by Seungri, some three hours later. Police also questioned Seungri's business partner and Yuri Holdings CEO Yoo In-seok. Seungri exited first, at around 6:15 a.m. on March 15, some 16 hours later, and he told reporters, as he exited, that he would be putting in a request to delay his mandatory military service later in the month. Jung exited, about an hour later, after his 21-hour interrogation. April 1 – end of year, Seungri's business partner admits to hiring prostitutes, and first arrest warrant fails On April 1, SMPA announced they had booked Seungri and Yoo for allegations of embezzlement from the Monkey Museum club, which they opened in 2016. Later allegations stated that funds from Yuri Holdings were used to pay attorney fees for a criminal case involving an employee of the club. On April 29, a Chosun Ilbo headline, "Seung-ri's Business Partner Admits Pimping", followed Seungri and Yoo's new questioning by SMPA, in which Seungri continued to deny any involvement with prostitution, and Yoo finally admitted that he supplied prostitutes to six or more Japanese investors at their Gangnam nightclub in December 2015. SMPA had paper trails of money transactions, a YG Entertainment credit card payment by Seungri and a wire transfer by Yoo, and chat room conversations the two had with Jung about the arrangements; and had booked 17 prostitutes and pimps related to the incidents. Seungri was summoned for questioning about alleged embezzlement of the Burning Sun club's funds for the first time, on May 2, following sixteen prior interrogations about his alleged arrangement of sexual services for investors. On May 7 SMPA requested arrest warrants, to include pre-trial detention, for Seungri and Yoo, and they appeared at May 14 hearings, on charges of embezzling company funds and arranging sexual services for foreign investors, along with a new charge that Seungri had paid for sexual services himself. Seungri admitted that he received illicit sex services but denied all other allegations at the Seoul Central District Court hearing, and was led to a holding cell in ropes to await the decision, which came later in the evening, when both arrest warrants were denied, with the court citing "room for dispute" over the alleged embezzlement, and said the possibility of destroying evidence was slim. SMPA referred Seungri's case to prosecutors on June 25, with charges related to 1.1 billion won (US$951,000) in embezzlement, destruction of evidence, violation of laws on sex trade, sexual crimes and food hygiene. Allegations included procuring prostitutes for himself and for others from Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Japan from December 2015 to January 2016. His business partner Yoo was also referred to prosecutors for procuring prostitutes. MBC TV's May 27 show Straight introduced new allegations and another celebrity name to the scandal. It alleged that YG Entertainment's founder Yang Hyun-suk had arranged sexual services for foreign investors in July 2014, which he and the company denied. SMPA began an investigation based on the show's details of an alleged dinner meeting in Gangnam and a trip to a nightclub NB, affiliated with Yang, that included Yang, age 50, a Malaysian fugitive Jho Low, age 38, a Thai national named Bob (Chavanos Rattakul), a YG singer, a Madam Jung, Hwang Ha-na; and as many as 10 prostitutes, who allegedly provided sexual services at the nightclub. Singer Psy, age 42, who was with YG Entertainment at the time, released a statement that he had introduced his friend Jho Low to Yang, and acknowledged that he and Yang had been invited to the dinner and drinks with Low and the other man but denied any involvement in the alleged activities. Allegations also referenced a December 2018 rape complaint at the Burning Sun against Rattakul, one of the foreign investors also affiliated with Seungri, and who had been summoned by police. In June, Yang was questioned by police about the prostitution allegations but not taken in as a suspect and Psy was questioned as a witness about the July 2014 incident, which statute of limitations was soon to expire. On July 17, SMPA reported having booked Yang for allegations of arranging sexual services for the foreign investors in 2014, along with three more suspects for prostitution allegations; but dropped the charges against Yang on September 20, stating that they had failed to prove them. A prior allegation of Seungri's possible gambling overseas was reignited by an August 9, JTBC report alleging instances of Yang and Seungri having gambled up to 1 to 2 billion won at the MGM Grand Las Vegas on past occasions. SMPA said they were examining Yang's financial records for possible illegal foreign exchange transactions that may have been used for his alleged gambling, which is illegal for South Koreans at home and abroad. On August 14, both Yang and Seungri were booked on charges of habitual gambling, and by August 20, charges included illegal foreign trade transactions and a travel ban had been imposed. On August 28 and 29, both were questioned and Seungri admitted to gambling, but denied allegations of illegally securing funds, in violation of the Foreign Exchange Transactions Act. Seungri was questioned again on September 24 and Yang on October 1. On October 31, SMPA said they would be referring Yang and Seungri, along with three others, for prosecution of alleged habitual gambling, for a time period from the second half of 2014 to the present. In the first case with allegations of police collusion, a former Gangnam police officer surnamed Kang, age 44, was sentenced to one year in prison on August 14. During the trial co-CEO Lee Sung-hyun testified that he paid 20 million won (US$17,000) to Kang to cover for an underage clubgoer incident at the Burning Sun and had not discussed the arrangements with Seungri. In drug related cases, on August 22, co-CEO Lee Moon-ho received a suspended sentence of three years probation and community service for a year and a half prison term in a habitual drug use case where he pled guilty, but at a second trial on November 28, was sentenced to one year in prison with charges of using more than 10 drugs, including ecstasy and ketamine in Gangnam clubs from 2018 through February 2019. The court said that Lee Moon-ho's position as the operator of the Burning Sun Club put him at a different level than an "ordinary drug offender" and his first sentencing had been "light and unfair". A senior SMPA official, Yoon Gyu-geun, age 49, referred to as the "police chief" in the chatrooms, was arrested on October 10, on charges of accepting bribes and misuse of power, among others, following a search at his office in September. Yoon was referred for prosecution in June for allegedly informing Seungri and Yoo In-seok of police crackdowns, but the late search and focus on Yoon was questioned by a The Korea Times report by Lee Suh-yoon as possibly being related to his having worked in the Blue House in 2017 under Justice Minister Cho Kuk, who was being investigated in a separate case. A businessman named Jeong, a possible link between Yoon and Yoo was arrested earlier on embezzlement charges. Yoon was indicted on October 29, on charges of bribery, obstruction of business, and concealing evidence, among others, related to allegations of attempting to cover up illegalities at the Burning Sun and other businesses run by Seungri and Yoo. Yoon was also alleged to have received unlisted stocks from businessman Jeong in relation to the case; while Jeong is suspected of being tied to illicit financial transactions in the separate case against ex-Justice Minister Cho. A Burning Sun employee, an MD named Cho, age 28, one of the first investigated in the club's scandal, was sentenced to four years and six months imprisonment in early December for smuggling and administering drugs. Other investigations SMPA announced on May 15 they had referred the original whistleblower of the club's scandal, Kim Sang-kyo, to the prosecution for indictment for sexually assaulting three women and obstructing the business. In early July, the government responded to an April 11 Cheong Wa Dae petition which had detailed new allegations at the Burning Sun club, which was followed by a report on MBC TV's Straight. Witnesses interviewed on the program alleged "underage sex trafficking and violent sexual abuse of women", claiming VIP rooms at the club and offsite were set up for customers, including those from upperclass Korean families, and a special clean-up crew called the "incinerators" were employed to remove blood and incriminating evidence. The petition which received the required signatures, asked for the investigation of an alleged group rape by six men in one of the VIP rooms, of a woman who had been given GHB, called "mulpong" in South Korea. In late June, BBC News reporter Laura Bicker shared similar allegations of Gangnam's nightlife, "in its glitzy nightclubs, women have been drugged to order by powerful men and raped" and "underage girls are being sexually exploited for profit". On July 9, KNPA Commissioner Min responded that the allegations of sexual abuse and drug use in the VIP rooms, per the petition, were not confirmed. He added, "I will humbly accept the public's criticism that the results of the investigation are insufficient in relation to the Burning Sun case". On July 17, SMPA held a preventive meeting at the Seodaemun-gu police offices to discuss a "Second Burning Sun Club Opening", after a KBS report detailed possible new problems of sexual harassment at a new club in the Gangnam area, opened by former employees of the Burning Sun club, just four months after it closed down. Also, as part of an anti-corruption initiative established at the troubled Gangnam Police Station, SMPA announced an unprecedented open recruitment just for that police station in mid July, after 164 officers were transferred to other departments. A newly formed three month joint response team was also set up to investigate club illegal activity in Gangnam, from August through October, to prevent a new Burning Sun incident. On September 10, SMPA's Cyber Security Division referred charges of defamation and pornography for twelve participants in an investigation of media personnel which began on May 3. A Cheong Wa Dae petition was filed, alleging that a chat group of about 200 reporters, producers and media staffers had shared illicit video clips of incidents that had occurred at the Burning Sun, as well as information about brothels and prostitutes. On September 29, Lee Jae-jung, a member of the National Assembly Public Administration and Security Committee released SMPA data showing that 12 of 40 police officers involved in the initial assault allegations of Kim Sang-kyo and afterwards had been disciplined, with any actions pending for key figures, such as Yoon. Lee criticized the results as "very disappointing" and "far from the public's expectation". 2020: Indictments and trials continue Seungri second arrest warrant fails, prosecution indicts without arrest On January 8, 2020, seven months after police had submitted their case, the prosecution filed a second warrant requesting Seungri's arrest on seven charges – procuring prostitution for himself and others (29 times for foreign investors between September 2015 and January 2016), embezzlement (about $17,000 from Yuri Holdings), habitual gambling in Las Vegas (for a period of three years and six months since 2013), illegal currency transactions, violation of the Food Sanitation Law (at Monkey Museum club), and sharing three unconsented nude photos of women via mobile messenger. No other warrants for his business partner Yoo, or any others involved, were requested. The court denied the request at a hearing on January 13, saying detention was not warranted based on Seungri's "role and involvement in wrongdoings" and "his attitude toward the prosecution's investigation". On January 30, prosecutors indicted nine people, without detention, for allegations of crimes related to the Burning Sun case, including: Seungri for mediating prostitution, gambling, and violation of the Foreign Exchange Transaction Act, Yoo In-seok for mediating prostitution and business embezzlement, and Yang Hyun-suk for gambling and violation of the Foreign Exchange Transaction Act. Another two, Jung Joon-young and Choi Jong-hoon, who were already imprisoned after a rape trial in 2019, were indicted for allegations of soliciting prostitution and for bribery of a police officer in a drunk driving incident, respectively. On February 7, former police officer Kang's trial conviction and sentencing in August 2019 for police collusion in the admittance of an underage customer at the Burning Sun club was overturned by an appeals court, based on lack of evidence showing that Kang had received the money. On April 3, four of the nine people charged with prostitution allegations received a summary judgment, with Jung Joon-young fined one million won and the Burning Sun's prior MD Kim fined two million won. On April 25, the so-called "police chief" Yoon Gyu-geun, previously arrested in the fall of 2019 for allegations of bribery and mediating favors for the Burning Sun club, among others, was acquitted of all charges by a Seoul Central District trial court due to the prosecution's lack of evidence, although the court said, "It is not that the accused is 100 percent innocent or that the charges are not true." At a June 3 court hearing, Yoo admitted to all charges, including those related to prostitution and embezzlement. At trial on June 22, Yoo again admitted to most of the charges, but denied intentionality, in particular in the embezzlement charge. His charges include allegations of sex trafficking a total of twenty-four times to foreign investors from 2015 to 2016 to open the Burning Sun club. At a court hearing on September 9, Yang admitted to the gambling charges involving about 400 million won (around US$335,000) in Las Vegas casinos approximately twenty times between 2015 and 2019; with the next hearing scheduled for October 28. At a court date for Yoo on October 14, the questioning of duplicate witnesses for both the civilian trial and military trial for Seungri was discussed. On November 27, a trial court sentenced Yang Hyun-suk to a 15 million won (US$13,600) fine for some twenty Las Vegas gambling charges between July 2015 and January 2019; along with three YG Entertainment and affiliated company YGX associates, a 37-year-old Kim and 41-year-old Lee were also fined 15 million won, and 48-year-old Keum was fined 10 million won. Yoo received a suspended sentence of three years probation for a one year and eight months prison term on December 24. Seungri's military trial begins After the conclusion of the criminal investigation and indictment in civil court, on February 4, Seungri, who had already turned 30 (Korean age) received a final notification for his mandatory military service by the Military Manpower Administration. Their statement said they were "concerned a protracted trial in civilian courts" might restrict the military obligation and the case against him would be referred to a military court for trial. Seungri joined the military on March 9, and on May 15, his trial was transferred from the Seoul Central District Court to a military court, with the civilian court trial for a remaining six defendants, including Yoo In-seok, scheduled to proceed separately. At his first hearing at the Ground Operations Command's General Military Court in Yongin on September 16, Seungri denied all the charges except for the violations of the Foreign Exchange Transaction Act. A second court date on October 14 listed some twenty-two witnesses scheduled to testify. 2021 – 2022: Final trials Seungri's military trial concludes and appeals filed On January 14, during the ongoing military trial, prosecutors added a ninth charge against Seungri, alleging that he and Yoo involved gang members to intervene in a bar dispute in December 2015. Witness testimony concluded on July 1, with Seungri's denial of all the charges except one violation of the foreign curency act during gambling in Las Vegas; and the prosecution recommended a five-year sentencing and fine for all the charges. A military prosecutor said of Seungri, "Despite gaining advantages from the crimes, he is shifting the responsibility on another person... Considering his problematic views and attitude regarding sex, he needs to face severe punishment." On August 12, Seungri was sentenced to a three-year prison term, a fine of 1.15 billion won (US$990,000) and immediate detention. The nine charges were: "prostitution mediation in violation of Act on the Punishment of Arrangement of Commercial Sex Acts Etc., embezzlement, overseas gambling, procuring prostitution service, violation of Foreign Exchange Transactions Act, violation of Food Sanitation Act, violation of the Act on Special Cases Concerning The Punishment, Etc. of Sexual Crimes, violation of an Act on the Aggravated Punishment Etc. of Specific Economic Crimes and mobilizing gang to threaten people." The total embezzlement amount was 528 million won (around $US455,000); the Las Vegas gambling amount, between December 2013 to August 2017, was 2.2 billion won (around US$2 million); and the period for procuring prostitutes for foreign investors from Taiwan, Japan, Hong Kong and other countries was between December 2015 to January 2016. Due to the charge of "violation of the Act on Special Cases Concerning The Punishment, Etc. of Sexual Crimes" or the distribution of three nude photos of women via a mobile chatroom, he was ordered to provide his personal information to a sex crimes registry". While denying charges, Seugri had claimed that his KakaoTalk message, widely reported by media, about women that "give well", might have been a typo that his phone's autocorrection function caused. Appeals were filed by Seungri and the military prosecution on August 19 and 25, respectively. On January 27, 2022 a military appeals court reduced Seungri's three-year prison sentence by half, to one year and six months, and imposed a smaller fine, based on his admission of guilt and "reflection" on all nine charges. Seungri's military imprisonment, at the time, was calculated to end after another thirteen months. This sentence was upheld by the Supreme Court of Korea on May 26, 2022, whereupon Seungri was discharged from the military and transferred to a civilian prison to serve the remainder of his term. First reporter Kim Sang-kyo sentenced The original complainant, Kim Sang-kyo, was subsequently tried and sentenced after his 2018 indictments for sexual assault and obstruction of business in the Burning Sun club. On November 8, 2022, Kim was found guilty of one of three sexual assault charges, obstruction of business and defamation. The court ordered a suspended sentence for one year in prison and two years of probation, along with the completion of a 40-hour sexual assault treatment program and 80 hours of community service. Two men who were involved in the initial assault complaint filed by Kim against the club were also sentenced, a club director named Jang received eight months in prison and two years probation, and another man named Choi was fined. Investigative reporting The SBS investigative reporter who examined the KakaoTalk chat messages sent by the whistleblower to the television station SBS funE was Kang Kyung-yoon. Her previous work included reporting on the corruption cases related to former President Park Geun-hye. When she started interviewing some of the victims of the videos, she found they did not know of their existence. She said, "Some of them begged, 'Please save me. How do I live after this?'" She said they were ashamed and angry but feared "wearing a scarlet letter as a sex crime victim", and so feared being identified. Kang said that the sex video investigation was seen by some people as a means to avert attention away from the larger corruption scandal with its multiple allegations, but she perceived it as a serious social issue that needed reporting on. At the end of March 2019, Seungri told the director of SBS's investigative program, Unanswered Questions, in a text message, that the lawyer, whistleblower, and journalist were responsible for all the criminal allegations against him, had not checked facts properly and had "ruined his career for their own personal gain". In June, the production team of Unanswered Questions (also called I Want to Know) received the Seoul City's Gender Equality Award Grand Prize, in part for their coverage of the scandal. Investigation summary During the course of the investigation, SMPA focused on the Burning Sun club and its affiliates. Police conducted searches at the Burning Sun club, at the homes of CEO Moon and a sales executive Han, as well as at Burning Sun Entertainment, YG Entertainment, Yuri Holdings, Junwon Industries and Club Arena (and at the Seoul Regional Office of the National Tax Service of South Korea related to allegations of tax evasion). The investigation found a 2.45 billion won (US$2.15 million) investment to the Burning Sun, with the Taiwanese investor having contributed 1 billion won and Seungri having contributed 225 million won. Yonhap News Agency reported that one of the club's investors, perhaps Junwon Industries (also called Cheonwon Industry and a major shareholder in Burning Sun Entertainment which operated Burning Sun), Le Méridien Seoul's operator, may have forged a connection with the hotel, in the amount of $8.8 million, using the intermediary firm to attract larger investments to the club. Junwon CEO Choi Tae-young was charged with embezzling funds, along with Seungri and Yoo. A Burning sun employee Ahn, who worked as a female Taiwanese investor's Korean guide, was booked for embezzlement charges, and the possibility of any Triad investments or organized crime connections were investigated with Interpol and other agencies. Burning Sun's female Taiwanese investor Lin was also booked on charges of embezzlement, in collusion with Seungri and Yoo. Seungri was investigated for allegedly: supplying prostitutes for investors, sharing an illicit photo of a woman in Jung's chatroom, giving concert tickets to a police officer Yoon, and embezzlement of funds from the clubs Monkey Museum and the Burning Sun. Seungri's business partner and CEO of Yuri Holdings, Yoo In-seok, age 34, was investigated for connections to Gangnam police officer Yoon, embezzling Monkey Museum and the Burning Sun's funds, and for supplying prostitutes, along with Seungri. CEO's Lee Sung-hyun and Lee Moon-ho, both age 29, were investigated for allegedly hiring minors as security guards and for bribing former Gangnam police officer Kang with 20 million won (US$17,700) to cover up an underage drinking issue at the club, the latter which Lee Sung-hyun admitted to doing, at a hearing for Kang. YG head Yang and singer Psy were questioned as witnesses about additional allegations of sex-for-favors involving Yang and foreign guests Jho Low and Chavanos Rattakul. Allegations which they both denied, and the case was eventually closed for lack of proof. Arrests related to Burning Sun included CEO Lee Moon-ho who was detained and charged with drug use and distributing drugs to Burning Sun customers. Others included a Burning Sun board member Jang, the alleged attacker of clubgoer Kim Sang-kyo, a chat group member named Kim who distributed illicit videos, and a Club Arena security guard Yoon, accused of attacking a guest in 2017. A Chinese promoter, nicknamed Anna, age 26, was investigated for drug use and distribution, but no arrest was made. An owner of Arena, Kang Mo, age 46, and a "puppet head" of the club, surnamed Lin, were arrested on charges of tax evasion, alleged to have not paid taxes in the amount of 16.2 billion won (US$14.31 million) between 2014–2017. On April 11, SMPA said 59 persons had been apprehended related to drug use and distribution charges in the Burning Sun scandal, and 11 were under arrest. Former Gangnam police officer Kang, age 44, was arrested for allegations of brokering between the Burning Sun and other police officers, and booked for assisting with an underage drinking incident at the Burning Sun, which co-CEO Lee Sung-hyun admitted to paying him for. Police firings and investigations included a senior superintendent Yoon, who knew Yoo, and assisted with the underage drinking incident and Monkey Museum's business zoning violations, and was charged with violating the Improper Solicitation and Graft Act for receiving concert tickets from Seungri. In peripheral investigations, police announced over 500 drug related arrests on March 25, 2019, after declaring "total war" against drug crime on February 25, due to the scandal at the Burning Sun. Of the 523 arrests for the use and distribution of drugs, 216 were detained. 421 cases, or 82 percent, involved psychotomimetic drugs like GHB, a common date rape drug, and one alleged to have been used at the Burning Sun. On May 30, SMPA reported to have arrested nearly 4,000 people at 148 entertainment establishments on drug related charges in the three month crackdown after the scandal started. Some 920 of those were detained; 886 for drug related crimes, 23 for sexual assault or rape while under the influence of drugs, and 11 for taking illegal videos during drug use. Most were in their 20s and 30s, and about 40 percent of the crimes involved the use of the drug ecstasy. Women's issues and public protests The scandal ignited public protests early in March 2019, and later, after police attempts to arrest Seungri and Yoo fell through. A May 17 press conference held by women's rights groups, in front of the SMPA, criticized the results of the three month Burning Sun investigation, conducted by some 152 officers, as "dismal", with allegations of the club's "cozy" ties with police, and the illegal filming of women and distribution still unresolved. Weekend rallies condemning the investigation's results started at the Blue House on May 19 and in Gangnam on May 25. Lee Taek-kwang, a professor at Kyung Hee University said, "The recent Burning Sun nightclub scandal exposed a culture that exploits women, which has brought about public rage." Months later, on November 6, members of seven civic and women's groups, including the Green Party Korea and the Korean Cyber Sexual Violence Response Center (KCSVRC) held a press conference and protest in front of the SMPA Jongno-gu building demanding the resignation of KNPA's Commissioner Min Gap-ryong, criticizing the police investigations of the Jang Ja-yeon and Burning sun cases as biased and poorly conducted. The scandal added to ongoing discussions of women's issues in South Korea — gender inequality, the budding Me Too movement in South Korea, feminism, "molka", prostitution, and the K-pop industry's attitude towards women. South Korea's #MeToo movement began in January 2018 and was followed by a students' #SchoolMeToo, which became the most tweeted social issue in South Korea in 2018, followed by "feminism", then "molka", the abbreviation for "spy cameras that are hidden in places such as public bathrooms and for the explicit videos later posted on porn sites". In July 2018, thousands marched in Seoul against spy cameras and the government responded by hiring workers to monitor public bathrooms, but activists criticized a general dismissive attitude towards the crimes, citing a "deeply rooted gender inequality and misogyny in the country". A 2018 OECD ranking of the country, at 30 out of 36 for women's employment, exemplifed the country's gender pay gap, while it ranked highly for women's education. Jung's distribution of sex videos was one of the top gender issues talked about on online platforms in South Korea for the first half of 2019, with research showing a growing trend of gender based topics, most in a negative context. Talks included the K-pop industry, which critics had blamed for sexualizing women; Jang Yun-mi, a spokesperson for the Korean Women Lawyer's Association said, "The industry in Korea … is a boys' club". Women's rights activist Bae Bok-ju said of the spycam allegations in the scandal, "This case just shows that male K-pop stars are no exception when it comes to being part of this very disturbing reality that exploits women". But, Seoul freelance journalist Haeryun Kang opined in The Washington Post, "The most recent celebrity scandal has generated fury among so many Korean women not because it is unique but because the story goes far beyond K-pop. The patterns of male behavior feel disturbingly familiar. The gender power dynamics — that often objectify women into sex tools — feel exhaustingly repetitive", and said the scandal was more than "misogyny and spy cameras", but a larger story of the Burning Sun nighclub's "alleged involvement in prostitution, drug trafficking and police corruption". Effects on entertainment industry Between February 25 and March 15, 2019, five major South Korean entertainment companies lost 17.52 percent in value, with their market value dropping from 3.35 trillion won (around US$2.96 billion) to 2.76 trillion won. Stocks dropped for the "big three" K-pop management companies: YG Entertainment (Seungri's company), 24.8 percent, SM Entertainment, 20 percent, JYP Entertainment, 5.5 percent; and additional 20 percent drops for Cube Entertainment and FNC Entertainment. But, on April 11, while the scandal was still under investigation, entertainment companies were forecast by experts (FinGuide Inc. and a Hyundai Motor Securities analyst) to post solid profit growth in 2019, with substantial operating profits for the three big labels; while others added that K-pop's financial reliance on YouTube was unlikely to be affected. However, by September 16, YG Entertainment stocks had dropped by nearly half since January 7. Actress Park Han-byul, who married Yoo of Yuri Holdings in 2017, first stated that she knew nothing more than his being Seungri's business partner, but made a public apology on March 19, after it was reported that she and her husband had played golf previously with the high-ranking police official under investigation for collusion with the nightclubs in the scandal. She said she would not leave a major role in the television drama Love in Sadness, despite calls from some viewers for her to do so. YG Entertainment discontinued sales of merchandise featuring Seungri, and major networks and cable companies deleted episodes of programs both Seungri and Jung had appeared in. In another YG Entertainment artist's scandal, on June 12, 2019, idol B.I, whose real name is Kim Han-bin, age 23, a songwriter and leader of K-pop band iKon, quit his group after the media outlet Dispatch revealed 2016 KakaoTalk messages of him attempting to purchase LSD from a suspected drug dealer, which he admitted to. YG Entertainment, still under scrutiny for allegations concerning their former artist Seungri and head Yang in the Burning Sun scandal, quickly ended their contract with B.I, stating their "sense of responsibility in managing its associated artists"; and Yang resigned from the agency on June 14, amidst allegations of police collusion to cover up the case. Seoul's EDM festivals responded that they would not hold after-parties in 2019 in Gangnam's clubs, due to the Burning Sun police investigation. The festivals were often promoted in association with entertainment clubs and Ultra Korea, Seoul World DJ Festival and Spectrum Dance Music Festival all held after-parties in 2018 at the Burning Sun, among other clubs. An organizer for the largest, Ultra Korea, said that due to the scandal's allegations of sex crimes involving GHB or "mulpong", and cannabis use at festivals, plans were being made to mobilize detection dogs, bag checks and X-rays for monitoring drug trafficking this year. Gangnam's nightclubs, usually "a pilgrimage site for K-pop fans", immediately saw a tapering of Chinese tourists, followed by a general decline of customers to nightclubs and lounge bars. Bars that were registered as general restaurants with the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety, where dancing is not allowed, a tactic used by clubs in the Burning Sun scandal to avoid paying higher taxes, underwent a strict monitoring, causing a subdued atmosphere with "Please do not dance" signs posted and police checking in, to enforce the rule. In late October, France's Ministry of Europe and Foreign Affairs released an informational report (not a travel alert) for travelers to South Korea, advising caution due to reported cases of GHB and assault drugs at clubs in Hongdae, Itaewon and Gangnam, following earlier French media reports of the Burning Sun scandal. After internet users raised rumors about the possible involvement of several actresses in the scandal, Go Joon-hee, who was managed by YG Entertainment in 2015, first objected on social media, then filed a libel suit for defamation against twelve of them, citing damages to her career, and Han Hyo-joo filed a criminal complaint against thirty-three more. Other actresses and their agencies made denials and warned of legal actions, and at least seven (which included college students, the unemployed, construction workers, and one U.S. citizen) were arrested and referred for prosecution. Some scenes from a 2019 South Korean film, Quantum Physics, about a celebrity drug scandal at a nightclub, were filmed at the Burning Sun nightclub before it closed down. Although it was not based on the real-life scandal, Director Lee Sung-tae said he reconsidered one of the film's scenes, as they were editing as it was ongoing. A November 2019 retrospective article, written by Matthew Campbell and Sohee Kim for Bloomberg Businessweek, pointed out that the K-pop industry, in general, had ignored the scandal, with "no organized demands for better behavior from male stars or serious discussions about revamping how idols are trained." They quoted a former SM Entertainment executive, Jeong Chang-hwan, on its implicit impact, "It's a huge lesson in what not to do," he says. "The best teacher for young idols is to see fellow idols get into a scandal and disappear from the industry." Public response Allegations of police misconduct and corruption in the scandal added public support to a government proposal to create an independent investigative agency, first announced by President Moon in July 2017, and still undergoing political debate. Proposed to "uncover wrongdoing by high-level government officials and their relatives", with the power to take over prosecutions, opponents had questioned its own potential for corruption. K-pop fans' reactions were mixed, some called for YG Entertainment to remove Seungri from the group BigBang for tarnishing the group's image and having used the group's celebrity to promote his business, even waiting outside his agency's office for an explanation. However, other fans continued to support him. The public appeared to boycott a noodle chain called Aori Ramen between January and April 2019, according to multiple store owners who filed a compensation lawsuit in July blaming Seungri, who had run and promoted the franchise, for falling sales. Google Korea's most popular domestic searched terms for 2019 included Jung Joon-young ranked at number two over-all, and number one for top public figure; with Burning Sun ranked at number three for domestic news and issues. Yonhap News Agency editors selected the scandal as one of the top ten South Korean news stories of 2019. References External links Entertainment scandals Law enforcement scandals Sex scandals in South Korea Crime in South Korea Seungri Rape in South Korea Obscenity controversies in music Sex crimes in South Korea Music controversies

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8C%A8%EC%85%98%20%EC%A7%81%EB%AC%BC%20%EB%B0%95%EB%AC%BC%EA%B4%80

패션 직물 박물관

패션 직물 박물관()은 영국 런던 버몬지에 위치한 현대 패션 박물관이다. 2003년에 영국인 디자이너 잔드라 로즈가 설립했으며 뉴엄 칼리지(the Newham College of Further Education) 산하에 소속되어 있다. 최근 전시에는 Liberty in Fashion, Art Textiles, 1920s Jazz Age Fashion & Photographs, Missoni Art Colour 등이 있었다. 영구 전시품은 없으며 특별 전시를 연속으로 기획하고 있다. 건물 본 박물관은 창고를 개조한 건물에 위치하고 있으며 멕시코인 건축가 리카도 레고레타가 잔드라 로즈와 함께 설계했다. 이 빌딩이 레고레타가 유럽에서 설계한 최초이자 유일한 건물이다. 건물에는 전시 공간 이외에 직물 스튜디오, 프린팅 스튜디오 및 주거 공간이 함께 포함되어 있다. 빌딩 벽에 핫 핑크색, 오렌지색, 노란색, 밝은 파란색 등의 독특한 색깔이 칠해져 있어 건축물 자체로서의 관광 명소로도 알려져 있다. 전시 현재 전시 Night and Day: 1930s Fashion and Photographs Cecil Beaton: Thirty from the 30s 향후 전시 Swinging London: A Lifestyle Revolution / Terence Conran – Mary Quant 과거 전시 Orla Kiely: A Life in Pattern T-Shirt: Cult – Culture – Subversion – 2018년 2월 9일 - 2018년 5월 6일 Louise Dahl-Wolfe: A Style of Her Own – 2017년 10월 20일 - 2018년 1월 21일 Harper's Bazaar 150 Years – The Greatest Moments – 2017년 10월 20일 - 2018년 1월 21일 Wallace Sewell: 25 Years of British Textile Design –  2017년 10월 20일 - 2018년 1월 21일 The World of Anna Sui – 2017년 5월 26일 - 2017년 10월 1일 Josef Frank Patterns–Furniture–Painting – 2017년 1월 28일 - 2017년 5월 7일 1920s Jazz Age Fashion & Photographs – 2016년 9월 23일 - 2017년 1월 15일 Missoni Art Colour – 2016년 5월 6일 - 2016년 9월 4일 Liberty in Fashion – 2015년 10월 9일 - 2016년 2월 28일 Riviera Style: Resort and Swimwear Style Since 1900 – 2015년 5월 22일 - 2015년 8월 30일 (King and McGaw 합작) Knitwear: From Chanel to Westwood – 2014년 9월 19일 - 2015년 1월 18일 Designing Women: Post-war British Textiles – 2012년 3월 16일 - 2012년 6월 16일 The Printed Square – Vintage Handkerchiefs – 2012년 3월 22일 - 2012년 6월 16일 POP! Culture and Fashion 1955–1976 – 2012년 7월 6일 - 2012년 10월 27일 Tommy Nutter: Rebel on the Row – 2011년 5월 20일 - 2011년 10월 22일 Sue Timney and the design of Timney-Fowler – 2010년 11월 16일 - 2011년 4월 25일 Horrockses Fashions: Off the Peg Style in the '40s and '50s – 2010년 7월 9일 - 2010년 10월 24일 Very Sanderson – 150 years of English decoration – 2010년 3월 19일 - 2010년 6월 13일 30 years of Pineapple by Debbie Moore – 2010년 1월 18일 - 2010년 2월 24일 Foale and Tuffin – Made in England – 2009년 10월 23일 - 2010년 2월 24일 Undercover: The Evolution of Underwear – 2009년 6월 12일 - 2009년 9월 27일 Swedish Fashion: Exploring A New Identity – 2009년 2월 6일 - 2009년 5월 17일 Billy: Bill Gibb's Moment in Time – 2008년 10월 24일 - 2009년 1월 18일 Little Black Dress – 2008년 6월 20일 - 2008년 8월 25일 Peacocks and Pinstripes – 2008년 2월 8일 - 2008년 5월 31일 참고 문헌 외부 링크 런던의 박물관 패션 박물관 섬유 박물관 서더크구의 박물관

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fashion%20and%20Textile%20Museum

Fashion and Textile Museum

The Fashion and Textile Museum is the only museum in the UK of contemporary fashion and textile design. The Fashion and Textile Museum was founded in 2003 by Dame Zandra Rhodes. Today, the museum is operated by Newham College, London – one of Europe's largest further education colleges. Situated in the heart of fashionable Bermondsey Village, the museum is housed in a distinctive building, designed by Mexican architect, Ricardo Legorreta. Building The museum is housed in a converted warehouse which was redesigned by the Mexican architect Ricardo Legorreta in collaboration with Dame Zandra Rhodes. It was Legorreta's first and only building in Europe. In addition to the exhibition space, the building contains a textile studio and printing workshop and private residential quarters. The building has become a tourist attraction in its own right due to its colour scheme of hot pink, burnt orange, yellow, and bright blue. Exhibitions Past exhibitions 150 Years of the Royal School of Needlework: Crown to Catwalk - 1 April – 4 September 2022 Beautiful People: The Boutique in 1960s Counterculture - 3 September 2021 – January 2022 Annie Phillips: Ancient Technique and Contemporary Art - 18 May – 12 September 2021 Chintz: Cotton in Bloom - 18 May – 12 September 2021 Out of the Blue: Fifty Years of Designers Guild - 14 February 2020 – 21 February 2021 Zandra Rhodes: 50 Years of Fabulous - 27 September 2019 – 26 January 2020 Norman Hartnell – A Tribute - 27 September 2019 – 26 January 2020 Weavers of the Clouds: Textile Arts of Peru - 21 June – 8 September 2019 Will You Be My Valentine? Works by Natalie Gibson - 8 February – 2 June 2019 Swinging London: A Lifestyle Revolution | Terence Conran – Mary Quant - 8 February – 2 June 2019 Elizabeth Suter: Sharp Lines and Swift Sketches - 8 February – 2 June 2019 Night and Day: 1930s Fashion and Photographs - 12 October 2018 – 20 January 2019 Cecil Beaton: Thirty from the 30s – Fashion, Film and Fantasy - 12 October 2018 – 20 January 2019 Orla Kiely: A Life in Pattern - 25 May – 23 September 2018 T-Shirt: Cult – Culture – Subversion – 9 February 2018 – 6 May 2018 T: The Typology of The T-Shirt - 9 February – 6 May 2018 The Secret Life of Scissors - 9 February – 6 May 2018 Harper's Bazaar 150 Years – The Greatest Moments – 20 October 2017 – 21 January 2018 Wallace Sewell: 25 Years of British Textile Design –  20 October 2017 – 21 January 2018 Louise Dahl-Wolfe: A Style of Her Own – 20 October 2017 – 21 January 2018 The World of Anna Sui – 26 May – 1 October 2017 Festival of Textiles 2017 - 28 January – 7 May 2017 Josef Frank Patterns–Furniture–Painting – 28 January – 7 May 2017 Full Circle & Recycle: 21st Century Swedish Textiles - 28 January – 7 May 2017 Gudrun Sjödén: Four Decades of Colour & Design - 25 April – 7 May 2017 1920s Jazz Age Fashion & Photographs – 23 September 2016 – 15 January 2017 James Abbe: Photographer of the Jazz Age - 23 September 2016 – 15 January 2017 London Design Festival: New Artist Textiles from Canada - 16–18 September 2016 London Fashion Foundation Show - 16–18 September 2016 Missoni Art Colour – 6 May – 4 September 2016 Festival of Textiles 2016 - 11 March – 17 April 2016 Art Textiles: Marian Clayden - 11 March – 17 April 2016 Liberty in Fashion – 9 October 2015 – 28 February 2016 The Art of Pattern - 9 October 2015 – 28 February 2016 Rayne: Shoes for Stars - 22 May – 13 September 2015 Riviera Style: Resort and Swimwear Style Since 1900 – 22 May 2015 – 30 August 2015 (in partnership with King and McGaw) A Journey to the Riviera - 22 May – 13 September 2015 Nautical Chic by Amber Jane Butchart - 22 May – 27 August 2015 Thea Porter: 70s Bohemian Chic - 6 February – 3 May 2015 Mirror Man: Andrew Logan Portraits - 6 February – 3 May 2015 Knitwear: From Chanel to Westwood – 19 September 2014 – 18 January 2015 How to Draw Vintage Fashion - 19 September 2014 – 18 January 2015 PATTERN: Watts’ Architect Wallpapers 1870 to today - 19 September 2014 – 18 January 2015 Knitwear in Fashion Photography - 19 September 2014 – 18 January 2015 Visionary Knitwear - 19 September 2014 – 18 January 2015 El Intercambio Cultural/A Cultural Exchange - 6 June – 31 August 2014 Made in Mexico: The Rebozo in Art, Culture & Fashion - 6 June – 31 August 2014 Artist Textiles: Picasso to Warhol - 31 January – 18 May 2014 Sarah Campbell ‘from start to finish’ - 31 January – 17 May 2014 The Glamour of Bellville Sassoon - 20 September 2013 – 11 January 2014 Zandra Rhodes: Unseen - 12 July – 31 August 2013 Designing Women: Post-war British Textiles 16 March 2012 – 16 June 2012 The Printed Square – Vintage Handkerchiefs – 22 March 2012 – 16 June 2012 Kaffe Fassett: A Life in Colour - 22 March – 29 June 2013 Hartnell to Amies: Couture By Royal Appointment - 16 November 2012 – 23 February 2013 POP! Culture and Fashion 1955–1976 – 6 July 2012 – 27 October 2012 Designing Women: Post-War British Textiles - 16 March – 16 June 2012 Catwalk to Cover – A Front Row Seat - 18 November 2011 – 25 February 2012 Tommy Nutter: Rebel on the Row – 20 May 2011 – 22 October 2011 Sue Timney and the design of Timney-Fowler – 16 November 2010 – 25 April 2011 Horrockses Fashions: Off the Peg Style in the '40s and '50s – 9 July 2010 – 24 October 2010 30 years of Pineapple by Debbie Moore – 18 January 2010 – 24 February 2010 Very Sanderson – 150 Years of English Decoration - 19 March – 13 June 2010 Foale and Tuffin – Made in England – 23 October 2009 – 24 February 2010 Undercover: The Evolution of Underwear – 12 June 2009 – 27 September 2009 Swedish Fashion: Exploring A New Identity – 6 February 2009 – 17 May 2009 Billy: Bill Gibb's Moment in Time – 24 October 2008 – 18 January 2009 Little Black Dress – 20 June 2008 – 25 August 2008 Peacocks and Pinstripes – 8 February 2008 – 31 May 2008 See also Fashion museum Textile museum References Textile museums in the United Kingdom Fashion museums in the United Kingdom Museums in the London Borough of Southwark Bermondsey Museums established in 2003 2003 establishments in England Ricardo Legorreta buildings

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%ED%95%9C%EB%AF%BC%EA%B5%AD%20%EC%9D%B8%EA%B6%8C%EC%83%81

대한민국 인권상

대한민국 인권상은 대한민국 국가인권위원회가 매년 수여하는 인권상이다. 2006년부터 개인 부문인 훈장, 포장과 단체 부문인 국가인권위원회위원장 표창 등으로 나눠 시상한다. 매년 12월 10일에 열리는 세계인권선언 기념식에서 수여한다. 수상자 2006년 국민훈장 석류장 임기란 (전 민주화실천가족운동협의회 상임의장) 근정포장 곽병은 (원주교도소 전 보건의료과장) 단체부문 표창 한센병보상청구소송 일본변호단 한국여성노동자회협의회 광주인화학교 성폭력대책위원회 국제장애인권리조약 한국추진연대 서울신문 마이너리티리포트 한국교육방송공사 ‘똘레랑스’ 제작팀 성안드레아정신병원 전북평화와인권연대 2007년 국민훈장 동백장 조화순 목사 국민포장 안영도 변호사 국가인권위원장 표창 서울외국인이주노동자센터 소장 최의팔 목사 장은주 원주경찰서 경사 노수환 대전지검 검찰주사 권건아 경찰청 인권보호센터 경위 함유복 춘천교도소 교위 이용익 인천구치소 교위 최천식 옥구초등학교 교장 박현희 구일고등학교 교사 국방부 인권팀 재일코리안 변호사협회 울산지역 연대노조 울산과학대지부 문화방송 드라마 ‘고맙습니다’ 한겨레 21 SBS 긴급출동 SOS 24 광주시 중증장애인자립생활지원 조례제정 2008년 국가인권위원회는 부산인권센터 이정이 대표를 최종 추천하였으나 행정안전부에서 정부의 훈장 심사 대상에서 제외했다. 단체부문 표창 장애인차별금지추진연대 참여와 평화로 가는 원주시민연대 정신장애인을 위한 사회복귀시설인 태화샘솟는집 부산해운대경찰서 육군본부 법무실 2009년 2009년 10월, 한국의 인권상 후보로 지명된 45개의 인권 단체는 새로 임명된 현병철 위원장의 독립성과 정치적 편견에 대한 우려 때문에 그 해의 선발 과정에 참여하지 않겠다는 성명서를 발표했다. 같은 해 11월 “현병철 위원장 취임 이후 인권위가 정권의 눈치를 보고 정부의 정책에 부담될 것 같은 사안들은 의견표명을 하지 않거나 기각하는 등 여러 문제가 있었다”고 비판하며 인권위 위원 61명이 사퇴했다. 국민훈장 이양희 (유엔아동권리위원장) 개인 부문 이재현 (재일교포 김희로씨 석방 운동) 김종철 (국제가족한국총연합 부회장) 현시웅 (대구노숙인상담지원센터 소장) 김홍남 (부산교도소 교위) 홍순창 (전북교육청 장학사) 박영미 (국방부 법무관리관실 행정주사) 단체부문 표창 삼청교육대 인권운동연합 대한에이즈예방협회 대구경북지회 북한민주화네트워크 MBC 희망나눔무지개 제작진 외국인 주민센터를 운영한 경기도 안산시 2010년 위원장 단체 표창 수상자로 결정된 '이주노동자의 방송'(MWTV)이 "인권위가 정상적인 기능을 수행하지 못하고 있다"고 수상을 거부했고, 인천장애인차별철폐연대도 수상을 거부했다. 개인 부문 윤현 (북한인권시민연합 이사장) 김명호 (강릉원주대 교수) 양정숙 (광주 YWCA 가정폭력상담소장) 정덕훈 (영광교회 담임목사) 태원우 (대한변호사협회 인권위원회 위원) 공무원 이상술 화성외국인보호소 출입국관리주사보 배찬 대전교도소 교위 조동양 국방부 법무관리관 심은보 이월초등학교 교사 장승진 서울시청 지방행정주사 단체부문 표창 목포경제정의실천시민연합 인천장애인차별철폐연대 (수상 거부) 2011년 두오균 사단법인 대전장애우권익문제연구소장 하태경 사단법인 열린북한방송 대표 단체 부문 가온장애인인권행복위원회 나눔의 집 2012년 국민훈장 김영환 사단법인 북한민주화네트워크 연구위원 근정포장 김인숙 국제아동인권센터 기획이사 국가인권위원장 개인부문 표창 광주인화학교 총동문회 서만길 회장 SBS 이경홍 PD 조창원 전 소록도병원 원장 성공회대학교 정원오 교수 대전교도소 김병화 교위 여수경찰서 전상규 경위 경기지방경찰청 김효정 경장 육군 제5993부대 최만호 상사 보건복지부 국립춘천병원 이태숙 간호 주사 의정부 호동초등학교 임종수 교장 단체부문 표창 사단법인 강원여성인권지원공동체 춘천 길잡이의 집 사회복지법인 라파엘 클리닉 드림스타트 사업 인천광역시 남구 사단법인 휴먼아시아 2013년 근정훈장 서울대학교 사회과학대학 정진성 교수 국민포장 정신대문제대책부산협의회 김문숙 이사장 국가인권위원장 개인부문 표창 안양여성의전화 최병일 대표 전란피해여성인권연대 안성자 회장 대한민국인재연합회 박호언 법률자문위원 단체부문 표창 한국여성의전화 다시서기종합지원센터 피랍·탈북인권연대 2014년 훈장 연세대학교 의과대학 인요한 교수 국민포장 한국장애인재단 서인환 사무총장 국가인권위원장 개인부문 표창 (사)외국인근로자문화센터 이천영 이사장 부산인권포럼 구수경 대표 故이주헌 의료선교사 KBS 윤진‧황현택 기자 벧엘의집 원용철 목사 열린북한방송 권은경 국제팀장 국방부 해군본부 고민숙 인권과장 경찰청 인권보호담당관실 박숭각 경위 강원지방경찰청 피기춘 경위 경기 솔개초등학교 김현진 교사 단체부문 표창 군인권센터(대표 임태훈) 재단법인동천(대표 이정훈) (사)장애우권익문제연구소(대표 김성재) 대구하나센터(대표 허영철) 한국노인복지중앙회(대표 박진우) 2015년 국민훈장 모란장 김복동 할머니 국민포장 한국여성의전화 정춘숙 이사 국가인권위원장 개인부문 표창 영원한 도움의 성모 수녀회 오혜정 수녀 일본 가나가와시티유니온 무라야마사토시 노동운동가 인천폭력예방교육전문기관 하모니 김신숙 소장 마음향기병원 김종천 병원장 이주민문화센터 전병호 센터장 부산한솔학교 김미영 교장 광주지방경찰청 박병우 경감 국립공주병원 이래숙 간호주사 서울소년분류심사원 정재호 보호주사보 상탄초등학교 김윤실 교사 단체부문 표창 발달장애인법제정추진연대(공동대표 윤종술, 노익상, 김용직, 김성조) 대구이주여성쉼터(대표 고명숙) Know Your Rights(대표 강승욱) 2016년 국민훈장 동백장 박문수(서강대학교 이사장) 신부 국민포장 이경혜(사단법인 문화복지 공감의 대표) 국가인권위원회 위원장 표창 강용조(청주교도소 교위) 강은이(안산 이주아동청소년센터 센터장) 김국현(진주 혜광학교 수석교사) 김정영(사랑손 보호작업장 시설장) 안정호(울산지방경찰청 경사) 원준희(강원지방경찰청 원주경찰서 경위) 이은주(사단법인 검정고시지원협회 총무이사) 이평섭(수원구치소 교위) (사)다문화가족행복나눔센터(대표 김영수) 분당 노인종합복지관(관장 이정우) 송국클럽하우스(대표 유숙) (사)청소년교육문화공동체 반딧불이(대표 김형섭) 2017년 국민훈장 동백장 이정호 남양주시 외국인복지센터 관장 국민포장 김효진 장애여성네트워크 대표 개인부문 전성현 아이퍼스트아동병원 병원장 권현희 한국건강가정진흥원 다누리콜센터 광주지역센터 센터장 히라마 마사코 일본 가나가와시티유니온 집행위원 백인호 삼성전자 UX 디자이너 김철민 진주교도소 교사 김명래 강원지방경찰청 횡성경찰서 경감 유지훈 경찰청 수사기획과 경감 장영민 양일고등학교 특수교사 단체부문 장애인차별금지추진연대 양심과 인권-나무 광명 시민인권센터 한국비정규노동센터 2018년 국민훈장 무궁화장 노회찬 국회의원 2019년 2020년 백도명 각주 외부 링크 국가인권위원회 대한민국의 민사훈장 인권상

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20Rights%20Award%20of%20Korea

Human Rights Award of Korea

The Human Rights Award of Korea () is the highest human rights award of the Republic of Korea, bestowed annually by the National Human Rights Commission of Korea. It was established in 2005 for human rights organizations, and started to award individuals from 2007 to recognise the contribution to Korean and international human rights. The award are presented at annual Human Rights Day Ceremony on 10 December in every year. Categories There are three categories of the award Human Rights Advocate and Extension Human Rights Education and Cultural Promotion Human Rights Policy and Research Recipients 2005 Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seoul Anti Sexual Discrimination Movement against YMCA Korea 2006 In 2006, a total of seventeen organisations and individuals received the Human Rights Award of Korea, including: Kwak Byeong-eun (곽병은), age 53, in recognition of his work with prisoners at the Wonju Correctional Institute since 991 St. Andrew's Mental Hospital of Icheon City, Gyeonggi Province Seoul Sinmun "Minority Report", which writes about human rights issues facing women and minorities The production team for the Educational Broadcasting System programme Tolerance Countermovement Committee against Sexual Violence in Gwangju Inhwa School 2007 Human Rights Team of the Ministry of National Defense of Korea 2008 Nominee Lee Jeong-yi of the Busan Human Rights Center, well known for her work with prisoners of conscience, was disqualified from consideration after objections by the Ministry of Security and Public Administration. Conservative groups had accused Lee of being "a pro-North Korea, anti-U.S. activist". An anonymous National Human Rights Commission employee quoted by the Hankyoreh objected to the decision and described it as politically motivated. Korean Broadcasting System Judge Advocate General's Corps, Republic of Korea Army 2009 In October 2009, forty-five human rights organisations which had been nominated for the Human Rights Award of Korea issued a statement that they would not participate in the selection process for that year due to concerns over the independence and political bias of newly appointed Human Rights Commission head Hyun Byung-chul. The following month saw broader strife in the HRC; sixty-one HRC advisors also threatened to resign in protest, calling Hyun "nothing more than a 'yes man'" for the Lee Myung-bak administration. Yanghee Lee (former chairperson of the Committee on the Rights of the Child) Network for North Korean Democracy and Human Rights Ansan City 2010 The year 2010 saw further boycotts of the Human Rights Award, including several by student writers who had participated in the essay competition. The Human Rights Commission announced on December 10 that the Incheon League for the Abolition of Discrimination against People with Disabilities (인천장애인차별철폐연대), an organisation which had been selected for the award, would not accept it. A spokesperson for the National League for the Abolition of Discrimination Against People with Disabilities stated that there continued to be concerns over the independence and operation of the Human Rights Committee. Tae Wonwoo (Partner of Gyeomin and Member of Human Rights Committee of Korean Bar Association) Citizens' Coalition for Economic Justice 2011 Ha Tae-keung (Member of National Assembly and President of Open Radio for North Korea) Korea Association of Social Workers Yeungnam University 2012 Joung Won Oh (Professor and the President of Social Enterprise Research Institute of Sungkonghoe University) Dream Start Center of Ministry of Health and Welfare Human Asia 2013 Peter Park (Former Youth Ombudsman of Korea and Election Commissioner in Melbourne, Overseas Election Commission of Korea) Choi Byeongil, director of Anyang Korea Women's Hotline Coalition for Human Rights of Abductees and North Korean Refugees 2014 John Linton (Professor and the President of International Medical Center, Yonsei University) Center for Military Human Rights, Korea Dongcheon Foundation 2015 Hyejung Oh (Sister, Sisters of Our Lady of Perpetual Help) The Know Your Rights, Victoria, Australia 2016 Eunjoo Lee (Secretary-General, School Equivalent Examinations Support Association) Multicultural Family Service Center References External links National Human Rights Commission of Korea Human rights awards Civil awards and decorations of South Korea Awards established in 2007

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%AC%EC%BC%93%EB%AA%AC%EC%8A%A4%ED%84%B0%20%EC%86%8C%EB%93%9C%C2%B7%EC%8B%A4%EB%93%9C

포켓몬스터 소드·실드

《포켓몬스터 소드》 와 《포켓몬스터 실드》는 게임프리크가 개발하고 포켓몬 컴퍼니와 닌텐도가 배급한 2019년 롤플레잉 비디오 게임이다. 《포켓몬스터》 비디오 게임 시리즈의 8세대를 연 첫 작품이자 《포켓몬스터 레츠고! 피카츄·레츠고! 이브이》에 이어 닌텐도 스위치로 발매된 두 번째 본편 게임군이다. 시리즈 최초로 '익스팬션 패스'라는 이름으로 유료 다운로드 가능 컨텐츠를 도입해 2020년 6월 《갑옷의 외딴섬》, 2020년 10월 《왕관의 설원》 총 2개의 확장팩이 발매됐다. 2020년 11월 본편과 확장팩들이 모두 수록된 실물판이 발매됐다. 《소드·실드》는 2016년 《포켓몬스터 썬·문》의 제작을 마치자마자 계획된 작품으로서 그 계획이 제작의 단계까지 옮겨지기는 2017년 말부터였다. 2017년 E3에서 최초공개돼 2019년 11월 15일 출시되었다. 전작들처럼 포켓몬 트레이너가 포켓몬 챔피언이 되기까지의 여정을 다루며, 현실의 영국에 기하는 가라르지방이 무대이다. 주목표는 각 시티의 체육관 관장들을 모두 이긴 다음 포켓몬 리그 챔피언 단델을 이겨 그 자리를 계승하는 데 있으며, 그 와중에 플레이어는 가라르 리그에서 일어난 흉악한 음모를 맞닥뜨리게 된다. 본작에서는 81종의 새 포켓몬과 아울러 13종의 종래의 포켓몬의 리전 폼이 추가되었다. 더불어 포켓몬의 특정조건을 충족시켰을 시 그 크기를 커지게 할 수 있는 다이맥스, 거다이맥스는 다이맥스지만 일부 포켓몬에서는 그 모습마저 바꿔 버리는 거다이맥스, 자유시점 기능 및 협동 레이드 기능이 도입된 와일드에리어 등이 함께 추가되었다. 《썬•문》, 《레츠고! 피카츄·이브이》에서 벌써 소개됐던 지역적 변종과, 포켓몬의 오버월드에서의 돌아다님이 재현되어 있다. 확장팩에선 자신의 스타팅 포켓몬, 우라오스 (일격의 태세), 우라오스 (연격의 태세), 거북왕, 이상해꽃이 거다이맥스 하게 되고 《갑옷의 외딴섬》에서는 전설의 포켓몬 치고마, 우라오스가 출현하고 《왕관의 설원》에서는 전설의 포켓몬 버드렉스와 레지드래고, 레지에레키, 파이어, 프리져, 썬더, 블리자포스, 레이스포스가 출현한다. 게임 프리크는 《포켓몬스터 소드·실드》에서 전작들과는 달리 시리즈 포켓몬 전체를 포함하지 않고 일부 포켓몬만 등장시키는 결정을 내렸다. 이는 일부 플레이어 계층에서 부정적인 반응을 얻어 일명 "Dexit(포켓몬 도감 'Pokédex'와 브렉시트의 합성어)"라 불리는 보이콧 운동을 일으켰다. 발매 당시 《포켓몬스터 소드·실드》는 대체적으로 긍정적인 평가를 받았다. 포켓몬 디자인, 새로운 기능, 단순성, 자유로운 게임플레이, 경편화된 인카운터에 호평이 있었지만, 동시에 포켓몬 도감의 축소, 덜 된 게임 콘텐츠에서 혹평이 있었다. 2022년 3월 기준으로 전세계 판매량이 2427만 장으로 닌텐도 스위치 역사상 빨리 팔린 게임들의 순위권에 올랐으며, 《포켓몬스터》 비디오 게임 시리즈 사상 판매량 2위, 그리고 닌텐도 스위치 게임 사상 판매량 5위를 달성했다. 게임 평가 포켓몬 스타팅 포켓몬 풀타입: 흥나숭 불꽃타입: 염버니 물타입: 울머기 전설의 포켓몬 (강철), 페어리타입: 자시안 (소드) (강철), 격투타입: 자마젠타 (실드) 독, 드래곤타입: 무한다이노 (소드, 실드) 격투타입: 치고마 (갑옷의 외딴섬) 격투, 악타입: 우라오스 (일격의 태세) (갑옷의 외딴섬) 격투, 물타입: 우라오스 (연격의 태세) (갑옷의 외딴섬) 풀, 에스퍼타입: 버드렉스 (왕관의 설원) 얼음타입: 블리자포스 (왕관의 설원) 고스트타입: 레이스포스 (왕관의 설원) 에스퍼, 얼음타입: 아이스 라이더 폼 버드렉스(왕관의 설원) 에스퍼, 고스트타입: 섀도우 라이더 폼 버드렉스(왕관의설원) 드래곤타입: 레지드래고 (왕관의 설원) 전기타입: 레지에레키 (왕관의 설원) 에스퍼, 비행타입: 프리져 (가라르의 모습) (왕관의 설원) 악, 비행타입: 파이어 (가라르의 모습) (왕관의 설원) 격투, 비행타입: 썬더 (가라르의 모습) (왕관의 설원) 이외에도 왕관의 설원에서 이전 세대 초전설 포켓몬들, 준전설 포켓몬, 울트라비스트들도 모두 얻을 수 있다. 환상의 포켓몬 풀, 악타입: 자루도 에스퍼타입: 뮤 강철, 에스퍼타입: 지라치 풀, 에스퍼타입: 세레비 불, 에스퍼타입: 비크티니 벌레, 강철타입: 게노세크트 격투, 물타입: 케르디오 불꽃, 물타입: 볼케니온 바위, 페어리타입: 디안시 격투, 고스트타입: 마샤도 전기타입: 제라오라 강철타입: 멜탄 강철타입: 멜메탈 여기서 4세대 환상의 포켓몬이 없는 이유는 이후에 4세대 리메이크 버전인 《브릴리언트 다이아몬드 샤이닝 펄》에서 나올 것으로 추측된다. 체육관 (소드)※다이맥스위주 풀 체육관: 아킬 - 백솜모카 물 체육관: 야청 - 갈가부기 불 체육관: 순무 - 다태우지네 격투 체육관: 채두 - 괴력몬 페어리 체육관: 비트 -브리무음(처음에는 포플러 -마휘핑) 바위 체육관: 마쿠와-석탄산 악 체육관: 두송(두송은 다이맥스를 사용하지 않는다.) - 스컹탱크(마리:오롱털) 드래곤 체육관: 금랑 - 두랄루돈 (실드)*다이맥스 위주 풀 체육관: 아킬 - 백솜모카 물 체육관: 야청 - 갈가부기 불 체육관: 순무 - 다태우지네 고스트 체육관: 어니언 - 팬텀 페어리 체육관: 비트 - 브리무음(처음에는 포플러 -마휘핑) 얼음 체육관: 멜론 - 라프라스 악 체육관: 두송(두송은 다이맥스를 사용하지 않는다.) - )(마리:오롱털) 드래곤 체육관: 금랑 - 두랄루돈 참조 주해 각주 외부 링크 포켓몬스터 소드·실드 공식 한국어 사이트 포켓몬스터 소드·실드 공식 일본어 사이트 포켓몬스터 비디오 게임 2019년 비디오 게임 롤플레잉 비디오 게임 게임프리크 게임 다운로드 가능 콘텐츠가 있는 비디오 게임 확장팩이 있는 비디오 게임

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon%20Sword%20and%20Shield

Pokémon Sword and Shield

and are 2019 role-playing video games developed by Game Freak and published by The Pokémon Company and Nintendo for the Nintendo Switch console. They are the first instalments in the eighth generation of the Pokémon video game series. First teased at E3 2017 and announced in February 2019, the games were released in November 2019. The games were accompanied by a downloadable content (DLC) expansion pass consisting of Part 1—The Isle of Armor (released in June 2020) and Part 2—The Crown Tundra (October 2020). Conceptualization began immediately following the completion of Pokémon Sun and Moon in 2016, while full development began a year later in September 2017. Like previous instalments, the games follow a young Pokémon trainer as they train and battle Pokémon, aiming to become a Pokémon Champion. The games introduced many new features including the Dynamax/Gigantamax mechanic, a gigantic-size Pokémon transformation. When the decision to exclude many pre-existing Pokémon from Sword and Shield was announced, it triggered backlash from fans and resulted in a controversy known as "Dexit". In spite of this, Sword and Shield received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised the games' gameplay, exploration, and mechanics, although the visuals, as well as the lack of depth and innovation, received some criticism. As of June 2023, the games had sold more than 25.92 million copies worldwide, making them the second best-selling titles in the Pokémon video game series. The games were nominated for numerous awards and won the SXSW Gaming Awards and Famitsu Dengeki Game Awards 2019. Gameplay Pokémon Sword and Shield are role-playing video games with adventure elements. They are usually presented in a fixed camera, third-person perspective, although sometimes they also allowed free camera movement. The player controls a young trainer who goes on a quest to catch and train creatures known as Pokémon and win battles against other trainers. By defeating opposing Pokémon in turn-based battles, the player's Pokémon gains experience, allowing them to level up and increase their battle statistics, learn new battle techniques, and evolve into more powerful Pokémon. The player can capture wild Pokémon through wild encounters by weakening them in battle and catching them with Poké Balls, adding them to their party. The player can also battle and trade Pokémon with other players via the Switch's connectivity features. As with previous Pokémon games, certain Pokémon are only obtainable in either Sword or Shield, and the player must trade with others to obtain every Pokémon from both versions. Sword and Shield are set in the Galar region, which consists of numerous cities and towns connected by a route system. There is an open world area in the centre of the region known as the "Wild Area". Random encounters with wild Pokémon typically occur in tall grass or in bodies of water along routes or in the Wild Area, and they might chase or run away from the player depending on their disposition. The player occasionally battles notable trainers in cities, towns, along routes, and in the Wild Area. The driving force bringing the player to travel around the Galar region is to participate in the "Gym Challenge", an open tournament to decide the greatest Pokémon Trainer (the Champion) in the region. Eight of the game's cities and towns are homes to stadiums housing "Gym Leaders", powerful trainers specializing in certain types of Pokémon; beating a Gym Leader will grant the player a "badge". After collecting all eight Badges, the player will be allowed to participate in the "Champion Cup", where they will face off in a single-elimination tournament against the previously faced Gym Leaders and other trainers in the Gym Challenge. After they emerge victorious, the player will face the reigning Champion of the Galar region. New features The games introduce several new features to the series, which includes cooperative raid, the Wild Area, and the temporary transformations Dynamax and Gigantamax; Dynamax allows Pokémon to transform into gigantic-sizes, and Gigantamax which is limited to selected Pokémon additionally alters Pokémon's physical appearance and replaces their Dynamax Max Move battle technique for the exclusive G-Max Move. The Wild Area is a fully explorable open world area with free camera movement and dynamic weather, which has implications on which Pokémon species appear at a given time. A new mechanic called "Poké Jobs" tasks the player's Pokémon with completing requests, such as assisting in construction or cooking, to gain experience or rare items. Pokémon Gyms returned in the games after being absent in Pokémon Sun and Moon and Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon. The games have version-exclusive content such as certain Pokémon and Gym Leaders. A new 'Camp' mode allows the player to interact and play with their Pokémon as well as cook different types of curry to provide them with bonuses. New customization options for the player character have been added, like outerwear and other accessories. Similar to Pokémon Sun and Moon, many Pokémon previously introduced in older games reappeared as regional form in the games, gaining new types, statistics, appearances, and evolutions. Connectivity Internet connectivity to other players is supported for functionality such as trades, battles, and encountering other trainers in the Wild Area; these functions however require a paid subscription to the Nintendo Switch Online subscription service. Sword and Shield only support direct game-to-game connectivity between themselves. The games are also compatible with Pokémon Home, an online cloud storage service for storing Pokémon, released in February 2020. Supported Pokémon can be transferred to the games from the Nintendo 3DS app Pokémon Bank, Pokémon Go and Pokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu! and Let's Go, Eevee! via Pokémon Home. Plot Setting Sword and Shield are set in the Galar region. The region is inspired by the United Kingdom, with its many landmarks resembling places such as the Bath, Somerset and York. Within the Galar region lie countryside towns featuring cottages and Victorian architecture to the south. There are also Industrial Revolution and steampunk references. Many of the region's towns and cities feature Pokémon Gyms stylized like football stadiums, showcasing the games' Dynamax and Gigantamax mechanic. Snow-covered mountains dominate much of the northern areas of the region. Encompassing a large portion of the south-central part of the region is the Wild Area, an open world area with numerous roaming Pokémon species. Weather in the Wild Area changes regularly. Story Similar to many previous games in the Pokémon franchise, the player travels across the region to become the strongest trainer, fighting eight powerful trainers called Gym Leaders and eventually the region's Champion. The player and their best friend, Hop, receive one of three starter Pokémon: Grookey, Scorbunny, or Sobble from Leon, Champion of the Galar region and Hop's older brother. Afterward, the two explore a forest called the Slumbering Weald but are driven off by a powerful Pokémon. During their subsequent visit to the region's Pokémon Professor, Magnolia and her granddaughter Sonia, they convince Leon to endorse them to take part in the Gym Challenge. After traveling to the next city to register for the Gym Challenge, they encounter rivals Bede and Marnie along with Team Yell, a devout group of hooligans who act as Marnie's unintentional fanbase and are determined to stop anyone else from completing the Challenge. The player also meets Chairman Rose, who, in addition to endorsing Bede as a Gym Challenger, presides over the Galar Pokémon League and the region's main energy company, Macro Cosmos. As their quest continues, the player assists Sonia in her research on two Legendary Pokémon who saved Galar from an ancient crisis called the Darkest Day and deduces that they are the same Pokémon previously encountered in the Slumbering Weald. After beating the eight Gym Leaders, including Piers, Marnie's older brother and the leader of Team Yell, the player makes their way to Wyndon where they win the Champion's Cup, earning an opportunity to battle Leon. Hop and the player then head to a hotel to meet with Leon, but he does not come. With help from Piers, Marnie, and Team Yell Grunt they get the keys from Chairman Rose' guard and make their way to Rose Tower. They reach the top of Rose Tower and battle with Rose' assistant, Oleana, and find Leon who is talking to Rose. Rose reveals his intentions to trigger the Darkest Day to solve a power crisis "thousands of years in the future." Leon, Hop, and the player head home. The next day, before the battle between the player and Leon can commence, Chairman Rose awakens the legendary Pokémon Eternatus in an attempt to harness its power to provide unlimited energy to Galar, purposefully triggering a second Darkest Day. The player and Hop return to the Slumbering Weald and secure the aid of the legendary Pokémon, Zacian and Zamazenta, through a sword and shield they find in the ruins, to defeat Chairman Rose and Eternatus, after which the player catches Eternatus and Rose hands himself over to the authorities. Three days later, the player faces and defeats Leon in a battle and becomes the new Champion of the Galar region. After defeating Leon, the player and Hop return to the Slumbering Weald to return Zacian and Zamazenta's artefacts to their rightful place. The two also meet Sonia, who has become the Galar region's new Pokémon Professor. However, they are confronted by Sordward and Shielbert, two brothers claiming to be descendants of ancient Galarian kings. The two steal one of the relics and begin forcing innocent Pokémon to Dynamax. The player, Hop, and Piers work with the Gym Leaders to subdue the Dynamax Pokémon and then track down and confront the brothers. Once both the player and Hop corners the brothers in the Hammerlocke Power Plant, they then explain why they forced many innocent Pokémon to Dynamax. They forced innocent Pokémon to Dynamax as experiments on what would happen if Zacian/Zamazenta was to be sprinkled with Galar particles. The brothers' ultimate goal is to reveal the true barbaric and brutish nature of Zacian or Zamazenta, because Sonia thought that the two heroes who stopped the Darkest Day were Pokémon rather than humans. They use Dynamax energy to drive Zamazenta (in Sword) or Zacian (in Shield) berserk, and the player drives them off with the help of Zacian (in Sword) or Zamazenta (in Shield). They then are challenged to a battle by the Legendary Pokémon and allowed to catch it, while Hop follows Zamazenta/Zacian back to the Slumbering Weald and calms it down, being chosen by it as its Trainer. The player and Hop have a final battle, after which Hop decides to be a Pokémon Professor and becomes Sonia's assistant. Development Conceptualization Conceptualization of Pokémon Sword and Shield began immediately following the completion of Pokémon Sun and Moon in the months preceding their release in November 2016. Shigeru Ohmori, who previously directed Sun and Moon, formed a team to brainstorm ideas for the title. Kazumasa Iwao, director of Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon, later joined the project as planning director. One of the first ideas the team had was making Pokémon gigantic-size to capitalize on the Switch's high resolution and TV connectivity. Ohmori suggested a sword and a shield Pokémon to defeat this gigantic Pokémon; these concepts formed the games' titles. Game Freak approached the games based on the theme of strength and striving to be the "greatest or the strongest," which was expressed through the Switch's status as the most powerful console to run a Pokémon game, the gigantic-size Pokémon Dynamax mechanic, and in-game references to various British folklore featuring giants and other mythical creatures. The concept of "growing and evolving" is an important theme in the games, and it was heavily emphasized in the story. Production Full production began in September 2017. Approximately 1,000 people from multiple companies were involved in the development, marketing, localization, and public relations, and approximately 200 Game Freak employees worked directly on the games while around 100 Creatures Inc. employees worked on 3D modeling; an additional 100 worked on debugging and game testing. Game Freak assembled a small team to systematically plan and design the game, enabling them to seamlessly incorporate all desired elements; this approach replaced their previous iterative method, which became impractical due to the complexities of the game's 3D graphics. Before developing the games, Game Freak worked on Pokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu! and Let's Go, Eevee! as a research project to study the Switch, incorporating a similar code base structure for Sword and Shield. The developers explored various ways to improve and innovate the traditional random encounter mechanic, and after several experiments, they redesigned it to have the player encounter Pokémon freely roaming around the environment. Similarly, they considered allowing the player to freely control the camera to enhance the games' exploration experience, before consulting the staff members in the form of an internal debate, and it was ultimately included. With the transition to the Switch from previous iteration, Game Freak had to meticulously design Pokémon models from scratch to adapt them to the higher fidelity and more expressive graphics of the Switch when compared to the Nintendo 3DS. The Pokémon design process involved planners and concept designers creating settings for each Pokémon, which were compiled into a text file outlining the vision for each Pokémon's placement in the game. They designed the Wild Area as a "wide-open space" that is different from the traditional route systems and is constantly changing where "it would be interesting to come back every day and see what has changed—something that would feel different each time." Music Minako Adachi and Go Ichinose composed the music, incorporating elements of UK rock music; a track was composed by Toby Fox, creator of Undertale. Ohmori stated that they included fairly short loop tunes for the route music, as opposed to the longer, more dynamic songs in the Wild Area. The games are first Pokémon game with a title theme that features lyrics. "Cutting" Pokémon Unlike previous core series games, many pre-existing Pokémon are not available in Sword and Shield, and only Pokémon that appear in the Galar region can be transferred from previous titles via Pokémon Home. Producer Junichi Masuda addressed this as a potential issue in a 2018 interview with GameSpot, saying that "it does get complicated when you talk about the details and we're still figuring it out, but we do have plans to find ways to let players use their Pokémon in the next game." In 2019, he explained that the sheer number of Pokémon, combined with the need to produce assets for new features such as the Dynamaxing mechanic, and maintaining a good game balance and high quality standard made it infeasible to include all pre-existing Pokémon without extensively lengthening development time. He stated all three companies involved in the development, Nintendo, Game Freak, and The Pokémon Company, agreed to reduce the games' Pokémon. Release Sword and Shield were first teased through a special message by The Pokémon Company president Tsunekazu Ishihara during Nintendo's E3 2017 presentation, where Ishihara mentioned that Game Freak was working on a new core series Pokémon role-playing game for the Nintendo Switch but that it would not be released for more than a year. During a press conference held by The Pokémon Company in Japan on 30 May 2018, Game Freak announced that the games would be released on Switch in the second half of 2019. The games were fully unveiled in a special Nintendo Direct presentation on 27 February 2019, introducing the games' region and starter Pokémon. The presentation coincided with Pokémon Day, a fan celebration of Pokémon on the anniversary of the Japanese release of Pokémon Red and Green. A second Nintendo Direct about the games was held on 5 June 2019, and it further revealed the games' new features, characters, and Pokémon. A release date of 15 November 2019, was also announced as part of this presentation. Game Freak intentionally limited the number of new Pokémon they revealed through promotional materials to encourage players to discover them in-game. A promotional crossover between Sword and Shield and Tetris 99 occurred from 8–11 November, during which a limited-time unlockable theme based on the games was available. A web app was also released, allowing the viewer to explore the Wild Area online. In Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, an online tournament themed around Pokémon was held from 15 to 18 November to promote Sword and Shield release, while a spirit event occurred from 22 to 27 November, with some Pokémon being available as collectible spirits. Expansion pass During the Pokémon Direct on 9 January 2020, an expansion pass were announced consisting of two parts, The Isle of Armor, and The Crown Tundra, and they were released on 17 June 2020 and 22 October 2020, respectively. A physical bundle including both parts and the games was released on 6 November 2020. The expansion pass added additional storylines, places, Pokémon, characters, and other features. Controversy The decision to exclude many pre-existing Pokémon in the games drew criticism from many fans, who referred to it as "Dexit", a portmanteau of "Pokédex" and "Brexit" (tying in with the Galar region's British theme), and used the hashtag "#BringBackNationalDex" to discuss the matter on social media. Fan backlash focused on the removal of a long-standing aspect of the franchise, the discouraging of its former English tagline "gotta catch 'em all," and a perceived lack of improvements in other areas of the games, such as graphics and animations. Some fans called for the games to be delayed until all of the Pokémon could be added. Writing for Polygon, Patricia Hernandez commented that "to some degree, the backlash makes sense" while adding that it had "gotten out of hand". Alex Donaldson of VG247 noted that feature creep—where an increase in new features over time may lead to removal of previous ones—had finally reached Pokémon, and long-overlooked design shortcomings of Game Freak were brought to the forefront as a result. Kotaku Gita Jackson summarized the backlash as "the tension of a desire to indulge in nostalgia against a desire to experience more complexity." Joe Merrick, the webmaster of fansite Serebii, considered the controversy to have caused the most unrest among Pokémon fans since the troubled launch of Pokémon Bank in 2013. Masuda formally responded to the criticism on 28 June 2019, two weeks after it erupted, expressing appreciation for the love and passion shown by fans. He reiterated that the removal of certain Pokémon was a difficult decision to make and that they would be available in different games in the future. Michael McWhertor of Polygon noted that while Masuda's statement acknowledged the fans' discontent, it "[did not] amount to much". After the game's release, fans who support "Dexit" strongly criticized the games for their graphics, story, and characters. Further criticism came from data miners accusing Game Freak of reusing the same models and animations from the 3DS games, resulting in the games being review bombed on Metacritic and the hashtag #GameFreakLied trending on Twitter. Game Freak denied this, stating that these elements were in fact redesigned. The announcement of the Isle of Armor and Crown Tundra expansion packs drew further outrage, with some fans believing that the packs should have been free or part of the base game due to "Game Freak's actions". Reception Critical response Reception of the games was largely positive. According to the review aggregator Metacritic, Sword and Shield received "generally favourable" reviews from critics. Critics praised Sword and Shield's gameplay, exploration, and mechanics. Game Informer critic Brian Shea praised the games for their captivating battle mechanics and sense of exploration. Similarly, Casey DeFreitas of IGN praised their engaging gameplay, complemented by compelling battle and exploration experiences. Writing for GameSpot, Kallie Plagge praised the dynamic exploration aspect and streamlined gameplay. Sword and Shield's lack of depth and innovation were criticized. In Eurogamer, Chris Tapsell criticised the games for their lack of depth, absence of complex dungeons and intricate lore, limited exploration option, and a restricted Pokédex, creating an illusion of scale and ambition that ultimately fails to provide a satisfying Pokémon experience of depth and substance that characterized previous iterations. In their GQ review, James Grebey and Tom Philip criticised their lack of challenge, depth, and innovation, expressing disappointment in the games' execution and their failure to fully utilize the capabilities of the Switch. Mack Ashworth of GameRevolution cited the subpar visuals and mediocre story execution, and he compared the games' underperformed, inferior visuals to other top Switch games. Sales In Japan, Sword and Shield sold two million copies during their first three days on sale, surpassing Super Smash Bros. Ultimate as the fastest-selling Switch games in that region. In the US, they sold more than two million copies in their opening weekend. During its opening weekend, Sword and Shield had sold more than six million copies worldwide, surpassing Super Smash Bros. Ultimate as the fastest-selling Switch games. As of June 2023, the games had sold million copies worldwide, becoming the second best-selling titles in the Pokémon video game series, behind Pokémon Red and Blue. Awards Notes References External links 2019 video games Game Freak games Japanese role-playing video games Multiplayer and single-player video games Nintendo Switch games Nintendo Switch-only games Sword and Shield Role-playing video games Video game sequels Video games scored by Toby Fox Video games set in the United Kingdom Video games about size change Video game controversies Video games developed in Japan Video games with gender-selectable protagonists Video games scored by Go Ichinose Video games with alternative versions Video games with expansion packs Video games with customizable avatars

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%A0%EC%8A%A4%20%EC%A0%84%EB%B3%B4%20%EC%82%AC%EA%B1%B4

엠스 전보 사건

엠스 전보 사건(EMS電報事件, , , )은 프로이센의 군주 빌헬름 1세가 자신과 독일 주재 프랑스 대사 사이에 있었던 일을 프로이센 수상 비스마르크에게 알리는 목적의 내부 전보를 비스마르크가 의도적으로 편집하여 세간에 공표한 사건이다. 스페인 왕위 계승 문제와 얽혀서 불거졌으며 이후 프로이센-프랑스 전쟁의 직접적인 원인이 되었다. 이사벨 2세를 축출하며 들어선 스페인 혁명정부는 프로이센 빌헬름 1세의 친척 레오폴트 공에게 왕위를 제안하였다. 이 소식을 접한 프랑스는 강력히 항의했다. 자국 영토가 스페인과 독일에 둘러쌓여 안보가 위태로워지기 때문이었다. 레오폴트 공은 스페인 왕위 계승을 거절했다. 그러나 비스마르크는 이를 프랑스와 전쟁을 하기위한 좋은 기회라 판단했고 수락발표를 하였다. 프랑스가 다시 항의하자 빌헬름 1세는 철회의사를 밝혔다. 그러나 프랑스는 1870년 7월 자국대사를 엠스에 보내 철회사실에 대해 서면보장을 요구하였고 외교결례에 대해 불쾌해진 빌헬름 1세는 이미 종료된 사안이라는 통보와 함께 대사접견을 거절한다. 또한 이 사실을 수상에게 전보로 통보했는데 비스마르크는 언론발표시 전보의 내용을 일부 왜곡했다. 신문을 통해 사실이 알려지자 프로이센은 프랑스의 외교결례에 분노했고 프랑스는 자국대사를 모욕한 빌헬름 1세에 대해 분노했다. 양국 국민감정이 격해지며 전쟁이 벌어졌는데 프랑스가 대패하여 나폴레옹 3세는 폐위 당하고 프로이센은 통일 독일제국을 수립하였다. 경과 스페인 왕위 계승 문제 1868년 9월 스페인에서 후안 프림(Juan Prim y Prats) 장군이 쿠데타를 일으키자 정권에 대한 불만이 터져 각지에서도 반란이 잇따랐고 이는 혁명으로 파급되었다. 군의 지지를 받지 못했던 이사벨 2세는 프랑스로 망명했다. 이후 스페인은 1869년 1월 처음으로 보통선거를 실시하여 의회를 구성한 뒤 헌법을 공포하여 입헌군주제를 도입했다. 하지만 혁명가들 사이에서는 공화정 수립을 요구하는 목소리가 있어 신정부는 새로운 국왕을 한시라도 빨리 선출하는 것이 중요한 과제가 되었다. 이사벨 2세는 자신의 아들 알폰소 12세에게 양위한다는 뜻을 밝혔지만 스페인 신정부는 이를 인정하지 않아 왕위 계승 문제가 발생했다. 스페인 신정부는 종교 개혁 이후에도 가톨릭을 신봉하던 호엔촐레른지크마링겐가의 레오폴트 공작(Leopold von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen)을 염두에 두고 있었고 본가인 호엔촐레른가도 이를 지지했다. 하지만 프랑스는 자국의 동쪽과 남쪽에 호엔촐레른가가 다스리는 국가가 등장하는 것을 경계하여 프로이센에게 강력하게 항의 하며 거부할 것을 요구했다. 프로이센 국왕 빌헬름 1세와 레오폴트 모두 스페인 왕위에 큰 관심이 없어 7월 12일 레오폴트가 정식으로 왕위를 거절한다는 성명을 발표했다. 엠스 전보 사건 하지만 프랑스는 여기에 만족하지 않고 앞으로도 호엔촐레른가가 스페인 왕위를 차지하지 않겠다는 약속을 문서화 해줄 것을 프로이센에 요구했다. 당시 빌헬름 1세는 바트엠스에서 요양 중이었는데 프랑스는 이곳에 뱅상 베네디티(Vincent, Count Benedetti)를 대사로 파견해 빌헬름 1세를 알현토록 했다. 하지만 빌헬름 1세는 이미 거절했음에도 불구하고 프랑스가 이와 같은 요구를 하는 것은 무례한 것이라며 거절하고 이 사실을 수상 오토 폰 비스마르크에게 알렸다. 전보를 받은 비스마르크는 이를 정치적으로 이용할 생각을 하여 내용의 일부를 의도적으로 생략해 무례한 프랑스 대사가 앞으로도 스페인 왕위를 노리지 말 것을 강요했고 빌헬름 1세가 강하게 물리쳤다고 편집했다. 그리곤 이 수정된 전보를 7월 14일 각국의 신문에 공표했다. 프로이센은 프랑스 대사의 무례한 태도와 무리한 요구에 격분했고 프랑스는 자국 대사를 물리친 프로이센 국왕의 태도에 분노하여 양국 간에 적개심이 발생하고 여론은 전쟁까지 요구하게 되었다. 반전 여론이 존재했으나 대세는 전쟁 쪽으로 흘러갔으며 7월 15일 각의를 통해 19일 프랑스가 먼저 선전포고를 하면서 프로이센-프랑스 전쟁이 일어나게 되었다. 사건에 관해 독일의 통일을 위해 프랑스와의 충돌이 불가피하다고 생각했던 비스마르크는 사전에 전쟁에 필요한 인프라를 정비하고 프로이센이 선전포고 받았을 경우 중립을 지키거나 협력할 것을 각국으로부터 사전에 약속을 받아냈다. 이러한 점에서 엠스 전보 사건은 비스마르크가 팠던 함정에 프랑스가 속아넘어갔다는 의견이 있다. 프랑스는 독일과 호엔촐레른-스페인에 둘러쌓이게 되는 사태에 지나치게 민감하게 반응했으며 레오폴트가 왕위를 순순히 포기하자 이를 자국의 군사력의 승리라고 과신한 면도 있었다. 하지만 당시 프로이센은 이미 프랑스의 군사력·공업력을 뛰어넘었는데 이를 제대로 직시하지 못했고 프로이센-프랑스 전쟁을 통해 독일이 통일을 이루게 되었으니 당시 프랑스 황제였던 나폴레옹 3세의 치명적인 외교 실수라고 할 수 있다. 같이 보기 프로이센-프랑스 전쟁 각주 프로이센 왕국 프랑스 제2제국 1870년 유럽 독일-프랑스 관계 프로이센-프랑스 전쟁 외교 사건 날조 전보 프랑스의 악희 1870년 문서 오토 폰 비스마르크 1870년 7월

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ems%20Dispatch

Ems Dispatch

The Ems Dispatch (, ), sometimes called the Ems Telegram, was published on 13 July 1870; it incited the Second French Empire to declare war on the Kingdom of Prussia on 19 July 1870, starting the Franco-Prussian War. The actual dispatch was an internal telegram sent by Heinrich Abeken from Prussian King Wilhelm I's vacationing site at Ems to Otto von Bismarck in Berlin, describing demands made by the French ambassador concerning the Spanish succession. Bismarck, the chancellor (head of government) of the North German Confederation, released a statement to the press, stirring up emotions in both France and Germany. The name referred to Bad Ems, a resort spa east of Koblenz on the Lahn river, then in Hesse-Nassau, a new possession of Prussia. Background The Austro-Prussian War, from 16 June to 23 August 1866, which involved south and north German states on both sides as well as the emerging Italy, increased Prussia's power. Austria was defeated in the key Battle of Königgrätz (or Sadowa) on 3 July 1866. The preliminary Peace of Nikolsburg, 26 July, was followed by the Peace of Prague, 23 August. Bismarck thus managed to expel Austria from the German Confederation, to set up and dominate the North German Confederation (north of the Main) and to secure Prussian territorial gains. Hanover, Schleswig-Holstein, Nassau and Hesse-Cassel, and Frankfurt were incorporated into Prussia, whose territory expanded thus by nearly a quarter and its population by more than 4 million to roughly 24 million, which was still less than France's 38 million. France did not take part in the war, which was brief but altered the European balance of power, and did not gain territories or prestige. French demands for a revanche pour Sadova ("revenge for Sadowa") took root. In early 1870, the German Prince Leopold, of the Roman Catholic cadet branch Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, had been offered the vacant Spanish throne. French Emperor Napoleon III and his government voiced concern over a possible Spanish alliance with the Protestant House of Hohenzollern, which ruled the Kingdom of Prussia, protested against the offer and hinted at war. Following the protests by France, Leopold had withdrawn his acceptance on 11 July 1870, which was already considered a diplomatic defeat for Prussia. The French were still not satisfied and demanded further commitments, especially a guarantee by the Prussian king that no member of any branch of his Hohenzollern family would ever be a candidate for the Spanish throne. Incident On 13 July 1870, King Wilhelm I of Prussia, on his morning stroll in the Kurpark in Ems, was stopped by Count Vincent Benedetti, the French ambassador to Prussia since 1864. Benedetti had been instructed by his superior, Foreign Minister Agenor, duc de Gramont, to present the French demand that the king should guarantee that he would never again permit the candidacy of a Hohenzollern prince to the Spanish throne. The meeting was informal and took place on the promenade of the Kursaal with the King's entourage at a discreet distance. Politely and in a friendly manner, "with the courtesy that never failed him", the King refused to bind himself to any course of action into the indefinite future. After their exchange, "the two departed coolly." Heinrich Abeken, Privy Legation Councillor of the North German Confederation's Foreign Office, wrote an account of the event for Otto von Bismarck in Berlin. Wilhelm described Benedetti as "annoyingly persistent". The King asked Bismarck to release an account of the events. Bismarck had full liberty to inform the press in a suitable way; it was not his task to publish Abeken's original report. Bismarck decided to use some of Abeken's wording for his own press release. He removed Wilhelm's conciliatory phrases and emphasised the real issue. The French had made certain demands under threat of war, and Wilhelm had refused them. That was a clear statement of the facts. Certainly, Bismarck's text, released on the evening of the same day (13 July) to the media and foreign embassies, gave the impression both that Benedetti was rather more demanding and that the King was exceedingly abrupt. It was designed to give the French the impression that the King had insulted Benedetti; likewise, the Germans interpreted the modified dispatch as Benedetti insulting the King. Bismarck had viewed the worsening relations with France with open satisfaction. If war had to come, then better sooner than later. His press release, he assured his friends, "would have the effect of a red rag on the Gallic [French] bull." The document was then to be presented as the cause of the war. Text Sent by Heinrich Abeken at Ems under King Wilhelm's Instruction to Bismarck. Abeken's message His Majesty the King writes to me: Count Benedetti intercepted me on the promenade to demand of me, finally in a very importunate manner, that I should authorize him to telegraph at once that I bound myself in perpetuity never again to give my consent if the Hohenzollerns renewed their candidature. I rejected this demand somewhat sternly [ ], as it is neither right nor possible to undertake engagements of this kind à tout jamais. Naturally, I told him that I had not yet received any news and, since he had been earlier informed concerning Paris and Madrid than I was, he must surely see that my government was not concerned in the matter. His Majesty later received a message from the Duke. As His Majesty had told Count Benedetti that he was expecting news from the Duke, he personally, in view of the above-mentioned importunity, upon the advice of Count Eulenburg and myself, decided not to receive Count Benedetti any more, but merely to have him informed by an adjutant: that His Majesty had now received from the Duke confirmation of the news which Benedetti had already had from Paris and had nothing further to say to the ambassador. His Majesty suggests to Your Excellency, that Benedetti's new demand and its rejection might well be communicated both to our ambassadors and to the Press. Bismarck's communiqué After the news of the renunciation of the Prince von Hohenzollern had been communicated to the Imperial French government by the Royal Spanish government, the French Ambassador in Ems made a further demand on His Majesty the King that he should authorize him to telegraph to Paris that His Majesty the King undertook for all time never again to give his assent should the Hohenzollerns once more take up their candidature. His Majesty the King thereupon refused to receive the Ambassador again and had the latter informed by the Adjutant of the day that His Majesty had no further communication to make to the Ambassador. French translation The French translation by the agency Havas did not translate the German word , which refers to a high-ranking aide de camp, but in French, it describes only a non-commissioned officer (), which implied that the King had deliberately insulted the ambassador by not choosing an officer to carry the message to him. That was the version printed by most newspapers the following day, which happened to be July 14 (Bastille Day), setting the tone, letting the French believe that the king had insulted their ambassador before the latter could tell his story. Aftermath France's mistaken attitude of its own position carried matters far beyond what was necessary, and France mobilized. Further improper translations and misinterpretations of the dispatch in the press made excited crowds in Paris demand war, just as Bismarck had anticipated. The Ems Dispatch had also rallied German national feeling. It was no longer Prussia alone; South German particularism was now cast aside. For the French declaration of war the dispatch and the message to the press was rather irrelevant. Napoléon had already decided to go to war to stabilize his regime and keep its dominant position in Europe. This intention did not depend on Bismarck's action. France went to war because it believed that it would win. Contrary to popular belief, Bismarck did not prepare everything long before (he himself had contributed to that myth). As a good politician, he tried to keep several options open; when the opportunity showed up, he published the message to the press with the intention to stir up the emotions. Benedetti, the messenger for the Duc de Gramont's demands for pointless guarantees (the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen family had withdrawn Prince Leopold's candidature on 11 July 1870 with Wilhelm's "entire and unreserved approval"), became an unseen bit-player; his own dispatches to Paris no longer mattered. In the legislative chamber, by an overwhelming majority, the votes for war credits were passed. France declared war on 19 July 1870, starting the Franco-Prussian War. Following the French defeat in 1871, the Duc de Gramont attempted to throw the blame for the failures of French diplomacy on Benedetti, who published his version of the events in his defence in Ma mission en Prusse (Paris, 1871). See also Schnaebele incident German Unification Notes References Crankshaw, Edward. Bismarck. The Viking Press. 1981. Howard, Michael. The Franco-Prussian War. New York: Dorset Press. 1990 (originally published in 1961). Koch, H. W. A History of Prussia. New York: Dorset Press. 1987 (originally published in 1978). Taylor, A. J. P. Bismarck, The Man and the Statesman. New York: Vintage Books. 1967. Further reading Both Ems Dispatch versions in their German original 1870 in France Otto von Bismarck Franco-Prussian War Telegrams Hoaxes in France Diplomatic incidents 19th-century hoaxes July 1870 events 1870 documents

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%95%ED%98%95%EC%84%9C

박형서

박형서(1972년~)는 대한민국의 소설가이다. 사소한 일상의 서사에서 거대한 문명사적 서사에 이르기까지 스케일에 구애되지 않는 이야기꾼으로서 기상천외한 상상을 실험적 서사 형식으로 담아내는 데 뛰어난 능력을 보여준다. 유머, 철학, 문학사, 과학, 정신분석, 신화, 에세이, 논문 등의 다양한 지적 담론들을 능수능란하게 구사하여 현실에 얽매이지 않는 순정한 허구 세계를 창조해왔다. 그리하여 기이한 상상과 서늘한 유머, 지적 담론이 어우러진 소설들을 통해 이 시대에서 이야기와 소설의 가치, 인류사에서 종교의 의미와 같은 인문학적 질문을 제기하고 있다. 생애 1972년 강원도 춘천에서 태어났다. 여섯 살 때 편도염에 의한 것으로 추정되는 청력 상실을 경험한다. 조금씩 청력을 되찾아 다시 소리를 듣는 일에 적응하기까지 대략 두 해 동안이 걸렸으며, 그 때문에 초등학교 일학년 때는 전혀, 이학년 때는 거의 글을 읽거나 쓰지 못했다고 한다. 그 후에도 일시적인 청력 상실 증세를 앓았고, 2007년경 받은 정밀 신체검사에서는 향후 몇 년 안에 청력을 완전히 상실할 것이라는 진단을 받기도 했다. 공립학교 교사였던 부모를 따라 전학을 여러 번 했는데-나중에 아버지는 춘천교대 교수가 되고 총장을 역임함-, 원주에서는 소설가 이기호와 같은 학교를 다니기도 했다. 초등학교 3학년 때 서울로 전학을 왔으며, 어느 신문사에서 주최한 어린이 글짓기대회에서 우승을 한다. 이학년 때까지 한글을 제대로 쓰지도 못했기에 더욱 극적인 경험이었을 이 수상을 계기로 그는 글을 쓰는 사람이 되기로 작정을 했다고 한다. 학창 시절 내내 여러 아이들과 끊임없이 싸움을 했다고 한다. 한양대학교 국문과에 진학했으며, 학기 내내 산소용접, 주유소 주유원, 불법 전단지 배포 등의 아르바이트를 해 방학마다 외국으로 여행을 다녔다. 병역과 장기여행 등의 세 번의 휴학 끝에 1999년에 대학을 졸업하였다. 고려대학교 인문정보대학원 문예창작학전공 석사학위(2003), 고려대학교 응용어문정보학 박사학위(2010)를 받았다. 2011년부터 고려대학교 미디어문예창작학과 교수로 재직하고 있다. 대학 때 자신이 창작한 소설에 일련번호를 붙여 저장했는데, 1번은 「윤철의 사랑」이었고 졸업하던 해에 65번을 썼다고 한다. 신춘문예에서 3년 연속 고배를 마시자 73번인 「사막에서」를 인생의 마지막 소설이라 여겼는데, 오래전 투고하고 잊었던 소설이 『현대문학』에 실리게 된다 극적으로 등단한다. 소설집으로 『토끼를 기르기 전에 알아두어야 할 것들』(문학과지성사, 2003), 『자정의 픽션』(문학과지성사, 2006), 『핸드메이드 픽션』(문학동네, 2011), 『끄라비』(문학과지성사, 2014). 『낭만주의』(문학동네, 2018)가 있으며, 중편소설로 『당신의 노후』(현대문학, 2018)가 있고, 장편소설로 『새벽의 나나』(문학과지성사, 2010)가 있다. 2010년 제18회 대산문학상, 2012년 제44회 오늘의 젊은 예술가상, 2016년 제10회 김유정문학상을 수상하는 등 흥미진진한 이야기와 실험적 형식을 결합한 독특한 소설 세계를 갱신해나가고 있는 작가 가운데 한 사람이 되었다. 작품 세계 박형서는 사소한 일상의 서사에서 거대한 문명사적 서사에 이르기까지 스케일에 구애되지 않는 이야기꾼으로서의 면모를 보여준다. 그는 초기 소설에서부터 기상천외한 상상을 실험적 서사 형식으로 담아낸 것으로 주목을 받았다. 그의 소설 세계에서는 사건이나 행동의 인과성이 해체되고, 핍진성이나 개연성이 결여되어 있는 경우가 흔하다. 말하자면 미메시스적 충동보다는 판타지의 충동이 월등하다. 이처럼 현실에 얽매이지 않은 순정의 허구이자, 인과성 없는 여담들의 증식으로 이루어져 있다는 의미에서 그의 소설은 편집증적 서사로 진단되기도 한다. 실제로 작가 박형서는 유머, 철학, 문학사, 과학, 정신분석, 신화, 에세이, 논문 등의 다양한 담론들을 능수능란하게 구사하고, 적재적소에 배치하는 방식으로 이야기를 전개한다. 가령 소설 전체가 논문의 형식을 취한 「「사랑 손님과 어머니」의 음란성 연구」는 문학 논문의 익숙한 어휘와 관례들을 패러디하여 지적 유희로 가득한 허구 세계를 만들어낸다. 그가 스스로 ‘자정의 픽션’이라고 명명한 이러한 서사적 실험은 현재의 문학장에서 ‘소설’이란 과연 어떠한 것이고, 그것이 어떻게 갱신될 수 있는지에 대한 물음에서 나온 것이라 할 수 있다. 박형서의 초기작들에 짙게 배어있는 묵시록적 상상력이나 타나토스에의 충동은 점차 인류의 문명사와 우주 진화론에 이르는 광대한 스케일의 이야기로 확장되고, 유머와 멜랑콜리, 치밀한 논증이 정교하게 결합된 세련된 스타일의 문체로 진화해간다. 이처럼 기이한 상상과 서늘한 유머, 지적 담론이 어우러진 그의 소설은 세상과 인간을 새로운 시선으로 바라보게 하는 묵직한 질문들을 담고 있다. 장편소설 『새벽의 나나』는 한국 남자 레오가 아프리카로 여행하기 위해 들른 태국에서 최고의 매춘부 플로이와 만나 뜻밖에도 거리의 이방인으로 지낸 이야기를 들려준다. 이 소설은 레오와 플로이의 연애사에 초점을 맞추기보다는 그들의 관계를 틀로 삼아 수많은 여담을 수용하여 여행을 닮은 인간의 삶에 대해서 이야기한다. 이국의 한 거리에서 만나게 되는 수많은 사람들의 복잡한 얽힘, 무수한 시간적 겹침과 회귀와 초월을 제시함으로써 우리의 삶은 매순간 돌아갈 수 없는 여행과 같다는 통찰을 전해준다. 박형서의 최근작들은 보다 넓은 시야로 인간 사회의 전체 흐름과 소설의 자리를 관찰하고 있다는 특징을 보여준다. 「개기일식」은 개연성과 인과를 내세운 소설로 공공의 적과 투쟁해야 했던 시대를 지나, 모방이 아닌 왜곡이야말로 예술의 본질임을 주창한 시대 또한 저물었을 때, 소설은 어디로 나가야 하는가를 묻고 있다. 작가 스스로 제기한 그러한 질문에 대한 암중모색의 하나로 특히 주목되는 것은 「티마이오스」, 「Q. E. D.」, 「거기 있나요」 등의 독특한 과학소설의 창작이다. 작가가 “아마추어 수학자”를 자임하며 썼고, 실제 수학과 교수에게 검토를 받았다는 「Q. E. D.」는 ‘첨단’ 수학의 전문용어들이 서사의 담화를 현란하게 수놓고 있다. 「거기 있나요」는 인류의 진화가 어떠한 과정을 거쳐서 이루어졌는지를 양자역학적 공간에서 재현한다는 독특한 상상을 보여준다. 양자물리학에 근거한 흥미진진한 상상을 통해서 인류 역사에 나타난 폭력과 저항의 진화론, 그리고 종교의 의미에 대한 깊은 통찰과 질문을 동시에 전해주는 작품이다. 타고난 이야기꾼이자 첨단 과학에 대한 왕성한 소화력과 인문학적 통찰력을 두루 갖춘 작가 박형서의 소설 세계는 자기 갱신을 거듭하며 계속하여 진화하고 있다. 주요 작품 소설집 『토끼를 기르기 전에 알아두어야 할 것들』, 문학과지성사, 2003. 『자정의 픽션』, 문학과지성사, 2006. 『핸드메이드 픽션』, 문학동네, 2011. 『끄라비』, 문학과지성사, 2014. 『낭만주의』, 문학동네, 2018. 중편소설집 『당신의 노후』, 현대문학, 2018. 장편소설 『새벽의 나나』, 문학과지성사, 2010. 수상 내역 2010년 제18회 대산문학상 수상 (수상작 『새벽의 나나』) 2012년 제44회 오늘의 젊은 예술가상 수상, 2016년 제10회 김유정문학상 수상 (수상작 「거기 있나요」) 같이 보기 비평 권혁웅, 「박형서 프로젝트」, 박형서, 『핸드메이드 픽션』, 문학동네, 2011. 김대산, 「소설의 영혼 : 박형서 『새벽의 나나』의 주변 혹은 중심에서」, 『문학과사회』23:4, 2010년 겨울호. 김형중, 「소설 이전, 혹은 이후의 소설」, 박형서, 『자정의 픽션』, 문학과지성사, 2006. 노대원, 「나는 「박형서론」을 이렇게 쓸 것이다 : 박형서를 여행하고 이야기하기 위한 미완의 계획서」, 『문학동네』72, 2012년 가을호. 노대원, 「소설 실험실, 인생 실험실 : 박형서 소설의 알레고리」, 『작가세계』29:1, 2017년 봄호. 박대현, 「‘박형서’라는, 젊거나 늙은 모나드(monad)」, 『오늘의 문예비평』67, 2007. 11. 오윤호, 「불온한 예언자가 중얼거린 미래의 말들 : 박형서론」, 『문학과사회』, 2006년 겨울호. 우찬제, 「악몽의 탈주와 혼돈의 수사학」, 박형서, 『토끼를 기르기 전에 알아두어야 할 것들』, 문학과지성사, 2003. 대담, 좌담, 인터뷰, 에세이 등 박형서, 「알레고리 소설 연구」, 고려대학교 석사 논문, 2003. 박형서, 「김승옥 소설 플롯의 구조와 의미」, 고려대학교 박사 논문, 2010. 박형서, 「소설가 박형서의 이야기의 세계」, 『레이디경향』, 2011년 10월호, 보러가기 박형서, 「서술의 신빙성 연구」, 『우리어문연구』52, 2015. 박형서, 「서사의 장르규약 위반과 그 함의」, 『어문논집』78, 2016. 1972년 출생 대한민국의 소설가 한양대학교 동문 살아있는 사람

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park%20Hyoung-su

Park Hyoung-su

Park Hyoung-su (born August 11, 1972) is a male South Korean writer of fiction born in Chuncheon, Gangwan-do, South Korea. His short story Krabi, named after the Thai district, has been published in a bilingual edition in France. Life Park was born in Chuncheon, Gangwon-do in 1972 and graduated from Korea University graduate school, with a Ph.D. in 2010 from Korea University Graduate School with a Masters in 2003, and from Hanyang University, a Bachelor of Korean literature in 1999. Park made his literary debut in 2000 through the Hyundae Munhak. He currently teaches creative writing at Korea University. Work Park is an unusual novelist for a Korean, often placing his works outside of Korea, or finding their genesis outside of Korea. and Korean critics have had a difficult time pigeonholing him, various describing him as a "storyteller", "metamorphic", and "self-aware", among other terms. LIST Magazine has summarized Park's role as a modern novelist: "The novel as a modern invention is what many young Korean writers are pondering as they attempt to redefine the landscape of modern Korean literature. Out of these writers, Park Hyoung-su stands out for the perception, intelligence, and playful imagination so evident in his work. At the moment, his only work translated into English is Arpan (ASIA Publisher)) which has been well reviewed at www.ktlit.com as "another shock to a habitual reader of Korean literature in translation as it treads overseas as well as into cultural relativism, and the position of plagiarism/copying in Korea.". Awards 2016: The 10th Kim you jeong literary Award 2012: Today's Young Artist Award 2010: The 18th annual Daesan literary fiction Award Works in English Arpan (Asia Publishers, 2014) Works in Korean 뺨에 묻은 보석 마음산책 2021. 06. 10 여기 우리 마주 (2021 현대문학상 소설집) 현대문학 2021 마음의 부력 (2021 이상문학상 작품집) 문학사상사 2021 낭만주의 문학동네 2018. 07. 11 당신의 노후 현대문학 2018 산책자의 행복 (2016,이효석 문학상 수상작품집) 생각정거장 2016 거기 있나요 (2016 김유정문학상 제10회 수상작품집) 은행나무 2016 작가와 고양이 폭스코너 2016 베를린 필 (2016 제61회 현대문학상 수상소설집) 현대문학 2016 끄라비 문학과지성사 2014.05.08 빈집 (제12회 황순원 문학상 수상작품집) 문예중앙 2012.10.25 핸드메이드 픽션 문학동네 2011.12.05 부메랑 (2011 제11회 황순원문학상 수상작품집) 문예중앙 2011.10.20 작가가 선정한 오늘의 소설 (2012) 작가 2012.03 작가가 선정한 오늘의 소설 (2011) 작가 2011.03.15 새벽의 나나 (제18회 대산문학상 수상작) 문학과지성사 2010.05.13 사랑을 믿다 (2008년 제32회 이상문학상 작품집) 문학사상사 2008.01.18 자정의 픽션 문학과지성사 2006.10.30 토끼를 기르기 전에 알아두어야 할 것들 문학과지성사 2003.12.22 References 1972 births South Korean novelists Living people Academic staff of Korea University People from Chuncheon

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%8C%EB%82%98%EC%95%BC%20%EB%AC%B8%ED%99%94

얌나야 문화

얌나야 문화(Yamnaya culture)는 기원전 3400년에서 기원전 2600년경 유럽의 도나우강과 우랄산맥 사이의 광대한 지역을 걸쳐서 존재한 인도유럽인 최초의 청동기 문화를 말한다. 물질적 문화는 아파나시에보 문화와 매우 가까우며 구성원들의 유전적 특징도 구별이 어려울 정도로 가깝다. 이들은 군장국가 체제의 반-유목민 문화를 가지고 있었으며 바퀴가 달린 마차를 사용했다. 또한 이들은 유럽과 중앙아시아에 걸친 당대의 문화적 집단들, 곧 유럽의 전부문화, 벨비커 문화와 중앙아시아의 신타시타 문화, 안드로노보 문화, 스루브나야 문화와도 여러 측면에서 연관성이 깊었다. 일부 학자들은 이들을 통틀어 쿠르간 문화로 묶어 부르기도 한다. 오늘날 이들은 후기 원시 인도유럽인과 동일한 집단으로 추정되고 있으며, 얌나야 문화가 유래한 폰토스-카스피 스텝 지역은 인도유럽어족이 유래한 원향으로 가장 유력한 후보이다. 특징 주거의 흔적들은 유목민들의 야영지가 발견되었으며 돌로 쌓아놓은 성채가 매우 많이 발견되었다. 어떤 장소는 2미터 높이의 돌로 쌓은 성벽이 삼각형 모양의 마을을 지키는 모양의 유적이 있다. 승마용의 목축을 많이 하였고 가축은 지방에 따라서 소를 주로 키우거나 양이나 염소를 키우기도 하였다. 말을 키우는 것이 정착되어 있는 것이 얌나야 문화의 큰 특징으로서 말의 뼈는 주거지와 묘지에도 발견되며 묘지에서 발견된 말은 장례식을 할 때 희생당한 것으로 보인다. 북부의 삼림지대와 계곡에서는 목축보다는 농업이 많이 행하여졌으며 묘지에는 말에 끌게 하여 밭을 가는 쟁기도 발견되었다. 말 그리고 사람들의 가족들이 탈 수 있는 소가 끄는 우차(牛車), 넓은 초원에 사육하기 적합한 종류의 가축들, 낙타와 사이가 산양을 시작으로 스텝 지역 심층부에 생식하는 동물의 뼈들, 스텝 지역 심층부에 자주 찾아볼 수 있는 종류의 가족 묘지 등등의 발견물에서부터 얌나야 문화는 반유목식 목축의 최초 시기(時期) 문화 중에 하나라고 주장된다. 묘소는 쿠르간 양식으로서, 최초에 묻힌 유체가 먼저 있고 그 쿠르간을 더욱 크게 증축하여 새로운 유체를 이장하는 방식으로 되어 있다. 기원 얌나야 문화의 기원은 볼가강 중상류의 흐발린스크 문화(Khvalinsk culture)와 드네프르 강 중상류 지역의 스레드니 스토크 문화(Sredny Stog culture)에 있다고 보고 있다. 승마용의 말과 가족 이동용 소의 우차(牛車)에서 보이듯이 이동은 매우 용이하게 가능했다고 추측되며 광대한 지역에 얌나야 문화가 펄쳐진 것은 이런 이동이 가능했던 이유로 생각된다. 얌나야 문화 양식의 묘지는 동쪽에서는 우랄산맥 동쪽 기슭에서도 발견되는 것으로 보아 알타이 산맥과 예니세이강 지역에 존재했던 아파나시에보 문화(Afanasevo culture)의 유래가 얌나야 문화와 그 주변의 유럽 스텝 지대에서부터 기원했다는 것을 알 수가 있다. 또한 서쪽에서는 불가리아, 세르비아, 헝가리에 걸친 도나우강 하구(河口) 지대 일대에 펼쳐져 있다. 인도유럽인들과의 관계 이렇게 광대한 범위에 걸쳐서 펼쳐져 있는 것과 그 주변 지역이 항상 크게 변동되어 있는 것, 말과 우차(牛車)같은 생활문화양식으로부터 얌나야 문화는 인도유럽인 초기의 매우 중요한 문화 중에 하나라는 추측이 널리 인정되어 있다. 중앙아시아의 스텝 지역에서 정치적인 힘을 얻은 인도유럽인 집단들이 점점 유럽 쪽으로 진출하였다. 그리고 그들이 도착한 곳인 동유럽 스텝 지대에서 넓게 발전한 스텝 문화이다. 이걸로 쿠르간 가설의 문제점이었던 것들이 해소되면서 구상 안포라 문화와 함께 얌나야 문화가 원시 인도유럽인 시대에 유럽에 존재했던 매우 중요한 문화라는 것이 널리 인식되었다. 유전학 상염색체 분석 연구에 의하면 얌나야 문화를 이루던 사람들은 동유럽 수렵채집민(EHG)과 캅카스 수렵채집민(CHG) 집단이 비슷한 비율로 혼혈된 "서부 스텝 유목민" 집단에 일부 초기 유럽 농경민(EEF) 집단이 섞여 성립하였을 것이다. EHG 집단과 CHG 집단 간의 혼혈은 폰토스-카스피 스텝 서부쯤에서 약 기원전 5천년 경에 일어났고, 그 후 스텝의 남부 지역에서 EEF 집단과의 혼혈이 일어났을 것으로 추정된다. 얌나야인에게서 가장 흔히 발견되는 Y-DNA 하플로그룹은 R1b로서, 오늘날 서유럽인에게서도 가장 흔하게 나타난다. 가설에 의하면 성인이 유당을 분해할 수 있는 유전자는 얌나야인의 유입과 함께 유럽으로 들어왔을 가능성이 있다. 이주와 확장 유럽 얌나야 문화와 관련된 이주는 인도유럽인의 확장과 연관성을 보인다. Haak et al. (2015)에서 전부문화와 연관된 독일 지역의 고대 유골을 분석한 결과, 상염색체 유전자의 73%가 얌나야인으로부터 물려받은 것으로 계측되었다. 같은 연구에 의하면 얌나야인 조상은 현대 중유럽, 북유럽인 DNA의 38.8–50.4%, 남유럽인 DNA의 18.5–32.6%(사르데냐인과 시칠리아인에게서는 크게 낮음)에 기여했을 것으로 보인다. 또한 동유럽 수렵채집민(EHG)을 통해 "고대 북유라시아인" 계통(말타-부레트 문화 연관 인구)과도 연관이 있을 것으로 추정되며, 이 유전적 구성은 현대 유럽인에는 존재하나 청동기 이전의 유럽에는 존재하지 않던 것이다. 중앙아시아와 남아시아 얌나야인의 유전적 계통은 동쪽으로의 역이주(back-migration)를 통해 신타시타 문화를 거쳐 안드로노보 문화 인구에 영향을 끼쳤으며, 이것은 현대 남아시아인에게서도 그 흔적이 발견되는 경위라고 추정되고 있다. 각주 같이 보기 원시 인도유럽인 인도유럽어족 쿠르간 가설 인도이란어파 전부문화 안드로노보 문화 인도유럽인 원시 인도유럽 신화 인도유럽어족 인도유럽족 유럽의 역사 유럽의 청동기 문화 중앙아시아의 역사 기원전 제4천년기 인도유럽 문화

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamnaya%20culture

Yamnaya culture

The Yamnaya culture or the Yamna culture, also known as the Pit Grave culture or Ochre Grave culture, was a late Copper Age to early Bronze Age archaeological culture of the region between the Southern Bug, Dniester, and Ural rivers (the Pontic–Caspian steppe), dating to 3300–2600 BCE. It was discovered by Vasily Gorodtsov following his archaeological excavations near the Donets River in 1901–1903. Its name derives from its characteristic burial tradition: (romanization: ) is a Russian adjective that means 'related to pits ()', as these people used to bury their dead in tumuli (kurgans) containing simple pit chambers. The Yamnaya economy was based upon animal husbandry, fishing, and foraging, and the manufacture of ceramics, tools, and weapons. The people of the Yamnaya culture lived primarily as nomads, with a chiefdom system and wheeled carts and wagons that allowed them to manage large herds. They are also closely connected to Final Neolithic cultures, which later spread throughout Europe and Central Asia, especially the Corded Ware people and the Bell Beaker culture, as well as the peoples of the Sintashta, Andronovo, and Srubnaya cultures. Back migration from Corded Ware also contributed to Sintashta and Andronovo. In these groups, several aspects of the Yamnaya culture are present. Yamnaya material culture was very similar to the Afanasevo culture of South Siberia, and the populations of both cultures are genetically indistinguishable. This suggests that the Afanasevo culture may have originated from the migration of Yamnaya groups to the Altai region or, alternatively, that both cultures developed from an earlier shared cultural source. Genetic studies have suggested that the people of the Yamnaya culture can be modelled as a genetic admixture between a population related to Eastern European Hunter-Gatherers (EHG) and people related to hunter-gatherers from the Caucasus (CHG) in roughly equal proportions, an ancestral component which is often named "Steppe ancestry", with additional admixture from Anatolian, Levantine, or Early European farmers. Genetic studies also indicate that populations associated with the Corded Ware, Bell Beaker, Sintashta, and Andronovo cultures derived large parts of their ancestry from the Yamnaya or a closely related population. There is now a rough scholarly consensus that the common ancestor of all Indo-European languages, with the possible exception of Anatolian, originated on the Pontic-Caspian steppe, and this language has been associated with the people of the Yamnaya culture. Additionally, the Pontic-Caspian steppe is currently seen as the most likely candidate for the original homeland (German, Urheimat) of the Proto-Indo-European language, including the ancestor of the Anatolian branch. Origins The Yamnaya culture was defined by Vasily Gorodtsov in order to differentiate it from the Catacomb and Srubnaya cultures that existed in the area, but were considered to be of a later period. Due to the time interval to the Yamnaya culture, and the reliance on archaeological findings, debate as to its origin is ongoing. In 1996, Pavel Dolukhanov suggested that the emergence of the Pit-Grave culture represents a social development of various different local Bronze Age cultures, thus representing "an expression of social stratification and the emergence of chiefdom-type nomadic social structures" which in turn intensified inter-group contacts between essentially heterogeneous social groups. The origin of the Yamnaya culture continues to be debated, with proposals for its origins pointing to both the Khvalynsk and Sredny Stog cultures. The Khvalynsk culture (4700–3800 BC) (middle Volga) and the Don-based Repin culture (–3300 BC) in the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe, and the closely related Sredny Stog culture (–3500 BC) in the western Pontic-Caspian steppe, preceded the Yamnaya culture (3300–2500 BC). Further efforts to pinpoint the location came from Anthony (2007), who suggested that the Yamnaya culture (3300–2600 BC) originated in the Don–Volga area at , preceded by the middle Volga-based Khvalynsk culture and the Don-based Repin culture (–3300 BC), arguing that late pottery from these two cultures can barely be distinguished from early Yamnaya pottery. Earlier continuity from eneolithic but largely hunter-gatherer Samara culture and influences from the more agricultural Dnieper–Donets II are apparent. He argues that the early Yamnaya horizon spread quickly across the Pontic–Caspian steppes between and 3200 BC: Alternatively, Parpola (2015) relates both the Corded ware culture and the Yamnaya culture to the late Trypillia (Tripolye) culture. He hypothesizes that "the Tripolye culture was taken over by PIE speakers by c. 4000 BC," and that in its final phase the Trypillian culture expanded to the steppes, morphing into various regional cultures which fused with the late Sredny Stog (Serednii Stih) pastoralist cultures, which, he suggests, gave rise to the Yamnaya culture. Dmytro Telegin viewed Sredny Stog and Yamna as one cultural continuum and considered Sredny Stog to be the genetic foundation of the Yamna. The Yamnaya culture was succeeded in its western range by the Catacomb culture (2800–2200 BC); in the east, by the Poltavka culture (2700–2100 BC) at the middle Volga. These two cultures were followed by the Srubnaya culture (18th–12th century BC). Characteristics The Yamnaya culture was nomadic or semi-nomadic, with some agriculture practiced near rivers, and a few fortified sites, the largest of which is Mikhaylivka. Characteristic for the culture are the burials in pit graves under kurgans (tumuli), often accompanied with animal offerings. Some graves contain large anthropomorphic stelae, with carved human heads, arms, hands, belts, and weapons. The dead bodies were placed in a supine position with bent knees and covered in ochre. Some kurgans contained "stratified sequences of graves". Kurgan burials may have been rare, and were perhaps reserved for special adults, who were predominantly, but not necessarily, male. Status and gender are marked by grave goods and position, and in some areas, elite individuals are buried with complete wooden wagons. Grave goods are more common in eastern Yamnaya burials, which are also characterized by a higher proportion of male burials and more male-centred rituals than western areas. The Yamnaya culture had and used two-wheeled carts and four-wheeled wagons, which are thought to have been oxen-drawn at this time, and there is evidence that they rode horses. For instance, several Yamnaya skeletons exhibit specific characteristics in their bone morphology that may have been caused by long-term horseriding. Metallurgists and other craftsmen are given a special status in Yamnaya society, and metal objects are sometimes found in large quantities in elite graves. New metalworking technologies and weapon designs are used. Stable isotope ratios of Yamna individuals from the Dnipro Valley suggest the Yamna diet was terrestrial protein based with insignificant contribution from freshwater or aquatic resources. Anthony speculates that the Yamnaya ate meat, milk, yogurt, cheese, and soups made from seeds and wild vegetables, and probably consumed mead. Mallory and Adams suggest that Yamnaya society may have had a tripartite structure of three differentiated social classes, although the evidence available does not demonstrate the existence of specific classes such as priests, warriors, and farmers. Gallery Archaeogenetics According to Jones et al. (2015) and Haak et al. (2015), autosomal tests indicate that the Yamnaya people were the result of a genetic admixture between two different hunter-gatherer populations: distinctive "Eastern Hunter-Gatherers" (EHG), from Eastern Europe, with high affinity to the Mal'ta–Buret' culture or other, closely related people from Siberia and a population of "Caucasus hunter-gatherers" (CHG) who probably arrived from the Caucasus or Iran. Each of those two populations contributed about half the Yamnaya DNA. This admixture is referred to in archaeogenetics as Western Steppe Herder (WSH) ancestry. Admixture between EHGs and CHGs is believed to have occurred on the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe starting around 5,000 BC, while admixture with Early European Farmers (EEF) happened in the southern parts of the Pontic-Caspian steppe sometime later. More recent genetic studies have found that the Yamnaya were a mixture of EHGs, CHGs, and to a lesser degree Anatolian farmers and Levantine farmers, but not EEFs from Europe due to lack of WHG DNA in the Yamnaya. This occurred in two distinct admixture events from West Asia into the Pontic-Caspian steppe. Haplogroup R1b, especially subclades of R1b-M269, is the most common Y-DNA haplogroup found among both the Yamnaya and modern-day Western Europeans. Additionally, a minority are found to belong to haplogroup I2. They are found to belong to a wider variety of mtDNA haplogroups, including U, T, and haplogroups associated with Caucasus Hunter-Gatherers and Early European Farmers. People of the Yamnaya culture are believed to have had mostly brown eye colour, light to intermediate skin, and brown hair colour, with some variation. A 2022 study by Lazaridis et al. found that the typical phenotype among the Yamnaya population was brown eyes, brown hair, and intermediate skin colour. None of the Yamnaya samples were predicted to have either blue eyes or blonde hair, while the people of the Corded Ware culture, which is regarded as to have originated from the Yamnaya people, had a higher proportion of blue eyes and blonde. Some Yamnaya individuals are believed to have carried a mutation to the KITLG gene associated with blond hair, as several individuals with Steppe ancestry are later found to carry this mutation. The Ancient North Eurasian Afontova Gora group, who contributed significant ancestry to Western Steppe Herders, are believed to be the source of this mutation. A study in 2015 found that Yamnaya had the highest ever calculated genetic selection for height of any of the ancient populations tested. It has been hypothesized that an allele associated with lactase persistence (conferring lactose tolerance into adulthood) was brought to Europe from the steppe by Yamnaya-related migrations. The geneticist David Reich has argued that the genetic data supports the likelihood that the people of the Yamnaya culture were a "single, genetically coherent group" who were responsible for spreading many Indo-European languages. Reich's group recently suggested that the source of Anatolian and Indo-European subfamilies of the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language may have been in west Asia and the Yamna were responsible for the dissemination of the latter. Reich also argues that the genetic evidence shows that Yamnaya society was an oligarchy dominated by a small number of elite males. The genetic evidence for the extent of the role of the Yamnaya culture in the spread of Indo-European languages has been questioned by Russian archaeologist Leo Klejn and Balanovsky et al., who note a lack of male haplogroup continuity between the people of the Yamnaya culture and the contemporary populations of Europe. Klejn has also suggested that the autosomal evidence does not support a Yamnaya migration, arguing that Western Steppe Herder ancestry in both contemporary and Bronze Age samples is lowest around the Danube in Hungary, near the western limits of the Yamnaya culture, and highest in Northern Europe, which Klejn argues is the opposite of what would be expected if the geneticists' hypothesis is correct. Language Marija Gimbutas identified the Yamnaya culture with the late Proto-Indo-Europeans (PIE) in her Kurgan hypothesis. The Pontic-Caspian steppe is the strongest candidate for the Urheimat (original homeland) of the Proto-Indo-European language, and evidence from linguistics and genetics suggests that the Yamnaya culture may be the homeland of the Indo-European languages, with the possible exception of the Anatolian languages. According to David W. Anthony, the genetic evidence suggests that the leading clans of the Yamnaya were of EHG (Eastern European hunter-gatherer) and WHG (Western European hunter-gatherer) paternal origin and implies that the Indo-European languages were the result of "a dominant language spoken by EHGs that absorbed Caucasus-like elements in phonology, morphology, and lexicon." It has also been suggested that the PIE language evolved through trade interactions in the circum-Pontic area in the 4th millennium BCE, mediated by the Yamna predecessors in the North Pontic steppe. Yamnaya-related migrations Western Europe Genetic studies have found that Yamnaya autosomal characteristics are very close to the Corded Ware culture people, with up to 75% Yamnaya-like ancestry in the DNA of Corded Ware skeletons from Central and Eastern Europe. Yamnaya–related ancestry is found in the DNA of modern Central, and Northern Europeans (c. 38.8–50.4 %), and is also found in lower levels in present-day Southern Europeans (c. 18.5–32.6 %), Sardinians (c. 2.4–7.1 %), and Sicilians (c. 5.9–11.6 %). Genetic studies also suggest that subclades of Y-DNA haplogroup R-M269 were introduced to Western and Central Europe from the Eastern European steppes after c. 3000 BC together with Yamnaya-related ancestry. Autosomal tests also indicate that the Yamnaya are the vector for "Ancient North Eurasian" admixture into Europe. "Ancient North Eurasian" is the name given in literature to a genetic component that represents descent from the people of the Mal'ta–Buret' culture or a population closely related to them. That genetic component is visible in tests of the Yamnaya people as well as modern-day Europeans. Eastern Europe and Finland In the Baltic, Jones et al. (2017) found that the Neolithic transition – the passage from a hunter-gatherer economy to a farming-based economy – coincided with the arrival en masse of individuals with Yamnaya-like ancestry. This is different from what happened in Western and Southern Europe, where the Neolithic transition was caused by a population that came from Anatolia, with Pontic steppe ancestry being detected from only the late Neolithic onward. Per Haak et al. (2015), the Yamnaya contribution in the modern populations of Eastern Europe ranges from 46.8% among Russians to 42.8% in Ukrainians. Finland has the highest Yamnaya contributions in all of Europe (50.4%). Central and South Asia Studies also point to the strong presence of Yamnaya descent in the current nations of South Asia, especially in groups that are referred to as Indo-Aryans. According to Pathak et al. (2018), the "North-Western Indian & Pakistani" populations (PNWI) showed significant Middle-Late Bronze Age Steppe (Steppe_MLBA) ancestry along with Yamnaya Early-Middle Bronze Age (Steppe_EMBA) ancestry, but the Indo-Europeans of Gangetic Plains and Dravidian people only showed significant Yamnaya (Steppe_EMBA) ancestry and no Steppe_MLBA. The study also noted that ancient south Asian samples had significantly higher Steppe_MLBA than Steppe_EMBA (or Yamnaya). The study identified the Rors and Jats as the population in South Asia with the highest proportion of Steppe ancestry. Lazaridis et al. (2016) estimated (6.5–50.2 %) steppe-related admixture in South Asians, though the proportion of Steppe ancestry varies widely across ethnic groups. According to Narasimhan et al. (2019), the Yamnaya-related ancestry, termed Western_Steppe_EMBA, that reached central and south Asia was not the initial expansion from the steppe to the east, but a secondary expansion that involved a group possessing ~67% Western_Steppe_EMBA ancestry and ~33% ancestry from the European cline. This group included people similar to that of Corded Ware, Srubnaya, Petrovka, and Sintashta. Moving further east in the central steppe, it acquired ~9% ancestry from a group of people that possessed West Siberian Hunter Gatherer ancestry, thus forming the Central Steppe MLBA cluster, which is the primary source of steppe ancestry in South Asia, contributing up to 30% of the ancestry of the modern groups in the region. According to Unterländer et al. (2017), all Iron Age Scythian Steppe nomads can best be described as a mixture of Yamnaya-related ancestry and an East Asian-related component, which most closely corresponds to the modern North Siberian Nganasan people of the lower Yenisey River, to varying degrees, but generally higher among Eastern Scythians. See also Kurgan Kurgan stelae Butmir culture Vinča culture Beaker culture Baden culture Botai culture Khvalynsk culture Mamai-Hora Samara culture Sintashta culture Yersinia pestis Proto-Indo-Europeans Indigenous Aryanism Notes References Sources Supplementary Information External links Indo-European archaeological cultures Archaeological cultures of Europe Bronze Age cultures of Europe Chalcolithic cultures of Europe Archaeological cultures in Ukraine Archaeological cultures in Russia Archaeological cultures in Moldova Archaeological cultures in Kazakhstan 4th millennium BC Prehistoric Russia

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%95%EC%A0%90%EC%8B%9D

정점식

정점식(鄭点植, 1965년 7월 15일~)은 대한민국의 법조인, 정치인으로 제20·21대 국회의원이다. 경상남도 고성군 출생이다. 1988년 30회 사법시험에 합격하여 검사로 활동하다가 2017년 6월 8일에 대검찰청 공안부장을 사직하고 변호사로 개업하였다. 2019년 3월 11일에 4·3 보궐선거 경상남도 통영시·고성군 자유한국당 후보로 공천되었고, 4월 3일 치러진 보궐선거에서 제20대 국회의원으로 당선되었다. 학력 1974년 고성대성국민학교 졸업 1980년 고성중학교 졸업 1983년 창원 경상고등학교 졸업 1988년 서울대학교 법학 학사 1994년 서울대학교 대학원 법학 석사 경력 1988년: 제30회 사법시험 합격 1991년: 제20기 사법연수원 수료 2003년 2월~2003년 8월: 부산지방검찰청 부부장검사 2003년 8월~2005년 4월: 서울지방검찰청 부부장검사 2005년 4월~2006년 2월: 울산지방검찰청 형사2부장검사 2006년 2월~2007년 3월: 제36대 춘천지방검찰청 속초지청장 2007년 3월~2008년 3월: 대검찰청 공안2과장 2008년 3월~2009년 1월: 대검찰청 공안1과장 2009년 1월~2009년 8월: 서울중앙지방검찰청 공안1부장검사 2009년 8월~2010년 8월: 제45대 창원지방검찰청 통영지청장 2010년 8월~2011년 8월: 부산지방검찰청 2차장검사 2011년 8월~2012년 7월: 서울중앙지방검찰청 2차장검사 2012년 7월~2013년 4월: 제5대 수원지방검찰청 안양지청장 2013년 4월~2013년 12월: 서울고등검찰청 공판부장, 검사장 2013년 9월~2015년 1월: 법무부 위헌정당·단체 관련 대책 TF 팀장, 검사장 2013년 12월~2015년 2월: 법무연수원 기획부장, 검사장 2015년 2월~2017년 6월: 대검찰청 공안부장, 검사장 2017년 6월: 법무연수원 연구위원 2017년 9월~2019년 4월: 법무법인 아인 대표변호사 2018년 3월~2019년 4월: 녹원씨엔아이 사외이사 2019년 4월~2020년 2월: 자유한국당 원내부대표 2019년 4월~2020년 2월: 자유한국당 법률자문위원회 부위원장 2019년 5월~2020년 2월: 자유한국당 경남도당 통영시·고성군 당협위원회 위원장 2019년 5월 : 여의도연구원 차세대브랜드위원회 고문 2019년 7월: 자유한국당 재해대책위원회 부위원장 2019년 7월: 자유한국당 에너지정책 파탄 및 비리 진상규명 특별위원회 위원 2019년 8월: 자유한국당 강성귀족노조개혁특별위원회 위원 2019년 9월: 자유한국당 경남도당 원내수석부위원장 2020년 2월~2020년 5월: 미래통합당 원내부대표 2020년 2월~2020년 7월: 미래통합당 법률자문위원회 부위원장 2020년 5월~2020년 9월: 미래통합당 경남도당 통영시·고성군 당원협의회 위원장 2020년 7월~2020년 9월: 미래통합당 법률자문위원회 위원장 2020년 8월~2020년 9월: 미래통합당 이상직의원-이스타 비리의혹 진상규명 태스크포스 위원 2020년 9월~2021년 8월: 국민의힘 법률자문위원회 위원장 2020년 9월~: 국민의힘 경남도당 통영시·고성군 당원협의회 위원장 2020년 9월 : 국민의힘 이상직의원-이스타 비리의혹 진상규명 태스크포스 위원 2020년 9월 : 국민의힘 북한의 우리 국민 사살·화형 만행 진상조사 태스크포스 위원 2020년 12월~2021년 3월: 국민의힘 4·7 재‧보궐선거 공천관리위원회 위원 2021년 3월~2021년 4월: 국민의힘 4.7 재보궐선거 중앙선거대책위원회 문재인 정권 선거공작 저지 및 법률자문본부장 2021년 5월~2021년 6월: 국민의힘 전당대회 선거관리위원회 위원 2021년 6월 : 국민의힘 군 성범죄 진상규명 및 재발 방지 특별위원회 위원 2021년 8월~2021년 11월: 국민의힘 윤석열 제20대 대통령 선거 예비후보 국민캠프 공정과 상식 위원회 위원장 2021년 11월~2022년 1월: 국민의힘 선거대책위원회 중앙선거대책위원회 클린선거전략본부 네거티브검증단장 2021년 12월~2022년 3월: 국민의힘 경남을 살리는 선거대책위원회 선거대책위원장단 공동선거대책위원장 2022년 1월~2022년 3월: 국민의힘 대장동 개발 비리 특혜 의혹 의문사진상규명위원회 간사 2022년 1월~2022년 3월: 국민의힘 제20대 대통령 선거 선거대책본부 클린선거전략본부 네거티브검증단장 2022년 3월~2022년 5월: 국민의힘 6·1지방선거 공천관리위원회 위원 2022년 7월~2023년 7월: 국민의힘 경남도당 위원장 2022년 9월~2023년 3월: 국민의힘 비상대책위원 2023년 4월~: 국민의힘 전세 사기 피해 대책을 마련하기 위한 당내 TF 위원 2023년 9월~: 국민의힘 대선 공작 게이트 진상조사단 위원 의정 활동 2019년 4월 4일~2020년 5월 29일 : 제20대 국회의원(경남 통영시·고성군) 2019년 4월~2019년 7월: 제20대 국회 후반기 문화체육관광위원회 위원 2019년 7월~2020년 5월: 제20대 국회 후반기 법제사법위원회 위원 2019년 7월~2020년 5월: 제20대 국회 후반기 예산결산특별위원회 위원 2019년 8월: 제20대 국회 후반기 운영위원회 위원 2019년 10월~2020년 5월: 제20대 국회 후반기 운영위원회 위원 2020년 5월 30일~: 제21대 국회의원(경남 통영시·고성군) 2020년 7월~2021년 9월: 제21대 국회 전반기 농림축산식품해양수산위원회 위원 2020년 7월 : 제21대 국회 전반기 여성가족위원회 위원 2020년 7월~: 대한민국 미래혁신포럼 구성의원 2020년 7월~: 국회 대중문화 미디어 연구회 구성의원 2020년 8월~2021년 6월: 제21대 국회 전반기 운영위원회 위원 2021년 4월~2021년 4월: 제21대 국회 대법관(천대엽) 임명동의에 관한 인사청문특별위원회 간사 2021년 9월~2022년 5월: 제21대 국회 전반기 농림축산식품해양수산위원회 간사 제21대 국회 전반기 농림축산식품해양수산위원회 농림축산식품법안심사소위원회 위원 제21대 국회 전반기 농림축산식품해양수산위원회 해양수산법안심사소위원회 위원 제21대 국회 전반기 농림축산식품해양수산위원회 예산결산심사소위원회 위원장 2021년 10월~2021년 11월: 제21대 국회 감사원장(최재해) 임명동의에 관한 인사청문특별위원회 간사 2021년 12월~2022년 5월: 제21대 국회 정치개혁 특별위원회 위원 2022년 7월~: 제21대 국회 후반기 법제사법위원회 간사 제21대 국회 후반기 법제사법위원회 법안심사제1소위원회 위원 제21대 국회 후반기 법제사법위원회 법안심사제2소위원회 위원장 제21대 국회 후반기 법제사법위원회 예산결산기금심사소위원회 위원장 제21대 국회 후반기 법제사법위원회 예산결산기금심사소위원회 위원 2022년 8월~2023년 5월: 제21대 국회 형사사법체계개혁 특별위원회 간사 2022년 8월~2022년 11월: 제21대 국회 대법관(오석준) 임명 동의에 관한 인사청문 특별위원회 간사 2022년 8월~2023년 5월: 제21대 국회 후반기 예산결산특별위원회 위원 제21대 국회 후반기 예산결산특별위원회 2021회계연도 결산소위원회 위원 제21대 국회 후반기 예산결산특별위원회 예산소위원회 위원 2023.02~: 제21대 국회 후반기 정보위원회 위원 2023.06~2023.07: 제21대 국회 대법관(권영준·서경환) 임명 동의에 관한 인사청문 특별위원회 간사 2023.09~2023.10: 제21대 국회 대법원장(이균용) 임명 동의에 관한 인사청문특별위원회 간사 역대 선거 결과 1965년 출생 살아있는 사람 고성군 (경상남도) 출신 고성중학교 (경남) 동문 경상고등학교 (경남) 동문 서울대학교 법과대학 동문 서울대학교 대학원 동문 사법연수원 수료자 대한민국의 지방검찰청 검사장 대한민국의 변호사 자유한국당 당원 친윤 국민의힘의 정치인 대한민국의 사외이사 대한민국의 유튜버 경상남도의 국회의원

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeong%20Jeom-sig

Jeong Jeom-sig

Jeong Jeom-sig (; born 15 July 1965) is a South Korean politician who was a prosecutor and lawyer. Life Jeong was born in Goseong County, South Gyeongsang Province. He passed the 30th judicial examination in 1986. He later served as a high-level prosecutor at the prosecution office before retiring in June 2017. He later opened as a lawyer. In 2019, he ran in the Tongyeong-Goseong by-election with the Liberty Korea Party's nomination. References External links Jeong Jeom-sig's blog 1965 births Living people People from South Gyeongsang Province Members of the National Assembly (South Korea) Liberty Korea Party politicians South Korean prosecutors

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%80%EB%A5%B4%EC%8A%A4%ED%82%A4%EC%9D%98%20%EC%A0%95%EC%9D%98%20%EB%B6%88%EA%B0%80%EB%8A%A5%EC%84%B1%20%EC%A0%95%EB%A6%AC

타르스키의 정의 불가능성 정리

수리 논리학에서 타르스키의 정의 불가능성 정리()는 형식 의미론에 있어서 자기표현에 관한 중요한 제한을 가하는 정리이다. 이 정리를 비형식적으로 기술하면, "산술적 진리는 산술 내에서 정의될 수 없다"이다. 1936년 알프레트 타르스키가 기술하고 증명하였다. 이 정리는 충분히 강력한 모든 형식 체계(formal system)에 더욱 일반적으로 적용될 수 있는데, 이때는 "어떤 체계의 표준 모형 내에서의 진리는 그 체계 내에서는 정의될 수 없다"는 것을 보여준다. 정리 1차 산술(페아노 공리계)의 언어 L과 그 표준 모델 N을 잡으면, (L, N)은 '산술의 1차논리 언어의 해석'을 이룬다. L 속의 모든 x는 각각 괴델 수매김 g(x)를 가진다. T가 N에서 참인 L-문장들의 집합이라 하고, T*를 T 속의 문장들의 괴델 수의 집합이라 하자. 여기서 T*가 1차 산술의 논리식으로 표현가능한가 하는 것이 이 정리의 주제이다. 타르스키의 정의 불가능성 정리 (산술): T*를 정의하는 L-논리식 True(n)은 존재하지 않는다. 즉, 모든 L-논리식 A에 대하여 True(g(A)) ↔ A 가 성립하게 하는 True(n)은 존재할 수 없다. 비형식적으로 말해서 정리가 말하는 바는, 어떤 형식 산술이 주어졌을 때 그 산술에서의 참의 개념은 그 산술로 표현가능한 방법으로는 나타낼 수 없다는 것이다. 이는 "자기표현"의 범위에 중요한 제한을 가한다. T*를 확장(extension)으로 하는 논리식 True(n)은 정의하는 것이 가능하나, 이는 L의 표현력을 뛰어넘는 메타언어를 통해서만 이루어질 수 있다. 예를 들어 1차 산술의 진리 술어는 2차 산술로 정의가능하다. 그러나, 이 식은 원래의 언어 L 속의 문장에 대한 진리 술어만을 정의할 수 있다. 메타언어를 위한 진리술어는 표현력이 더욱 강한 메타-메타언어에서 구성해야 하고, 이러한 꼴이 반복된다. 위 정리는 사실 산술 위계(산술적으로 정의가능한 모든 논리식을 위계로 분류한 것)에 관한 포스트의 정리(Post's theorem)의 따름정리로써 나온 것으로, 실제 Tarski (1936)의 발표 몇년 이후에 제시된 것이다. 이 타르스키 정리의 의미론적 증명은 다음과 같은 귀류법으로 이루어졌다. T*가 산술적으로 정의가능하다고 하면, 포스트의 정리에 의해 어떤 n에 대하여 위계의 논리식으로 T*를 정의할 수 있어야 한다. 그런데 T*는 모든 k에 대해 -정의불가능하다. 이렇다면 산술 위계가 성립하지 않아 포스트의 정리와 모순된다. 일반화 본래 타르스키가 1936년 증명한 정리는 위의 진술보다 더 강력한 것으로, 특히 완전한 구문론적 방법만으로 증명되었다. 이는 부정(¬)을 포함하고 자기언급이 가능한(정확히는 괴델의 불완전성 정리 증명에 등장하는 diagonal lemma가 성립하는) 형식 언어 모두에 적용가능하며, 물론 1차 논리도 포함된다. 타르스키의 정의 불가능성 정리 (일반): 부정을 포함하는 형식언어 해석 (L, N)에, 괴델 수매김 g(x)가 있어서 모든 L-논리식 A(x)에 대해 B ↔ A(g(B))가 N에서 성립하게 하는 B가 존재하게 된다 하자. N에서 참인 L-문장의 괴델 수의 집합을 T*라 하자. 그렇다면 T*를 정의하는 L-논리식 True(n)는 존재하지 않는다. 즉, 모든 L-논리식 A에 대하여 True(g(A)) ↔ A 가 N에서 참이 되는 L-논리식 True(n)은 존재할 수 없다. 이 정리의 증명은 위와 유사하게 귀류법으로 완성된다. 타르스키 정리는 이론의 진리가 더 강한 이론에서 정의되는 것을 부정하는 것이 아니다. 예를 들어 1차 페아노 산술의 N에서 참인 논리식의 (괴델 수의) 집합은 2차 산술의 논리식으로 정의가능하다. 한편 2차 산술의 표준 모형에서 참인 문장들의 집합은 1차 ZFC 집합론으로 정의가능하다. 같이 보기 진리론 산술 위계 괴델의 불완전성 정리 참고 문헌 J.L. Bell, and M. Machover, 1977. A Course in Mathematical Logic. North-Holland. G. Boolos, J. Burgess, and R. Jeffrey, 2002. Computability and Logic, 4th ed. Cambridge University Press. J.R. Lucas, 1961. "Mind, Machines, and Gödel ". Philosophy 36: 112–27. R. Murawski, 1998. Undefinability of truth. The problem of the priority: Tarski vs. Gödel. History and Philosophy of Logic 19, 153–160 R. Smullyan, 1991. Godel's Incompleteness Theorems. Oxford Univ. Press. R. Smullyan, 2001. "Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorems". In L. Goble, ed., The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic, Blackwell, 72–89. A. Tarski, tr J.H. Woodger, 1983. "The Concept of Truth in Formalized Languages". English translation of Tarski's 1936 article. In A. Tarski, ed. J. Corcoran, 1983, Logic, Semantics, Metamathematics, Hackett. 논리철학 진리론 수리논리학

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarski%27s%20undefinability%20theorem

Tarski's undefinability theorem

Tarski's undefinability theorem, stated and proved by Alfred Tarski in 1933, is an important limitative result in mathematical logic, the foundations of mathematics, and in formal semantics. Informally, the theorem states that "arithmetical truth cannot be defined in arithmetic". The theorem applies more generally to any sufficiently strong formal system, showing that truth in the standard model of the system cannot be defined within the system. History In 1931, Kurt Gödel published the incompleteness theorems, which he proved in part by showing how to represent the syntax of formal logic within first-order arithmetic. Each expression of the formal language of arithmetic is assigned a distinct number. This procedure is known variously as Gödel numbering, coding and, more generally, as arithmetization. In particular, various sets of expressions are coded as sets of numbers. For various syntactic properties (such as being a formula, being a sentence, etc.), these sets are computable. Moreover, any computable set of numbers can be defined by some arithmetical formula. For example, there are formulas in the language of arithmetic defining the set of codes for arithmetic sentences, and for provable arithmetic sentences. The undefinability theorem shows that this encoding cannot be done for semantic concepts such as truth. It shows that no sufficiently rich interpreted language can represent its own semantics. A corollary is that any metalanguage capable of expressing the semantics of some object language (e.g. a predicate is definable in Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory for whether formulae in the language of Peano arithmetic are true in the standard model of arithmetic) must have expressive power exceeding that of the object language. The metalanguage includes primitive notions, axioms, and rules absent from the object language, so that there are theorems provable in the metalanguage not provable in the object language. The undefinability theorem is conventionally attributed to Alfred Tarski. Gödel also discovered the undefinability theorem in 1930, while proving his incompleteness theorems published in 1931, and well before the 1933 publication of Tarski's work (Murawski 1998). While Gödel never published anything bearing on his independent discovery of undefinability, he did describe it in a 1931 letter to John von Neumann. Tarski had obtained almost all results of his 1933 monograph "The Concept of Truth in the Languages of the Deductive Sciences" between 1929 and 1931, and spoke about them to Polish audiences. However, as he emphasized in the paper, the undefinability theorem was the only result he did not obtain earlier. According to the footnote to the undefinability theorem (Twierdzenie I) of the 1933 monograph, the theorem and the sketch of the proof were added to the monograph only after the manuscript had been sent to the printer in 1931. Tarski reports there that, when he presented the content of his monograph to the Warsaw Academy of Science on March 21, 1931, he expressed at this place only some conjectures, based partly on his own investigations and partly on Gödel's short report on the incompleteness theorems "" [Some metamathematical results on the definiteness of decision and consistency], Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, 1930. Statement We will first state a simplified version of Tarski's theorem, then state and prove in the next section the theorem Tarski proved in 1933. Let be the language of first-order arithmetic. This is the theory of the natural numbers, including their addition and multiplication, axiomatized by the first-order Peano axioms. This is a "first-order" theory: the quantifiers extend over natural numbers, but not over sets or functions of natural numbers. The theory is strong enough to describe recursively defined integer functions such as exponentiation, factorials or the Fibonacci sequence. Let be the standard structure for i.e. consists of the ordinary set of natural numbers and their addition and multiplication. Each sentence in can be interpreted in and then becomes either true or false. Thus is the "interpreted first-order language of arithmetic". Each formula in has a Gödel number This is a natural number that "encodes" In that way, the language can talk about formulas in not just about numbers. Let denote the set of -sentences true in and the set of Gödel numbers of the sentences in The following theorem answers the question: Can be defined by a formula of first-order arithmetic? Tarski's undefinability theorem: There is no -formula that defines That is, there is no -formula such that for every -sentence holds in . Informally, the theorem says that the concept of truth of first-order arithmetic statements cannot be defined by a formula in first-order arithmetic. This implies a major limitation on the scope of "self-representation". It is possible to define a formula whose extension is but only by drawing on a metalanguage whose expressive power goes beyond that of . For example, a truth predicate for first-order arithmetic can be defined in second-order arithmetic. However, this formula would only be able to define a truth predicate for formulas in the original language . To define a truth predicate for the metalanguage would require a still higher metametalanguage, and so on. To prove the theorem, we proceed by contradiction and assume that an -formula exists which is true for the natural number in if and only if is the Gödel number of a sentence in that is true in . We could then use to define a new -formula which is true for the natural number if and only if is the Gödel number of a formula (with a free variable ) such that is false when interpreted in (i.e. the formula when applied to its own Gödel number, yields a false statement). If we now consider the Gödel number of the formula , and ask whether the sentence is true in , we obtain a contradiction. (This is known as a diagonal argument.) The theorem is a corollary of Post's theorem about the arithmetical hierarchy, proved some years after Tarski (1933). A semantic proof of Tarski's theorem from Post's theorem is obtained by reductio ad absurdum as follows. Assuming is arithmetically definable, there is a natural number such that is definable by a formula at level of the arithmetical hierarchy. However, is -hard for all Thus the arithmetical hierarchy collapses at level , contradicting Post's theorem. General form Tarski proved a stronger theorem than the one stated above, using an entirely syntactical method. The resulting theorem applies to any formal language with negation, and with sufficient capability for self-reference that the diagonal lemma holds. First-order arithmetic satisfies these preconditions, but the theorem applies to much more general formal systems, such as ZFC. Tarski's undefinability theorem (general form): Let be any interpreted formal language which includes negation and has a Gödel numbering satisfying the diagonal lemma, i.e. for every -formula (with one free variable ) there is a sentence such that holds in . Then there is no -formula with the following property: for every -sentence is true in . The proof of Tarski's undefinability theorem in this form is again by reductio ad absurdum. Suppose that an -formula as above existed, i.e., if is a sentence of arithmetic, then holds in if and only if holds in . Hence for all , the formula holds in . But the diagonal lemma yields a counterexample to this equivalence, by giving a "liar" formula such that holds in . This is a contradiction. QED. Discussion The formal machinery of the proof given above is wholly elementary except for the diagonalization which the diagonal lemma requires. The proof of the diagonal lemma is likewise surprisingly simple; for example, it does not invoke recursive functions in any way. The proof does assume that every -formula has a Gödel number, but the specifics of a coding method are not required. Hence Tarski's theorem is much easier to motivate and prove than the more celebrated theorems of Gödel about the metamathematical properties of first-order arithmetic. Smullyan (1991, 2001) has argued forcefully that Tarski's undefinability theorem deserves much of the attention garnered by Gödel's incompleteness theorems. That the latter theorems have much to say about all of mathematics and more controversially, about a range of philosophical issues (e.g., Lucas 1961) is less than evident. Tarski's theorem, on the other hand, is not directly about mathematics but about the inherent limitations of any formal language sufficiently expressive to be of real interest. Such languages are necessarily capable of enough self-reference for the diagonal lemma to apply to them. The broader philosophical import of Tarski's theorem is more strikingly evident. An interpreted language is strongly-semantically-self-representational exactly when the language contains predicates and function symbols defining all the semantic concepts specific to the language. Hence the required functions include the "semantic valuation function" mapping a formula to its truth value and the "semantic denotation function" mapping a term to the object it denotes. Tarski's theorem then generalizes as follows: No sufficiently powerful language is strongly-semantically-self-representational. The undefinability theorem does not prevent truth in one theory from being defined in a stronger theory. For example, the set of (codes for) formulas of first-order Peano arithmetic that are true in is definable by a formula in second order arithmetic. Similarly, the set of true formulas of the standard model of second order arithmetic (or -th order arithmetic for any ) can be defined by a formula in first-order ZFC. See also References Primary sources English translation of Tarski's 1936 article. Further reading Mathematical logic Metatheorems Philosophy of logic Theorems in the foundations of mathematics Theories of truth

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B9%80%EC%97%B0%EC%B2%A0

김연철

김연철(金鍊鐵, 1964년 5월 7일~)은 대한민국 정치외교학자, 인제대학교 교수이다. 강원도 동해 출생이다. 조선민주주의인민공화국의 산업화 과정을 분석하여 '수령제'라고 하는 정치체제를 갖게 된 기원을 밝힌 논문으로 성균관대학교에서 정치학 박사 학위를 받았다. 2017년 대선 때 문재인 후보 캠프에서 활동하여 2018년 통일연구원 원장에 임명되었다. 2019년 4월 문재인 정부의 통일부 장관이 되었으나, 2020년 6월 북한의 남북공동연락사무소 폭파로 인해 장관직에서 사퇴했다. 학력 1980~1983: 북평고등학교 1983~1990: 성균관대학교 정치외교학 학사 1990~1992: 성균관대학교 대학원 정치외교학 석사 1992~1993: 성균관대학교 대학원 정치외교학 박사 경력 1997년~2002년: 삼성경제연구소 북한연구팀 수석연구원 2004년~2006년: 통일부 장관 정책보좌관 2008년~2010년: 한겨레평화연구소 소장 2010년~: 인제대학교 통일학부 교수 2018년~2019년: 제16대 통일연구원 원장 2019년 4월 8일~2020년 6월 19일: 제40대 통일부 장관 2021.3~ : 한반도평화포럼 이사장 저서 《협상의 전략》. 휴머니스트. 2016년. 《70년의 대화》. 창비. 2018년. 수상 2009년: 제15회 통일언론상 대상 논란 부동산 투기 양도소득세 탈세 김연철은 1993년 당첨된 서울 서초동 삼성래미안 아파트 분양권을 전매하면서 다운계약서를 작성했다. 1999년에는 서울 방배동 삼호아파트를 7500만원에 구매해 4년 후 같은 가격에 팔았다고 신고했다. 이는 당시 이 아파트 시세보다 최소 수천만원 낮은 가격이다. 김연철 부부는 또 2003년 방배 궁전아파트, 2004년 방배 삼호아파트를 살 때도 시세보다 낮은 가격으로 거래했다고 신고했다. 2003년 9,800만 원에 산 방배동 궁전아파트를 2년 뒤 5억 2천만 원에 팔아 5배 넘는 차익을 봤다. 그런데 나중에 양도소득세를 낼 때는 "사실 3억 원에 샀다"며 바꿔서 신고했다. 양도세를 적게 내려고 일부러 매입가를 높였다는 의혹이 제기되었다. 또, 2004년 계약서 상 1억7천900만 원에 샀던 방배동의 삼호아파트를 11억여 원에 팔고, 시세차익은 6억여 원에 그친다고 신고했다. 김연철은 2005년 경기도 남양주의 토지를 매입할 때도 다운계약서를 썼다. 유기준 의원은 "김연철은 아파트만 5건, 분양권 2건, 토지 1건을 포함해 부부가 시세차익을 노리고 8번의 다운계약서를 작성했다"고 지적했다. 김연철은 2019년 3월 26일 인사청문회에서 제기된 의혹을 시인했다. 부동산 차명거래 의혹 김연철의 처제가 2016년 6월 논산의 주공아파트를 매입했는데, 당시 처제는 미국에 있었고, 김연철의 배우자가 처제를 대신해 계약을 진행했다. 정진석 의원은 "위임장도 없이 어떻게 부동산 거래가 가능한가"라고 지적하며 "김연철이 신고한 재산이 6억2000만원 정도인데, 지난 7년 미국 유학 중인 두 딸에 송금한 유학비용이 5억6000만원 정도"라며 "처제의 통장에서 빠진 뭉칫돈이 유학비용으로 송금됐다는 합리적인 의심을 갖는 것"이라고 설명했다. 김재경 의원은 김연철의 아내와 처제의 부동산 거래내역에 대해 질의하며 부동산 차명거래 의혹을 제기했다. 2011년 9월 김연철이 경상남도 김해에서 대학 교수로 재직할 당시 처제 소유의 다세대주택에 머물렀던 사실을 지적하며 "집 주인이 누구냐를 밝히기 위해 누구 돈인지를 들여다봐야 한다"고 자료 제출을 요청했다. 김연철이 머물렀던 김해 다세대주택은 2011년 2월 처체가 매입한 바 있다. 김연철이 김해 근무를 마치고 서울 전입한 후인 2014년 매각된 것으로 나타나면서 차명거래 의혹이 제기됐다. 박왕자 피격 사건은 통과의례 주장 2010년 언론 기고문에서 박왕자 피격사건에 대해 김연철은 "총격 사건으로 관광객이 사망하는 사건·사고들은 일찍 시작했어도 우리가 겪어야 할 통과의례였다"고 주장했다. 이적 단체 옹호 남한을 미 제국주의 식민지로 규정하고 북한 선군정치를 찬양하여 대법원에서 이적단체로 규정한 한국청년단체협의회의의 활동에 대해 2002년 법정에서 옹호하였다. 한겨레 평화연구소장으로 일하던 2008년 이적 활동 혐의를 받는 한국청년단체협의회의 무죄 선고를 촉구하는 선언문에 서명하였다. 선언문에는 국가보안법을 폐지해야 한다는 내용도 담겨있다. 편향된 대북관 김연철은 논문과 저서에서 대북제재 무용론과 핵 동결론을 주장하였다. 2016년 펴낸 논문 《대북제재의 편견과 북방 경제의 미래》에서 "힘으로 북한을 굴복시키겠다는 제재론은 목적을 달성하지 못한 채 상황만 악화시켰다. 제재에 관한 편견이 오랫동안 한반도 정세를 악화시키고 있다"고 주장했다. 2017년 동아시아재단의 정책논쟁 기고문에서 "핵 동결이 이뤄지면 시간을 벌 수 있다. 비핵화에 앞서 핵 동결이 중요하다"고 주장했다. 정치인 비하 2015년 더불어민주당 대표였던 문재인이 군복을 입고 군대를 찾은 것을 두고 “쇼를 하고 있다”면서 페이스북을 통해 비난했다. 2016년에는 추미애 더불어민주당 대표에게 "감염된 좀비"라고 비하했다. 이명박 정부 및 박근혜 정부에 대해서는 "역사적 정통성이 결여된 보수 세력", 김종인 전 더불어민주당 대표에 대해서는 "박근혜가 씹다 버린 껌", 이명박 전 대통령에 대해서는 "위대해 C-ba 가카만세!"라고 비하했다. 반기문, 김영삼, 안철수에 대해서도 SNS를 통해 비난한 바 있다. 각주 내용 출처 1964년 출생 동해시 출신 성균관대학교 동문 성균관대학교 대학원 동문 인제대학교 교수 친이재명 옛 더불어민주당의 정치인 대한민국의 통일부 장관 문재인 정부의 국무위원 살아있는 사람 대한민국의 국제 관계 연구자

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim%20Yeon-chul

Kim Yeon-chul

Kim Yeon-chul (; born 26 March 1964) is a South Korean associate professor of unification at Inje University who served as Minister of Unification under President Moon Jae-in from April 2019 to June 2020. Before promoted to Minister, Kim was the president of the Korea Institute for National Unification, a government-funded research institute. He was previously a policy advisor to then-Minister of Unification Chung Dong-young from 2004 to 2006. After completing his doctorate programme, he joined Samsung Economic Research Institute as its senior researcher. He was also the first president of The Hankyoreh's research institute on peace studies. Kim holds three degrees in political science from Sungkyunkwan University from a bachelor to a doctorate. Following North Korea's destruction of its Kaesong liaison office and a general worsening of inter-Korean relations, he offered to resign on June 17, 2020. On June 19, 2020, President Moon Jae-in officially accepted his resignation as the Minister of Unification. References Sungkyunkwan University alumni Living people 1964 births People from Donghae City Government ministers of South Korea Experts on North Korea Academic staff of Inje University South Korean international relations scholars

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BD%94%EB%93%9C%2039

코드 39

코드 39는 가변 길이의 개별 바코드다. 코드 39는 대문자 (A ~ Z), 숫자 (0-9) 및 특수 문자 (-,., $, /, +, % 및 공백 )로, 총 43자로 구성된다. 추가 글자( '*'로 표시됨)는 시작 구분 기호와 종료 구분 문자 모두에 사용된다. 각 문자는 9 개의 요소로 구성된다 : 5 개의 막대와 4 개의 공백. 각 문자의 9 개 요소 중 3 개는 넓고 (2 진 값 1) 6 개 요소는 좁다. (2 진 값 0) 너비와 너비 간의 너비 비율은 중요하지 않으며 1 : 2에서 1 : 3 사이에서 선택할 수 있다. 바코드 자체에는 확인 숫자가 포함되지 않지만 (코드 128과 대조적으로), 잘못 해석된 단일 막대가 다른 유효한 문자를 생성할 수 없다는 이유로 자체 검사로 간주될 수 있다. 코드 39의 가장 심각한 단점은 낮은 데이터 밀도다. 예를 들어 코드 128보다 코드 39에서 데이터를 인코딩하는 데 더 많은 공간이 필요하다. 즉, 아주 작은 제품에는 코드 39 기반 바코드로 레이블을 지정할 수 없다. 그러나, 비록 코드 39는 여전히 몇몇 우편 서비스에 의해 사용된다. (만국 우편 연합은 모든 경우에 코드 (128)를 사용할 것을 권장하고, ) 거의 모든 바코드 리더로 디코드할 수 있다. 코드 39의 장점 중 하나는 체크 디지트를 생성할 필요가 없기 때문에 바코드 글꼴을 시스템이나 프린터에 추가한 다음 해당 글꼴로 데이터를 인쇄하여 기존 인쇄 시스템에 쉽게 통합할 수 있다는 것이다. Code 39는 1974년 David Allais 와 Intermec의 Ray Stevens가 개발했다. 그들의 원래 디자인은 두 개의 넓은 막대와 각 문자에 하나의 넓은 공간을 포함하여 40 개의 가능한 문자를 만들었다. 이 문자 중 하나를 시작 및 중단 패턴으로 남겨두면 39 자가 남았다. 이 문자는 Code 39라는 이름의 기원이었다. 나중에 4 개의 구두점 문자가 추가되어 넓은 막대와 3 개의 넓은 공백을 사용하지 않고 문자 세트를 43 자로 확장했다. Code 39는 나중에 ANSI MH 10.8 M-1983 및 MIL-STD-1189로 표준화되었다. 그리고 MIL-STD-1189는 취소되고 ANSI / AIM BC1 / 1995, 통일 기호 표준 - 코드 39로 대체되었다. 인코딩 아래 표시된 * 문자는 실제 인코딩 가능 문자는 아니지만 코드 39의 시작 및 중지 기호다. 기호의 비대칭성은 판독기로 하여금 스캔되는 바코드의 방향을 결정하게 한다. 이 코드는 전통적으로 바코드 글꼴의 '*' 문자에 매핑되며 바코드와 함께 사람이 읽을 수 있는 표현으로 표시된다. 일반적으로 두 개의 넓은 막대의 위치는 1에서 10 사이의 숫자를 인코딩하는 것으로 간주될 수 있으며 넓은 공간의 위치 (네 개의 가능한 위치가 있음)는 문자를 네 개의 그룹 중 하나로 분류하는 것으로 간주될 수 있습니다 ( 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로) : 문자 (+30) (U-Z), 숫자 (+0) (1-9,0), 문자 (+10) (A-J) 및 문자 (+20) 티). 예를 들어, 문자 P (알파벳의 16 번째 문자)는 숫자 6을 나타내기 위해 막대가 정렬되어 있고 맨 오른쪽 위치의 공백은 그룹 문자 (+20)를 선택한다. 숫자로 표현 될 때 숫자 "10"은 숫자 0을 인코딩하는 데 사용된다. 왜냐면 문자 (+ 30) 그룹에는 문자가 6 개 (문자 30-35 또는 U-Z)이므로 이 그룹의 나머지 4 개 위치 (36-39)는 대시, 마침표, 공백 )뿐만 아니라 시작 및 정지 문자이기 때문이다. 5 개의 가능한 위치 중 두 개의 넓은 막대는 1, 2, 4, 7, 0의 숫자 동등성을 갖는 2의 5 코드를 사용하여 1에서 10 사이의 숫자를 인코딩한다. 숫자는 합산된다. 예를 들어, 숫자 6은 2와 4 (2 + 4 = 6)의 위치를 차지하는 넓은 막대와 함께 NWWNN으로 인코딩된다. NNWWN이 경우 숫자 (+0)는 0, 문자 열 (+10 - +30)은 10으로 지정된다. (+10에서 +30) 글자를 인코딩 할 때 방정식에 "-1"이 필요하므로 표에 표시된 대로 'A'는 WNNNW → 1 + 10-1 → 10이다. 마지막 네 문자는 모든 좁은 막대와 세 개의 넓은 공백으로 구성된다. 좁은 단일 공간에는 4 가지 위치가 있다. 이 표에는 Code 39 사양이 요약되어 있다. 각 문자에 할당된 숫자 값 (시작 및 정지 제외)은 아래 설명된 체크섬(checksum) 알고리즘에서 사용된다. 문자는 좁은 공간으로 구분된다. 예를 들어, 실제로 시작을 포함하고 문자를 중지 단일 문자 "A"의 전체 인코딩 "* A *"이며, ▮ | | ▮▮ | 이러한 문자 간 스페이스가 없으면 코드를 제대로 읽을 수 없다. 바코드 글꼴은 문자의 글리프 내에 항상 이 공간을 포함한다. 코드 39와 mod 43 코드 39는 선택적 모듈로 43 체크섬과 함께 사용되기도 한다. 이 기능을 사용하려면 이 기능을 바코드 인식기에서 활성화해야 한다. 체크 숫자가 있는 코드를 코드 39 mod 43 이라고 한다. 이를 계산하기 위해 각 문자에 하나의 값이 할당된다. 할당은 위의 표에 나열되어 있지만 거의 체계적이지는 않다. 다음은 체크섬 계산을 수행하는 방법이다. 시작 및 종료 코드를 제외한 바코드의 각 문자 값 (0 - 42)을 가져온다. 값을 합한다. 결과를 43으로 나눈다. 나머지는 추가할 체크섬 문자의 값이다. 전체 ASCII 코드 39 코드 39는 43 자로 제한된다. 전체 ASCII 코드 39 기호 0-9, AZ, ".", "-"및 공백은 코드 39의 해당 표현과 동일하다. 소문자, 추가 구두점 문자 및 제어 문자는 코드 39의 두 문자 시퀀스로 나타낸다. 참고 바코드

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code%2039

Code 39

Code 39 (also known as Alpha39, Code 3 of 9, Code 3/9, Type 39, USS Code 39, or USD-3) is a variable length, discrete barcode symbology defined in ISO/IEC 16388:2007. The Code 39 specification defines 43 characters, consisting of uppercase letters (A through Z), numeric digits (0 through 9) and a number of special characters (-, ., $, /, +, %, and space). An additional character (denoted '*') is used for both start and stop delimiters. Each character is composed of nine elements: five bars and four spaces. Three of the nine elements in each character are wide (binary value 1), and six elements are narrow (binary value 0). The width ratio between narrow and wide is not critical, and may be chosen between 1:2 and 1:3. The barcode itself does not contain a check digit (in contrast to—for instance—Code 128), but it can be considered self-checking on the grounds that a single erroneously interpreted bar cannot generate another valid character. Possibly the most serious drawback of Code 39 is its low data density: It requires more space to encode data in Code 39 than, for example, in Code 128. This means that very small goods cannot be labeled with a Code 39 based barcode. However, Code 39 is still used by some postal services (although the Universal Postal Union recommends using Code 128 in all cases), and can be decoded with virtually any barcode reader. One advantage of Code 39 is that since there is no need to generate a check digit, it can easily be integrated into an existing printing system by adding a barcode font to the system or printer and then printing the raw data in that font. Code 39 was developed by Dr. David Allais and Ray Stevens of Intermec in 1974. Their original design included two wide bars and one wide space in each character, resulting in 40 possible characters. Setting aside one of these characters as a start and stop pattern left 39 characters, which was the origin of the name Code 39. Four punctuation characters were later added, using no wide bars and three wide spaces, expanding the character set to 43 characters. Code 39 was later standardised as ANSI MH 10.8 M-1983 and MIL-STD-1189. MIL-STD-1189 has been cancelled and replaced by ANSI/AIM BC1/1995, Uniform Symbology Specification — Code 39. Encoding The * character presented below is not a true encodable character, but is the start and stop symbol for Code 39. The asymmetry of the symbol allows the reader to determine the direction of the barcode being scanned. This code is traditionally mapped to the * character in barcode fonts and will often appear with the human-readable representation alongside the barcode. As a generality, the location of the two wide bars can be considered to encode a number between 1 and 10, and the location of the wide space (which has four possible positions) can be considered to classify the character into one of four groups (from left to right): Letters(+30) (U–Z), Digits(+0) (1–9,0), Letters(+10) (A–J), and Letters(+20) (K–T). For example, the letter P (being the 16th letter of the alphabet) has its bars aligned to represent the number 6, and the space in the far right position to select the group Letters(+20). When represented as a digit, the number "10" is used to encode the number zero. Because there are only six letters in the Letters(+30) group (letters 30–35, or U–Z), the other four positions in this group (36–39) are used to represent three symbols (dash, period, space) as well as the start/stop character. The two wide bars, out of five possible positions, encode a number between 1 and 10 using a two-out-of-five code with the following numeric equivalence: 1, 2, 4, 7, 0. The numbers are summed together. For example, the number 6 is encoded NWWNN, with wide bars occupying the positions for 2 and 4 (2+4=6). In the case of NNWWN which is it is assigned to 0 for digits (+0), and 10 for the letter columns (+10 – +30). When encoding the (+10 to +30) letters the equation needs a "−1" added so 'A' is WNNNW → 1 + 10 − 1 → 10 as shown in the table. The last four characters consist of all narrow bars and three wide spaces. There are four possible positions for the single narrow space. This table outlines the Code 39 specification. The numeric value assigned to each character (except start/stop) is used in the checksum algorithm described below. Characters are separated by an additional narrow space. For example, the full encoding for the single letter "A", which actually includes the start and stop characters as "*A*", is . The code will not be read properly without these inter-character spaces. Barcode fonts invariably include this space within the glyph for the character. Code 39 check digit Code 39 is sometimes used with an optional modulo 10 or 43 check digit. Using it requires this feature to be enabled in the barcode reader. The code with check digit is referred to as Code 39 mod 10 or Code 39 mod 43 respectively. To compute this, each character is assigned a value. The assignments are listed in the table above, and almost, but not quite, systematic. Here is how to do the checksum calculation: Take the value (0 through 42) of each character in the barcode excluding start and stop codes. Sum the values. Divide the result by 10 (for Mod 10 check digit) or by 43 (for Mod 43 check digit). The remainder is the value of the checksum character to be appended. Full ASCII Code 39 Code 39 is restricted to 43 characters. In Full ASCII Code 39 Symbols 0-9, A-Z, ".", "-" and space are the same as their representations in Code 39. Lower case letters, additional punctuation characters and control characters are represented by sequences of two characters of Code 39. Software The following free and open source software can produce Code 39 barcodes: GNU Barcode. References Barcodes pt:Código de barras#Código 39

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%95%EB%AC%B8%EC%98%81

박문영

박문영(朴文榮, 1952년 ~ )은 대한민국의 작사가·작곡가·가수·기타 연주자·프로듀서·음악 평론가·작가이다. 작사가·작곡가로 활동하던 동안에는 박인호(朴仁浩)라는 예명을, 작가로 활동하던 동안에는 문영이라는 필명을 사용했다. 생애 박문영은 1952년에 경상남도 부산시(현재의 부산광역시)에서 태어났다. 박문영의 아버지는 강원도 원주시 출신의 목수이고 어머니는 강원도 평창군 출신이다. 박문영의 부모는 6.25 전쟁이 진행 중이던 1952년에 피란지였던 부산에서 박문영을 출산했다. 박문영은 어린 시절에 가족들과 함께 서울특별시로 이주했으며 초등학교 재학 시절부터 바이올린을 배웠다. 대광중학교, 대광고등학교, 서울대학교 공과대학 건축학과를 졸업했고 1973년부터 1978년까지 김은광과 함께 남자 2인조 기타 음악 그룹 논두렁 밭두렁의 멤버로 활동했다. 박문영은 군복무 이후에 한동안 대우엔지니어링에서 발전소 설계 담당자를 맡았고 1977년에 동양방송(TBC) FM 라디오 프로듀서로 입사했다. 1980년 11월에 실시된 언론통폐합 조치에 따라 한국방송공사(KBS)로 자리를 옮겼고 라디오 프로그램 《밤을 잊은 그대에게》, 《안녕하세요 황인용 강부자입니다》, 《가위바위보》, 《KBS 대학가요축제》의 연출을 맡았다. 그 외에 KBS 2TV 개그 프로그램 《유머 일번지》의 작가로도 활동했다. 박문영은 1982년에 가수 정광태가 발표한 노래 《독도는 우리 땅》을 작사·작곡하면서부터 작사가·작곡가·음악 평론가로 활동했으며 주로 한국의 역사·문화를 소재로 한 노래를 발표했다. 1990년 7월에는 KBS FM 라디오 음악 전문 프로듀서 자리에서 물러났다. 1991년에는 희극인 최영준이 발표한 노래 《한국을 빛낸 100명의 위인들》을 작사·작곡했는데 이 노래는 1991년에 한국노랫말연구회가 주최한 제5회 한국노랫말대상 시상식에서 나라사랑 노랫말상을 수상하기도 했다. 박문영은 어린이역사노래회를 직접 설립하여 한국의 역사·문화를 소재로 하여 작사·작곡한 노래를 보급했다. 그 외에 어린이 역사 캠프, 어린이를 위한 역사 노래 교실, 국토 역사 여행 순례를 운영하여 어린이들에게 한국의 역사를 설명하는 데에 주력했다. 또한 음악 프로듀서로 활동하면서 김광석, 길은정, 변진섭, 시인과 촌장을 비롯한 신인 가수들을 발굴하기도 했다. 1992년 11월에는 황영조 선수의 1992년 바르셀로나 하계 올림픽 남자 마라톤 금메달을 기념하기 위하여 《황영조 마라톤 제패 기념 음반 - 어머니 나는 해냈습니다》를 제작했다. 박문영은 1992년부터 1998년까지 SBS 라디오 프로듀서로 근무했다. 1994년부터 1995년까지 KBS 프로그램 《전국노래자랑》 심사위원을 맡았는데 김선동 아나운서가 하차하고 송해가 다시 들어올 때 정풍송, 신대성, 이호섭에게 자리를 물려줬다. 박문영은 2000년부터 2006년까지 가족들과 함께 미국 댈러스에 거주했다. 2010년에는 한국콘서바토리(현재의 한국국제예술원) 연예비즈니스학부 교수로 활동했고 2017년에는 2018년 평창 동계 올림픽 성공 기원 동요 앨범 《평창송》을 제작했다. 주요 작품 노래 《독도는 우리 땅》 (1982년, 노래: 정광태) 《도요새의 비밀》 (1983년, 노래: 정광태) 《호랑이와 수수깡》 (1983년, 노래: 정광태) 《바보 온달과 평강공주》 (1983년, 노래: 정광태) 《당신은 꽃처럼》 (1983년, 노래: 정광태) 《지구는 멸망하지 않으리》 (1983년, 노래: 정광태) 《화랑 관창》 (1983년, 노래: 정광태) 《아인슈타인》 (1983년, 노래: 정광태) 《의병대장 곽재우》 (1983년, 노래: 정광태) 《계백 장군》 (1983년, 노래: 정광태) 《광개토대왕》 (1983년, 노래: 정광태) 《아름다운 우리 나라》 (1984년, 노래: 인순이) 《흔들리는 갈대》 (1984년, 노래: 인순이) 《여기가 어디냐》 (1984년, 노래: 인순이) 《야속한 내님》 (1984년, 노래: 인순이) 《너와 나》 (1984년, 노래: 인순이) 《이별의 눈동자》 (1984년, 노래: 인순이) 《길섶에 핀 꽃》 (1984년, 노래: 인순이) 《김치 주제가》 (1985년, 노래: 정광태) 《짜라빠빠》 (1985년, 노래: 정광태) 《악어 사냥》 (1985년, 노래: 정광태) 《힘내라 힘》 (1985년, 노래: 정광태) 《탈춤 노래》 (1985년, 노래: 정광태) 《큰 바위 작은 바위》 (1985년, 노래: 정광태) 《번쩍 번쩍》 (1985년, 노래: 정광태) 《남몰래 흘리는 눈물》 (1988년, 노래: 남궁옥분) 《늦지 않았어요》 (1990년, 노래: 이지연) 《외로움의 계절》 (1990년, 노래: 강수지) 《한국을 빛낸 100명의 위인들》 (1991년, 노래: 최영준) 《마음은 하나》 (1991년, 노래: 최영준) 《대한의 용사》 (1991년, 노래: 최영준) 《우리는 한민족》 (1991년, 노래: 최영준) 《달려라 소년 고주몽》 (1991년, 노래: 서선택(슈퍼맹꽁이)) 《백결 선생 떡방아》 (1991년, 노래: 서선택(슈퍼맹꽁이)) 《항일 투쟁 33인》 (1991년, 노래: 서선택(슈퍼맹꽁이)) 《나의 꿈》 (1992년, 낭송: 황영조) 《어머니 나는 해냈습니다》 (1992년, 노래: 배영호) 《힘내라 코리아!》 (1992년, 노래: 소리모둠) 《젊은 날에 맺은 우정》 (1992년, 노래: 뮤즈) 《힘내라 힘 접속곡》 (1992년, 노래: 사랑노래와 하나되기) 《꿈의 세계로》 (1992년, 노래: 삼각형) 《황제를 위하여》 (1993년, 노래: 홍수철) 《돈 때문에》 (1993년, 노래: 홍수철) 《사랑을 가르쳐준 사람》 (1993년, 노래: 홍수철) 《그대가 원한다면》 (1993년, 노래: 홍수철) 《어머니》 (1993년, 노래: 홍수철) 《결번》 (1993년, 노래: 홍수철) 《대지의 항구, 독도 그리고 서울》 (1994년, 노래: 블랙홀) 《한국을 빛낸 100명의 스포츠맨》 (2001년, 노래: 최영준) 《아! 고구려》 (2004년, 노래: 서희) 《대한민국 싸우지 마》 (2004년, 노래: 서희) 《독도로 날아간 호랑나비》 (2005년, 노래: 정광태) 《신 독도는 우리 땅》 (2006년, 노래: 마법전설) 저서 시집 《너랑 결혼하고 싶어》 (1991년, 바하) - '문영'이라는 필명으로 출간됨. 창작 소설 《정지 마을에서 보내온 쌩떽쥐베리의 편지》 (1992년, 바하) - 앙투안 드 생텍쥐페리의 소설 《어린 왕자》의 속편 성격을 띤 우화 형식의 소설. 만화 《어린이를 위한 역사 여행 만화 시리즈 - 한국을 빛낸 100명의 위인들》 (1996년, 상아출판) - 총 5권으로 구성됨. 박문영이 글을, 이남우가 그림을 담당함. 만화 《어린이를 위한 역사 여행 만화 시리즈 - 세계를 빛낸 100명의 위인들》 (1996년, 상아출판) - 총 3권으로 구성됨. 박문영이 글을, 이남우가 그림을 담당함. 창작 소설 《아름다운 여행》 (1997년, 북클럽) - 앙투안 드 생텍쥐페리의 실종을 모티브로 하여 사막에서의 자신만의 깨달음을 주제로 지은 소설. 소설 《황제 - 제국의 부활》 (2009년, 평민사) - 총 3권으로 구성됨. '문영'이라는 필명으로 출간됨. 한국콘텐츠진흥원이 주최한 제1회 대한민국 문화콘텐츠 공모전 소설 부문 1위 수상작. 수필집 《넘어져야 일어설 수 있고 일어서야 걸을 수 있다》 (2013년, 나래북) - 스스로 자신을 되돌아보고 깨우쳐가는 과정, 인생 역전의 지혜를 알려주는 에세이를 모은 책. 수필집 《누구나 꿈꾸지만 아무나 이룰 수 없는 것들》 (2014년, 나래북) - 자신의 인생에 관한 회고와 우화를 결합한 수필집. 그림책 《(그 누가 아무리 자기네 땅이라고 우겨도) 독도는 우리 땅》 (2015년, 하늘을나는코끼리) - 어린이들에게 독도에 관한 정보를 전달하기 위해 집필한 그림책. 수필집 《걱정 말아요, 엄마》 (2017년, 나래북) - '엄마'를 통해 행복한 삶을 발견하는 내용이 담긴 에세이를 모은 책. 각주 1952년 출생 살아있는 사람 대한민국의 작사가 대한민국의 작곡가 대한민국의 남자 가수 대한민국의 기타 연주자 대한민국의 방송인 대한민국의 프로듀서 대한민국의 음악 프로듀서 대한민국의 음악 평론가 대한민국의 작가 대한민국의 시인 대한민국의 소설가 대한민국의 수필가 부산광역시 출신 대광중학교 (서울) 동문 대광고등학교 동문 서울대학교 공과대학 동문 미국에 거주한 대한민국인

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park%20Moon-young

Park Moon-young

Park Moon-young (; born 1952) is a South Korean lyricist, composer, singer, guitarist, producer, music critic and writer. During his career as a lyricist and composer, he used the stage name Park In-ho () and the pen name Moon Young () during his career as a writer. Life Park Moon-young was born in 1952 in Busan, Gyeongsangnam-do. Park's father is a carpenter from Wonju, Gangwon Province, and his mother is from Pyeongchang County, Gangwon Province. Park Moon-young's parents gave birth to Park Moon-young in 1952 when the Korean War was under way in Busan, a refuge. Park Moon-young moved to Seoul with her family as a child and learned to play the violin since she was in elementary school. He graduated from Daegwang Middle School, Daegwang High School and Seoul National University of Technology, and worked with Kim Eun-kwang as a member of the male duo-member guitar music group "Nondureong Batdureong" () from 1973 to 1978. Park Moon-young was in charge of plant design at Daewoo Engineering for a while after serving in the military. In 1977, he joined the company as an FM radio producer for Tongyang Broadcasting Corporation (TBC). He moved to the Korea Broadcasting System (KBS) following the Policy for Merger and Abolition of the Press in November 1980 and directed the radio programs To You For Forgetting the Night, Hello, Hwang In-yong, Kang Bu-ja, Rock-paper-scissors, and KBS University Song Festival. He also worked as a writer for KBS 2TV's comedy show Humour No. 1 (). Park Moon-young worked as a lyricist, composer, and music critic since writing and composing the song Dokdo is Our Land released by singer Jeong Gwang-tae in 1982, and published songs mainly based on Korean history and culture. In July 1990, he resigned as a music producer for KBS FM Radio. In 1991, he wrote and composed the song 100 Great People Who Shined Korea () released by comedian Choi Young-joon, which won the Patriotic Lyrics Award at the 5th Korean Song Awards hosted by the Korean Lyric Research Association in 1991. Park Moon-young established a children's history singing group and distributed songs written and composed based on Korean history and culture. In addition, he focused on explaining Korean history to children by operating a children's history camp, a history song class for children, and a pilgrimage to the country's history. While working as a music producer, he also discovered new singers such as Kim Kwang-seok, Gil Eun-jung, Byun Jin-sub and Siinkwa Chonjang. In November 1992, he produced A Record Celebrating Hwang Young-cho's Victory in Marathon - Mother I Did It () to commemorate Hwang Young-cho's gold medal in the men's marathon at the 1992 Summer Olympics held in Barcelona, Spain. Park Moon-young worked as a Seoul Broadcasting System (SBS) radio producer from 1992 to 1998. From 1994 to 1995, he served as a judge for the KBS program National Singing Contest and when announcer Kim Sun-dong got off and Song Hae came back in, he handed over his seat to Jeong Poong-song, Shin Dae-sung, and Lee Ho-seop. Park Moon-young lived with her family in Dallas from 2000 to 2006. In 2010, he worked as a professor of entertainment business at the Korea Conservatory (currently the Korea Institute of International Arts) and in 2017, he produced a children's song album Pyeongchang Song (), wishing for the success of the 2018 Winter Olympics held in Pyeongchang, South Korea. Works Songs Dokdo is our territory (독도는 우리 땅, 1982, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) The Secret of the Sandpiper (도요새의 비밀, 1983, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) Tiger and susukkang (호랑이와 수수깡, 1983, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) Foolish Ondal and Princess Pyeonggang (바보 온달과 평강공주, 1983, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) You're like a flower (당신은 꽃처럼, 1983, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) The Earth Will Not Perish (지구는 멸망하지 않으리, 1983, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) Hwarang Gwanchang (화랑 관창, 1983, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) Einstein (아인슈타인, 1983, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) Kwak Jae-woo, the leader of the righteous army (의병대장 곽재우, 1983, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) General Gyebaek (계백 장군, 1983, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) Gwanggaeto the Great (광개토대왕, 1983, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) Our beautiful country (아름다운 우리 나라, 1984, Song: Insooni) Shaking Reeds (흔들리는 갈대, 1984, Song: Insooni) Where are you (여기가 어디냐, 1984, Song: Insooni) Heartless me (야속한 내님, 1984, Song: Insooni) You and Me (너와 나, 1984, Song: Insooni) Eyes of Farewell (이별의 눈동자, 1984, Song: Insooni) Flowers on the edge of the road (길섶에 핀 꽃, 1984, Song: Insooni) Kimchi Theme song (김치 주제가, 1985, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) Jjarappappa (짜라빠빠, 1985, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) Crocodile Hunting (악어 사냥, 1985, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) Cheer up, Power (힘내라 힘, 1985, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) Mask dance song (탈춤 노래, 1985, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) Big rocks, small rocks (큰 바위 작은 바위, 1985, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) Glisteningly (번쩍 번쩍, 1985, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) Secretly shed tears (남몰래 흘리는 눈물, 1988, Song: Namgoong Okbun) It's Not Too Late (늦지 않았어요, 1990, Song: Lee Ji-yeon) The Season of Loneliness (외로움의 계절, 1990, Song: Kang Susie) 100 Great People Who Shined Korea (한국을 빛낸 100명의 위인들, 1991, Song: Choi Young-joon) Mind is one (마음은 하나, 1991, Song: Choi Young-joon) Korean warrior (대한의 용사, 1991, Song: Choi Young-joon) We Are the Korean People (우리는 한민족, 1991, Song: Choi Young-joon) Run Boy Go Jumong (달려라 소년 고주몽, 1991, Song: Seo Sun-taek (Super Mencius)) Teacher Baekgyeol's rice cake mill (백결 선생 떡방아, 1991, Song: Seo Sun-taek (Super Mencius)) 33 People in Anti-Japanese Struggle (항일 투쟁 33인, 1991, Song: Seo Sun-taek (Super Mencius)) My Dream (나의 꿈, 1992, Recitation: Hwang Young-cho) Mother, I did it (어머니 나는 해냈습니다, 1992, Song: Bae Young-ho) Cheer up, Korea! (힘내라 코리아!, 1992, Song: Sorimodum) Friendship Made on Young Days (젊은 날에 맺은 우정, 1992, Song: Muse) Cheer up, Power Connection Song (힘내라 힘 접속곡, 1992, Song: Becoming One with Love Song) To the World of Dreams (꿈의 세계로, 1992, Song: Samgakhyeong) For the emperor (황제를 위하여, 1993, Song: Hong Soo-chul) Because of Money (돈 때문에, 1993, Song: Hong Soo-chul) The one who taught me love (사랑을 가르쳐준 사람, 1993, Song: Hong Soo-chul) If you want (그대가 원한다면, 1993, Song: Hong Soo-chul) Mother (어머니, 1993, Song: Hong Soo-chul) Missing number (결번, 1993, Song: Hong Soo-chul) The Port of the Earth, Dokdo and Seoul (대지의 항구, 독도 그리고 서울, 1994, Song: Black hole) 100 Sportsmen Who Shined Korea (한국을 빛낸 100명의 스포츠맨, 2001, Song: Choi Young-joon) Ah! Goguryeo (아! 고구려, 2004, Song: Seo Hee) Don't Fight, Korea (대한민국 싸우지 마, 2004, Song: Seo Hee) Swallowtail butterfly flew to Dokdo (독도로 날아간 호랑나비, 2005, Song: Jung Kwang-tae) New Dokdo is our territory (신 독도는 우리 땅, 2006, Song: A conjurer legend) Books Poetry collection I Want to Marry You (너랑 결혼하고 싶어, 1991) - Published under the pen name "Moon Young". Original novel Letters from Saint-Exupery from Jeongji Village (정지 마을에서 보내온 쌩떽쥐베리의 편지, 1992) - a fable-style novel with the character of a sequel to Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's novel The Little Prince. Comic History Travel for Children - 100 Great People Who Shined Korea (어린이를 위한 역사 여행 만화 시리즈 - 한국을 빛낸 100명의 위인들, 1996) - consists of a total of five volumes. Park Moon-young is in charge of writing and Lee Nam-woo is in charge of painting. Comic History Travel for Children - 100 Great People Who Shined the World (어린이를 위한 역사 여행 만화 시리즈 - 세계를 빛낸 100명의 위인들, 1996) - consisting of a total of three volumes. Park Moon-young is in charge of writing and Lee Nam-woo is in charge of painting. Original novel Beautiful Journey (아름다운 여행, 1997) - a novel based on the theme of one's own enlightenment in the desert, inspired by the disappearance of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. Novel The Emperor - Rebirth of the Empire (황제 - 제국의 부활, 2009) - consists of a total of three volumes. Published under the pen name "Moon Young". Hosted by the Korea Creative Content Agency, the first winner of the novel category at the first Korea Culture Content Contest. Essay collection You can stand up when you fall over and walk when you stand up (넘어져야 일어설 수 있고 일어서야 걸을 수 있다, 2013) - a collection of essays that tell you the wisdom of life's reversal, the process of self-reflecting and enlightening yourself. Essay collection The Things Anyone Dream But Can't Achieve (누구나 꿈꾸지만 아무나 이룰 수 없는 것들, 2014) - a collection of essays combining reminiscences and fables about one's life. Picture book (No matter how many people claim to be their land) Dokdo is our territory ((그 누가 아무리 자기네 땅이라고 우겨도) 독도는 우리 땅, 2015) - a picture book written to convey information about Dokdo to children. Essay collection Don't Worry, Mommy (걱정 말아요, 엄마, 2017) - A collection of essays about discovering a happy life through "Mommy". References 1952 births Living people South Korean lyricists South Korean composers South Korean male singers South Korean guitarists South Korean record producers South Korean male writers South Korean male poets South Korean novelists South Korean essayists Musicians from Busan Seoul National University alumni South Korean expatriates in the United States Singers from Busan